lmqg/qg_squad huggingface dataset:
In response to a given problem situation (), a number of competing conjectures, or tentative theories (), are systematically subjected to the most rigorous attempts at falsification possible. This process, error elimination (), performs a similar function for science that natural selection performs for biological evolution. Theories that better survive the process of refutation are not more true, but rather, more "fit"—in other words, more applicable to the problem situation at hand (). Consequently, just as a species' biological fitness does not ensure continued survival, neither does rigorous testing protect a scientific theory from refutation in the future. Yet, as it appears that the engine of biological evolution has, over many generations, produced adaptive traits equipped to deal with more and more complex problems of survival, likewise, the evolution of theories through the scientific method may, in Popper's view, reflect a certain type of progress: toward more and more interesting problems (). For Popper, it is in the interplay between the tentative theories (conjectures) and error elimination (refutation) that scientific knowledge advances toward greater and greater problems; in a process very much akin to the interplay between genetic variation and natural selection.

Question: What process in science is like the process of natural selection in nature?
Answer: error elimination

Question: What is a better description for theories that survive scientific scrutiny than "more true?"
Answer: more "fit"

Question: What is another term for the tentative theories enter the process of error elimination in science?
Answer: conjectures

Question: Toward what does Popper believe scientific understandings progress?
Answer: more and more interesting problems
The mandolin's popularity in the United States was spurred by the success of a group of touring young European musicians known as the Estudiantina Figaro, or in the United States, simply the "Spanish Students." The group landed in the U.S. on January 2, 1880 in New York City, and played in Boston and New York to wildly enthusiastic crowds. Ironically, this ensemble did not play mandolins but rather bandurrias, which are also small, double-strung instruments that resemble the mandolin. The success of the Figaro Spanish Students spawned other groups who imitated their musical style and costumes. An Italian musician, Carlo Curti, hastily started a musical ensemble after seeing the Figaro Spanish Students perform; his group of Italian born Americans called themselves the "Original Spanish Students," counting on the American public to not know the difference between the Spanish bandurrias and Italian mandolins. The imitators' use of mandolins helped to generate enormous public interest in an instrument previously relatively unknown in the United States.

Question: What group in the US was popular?
Answer: Estudiantina Figaro

Question: When did the Estudiantina Figaro come to the US?
Answer: January 2, 1880

Question: Where did the Estudiantina Figaro play?
Answer: Boston and New York

Question: What group was inspired by the Estudiantina Figaro?
Answer: Original Spanish Students

Question: What did the Origianl Spanish Students expect the American public not to know?
Answer: the difference between the Spanish bandurrias and Italian mandolins
Mandolin awareness in the United States blossomed in the 1880s, as the instrument became part of a fad that continued into the mid-1920s. According to Clarence L. Partee, the first mandolin made in the United States was made in 1883 or 1884 by Joseph Bohmann, who was an established maker of violins in Chicago. Partee characterized the early instrument as being larger than the European instruments he was used to, with a "peculiar shape" and "crude construction," and said that the quality improved, until American instruments were "superior" to imported instruments. At the time, Partee was using an imported French-made mandolin.

Question: When did madolin awareness in the US become fluent?
Answer: 1880s

Question: When was the first madolin made in the US?
Answer: 1883 or 1884

Question: Who made the first US mandolin?
Answer: Joseph Bohm

Question: Where was Joseph Bohmann from?
Answer: Chicago

Question: What type of madolin was Partee using ?
Answer: French-made mandolin
Monroe's style involved playing lead melodies in the style of a fiddler, and also a percussive chording sound referred to as "the chop" for the sound made by the quickly struck and muted strings. He also perfected a sparse, percussive blues style, especially up the neck in keys that had not been used much in country music, notably B and E. He emphasized a powerful, syncopated right hand at the expense of left-hand virtuosity. Monroe's most influential follower of the second generation is Frank Wakefield and nowadays Mike Compton of the Nashville Bluegrass Band and David Long, who often tour as a duet. Tiny Moore of the Texas Playboys developed an electric five-string mandolin and helped popularize the instrument in Western Swing music.

Question: What chording sound was Monroe popular for?
Answer: the chop

Question: What keys was Monroe popular for?
Answer: B and E

Question: Who was Monroe's most influential follower?
Answer: Frank Wakefield

Question: Who developed a electric five-string mandolin?
Answer: Moore of the Texas Playboys

Question: What type of music did the electric five-string mandolin help popularize?
Answer: Western Swing music
Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Sociology professor at Duke University, remarks, "I contend that racism is, more than anything else, a matter of group power; it is about a dominant racial group (whites) striving to maintain its systemic advantages and minorities fighting to subvert the racial status quo." The types of practices that take place under this new color-blind racism is subtle, institutionalized, and supposedly not racial. Color-blind racism thrives on the idea that race is no longer an issue in the United States. There are contradictions between the alleged color-blindness of most whites and the persistence of a color-coded system of inequality.

Question: Where is Eduardo Bonilla-Silver a Sociology professor?
Answer: Duke University

Question: What does Bonilla-Silva contend racism is about more than anything else?
Answer: group power

Question: Who does Bonilla-Silva think is the dominant racial group?
Answer: whites

Question: What idea does color-blind racism thrive on?
Answer: that race is no longer an issue

Question: What exists between the alleged color-blindness of most whites and the persistence of a system of inequality?
Answer: contradictions
Paris has a typical Western European oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb ) which is affected by the North Atlantic Current. The overall climate throughout the year is mild and moderately wet. Summer days are usually warm and pleasant with average temperatures hovering between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F), and a fair amount of sunshine. Each year, however, there are a few days where the temperature rises above 32 °C (90 °F). Some years have even witnessed long periods of harsh summer weather, such as the heat wave of 2003 when temperatures exceeded 30 °C (86 °F) for weeks, surged up to 40 °C (104 °F) on some days and seldom cooled down at night. More recently, the average temperature for July 2011 was 17.6 °C (63.7 °F), with an average minimum temperature of 12.9 °C (55.2 °F) and an average maximum temperature of 23.7 °C (74.7 °F).

Question: Which current affects Paris' weather?
Answer: North Atlantic Current

Question: How is Paris' climate categorized?
Answer: mild and moderately wet

Question: What are the average temperatures for summer?
Answer: between 15 and 25 °C

Question: What was the average temperature for July 2011?
Answer: 17.6 °C
As of 2013 the City of Paris had 1,570 hotels with 70,034 rooms, of which 55 were rated five-star, mostly belonging to international chains and mostly located close to the centre and the Champs-Élysées. Paris has long been famous for its grand hotels. The Hotel Meurice, opened for British travellers in 1817, was one of the first luxury hotels in Paris. The arrival of the railroads and the Paris Exposition of 1855 brought the first flood of tourists and the first modern grand hotels; the Hôtel du Louvre (now an antiques marketplace) in 1855; the Grand Hotel (now the Intercontinental LeGrand) in 1862; and the Hôtel Continental in 1878. The Hôtel Ritz on Place Vendôme opened in 1898, followed by the Hôtel Crillon in an 18th-century building on the Place de la Concorde in 1909; the Hotel Bristol on rue de Fabourg Saint-Honoré in 1925; and the Hotel George V in 1928.

Question: How many hotels are in the City of Paris?
Answer: 1,570

Question: When did The Hotel Meurice open?
Answer: 1817

Question: When was the Hotel du Louvre opened?
Answer: 1855

Question: Along what major road are most hotels located?
Answer: Champs-Élysées
Theatre traditionally has occupied a large place in Parisian culture, and many of its most popular actors today are also stars of French television. The oldest and most famous Paris theatre is the Comédie-Française, founded in 1680. Run by the French government, it performs mostly French classics at the Salle Richelieu in the Palais-Royal at 2 rue de Richelieu, next to the Louvre. of Other famous theaters include the Odéon-Théâtre de l'Europe, next to the Luxembourg Gardens, also a state institution and theatrical landmark; the Théâtre Mogador, and the Théâtre de la Gaîté-Montparnasse.

Question: When was the oldest Paris theater founded?
Answer: 1680

Question: What is the name of Paris' oldest theater?
Answer: Comédie-Française

Question: Who runs Paris' oldest theater today?
Answer: French government

Question: What famous museum is Comedie-Francaise located next to?
Answer: the Louvre
The movie industry was born in Paris when Auguste and Louis Lumière projected the first motion picture for a paying audience at the Grand Café on 28 December 1895. Many of Paris' concert/dance halls were transformed into movie theatres when the media became popular beginning in the 1930s. Later, most of the largest cinemas were divided into multiple, smaller rooms. Paris' largest cinema room today is in Le Grand Rex theatre with 2,700 seats. Big multiplex movie theaters have been built since the 1990s. UGC Ciné Cité Les Halles with 27 screens, MK2 Bibliothèque with 20 screens and UGC Ciné Cité Bercy with 18 screens are among the largest.

Question: Where was the first movie projected for a paying audience in Paris?
Answer: Grand Café

Question: What date was the first movie played in Paris for a paying crowd?
Answer: 28 December 1895

Question: In what decade did movie theaters become popular?
Answer: 1930s

Question: What is the largest cinema room today in Paris?
Answer: Le Grand Rex
Orly Airport, located in the southern suburbs of Paris, replaced Le Bourget as the principal airport of Paris from the 1950s to the 1980s. Charles de Gaulle Airport, located on the edge of the northern suburbs of Paris, opened to commercial traffic in 1974 and became the busiest Parisian airport in 1993. Today it is the 4th busiest airport in the world by international traffic, and is the hub for the nation's flag carrier Air France. Beauvais-Tillé Airport, located 69 km (43 mi) north of Paris' city centre, is used by charter airlines and low-cost carriers such as Ryanair.

Question: What airport does Ryanair use?
Answer: Beauvais-Tillé Airport

Question: Where is the hub for Air France?
Answer: Charles de Gaulle Airport

Question: What is the busiest airport in Paris?
Answer: Charles de Gaulle Airport

Question: Where is Orly airport located?
Answer: southern suburbs of Paris
One elector in Minnesota cast a ballot for president with the name of "John Ewards" [sic] written on it. The Electoral College officials certified this ballot as a vote for John Edwards for president. The remaining nine electors cast ballots for John Kerry. All ten electors in the state cast ballots for John Edwards for vice president (John Edwards's name was spelled correctly on all ballots for vice president). This was the first time in U.S. history that an elector had cast a vote for the same person to be both president and vice president; another faithless elector in the 1800 election had voted twice for Aaron Burr, but under that electoral system only votes for the president's position were cast, with the runner-up in the Electoral College becoming vice president (and the second vote for Burr was discounted and re-assigned to Thomas Jefferson in any event, as it violated Electoral College rules).

Question: Who received a certified ballot from the Electoral College, despite his name being spelled incorrectly on the ballot?
Answer: John Edwards

Question: Had there ever been a time where an elector voted for the same candidate to be both president and vice president?
Answer: This was the first time in U.S. history

Question: Which candidate won the unanimous vote for vice presidency?
Answer: All ten electors in the state cast ballots for John Edwards for vice president

Question: What is different in comparison between the 1800 electoral system and the system in place in 2004?
Answer: under that electoral system only votes for the president's position were cast, with the runner-up in the Electoral College becoming vice president

Question: In the 1800 election, why did Thomas Jefferson get the second vote?
Answer: it violated Electoral College rules
Other major campus installations include towers in Montreal, Paris, and Atlanta; software labs in Raleigh-Durham, Rome, Cracow and Toronto; Johannesburg, Seattle; and facilities in Hakozaki and Yamato. The company also operates the IBM Scientific Center, Hursley House, the Canada Head Office Building, IBM Rochester, and the Somers Office Complex. The company's contributions to architecture and design, which include works by Eero Saarinen, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and I.M. Pei, have been recognized. Van der Rohe's 330 North Wabash building in Chicago, the original center of the company's research division post-World War II, was recognized with the 1990 Honor Award from the National Building Museum.

Question: What building did Van der Rohe create for IBM?
Answer: 330 North Wabash building in Chicago

Question: The 330 North Wabash building served as what post World War 2?
Answer: center of the company's research division

Question: The 330 North Wabash Building was recognized with what award?
Answer: 1990 Honor Award

Question: IBM has towers in which cities?
Answer: Montreal, Paris, and Atlanta

Question: IBM has worked with architects and designers such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, I.M. Pei, and Van der Rohe, name one more.
Answer: Eero Saarinen
The practice of component interface testing can be used to check the handling of data passed between various units, or subsystem components, beyond full integration testing between those units. The data being passed can be considered as "message packets" and the range or data types can be checked, for data generated from one unit, and tested for validity before being passed into another unit. One option for interface testing is to keep a separate log file of data items being passed, often with a timestamp logged to allow analysis of thousands of cases of data passed between units for days or weeks. Tests can include checking the handling of some extreme data values while other interface variables are passed as normal values. Unusual data values in an interface can help explain unexpected performance in the next unit. Component interface testing is a variation of black-box testing, with the focus on the data values beyond just the related actions of a subsystem component.

Question: What is it called to check data passed between units?
Answer: component interface testing

Question: What is it called when data is being passed?
Answer: message packets

Question: What is an option of component interface testing used while sending message packets?
Answer: keep a separate log file of data items being passed

Question: What is a variation of black-box testing?
Answer: Component interface testing
Total investment in renewable energy (including small hydro-electric projects) was $244 billion in 2012, down 12% from 2011 mainly due to dramatically lower solar prices and weakened US and EU markets. As a share of total investment in power plants, wind and solar PV grew from 14% in 2000 to over 60% in 2012. The top countries for investment in recent years were China, Germany, Spain, the United States, Italy, and Brazil. Renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy, First Solar, Gamesa, GE Energy, Goldwind, Sinovel, Trina Solar, Vestas and Yingli.

Question: How much was the total investment in renewable energy in 2012?
Answer: $244 billion

Question: Why did the total investment in renewable energy go down in 2012?
Answer: dramatically lower solar prices

Question: What six were the top countries for investment in recent years?
Answer: China, Germany, Spain, the United States, Italy, and Brazil
The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the +2 oxidation state. When compounds in this oxidation state are formed the outer shell s electrons are lost, which yields a bare zinc ion with the electronic configuration [Ar]3d10. In aqueous solution an octahedral complex, [Zn(H 2O)6]2+ is the predominant species. The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride at temperatures above 285 °C indicates the formation of Zn 2Cl 2, a zinc compound with a +1 oxidation state. No compounds of zinc in oxidation states other than +1 or +2 are known. Calculations indicate that a zinc compound with the oxidation state of +4 is unlikely to exist.

Question: What oxidation state dominates zinc?
Answer: +2

Question: What indicates the formation of ZN2Cl?
Answer: The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride at temperatures above 285 °C

Question: what are the only two oxidation states known for zinc?
Answer: +1 or +2

Question: What oxidation state dominates the chemistry of zinc?
Answer: +2

Question: What are the only two oxidation states known for zinc compounds?
Answer: +1 or +2
Binary compounds of zinc are known for most of the metalloids and all the nonmetals except the noble gases. The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is nearly insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions, but is amphoteric, dissolving in both strong basic and acidic solutions. The other chalcogenides (ZnS, ZnSe, and ZnTe) have varied applications in electronics and optics. Pnictogenides (Zn 3N 2, Zn 3P 2, Zn 3As 2 and Zn 3Sb 2), the peroxide (ZnO 2), the hydride (ZnH 2), and the carbide (ZnC 2) are also known. Of the four halides, ZnF 2 has the most ionic character, whereas the others (ZnCl 2, ZnBr 2, and ZnI 2) have relatively low melting points and are considered to have more covalent character.

Question: What is not known for binary compounds of zinc?
Answer: noble gases

Question: ZnO can be dissolved in what kind of solutions?
Answer: strong basic and acidic solutions

Question: What applications do chalcogenides have?
Answer: electronics and optics.
In weak basic solutions containing Zn2+ ions, the hydroxide Zn(OH) 2 forms as a white precipitate. In stronger alkaline solutions, this hydroxide is dissolved to form zincates ([Zn(OH)4]2−). The nitrate Zn(NO3) 2, chlorate Zn(ClO3) 2, sulfate ZnSO 4, phosphate Zn 3(PO4) 2, molybdate ZnMoO 4, cyanide Zn(CN) 2, arsenite Zn(AsO2) 2, arsenate Zn(AsO4) 2·8H 2O and the chromate ZnCrO 4 (one of the few colored zinc compounds) are a few examples of other common inorganic compounds of zinc. One of the simplest examples of an organic compound of zinc is the acetate (Zn(O 2CCH3) 2).

Question: Zn(OH)2 is dissolved to form what in strong alkaline solutions?
Answer: zincates
Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy. After grinding the ore, froth flotation, which selectively separates minerals from gangue by taking advantage of differences in their hydrophobicity, is used to get an ore concentrate. This concentrate consists of about 50% zinc with the rest being sulfur (32%), iron (13%), and SiO 2 (5%). The composition of this is normally zinc sulfide (80% to 85%), iron sulfide (7.0% to 12%), lead sulfide (3.0% to 5.0%) silica (2.5% to 3.5%), and cadmium sulfide (0.35% to 0.41%).

Question: What is used to produce the metal zinc?
Answer: extractive metallurgy.

Question: What is froth flotation used for?
Answer: get an ore concentrate

Question: What is the first step in zinc metal production?
Answer: grinding the ore

Question: What percentage of the ore concentrate is zinc?
Answer: 50%
Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will attract almost all local oxidation until it completely corrodes away. A protective surface layer of oxide and carbonate (Zn 5(OH) 6(CO 3) 2) forms as the zinc corrodes. This protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades through time as the zinc corrodes away. The zinc is applied electrochemically or as molten zinc by hot-dip galvanizing or spraying. Galvanization is used on chain-link fencing, guard rails, suspension bridges, lightposts, metal roofs, heat exchangers, and car bodies.

Question: What two compounds is zinc more reactive than?
Answer: iron or steel

Question: What forms as zinc corrodes?
Answer: protective surface layer of oxide and carbonate

Question: How is zinc applied?
Answer: electrochemically or as molten zinc

Question: What is used on many common items, such as chain link fences?
Answer: Galvanization
Zinc chloride is often added to lumber as a fire retardant and can be used as a wood preservative. It is also used to make other chemicals. Zinc methyl (Zn(CH3) 2) is used in a number of organic syntheses. Zinc sulfide (ZnS) is used in luminescent pigments such as on the hands of clocks, X-ray and television screens, and luminous paints. Crystals of ZnS are used in lasers that operate in the mid-infrared part of the spectrum. Zinc sulfate is a chemical in dyes and pigments. Zinc pyrithione is used in antifouling paints.

Question: What is added to wood in order to preserve it?
Answer: Zinc chloride

Question: What is the feature of zinc sufide that makes it useful in television screens?
Answer: luminescent pigments

Question: What kind of lasers are crystals of zinc suflde used in?
Answer: mid-infrared

Question: Where is zinc pyrithion used?
Answer: antifouling paints.
For fortification, however, a 2003 review recommended zinc oxide in cereals as cheap, stable, and as easily absorbed as more expensive forms. A 2005 study found that various compounds of zinc, including oxide and sulfate, did not show statistically significant differences in absorption when added as fortificants to maize tortillas. A 1987 study found that zinc picolinate was better absorbed than zinc gluconate or zinc citrate. However, a study published in 2008 determined that zinc glycinate is the best absorbed of the four dietary supplement types available.

Question: Zinc oxide is used to fortify what product?
Answer: cereals

Question: In what product did various compounds of zinc show little difference in absorption?
Answer: maize tortillas

Question: What compound is better absorbed than zinc gluconate?
Answer: zinc picolinate

Question: What is the best absorbed dietary zinc compound?
Answer: zinc glycinate