lmqg/qg_squad huggingface dataset:
H 2 is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions.

Question: How does nature produce H2?
Answer: expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions

Question: How do labs produce H2?
Answer: by-product of other reactions
Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways, but economically the most important processes involve removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas. At high temperatures (1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and H 2.

Question: The most economical way to prepare hydrogen involves removing it from what?
Answer: hydrocarbons

Question: What temperature is needed for steam to react with methane?
Answer: 1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F
This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures (2.0 MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg). This is because high-pressure H 2 is the most marketable product and Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) purification systems work better at higher pressures. The product mixture is known as "synthesis gas" because it is often used directly for the production of methanol and related compounds. Hydrocarbons other than methane can be used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios. One of the many complications to this highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or carbon:

Question: At what pressure does PSA work best in?
Answer: high pressures

Question: What is synthesis gas used for?
Answer: production of methanol

Question: Besides methane, what else can be used to produce synthesis gas?
Answer: Hydrocarbons
Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H 2O. Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction, especially with an iron oxide catalyst. This reaction is also a common industrial source of carbon dioxide:

Question: How can it be recovered through steam?
Answer: use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction
Under anaerobic conditions, iron and steel alloys are slowly oxidized by the protons of water concomitantly reduced in molecular hydrogen (H 2). The anaerobic corrosion of iron leads first to the formation of ferrous hydroxide (green rust) and can be described by the following reaction:

Question: What condition is iron and steel alloys slowly oxidized?
Answer: anaerobic

Question: What does the anaerobic corrosion of iron lead to?
Answer: formation of ferrous hydroxide

Question: What is another name for formation of ferrous hydroxide?
Answer: green rust
In its turn, under anaerobic conditions, the ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH) 2 ) can be oxidized by the protons of water to form magnetite and molecular hydrogen. This process is described by the Schikorr reaction:

Question: Under what condition can ferrous hydroxide be oxidized?
Answer: anaerobic

Question: What does this process form?
Answer: magnetite and molecular hydrogen

Question: What reaction describes this process?
Answer: Schikorr reaction
In the absence of atmospheric oxygen (O 2), in deep geological conditions prevailing far away from Earth atmosphere, hydrogen (H 2) is produced during the process of serpentinization by the anaerobic oxidation by the water protons (H+) of the ferrous (Fe2+) silicate present in the crystal lattice of the fayalite (Fe 2SiO 4, the olivine iron-endmember). The corresponding reaction leading to the formation of magnetite (Fe 3O 4), quartz (SiO 2) and hydrogen (H 2) is the following:

Question: How is hydrogen produced when there is no atmospheric oxygen?
Answer: serpentinization by the anaerobic oxidation

Question: Where do you find silicate?
Answer: crystal lattice of the fayalite
Large quantities of H 2 are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. The largest application of H 2 is for the processing ("upgrading") of fossil fuels, and in the production of ammonia. The key consumers of H 2 in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking. H 2 has several other important uses. H 2 is used as a hydrogenating agent, particularly in increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats and oils (found in items such as margarine), and in the production of methanol. It is similarly the source of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. H 2 is also used as a reducing agent of metallic ores.

Question: Where are large quantities of H2 needed?
Answer: petroleum and chemical industries

Question: What are the consumers of H2 in petrochemical plant?
Answer: hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking
Apart from its use as a reactant, H 2 has wide applications in physics and engineering. It is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding. H2 is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas. Liquid H2 is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies. Because H 2 is lighter than air, having a little more than 1⁄14 of the density of air, it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.

Question: Where else is H2 applied?
Answer: in physics and engineering

Question: How is H2 used in electrical generators at power stations?
Answer: as the rotor coolant

Question: Why is it used as the rotor coolant?
Answer: it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas

Question: What research uses liquid H2?
Answer: cryogenic
The energy density per unit volume of both liquid hydrogen and compressed hydrogen gas at any practicable pressure is significantly less than that of traditional fuel sources, although the energy density per unit fuel mass is higher. Nevertheless, elemental hydrogen has been widely discussed in the context of energy, as a possible future carrier of energy on an economy-wide scale. For example, CO 2 sequestration followed by carbon capture and storage could be conducted at the point of H 2 production from fossil fuels. Hydrogen used in transportation would burn relatively cleanly, with some NOx emissions, but without carbon emissions. However, the infrastructure costs associated with full conversion to a hydrogen economy would be substantial. Fuel cells can convert hydrogen and oxygen directly to electricity more efficiently than internal combustion engines.

Question: What form of hydrogen has been discussed as a ussage for fuel?
Answer: elemental
The city is considered highly innovative for a variety of reasons, including the presence of academia, access to venture capital, and the presence of many high-tech companies. The Route 128 corridor and Greater Boston continue to be a major center for venture capital investment, and high technology remains an important sector.

Question: The city is innovative becaus eit has access to what type of capital?
Answer: venture capital

Question: There is a high presence of what type of company in the city?
Answer: high-tech companies

Question: Route 128 and Greater Boston are centers for what type of investment?
Answer: venture capital investment

Question: What remains an important sector?
Answer: high technology
Another initiative, presented by the late Mayor Thomas Menino, is the Renew Boston Whole Building Incentive, which reduces the cost of living in buildings that are deemed energy efficient. This, much like the green housing developments, gives people of low socioeconomic status an opportunity to find housing in communities that support the environment. The ultimate goal of this initiative is to enlist 500 Bostonians to participate in a free, in-home energy assessment.

Question: Whos is the late Mayor of Boston?
Answer: Thomas Menino

Question: Who came up with the Renew Boston Whole Building Incentive?
Answer: Mayor Thomas Menino

Question: The incentive reduced the cost of what in buildings?
Answer: cost of living

Question: The goal is to get how many residents to sign up?
Answer: 500

Question: How much does the program cost?
Answer: free
Compass-M1 transmits in 3 bands: E2, E5B, and E6. In each frequency band two coherent sub-signals have been detected with a phase shift of 90 degrees (in quadrature). These signal components are further referred to as "I" and "Q". The "I" components have shorter codes and are likely to be intended for the open service. The "Q" components have much longer codes, are more interference resistive, and are probably intended for the restricted service. IQ modulation has been the method in both wired and wireless digital modulation since morsetting carrier signal 100 years ago.

Question: What frequency bands does Compass-M1 transmit in?
Answer: E2, E5B, and E6

Question: What is the phase shift of the sub-signals detected in each frequency band used by Compass-M1?
Answer: 90 degrees (in quadrature)

Question: What are the two sub-signals in each frequency band referred to as?
Answer: "I" and "Q"

Question: What is the intended purpose of the "I" component?
Answer: likely to be intended for the open service

Question: What is the intended purpose of the "Q" component?
Answer: probably intended for the restricted service
The word Catalan derives from the territory of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology. The main theory suggests that Catalunya (Latin Gathia Launia) derives from the name Gothia or Gauthia ("Land of the Goths"), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, whence Gothland > Gothlandia > Gothalania > Catalonia theoretically derived.

Question: What is Catalan the derivitive of?
Answer: Catalonia

Question: What is the Latin for Calalunya?
Answer: Gathia Launia

Question: Where did the Catalan people originate?
Answer: March of Gothia

Question: What is the root word from which Catalonia comes?
Answer: Gothia
The endonym is pronounced /kə.təˈɫa/ in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and /ka.taˈɫa/ in the Western dialects. In the Valencian Community, the term valencià (/va.len.siˈa/) is frequently used instead. The names "Catalan" and "Valencian" are two names for the same language. See also status of Valencian below.

Question: Where is Valencia used instead of Catalan?
Answer: Valencian Community

Question: What are Catalan and Valencian the names for?
Answer: the same language

Question: What affect does different pronunciations in the two areas of Catalan speakers produce?
Answer: dialects
Since the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalizated as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige. In Catalonia, there is no parallel of a large, bilingual, European, non-state speech community. The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools, but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations, if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or some recently arrived students. There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan.

Question: Since the transition what language has been proclaimed mandatory in schools?
Answer: Catalan

Question: Where is the teaching of Catalan mandatory?
Answer: in all schools

Question: Since the transition, what is the official language?
Answer: Catalan

Question: Besides as an official and an educational language, where else is Catalan the prefered language?
Answer: mass media
On the other hand, there are several language shift processes currently taking place. In Northern Catalonia, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004). Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary. The cultural association La Bressola promotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs.

Question: What kind of shifts are taking place in Catalan speaking areas?
Answer: language shift processes

Question: How old are most of the native language speakers in northern Catalonia?
Answer: 60 or older

Question: When was it determined that most native speakers in France are 60 or older?
Answer: 2004

Question: What percentage of primary students study Catalan as a foreign language?
Answer: 30%

Question: What do 15% of secondary school students study as a foreign language?
Answer: Catalan
In Central Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to three: /a e ɛ/ > [ə]; /o ɔ u/ > [u]; /i/ remains distinct. The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the section pronunciation of dialects in this article).

Question: How many reduced unstressed are vowels are there in Central Catalan?
Answer: three

Question: What vowel stays distinct?
Answer: /i/

Question: What kind of vowel processes do other dialects have?
Answer: different

Question: Where do unstressed vowels reduce to three?
Answer: In Central Catalan

Question: Where do you find dialectic vowel reductions?
Answer: section pronunciation
In Western Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to five: /e ɛ/ > [e]; /o ɔ/ > [o]; /a u i/ remain distinct. This reduction pattern, inherited from Proto-Romance, is also found in Italian and Portuguese. Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases.

Question: What do unstressed vowels reduce to in Western Catalan?
Answer: five

Question: Which letters remain distinct?
Answer: /a u i/

Question: Where did this pattern come from?
Answer: Proto-Romance

Question: In what other languages is this pattern found?
Answer: Italian and Portuguese

Question: What do other Western dialects sometimes offer?
Answer: further reduction
Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed /e/ and /ɛ/. Usually, words with /ɛ/ in Central Catalan correspond to /ə/ in Balearic and /e/ in Western Catalan. Words with /e/ in Balearic almost always have /e/ in Central and Western Catalan as well.[vague] As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of /e/.

Question: What form has the same /e/ as Central and Western?
Answer: Balearic

Question: What vowel does Central have a larger occurrence of?
Answer: /e/

Question: What is the result of /e/ being the same in Central, Western and Belearic?
Answer: higher incidence
In verbs, 1st person present indicative desinence is -e (∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugation), or -o. E.g. parle, tem, sent (Valencian); parlo, temo, sento (Northwestern). In verbs, 1st person present indicative desinence is -o, -i or ∅ in all conjugations. E.g. parlo (Central), parl (Balearic), parli (Northern), ('I speak').

Question: What language is parle or tem ?
Answer: Valencian

Question: What language is parlo or temo ?
Answer: Northwestern

Question: What language is parl?
Answer: Balearic

Question: What language form is parli?
Answer: Northern
In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of /n/ of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words. E.g. hòmens 'men', jóvens 'youth'. In nouns and adjectives, loss of /n/ of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words. E.g. homes 'men', joves 'youth'.

Question: Where do you find medieval plurals?
Answer: nouns and adjectives

Question: What letter is lost in some words?
Answer: /n/

Question: When homens loses /n/, it becomes what word?
Answer: homes

Question: The medieval jovens becomes what what word?
Answer: joves

Question: What kind of plural words lose /n/?
Answer: proparoxytone
In the Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted for the Balearic dialect by the University of the Balearic Islands's philological section. In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writing cantam as much as cantem ('we sing') but the University says that the priority form in the Balearic Islands must be "cantam" in all fields. Another feature of the Balearic standard is the non-ending in the 1st person singular present indicative: jo compr ('I buy'), jo tem ('I fear'), jo dorm ('I sleep').

Question: Where is IEC's standard used?
Answer: the Balearic Islands

Question: How is the standard used there?
Answer: adapted for the Balearic dialect

Question: What is a first person singular feature of the Balearic standard?
Answer: non-ending
In 2011, the Aragonese government passed a decree for the establishment of a new language regulator of Catalan in La Franja (the so-called Catalan-speaking areas of Aragon). The new entity, designated as Acadèmia Aragonesa del Català, shall allow a facultative education in Catalan and a standardization of the Catalan language in La Franja.

Question: Where is the Catalan speaking part of Aragon?
Answer: La Franja

Question: When did the government of Aragon degree the establishment of a language regulator?
Answer: 2011

Question: What language is the regulator meant to standardize?
Answer: Catalan

Question: Where is the language to be regulated located?
Answer: La Franja
Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language. The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, the Valencian Academy of Language (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties.

Question: How do linguists view Catalan and Valencian?
Answer: as the same language

Question: How do Valencian scholars view Catalan and Valencian?
Answer: as the same language

Question: What is the official regulating body of Valencian?
Answer: the Valencian Academy of Language

Question: Who says that there is linguistic unity between Catalan and Valencian?
Answer: Valencian Academy of Language
The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (Normes de Castelló). Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses for Valencian an independent standard.

Question: Who established the AVL?
Answer: Valencian parliament

Question: Over what does the AVL make rules governing?
Answer: use of Valencian

Question: What is the AVL standard based on?
Answer: Norms of Castelló

Question: Who uses this standard?
Answer: everyone who writes

Question: Who is exempt from the standard and uses their own?
Answer: Royal Academy of Valencian Culture
The process of morphological derivation in Catalan follows the same principles as the other Romance languages, where agglutination is common. Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example elèctric [əˈlɛktrik] ("electrical") vs. electricitat [ələktrisiˈtat]. Prefixes are usually appended to verbs, for as in preveure ("foresee").

Question: What is common in Romance languages?
Answer: agglutination

Question: What kind of derivation in Catalan is similar to other languages?
Answer: morphological

Question: What word additive is usually added to verbs?
Answer: Prefixes

Question: What other word changes can occur in derivations?
Answer: sound alternations

Question: What word supplement can be put on an already existing word base?
Answer: affixes
Catalan has few suppletive couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French. Thus, Catalan has noi/noia ("boy"/"girl") and gall/gallina ("cock"/"hen"), whereas French has garçon/fille and coq/poule.

Question: What kind of words does Catalan have few of?
Answer: suppletive couplets

Question: What languages have more couplets than Catalan?
Answer: French

Question: What languages are similar to Catalan in numbers of couplets?
Answer: Italian and Spanish

Question: What language is not like Catalan in suppletive couplets?
Answer: French
The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages. Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article than Spanish, like dels ("of + the [plural]"), but not as many as Italian (which has sul, col, nel, etc.).

Question: What does the large number of omissions make the determinatives?
Answer: complex

Question: What is much like the neighboring languages?
Answer: inflection of determinatives

Question: What language does Catalan have more contractions than?
Answer: Spanish

Question: Catalan has less contractions than what language?
Answer: Italian

Question: What type of word is added to the contraction of the preposition?
Answer: article
The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, specially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian). Features include the gender-neutral ho and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations).

Question: How many forms of personal pronouns are there in Catalan?
Answer: 13 distinct forms

Question: How many personal pronouns are there is Spanish?
Answer: 11

Question: What is the number of personal pronouns in Italian?
Answer: 9

Question: How many different combinations of unstressed pronouns are there?
Answer: 65
For its 2015 season, the league consisted of 12 teams, all from the United States; however, upon the completion of the regular season, the league announced that the two teams it had assumed operation of during the season would cease all operations effective immediately; a regular season game slated between the two had previously been canceled and declared a tie. Subsequently, one of the remaining teams, the Spokane Shock, severed its ties with the league to join the competing IFL. The AFL is divided into two conferences – the American Conference and National Conference. Starting 2016, each conference will have only four teams as the champion San Jose SaberCats announced in November 2015 that they were ceasing activity for "reasons not associated with League operations."

Question: How many teams were there in the 2015 season?
Answer: 12

Question: How many conferences does the AFL have?
Answer: 2

Question: What are these conferences in the AFL named?
Answer: American Conference and National Conference

Question: Which team was the Champion in the 2015 season?
Answer: San Jose SaberCats

Question: How many teams played in the Arena Football League in the 2015 season?
Answer: 12

Question: What team left the AFL after the 2015 season to join another league?
Answer: Spokane Shock

Question: What league did the Spokane Shock join after the 2015 season?
Answer: IFL

Question: Along with the American Conference, what is the other conference in the AFL?
Answer: National Conference

Question: As of 2016, how many teams does each conference have?
Answer: four
All the objects from everyday life that we can bump into, touch or squeeze are composed of atoms. This atomic matter is in turn made up of interacting subatomic particles—usually a nucleus of protons and neutrons, and a cloud of orbiting electrons. Typically, science considers these composite particles matter because they have both rest mass and volume. By contrast, massless particles, such as photons, are not considered matter, because they have neither rest mass nor volume. However, not all particles with rest mass have a classical volume, since fundamental particles such as quarks and leptons (sometimes equated with matter) are considered "point particles" with no effective size or volume. Nevertheless, quarks and leptons together make up "ordinary matter", and their interactions contribute to the effective volume of the composite particles that make up ordinary matter.

Question: What kind of particles make up every object in the world that can be touched?
Answer: atoms

Question: The smaller particles that make up atoms, like protons and neutrons, are what kind of particles?
Answer: subatomic

Question: What subatomic particle has no volume or rest mass?
Answer: photons

Question: What kind of particles are quarks and leptons?
Answer: point particles

Question: Despite not having size or volume themselves, quarks and leptons contribute to what measure of composite particles in matter?
Answer: volume