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qasper | 2 | [
"How many annotators were used for sentiment labeling?",
"How many annotators were used for sentiment labeling?",
"How is data collected?",
"How is data collected?",
"How much better is performance of Nigerian Pitdgin English sentiment classification of models that use additional Nigerian English data compared to orginal English-only models?",
"How much better is performance of Nigerian Pitdgin English sentiment classification of models that use additional Nigerian English data compared to orginal English-only models?",
"What full English language based sentiment analysis models are tried?",
"What full English language based sentiment analysis models are tried?"
] | [
"Each labelled Data point was verified by at least one other person after initial labelling.",
"Three people",
"original and updated VADER (Valence Aware Dictionary and Sentiment Reasoner)",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"the original VADER English lexicon.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context."
] | # Semantic Enrichment of Nigerian Pidgin English for Contextual Sentiment Classification
## Abstract
Nigerian English adaptation, Pidgin, has evolved over the years through multi-language code switching, code mixing and linguistic adaptation. While Pidgin preserves many of the words in the normal English language corpus, both in spelling and pronunciation, the fundamental meaning of these words have changed significantly. For example,'ginger' is not a plant but an expression of motivation and 'tank' is not a container but an expression of gratitude. The implication is that the current approach of using direct English sentiment analysis of social media text from Nigeria is sub-optimal, as it will not be able to capture the semantic variation and contextual evolution in the contemporary meaning of these words. In practice, while many words in Nigerian Pidgin adaptation are the same as the standard English, the full English language based sentiment analysis models are not designed to capture the full intent of the Nigerian pidgin when used alone or code-mixed. By augmenting scarce human labelled code-changed text with ample synthetic code-reformatted text and meaning, we achieve significant improvements in sentiment scoring. Our research explores how to understand sentiment in an intrasentential code mixing and switching context where there has been significant word localization.This work presents a 300 VADER lexicon compatible Nigerian Pidgin sentiment tokens and their scores and a 14,000 gold standard Nigerian Pidgin tweets and their sentiments labels.
## Background
Language is evolving with the flattening world order and the pervasiveness of the social media in fusing culture and bridging relationships at a click. One of the consequences of the conversational evolution is the intrasentential code switching, a language alternation in a single discourse between two languages, where the switching occurs within a sentence BIBREF0. The increased instances of these often lead to changes in the lexical and grammatical context of the language, which are largely motivated by situational and stylistic factors BIBREF1. In addition, the need to communicate effectively to different social classes have further orchestrated this shift in language meaning over a long period of time to serve socio-linguistic functions BIBREF2 Nigeria is estimated to have between three and five million people, who primarily use Pidgin in their day-to-day interactions. But it is said to be a second language to a much higher number of up to 75 million people in Nigeria alone, about half the population.BIBREF3. It has evolved in meaning compared to Standard English due to intertextuality, the shaping of a text's meaning by another text based on the interconnection and influence of the audience's interpretation of a text. One of the biggest social catalysts is the emerging urban youth subculture and the new growing semi-literate lower class in a chaotic medley of a converging megacity BIBREF4 BIBREF5 VADER (Valence Aware Dictionary and sEntiment Reasoner) is a lexicon and rule-based sentiment analysis tool that is specifically attuned to sentiments expressed in social media and works well on texts from other domains. VADER lexicon has about 9000 tokens (built from existing well-established sentiment word-banks (LIWC, ANEW, and GI) incorporated with a full list of Western-style emoticons, sentiment-related acronyms and initialisms (e.g., LOL and WTF)commonly used slang with sentiment value (e.g., nah, meh and giggly) ) with their mean sentiment rating.BIBREF6. Sentiment analysis in code-mixed text has been established in literature both at word and sub-word levels BIBREF7 BIBREF8 BIBREF9. The possibility of improving sentiment detection via label transfer from monolingual to synthetic code-switched text has been well executed with significant improvements in sentiment labelling accuracy (1.5%, 5.11%, 7.20%) for three different language pairs BIBREF5
## Method
This study uses the original and updated VADER (Valence Aware Dictionary and Sentiment Reasoner) to calculate the compound sentiment scores for about 14,000 Nigerian Pidgin tweets. The updated VADER lexicon (updated with 300 Pidgin tokens and their sentiment scores) performed better than the original VADER lexicon. The labelled sentiments from the updated VADER were then compared with sentiment labels by expert Pidgin English speakers.
## Results
During the translation of VADER English lexicon to suitable one-word Nigerian Pidgin translation, a total of 300 Nigerian pidgin tokens were successfully translated from the standard VADER English lexicon. One of the challenges of this translation is that the direct translation of most the sentiment words in the original VADER English Lexicon translates to phrases not single one-word tokens and certain pidgin words translates to many english words.TABREF5.
## Conclusion
The quality of sentiment labels generated by our updated VADER lexicon is better compared to the labels generated by the original VADER English lexicon.TABREF4.Sentiment labels by human annotators was able to capture nuances that the rule based sentiment labelling could not capture.More work can be done to increase the number of instances in the dataset.
## Appendix ::: Selection of Data Labellers
Three people who are indigenes or lived in the South South part of Nigeria, where Nigerian Pidgin is a prevalent method of communication were briefed on the fundamentals of word sentiments. Each labelled Data point was verified by at least one other person after initial labelling.
## Appendix ::: Selection of Data Labellers ::: Acknowledgments
We acknowledge Kessiena Rita David,Patrick Ehizokhale Oseghale and Peter Chimaobi Onuoha for using their mastery of Nigerian Pidgin to translate and label the datasets.
| [
"Three people who are indigenes or lived in the South South part of Nigeria, where Nigerian Pidgin is a prevalent method of communication were briefed on the fundamentals of word sentiments. Each labelled Data point was verified by at least one other person after initial labelling.",
"Three people who are indigenes or lived in the South South part of Nigeria, where Nigerian Pidgin is a prevalent method of communication were briefed on the fundamentals of word sentiments. Each labelled Data point was verified by at least one other person after initial labelling.",
"This study uses the original and updated VADER (Valence Aware Dictionary and Sentiment Reasoner) to calculate the compound sentiment scores for about 14,000 Nigerian Pidgin tweets. The updated VADER lexicon (updated with 300 Pidgin tokens and their sentiment scores) performed better than the original VADER lexicon. The labelled sentiments from the updated VADER were then compared with sentiment labels by expert Pidgin English speakers.",
"",
"",
"",
"This study uses the original and updated VADER (Valence Aware Dictionary and Sentiment Reasoner) to calculate the compound sentiment scores for about 14,000 Nigerian Pidgin tweets. The updated VADER lexicon (updated with 300 Pidgin tokens and their sentiment scores) performed better than the original VADER lexicon. The labelled sentiments from the updated VADER were then compared with sentiment labels by expert Pidgin English speakers.",
""
] | Nigerian English adaptation, Pidgin, has evolved over the years through multi-language code switching, code mixing and linguistic adaptation. While Pidgin preserves many of the words in the normal English language corpus, both in spelling and pronunciation, the fundamental meaning of these words have changed significantly. For example,'ginger' is not a plant but an expression of motivation and 'tank' is not a container but an expression of gratitude. The implication is that the current approach of using direct English sentiment analysis of social media text from Nigeria is sub-optimal, as it will not be able to capture the semantic variation and contextual evolution in the contemporary meaning of these words. In practice, while many words in Nigerian Pidgin adaptation are the same as the standard English, the full English language based sentiment analysis models are not designed to capture the full intent of the Nigerian pidgin when used alone or code-mixed. By augmenting scarce human labelled code-changed text with ample synthetic code-reformatted text and meaning, we achieve significant improvements in sentiment scoring. Our research explores how to understand sentiment in an intrasentential code mixing and switching context where there has been significant word localization.This work presents a 300 VADER lexicon compatible Nigerian Pidgin sentiment tokens and their scores and a 14,000 gold standard Nigerian Pidgin tweets and their sentiments labels. | 1,367 | 126 | 104 | 1,702 | 1,806 | 2 | 128 | false |
qasper | 2 | [
"What is the computational complexity of old method",
"What is the computational complexity of old method",
"Could you tell me more about the old method?",
"Could you tell me more about the old method?"
] | [
"O(2**N)",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"freq(*, word) = freq(word, *) = freq(word)",
"$$freq(*, word) = freq(word, *) = freq(word)$$ (Eq. 1)"
] | # Efficient Calculation of Bigram Frequencies in a Corpus of Short Texts
## Abstract
We show that an efficient and popular method for calculating bigram frequencies is unsuitable for bodies of short texts and offer a simple alternative. Our method has the same computational complexity as the old method and offers an exact count instead of an approximation.
## Acknowledgements
This short note is the result of a brief conversation between the authors and Joel Nothman. We came across a potential problem, he gave a sketch of a fix, and we worked out the details of a solution.
## Calculating Bigram Frequecies
A common task in natural language processing is to find the most frequently occurring word pairs in a text(s) in the expectation that these pairs will shed some light on the main ideas of the text, or offer insight into the structure of the language. One might be interested in pairings of adjacent words, but in some cases one is also interested in pairs of words in some small neighborhood. The neighborhood is usually refered to as a window, and to illustrate the concept consider the following text and bigram set:
Text: “I like kitties and doggies”
Window: 2
Bigrams: {(I like), (like kitties), (kitties and), (and doggies)} and this one:
Text: “I like kitties and doggies”
Window: 4
Bigrams: {(I like), (I kitties), (I and), (like kitties), (like and), (like doggies), (kitties and), (kitties doggies), (and doggies)}.
## The Popular Approximation
Bigram frequencies are often calculated using the approximation
$$freq(*, word) = freq(word, *) = freq(word)$$ (Eq. 1)
In a much cited paper, Church and Hanks BIBREF0 use ` $=$ ' in place of ` $\approx $ ' because the approximation is so good. Indeed, this approximation will only cause errors for the very few words which occur near the beginning or the end of the text. Take for example the text appearing above - the bigram (doggies, *) does not occur once, but the approximation says it does.
An efficient method for computing the contingency matrix for a bigram (word1, word2) is suggested by the approximation. Store $freq(w1, w2)$ for all bigrams $(w1, w2)$ and the frequencies of all words. Then,
The statistical importance of miscalculations due to this method diminishes as our text grows larger and larger. Interest is growing in the analysis of small texts, however, and a means of computing bigrams for this type of corpus must be employed. This approximation is implemented in popular NLP libraries and can be seen in many tutorials across the internet. People who use this code, or write their own software, must know when it is appropriate.
## An Alternative Method
We propose an alternative. As before, store the frequencies of words and the frequencies of bigrams, but this time store two additional maps called too_far_left and too_far_right, of the form {word : list of offending indices of word}. The offending indices are those that are either too far to the left or too far to the right for approximation ( 1 ) to hold. All four of these structures are built during the construction of a bigram finder, and do not cripple performance when computing statistical measures since maps are queried in $O(1)$ time.
As an example of the contents of the new maps, in “Dogs are better than cats", too_far_left[`dog'] = [0] for all windows. In “eight mice eat eight cheese sticks” with window 5, too_far_left[`eight'] = [0,3]. For ease of computation the indices stored in too_far_right are transformed before storage using:
$$\widehat{idx} = length - idx - 1 = g(idx)$$ (Eq. 6)
where $length$ is the length of the small piece of text being analyzed. Then, too_far_right[`cats'] = [ $g(4)= idx$ ] = [ $0 = \widehat{idx}$ ].
Now, to compute the exact number of occurrences of a bigram we do the computation:
$$freq(*, word) = (w-1)*wordfd[word] - \sum \limits _{i=1}^{N}(w-tfl[word][i] - 1)$$ (Eq. 7)
where $w$ is the window size being searched for bigrams, $wfd$ is a frequency distribution of all words in the corpus, $tfl$ is the map too_far_left and $N$ is the number of occurrences of the $word$ in a position too far left.The computation of $freq(word, *)$ can now be performed in the same way by simply substituting $tfl$ with $tfr$ thanks to transformation $g$ , which reverses the indexing.
| [
"Text: “I like kitties and doggies”\n\nWindow: 2\n\nBigrams: {(I like), (like kitties), (kitties and), (and doggies)} and this one:\n\nWindow: 4\n\nBigrams: {(I like), (I kitties), (I and), (like kitties), (like and), (like doggies), (kitties and), (kitties doggies), (and doggies)}.",
"",
"Bigram frequencies are often calculated using the approximation\n\n$$freq(*, word) = freq(word, *) = freq(word)$$ (Eq. 1)\n\nIn a much cited paper, Church and Hanks BIBREF0 use ` $=$ ' in place of ` $\\approx $ ' because the approximation is so good. Indeed, this approximation will only cause errors for the very few words which occur near the beginning or the end of the text. Take for example the text appearing above - the bigram (doggies, *) does not occur once, but the approximation says it does.\n\nAn efficient method for computing the contingency matrix for a bigram (word1, word2) is suggested by the approximation. Store $freq(w1, w2)$ for all bigrams $(w1, w2)$ and the frequencies of all words. Then,\n\nThe statistical importance of miscalculations due to this method diminishes as our text grows larger and larger. Interest is growing in the analysis of small texts, however, and a means of computing bigrams for this type of corpus must be employed. This approximation is implemented in popular NLP libraries and can be seen in many tutorials across the internet. People who use this code, or write their own software, must know when it is appropriate.",
"Bigram frequencies are often calculated using the approximation\n\n$$freq(*, word) = freq(word, *) = freq(word)$$ (Eq. 1)\n\nIn a much cited paper, Church and Hanks BIBREF0 use ` $=$ ' in place of ` $\\approx $ ' because the approximation is so good. Indeed, this approximation will only cause errors for the very few words which occur near the beginning or the end of the text. Take for example the text appearing above - the bigram (doggies, *) does not occur once, but the approximation says it does."
] | We show that an efficient and popular method for calculating bigram frequencies is unsuitable for bodies of short texts and offer a simple alternative. Our method has the same computational complexity as the old method and offers an exact count instead of an approximation. | 1,172 | 40 | 67 | 1,397 | 1,464 | 2 | 128 | false |
qasper | 2 | [
"What is the architecture of the model?",
"What is the architecture of the model?",
"How many translation pairs are used for training?",
"How many translation pairs are used for training?"
] | [
"attentional encoder–decoder",
"attentional encoder–decoder",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context."
] | # Nematus: a Toolkit for Neural Machine Translation
## Abstract
We present Nematus, a toolkit for Neural Machine Translation. The toolkit prioritizes high translation accuracy, usability, and extensibility. Nematus has been used to build top-performing submissions to shared translation tasks at WMT and IWSLT, and has been used to train systems for production environments.
## Introduction
Neural Machine Translation (NMT) BIBREF0 , BIBREF1 has recently established itself as a new state-of-the art in machine translation. We present Nematus, a new toolkit for Neural Machine Translation.
Nematus has its roots in the dl4mt-tutorial. We found the codebase of the tutorial to be compact, simple and easy to extend, while also producing high translation quality. These characteristics make it a good starting point for research in NMT. Nematus has been extended to include new functionality based on recent research, and has been used to build top-performing systems to last year's shared translation tasks at WMT BIBREF2 and IWSLT BIBREF3 .
Nematus is implemented in Python, and based on the Theano framework BIBREF4 . It implements an attentional encoder–decoder architecture similar to DBLP:journals/corr/BahdanauCB14. Our neural network architecture differs in some aspect from theirs, and we will discuss differences in more detail. We will also describe additional functionality, aimed to enhance usability and performance, which has been implemented in Nematus.
## Neural Network Architecture
Nematus implements an attentional encoder–decoder architecture similar to the one described by DBLP:journals/corr/BahdanauCB14, but with several implementation differences. The main differences are as follows:
We will here describe some differences in more detail:
Given a source sequence INLINEFORM0 of length INLINEFORM1 and a target sequence INLINEFORM2 of length INLINEFORM3 , let INLINEFORM4 be the annotation of the source symbol at position INLINEFORM5 , obtained by concatenating the forward and backward encoder RNN hidden states, INLINEFORM6 , and INLINEFORM7 be the decoder hidden state at position INLINEFORM8 .
## Training Algorithms
By default, the training objective in Nematus is cross-entropy minimization on a parallel training corpus. Training is performed via stochastic gradient descent, or one of its variants with adaptive learning rate (Adadelta BIBREF14 , RmsProp BIBREF15 , Adam BIBREF16 ).
Additionally, Nematus supports minimum risk training (MRT) BIBREF17 to optimize towards an arbitrary, sentence-level loss function. Various MT metrics are supported as loss function, including smoothed sentence-level Bleu BIBREF18 , METEOR BIBREF19 , BEER BIBREF20 , and any interpolation of implemented metrics.
To stabilize training, Nematus supports early stopping based on cross entropy, or an arbitrary loss function defined by the user.
## Usability Features
In addition to the main algorithms to train and decode with an NMT model, Nematus includes features aimed towards facilitating experimentation with the models, and their visualisation. Various model parameters are configurable via a command-line interface, and we provide extensive documentation of options, and sample set-ups for training systems.
Nematus provides support for applying single models, as well as using multiple models in an ensemble – the latter is possible even if the model architectures differ, as long as the output vocabulary is the same. At each time step, the probability distribution of the ensemble is the geometric average of the individual models' probability distributions. The toolkit includes scripts for beam search decoding, parallel corpus scoring and n-best-list rescoring.
Nematus includes utilities to visualise the attention weights for a given sentence pair, and to visualise the beam search graph. An example of the latter is shown in Figure FIGREF16 . Our demonstration will cover how to train a model using the command-line interface, and showing various functionalities of Nematus, including decoding and visualisation, with pre-trained models.
## Conclusion
We have presented Nematus, a toolkit for Neural Machine Translation. We have described implementation differences to the architecture by DBLP:journals/corr/BahdanauCB14; due to the empirically strong performance of Nematus, we consider these to be of wider interest.
We hope that researchers will find Nematus an accessible and well documented toolkit to support their research. The toolkit is by no means limited to research, and has been used to train MT systems that are currently in production BIBREF21 .
Nematus is available under a permissive BSD license.
## Acknowledgments
This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreements 645452 (QT21), 644333 (TraMOOC), 644402 (HimL) and 688139 (SUMMA).
| [
"Nematus implements an attentional encoder–decoder architecture similar to the one described by DBLP:journals/corr/BahdanauCB14, but with several implementation differences. The main differences are as follows:",
"Nematus is implemented in Python, and based on the Theano framework BIBREF4 . It implements an attentional encoder–decoder architecture similar to DBLP:journals/corr/BahdanauCB14. Our neural network architecture differs in some aspect from theirs, and we will discuss differences in more detail. We will also describe additional functionality, aimed to enhance usability and performance, which has been implemented in Nematus.",
"",
""
] | We present Nematus, a toolkit for Neural Machine Translation. The toolkit prioritizes high translation accuracy, usability, and extensibility. Nematus has been used to build top-performing submissions to shared translation tasks at WMT and IWSLT, and has been used to train systems for production environments. | 1,180 | 38 | 44 | 1,403 | 1,447 | 2 | 128 | false |
qasper | 2 | [
"What sources did they get the data from?",
"What sources did they get the data from?"
] | [
"online public-domain sources, private sources and actual books",
"Various web resources and couple of private sources as listed in the table."
] | # Improving Yor\`ub\'a Diacritic Restoration
## Abstract
Yor\`ub\'a is a widely spoken West African language with a writing system rich in orthographic and tonal diacritics. They provide morphological information, are crucial for lexical disambiguation, pronunciation and are vital for any computational Speech or Natural Language Processing tasks. However diacritic marks are commonly excluded from electronic texts due to limited device and application support as well as general education on proper usage. We report on recent efforts at dataset cultivation. By aggregating and improving disparate texts from the web and various personal libraries, we were able to significantly grow our clean Yor\`ub\'a dataset from a majority Bibilical text corpora with three sources to millions of tokens from over a dozen sources. We evaluate updated diacritic restoration models on a new, general purpose, public-domain Yor\`ub\'a evaluation dataset of modern journalistic news text, selected to be multi-purpose and reflecting contemporary usage. All pre-trained models, datasets and source-code have been released as an open-source project to advance efforts on Yor\`ub\'a language technology.
## Introduction
Yorùbá is a tonal language spoken by more than 40 Million people in the countries of Nigeria, Benin and Togo in West Africa. The phonology is comprised of eighteen consonants, seven oral vowel and five nasal vowel phonemes with three kinds of tones realized on all vowels and syllabic nasal consonants BIBREF0. Yorùbá orthography makes notable use of tonal diacritics, known as amí ohùn, to designate tonal patterns, and orthographic diacritics like underdots for various language sounds BIBREF1, BIBREF2.
Diacritics provide morphological information, are crucial for lexical disambiguation and pronunciation, and are vital for any computational Speech or Natural Language Processing (NLP) task. To build a robust ecosystem of Yorùbá-first language technologies, Yorùbá text must be correctly represented in computing environments. The ultimate objective of automatic diacritic restoration (ADR) systems is to facilitate text entry and text correction that encourages the correct orthography and promotes quotidian usage of the language in electronic media.
## Introduction ::: Ambiguity in non-diacritized text
The main challenge in non-diacritized text is that it is very ambiguous BIBREF3, BIBREF4, BIBREF1, BIBREF5. ADR attempts to decode the ambiguity present in undiacritized text. Adegbola et al. assert that for ADR the “prevailing error factor is the number of valid alternative arrangements of the diacritical marks that can be applied to the vowels and syllabic nasals within the words" BIBREF1.
## Introduction ::: Improving generalization performance
To make the first open-sourced ADR models available to a wider audience, we tested extensively on colloquial and conversational text. These soft-attention seq2seq models BIBREF3, trained on the first three sources in Table TABREF5, suffered from domain-mismatch generalization errors and appeared particularly weak when presented with contractions, loan words or variants of common phrases. Because they were trained on majority Biblical text, we attributed these errors to low-diversity of sources and an insufficient number of training examples. To remedy this problem, we aggregated text from a variety of online public-domain sources as well as actual books. After scanning physical books from personal libraries, we successfully employed commercial Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software to concurrently use English, Romanian and Vietnamese characters, forming an approximative superset of the Yorùbá character set. Text with inconsistent quality was put into a special queue for subsequent human supervision and manual correction. The post-OCR correction of Háà Ènìyàn, a work of fiction of some 20,038 words, took a single expert two weeks of part-time work by to review and correct. Overall, the new data sources comprised varied text from conversational, various literary and religious sources as well as news magazines, a book of proverbs and a Human Rights declaration.
## Methodology ::: Experimental setup
Data preprocessing, parallel text preparation and training hyper-parameters are the same as in BIBREF3. Experiments included evaluations of the effect of the various texts, notably for JW300, which is a disproportionately large contributor to the dataset. We also evaluated models trained with pre-trained FastText embeddings to understand the boost in performance possible with word embeddings BIBREF6, BIBREF7. Our training hardware configuration was an AWS EC2 p3.2xlarge instance with OpenNMT-py BIBREF8.
## Methodology ::: A new, modern multi-purpose evaluation dataset
To make ADR productive for users, our research experiments needed to be guided by a test set based around modern, colloquial and not exclusively literary text. After much review, we selected Global Voices, a corpus of journalistic news text from a multilingual community of journalists, translators, bloggers, academics and human rights activists BIBREF9.
## Results
We evaluated the ADR models by computing a single-reference BLEU score using the Moses multi-bleu.perl scoring script, the predicted perplexity of the model's own predictions and the Word Error Rate (WER). All models with additional data improved over the 3-corpus soft-attention baseline, with JW300 providing a {33%, 11%} boost in BLEU and absolute WER respectively. Error analyses revealed that the Transformer was robust to receiving digits, rare or code-switched words as input and degraded ADR performance gracefully. In many cases, this meant the model predicted the undiacritized word form or a related word from the context, but continued to correctly predict subsequent words in the sequence. The FastText embedding provided a small boost in performance for the Transformer, but was mixed across metrics for the soft-attention models.
## Conclusions and Future Work
Promising next steps include further automation of our human-in-the-middle data-cleaning tools, further research on contextualized word embeddings for Yorùbá and serving or deploying the improved ADR models in user-facing applications and devices.
| [
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 2: Data sources, prevalence and category of text",
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 2: Data sources, prevalence and category of text"
] | Yor\`ub\'a is a widely spoken West African language with a writing system rich in orthographic and tonal diacritics. They provide morphological information, are crucial for lexical disambiguation, pronunciation and are vital for any computational Speech or Natural Language Processing tasks. However diacritic marks are commonly excluded from electronic texts due to limited device and application support as well as general education on proper usage. We report on recent efforts at dataset cultivation. By aggregating and improving disparate texts from the web and various personal libraries, we were able to significantly grow our clean Yor\`ub\'a dataset from a majority Bibilical text corpora with three sources to millions of tokens from over a dozen sources. We evaluate updated diacritic restoration models on a new, general purpose, public-domain Yor\`ub\'a evaluation dataset of modern journalistic news text, selected to be multi-purpose and reflecting contemporary usage. All pre-trained models, datasets and source-code have been released as an open-source project to advance efforts on Yor\`ub\'a language technology. | 1,496 | 20 | 28 | 1,689 | 1,717 | 2 | 128 | false |
qasper | 2 | [
"Are the two paragraphs encoded independently?",
"Are the two paragraphs encoded independently?",
"Are the two paragraphs encoded independently?"
] | [
"No answer provided.",
"No answer provided.",
"No answer provided."
] | # Recognizing Arrow Of Time In The Short Stories
## Abstract
Recognizing arrow of time in short stories is a challenging task. i.e., given only two paragraphs, determining which comes first and which comes next is a difficult task even for humans. In this paper, we have collected and curated a novel dataset for tackling this challenging task. We have shown that a pre-trained BERT architecture achieves reasonable accuracy on the task, and outperforms RNN-based architectures.
## Introduction
Recurrent neural networks (RNN) and architectures based on RNNs like LSTM BIBREF0 has been used to process sequential data more than a decade. Recently, alternative architectures such as convolutional networks BIBREF1 , BIBREF2 and transformer model BIBREF3 have been used extensively and achieved the state of the art result in diverse natural language processing (NLP) tasks. Specifically, pre-trained models such as the OpenAI transformer BIBREF4 and BERT BIBREF5 which are based on transformer architecture, have significantly improved accuracy on different benchmarks.
In this paper, we are introducing a new dataset which we call ParagraphOrdering, and test the ability of the mentioned models on this newly introduced dataset. We have got inspiration from "Learning and Using the Arrow of Time" paper BIBREF6 for defining our task. They sought to understand the arrow of time in the videos; Given ordered frames from the video, whether the video is playing backward or forward. They hypothesized that the deep learning algorithm should have the good grasp of the physics principle (e.g. water flows downward) to be able to predict the frame orders in time.
Getting inspiration from this work, we have defined a similar task in the domain of NLP. Given two paragraphs, whether the second paragraph comes really after the first one or the order has been reversed. It is the way of learning the arrow of times in the stories and can be very beneficial in neural story generation tasks. Moreover, this is a self-supervised task, which means the labels come from the text itself.
## Paragraph Ordering Dataset
We have prepared a dataset, ParagraphOrdreing, which consists of around 300,000 paragraph pairs. We collected our data from Project Gutenberg. We have written an API for gathering and pre-processing in order to have the appropriate format for the defined task. Each example contains two paragraphs and a label which determines whether the second paragraph comes really after the first paragraph (true order with label 1) or the order has been reversed (Table 1 ). The detailed statistics of the data can be found in Table 2 .
## Approach
Different approaches have been used to solve this task. The best result belongs to classifying order of paragraphs using pre-trained BERT model. It achieves around $84\%$ accuracy on test set which outperforms other models significantly.
## Encoding with LSTM and Gated CNN
In this method, paragraphs are encoded separately, and the concatenation of the resulted encoding is going through the classifier. First, each paragraph is encoded with LSTM. The hidden state at the end of each sentence is extracted, and the resulting matrix is going through gated CNN BIBREF1 for extraction of single encoding for each paragraph. The accuracy is barely above $50\%$ , which depicts that this method is not very promising.
## Fine-tuning BERT
We have used a pre-trained BERT in two different ways. First, as a feature extractor without fine-tuning, and second, by fine-tuning the weights during training. The classification is completely based on the BERT paper, i.e., we represent the first and second paragraph as a single packed sequence, with the first paragraph using the A embedding and the second paragraph using the B embedding. In the case of feature extraction, the network weights freeze and CLS token are fed to the classifier. In the case of fine-tuning, we have used different numbers for maximum sequence length to test the capability of BERT in this task. First, just the last sentence of the first paragraph and the beginning sentence of the second paragraph has been used for classification. We wanted to know whether two sentences are enough for ordering classification or not. After that, we increased the number of tokens and accuracy respectively increases. We found this method very promising and the accuracy significantly increases with respect to previous methods (Table 3 ). This result reveals fine-tuning pre-trained BERT can approximately learn the order of the paragraphs and arrow of the time in the stories.
| [
"In this method, paragraphs are encoded separately, and the concatenation of the resulted encoding is going through the classifier. First, each paragraph is encoded with LSTM. The hidden state at the end of each sentence is extracted, and the resulting matrix is going through gated CNN BIBREF1 for extraction of single encoding for each paragraph. The accuracy is barely above $50\\%$ , which depicts that this method is not very promising.",
"In this method, paragraphs are encoded separately, and the concatenation of the resulted encoding is going through the classifier. First, each paragraph is encoded with LSTM. The hidden state at the end of each sentence is extracted, and the resulting matrix is going through gated CNN BIBREF1 for extraction of single encoding for each paragraph. The accuracy is barely above $50\\%$ , which depicts that this method is not very promising.",
"In this method, paragraphs are encoded separately, and the concatenation of the resulted encoding is going through the classifier. First, each paragraph is encoded with LSTM. The hidden state at the end of each sentence is extracted, and the resulting matrix is going through gated CNN BIBREF1 for extraction of single encoding for each paragraph. The accuracy is barely above $50\\%$ , which depicts that this method is not very promising."
] | Recognizing arrow of time in short stories is a challenging task. i.e., given only two paragraphs, determining which comes first and which comes next is a difficult task even for humans. In this paper, we have collected and curated a novel dataset for tackling this challenging task. We have shown that a pre-trained BERT architecture achieves reasonable accuracy on the task, and outperforms RNN-based architectures. | 1,034 | 27 | 15 | 1,240 | 1,255 | 2 | 128 | false |
qasper | 2 | [
"What is the timeframe of the current events?",
"What is the timeframe of the current events?",
"What model was used for sentiment analysis?",
"What model was used for sentiment analysis?",
"How many tweets did they look at?",
"How many tweets did they look at?",
"What language are the tweets in?",
"What language are the tweets in?"
] | [
"from January 2014 to December 2015",
"January 2014 to December 2015",
"A word-level sentiment analysis was made, using Sentilex-PT BIBREF7 - a sentiment lexicon for the portuguese language, which can be used to determine the sentiment polarity of each word, i.e. a value of -1 for negative words, 0 for neutral words and 1 for positive words",
"Lexicon based word-level SA.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"Portuguese ",
"portuguese and english"
] | # SentiBubbles: Topic Modeling and Sentiment Visualization of Entity-centric Tweets
## Abstract
Social Media users tend to mention entities when reacting to news events. The main purpose of this work is to create entity-centric aggregations of tweets on a daily basis. By applying topic modeling and sentiment analysis, we create data visualization insights about current events and people reactions to those events from an entity-centric perspective.
## Introduction
Entities play a central role in the interplay between social media and online news BIBREF0 . Everyday millions of tweets are generated about local and global news, including people reactions and opinions regarding the events displayed on those news stories. Trending personalities, organizations, companies or geographic locations are building blocks of news stories and their comments. We propose to extract entities from tweets and their associated context in order to understand what is being said on Twitter about those entities and consequently to create a picture of people reactions to recent events.
With this in mind and using text mining techniques, this work explores and evaluates ways to characterize given entities by finding: (a) the main terms that define that entity and (b) the sentiment associated with it. To accomplish these goals we use topic modeling BIBREF1 to extract topics and relevant terms and phrases of daily entity-tweets aggregations, as well as, sentiment analysis BIBREF2 to extract polarity of frequent subjective terms associated with the entities. Since public opinion is, in most cases, not constant through time, this analysis is performed on a daily basis. Finally we create a data visualization of topics and sentiment that aims to display these two dimensions in an unified and intelligible way.
The combination of Topic Modeling and Sentiment Analysis has been attempted before: one example is a model called TSM - Topic-Sentiment Mixture Model BIBREF3 that can be applied to any Weblog to determine a correlation between topic and sentiment. Another similar model has been proposed proposed BIBREF4 in which the topic extraction is achieved using LDA, similarly to the model that will be presented. Our work distinguishes from previous work by relying on daily entity-centric aggregations of tweets to create a meta-document which will be used as input for topic modeling and sentiment analysis.
## Methodology
The main goal of the proposed system is to obtain a characterization of a certain entity regarding both mentioned topics and sentiment throughout time, i.e. obtain a classification for each entity/day combination.
## Tweets Collection
Figure 1 depicts an overview of the data mining process pipeline applied in this work. To collect and process raw Twitter data, we use an online reputation monitoring platform BIBREF5 which can be used by researchers interested in tracking entities on the web. It collects tweets from a pre-defined sample of users and applies named entity disambiguation BIBREF6 . In this particular scenario, we use tweets from January 2014 to December 2015. In order to extract tweets related to an entity, two main characteristics must be defined: its canonical name, that should clearly identify it (e.g. “Cristiano Ronaldo") and a set of keywords that most likely refer to that particular entity when mentioned in a sentence (e.g.“Ronaldo", “CR7"). Entity related data is providedkeywords.
## Tweets Pre-processing
Before actually analyzing the text in the tweets, we apply the following operations:
If any tweet has less than 40 characters it is discarded. These tweets are considered too small to have any meaningful content;
Remove all hyperlinks and special characters and convert all alphabetic characters to lower case;
Keywords used to find a particular entity are removed from tweets associated to it. This is done because these words do not contribute to either topic or sentiment;
A set of portuguese and english stopwords are removed - these contain very common and not meaningful words such as “the" or “a";
Every word with less than three characters is removed, except some whitelisted words that can actually be meaningful (e.g. “PSD" may refer to a portuguese political party);
These steps serve the purpose of sanitizing and improving the text, as well as eliminating some words that may undermine the results of the remaining steps. The remaining words are then stored, organized by entity and day, e.g. all of the words in tweets related to Cristiano Ronaldo on the 10th of July, 2015.
## Topic Modeling
Topic extraction is achieved using LDA, BIBREF1 which can determine the topics in a set of documents (a corpus) and a document-topic distribution. Since we create each document in the corpus containing every word used in tweets related to an entity, during one day, we can retrieve the most relevant topics about an entity on a daily basis. From each of those topics we select the most related words in order to identify it. The system supports three different approaches with LDA, yielding varying results: (a) creating a single model for all entities (i.e. a single corpus), (b) creating a model for each group of entities that fit in a similar category (e.g. sports, politics) and (c) creating a single model for each entity.
## Sentiment Analysis
A word-level sentiment analysis was made, using Sentilex-PT BIBREF7 - a sentiment lexicon for the portuguese language, which can be used to determine the sentiment polarity of each word, i.e. a value of -1 for negative words, 0 for neutral words and 1 for positive words. A visualization system was created that displays the most mentioned words for each entity/day and their respective polarity using correspondingly colored and sized circles, which are called SentiBubbles.
## Visualization
The user interface allows the user to input an entity and a time period he wants to learn about, displaying four sections. In the first one, the most frequent terms used that day are shown inside circles. These circles have two properties: size and color. Size is defined by the term's frequency and the color by it's polarity, with green being positive, red negative and blue neutral. Afterwards, it displays some example tweets with the words contained in the circles highlighted with their respective sentiment color. The user may click a circle to display tweets containing that word. A trendline is also created, displaying in a chart the number of tweets per day, throughout the two years analyzed. Finally, the main topics identified are shown, displaying the identifying set of words for each topic.
| [
"Figure 1 depicts an overview of the data mining process pipeline applied in this work. To collect and process raw Twitter data, we use an online reputation monitoring platform BIBREF5 which can be used by researchers interested in tracking entities on the web. It collects tweets from a pre-defined sample of users and applies named entity disambiguation BIBREF6 . In this particular scenario, we use tweets from January 2014 to December 2015. In order to extract tweets related to an entity, two main characteristics must be defined: its canonical name, that should clearly identify it (e.g. “Cristiano Ronaldo\") and a set of keywords that most likely refer to that particular entity when mentioned in a sentence (e.g.“Ronaldo\", “CR7\"). Entity related data is provided from a knowledge base of Portuguese entities. These can then be used to retrieve tweets from that entity, by selecting the ones that contain one or more of these keywords.",
"Figure 1 depicts an overview of the data mining process pipeline applied in this work. To collect and process raw Twitter data, we use an online reputation monitoring platform BIBREF5 which can be used by researchers interested in tracking entities on the web. It collects tweets from a pre-defined sample of users and applies named entity disambiguation BIBREF6 . In this particular scenario, we use tweets from January 2014 to December 2015. In order to extract tweets related to an entity, two main characteristics must be defined: its canonical name, that should clearly identify it (e.g. “Cristiano Ronaldo\") and a set of keywords that most likely refer to that particular entity when mentioned in a sentence (e.g.“Ronaldo\", “CR7\"). Entity related data is provided from a knowledge base of Portuguese entities. These can then be used to retrieve tweets from that entity, by selecting the ones that contain one or more of these keywords.",
"The combination of Topic Modeling and Sentiment Analysis has been attempted before: one example is a model called TSM - Topic-Sentiment Mixture Model BIBREF3 that can be applied to any Weblog to determine a correlation between topic and sentiment. Another similar model has been proposed proposed BIBREF4 in which the topic extraction is achieved using LDA, similarly to the model that will be presented. Our work distinguishes from previous work by relying on daily entity-centric aggregations of tweets to create a meta-document which will be used as input for topic modeling and sentiment analysis.\n\nA word-level sentiment analysis was made, using Sentilex-PT BIBREF7 - a sentiment lexicon for the portuguese language, which can be used to determine the sentiment polarity of each word, i.e. a value of -1 for negative words, 0 for neutral words and 1 for positive words. A visualization system was created that displays the most mentioned words for each entity/day and their respective polarity using correspondingly colored and sized circles, which are called SentiBubbles.",
"A word-level sentiment analysis was made, using Sentilex-PT BIBREF7 - a sentiment lexicon for the portuguese language, which can be used to determine the sentiment polarity of each word, i.e. a value of -1 for negative words, 0 for neutral words and 1 for positive words. A visualization system was created that displays the most mentioned words for each entity/day and their respective polarity using correspondingly colored and sized circles, which are called SentiBubbles.",
"",
"",
"Figure 1 depicts an overview of the data mining process pipeline applied in this work. To collect and process raw Twitter data, we use an online reputation monitoring platform BIBREF5 which can be used by researchers interested in tracking entities on the web. It collects tweets from a pre-defined sample of users and applies named entity disambiguation BIBREF6 . In this particular scenario, we use tweets from January 2014 to December 2015. In order to extract tweets related to an entity, two main characteristics must be defined: its canonical name, that should clearly identify it (e.g. “Cristiano Ronaldo\") and a set of keywords that most likely refer to that particular entity when mentioned in a sentence (e.g.“Ronaldo\", “CR7\"). Entity related data is provided from a knowledge base of Portuguese entities. These can then be used to retrieve tweets from that entity, by selecting the ones that contain one or more of these keywords.\n\nA set of portuguese and english stopwords are removed - these contain very common and not meaningful words such as “the\" or “a\";\n\nA word-level sentiment analysis was made, using Sentilex-PT BIBREF7 - a sentiment lexicon for the portuguese language, which can be used to determine the sentiment polarity of each word, i.e. a value of -1 for negative words, 0 for neutral words and 1 for positive words. A visualization system was created that displays the most mentioned words for each entity/day and their respective polarity using correspondingly colored and sized circles, which are called SentiBubbles.",
"Figure 1 depicts an overview of the data mining process pipeline applied in this work. To collect and process raw Twitter data, we use an online reputation monitoring platform BIBREF5 which can be used by researchers interested in tracking entities on the web. It collects tweets from a pre-defined sample of users and applies named entity disambiguation BIBREF6 . In this particular scenario, we use tweets from January 2014 to December 2015. In order to extract tweets related to an entity, two main characteristics must be defined: its canonical name, that should clearly identify it (e.g. “Cristiano Ronaldo\") and a set of keywords that most likely refer to that particular entity when mentioned in a sentence (e.g.“Ronaldo\", “CR7\"). Entity related data is provided from a knowledge base of Portuguese entities. These can then be used to retrieve tweets from that entity, by selecting the ones that contain one or more of these keywords.\n\nA set of portuguese and english stopwords are removed - these contain very common and not meaningful words such as “the\" or “a\";\n\nEvery word with less than three characters is removed, except some whitelisted words that can actually be meaningful (e.g. “PSD\" may refer to a portuguese political party);"
] | Social Media users tend to mention entities when reacting to news events. The main purpose of this work is to create entity-centric aggregations of tweets on a daily basis. By applying topic modeling and sentiment analysis, we create data visualization insights about current events and people reactions to those events from an entity-centric perspective. | 1,483 | 78 | 143 | 1,770 | 1,913 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"Which metrics are used for evaluating the quality?",
"Which metrics are used for evaluating the quality?"
] | [
"BLEU perplexity self-BLEU percentage of $n$ -grams that are unique",
"BLEU perplexity"
] | # BERT has a Mouth, and It Must Speak: BERT as a Markov Random Field Language Model
## Abstract
We show that BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) is a Markov random field language model. Formulating BERT in this way gives way to a natural procedure to sample sentence from BERT. We sample sentences from BERT and find that it can produce high-quality, fluent generations. Compared to the generations of a traditional left-to-right language model, BERT generates sentences that are more diverse but of slightly worse quality.
## Introduction
BERT BIBREF0 is a recently released sequence model used to achieve state-of-art results on a wide range of natural language understanding tasks, including constituency parsing BIBREF1 and machine translation BIBREF2 . Early work probing BERT's linguistic capabilities has found it surprisingly robust BIBREF3 .
BERT is trained on a masked language modeling objective. Unlike a traditional language modeling objective of predicting the next word in a sequence given the history, masked language modeling predicts a word given its left and right context. Because the model expects context from both directions, it is not immediately obvious how to efficiently evaluate BERT as a language model (i.e., use it to evaluate the probability of a text sequence) or how to sample from it.
We attempt to answer these questions by showing that BERT is a combination of a Markov random field language model BIBREF4 , BIBREF5 with pseudo log-likelihood BIBREF6 training. This formulation automatically leads to a sampling procedure based on Gibbs sampling.
## BERT as a Markov Random Field
Let $X=(x_1, \ldots , x_T)$ be a sequence of random variables $x_i$ 's. Each random variable is categorical in that it can take one of $M$ items from a vocabulary $V=\left\lbrace v_1, \ldots , v_{M} \right\rbrace $ . These random variables form a fully-connected graph with undirected edges, indicating that each variable $x_i$ is dependent on all the other variables.
## Using BERT as an MRF-LM
The discussion so far implies that BERT is in fact a Markov random field language model (MRF-LM) and that it learns a distribution over sentences (of some given length.) This suggests that we can use BERT not only as parameter initialization for finetuning but as a generative model of sentences to either score a sentence or sample a sentence.
## Experiments
Our experiments demonstrate the potential of using BERT as a standalone language model rather than as a parameter initializer for transfer learning BIBREF0 , BIBREF2 , BIBREF16 . We show that sentences sampled from BERT are well-formed and are assigned high probabilities by an off-the-shelf language model. We take pretrained BERT models trained on a mix of Toronto Book Corpus BIBREF17 and Wikipedia provided by BIBREF0 and its PyTorch implementation provided by HuggingFace.
## Evaluation
We consider several evaluation metrics to estimate the quality and diversity of the generations.
We follow BIBREF18 by computing BLEU BIBREF19 between the generations and the original data distributions to measure how similar the generations are. We use a random sample of 5000 sentences from the test set of WikiText-103 BIBREF20 and a random sample of 5000 sentences from TBC as references.
We also evaluate the perplexity of a trained language model on the generations as a rough proxy for fluency. Specifically, we use the Gated Convolutional Language Model-BLEU measures how similar each generated sentence is to the other generations; high self-BLEU indicates that the model has low sample diversity.
We also evaluate the percentage of $n$ -grams that are unique, when compared to the original data distribution and within the corpus of generations. We note that this metric is somewhat in opposition to BLEU between generations and data, as fewer unique $n$ -grams implies higher BLEU.
We use the non-sequential sampling scheme, as empirically this led to the most coherent generations. We show generations from the sequential sampler in Table 4 in the appendix. We compare against generations from a high-quality neural language model, the OpenAI Generative Pre-Training Transformer BIBREF23 , which was trained on TBC and has approximately the same number of parameters as the base configuration of BERT. For all models, we generate 1000 uncased sequences of length 40.
## Results
We present sample generations, quality results, and diversity results respectively in Tables 1 , 2 , 3 .
We find that, compared to GPT, the BERT generations are of worse quality, but are more diverse. Particularly telling is that the outside language model, which was trained on Wikipedia, is less perplexed by the GPT generations than the BERT generations. GPT was only trained on romance novels, whereas BERT was trained on romance novels and Wikipedia. However, we do see that the perplexity on BERT samples is not absurdly high, and in reading the samples, we find that many are fairly coherent.
We find that BERT generations are more diverse than GPT generations. GPT has high $n$ -gram overlap (smaller percent of unique $n$ -grams) with TBC, but surprisingly also with WikiText-103, despite being trained on different data. BERT has lower $n$ -gram overlap with both corpora, perhaps because of worse quality generations, but also has lower self-BLEU.
## Conclusion
We show that BERT is a Markov random field language model. We give a practical algorithm for generating from BERT without any additional training and verify in experiments that the algorithm produces diverse and fairly fluent generations. Further work might explore sampling methods that do not need to run the model over the entire sequence each iteration and that enable conditional generation. To facilitate further investigation, we release our code on GitHub at https://github.com/kyunghyuncho/bert-gen and a demo as a Colab notebook at https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1MxKZGtQ9SSBjTK5ArsZ5LKhkztzg52RV.
## Acknowledgements
AW is supported by an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship. KC is partly supported by Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology (Next Generation Deep Learning: from Pattern Recognition to AI) and Samsung Electronics (Improving Deep Learning using Latent Structure).
## Other Sampling Strategies
We investigated two other sampling strategies: left-to-right and generating for all positions at each time step. See Section "Using BERT as an MRF-LM" for an explanation of the former. For the latter, we start with an initial sequence of all masks, and at each time step, we would not mask any positions but would generate for all positions. This strategy is designed to save on computation. However, we found that this tended to get stuck in non-fluent sentences that could not be recovered from. We present sample generations for the left-to-right strategy in Table 4 .
| [
"We follow BIBREF18 by computing BLEU BIBREF19 between the generations and the original data distributions to measure how similar the generations are. We use a random sample of 5000 sentences from the test set of WikiText-103 BIBREF20 and a random sample of 5000 sentences from TBC as references.\n\nWe also evaluate the perplexity of a trained language model on the generations as a rough proxy for fluency. Specifically, we use the Gated Convolutional Language Model BIBREF21 pretrained on WikiText-103.\n\nFollowing BIBREF22 , we compute self-BLEU: for each generated sentence, we compute BLEU treating the rest of the sentences as references, and average across sentences. Self-BLEU measures how similar each generated sentence is to the other generations; high self-BLEU indicates that the model has low sample diversity.\n\nWe also evaluate the percentage of $n$ -grams that are unique, when compared to the original data distribution and within the corpus of generations. We note that this metric is somewhat in opposition to BLEU between generations and data, as fewer unique $n$ -grams implies higher BLEU.",
"We follow BIBREF18 by computing BLEU BIBREF19 between the generations and the original data distributions to measure how similar the generations are. We use a random sample of 5000 sentences from the test set of WikiText-103 BIBREF20 and a random sample of 5000 sentences from TBC as references.\n\nWe also evaluate the perplexity of a trained language model on the generations as a rough proxy for fluency. Specifically, we use the Gated Convolutional Language Model BIBREF21 pretrained on WikiText-103."
] | We show that BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) is a Markov random field language model. Formulating BERT in this way gives way to a natural procedure to sample sentence from BERT. We sample sentences from BERT and find that it can produce high-quality, fluent generations. Compared to the generations of a traditional left-to-right language model, BERT generates sentences that are more diverse but of slightly worse quality. | 1,684 | 22 | 32 | 1,879 | 1,911 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"what features of the essays are extracted?",
"what features of the essays are extracted?",
"what features of the essays are extracted?",
"what were the evaluation metrics?",
"what were the evaluation metrics?",
"what were the evaluation metrics?",
"what model is used?",
"what model is used?",
"what model is used?",
"what future work is described?",
"what future work is described?",
"what future work is described?",
"what was the baseline?",
"what was the baseline?",
"what was the baseline?"
] | [
"Following groups of features are extracted:\n- Numerical Features\n- Language Models\n- Clusters\n- Latent Dirichlet Allocation\n- Part-Of-Speech\n- Bag-of-words",
"Numerical features, language models features, clusters, latent Dirichlet allocation, Part-of-Speech tags, Bag-of-words.",
"Numerical features, Language Models, Clusters, Latent Dirichlet Allocation, Part-Of-Speech tags, Bag-of-words",
"Accuracy metric",
"accuracy",
"Accuracy",
"gradient boosted trees",
"Light Gradient Boosting Machine",
"gradient boosted trees",
"the hypothesis that needs be studied is whether LDA was just a clever way to model this information leak in the given data or not",
"Investigate the effectiveness of LDA to capture the subject of the essay.",
"investigate whether this is due to the expressiveness and modeling power of LDA or an artifact of the dataset used",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context."
] | # Lexical Bias In Essay Level Prediction
## Abstract
Automatically predicting the level of non-native English speakers given their written essays is an interesting machine learning problem. In this work I present the system"balikasg"that achieved the state-of-the-art performance in the CAp 2018 data science challenge among 14 systems. I detail the feature extraction, feature engineering and model selection steps and I evaluate how these decisions impact the system's performance. The paper concludes with remarks for future work.
## Introduction
Automatically predicting the level of English of non-native speakers from their written text is an interesting text mining task. Systems that perform well in the task can be useful components for online, second-language learning platforms as well as for organisations that tutor students for this purpose. In this paper I present the system balikasg that achieved the state-of-the-art performance in the CAp 2018 data science challenge among 14 systems. In order to achieve the best performance in the challenge, I decided to use a variety of features that describe an essay's readability and syntactic complexity as well as its content. For the prediction step, I found Gradient Boosted Trees, whose efficiency is proven in several data science challenges, to be the most efficient across a variety of classifiers.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: in Section 2 I frame the problem of language level as an ordinal classification problem and describe the available data. Section 3 presents the feature extaction and engineering techniques used. Section 4 describes the machine learning algorithms for prediction as well as the achieved results. Finally, Section 5 concludes with discussion and avenues for future research.
## Problem Definition
In order to approach the language-level prediction task as a supervised classification problem, I frame it as an ordinal classification problem. In particular, given a written essay INLINEFORM0 from a candidate, the goal is to associate the essay with the level INLINEFORM1 of English according to the Common European Framework of Reference for languages (CEFR) system. Under CEFR there are six language levels INLINEFORM2 , such that INLINEFORM3 . In this notation, INLINEFORM4 is the beginner level while INLINEFORM5 is the most advanced level. Notice that the levels of INLINEFORM6 are ordered, thus defining an ordered classification problem. In this sense, care must be taken both during the phase of model selection and during the phase of evaluation. In the latter, predicting a class far from the true should incur a higher penalty. In other words, given a INLINEFORM7 essay, predicting INLINEFORM8 is worse than predicting INLINEFORM9 , and this difference must be captured by the evaluation metrics.
In order to capture this explicit ordering of INLINEFORM0 , the organisers proposed a cost measure that uses the confusion matrix of the prediction and prior knowledge in order. The biggest error (44) occurs when a INLINEFORM5 essay is classified as INLINEFORM6 . On the contrary, the classification error is lower (6) when the opposite happens and an INLINEFORM7 essay is classified as INLINEFORM8 . Since INLINEFORM9 is not symmetric and the costs of the lower diagonal are higher, the penalties for misclassification are worse when essays of upper languages levels (e.g., INLINEFORM10 ) are classified as essays of lower levels.
## Feature Extaction
In this section I present the extracted features partitioned in six groups and detail each of them separately.
## Model Selection and Evaluation
As the class distribution in the training data is not balanced, I have used stratified cross-validation for validation purposes and for hyper-parameter selection. As a classification1 algorithm, I have used gradient boosted trees trained with gradient-based one-side sampling as implemented in the Light Gradient Boosting Machine toolkit released by Microsoft.. The depth of the trees was set to 3, the learning rate to 0.06 and the number of trees to 4,000. Also, to combat the class imbalance in the training labels I assigned class weights at each class so that errors in the frequent classes incur less penalties than error in the infrequent.
## Conclusion
In this work I presented the feature extraction, feature engineering and model evaluation steps I followed while developing balikasg for CAp 2018 that was ranked first among 14 other systems. I evaluated the efficiency of the different feature groups and found that readbility and complexity scores as well as topic models to be effective predictors. Further, I evaluated the the effectiveness of different classification algorithms and found that Gradient Boosted Trees outperform the rest of the models in this problem.
While in terms of accuracy the system performed excellent achieving 98.2% in the test data, the question raised is whether there are any types of biases in the process. For instance, topic distributions learned with LDA were valuable features. One, however, needs to deeply investigate whether this is due to the expressiveness and modeling power of LDA or an artifact of the dataset used. In the latter case, given that the candidates are asked to write an essay given a subject BIBREF0 that depends on their level, the hypothesis that needs be studied is whether LDA was just a clever way to model this information leak in the given data or not. I believe that further analysis and validation can answer this question if the topics of the essays are released so that validation splits can be done on the basis of these topics.
## Acknoledgements
I would like to thank the organisers of the challenge and NVidia for sponsoring the prize of the challenge. The views expressed in this paper belong solely to the author, and not necessarily to the author's employer.
| [
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 3: Stratified 3-fold cross-validation scores for the official measure of the challenge.",
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 4: Ablation study to explore the importance of different feature families.",
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 4: Ablation study to explore the importance of different feature families.",
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 4: Ablation study to explore the importance of different feature families.",
"While in terms of accuracy the system performed excellent achieving 98.2% in the test data, the question raised is whether there are any types of biases in the process. For instance, topic distributions learned with LDA were valuable features. One, however, needs to deeply investigate whether this is due to the expressiveness and modeling power of LDA or an artifact of the dataset used. In the latter case, given that the candidates are asked to write an essay given a subject BIBREF0 that depends on their level, the hypothesis that needs be studied is whether LDA was just a clever way to model this information leak in the given data or not. I believe that further analysis and validation can answer this question if the topics of the essays are released so that validation splits can be done on the basis of these topics.",
"FLOAT SELECTED: Figure 2: The accuracy scores of each feature set using 3-fold cross validation on the training data.",
"As the class distribution in the training data is not balanced, I have used stratified cross-validation for validation purposes and for hyper-parameter selection. As a classification1 algorithm, I have used gradient boosted trees trained with gradient-based one-side sampling as implemented in the Light Gradient Boosting Machine toolkit released by Microsoft.. The depth of the trees was set to 3, the learning rate to 0.06 and the number of trees to 4,000. Also, to combat the class imbalance in the training labels I assigned class weights at each class so that errors in the frequent classes incur less penalties than error in the infrequent.",
"As the class distribution in the training data is not balanced, I have used stratified cross-validation for validation purposes and for hyper-parameter selection. As a classification1 algorithm, I have used gradient boosted trees trained with gradient-based one-side sampling as implemented in the Light Gradient Boosting Machine toolkit released by Microsoft.. The depth of the trees was set to 3, the learning rate to 0.06 and the number of trees to 4,000. Also, to combat the class imbalance in the training labels I assigned class weights at each class so that errors in the frequent classes incur less penalties than error in the infrequent.",
"As the class distribution in the training data is not balanced, I have used stratified cross-validation for validation purposes and for hyper-parameter selection. As a classification1 algorithm, I have used gradient boosted trees trained with gradient-based one-side sampling as implemented in the Light Gradient Boosting Machine toolkit released by Microsoft.. The depth of the trees was set to 3, the learning rate to 0.06 and the number of trees to 4,000. Also, to combat the class imbalance in the training labels I assigned class weights at each class so that errors in the frequent classes incur less penalties than error in the infrequent.",
"While in terms of accuracy the system performed excellent achieving 98.2% in the test data, the question raised is whether there are any types of biases in the process. For instance, topic distributions learned with LDA were valuable features. One, however, needs to deeply investigate whether this is due to the expressiveness and modeling power of LDA or an artifact of the dataset used. In the latter case, given that the candidates are asked to write an essay given a subject BIBREF0 that depends on their level, the hypothesis that needs be studied is whether LDA was just a clever way to model this information leak in the given data or not. I believe that further analysis and validation can answer this question if the topics of the essays are released so that validation splits can be done on the basis of these topics.",
"While in terms of accuracy the system performed excellent achieving 98.2% in the test data, the question raised is whether there are any types of biases in the process. For instance, topic distributions learned with LDA were valuable features. One, however, needs to deeply investigate whether this is due to the expressiveness and modeling power of LDA or an artifact of the dataset used. In the latter case, given that the candidates are asked to write an essay given a subject BIBREF0 that depends on their level, the hypothesis that needs be studied is whether LDA was just a clever way to model this information leak in the given data or not. I believe that further analysis and validation can answer this question if the topics of the essays are released so that validation splits can be done on the basis of these topics.",
"While in terms of accuracy the system performed excellent achieving 98.2% in the test data, the question raised is whether there are any types of biases in the process. For instance, topic distributions learned with LDA were valuable features. One, however, needs to deeply investigate whether this is due to the expressiveness and modeling power of LDA or an artifact of the dataset used. In the latter case, given that the candidates are asked to write an essay given a subject BIBREF0 that depends on their level, the hypothesis that needs be studied is whether LDA was just a clever way to model this information leak in the given data or not. I believe that further analysis and validation can answer this question if the topics of the essays are released so that validation splits can be done on the basis of these topics.",
"",
"",
""
] | Automatically predicting the level of non-native English speakers given their written essays is an interesting machine learning problem. In this work I present the system"balikasg"that achieved the state-of-the-art performance in the CAp 2018 data science challenge among 14 systems. I detail the feature extraction, feature engineering and model selection steps and I evaluate how these decisions impact the system's performance. The paper concludes with remarks for future work. | 1,296 | 111 | 254 | 1,658 | 1,912 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"what pruning did they perform?",
"what pruning did they perform?"
] | [
"eliminate spurious training data entries",
"separate algorithm for pruning out spurious logical forms using fictitious tables"
] | # It was the training data pruning too!
## Abstract
We study the current best model (KDG) for question answering on tabular data evaluated over the WikiTableQuestions dataset. Previous ablation studies performed against this model attributed the model's performance to certain aspects of its architecture. In this paper, we find that the model's performance also crucially depends on a certain pruning of the data used to train the model. Disabling the pruning step drops the accuracy of the model from 43.3% to 36.3%. The large impact on the performance of the KDG model suggests that the pruning may be a useful pre-processing step in training other semantic parsers as well.
## Introduction
Question answering on tabular data is an important problem in natural language processing. Recently, a number of systems have been proposed for solving the problem using the WikiTableQuestions dataset BIBREF1 (henceforth called WTQ). This dataset consists of triples of the form INLINEFORM0 question, table, answer INLINEFORM1 where the tables are scraped from Wikipedia and questions and answers are gathered via crowdsourcing. The dataset is quite challenging, with the current best model BIBREF0 (henceforth called KDG) achieving a single model accuracy of only 43.3% . This is nonetheless a significant improvement compared to the 34.8% accuracy achieved by the previous best single model BIBREF2 .
We sought to analyze the source of the improvement achieved by the KDG model. The KDG paper claims that the improvement stems from certain aspects of the model architecture.
In this paper, we find that a large part of the improvement also stems from a certain pruning of the data used to train the model. The KDG system generates its training data using an algorithm proposed by BIBREF3 . This algorithm applies a pruning step (discussed in Section SECREF3 ) to eliminate spurious training data entries. We find that without this pruning of the training data, accuracy of the KDG model drops to 36.3%. We consider this an important finding as the pruning step not only accounts for a large fraction of the improvement in the state-of-the-art KDG model but may also be relevant to training other models. In what follows, we briefly discuss the pruning algorithm, how we identified its importance for the KDG model, and its relevance to further work.
## KDG Training Data
The KDG system operates by translating a natural language question and a table to a logical form in Lambda-DCS BIBREF4 . A logical form is an executable formal expression capturing the question's meaning. It is executed on the table to obtain the final answer.
The translation to logical forms is carried out by a deep neural network, also called a neural semantic parser. Training the network requires a dataset of questions mapped to one or more logical forms. The WTQ dataset only contains the correct answer label for question-table instances. To obtain the desired training data, the KDG system enumerates consistent logical form candidates for each INLINEFORM0 triple in the WTQ dataset, i.e., it enumerates all logical forms that lead to the correct answer INLINEFORM1 on the given table INLINEFORM2 . For this, it relies on the dynamic programming algorithm of BIBREF3 . This algorithm is called dynamic programming on denotations (DPD).
## Pruning algorithm
A key challenge in generating consistent logical forms is that many of them are spurious, i.e., they do not represent the question's meaning. For instance, a spurious logical form for the question “which country won the highest number of gold medals” would be one which simply selects the country in the first row of the table. This logicalprescribe pruning out spurious logical forms candidates before training. Since this training set contains spurious logical forms, we expected the model to also sometimes predict spurious logical forms.
However, we were somewhat surprised to find that the logical forms predicted by the KDG model were largely non-spurious. We then examined the logical form candidates that the KDG model was trained on. Through personal communication with Panupong Pasupat, we learned that all of these candidates had been pruned using the algorithm mentioned in Section SECREF3 .
We trained the KDG model on unpruned logical form candidates generated using the DPD algorithm, and found its accuracy to drop to 36.3% (from 43.3%); all configuring parameters were left unchanged. This implies that pruning out spurious logical forms before training is necessary for the performance improvement achieved by the KDG model.
## Directions for further work
BIBREF3 claimed “the pruned set of logical forms would provide a stronger supervision signal for training a semantic parser”. This paper provides empirical evidence in support of this claim. We further believe that the pruning algorithm may also be valuable to models that score logical forms. Such scoring models are typically used by grammar-based semantic parsers such as the one in BIBREF1 . Using the pruning algorithm, the scoring model can be trained to down-score spurious logical forms. Similarly, neural semantic parsers trained using reinforcement learning may use the pruning algorithm to only assign rewards to non-spurious logical forms.
The original WTQ dataset may also be extended with the fictitious tables used by the pruning algorithm. This means that for each INLINEFORM0 triple in the original dataset, we would add additional triples INLINEFORM1 where INLINEFORM2 are the fictitious tables and INLINEFORM3 are the corresponding answers to the question INLINEFORM4 on those tables. Such training data augmentation may improve the performance of neural networks that are directly trained over the WTQ dataset, such as BIBREF5 . The presence of fictitious tables in the training set may help these networks to generalize better, especially on tables that are outside the original WTQ training set.
## Discussion
BIBREF0 present several ablation studies to identify the sources of the performance improvement achieved by the KDG model. These studies comprehensively cover novel aspects of the model architecture. On the training side, the studies only vary the number of logical forms per question in the training dataset. Pruning of the logical forms was not considered. This may have happened inadvertently as the KDG system may have downloaded the logical forms dataset made available by Pasupat et al. without noticing that it had been pruned out.
We note that our finding implies that pruning out spurious logical forms before training is an important factor in the performance improvement achieved by the KDG model. It does not imply that pruning is the only important factor. The architectural innovations are essential for the performance improvement too.
In light of our finding, we would like to emphasize that the performance of a machine learning system depends on several factors such as the model architecture, training algorithm, input pre-processing, hyper-parameter settings, etc. As BIBREF6 point out, attributing improvements in performance to the individual factors is a valuable exercise in understanding the system, and generating ideas for improving it and other systems. In performing these attributions, it is important to consider all factors that may be relevant to the system's performance.
## Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Panupong Pasupat for helpful discussions on the pruning algorithm, and for providing us with the unpruned logical form candidates. We would like to thank Pradeep Dasigi for helping us train the KDG model.
| [
"In this paper, we find that a large part of the improvement also stems from a certain pruning of the data used to train the model. The KDG system generates its training data using an algorithm proposed by BIBREF3 . This algorithm applies a pruning step (discussed in Section SECREF3 ) to eliminate spurious training data entries. We find that without this pruning of the training data, accuracy of the KDG model drops to 36.3%. We consider this an important finding as the pruning step not only accounts for a large fraction of the improvement in the state-of-the-art KDG model but may also be relevant to training other models. In what follows, we briefly discuss the pruning algorithm, how we identified its importance for the KDG model, and its relevance to further work.",
"Pruning algorithm\n\nA key challenge in generating consistent logical forms is that many of them are spurious, i.e., they do not represent the question's meaning. For instance, a spurious logical form for the question “which country won the highest number of gold medals” would be one which simply selects the country in the first row of the table. This logical form leads to the correct answer only because countries in the table happen to be sorted in descending order.\n\nBIBREF3 propose a separate algorithm for pruning out spurious logical forms using fictitious tables. Specifically, for each question-table instance in the dataset, fictitious tables are generated, and answers are crowdsourced on them. A logical form that fails to obtain the correct answer on any fictitious table is filtered out. The paper presents an analysis over 300 questions revealing that the algorithm eliminated 92.1% of the spurious logical forms."
] | We study the current best model (KDG) for question answering on tabular data evaluated over the WikiTableQuestions dataset. Previous ablation studies performed against this model attributed the model's performance to certain aspects of its architecture. In this paper, we find that the model's performance also crucially depends on a certain pruning of the data used to train the model. Disabling the pruning step drops the accuracy of the model from 43.3% to 36.3%. The large impact on the performance of the KDG model suggests that the pruning may be a useful pre-processing step in training other semantic parsers as well. | 1,698 | 16 | 25 | 1,887 | 1,912 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"What deep learning models do they plan to use?",
"What deep learning models do they plan to use?",
"What baseline, if any, is used?",
"What baseline, if any, is used?",
"How are the language models used to make predictions on humorous statements?",
"How are the language models used to make predictions on humorous statements?",
"What type of language models are used? e.g. trigrams, bigrams?",
"What type of language models are used? e.g. trigrams, bigrams?"
] | [
"CNNs in combination with LSTMs create word embeddings from domain specific materials Tree–Structured LSTMs",
"CNNs in combination with LSTMs Tree–Structured LSTMs",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"No answer provided.",
"scored tweets by assigning them a probability based on each model higher probability according to the funny tweet model are considered funnier since they are more like the humorous training data",
"We scored tweets by assigning them a probability based on each model",
"bigrams and trigrams as features KenLM BIBREF8 with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing and a back-off technique",
"bigrams trigrams "
] | # Who's to say what's funny? A computer using Language Models and Deep Learning, That's Who!
## Abstract
Humor is a defining characteristic of human beings. Our goal is to develop methods that automatically detect humorous statements and rank them on a continuous scale. In this paper we report on results using a Language Model approach, and outline our plans for using methods from Deep Learning.
## Introduction
Computational humor is an emerging area of research that ties together ideas from psychology, linguistics, and cognitive science. Humor generation is the problem of automatically creating humorous statements (e.g., BIBREF0 , BIBREF1 ). Humor detection seeks to identify humor in text, and is sometimes cast as a binary classification problem that decides if some input is humorous or not (e.g., BIBREF2 , BIBREF3 , BIBREF4 , BIBREF5 ). However, our focus is on the continuous and subjective aspects of humor.
We learn a particular sense of humor from a data set of tweets which are geared towards a certain style of humor BIBREF6 . This data consists of humorous tweets which have been submitted in response to hashtag prompts provided during the Comedy Central TV show @midnight with Chris Hardwick. Since not all jokes are equally funny, we use Language Models and methods from Deep Learning to allow potentially humorous statements to be ranked relative to each other.
## Language Models
We used traditional Ngram language models as our first approach for two reasons : First, Ngram language models can learn a certain style of humor by using examples of that as the training data for the model. Second, they assign a probability to each input they are given, making it possible to rank statements relative to each other. Thus, Ngram language models make relative rankings of humorous statements based on a particular style of humor, thereby accounting for the continuous and subjective nature of humor.
We began this research by participating in SemEval-2017 Task 6 #HashtagWars: Learning a Sense of Humor BIBREF7 . This included two subtasks : Pairwise Comparison (Subtask A) and Semi-ranking (Subtask B). Pairwise comparison asks a system to choose the funnier of two tweets. Semi-ranking requires that each of the tweets associated with a particular hashtag be assigned to one of the following categories : top most funny tweet, next nine most funny tweets, and all remaining tweets.
Our system estimated tweet probabilities using Ngram language models. We created models from two different corpora - a collection of funny tweets from the @midnight program, and a corpus of news data that is freely available for research. We scored tweets by assigning them a probability based on each model. Tweets that have a higher probability according to the funny tweet model are considered funnier since they are more like the humorous training data. However, tweets that have a lower probability according to the news language model are viewed as funnier since they are least like the (unfunny) news corpus. We took a standard approach to language modeling and used bigrams and trigrams as featuresthat the significant advantage of the news data over the tweet data is caused by the much larger quantity of news data available. The tweet data only consists of approximately 21,000 tweets, whereas the news data totals approximately 6.2 GB of text. In the future we intend to collect more tweet data, especially those participating in the ongoing #HashtagWars staged nightly by @midnight. We also plan to experiment with equal amounts of tweet data and news data, to see if one has an inherent advantage over the other.
Our language models performed better in the pairwise comparison, but it is clear that more investigation is needed to improve the semi-ranking results. We believe that Deep Learning may overcome some of the limits of Ngram language models, and so will explore those next.
## Deep Learning
One limitation of our language model approach is the large number of out of vocabulary words we encounter. This problem can not be solved by increasing the quantity of training data because humor relies on creative use of language. For example, jokes often include puns based on invented words, e.g., a singing cat makes beautiful meowsic. BIBREF6 suggests that character–based Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are an effective solution for these situations since they are not dependent on observing tokens in training data. Previous work has also shown the CNNs are effective tools for language modeling, even in the presence of complex morphology BIBREF9 . Other recent work has shown that Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), in particular Long Short–Term Memory networks (LSTMs), are effective in a wide range of language modeling tasks (e.g., BIBREF10 , BIBREF11 ). This seems to be due to their ability to capture long distance dependencies, which is something that Ngram language models can not do.
BIBREF6 finds that external knowledge is necessary to detect humor in tweet based data. This might include information about book and movie titles, song lyrics, biographies of celebrities etc. and is necessary given the reliance on current events and popular culture in making certain kinds of jokes.
We believe that Deep Learning techniques potentially offer improved handling of unknown words, long distance dependencies in text, and non–linear relationships among words and concepts. Moving forward we intend to explore a variety of these ideas and describe those briefly below.
## Future Work
Our current language model approach is effective but does not account for out of vocabulary words nor long distance dependencies. CNNs in combination with LSTMs seem to be a particularly promising way to overcome these limitations (e.g., BIBREF12 ) which we will explore and compare to our existing results.
After evaluating CNNs and LSTMs we will explore how to include domain knowledge in these models. One possibility is to create word embeddings from domain specific materials and provide those to the CNNs along with more general text. Another is to investigate the use of Tree–Structured LSTMs BIBREF13 . These have the potential advantage of preserving non-linear structure in text, which may be helpful in recognizing some of the unusual variations of words and concepts that are characteristic of humor.
| [
"Our current language model approach is effective but does not account for out of vocabulary words nor long distance dependencies. CNNs in combination with LSTMs seem to be a particularly promising way to overcome these limitations (e.g., BIBREF12 ) which we will explore and compare to our existing results.\n\nAfter evaluating CNNs and LSTMs we will explore how to include domain knowledge in these models. One possibility is to create word embeddings from domain specific materials and provide those to the CNNs along with more general text. Another is to investigate the use of Tree–Structured LSTMs BIBREF13 . These have the potential advantage of preserving non-linear structure in text, which may be helpful in recognizing some of the unusual variations of words and concepts that are characteristic of humor.",
"Our current language model approach is effective but does not account for out of vocabulary words nor long distance dependencies. CNNs in combination with LSTMs seem to be a particularly promising way to overcome these limitations (e.g., BIBREF12 ) which we will explore and compare to our existing results.\n\nAfter evaluating CNNs and LSTMs we will explore how to include domain knowledge in these models. One possibility is to create word embeddings from domain specific materials and provide those to the CNNs along with more general text. Another is to investigate the use of Tree–Structured LSTMs BIBREF13 . These have the potential advantage of preserving non-linear structure in text, which may be helpful in recognizing some of the unusual variations of words and concepts that are characteristic of humor.",
"",
"",
"Our system estimated tweet probabilities using Ngram language models. We created models from two different corpora - a collection of funny tweets from the @midnight program, and a corpus of news data that is freely available for research. We scored tweets by assigning them a probability based on each model. Tweets that have a higher probability according to the funny tweet model are considered funnier since they are more like the humorous training data. However, tweets that have a lower probability according to the news language model are viewed as funnier since they are least like the (unfunny) news corpus. We took a standard approach to language modeling and used bigrams and trigrams as features in our models. We used KenLM BIBREF8 with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing and a back-off technique as our language modeling tool.",
"Our system estimated tweet probabilities using Ngram language models. We created models from two different corpora - a collection of funny tweets from the @midnight program, and a corpus of news data that is freely available for research. We scored tweets by assigning them a probability based on each model. Tweets that have a higher probability according to the funny tweet model are considered funnier since they are more like the humorous training data. However, tweets that have a lower probability according to the news language model are viewed as funnier since they are least like the (unfunny) news corpus. We took a standard approach to language modeling and used bigrams and trigrams as features in our models. We used KenLM BIBREF8 with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing and a back-off technique as our language modeling tool.",
"Our system estimated tweet probabilities using Ngram language models. We created models from two different corpora - a collection of funny tweets from the @midnight program, and a corpus of news data that is freely available for research. We scored tweets by assigning them a probability based on each model. Tweets that have a higher probability according to the funny tweet model are considered funnier since they are more like the humorous training data. However, tweets that have a lower probability according to the news language model are viewed as funnier since they are least like the (unfunny) news corpus. We took a standard approach to language modeling and used bigrams and trigrams as features in our models. We used KenLM BIBREF8 with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing and a back-off technique as our language modeling tool.",
"Our system estimated tweet probabilities using Ngram language models. We created models from two different corpora - a collection of funny tweets from the @midnight program, and a corpus of news data that is freely available for research. We scored tweets by assigning them a probability based on each model. Tweets that have a higher probability according to the funny tweet model are considered funnier since they are more like the humorous training data. However, tweets that have a lower probability according to the news language model are viewed as funnier since they are least like the (unfunny) news corpus. We took a standard approach to language modeling and used bigrams and trigrams as features in our models. We used KenLM BIBREF8 with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing and a back-off technique as our language modeling tool."
] | Humor is a defining characteristic of human beings. Our goal is to develop methods that automatically detect humorous statements and rank them on a continuous scale. In this paper we report on results using a Language Model approach, and outline our plans for using methods from Deep Learning. | 1,432 | 116 | 157 | 1,757 | 1,914 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"What is the strong baseline model used?",
"What is the strong baseline model used?",
"What crowdsourcing platform did they obtain the data from?",
"What crowdsourcing platform did they obtain the data from?"
] | [
"an uncased base BERT QA model BIBREF9 trained on SQuAD 1.1 BIBREF0",
"Passage-only heuristic baseline, QANet, QANet+BERT, BERT QA",
"Mechanical Turk",
"Mechanical Turk"
] | # Quoref: A Reading Comprehension Dataset with Questions Requiring Coreferential Reasoning
## Abstract
Machine comprehension of texts longer than a single sentence often requires coreference resolution. However, most current reading comprehension benchmarks do not contain complex coreferential phenomena and hence fail to evaluate the ability of models to resolve coreference. We present a new crowdsourced dataset containing more than 24K span-selection questions that require resolving coreference among entities in over 4.7K English paragraphs from Wikipedia. Obtaining questions focused on such phenomena is challenging, because it is hard to avoid lexical cues that shortcut complex reasoning. We deal with this issue by using a strong baseline model as an adversary in the crowdsourcing loop, which helps crowdworkers avoid writing questions with exploitable surface cues. We show that state-of-the-art reading comprehension models perform significantly worse than humans on this benchmark---the best model performance is 70.5 F1, while the estimated human performance is 93.4 F1.
## Introduction
Paragraphs and other longer texts typically make multiple references to the same entities. Tracking these references and resolving coreference is essential for full machine comprehension of these texts. Significant progress has recently been made in reading comprehension research, due to large crowdsourced datasets BIBREF0, BIBREF1, BIBREF2, BIBREF3. However, these datasets focus largely on understanding local predicate-argument structure, with very few questions requiring long-distance entity tracking. Obtaining such questions is hard for two reasons: (1) teaching crowdworkers about coreference is challenging, with even experts disagreeing on its nuances BIBREF4, BIBREF5, BIBREF6, BIBREF7, and (2) even if we can get crowdworkers to target coreference phenomena in their questions, these questions may contain giveaways that let models arrive at the correct answer without performing the desired reasoning (see §SECREF3 for examples).
We introduce a new dataset, Quoref , that contains questions requiring coreferential reasoning (see examples in Figure FIGREF1). The questions are derived from paragraphs taken from a diverse set of English Wikipedia articles and are collected using an annotation process (§SECREF2) that deals with the aforementioned issues in the following ways: First, we devise a set of instructions that gets workers to find anaphoric expressions and their referents, asking questions that connect two mentions in a paragraph. These questions mostly revolve around traditional notions of coreference (Figure FIGREF1 Q1), but they can also involve referential phenomena that are more nebulous (Figure FIGREF1 Q3). Second, inspired by BIBREF8, we disallow questions that can be answered by an adversary model (uncased base BERT, BIBREF9, trained on SQuAD 1.1, BIBREF0) running in the background as the workers write questions. This adversary is not particularly skilled at answering questions requiring coreference, but can follow obvious lexical cues—it thus helps workers avoid writing questions that shortcut coreferential reasoning.
Quoref contains more than 15K questions whose answers are spans or sets of spans in 3.5K paragraphs from English Wikipedia that can be arrived at by resolving coreference in those paragraphs. We manually analyze a sample of the dataset (§SECREF3) and find that 78% of the questions cannot be answered without resolving coreference. We also show (§SECREF4) that the best system performance is , and we showed them examples of good and bad questions in the instructions (see Appendix ). For each question, the workers were also required to select one or more spans in the corresponding paragraph as the answer, and these spans are not required to be same as the coreferential spans that triggered the questions. We used an uncased base BERT QA model BIBREF9 trained on SQuAD 1.1 BIBREF0 as an adversary running in the background that attempted to answer the questions written by workers in real time, and the workers were able to submit their questions only if their answer did not match the adversary's prediction. Appendix further details the logistics of the crowdsourcing tasks. Some basic statistics of the resulting dataset can be seen in Table .
## Semantic Phenomena in Quoref
To better understand the phenomena present in Quoref , we manually analyzed a random sample of 100 paragraph-question pairs. The following are some empirical observations.
## Semantic Phenomena in Quoref ::: Requirement of coreference resolution
We found that 78% of the manually analyzed questions cannot be answered without coreference resolution. The remaining 22% involve some form of coreference, but do not require it to be resolved for answering them. Examples include a paragraph that mentions only one city, “Bristol”, and a sentence that says “the city was bombed”. The associated question, Which city was bombed?, does not really require coreference resolution from a model that can identify city names, making the content in the question after Which city unnecessary.
## Semantic Phenomena in Quoref ::: Types of coreferential reasoning
Questions in Quoref require resolving pronominal and nominal mentions of entities. Table shows percentages and examples of analyzed questions that fall into these two categories. These are not disjoint sets, since we found that 32% of the questions require both (row 3). We also found that 10% require some form of commonsense reasoning (row 4).
## Related Work ::: Traditional coreference datasets
Unlike traditional coreference annotations in datasets like those of BIBREF4, BIBREF10, BIBREF11 and BIBREF7, which aim to obtain complete coreference clusters, our questions require understanding coreference between only a few spans. While this means that the notion of coreference captured by our dataset is less comprehensive, it is also less conservative and allows questions about coreference relations that are not marked in OntoNotes annotations. Since the notion is not as strict, it does not require linguistic expertise from annotators, making it more amenable to crowdsourcing.
## Related Work ::: Reading comprehension datasets
There are many reading comprehension datasets BIBREF12, BIBREF0, BIBREF3, BIBREF8. Most of these datasets principally require understanding local predicate-argument structure in a paragraph of text. Quoref also requires understanding local predicate-argument structure, but makes the reading task harder by explicitly querying anaphoric references, requiring a system to track entities throughout the discourse.
## Conclusion
We present Quoref , a focused reading comprehension benchmark that evaluates the ability of models to resolve coreference. We crowdsourced questions over paragraphs from Wikipedia, and manual analysis confirmed that most cannot be answered without coreference resolution. We show that current state-of-the-art reading comprehension models perform poorly on this benchmark, significantly lower than human performance. Both these findings provide evidence that Quoref is an appropriate benchmark for coreference-aware reading comprehension.
| [
"We crowdsourced questions about these paragraphs on Mechanical Turk. We asked workers to find two or more co-referring spans in the paragraph, and to write questions such that answering them would require the knowledge that those spans are coreferential. We did not ask them to explicitly mark the co-referring spans. Workers were asked to write questions for a random sample of paragraphs from our pool, and we showed them examples of good and bad questions in the instructions (see Appendix ). For each question, the workers were also required to select one or more spans in the corresponding paragraph as the answer, and these spans are not required to be same as the coreferential spans that triggered the questions. We used an uncased base BERT QA model BIBREF9 trained on SQuAD 1.1 BIBREF0 as an adversary running in the background that attempted to answer the questions written by workers in real time, and the workers were able to submit their questions only if their answer did not match the adversary's prediction. Appendix further details the logistics of the crowdsourcing tasks. Some basic statistics of the resulting dataset can be seen in Table .",
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 3: Performance of various baselines on QUOREF, measured by Exact Match (EM) and F1. Boldface marks the best systems for each metric and split.",
"We crowdsourced questions about these paragraphs on Mechanical Turk. We asked workers to find two or more co-referring spans in the paragraph, and to write questions such that answering them would require the knowledge that those spans are coreferential. We did not ask them to explicitly mark the co-referring spans. Workers were asked to write questions for a random sample of paragraphs from our pool, and we showed them examples of good and bad questions in the instructions (see Appendix ). For each question, the workers were also required to select one or more spans in the corresponding paragraph as the answer, and these spans are not required to be same as the coreferential spans that triggered the questions. We used an uncased base BERT QA model BIBREF9 trained on SQuAD 1.1 BIBREF0 as an adversary running in the background that attempted to answer the questions written by workers in real time, and the workers were able to submit their questions only if their answer did not match the adversary's prediction. Appendix further details the logistics of the crowdsourcing tasks. Some basic statistics of the resulting dataset can be seen in Table .",
"We crowdsourced questions about these paragraphs on Mechanical Turk. We asked workers to find two or more co-referring spans in the paragraph, and to write questions such that answering them would require the knowledge that those spans are coreferential. We did not ask them to explicitly mark the co-referring spans. Workers were asked to write questions for a random sample of paragraphs from our pool, and we showed them examples of good and bad questions in the instructions (see Appendix ). For each question, the workers were also required to select one or more spans in the corresponding paragraph as the answer, and these spans are not required to be same as the coreferential spans that triggered the questions. We used an uncased base BERT QA model BIBREF9 trained on SQuAD 1.1 BIBREF0 as an adversary running in the background that attempted to answer the questions written by workers in real time, and the workers were able to submit their questions only if their answer did not match the adversary's prediction. Appendix further details the logistics of the crowdsourcing tasks. Some basic statistics of the resulting dataset can be seen in Table ."
] | Machine comprehension of texts longer than a single sentence often requires coreference resolution. However, most current reading comprehension benchmarks do not contain complex coreferential phenomena and hence fail to evaluate the ability of models to resolve coreference. We present a new crowdsourced dataset containing more than 24K span-selection questions that require resolving coreference among entities in over 4.7K English paragraphs from Wikipedia. Obtaining questions focused on such phenomena is challenging, because it is hard to avoid lexical cues that shortcut complex reasoning. We deal with this issue by using a strong baseline model as an adversary in the crowdsourcing loop, which helps crowdworkers avoid writing questions with exploitable surface cues. We show that state-of-the-art reading comprehension models perform significantly worse than humans on this benchmark---the best model performance is 70.5 F1, while the estimated human performance is 93.4 F1. | 1,615 | 48 | 62 | 1,848 | 1,910 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"How long is their dataset?",
"How long is their dataset?",
"What metrics are used?",
"What metrics are used?",
"What is the best performing system?",
"What is the best performing system?",
"What tokenization methods are used?",
"What tokenization methods are used?",
"What baselines do they propose?",
"What baselines do they propose?"
] | [
"21214",
"Data used has total of 23315 sentences.",
"BLEU score",
"BLEU",
"A supervised model with byte pair encoding was the best for English to Pidgin, while a supervised model with word-level encoding was the best for Pidgin to English.",
"In English to Pidgin best was byte pair encoding tokenization superised model, while in Pidgin to English word-level tokenization supervised model was the best.",
"word-level subword-level",
"word-level Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) subword-level",
"Transformer architecture of BIBREF7",
"supervised translation models"
] | # Towards Supervised and Unsupervised Neural Machine Translation Baselines for Nigerian Pidgin
## Abstract
Nigerian Pidgin is arguably the most widely spoken language in Nigeria. Variants of this language are also spoken across West and Central Africa, making it a very important language. This work aims to establish supervised and unsupervised neural machine translation (NMT) baselines between English and Nigerian Pidgin. We implement and compare NMT models with different tokenization methods, creating a solid foundation for future works.
## Introduction
Over 500 languages are spoken in Nigeria, but Nigerian Pidgin is the uniting language in the country. Between three and five million people are estimated to use this language as a first language in performing their daily activities. Nigerian Pidgin is also considered a second language to up to 75 million people in Nigeria, accounting for about half of the country's population according to BIBREF0.
The language is considered an informal lingua franca and offers several benefits to the country. In 2020, 65% of Nigeria's population is estimated to have access to the internet according to BIBREF1. However, over 58.4% of the internet's content is in English language, while Nigerian languages, such as Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa, account for less than 0.1% of internet content according to BIBREF2. For Nigerians to truly harness the advantages the internet offers, it is imperative that English content is able to be translated to Nigerian languages, and vice versa.
This work is a first attempt towards using contemporary neural machine translation (NMT) techniques to perform machine translation for Nigerian Pidgin, establishing solid baselines that will ease and spur future work. We evaluate the performance of supervised and unsupervised neural machine translation models using word-level and the subword-level tokenization of BIBREF3.
## Related Work
Some work has been done on developing neural machine translation baselines for African languages. BIBREF4 implemented a transformer model which significantly outperformed existing statistical machine translation architectures from English to South-African Setswana. Also, BIBREF5 went further, to train neural machine translation models from English to five South African languages using two different architectures - convolutional sequence-to-sequence and transformer. Their results showed that neural machine translation models are very promising for African languages.
The only known natural language processing work done on any variant of Pidgin English is by BIBREF6. The authors provided the largest known Nigerian Pidgin English corpus and trained the first ever translation models between both languages via unsupervised neural machine translation due to the absence of parallel training data at the time.
## Methodology
All baseline models were trained using the Transformer architecture of BIBREF7. We experiment with both word-level and Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) subword-level tokenization methods for the supervised models. We learned 4000 byte pair encoding tokens, following the findings of BIBREF5. For the unuspervised model, we experiment with only word-level tokenization.
## Methodology ::: Dataset
The dataset used for the supervised was obtained from the JW3Amazon EC2 p3.2xlarge instance.
## Results ::: Quantitative
English to Pidgin:
Pidgin to English:
For the word-level tokenization English to Pidgin models, the supervised model outperforms the unsupervised model, achieving a BLEU score of 17.73 in comparison to the BLEU score of 5.18 achieved by the unsupervised model. The supervised model trained with byte pair encoding tokenization outperforms both word-level tokenization models, achieving a BLEU score of 24.29.
Taking a look at the results from the word-level tokenization Pidgin to English models, the supervised model outperforms the unsupervised model, achieving a BLEU score of 24.67 in comparison to the BLEU score of 7.93 achieved by the unsupervised model. The supervised model trained with byte pair encoding tokenization achieved a BLEU score of 13.00. One thing that is worthy of note is that word-level tokenization methods seem to perform better on Pidgin to English translation models, in comparison to English to Pidgin translation models.
## Results ::: Qualitative
When analyzed by L1 speakers, the translation qualities were rated very well. In particular, the unsupervised model makes many translations that did not exactly match the reference translation, but conveyed the same meaning. More analysis and translation examples are in the Appendix.
## Conclusion
There is an increasing need to use neural machine translation techniques for African languages. Due to the low-resourced nature of these languages, these techniques can help build useful translation models that could hopefully help with the preservation and discoverability of these languages.
Future works include establishing qualitative metrics and the use of pre-trained models to bolster these translation models.
Code, data, trained models and result translations are available here - https://github.com/orevaoghene/pidgin-baseline
## Conclusion ::: Acknowledgments
Special thanks to the Masakhane group for catalysing this work.
## Appendix ::: English to Pidgin translations
Unsupervised (Word-Level):
Supervised (Word-Level):
Supervised (Byte Pair Encoding):
## Appendix ::: English to Pidgin translations ::: Discussions:
The following insights can be drawn from the example translations shown in the tables above:
The unsupervised model performed poorly at some simple translation examples, such as the first translation example.
For all translation models, the model makes hypothesis that are grammatically and qualitatively correct, but do not exactly match the reference translation, such as the second translation example.
Surprisingly, the unsupervised model performs better at some relatively simple translation examples than both supervised models. The third example is a typical such case.
The supervised translation models seem to perform better at longer example translations than the unsupervised example.
## Appendix ::: Pidgin to English translations
Unsupervised (Word-Level):
Supervised (Word-Level):
Supervised (Byte Pair Encoding):
| [
"The dataset used for the supervised was obtained from the JW300 large-scale, parallel corpus for Machine Translation (MT) by BIBREF8. The train set contained 20214 sentence pairs, while the validation contained 1000 sentence pairs. Both the supervised and unsupervised models were evaluated on a test set of 2101 sentences preprocessed by the Masakhane group. The model with the highest test BLEU score is selected as the best.",
"The dataset used for the supervised was obtained from the JW300 large-scale, parallel corpus for Machine Translation (MT) by BIBREF8. The train set contained 20214 sentence pairs, while the validation contained 1000 sentence pairs. Both the supervised and unsupervised models were evaluated on a test set of 2101 sentences preprocessed by the Masakhane group. The model with the highest test BLEU score is selected as the best.",
"The dataset used for the supervised was obtained from the JW300 large-scale, parallel corpus for Machine Translation (MT) by BIBREF8. The train set contained 20214 sentence pairs, while the validation contained 1000 sentence pairs. Both the supervised and unsupervised models were evaluated on a test set of 2101 sentences preprocessed by the Masakhane group. The model with the highest test BLEU score is selected as the best.",
"The dataset used for the supervised was obtained from the JW300 large-scale, parallel corpus for Machine Translation (MT) by BIBREF8. The train set contained 20214 sentence pairs, while the validation contained 1000 sentence pairs. Both the supervised and unsupervised models were evaluated on a test set of 2101 sentences preprocessed by the Masakhane group. The model with the highest test BLEU score is selected as the best.",
"For the word-level tokenization English to Pidgin models, the supervised model outperforms the unsupervised model, achieving a BLEU score of 17.73 in comparison to the BLEU score of 5.18 achieved by the unsupervised model. The supervised model trained with byte pair encoding tokenization outperforms both word-level tokenization models, achieving a BLEU score of 24.29.\n\nTaking a look at the results from the word-level tokenization Pidgin to English models, the supervised model outperforms the unsupervised model, achieving a BLEU score of 24.67 in comparison to the BLEU score of 7.93 achieved by the unsupervised model. The supervised model trained with byte pair encoding tokenization achieved a BLEU score of 13.00. One thing that is worthy of note is that word-level tokenization methods seem to perform better on Pidgin to English translation models, in comparison to English to Pidgin translation models.",
"Taking a look at the results from the word-level tokenization Pidgin to English models, the supervised model outperforms the unsupervised model, achieving a BLEU score of 24.67 in comparison to the BLEU score of 7.93 achieved by the unsupervised model. The supervised model trained with byte pair encoding tokenization achieved a BLEU score of 13.00. One thing that is worthy of note is that word-level tokenization methods seem to perform better on Pidgin to English translation models, in comparison to English to Pidgin translation models.\n\nFor the word-level tokenization English to Pidgin models, the supervised model outperforms the unsupervised model, achieving a BLEU score of 17.73 in comparison to the BLEU score of 5.18 achieved by the unsupervised model. The supervised model trained with byte pair encoding tokenization outperforms both word-level tokenization models, achieving a BLEU score of 24.29.",
"This work is a first attempt towards using contemporary neural machine translation (NMT) techniques to perform machine translation for Nigerian Pidgin, establishing solid baselines that will ease and spur future work. We evaluate the performance of supervised and unsupervised neural machine translation models using word-level and the subword-level tokenization of BIBREF3.",
"All baseline models were trained using the Transformer architecture of BIBREF7. We experiment with both word-level and Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) subword-level tokenization methods for the supervised models. We learned 4000 byte pair encoding tokens, following the findings of BIBREF5. For the unuspervised model, we experiment with only word-level tokenization.",
"All baseline models were trained using the Transformer architecture of BIBREF7. We experiment with both word-level and Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) subword-level tokenization methods for the supervised models. We learned 4000 byte pair encoding tokens, following the findings of BIBREF5. For the unuspervised model, we experiment with only word-level tokenization.",
"The supervised translation models seem to perform better at longer example translations than the unsupervised example."
] | Nigerian Pidgin is arguably the most widely spoken language in Nigeria. Variants of this language are also spoken across West and Central Africa, making it a very important language. This work aims to establish supervised and unsupervised neural machine translation (NMT) baselines between English and Nigerian Pidgin. We implement and compare NMT models with different tokenization methods, creating a solid foundation for future works. | 1,472 | 74 | 146 | 1,767 | 1,913 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"what were the evaluation metrics?",
"what were the evaluation metrics?",
"how many sentiment labels do they explore?",
"how many sentiment labels do they explore?",
"how many sentiment labels do they explore?"
] | [
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"macro-average recall",
"3",
"3",
"3"
] | # Senti17 at SemEval-2017 Task 4: Ten Convolutional Neural Network Voters for Tweet Polarity Classification
## Abstract
This paper presents Senti17 system which uses ten convolutional neural networks (ConvNet) to assign a sentiment label to a tweet. The network consists of a convolutional layer followed by a fully-connected layer and a Softmax on top. Ten instances of this network are initialized with the same word embeddings as inputs but with different initializations for the network weights. We combine the results of all instances by selecting the sentiment label given by the majority of the ten voters. This system is ranked fourth in SemEval-2017 Task4 over 38 systems with 67.4%
## Introduction
Polarity classification is the basic task of sentiment analysis in which the polarity of a given text should be classified into three categories: positive, negative or neutral. In Twitter where the tweet is short and written in informal language, this task needs more attention. SemEval has proposed the task of Message Polarity Classification in Twitter since 2013, the objective is to classify a tweet into one of the three polarity labels BIBREF0 .
We can remark that in 2013, 2014 and 2015 most best systems were based on a rich feature extraction process with a traditional classifier such as SVM BIBREF1 or Logistic regression BIBREF2 . In 2014, kimconvolutional2014 proposed to use one convolutional neural network for sentence classification, he fixed the size of the input sentence and concatenated its word embeddings for representing the sentence, this architecture has been exploited in many later works. severynunitn:2015 adapted the convolutional network proposed by kimconvolutional2014 for sentiment analysis in Twitter, their system was ranked second in SemEval-2015 while the first system BIBREF3 combined four systems based on feature extraction and the third ranked system used logistic regression with different groups of features BIBREF2 .
In 2016, we remark that the number of participations which use feature extraction systems were degraded, and the first four systems used Deep Learning, the majority used a convolutional network except the fourth one BIBREF4 . Despite of that, using Deep Learning for sentiment analysis in Twitter has not yet shown a big improvement in comparison to feature extraction, the fifth and sixth systems BIBREF5 in 2016 which were built upon feature extraction process were only (3 and 3.5% respectively) less than the first system. But We think that Deep Learning is a promising direction in sentiment analysis. Therefore, we proposed to use convolutional networks for Twitter polarity classification.
Our proposed system consists of a convolutional layer followed by fully connected layer and a softmax on top. This is inspired by kimconvolutional2014, we just added a fully connected layer. This architecture gives a good performance but it could be improved. Regarding the best system in 2016 BIBREF6 , it uses different word embeddings for initialisation then it combines the predictions of different nets using a meta-classifier, Word2vec and Glove have been used to vary the tweet representation.
In our work, we propose to vary the neural network weights instead of tweet representation which can get the same effect of varying the word embeddings, therefore we vary the initial weights of the network to produce ten different nets, a voting system over the these ten voters will decide the sentiment label for a tweet.
The remaining of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the systemand is supposed to produce more accurate results.
## Max-Pooling Layer
This layer reduces the size of the output of activation layer, for each vector it selects the max value. Different variation of pooling layer can be used: average or k-max pooling.
## Dropout Layer
Dropout is used after the max pooling to regularize the ConvNet and prevent overfitting. It assumes that we can still obtain a reasonable classification even when some of the neurones are dropped. Dropout consists in randomly setting a fraction p of input units to 0 at each update during training time.
## Fully Conected Layer
We concatenate the results of all pooling layers after applying Dropout, these units are connected to a fully connected layer. This layer performs a matrix multiplication between its weights and the input units. A RELU non-linarity is applied on the results of this layer.
## Softmax Layer
The output of the fully connected layer is passed to a Softmax layer. It computes the probability distribution over the labels in order to decide the most probable label for a tweet.
## Experiments and Results
For training the network, we used about 30000 English tweets provided by SemEval organisers and the test set of 2016 which contains 12000 tweets as development set. The test set of 2017 is used to evaluate the system in SemEval-2017 competition. For implementing our system we used python and Keras.
We set the network parameters as follows: SSG embbeding size d is chosen to be 200, the tweet max legnth maxl is 99. For convolutional layers, we set the number of feature maps f to 50 and used 8 filter sizes (1,2,3,4,5,2,3,4). The p value of Dropout layer is set to 0.3. We used Nadam optimizer BIBREF8 to update the weights of the network and back-propogation algorithm to compute the gradients. The batch size is set to be 50 and the training data is shuffled after each iteration.
We create ten instances of this network, we randomly initialize them using the uniform distribution, we repeat the random initialization for each instance 100 times, then we pick the networks which gives the highest average recall score as it is considered the official measure for system ranking. If the top network of each instance gives more than 95% of its results identical to another chosen network, we choose the next top networks to make sure that the ten networks are enough different.
Thus, we have ten classifiers, we count the number of classifiers which give the positive, negative and neutral sentiment label to each tweet and select the sentiment label which have the highest number of votes. For each new tweet from the test set, we convert it to 2-dim matrix, if the tweet is longer than maxl, it will be truncated. We then feed it into the ten networks and pass the results to the voting system.
Official ranking: Our system is ranked fourth over 38 systems in terms of macro-average recall. Table 4 shows the results of our system on the test set of 2016 and 2017.
## Conclusion
We presented our deep learning approach to Twitter sentiment analysis. We used ten convolutional neural network voters to get the polarity of a tweet, each voter has been trained on the same training data using the same word embeddings but different initial weights. The results demonstrate that our system is competitive as it is ranked forth in SemEval-2017 task 4-A.
| [
"",
"Official ranking: Our system is ranked fourth over 38 systems in terms of macro-average recall. Table 4 shows the results of our system on the test set of 2016 and 2017.",
"Thus, we have ten classifiers, we count the number of classifiers which give the positive, negative and neutral sentiment label to each tweet and select the sentiment label which have the highest number of votes. For each new tweet from the test set, we convert it to 2-dim matrix, if the tweet is longer than maxl, it will be truncated. We then feed it into the ten networks and pass the results to the voting system.",
"Thus, we have ten classifiers, we count the number of classifiers which give the positive, negative and neutral sentiment label to each tweet and select the sentiment label which have the highest number of votes. For each new tweet from the test set, we convert it to 2-dim matrix, if the tweet is longer than maxl, it will be truncated. We then feed it into the ten networks and pass the results to the voting system.",
"Thus, we have ten classifiers, we count the number of classifiers which give the positive, negative and neutral sentiment label to each tweet and select the sentiment label which have the highest number of votes. For each new tweet from the test set, we convert it to 2-dim matrix, if the tweet is longer than maxl, it will be truncated. We then feed it into the ten networks and pass the results to the voting system."
] | This paper presents Senti17 system which uses ten convolutional neural networks (ConvNet) to assign a sentiment label to a tweet. The network consists of a convolutional layer followed by a fully-connected layer and a Softmax on top. Ten instances of this network are initialized with the same word embeddings as inputs but with different initializations for the network weights. We combine the results of all instances by selecting the sentiment label given by the majority of the ten voters. This system is ranked fourth in SemEval-2017 Task4 over 38 systems with 67.4% | 1,652 | 41 | 28 | 1,884 | 1,912 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"In what language are the captions written in?",
"In what language are the captions written in?",
"What is the average length of the captions?",
"What is the average length of the captions?",
"Does each image have one caption?",
"Does each image have one caption?",
"What is the size of the dataset?",
"What is the size of the dataset?",
"What is the source of the images and textual captions?",
"What is the source of the images and textual captions?"
] | [
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"No answer provided.",
"No answer provided.",
"829 instances",
"819",
" Image Descriptions dataset, which is a subset of 8k-picture of Flickr Image Descriptions dataset which is a subset of the PASCAL VOC-2008 dataset BIBREF16",
"PASCAL VOC-2008 dataset 8k-Flicker"
] | # Evaluating Multimodal Representations on Sentence Similarity: vSTS, Visual Semantic Textual Similarity Dataset
## Abstract
In this paper we introduce vSTS, a new dataset for measuring textual similarity of sentences using multimodal information. The dataset is comprised by images along with its respectively textual captions. We describe the dataset both quantitatively and qualitatively, and claim that it is a valid gold standard for measuring automatic multimodal textual similarity systems. We also describe the initial experiments combining the multimodal information.
## Introduction
The success of word representations (embeddings) learned from text has motivated analogous methods to learn representations of longer sequences of text such as sentences, a fundamental step on any task requiring some level of text understanding BIBREF0 . Sentence representation is a challenging task that has to consider aspects such as compositionality, phrase similarity, negation, etc. In order to evaluate sentence representations, intermediate tasks such as Semantic Textual Similarity (STS) BIBREF1 or Natural Language Inference (NLI) BIBREF2 have been proposed, with STS being popular among unsupervised approaches. Through a set of campaigns, STS has produced several manually annotated datasets, where annotators measure the similarity among sentences, with higher scores for more similar sentences, ranging between 0 (no similarity) to 5 (semantic equivalence). Human annotators exhibit high inter-tagger correlation in this task.
In another strand of related work, tasks that combine representations of multiple modalities have gained increasing attention, including image-caption retrieval, video and text alignment, caption generation, and visual question answering. A common approach is to learn image and text embeddings that share the same space so that sentence vectors are close to the representation of the images they describe BIBREF3 , BIBREF4 . BIBREF5 provides an approach that learns to align images with descriptions. Joint spaces are typically learned combining various types of deep learning networks such us recurrent networks or convolutional networks, with some attention mechanism BIBREF6 , BIBREF7 , BIBREF8 .
The complementarity of visual and text representations for improved language understanding have been shown also on word representations, where embeddings have been combined with visual or perceptual input to produce grounded representations of words BIBREF9 , BIBREF10 , BIBREF11 , BIBREF12 , BIBREF13 , BIBREF14 , BIBREF15 . These improved representation models have outperformed traditional text-only distributional models on a series of word similarity tasks, showing that visual information coming from images is complementary to textual information.
In this paper we present Visual Semantic Textual Similarity (vSTS), a dataset which allows to study whether better sentence representations can be built when having access to corresponding images, e.g. a caption and its image, in contrast with having access to the text alone. This dataset is based on a subset of the STS benchmark BIBREF1 , more specifically, the so called STS-images subset, which contains pairs of captions. Note that the annotations are based on the textual information alone. vSTS extends the existing subset with images, and aims at being a standard dataset toexpected, the most frequent score is 0 (Table TABREF2 ), but the dataset still shows wide range of similarity values, with enough variability.
## Experiments
Experimental setting We split the vSTS dataset into development and test partitions, sampling 50% at random, while preserving the overall score distributions. In addition, we used part of the text-only STS benchmark dataset as a training set, discarding the examples that overlap with vSTS.
STS Models We checked four models of different complexity and modalities. The baseline is a word overlap model (overlap), in which input texts are tokenized with white space, vectorized according to a word index, and similarity is computed as the cosine of the vectors. We also calculated the centroid of Glove word embeddings BIBREF17 (caverage) and then computed the cosine as a second text-based model. The third text-based model is the state of the art Decomposable Attention Model BIBREF18 (dam), trained on the STS benchmark dataset as explained above. Finally, we use the top layer of a pretrained resnet50 model BIBREF19 to represent the images associated to text, and use the cosine for computing the similarity of a pair of images (resnet50).
Model combinations We combined the predictions of text based models with the predictions of the image based model (see Table TABREF4 for specific combinations). Models are combined using addition ( INLINEFORM0 ), multiplication ( INLINEFORM1 ) and linear regression (LR) of the two outputs. We use 10-fold cross-validation on the development test for estimating the parameters of the linear regressor.
Results Table TABREF4 shows the results of the single and combined models. Among single models, as expected, dam obtains the highest Pearson correlation ( INLINEFORM0 ). Interestingly, the results show that images alone are valid to predict caption similarity (0.61 INLINEFORM1 ). Results also show that image and sentence representations are complementary, with the best results for a combination of DAM and RESNET50 representations. These results confirm our hypotheses, and more generally, show indications that in systems that work with text describing the real world, the representation of the real world helps to better understand the text and do better inferences.
## Conclusions and further work
We introduced the vSTS dataset, which contains caption pairs with human similarity annotations, where the systems can also access the actual images. The dataset aims at being a standard dataset to test the contribution of visual information when evaluating the similarity of sentences.
Experiments confirmed our hypotheses: image representations are useful for caption similarity and they are complementary to textual representations, as results improve significantly when two modalities are combined together.
In the future we plan to re-annotate the dataset with scores which are based on both the text and the image, in order to shed light on the interplay of images and text when understanding text.
## Acknowledgments
This research was partially supported by the Spanish MINECO (TUNER TIN2015-65308-C5-1-R and MUSTER PCIN-2015-226).
| [
"",
"",
"",
"",
"As the original dataset contained captions referring to the same image, and the task would be trivial for pairs of the same image, we filtered those out, that is, we only consider caption pairs that refer to different images. In total, the dataset comprises 829 instances, each instance containing a pair of images and their description, as well as a similarity value that ranges from 0 to 5. The instances are derived from the following datasets:",
"As the original dataset contained captions referring to the same image, and the task would be trivial for pairs of the same image, we filtered those out, that is, we only consider caption pairs that refer to different images. In total, the dataset comprises 829 instances, each instance containing a pair of images and their description, as well as a similarity value that ranges from 0 to 5. The instances are derived from the following datasets:",
"As the original dataset contained captions referring to the same image, and the task would be trivial for pairs of the same image, we filtered those out, that is, we only consider caption pairs that refer to different images. In total, the dataset comprises 829 instances, each instance containing a pair of images and their description, as well as a similarity value that ranges from 0 to 5. The instances are derived from the following datasets:",
"Subset 2014 This subset is derived from the Image Descriptions dataset which is a subset of the PASCAL VOC-2008 dataset BIBREF16 . PASCAL VOC-2008 dataset consists of 1,000 images and has been used by a number of image description systems. In total, we obtained 374 pairs (out of 750 in the original file).\n\nSubset 2015 The subset is derived from Image Descriptions dataset, which is a subset of 8k-picture of Flickr. 8k-Flicker is a benchmark collection for sentence-based image description, consisting of 8,000 images that are each paired with five different captions which provide clear descriptions of the salient entities and events. We obtained 445 pairs (out of 750 in the original).",
"As the original dataset contained captions referring to the same image, and the task would be trivial for pairs of the same image, we filtered those out, that is, we only consider caption pairs that refer to different images. In total, the dataset comprises 829 instances, each instance containing a pair of images and their description, as well as a similarity value that ranges from 0 to 5. The instances are derived from the following datasets:\n\nSubset 2014 This subset is derived from the Image Descriptions dataset which is a subset of the PASCAL VOC-2008 dataset BIBREF16 . PASCAL VOC-2008 dataset consists of 1,000 images and has been used by a number of image description systems. In total, we obtained 374 pairs (out of 750 in the original file).\n\nSubset 2015 The subset is derived from Image Descriptions dataset, which is a subset of 8k-picture of Flickr. 8k-Flicker is a benchmark collection for sentence-based image description, consisting of 8,000 images that are each paired with five different captions which provide clear descriptions of the salient entities and events. We obtained 445 pairs (out of 750 in the original).",
"Subset 2014 This subset is derived from the Image Descriptions dataset which is a subset of the PASCAL VOC-2008 dataset BIBREF16 . PASCAL VOC-2008 dataset consists of 1,000 images and has been used by a number of image description systems. In total, we obtained 374 pairs (out of 750 in the original file).\n\nSubset 2015 The subset is derived from Image Descriptions dataset, which is a subset of 8k-picture of Flickr. 8k-Flicker is a benchmark collection for sentence-based image description, consisting of 8,000 images that are each paired with five different captions which provide clear descriptions of the salient entities and events. We obtained 445 pairs (out of 750 in the original)."
] | In this paper we introduce vSTS, a new dataset for measuring textual similarity of sentences using multimodal information. The dataset is comprised by images along with its respectively textual captions. We describe the dataset both quantitatively and qualitatively, and claim that it is a valid gold standard for measuring automatic multimodal textual similarity systems. We also describe the initial experiments combining the multimodal information. | 1,444 | 108 | 139 | 1,773 | 1,912 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"What deep learning methods do they look at?",
"What deep learning methods do they look at?",
"What is their baseline?",
"What is their baseline?",
"Which architectures do they experiment with?",
"Which architectures do they experiment with?",
"Are pretrained embeddings used?",
"Are pretrained embeddings used?"
] | [
"CNN LSTM FastText",
"FastText Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) Long Short-Term Memory Networks (LSTMs)",
"Char n-grams TF-IDF BoWV",
"char n-grams TF-IDF vectors Bag of Words vectors (BoWV)",
"CNN LSTM FastText",
"FastText Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) Long Short-Term Memory Networks (LSTMs)",
"GloVe",
"No answer provided."
] | # Deep Learning for Hate Speech Detection in Tweets
## Abstract
Hate speech detection on Twitter is critical for applications like controversial event extraction, building AI chatterbots, content recommendation, and sentiment analysis. We define this task as being able to classify a tweet as racist, sexist or neither. The complexity of the natural language constructs makes this task very challenging. We perform extensive experiments with multiple deep learning architectures to learn semantic word embeddings to handle this complexity. Our experiments on a benchmark dataset of 16K annotated tweets show that such deep learning methods outperform state-of-the-art char/word n-gram methods by ~18 F1 points.
## Introduction
With the massive increase in social interactions on online social networks, there has also been an increase of hateful activities that exploit such infrastructure. On Twitter, hateful tweets are those that contain abusive speech targeting individuals (cyber-bullying, a politician, a celebrity, a product) or particular groups (a country, LGBT, a religion, gender, an organization, etc.). Detecting such hateful speech is important for analyzing public sentiment of a group of users towards another group, and for discouraging associated wrongful activities. It is also useful to filter tweets before content recommendation, or learning AI chatterbots from tweets.
The manual way of filtering out hateful tweets is not scalable, motivating researchers to identify automated ways. In this work, we focus on the problem of classifying a tweet as racist, sexist or neither. The task is quite challenging due to the inherent complexity of the natural language constructs – different forms of hatred, different kinds of targets, different ways of representing the same meaning. Most of the earlier work revolves either around manual feature extraction BIBREF0 or use representation learning methods followed by a linear classifier BIBREF1 , BIBREF2 . However, recently deep learning methods have shown accuracy improvements across a large number of complex problems in speech, vision and text applications. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to experiment with deep learning architectures for the hate speech detection task.
In this paper, we experiment with multiple classifiers such as Logistic Regression, Random Forest, SVMs, Gradient Boosted Decision Trees (GBDTs) and Deep Neural Networks(DNNs). The feature spaces for these classifiers are in turn defined by task-specific embeddings learned using three deep learning architectures: FastText, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Long Short-Term Memory Networks (LSTMs). As baselines, we compare with feature spaces comprising of char n-grams BIBREF0 , TF-IDF vectors, and Bag of Words vectors (BoWV).
Main contributions of our paper are as follows: (1) We investigate the application of deep learning methods for the task of hate speech detection. (2) We explore various tweet semantic embeddings like char n-grams, word Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF) values, Bag of Words Vectors (BoWV) over Global Vectors for Word Representation (GloVe), and task-specific embeddings learned using FastText, CNNs and LSTMs. (3) Our methods beat state-of-the-art methods by a large marginets made available by the authors of BIBREF0 . Of the 16K tweets, 3383 are labeled as sexist, 1972 as racist, and the remaining are marked as neither sexist nor racist. For the embedding based methods, we used the GloVe BIBREF5 pre-trained word embeddings. GloVe embeddings have been trained on a large tweet corpus (2B tweets, 27B tokens, 1.2M vocab, uncased). We experimented with multiple word embedding sizes for our task. We observed similar results with different sizes, and hence due to lack of space we report results using embedding size=200. We performed 10-Fold Cross Validation and calculated weighted macro precision, recall and F1-scores.
We use `adam' for CNN and LSTM, and `RMS-Prop' for FastText as our optimizer. We perform training in batches of size 128 for CNN & LSTM and 64 for FastText. More details on the experimental setup can be found from our publicly available source code.
## Results and Analysis
Table TABREF5 shows the results of various methods on the hate speech detection task. Part A shows results for baseline methods. Parts B and C focus on the proposed methods where part B contains methods using neural networks only, while part C uses average of word embeddings learned by DNNs as features for GBDTs. We experimented with multiple classifiers but report results mostly for GBDTs only, due to lack of space.
As the table shows, our proposed methods in part B are significantly better than the baseline methods in part A. Among the baseline methods, the word TF-IDF method is better than the character n-gram method. Among part B methods, CNN performed better than LSTM which was better than FastText. Surprisingly, initialization with random embeddings is slightly better than initialization with GloVe embeddings when used along with GBDT. Finally, part C methods are better than part B methods. The best method is “LSTM + Random Embedding + GBDT” where tweet embeddings were initialized to random vectors, LSTM was trained using back-propagation, and then learned embeddings were used to train a GBDT classifier. Combinations of CNN, LSTM, FastText embeddings as features for GBDTs did not lead to better results. Also note that the standard deviation for all these methods varies from 0.01 to 0.025.
To verify the task-specific nature of the embeddings, we show top few similar words for a few chosen words in Table TABREF7 using the original GloVe embeddings and also embeddings learned using DNNs. The similar words obtained using deep neural network learned embeddings clearly show the “hatred” towards the target words, which is in general not visible at all in similar words obtained using GloVe.
## Conclusions
In this paper, we investigated the application of deep neural network architectures for the task of hate speech detection. We found them to significantly outperform the existing methods. Embeddings learned from deep neural network models when combined with gradient boosted decision trees led to best accuracy values. In the future, we plan to explore the importance of the user network features for the task.
| [
"Proposed Methods: We investigate three neural network architectures for the task, described as follows. For each of the three methods, we initialize the word embeddings with either random embeddings or GloVe embeddings. (1) CNN: Inspired by Kim et. al BIBREF3 's work on using CNNs for sentiment classification, we leverage CNNs for hate speech detection. We use the same settings for the CNN as described in BIBREF3 . (2) LSTM: Unlike feed-forward neural networks, recurrent neural networks like LSTMs can use their internal memory to process arbitrary sequences of inputs. Hence, we use LSTMs to capture long range dependencies in tweets, which may play a role in hate speech detection. (3) FastText: FastText BIBREF4 represents a document by average of word vectors similar to the BoWV model, but allows update of word vectors through Back-propagation during training as opposed to the static word representation in the BoWV model, allowing the model to fine-tune the word representations according to the task.",
"In this paper, we experiment with multiple classifiers such as Logistic Regression, Random Forest, SVMs, Gradient Boosted Decision Trees (GBDTs) and Deep Neural Networks(DNNs). The feature spaces for these classifiers are in turn defined by task-specific embeddings learned using three deep learning architectures: FastText, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Long Short-Term Memory Networks (LSTMs). As baselines, we compare with feature spaces comprising of char n-grams BIBREF0 , TF-IDF vectors, and Bag of Words vectors (BoWV).",
"Baseline Methods: As baselines, we experiment with three broad representations. (1) Char n-grams: It is the state-of-the-art method BIBREF0 which uses character n-grams for hate speech detection. (2) TF-IDF: TF-IDF are typical features used for text classification. (3) BoWV: Bag of Words Vector approach uses the average of the word (GloVe) embeddings to represent a sentence. We experiment with multiple classifiers for both the TF-IDF and the BoWV approaches.",
"In this paper, we experiment with multiple classifiers such as Logistic Regression, Random Forest, SVMs, Gradient Boosted Decision Trees (GBDTs) and Deep Neural Networks(DNNs). The feature spaces for these classifiers are in turn defined by task-specific embeddings learned using three deep learning architectures: FastText, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Long Short-Term Memory Networks (LSTMs). As baselines, we compare with feature spaces comprising of char n-grams BIBREF0 , TF-IDF vectors, and Bag of Words vectors (BoWV).",
"Proposed Methods: We investigate three neural network architectures for the task, described as follows. For each of the three methods, we initialize the word embeddings with either random embeddings or GloVe embeddings. (1) CNN: Inspired by Kim et. al BIBREF3 's work on using CNNs for sentiment classification, we leverage CNNs for hate speech detection. We use the same settings for the CNN as described in BIBREF3 . (2) LSTM: Unlike feed-forward neural networks, recurrent neural networks like LSTMs can use their internal memory to process arbitrary sequences of inputs. Hence, we use LSTMs to capture long range dependencies in tweets, which may play a role in hate speech detection. (3) FastText: FastText BIBREF4 represents a document by average of word vectors similar to the BoWV model, but allows update of word vectors through Back-propagation during training as opposed to the static word representation in the BoWV model, allowing the model to fine-tune the word representations according to the task.",
"In this paper, we experiment with multiple classifiers such as Logistic Regression, Random Forest, SVMs, Gradient Boosted Decision Trees (GBDTs) and Deep Neural Networks(DNNs). The feature spaces for these classifiers are in turn defined by task-specific embeddings learned using three deep learning architectures: FastText, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Long Short-Term Memory Networks (LSTMs). As baselines, we compare with feature spaces comprising of char n-grams BIBREF0 , TF-IDF vectors, and Bag of Words vectors (BoWV).",
"We experimented with a dataset of 16K annotated tweets made available by the authors of BIBREF0 . Of the 16K tweets, 3383 are labeled as sexist, 1972 as racist, and the remaining are marked as neither sexist nor racist. For the embedding based methods, we used the GloVe BIBREF5 pre-trained word embeddings. GloVe embeddings have been trained on a large tweet corpus (2B tweets, 27B tokens, 1.2M vocab, uncased). We experimented with multiple word embedding sizes for our task. We observed similar results with different sizes, and hence due to lack of space we report results using embedding size=200. We performed 10-Fold Cross Validation and calculated weighted macro precision, recall and F1-scores.",
"We experimented with a dataset of 16K annotated tweets made available by the authors of BIBREF0 . Of the 16K tweets, 3383 are labeled as sexist, 1972 as racist, and the remaining are marked as neither sexist nor racist. For the embedding based methods, we used the GloVe BIBREF5 pre-trained word embeddings. GloVe embeddings have been trained on a large tweet corpus (2B tweets, 27B tokens, 1.2M vocab, uncased). We experimented with multiple word embedding sizes for our task. We observed similar results with different sizes, and hence due to lack of space we report results using embedding size=200. We performed 10-Fold Cross Validation and calculated weighted macro precision, recall and F1-scores."
] | Hate speech detection on Twitter is critical for applications like controversial event extraction, building AI chatterbots, content recommendation, and sentiment analysis. We define this task as being able to classify a tweet as racist, sexist or neither. The complexity of the natural language constructs makes this task very challenging. We perform extensive experiments with multiple deep learning architectures to learn semantic word embeddings to handle this complexity. Our experiments on a benchmark dataset of 16K annotated tweets show that such deep learning methods outperform state-of-the-art char/word n-gram methods by ~18 F1 points. | 1,516 | 72 | 115 | 1,797 | 1,912 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"what dataset was used for training?",
"what dataset was used for training?",
"what dataset was used for training?",
"what dataset was used for training?",
"what is the size of the training data?",
"what is the size of the training data?",
"what is the size of the training data?",
"what features were derived from the videos?",
"what features were derived from the videos?",
"what features were derived from the videos?"
] | [
"64M segments from YouTube videos",
"YouCook2 sth-sth",
"64M segments from YouTube videos",
"About 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of 1.2B tokens.",
"64M video segments with 1.2B tokens",
"64M",
"64M segments from YouTube videos INLINEFORM0 B tokens vocabulary of 66K wordpieces",
"1500-dimensional vectors similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks.",
"features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks",
"1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals"
] | # Neural Language Modeling with Visual Features
## Abstract
Multimodal language models attempt to incorporate non-linguistic features for the language modeling task. In this work, we extend a standard recurrent neural network (RNN) language model with features derived from videos. We train our models on data that is two orders-of-magnitude bigger than datasets used in prior work. We perform a thorough exploration of model architectures for combining visual and text features. Our experiments on two corpora (YouCookII and 20bn-something-something-v2) show that the best performing architecture consists of middle fusion of visual and text features, yielding over 25% relative improvement in perplexity. We report analysis that provides insights into why our multimodal language model improves upon a standard RNN language model.
## Introduction
INLINEFORM0 Work performed while the author was an intern at Google.
Language models are vital components of a wide variety of systems for Natural Language Processing (NLP) including Automatic Speech Recognition, Machine Translation, Optical Character Recognition, Spelling Correction, etc. However, most language models are trained and applied in a manner that is oblivious to the environment in which human language operates BIBREF0 . These models are typically trained only on sequences of words, ignoring the physical context in which the symbolic representations are grounded, or ignoring the social context that could inform the semantics of an utterance.
For incorporating additional modalities, the NLP community has typically used datasets such as MS COCO BIBREF1 and Flickr BIBREF2 for image-based tasks, while several datasets BIBREF3 , BIBREF4 , BIBREF5 , BIBREF6 , BIBREF7 have been curated for video-based tasks. Despite the lack of big datasets, researchers have started investigating language grounding in images BIBREF8 , BIBREF9 , BIBREF10 and to lesser extent in videos BIBREF11 , BIBREF1 . However, language grounding has focused more on obtaining better word and sentence representations or other downstream tasks, and to lesser extent on language modeling.
In this paper, we examine the problem of incorporating temporal visual context into a recurrent neural language model (RNNLM). Multimodal Neural Language Models were introduced in BIBREF12 , where log-linear LMs BIBREF13 were conditioned to handle both image and text modalities. Notably, this work did not use the recurrent neural model paradigm which has now become the de facto way of implementing neural LMs.
The closest work to ours is that of BIBREF0 , who report perplexity gains of around 5–6% on three languages on the MS COCO dataset (with an English vocabulary of only 16K words).
Our work is distinguishable from previous work with respect to three dimensions:
## Model
A language model assigns to a sentence INLINEFORM0 the probability: INLINEFORM1
where each word is assigned a probability given the previous word history.
For a given video segment, we assume that there1st LSTM layer while the Late Fusion strategies merges the two features after the final LSTM layer. The idea behind the Middle and Late fusion is that we would like to minimize changes to the regular RNNLM architecture at the early stages and still be able to benefit from the visual features.
## Data and Experimental Setup
Our training data consist of about 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of INLINEFORM0 B tokens BIBREF14 . We tokenize the training data using a vocabulary of 66K wordpieces BIBREF15 . Thus, the input to the model is a sequence of wordpieces. Using wordpieces allows us to address out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word issues that would arise from having a fixed word vocabulary. In practice, a wordpiece RNNLM gives similar performance as a word-level model BIBREF16 . For about INLINEFORM1 of the segments, we were able to obtain visual features at the frame level. The features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 . For a INLINEFORM2 -second video and INLINEFORM3 wordpieces, each feature is uniformly allocated to INLINEFORM4 wordpieces.
Our RNNLM models consist of 2 LSTM layers, each containing 2048 units which are linearly projected to 512 units BIBREF19 . The word-piece and video embeddings are of size 512 each. We do not use dropout. During training, the batch size per worker is set to 256, and we perform full length unrolling to a max length of 70. The INLINEFORM0 -norms of the gradients are clipped to a max norm of INLINEFORM1 for the LSTM weights and to 10,000 for all other weights. We train with Synchronous SGD with the Adafactor optimizer BIBREF20 until convergence on a development set, created by randomly selecting INLINEFORM2 of all utterances.
## Experiments
For evaluation we used two datasets, YouCook2 and sth-sth, allowing us to evaluate our models in cases where the visual context is relevant to the modelled language. Note that no data from these datasets are present in the YouTube videos used for training. The perplexity of our models is shown in Table .
## Conclusion
We present a simple strategy to augment a standard recurrent neural network language model with temporal visual features. Through an exploration of candidate architectures, we show that the Middle Fusion of visual and textual features leads to a 20-28% reduction in perplexity relative to a text only baseline. These experiments were performed using datasets of unprecedented scale, with more than 1.2 billion tokens – two orders of magnitude more than any previously published work. Our work is a first step towards creating and deploying large-scale multimodal systems that properly situate themselves into a given context, by taking full advantage of every available signal.
| [
"Our training data consist of about 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of INLINEFORM0 B tokens BIBREF14 . We tokenize the training data using a vocabulary of 66K wordpieces BIBREF15 . Thus, the input to the model is a sequence of wordpieces. Using wordpieces allows us to address out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word issues that would arise from having a fixed word vocabulary. In practice, a wordpiece RNNLM gives similar performance as a word-level model BIBREF16 . For about INLINEFORM1 of the segments, we were able to obtain visual features at the frame level. The features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 . For a INLINEFORM2 -second video and INLINEFORM3 wordpieces, each feature is uniformly allocated to INLINEFORM4 wordpieces.",
"For evaluation we used two datasets, YouCook2 and sth-sth, allowing us to evaluate our models in cases where the visual context is relevant to the modelled language. Note that no data from these datasets are present in the YouTube videos used for training. The perplexity of our models is shown in Table .",
"Our training data consist of about 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of INLINEFORM0 B tokens BIBREF14 . We tokenize the training data using a vocabulary of 66K wordpieces BIBREF15 . Thus, the input to the model is a sequence of wordpieces. Using wordpieces allows us to address out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word issues that would arise from having a fixed word vocabulary. In practice, a wordpiece RNNLM gives similar performance as a word-level model BIBREF16 . For about INLINEFORM1 of the segments, we were able to obtain visual features at the frame level. The features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 . For a INLINEFORM2 -second video and INLINEFORM3 wordpieces, each feature is uniformly allocated to INLINEFORM4 wordpieces.",
"Our training data consist of about 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of INLINEFORM0 B tokens BIBREF14 . We tokenize the training data using a vocabulary of 66K wordpieces BIBREF15 . Thus, the input to the model is a sequence of wordpieces. Using wordpieces allows us to address out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word issues that would arise from having a fixed word vocabulary. In practice, a wordpiece RNNLM gives similar performance as a word-level model BIBREF16 . For about INLINEFORM1 of the segments, we were able to obtain visual features at the frame level. The features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 . For a INLINEFORM2 -second video and INLINEFORM3 wordpieces, each feature is uniformly allocated to INLINEFORM4 wordpieces.",
"Our training data consist of about 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of INLINEFORM0 B tokens BIBREF14 . We tokenize the training data using a vocabulary of 66K wordpieces BIBREF15 . Thus, the input to the model is a sequence of wordpieces. Using wordpieces allows us to address out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word issues that would arise from having a fixed word vocabulary. In practice, a wordpiece RNNLM gives similar performance as a word-level model BIBREF16 . For about INLINEFORM1 of the segments, we were able to obtain visual features at the frame level. The features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 . For a INLINEFORM2 -second video and INLINEFORM3 wordpieces, each feature is uniformly allocated to INLINEFORM4 wordpieces.",
"Our training data consist of about 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of INLINEFORM0 B tokens BIBREF14 . We tokenize the training data using a vocabulary of 66K wordpieces BIBREF15 . Thus, the input to the model is a sequence of wordpieces. Using wordpieces allows us to address out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word issues that would arise from having a fixed word vocabulary. In practice, a wordpiece RNNLM gives similar performance as a word-level model BIBREF16 . For about INLINEFORM1 of the segments, we were able to obtain visual features at the frame level. The features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 . For a INLINEFORM2 -second video and INLINEFORM3 wordpieces, each feature is uniformly allocated to INLINEFORM4 wordpieces.",
"Our training data consist of about 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of INLINEFORM0 B tokens BIBREF14 . We tokenize the training data using a vocabulary of 66K wordpieces BIBREF15 . Thus, the input to the model is a sequence of wordpieces. Using wordpieces allows us to address out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word issues that would arise from having a fixed word vocabulary. In practice, a wordpiece RNNLM gives similar performance as a word-level model BIBREF16 . For about INLINEFORM1 of the segments, we were able to obtain visual features at the frame level. The features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 . For a INLINEFORM2 -second video and INLINEFORM3 wordpieces, each feature is uniformly allocated to INLINEFORM4 wordpieces.",
"Our training data consist of about 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of INLINEFORM0 B tokens BIBREF14 . We tokenize the training data using a vocabulary of 66K wordpieces BIBREF15 . Thus, the input to the model is a sequence of wordpieces. Using wordpieces allows us to address out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word issues that would arise from having a fixed word vocabulary. In practice, a wordpiece RNNLM gives similar performance as a word-level model BIBREF16 . For about INLINEFORM1 of the segments, we were able to obtain visual features at the frame level. The features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 . For a INLINEFORM2 -second video and INLINEFORM3 wordpieces, each feature is uniformly allocated to INLINEFORM4 wordpieces.",
"Our training data consist of about 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of INLINEFORM0 B tokens BIBREF14 . We tokenize the training data using a vocabulary of 66K wordpieces BIBREF15 . Thus, the input to the model is a sequence of wordpieces. Using wordpieces allows us to address out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word issues that would arise from having a fixed word vocabulary. In practice, a wordpiece RNNLM gives similar performance as a word-level model BIBREF16 . For about INLINEFORM1 of the segments, we were able to obtain visual features at the frame level. The features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 . For a INLINEFORM2 -second video and INLINEFORM3 wordpieces, each feature is uniformly allocated to INLINEFORM4 wordpieces.",
"Our training data consist of about 64M segments from YouTube videos comprising a total of INLINEFORM0 B tokens BIBREF14 . We tokenize the training data using a vocabulary of 66K wordpieces BIBREF15 . Thus, the input to the model is a sequence of wordpieces. Using wordpieces allows us to address out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word issues that would arise from having a fixed word vocabulary. In practice, a wordpiece RNNLM gives similar performance as a word-level model BIBREF16 . For about INLINEFORM1 of the segments, we were able to obtain visual features at the frame level. The features are 1500-dimensional vectors, extracted from the video frames at 1-second intervals, similar to those used for large scale image classification tasks BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 . For a INLINEFORM2 -second video and INLINEFORM3 wordpieces, each feature is uniformly allocated to INLINEFORM4 wordpieces."
] | Multimodal language models attempt to incorporate non-linguistic features for the language modeling task. In this work, we extend a standard recurrent neural network (RNN) language model with features derived from videos. We train our models on data that is two orders-of-magnitude bigger than datasets used in prior work. We perform a thorough exploration of model architectures for combining visual and text features. Our experiments on two corpora (YouCookII and 20bn-something-something-v2) show that the best performing architecture consists of middle fusion of visual and text features, yielding over 25% relative improvement in perplexity. We report analysis that provides insights into why our multimodal language model improves upon a standard RNN language model. | 1,429 | 89 | 171 | 1,739 | 1,910 | 2 | 128 | true |
qasper | 2 | [
"Do they report results only on English data?",
"Do they report results only on English data?",
"When the authors say their method largely outperforms the baseline, does this mean that the baseline performed better in some cases? If so, which ones?",
"When the authors say their method largely outperforms the baseline, does this mean that the baseline performed better in some cases? If so, which ones?",
"What baseline method was used?",
"What baseline method was used?",
"What was the motivation for using a dependency tree based recursive architecture?",
"What was the motivation for using a dependency tree based recursive architecture?",
"How was a causal diagram used to carefully remove this bias?",
"How was a causal diagram used to carefully remove this bias?",
"How does publicity bias the dataset?",
"How does publicity bias the dataset?",
"How do the speakers' reputations bias the dataset?",
"How do the speakers' reputations bias the dataset?"
] | [
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"Baseline performed better in \"Fascinating\" and \"Jaw-dropping\" categories.",
"Weninger et al. (SVM) model outperforms on the Fascinating category.",
"LinearSVM, LASSO, Weninger at al. (SVM)",
"LinearSVM, LASSO, Weninger et al.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"It performs better than other models predicting TED talk ratings.",
"By confining to transcripts only and normalizing ratings to remove the effects of speaker's reputations, popularity gained by publicity, contemporary hot topics, etc.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context.",
"This question is unanswerable based on the provided context."
] | # A Causality-Guided Prediction of the TED Talk Ratings from the Speech-Transcripts using Neural Networks
## Abstract
Automated prediction of public speaking performance enables novel systems for tutoring public speaking skills. We use the largest open repository---TED Talks---to predict the ratings provided by the online viewers. The dataset contains over 2200 talk transcripts and the associated meta information including over 5.5 million ratings from spontaneous visitors to the website. We carefully removed the bias present in the dataset (e.g., the speakers' reputations, popularity gained by publicity, etc.) by modeling the data generating process using a causal diagram. We use a word sequence based recurrent architecture and a dependency tree based recursive architecture as the neural networks for predicting the TED talk ratings. Our neural network models can predict the ratings with an average F-score of 0.77 which largely outperforms the competitive baseline method.
## Introduction
While the demand for physical and manual labor is gradually declining, there is a growing need for a workforce with soft skills. Which soft skill do you think would be the most valuable in your daily life? According to an article in Forbes BIBREF0 , 70% of employed Americans agree that public speaking skills are critical to their success at work. Yet, it is one of the most dreaded acts. Many people rate the fear of public speaking even higher than the fear of death BIBREF1 . To alleviate the situation, several automated systems are now available that can quantify behavioral data for participants to reflect on BIBREF2 . Predicting the viewers' ratings from the speech transcripts would enable these systems to generate feedback on the potential audience behavior.
Predicting human behavior, however, is challenging due to its huge variability and the way the variables interact with each other. Running Randomized Control Trials (RCT) to decouple each variable is not always feasible and also expensive. It is possible to collect a large amount of observational data due to the advent of content sharing platforms such as YouTube, Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC), or ted.com. However, the uncontrolled variables in the observational dataset always keep a possibility of incorporating the effects of the “data bias” into the prediction model. Recently, the problems of using biased datasets are becoming apparent. BIBREF3 showed that the error rates in the commercial face-detectors for the dark-skinned females are 43 times higher than the light-skinned males due to the bias in the training dataset. The unfortunate incident of Google's photo app tagging African-American people as “Gorilla” BIBREF4 also highlights the severity of this issue.
ing Human Behavior
An example of human behavioral prediction research is to automatically grade essays, which has a long history BIBREF9 . Recently, the use of deep neural network based solutions BIBREF10 , BIBREF11 are becoming popular in this field. BIBREF12 proposed an adversarial approach for their task. BIBREF13 proposed a two-stage deep neural network based solution. Predicting helpfulness BIBREF14 , BIBREF15 , BIBREF16 , BIBREF17 in the online reviews is another example of predicting human behavior. BIBREF18 proposed a combination of Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) based framework to predict humor in the dialogues. Their method achieved an 8% improvement over a Conditional Random Field baseline. BIBREF19 analyzed the performance of phonological pun detection using various natural language processing techniques. In general, behavioral prediction encompasses numerous areas such as predicting outcomes in job interviews BIBREF20 , hirability BIBREF21 , presentation performance BIBREF22 , BIBREF23 , BIBREF24 etc. However, the practice of explicitly modeling the data generating process is relatively uncommon. In this paper, we expand the prior work by explicitly modeling the data generating process in order to remove the data bias.
## Predicting the TED Talk Performance
There is a limited amount of work on predicting the TED talk ratings. In most cases, TED talk performances are analyzed through introspection BIBREF25 , BIBREF26 , BIBREF27 , BIBREF28 , BIBREF29 .
BIBREF30 analyzed the TED Talks for humor detection. BIBREF31 analyzed the transcripts of the TED talks to predict audience engagement in the form of applause. BIBREF32 predicted user interest (engaging vs. non-engaging) from high-level visual features (e.g., camera angles) and audience applause. BIBREF33 proposed a sentiment-aware nearest neighbor model for a multimedia recommendation over the TED talks. BIBREF34 predicted the TED talk ratings from the linguistic features of the transcripts. This work is most similar to ours. However, we are proposing a new prediction framework using the Neural Networks.
## Dataset
The data for this study was gathered from the ted.com website on November 15, 2017. We removed the talks published six months before the crawling date to make sure each talk has enough ratings for a robust analysis. More specifically, we filtered any talk that—
| [
"",
"",
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 4: Recall for various rating categories. The reason we choose recall is for making comparison with the results reported by Weninger et al. (2013).",
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 4: Recall for various rating categories. The reason we choose recall is for making comparison with the results reported by Weninger et al. (2013).",
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 3: Average F-score, Precision, Recall and Accuracy for various models. Due to the choice of the median thresholds, the precision, recall, F-score, and accuracy values are practically identical in our experiments.\n\nFLOAT SELECTED: Table 4: Recall for various rating categories. The reason we choose recall is for making comparison with the results reported by Weninger et al. (2013).",
"FLOAT SELECTED: Table 3: Average F-score, Precision, Recall and Accuracy for various models. Due to the choice of the median thresholds, the precision, recall, F-score, and accuracy values are practically identical in our experiments.",
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"We use two neural network architectures in the prediction task. In the first architecture, we use LSTM BIBREF7 for a sequential input of the words within the sentences of the transcripts. In the second architecture, we use TreeLSTM BIBREF8 to represent the input sentences in the form of a dependency tree. Our experiments show that the dependency tree-based model can predict the TED talk ratings with slightly higher performance (average F-score 0.77) than the word sequence model (average F-score 0.76). To the best of our knowledge, this is the best performance in the literature on predicting the TED talk ratings. We compare the performances of these two models with a baseline of classical machine learning techniques using hand-engineered features. We find that the neural networks largely outperform the classical methods. We believe this gain in performance is achieved by the networks' ability to capture better the natural relationship of the words (as compared to the hand engineered feature selection approach in the baseline methods) and the correlations among different rating labels.",
"We address the data bias issue as much as possible by carefully analyzing the relationships of different variables in the data generating process. We use a Causal Diagram BIBREF5 , BIBREF6 to analyze and remove the effects of the data bias (e.g., the speakers' reputations, popularity gained by publicity, etc.) in our prediction model. In order to make the prediction model less biased to the speakers' race and gender, we confine our analysis to the transcripts only. Besides, we normalize the ratings to remove the effects of the unwanted variables such as the speakers' reputations, publicity, contemporary hot topics, etc.",
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] | Automated prediction of public speaking performance enables novel systems for tutoring public speaking skills. We use the largest open repository---TED Talks---to predict the ratings provided by the online viewers. The dataset contains over 2200 talk transcripts and the associated meta information including over 5.5 million ratings from spontaneous visitors to the website. We carefully removed the bias present in the dataset (e.g., the speakers' reputations, popularity gained by publicity, etc.) by modeling the data generating process using a causal diagram. We use a word sequence based recurrent architecture and a dependency tree based recursive architecture as the neural networks for predicting the TED talk ratings. Our neural network models can predict the ratings with an average F-score of 0.77 which largely outperforms the competitive baseline method. | 1,224 | 208 | 235 | 1,677 | 1,912 | 2 | 128 | true |
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MoA: Mixture of Sparse Attention for Automatic Large Language Model Compression
This is the dataset used by the automatic sparse attention compression method MoA. It enhances the calibration dataset by integrating long-range dependencies and model alignment. MoA utilizes long-contextual datasets, which include question-answer pairs heavily dependent on long-range content.
The question-answer pairs are written by human in this dataset repository. Large language Models (LLMs) should be used to generate the answers and serve as supervision for model compression. Compared to current approaches that adopt human responses as the reference to calculate the loss, using the responses generated by the original model as the supervision can facilitate accurate influence profiling, thus benefiting the compression results.
For more information relating the usage of this dataset, please refer to this link
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