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262694

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlequin%20duck

Harlequin duck

The harlequin duck (Histrionicus histrionicus) is a small sea duck. It takes its name from Harlequin (French Arlequin, Italian Arlecchino), a colourfully dressed character in Commedia dell'arte. The species name comes from the Latin word "histrio", meaning "actor". In North America it is also known as lords and ladies. Other names include painted duck, totem pole duck, rock duck, glacier duck, mountain duck, white-eyed diver, squeaker and blue streak. Taxonomy In 1747 the English naturalist George Edwards included an illustration and a description of the harlequin duck in the second volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. He used the English name "The Dusky and Spotted Duck". Edwards based his hand-coloured etching on a preserved specimen that had been brought to London from Newfoundland in eastern Canada. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he placed the harlequin duck with the ducks, geese and swans in the genus Anas. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Anas histrionica and cited Edwards' work. The harlequin duck is now the only species placed in the genus Histrionicus that was introduced in 1828 by the French naturalist René Lesson. The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised. The name histrionicus is from Latin and means "theatrical" or "like a harlequin" (histrio, harlequin means "actor"). Two prehistoric harlequin ducks have been described from fossils, although both were initially placed in a distinct genus: Histrionicus shotwelli is known from Middle to Late Miocene deposits of Oregon, United States and was considered to form a distinct monotypic genus, Ocyplonessa. Histrionicus ceruttii, which lived in California during the Late Pliocene, was at first taken to be a species of the related genus Melanitta. The species is traditionally considered monotypic. The Eastern and Western populations are sometimes recognized as two different subspecies, the Eastern race being the nominate H. histrionicus histrionicus, and the Western race as H. h. pacificus, but there has been doubt on the validity of this taxon. Description Adult breeding males have a colorful and complex plumage pattern. The head and neck are dark slate blue with a large white crescent marking in front of the eye that extends up to the crest, a small round dot behind the eye, and a larger oval spot down the side of the neck. A black crown stripe runs over the top of the head, with chestnut patches on either side. A black-bordered white collar separates the head from the breast. The body is largely a lighter slate blue with chestnut sides. A black-bordered white bar divides the breast vertically from the sides. The tail is black, long and pointed. The speculum is metallic blue. The inner secondary feathers are white and form white markings over the back when folded. The bill is blue-grey and the eye is reddish. Adult females are less colourful, with brownish-grey plumage with three white patches on the head: a round spot behind the eye, a larger patch from the eye to the bill and a small spot above the eye. Distribution and habitat Their breeding habitat is cold fast moving streams in north-western and north-eastern North America, Greenland, Iceland and eastern Russia. The nest is usually located in a well-concealed location on the ground near a stream. They are usually found near pounding surf and white water. They are short distance migrants and most winter near rocky shorelines on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. They are very rare migrants to western Europe. The eastern North American population is declining and is considered endangered. Possible causes include loss of habitat due to hydroelectric projects and loss of life due to oil spills near coastal areas. Behaviour These birds feed by swimming under water or diving. They also dabble. They eat molluscs, crustaceans and insects. Harlequins have smooth, densely packed feathers that trap a lot of air within them. This is vital for insulating such small bodies against the chilly waters they ply. It also makes them exceptionally buoyant, making them bounce like corks after dives. Breeding Harlequin ducks adhere to a monogamous mating system, during their winter mating season with form multi-year pair bonds, though the males rarely participate in paternal care. Young ducks begin courtship in their first winter, females will find success by the second year, yet the males will rarely form a persistent bond before their fourth winter. Harlequin males will have an alternate plumage during this winter mating season. Both female and male harlequins exercise mate-choice preference and pair-bond defense, to demonstrate fidelity to their partner. Either partner is able to divorce the pair-bond to pursue a higher-quality option, however this behavior is uncommon. References External links Toughest of Birds, Dressed Up as a Clown article at Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center Harlequin Duck Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Harlequin Duck - Histrionicus histrionicus - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter eNature.com – Harlequin Duck Harlequin Duck Population Monitoring in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia Harlequin Duck, Histrionicus histrionicus at Canada's Polar Life (University of Guelph) Harlequin Duck: Wildlife Notebook Series from Alaska Department of Fish and Game harlequin duck harlequin duck Native birds of Alaska Birds of Canada Birds of Iceland Birds of Manchuria Birds of North Asia harlequin duck harlequin duck

262696

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanya%20Grotter

Tanya Grotter

Tanya Grotter () is the female protagonist of a Russian fantasy novel series by Dmitri Yemets. Tanya (short for Tatiana) Grotter is an orphan with intentional resemblances to J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter. Despite its reputation in Russia and the many books it has spawned, the series is not available in English translation, because of the first book having been judged a breach of copyright. Content The central character and plot elements of the first novel, Tanya Grotter and the Magical Double Bass, are a humorous parody of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, but are transposed into a Russian setting. Tanya Grotter has an unusual birthmark on her nose, magical powers, an upbringing by "Lopukhoid" (equivalent to Muggle) relatives after her parents were killed by an evil sorceress Chuma-del-Tort (the official translation of Voldemort's name in Russian was 'Volan-de-Mort'), and goes to study at the Tibidokhs (Тибидохс) School for Behaviorally-Challenged Young Witches and Wizards. Tanya's foster-family, the Durnevs, live in an urban apartment block, and Tanya is forced to sleep not in a cupboard but in the apartment's loggia. Yemets described the books as "a cultural reply" to the Potter series, and they feature allusion to Russian culture and folklore such as Baba Yaga, rusalki, witches on Bald Mountain and the works of Pushkin (for instance, Tibidox is on the island of Buyan mentioned in Pushkin's The Tale of Tsar Saltan). After the first book, the plots diverge from those of the Harry Potter series. For instance, in Tanya Grotter and the Golden Leech, Tanya finds herself pitted against "Hurry Pooper" (a thinly disguised Harry Potter) in the World Dragonball Championship. While trying to reach the ball, they crash, creating a new timeline in which Chuma-del-Tort has won, good and evil being reversed, and all the characters are speaking a Russian equivalent of Orwellian Newspeak. To restore normality, Tanya must defeat the Golden Leech. Legal history While the series is legally published in Russia, it is not available in translation due to a lawsuit on behalf of J. K. Rowling and Time Warner. Having failed to obtain a cease and desist order in Russia, Rowling and Time Warner targeted publication in the Netherlands, where first translations of international editions are commonly published. In 2003, courts there prevented the distribution of a Dutch translation of the first in the series, Tanya Grotter and the Magical Double Bass, after Rowling and Time Warner's lawyers issued a cease and desist order, arguing that the Grotter books violated copyright law, specifically infringing Rowling's right to control derivative works. Yemets and his Moscow-based publishers, Eksmo, argued unsuccessfully that the book constituted a parody, permitted under copyright. Later that year, as the Dutch translation Tanja Grotter en de magische contrabas was still legal in Belgium, the Flemish publishers Roularta Books decided to print 1,000 copies (and no more) in order to let people decide whether it was plagiarism, hoping that under those circumstances Rowling and her publishers would not sue. Rowling did not sue, but as there was a lot of interest in the book (Dutch people could buy the book by postal order from another Flemish publisher, Boekhandel VanIn), it was soon sold out. Subsequent history In 2003, after the first five books, the total circulation of Tanya Grotter books reached a million. As of 2006 the figure, including spinoffs, was approaching 3 million. In a 2006 interview, Yemets said that he had moved on to "urban absurd comic genre fantasy" with the Buslaev series, but that there was still reader demand, and sufficient material, for an 11th Tanya book. He described the Tanya Grotter series as a purely Russian phenomenon, dependent on the language and culture, and commented that he would not place much faith in Tanya living a full life if she were brought to the playing field of Europe or America. In 2006, Yemets' books featured in the 10 best children's books 2006 in a reader's poll at the Pushkin Central Children's Library, Saint Petersburg. In July 2006, his Tanya Grotter and the Pearl Ring was the highest-selling children's book in Russia (his Methodius Buslaev: Vengeance of the Valkyries was #10, while JK Rowling's Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince and Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix ranked #2 and #6. Titles From the Tanya Grotter official site: Tanya Grotter and the Magical Double Bass (Таня Гроттер и магический контрабас) Tanya Grotter and the Disappearing Floor (Таня Гроттер и исчезающий этаж) Tanya Grotter and the Golden Leech (Таня Гроттер и Золотая Пиявка) Tanya Grotter and the Throne of Drevnir (Таня Гроттер и трон Древнира) Tanya Grotter and the Pikestaff of the Magi (Таня Гроттер и посох волхвов) Tanya Grotter and the Hammer of Perun (Таня Гроттер и молот Перуна) Tanya Grotter and the Pince-nez of Noah (Таня Гроттер и пенсне Ноя) Tanya Grotter and the Boots of the Centaur (Таня Гроттер и ботинки кентавра) Tanya Grotter and the Well of Poseidon (Таня Гроттер и колодец Посейдона) Tanya Grotter and the Curl of Aphrodite (Таня Гроттер и локон Афродиты) Tanya Grotter and the Pearl Ring (Таня Гроттер и перстень с жемчужиной) Tanya Grotter and the Curse of the Necromage (Таня Гроттер и проклятье некромага) Tanya Grotter and the Garrulous Sphinx (Таня Гроттер и болтливый сфинкс) Tanya Grotter and the bird of Titans (Таня Гроттер и птица титанов) Spinoff titles: Tanya Grotter and the Complete Tibidox! Phrases, Quotations and Aphorisms (Таня Гроттер и полный Тибидохс! Фразочки, цитатки и афоризмы) Worlds of Tanya Grotter (Миры Тани Гроттер) - a compilation of fan-written graphic novels There are several other spin-offs from the Tanya Grotter series. The Methodius Buslaev (Мефодий Буслаев) series, featuring a young male magician, and the Hooligan fantasy (Хулиганское фэнтези) series: Methodius Buslaev. Magician of Midnight (Мефодий Буслаев. Маг полуночи) Methodius Buslaev. Roll of Desire (Мефодий Буслаев. Свиток желаний) Methodius Buslaev. Third Rider of the Gloom (Мефодий Буслаев. Третий всадник мрака) Methodius Buslaev. Ticket to the Bald Mountain (Мефодий Буслаев. Билет на лысую гору) Methodius Buslaev. Vengeance of the Valkyries (Мефодий Буслаев. Месть валькирий) Methodius Buslaev. Depressnyak's Secret Magic (Мефодий Буслаев. Тайная магия Депресcняка) Methodius Buslaev. Tartarus's Ice and Flame (Мефодий Буслаев. Лед и пламя Тартара) Methodius Buslaev. The First Eydos (Мефодий Буслаев. Первый Эйдос) Methodius Buslaev. Wings of Light for the Dark Guard (Мефодий Буслаев. Светлые крылья для тёмного стража) Methodius Buslaev. Stairway to Eden (Мефодий Буслаев. Лестница в Эдем) Methodius Buslaev. The map of Chaos (Мефодий Буслаев. Карта Хаоса) Methodius Buslaev. Dryad's necklace (Мефодий Буслаев. Ожерелье дриады) Methodius Buslaev. Glass guard (Мефодий Буслаев. Стеклянный страж) Hooligan fantasy: Great Something (Хулиганское фэнтези: Великое нечто) Computer gaming company Akella was supposed to release a game based on the first Tanya Grotter book on March 26, 2008. A second game has been released based on the second book. An English version of Tanya Grotter's first four books in a translation by Jane H. Buckingham is available on Emets' website. Similarities The Dutch court found the following similarities between Harry Potter and Tanya Grotter: References External links Russian Wikipedia (TG character) Harry Potter and the International Order of Copyright, Should Tanya Grotter and the Magic Double Bass be banned?, Tim Wu, Slate.com, June 27, 2003 Books about women Contemporary fantasy novels Fantasy books by series Novels about orphans Novels involved in plagiarism controversies Russian fantasy novels Series of children's books Unofficial adaptations Witchcraft in written fiction Works based on Harry Potter

262699

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riau

Riau

Riau is a province of Indonesia. It is located in the central eastern coast of Sumatra along the Strait of Malacca. Until 2004 the province included the offshore Riau Islands, a large group of small islands (of which the principal islands are Batam and Bintan) located east of Sumatra Island and south of Singapore, before these islands were split off as a province in July 2004. The provincial capital and the largest city of Riau is Pekanbaru. The province shares land borders with North Sumatra to the northwest, West Sumatra to the west, and Jambi to the south. The total area for Riau province is , which stretches from the slopes of the Bukit Barisan to the Strait of Malacca. Riau has a wet tropical climate with average rainfall ranging between 2000 and 3000 millimeters per year, and the average rainfall per year is about 160 days. Riau is currently one of the richest provinces in Indonesia and is rich in natural resources, particularly petroleum, natural gas, rubber, palm oil and fibre plantations. Extensive logging and plantation development in has led to a massive decline in forest cover Riau, and associated fires have contributed to haze across the larger region. Riau is considered part of the Malay world. It is currently considered as the cultural center of the Malays in Indonesia. Nevertheless, Riau is considered a very diverse province, as it is inhabited by many ethnic groups, such as Malay, Minangkabau, Chinese and Batak. The local Riau dialect of Malay is considered as the lingua franca in the province, but Indonesian, the standardized form of Malay is used as the official language and also as the second language of many people. Other than that, different languages such as Minangkabau, Hokkien and varieties of Batak languages are also spoken. Riau allegedly has been inhabited since the period between 40,000 and 10,000 BC. Between 5th to 12th century AD, traders and merchants from the Indian subcontinent visited the region to trade with the local people, spreading Hinduism and Buddhism in the process. Therefore, Riau was under the control of several Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms such as the Melayu Kingdom and the Srivijaya Empire. In the 14th century, Muslim traders from India and the Arabian Peninsula visited the region, beginning the spread of Islam in the region. By the end of the 14th century, Hindu and Buddhist influence are waning, while Islam influence are growing, leading to the dissolution of many Hindu-Buddhist Kingdoms in Riau. Those kingdoms who still existed transformed itself into an Islamic Sultanates. By the 16th century, there are three great Malay sultanates in the region, namely the Siak Sri Indrapura Sultanate, Indragiri Sultanates and the Johor Sultanate, the latter which would split in the 19th century into the modern Johor Sultanate in the Malay peninsula and the Riau-Lingga Sultanate in the Riau Archipelago. However, by that time Europeans began frequenting the region. first the Portuguese, then the Dutch and the British. In 1824, the Dutch and British agreed to divide the sphere of influence in the region, with the Malay peninsula falling under the British and Sumatra falling under the Dutch. Soon afterwards, the power of the sultanates in the region began to wane. The sultanates soon became protectorate of the Dutch and was reduced to nothing but a puppet states of the Dutch East Indies, with the Dutch having the authority to intervene in everyday affairs. This occurred until 1942, when the Japanese invaded and occupied Riau during the Pacific theater of World War II. After three years of occupation which was marked by atrocities and war crimes, the Japanese surrendered in 1945. The Dutch soon returned to assume control of the region, but left in 1949 after the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference, in which the Dutch agreed to transfer sovereignty of the Dutch East Indies to the Republic of Indonesia. Since then, Riau has been part of the unitary state of Indonesia. Since the 1970s, much of Indonesia has experienced a decline in population growth rates. Riau has been a significant exception, with increasing rates every decade since 1970 to a 4.35 percent annual rise for the 1990s; however, this rate slowed significantly during the subsequent decade. The provincial population was 5,538,367 at the 2010 census and 6,494,087 at the 2020 Census. History Etymology There are three possible origins of the word riau which became the name of this province. First, from the Portuguese word, "rio" which means river. In 1514, there was a Portuguese military expedition that traced the Siak River, in order to find the location of a kingdom they believed existed in the area, and at the same time to pursue followers of Sultan Mahmud Shah who fled after the fall of the Malacca Sultanate. The second version claims that riau comes from the word riahi which means sea water. The word is allegedly derived from the figure of Sinbad al-Bahar in the book of the One Thousand and One Nights. The third version mentions that this word comes from the local people's speech, lifted from the word rioh or boisterous, which means crowded, frenzied working people. Perhaps this name is derived from the naming of local people, the Malays who live in the Bintan area, which is now located in the Riau Islands. The name is likely to have become famous since Raja Kecil moved the Malay kingdom center from Johor to Ulu Riau in 1719. This name was used as one of the four main sultanates that formed the kingdoms of Riau, Lingga, Johor and Pahang. However, as the consequences of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 between the Netherlands and United Kingdom, the Johor-Pahang sultanates fell under British influence, while the Riau-Lingga sultanates fell under Dutch influence. Prehistoric era Riau is thought to have been inhabited since the time between 40,000 and 10,000 BC. This conclusion was taken after the discovery of tools from the Pleistocene era in the Sengingi River area in Kuantan Singingi Regency in August 2009. Stone tools found include: an axle, a drawstring, and shale and core stone axes, which are the basic ingredients of making drawstring tools and shale. The research team also found some wood fossils predicted to be older than the stone tools. It is suspected the ones who used these tools were Pithecanthropus erectus (reclassified as Homo erectus) as such as those found in Sangiran, Central Java. These tools proved the existence of prehistoric settlement in Riau. Earlier settlement was assumed to be possible in the area since the discovery of the Muara Takus Temple in Kampar in 1860. Early historic era The Malay kingdoms in Riau were at first based on the Buddhist Srivijaya Empire. This is evidenced by the Muara Takus Temple which was thought to be the center of the Srivijaya government in Riau. It architecturally resembles those temples that can be found in India. In addition, French historian George Cœdès also discovered the similarity of the Srivijaya governmental structure and the Malay sultanates of the 15th century. The earliest text that deals with the Malay world is Sulalatus Salatin (Malay Annals) by Tun Sri Lanang, in 1612. According to the annals, Bukit Seguntang in modern-day Palembang in South Sumatra is the place where Sang Sapurba came to the world and his descendants would scatter throughout the Malay world. His descendants such as Sang Mutiara would become king in Tanjungpura and Sang Nila Utama would become king in Bintan before finally moving to Singapura. Before the arrival of Islam to the archipelago, many parts of the Riau region were under the Srivijaya Empire between the 7th to the 14th century which was greatly influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist tradition. Islam was introduced to the region when the Maharaja of Srivijaya sent a letter to Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz of the Umayyad Caliphate in Egypt containing a request to send a messenger to introduce Islamic law to him. Islamic sultanates In the 12th century, the entry of Islam into the archipelago was carried through the Samudera Pasai Sultanate in Aceh which was the first and recognized as the pioneer of the Islamic sultanates in the archipelago of during its heyday. The process of the spread of Islam occurred through trade, marriage and missionary activities of Muslim clerics. These factors led to the spread of peace and the growth of Islamic influence throughout the Malay world. The strong factor of acceptance of Islam by Malay people is the aspect of human equality, which according to the ideology of society at that time adhered to the caste system in Hinduism, where lower class caste people were lower than members of higher castes. The golden age of Islam in the region is when Malacca became an Islamic sultanate. Many elements of Islamic law, including political and administrative sciences are incorporated into Malacca law, especially the Udang-Undang Melaka (Law of Melaka). The ruler of Melaka received the title 'Sultan' and was responsible for Islam in his kingdom. In the 15th century, Islam spread and developed throughout the Melaka region including the entire Malay Peninsula, Riau Islands, Bintan, Lingga and several areas on the eastern coast of Sumatra, namely Jambi, Bengkalis, Siak, Rokan, Indragiri, Kampar, and Kuantan. Malacca is considered a catalyst in the expansion of Islam into other areas such as Palembang, Sumatra, Patani in southern Thailand, North Kalimantan, Brunei and Mindanao. According to the journals of the Portuguese explorer Tomé Pires between 1513 and 1515, Siak is an area that lies between Arcat and Indragiri which he calls a port city under a Minangkabau king, then became a Malacca vassal before being conquered by the Portuguese. Since the fall of Malacca into the hands of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), the Johor Sultanate has claimed Siak as part of its sovereignty territory. This continued until the arrival of Sultan Abdul Jalil Rahmat Shah or Raja Kecil who later founded the Siak Sultanate. In the Syair Perang Siak, it is told that Raja Kecil was asked to become the ruler of Siak for the consensus of the people in Bengkalis. This aims to release Siak from the influence of the Johor Sultanate. While according to the Hikayat Siak, Raja Kecil was also called the true inheritor of the throne of the Sultan of Johor who lost the power struggle. Based on the correspondence of the Sultan Indermasyah with the Dutch Governor-General in Malacca at that time, it was mentioned that Sultan Abdul Jalil was his brother who was sent for business affairs with the VOC. Sultan Abdul Jalil then wrote a letter addressed to the Dutch, calling himself the Raja Kecil of Pagaruyung, that he would take revenge for the death of the Sultan of Johor. In 1718, Raja Kecil succeeded in conquering the Johor Sultanate, at the same time crowning himself as the Sultan of Johor with the title Yang Dipertuan Besar Johor. But in 1722, a rebellion led by Raja Sulaiman who is the son of the former Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah IV who also demanded the right to the throne of Johor. With the help of Bugis mercenaries, Raja Sulaiman then succeeded in seizing the throne of Johor, and established himself as the ruler of Johor in Peninsular Malaysia, crowning himself as Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah of Johor, while Raja Kecil moved to Bintan and in 1723 established a new government center on the bank of the Siak River with the name Siak Sri Inderapura. While the center of the Johor government which had been around the estuary of the Johor River was abandoned, and became the status quo of each of the warring rulers. Whereas the claim of Raja Kecil as the legitimate heir to the throne of Johor, was recognized by the Orang Laut community. The Orang Laut is a Malay sub-group that resides in the Riau Islands region that stretches from east Sumatra to the South China Sea, and this loyalty continues until the collapse of the Siak Sultanate. By the late 18th century, the Siak Sultanate had become the dominant power on the eastern coast of Sumatra. In 1780, the Siak Sultanate conquered the Langkat area, and made the area its protectorate, including the Deli and Serdang areas. Under the ties of a cooperation agreement with the VOC, in 1784 the Siak Sultanate helped the VOC attack and subdue the Selangor Sultanate. Previously they had collaborated to quell the Raja Haji Fisabilillah rebellion on Penyengat Island. The Siak Sultanate took advantage of the trade supervision through the Straits of Melaka, as well as the ability to control pirates in the region. The progress of Siak's economy can be seen from the Dutch records which stated that in 1783 there were around 171 merchant ships making a voyage from Siak to Malacca. Siak is a trading triangle between the Netherlands in Malacca and the United Kingdom on Penang. But on the other hand, the glory of Siak gave jealousy to the descendants of Yang Dipertuan Muda, especially after the loss of their power in the Riau Islands region. The attitude of dislike and hostility towards the Sultan of Siak, seen in the Tuhfat al-Nafis, where in the description of the story they describe the Sultan of Siak as "a person who is greedy for the wealth of the world". The dominance of the Siak Sultanate towards the eastern coast of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula was quite significant. They were able to replace the influence of Johor before on the control of the trade route in the Strait of Malacca. In addition, the Siak Sultanate also emerged as a key holder of the Minangkabau highland, through three main rivers, namely Siak, Kampar, and Kuantan, which had previously been the key to the glory of Malacca. However, the progress of Siak's economy faded along with the emergence of turmoil in the Minangkabau interior known as the Padri War. Colonial rule The expansion of Dutch colonialization into the eastern part of Sumatra caused the influence of the Siak Sultanate to wane, leading to the independence of the Deli Sultanate, the Asahan Sultanate, the Langkat Sultanate, and Inderagiri Sultanate. Likewise in Johor, where a sultan of the descendants of Tumenggung Johor was crowned, and was under British protection in Singapore. While the Dutch restored the position of the Yang Dipertuan Muda on Penyengat Island, and later established the Riau-Lingga Sultanate on Lingga Island. In addition, the Netherlands also reduced the territory of Siak, by establishing the Residency of Riouw (Dutch: Residentie Riouw) which was part of the Dutch East Indies government based in Tanjung Pinang. British control of the Straits of Melaka, prompted the Sultan of Siak in 1840 to accept the offer of a new treaty to replace the agreement they had made earlier in 1819. This agreement made the Siak Sultanate area smaller and sandwiched between other small kingdoms which were protected by Britain. Likewise, the Dutch made the sultanate a protectorate of the Dutch East Indies government, after forcing the Sultan of Siak to sign an agreement on 1 February 1858. From the agreement, the sultanate lost its sovereignty, then in every appointment of a new sultan, the sultanate must get approval from the Netherlands. Furthermore, under regional supervision, the Dutch established a military post in Bengkalis and banned the Sultan of Siak from making agreements with foreign parties without the approval of the Dutch East Indies government. Changes in the political map over the control of the Malacca Strait, then the internal disputes of Siak and competition with Britain and the Netherlands, weakened the influence of the Siak Sultanate's hegemony over the territories it had once conquered. A tug of war between the interests of foreign forces can be seen in the Anglo-Dutch Treaties of 1870–71 between the British and the Dutch, made Siak in a dilemmatic position, and also in a weak bargaining position. Then based on the agreement on 26 July 1873, the Dutch East Indies government forced the Sultan of Siak to hand over the Bengkalis area to the Riouw Residency. But in the midst of this pressure, the Siak Sultanate still remained until Indonesia's independence, even though during the Japanese occupation most of the military power of the Siak Sultanate was no longer significant. At almost the same time, The Indragiri Sultanate also began to be influenced by the Dutch, but eventually only really came under the control of Batavia in 1938. Dutch control of Siak later became the beginning of the outbreak of the Aceh War. On the coast, the Dutch moved quickly to abolish the sultanates that were still not submissive to Batavia. The Dutch appointed a resident in Tanjung Pinang to supervise coastal areas, and the Dutch succeeded in impeaching the Sultan of Riau-Lingga, Sultan Abdul Rahman Muazzam Syah in February 1911. Japanese occupation During the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, Riau was one of the primary strategic targets. The Japanese army occupied Rengat on 31 March 1942. All of Riau was quickly subject to Japanese rule. One of the relics of the Japanese occupation is the 220 km railway line that connects Muaro Sijunjung in West Sumatra and Pekanbaru, also known as the Pekanbaru Death Railway which is now abandoned. Hundreds of thousands of Riau people were forced to work by the Japanese army to complete this project. Japan led the construction of 220 km of railroad from Pekanbaru to the Malacca Strait using forced labor and prisoners of war. This development was carried out for 15 months through mountains, swamps and fast-flowing rivers. As many as 6,500 Dutch prisoners of war (mostly Indo-Europeans) and British plus more than 100,000 romusha Indonesians (mostly Javanese) were mobilized by the Japanese military. When the project was completed in August 1945, almost one third of European prisoners of war and more than half of Indonesian porters died. The railroad was intended as a medium for transporting coal and soldiers from Pekanbaru to Muaro Sijunjung on the west of Sumatra. Construction of the railroad was completed on 15 August 1945, when the Japanese surrendered. This railroad was used only once to transport prisoners of war out of the area. The line was then abandoned. Independence and contemporary era At the beginning of Indonesia's independence, the former Riau Residency area was merged and incorporated in the Sumatra Province based in Bukittinggi. Along with the crackdown on PRRI sympathizers, Central Sumatra was further divided into three provinces, namely North Sumatra, Central Sumatra, and South Sumatra. At that time, Central Sumatra became the strongest base of the PRRI, this situation caused the central government to develop a strategy to break Central Sumatra in order to weaken the PRRI movement. Subsequently, in 1957, based on Emergency Law Number 19 of 1957, Central Sumatra was divided into three provinces, namely Riau, Jambi and West Sumatra. Then what became the newly formed Riau province is the former Siak Sri Sultanate area of Inderapura and Riau Residency as well as the Kampar which was previously occupied during the occupation of the Japanese army in the Rhio Shu area. Riau had become one of the areas influenced by the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia in the late 1950s. The central government held Operation Tegas under the leadership of Kaharuddin Nasution, who later became governor of the province, and succeeded in quelling the remnants of PRRI sympathizers. After the security situation gradually recovered, the central government began to consider moving the provincial capital from Tanjung Pinang to Pekanbaru, which is geographically located in the middle part of the province. The government finally established Pekanbaru as the new provincial capital on 20 January 1959 through Kepmendagri No. December 52 / I / 44–25. After the fall of the Old Order, Riau became one of the pillars of the New Order's economic development which was stretched back. In 1944, NPPM geologist Richard H. Hopper and Toru Oki and their team discovered the largest oil well in Southeast Asia, namely in Minas, Siak. This well was originally named Minas No. 1. Minas is famous for its Sumatra Light Crude (SLC) oil which is good and has low sulfur content. In the early 1950s, new oil wells were found in Minas, Duri, Bengkalis, Pantaicermin, and Petapahan. Petroleum exploitation in Riau began in the Siak Block in September 1963, with the signing of a work contract with PT California Texas Indonesia (now Chevron Pacific Indonesia). This province had been relied upon as a contributor to 70 percent of Indonesia's oil production in the 1970s. Riau was also the main destination for the transmigration program launched by the Suharto administration. Many families from Java have moved to newly opened oil palm plantations in Riau, thus forming a separate community which is now quite significant. In 1999, Saleh Djasit was elected as the second native Riaunese (besides Arifin Achmad) and first elected by the Provincial House of Representatives as governor. In 2003, former Regent of Indragiri Hilir, Rusli Zainal, was elected governor, and was re-elected through direct elections by the people in 2008. Starting on 19 February 2014, Riau Province was officially led by the governor, Annas Maamun. Just leading 7 months, Annas Maamun was deposed after the Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK) arrested Annas Maamun's hand in a case of land use change in Kuantan Singingi Regency. Geography Geographically, Riau which has thousands of cities in Pekanbaru is located at position 02 ° 25 'LU-01 ° 15 ° LS and 100 ° 03'-104 ° 00' BT. The area is quite extensive and is located in the central part of Sumatra. Riau is directly adjacent to North Sumatra and the Straits of Malacca in the north, Jambi to the south, West Sumatra to the west and the Riau Islands in the east. The province shares maritime borders with Singapore and Malaysia. In general, the geography of Riau consists of mountains, lowlands, and islands. The mountain area lies in the western part, namely the Bukit Barisan Mountains, near the border of West Sumatra. The elevation decreases towards the east, making most of the central and eastern part of the province covered with lowlands. Off the eastern coast lies the Strait of Malacca where several island lies. Climate In general, Riau Province has a wet tropical climate that is influenced by two seasons, namely the rainy and dry seasons. The average rainfall received by Riau Province is between 2,000 – 3,000 mm / year with an average annual rainfall of 160 days. The areas that received the most rain were Rokan Hulu Regency and Pekanbaru City. Meanwhile, the area that received the least rainfall was Siak Regency. The average air temperature of Riau is 25.9 °C with maximum temperatures reaching 34.4 °C and minimum temperatures reach 20.1 °C. The highest temperature occurs in urban areas on the coast. On the contrary, the lowest temperature covers the high mountains and mountains. Air humidity can reach an average of 75%. Slightly different for the island region in the eastern region is also influenced by the characteristics of the sea climate.As in most other province of Indonesia, Riau has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af) bordering on a tropical monsoon climate. The climate is very much dictated by the surrounding sea and the prevailing wind system. It has high average temperature and high average rainfall. Ecology Forest cover in Riau has declined from 78% in 1982 to only 33% in 2005. This has been further reduced an average of 160,000 hectares on average per year, leaving 22%, or 2.45 million hectares left as of 2009. Fires associated with deforestation have contributed to serious haze over the province and cities to the East, such as Singapore and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Giam Siak Kecil – Bukit Batu Biosphere Reserve, Indonesia, is a peatland area in Sumatra featuring sustainable timber production and two wildlife reserves, which are home to the Sumatran tiger, Sumatran elephant, Malayan tapir, and Malayan sun bear. Research activities in the biosphere include the monitoring of flagship species and in-depth study on peatland ecology. Initial studies indicate a real potential for sustainable economic development using native flora and fauna for the economic benefit of local inhabitants. Cagar Biosfer Giam Siak Kecil Bukit Batu (CB-GSK-BB) is one of seven Biosphere Reserves in Indonesia. They are located in two areas of Riau Province, Bengkalis and Siak. CB-GSK-BB is a trial presented by Riau at the 21st Session of the International Coordinating Council of Man and the Biosphere (UNESCO) in Jeju, South Korea, on 26 May 2009. CB-GSK-BB is one of 22 proposed locations in 17 countries accepted as reserves for the year. A Biosphere Reserve is the only internationally recognised concept of environmental conservation and cultivation. Thus the supervision and development of CB-GSK-BB is a worldwide concern at a regional level. CB-GSK-BB is a unique type of Peat Swamp Forest in the Kampar Peninsula Peat Forest (with a small area of swamp). Another peculiarity is that the CB-GSK-BB was initiated by private parties in co-operation with the government through BBKSDA (The Center for the Conservation of Natural Resources), including the notorious conglomerate involved in forest destruction, Sinar Mas Group, owning the largest paper and pulp company in Indonesia. Government The Province of Riau is led by a governor who is elected directly with his representative for a 5-year term. In addition to being a regional government, the Governor also acts as a representative or extension of the central government in the province, whose authority is regulated in Law No. 32 of 2004 and Government Regulation number 19 of 2010. While the relationship between the provincial government and the regency and city governments is not a sub-ordinate, each of these regional governments governs and manages government affairs according to the principle of autonomy and co-administration. Administrative divisions Riau Province is subdivided into ten regencies (kabupaten) and two autonomous cities (kota), listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 and 2020 Censuses. Demographics The total population of Riau spread in 12 regencies/cities as of June 2016 reached 5,921,987 people consisting of 3,053,043 male inhabitants and 2,868,944 female inhabitants. Based from the population per regency/city, the largest population was in Pekanbaru City with 441,554 male population and 428,477 female, while the smallest population was in the Kepulauan Meranti Regency where 106,269 people were male and 98,700 were female. When viewed from the two regencies/cities which have the largest and smallest population in Riau Province, the comparison of many male population is more dominant than the female population. Ethnic groups Riau is considered a very ethnically diverse province. As of 2015, the ethnic groups in Riau consist of Malays (37.74%), Javanese (25.05%), Minangkabau (11.26%), Batak (7.31%), Banjar (3.78%), Chinese (3.72%), and Bugis (2.27%). The Malays are the largest ethnic group with a composition of 37.74% of the entire population of Riau. They generally come from coastal areas in Rokan Hilir, Dumai, Bengkalis, Pulau Meranti, up to Pelalawan, Siak, Inderagiri Hulu and Inderagiri Hilir. Riau was once the seat of great Malay sultanates, such as the Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura, the Pelalawan Sultanate and the Indragiri Sultanate. There is also a sizable population Minangkabau people living in Riau, mostly in the areas bordering West Sumatra, such as Rokan Hulu, Kampar, Kuantan Singingi, and part of Inderagiri Hulu. Pekanbaru, the capital of Riau, has a Minangkabau majority, since it was once one of the Minangkabau rantau (migration) area. Many Minang in Pekanbaru have lived there for generations and has since assimilated into the Malay community. Most Minang in Riau generally work as merchants and live in urban areas such as Pekanbaru, Bangkinang, Duri, and Dumai. There are many other ethnic groups migrating from other province of Indonesia, such as the Batak Mandailing people who mostly lives in areas bordering North Sumatra such as Rokan Hulu. Most of the Mandailing people now identify themselves as Malay rather than as Minangkabau or Batak. In the 19th century, the Banjarese of South Kalimantan and the Bugis of South Sulawesi also began arriving in Riau to seek better lives. Most of them settled in the Indragiri Hilir areas, especially around Tembilahan. The opening of Caltex oil mining company in the 1940s in Rumbai, encouraged people from throughout the country to migrate to Riau. There are sizeable Javanese and Sundanese population in Riau. Javanese forms the second-largest ethnic group in the province, forming 25.05% of the total population. Most of them migrated to Riau due to the transmigration program dating from the Dutch East Indies and continued during the Soeharto administration. The majority of them lives in transmigration communities spread throughout the region. Likewise, the Chinese people are generally similar to the Minangkabau as many of them also work as merchants. Many Riau Chinese lives in the capital Pekanbaru, and many can also found in coastal areas in the east such as Bagansiapiapi, Selatpanjang, Rupat and Bengkalis. Most of the Chinese people in Riau are Hoklo people, whose ancestors migrated from Quanzhou in modern-day Fujian from the early 19th-century to the mid 20th-century. Some of the Riau Chinese has migrated to other parts of Indonesia, such as Medan and Jakarta, to seek better life opportunities, while some have also migrated to other countries such as Singapore and Taiwan. There are also some groups of indigenous people who live in rural areas and riverbanks, such as the Sakai, Akit, Talang Mamak and Orang Laut. Some of them still leading the nomadic and Hunter-gatherer lifestyle in the remote interior of Riau, while most settled into major cities and towns in with the rise of industrialisation. Language The people of Riau generally uses the local dialect of Malay and Indonesian, the official language of Indonesia. Malay is commonly used in coastal areas such as Rokan Hilir, Bengkalis, Dumai, Pelalawan, Siak, Indragiri Hulu, Indragiri Hilir and around the islands off the coast of Riau. The dialect of Malay spoken in Riau is considered by linguists to have one of the least complex grammars among the languages of the world, apart from creoles, possessing neither noun declensions, temporal distinctions, subject/object distinctions, nor singular/plural distinction. For example, the phrase Ayam makan (lit. 'chicken eat') can mean, in context, anything from 'the chicken is eating', to 'I ate some chicken', 'the chicken that is eating' and 'when we were eating chicken'. A possible reason for this is that Riau Malay has been used as a lingua franca for communication between different people in this area during its history, and extensive foreign-language speaker use of this kind tends to simplify the grammar of a language used. The traditional script in Riau is Jawi (locally known in Indonesia as "Arab-Melayu"), an Arabic-based writing in the Malay language. It is sometimes supposed that Riau Malay is the basis for the modern national language, Indonesian. However, it is instead based on Classical Malay, the court language of Johor-Riau Sultanate, based primarily from the one used in the Riau archipelago and the state of Johor, Malaysia, which is distinct from the local mainland Riau dialect. Non-mainstream varieties in Riau include Orang Sakai, Orang Asli, Orang Akit, and Orang Laut. Riau Malay can be divided into two sub-dialects, namely the inland dialect and the coastal dialect. The inland dialect has phonological features that are similar to Minangkabau, while coastal dialect has phonological features that are close to Malay in the regions of Selangor, Johor and Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia (because other Malaysian regions have very different dialects). In addition to various other characteristics, the two subdialects are marked with words which in Indonesian are words that end with vowels /a/; the inland dialect is pronounced with vowel /o/, while in coastal dialect is pronounced with the weak vowel /e/ . Some examples include: /bila/, /tiga/ and /kata/ in Indonesian (if, three and word in English respectively) will be pronounced in inland dialect as /bilo/, /tigo/ and /kato/ respectively. While in the coastal dialect it will be pronounced as /bile/, /tige/ and /kate/ respectively. The Minangkabau language is widely used the Minangkabau people in Riau, especially in the areas bordering West Sumatra such as Kampar, Kuantan Singingi and Rokan Hulu, which are culturally allied to Minang as well as migrants from West Sumatra. It is also currently being the lingua franca of Pekanbaru, the capital city in addition to Indonesian. The pronunciation of Riau Minangkabau is similar to the Payakumbuh-Batusangkar dialect, even differs from that of other dialects varieties of West Sumatra. Historically, Minangkabau language used in the Pagaruyung highlands is now spoken in the lower Siak River basin following the waves of migration from West Sumatra. In addition, Hokkien is also still widely used among the Chinese community, especially those living in Pekanbaru, Selatpanjang, Bengkalis, and Bagansiapiapi. The Hokkien spoken in Riau is known as Riau Hokkien, which is mutually intelligible to the Hokkien spoken by the Malaysian Chinese in Johor, southern Malaysia and Singapore. They are both derived from the Quanzhou dialect of Hokkien that originated from the city of Quanzhou in Fujian. Riau Hokkien is slightly mutually unintelligible with Medan Hokkien spoken in Medan since the latter is derived from the Zhangzhou dialect of Hokkien that originated from Zhangzhou, also in Fujian. Presently, Riau Hokkien has incorporated many words from the local language such as Malay and Indonesian Javanese is spoken by the Javanese people who migrated to the province. While several varieties of Batak is spoken by Batak immigrants from North Sumatra. Religion Based on the composition of the population of Riau which is full of diversity with different socio-cultural, linguistic and religious backgrounds, it is basically an asset for the Riau region itself. The religions embraced by the inhabitants of this province are very diverse, including Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. As of 2015, Islam is the dominant religion in the province, forming 86.87% of the total population. Islam is generally adhered by the ethnic Malays, Javanese, Minangkabau, Banjars, Bugis, Sundanese and some Batak sub-group. Protestantism forms the second-largest religion, forming as many as 9.74%, while Catholics forms as many as 1.02%, Most of the people who adhered to Protestantism and Catholicism are from Batak ethnic groups (specifically Batak Toba, Karo and Simalungun), Nias, Chinese and residents from Eastern Indonesia. Then there is Buddhism which forms around 2.28% of the total population and Confucianism which forms around 0.07% of the total population. Most of the Buddhist and Confucianism are of ethnic Chinese origin. Lastly, about 0.01% of the total population embrace Hinduism, mostly are Balinese and Indonesians of Indian descent. Culture As Riau is the homeland of the Malays, the customs and cultures of Riau is mostly based on Malay customs and cultures. Every Malay family lives in their own house, except for new couples who usually prefer to stay at the wife's house until they have their first child. Therefore, their sedentary patterns can be said to be neat. The nuclear family they called genitals generally built a house in the neighborhood where the wife lived. The principle of lineage or kinship is more likely to be parental or bilateral. Kinship is done with a typical local nicknames. The first child is called long or sulung, the second child is ngah/ongah, below him is called cik, the youngest is called cu/ucu. Usually the nickname is added by mentioning the physical characteristics of the person, for example, if the person is dark-skinned and is a cik or a third child, he will be called cik itam. Another example is when the particular person is a first-born and has a short characteristic. he/she will be called ngah undah. But sometimes when greeting people who are unknown or new to them, they can simply greet them with abang, akak, dek, or nak. In the past, Malays also lived in groups according to their ancestral origin, which they called tribes. This group of descendants uses a patrilineal kinship line. But the Riau Malays who lived on the mainland Sumatra partially embraced matrilineal tribalism. There are also those who referthe tribe as a hinduk or a cikal bakal. Each tribe is led by a leader. If the tribe lives in a village, then the head will be referred to as Datuk Penghulu Kampung or Kepala Kampung. Each leader is also assisted by several figures such as batin, jenang, tua-tua dan monti. Religious field leaders in the village are known as . Traditional dress In Malay culture, clothes and textiles are very important and it signify beauty and power. The Hikayat-Hikayat Melayu mentioned the importance of textile in Malay culture. The history of the Malay woven industry can be traced back to the 13th century when trade routes in the East are rapidly expanding under the role of the Song dynasty. The description of locally-made textiles and the development of the embroidery industry in the Malay Peninsula is expressed in several Chinese and Indian records. Among the famous Malay textiles that still exist today are Songket and Batik. The earliest Malay traditional dress was concise, the woman wearing a sarong that covered the lower body to the chest while the man dressed in short, sleeveless or shorts, with shorts down to the knee level. However, when trade with the outside world flourishes, the way in which the Malay dress begins to gain external influence and becomes more sophisticated. The 15th-century is the peak of the power of the Malacca Sultanate. As told in the Malay Annals, this is where traditional Baju Melayu clothing is created. The strong Islamic influence has transformed the way of dressing the Malays later on features that are matching with Islamic laws. The classic Malay general attire for men consists of shirts, small sacks, sarongs worn at the waist, and a tanjak or tengkolok worn on the head. It is common for a Malay warrior to have a keris tucked into the front fold of sarong. The Malay version of the early women's clothing is also more loose and long. However, it was subsequently renewed and popularized by Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor in the late 19th century, into the form of Baju Kurung used today. However, Riau also has some traditional dress that cannot be found in other parts of the Malay world. The Riau traditional dress is not only used for certain occasions. But some of these traditional clothes are functioned as everyday clothes, one of which is daily clothing for children. The children's daily wear used is divided into two types, namely clothes for boys and clothes for girls. For boys' clothes in the customs of the Riau people, they are called baju monyet (Monkey clothes). This outfit is combined with the type of trousers that are responsible, and complete with a kopiah or rectangular shaped cloth as a head covering. While for everyday clothes for girls is Baju Kurung with floral motifs. This outfit is combined with a wide skirt with a hijab or tudong. The daily clothes of Riau people are commonly used for reciting or for studying. For the people of Riau who are adults, they wear distinctive clothing and are also very close to religious and cultural values. For males, they use clothing called Baju Kurung Cekak Musang. Namely, clothes like Muslim clothing are combined with loose trousers. This shirt is used together with sarong and kopiah. For Malay women, they can wear 3 different types of clothing, namely the Baju Kebaya Pendek, Baju Kurung Laboh, and Baju Kurung Tulang Belut. The different clothes are used in conjunction with a shawl cloth that is used as a head covering. In addition, women's clothing can also be combined with a hijab or tudong. Traditional house In traditional Malay societies, the house is an intimate building that can be used as a family dwelling, a place of worship, a heritage site, and a shelter for anyone in need. Therefore, traditional Malay houses are generally large. In addition to the large size, the Malay house is also always in the form of a rumah panggung or stage house, facing the sunrise. The types of Malay houses include residential houses, offices, place of worship and warehouses. The naming of the houses is tailored to the function of each building. In general, there are five types of Riau Malay traditional houses, namely the and . The Balai Salaso Jatuh is usually used for consensus decision-making and other activities. It is rarely used for private homes. In accordance with the functions of the Balai Salaso Jatuh, this building has other local names such as balai panobatan, balirung sari, balai karapatan, etc. Presently, the function of this building has been replaced by a house or a mosque. The building has an alignment, and has a lower floor than the middle room. In addition, Balai Salaso Jatuh is also decorated with various carvings in the form of plants or animals. Each carving in this building has its own designation. Rumah Melayu Atap Lontik or Lontiok House can usually be found in Kampar Regency. It is called so because this house has a decoration on the front wall of the house in the form of a boat. When viewed from a distance, this house will look like boat houses that are usually made by the local residents. Besides being referred to as lancing and pancalang, this traditional house is also called lontik, since this house has a roof paring that is soaring upwards. This house is heavily influenced on the architecture of the Minangkabau Rumah Gadang, since Kampar Regency is directly adjacent to the province of West Sumatra. A unique feature of this traditional house is that it has five stairsteps. The reason they chose the number five was because this is based on the Five Pillars of Islam. The shape of the pillars in this house also varies, there are rectangles, hexagons, heptagon, octagon and triangles. Each type of pole contained in this traditional house has meaning believed by the people of Riau. A rectangular pole can be interpreted as four corners of the wind, just like an octagon, and the hexagon symbolizes the number of pillars of Islam. Rumah Salaso Jatuh Kembar was declared an icon and symbol of the province of Riau. The architecture of this house is similar to the Balai Salaso Jatuh, but this house tends to be used for private homes. Rumah Melayu Lipat Kajang can usually found in the Riau Islands and the coastal part of Riau. It is called Lipat Kajangbecause the roof of this house has a shape resembling the shape of a boat. The top of this building is curved upwards and is often referred to lipat kejang or pohon jeramban by the locals. This traditional house is rarely or even no longer used by Riau residents. One reason for the loss of this culture is because of the increasing influence of western architecture, and people consider their building forms to be simpler and easier to build. Rumah Melayu Atap Limas Potong is a Malay traditional house that can usually be found in mainland Riau, but rarely in the Riau Islands. This house has a roof that is shaped like a cut pyramid. Like other Riau traditional houses, this house is also included in the rumah panggung group. The stage of this house has a height of about 1.5 meters above the ground. The size of the house depends on the ability and desires of the owner. Traditional dance Most of Riau traditional dances are influenced by Malay cultures, but there are also some dances that are only unique to Riau. Mak Yong is a traditional theater art of Malay society that is often performed as a drama in an international forum. In the past, mak yong was held by villagers in the rice fields which had finished harvesting rice. The mak yong is performed by a group of professional dancers and musicians who combine various elements of religious ceremonies, plays, dance, music with vocal or instrumental, and simple texts. The male and female main characters were both performed by female dancers. Other figures that appear in the story are comedians, gods, jinn, courtiers, and animals. mak yong performance is accompanied by musical instruments such as rebab, gendang, and tetawak In Indonesia, the mak yong was developed in Lingga, which was once the center of the Johor-Riau Sultanate. The difference with the mak yong performed in the Kelantan-Pattani region is that they usually does not use masks, as mak yong in Riau uses masks for some of the King's female characters, princesses, criminals, demons, and spirits. At the end of the last century, mak yong not only became a daily show, but also as performance for the sultan. The tari zapin is a Malay traditional dance originated from the Siak Regency that is entertaining and are full of religious and educational messages. This tari zapin has rules and regulations that cannot be changed. Tari zapin is usually accompanied by traditional Riau musical instruments namely marwas and gambus. This tari zapin shows footwork quickly following the pounding of punches on a small drum called marwas . The rhythmic harmony of the instrument is increasingly melodious with stringed instruments. Because of the influence of the Arabs, this dance does indeed feel educative without losing the entertainment side. There is an insert of a religious message in the song lyrics. Usually the dance is told about the daily lives of Malay people. Initially, tari zapin was only danced by male dancers but along with developments, female dancers were also shown. Sometimes, there are both male and female dancers performing. There is a form of tari zapin performed in Pulau Rupat Utara in Bengkalis called tari zapin api. The identifying characteristic of tari zapin api is the incorporation of fire and strong focus on the mystical elements. The dance form was historically dormant and extinct for nearly 40 years before its revival in 2013. Tarian makan sirih is accompanied by distinctive Malay music accompanied by a song titled Makan Sirih. As for the costumes performed by dancers, they usually wore traditional Malay attire, such as pants, clothes, and kopiah for men. Whereas the female dancers wear the clothes that are usually worn by the bride, namely traditional clothes called the Baju Kurung teluk belanga. At the head, there is a crown equipped with flower-shaped decorations. Meanwhile, the lower part of the dancers' bodies was wrapped in brightly colored songket cloth. Tarian makan sirih is performed by both men and women. The dancers are obliged to understand special terms in Malay dance, such as igal (emphasizing hand and body movements), liuk (movement of bowing or swinging body), lenggang (walking while moving hands), titi batang (walking in a line as if climbing the stem), gentam (dancing while stomping on the feet), cicing (dancing while jogging), legar (dancing while walking around 180 degrees), and so on. During the performance, one of the dancers in the offering dance will bring a box containing betels. The box would then be opened and the guests who are considered the greatest are given the first opportunity to take it as a form of respect, then followed by other guests. Therefore, many people call this dance as tarian makan sirih. Traditional music There are several musical instruments in Riau that is used for ceremonial events. The traditional Malay accordion is almost the same as the accordion founded by Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann from (Germany). accordion includes a musical instrument that is quite difficult to play even though it looks easy. accordion produces diatonic scales that are very in accordance with the song lyrics in the form of rhymes. The accordion player holds the instrument with both hands, then plays the chord buttons with the fingers of the left hand, while the fingers of the right hand play the melody of the song that is being performed. Usually players who have been trained are very easy to change hands. When played, the accordion is pulled and pushed to adjust the air movement inside the instrument, the movement of the air coming out (to the tongue of the accordion) will produce sound. The sound can be adjusted using the player's fingers. Gambus is a type of traditional Riau musical instrument that is played by picking. Formerly, Gambus was used for events related to spiritual matters. At this time Gambus switched functions to be an accompaniment for the tari zapin. Gambus Riau is played by individuals as entertainment for fishermen on boats who are looking for fish. Kompang is a type of traditional Riau musical instrument that is quite well known among Malays, Kompang is included in the group of traditional musical instruments which are played by being beaten. In general, kompang uses materials derived from the skin of livestock. Making kompang is more similar to making dhol or other musical instrument or other leather drum that uses animal skin such as buffalo, cattle, and others. Kompang a uses female goat ski on the part that is hit, but now uses a cow which is believed to be more elastic. To produce a loud sound, there is a technique to make the paired skin become very tight and not easily separated from the nail (which can be dangerous when played). Rebana ubi is a type of Tambourine that is played by being hit by hand. Rebana ubi is included in the drum group as well as percussion instruments. Rebana ubi has a larger size than ordinary tambourines because Rebana ubi has the smallest diameter of 70 cm and a height of 1 meter. Rebana ubi can be hung horizontally or left on the floor to be played. In ancient times, Rebana ubiwas believed to be a tool to spread the news such as the wedding ceremony of local residents or the danger that came (such as strong winds). Rebana ubi is placed in the highlands and beaten with a certain rhythm depending on the information the player wants to convey. Traditional weapons Klewang is a traditional weapon from Riau. klewang is a kind of machete with the tip of an enlarged blade. In the past, klewang was used by royal soldiers when in war. However, in the present, it is more widely used by farmers in their activities in rice fields or as agricultural tools. Because of this function, klewang has remained sustainable compared to other types of traditional Riau weapons. Beladau is a skewer type weapon found in the culture of Riau society. This weapon is a sharp dagger on one side. what makes this beladau different from the dagger in general is that beladau tends to have curvature at the base of the handle, so the handle is easier to hold and push when used. In accordance with its length of only 24 cm, this traditional Riau weapon is often used as a means of self-protection from melee attacks. Pedang jenawi is a weapon that was often used by Malay royal warlords when facing their enemies. Its size is quite long, which is about 1 meter making it used in close-range warfare. At a glance, pedang jenawi looks like a typical Japanese katana. Therefore, many historians and cultural experts argue that this weapon originated from ancient Japanese culture which experienced acculturation with Malay culture. Apart from these opinions, what is clear at this time is that pedang jenawi has been regarded as the identity of the Riau Malay community. Kris is a heritage weapon that has been used for centuries. Not only in Riau, keris is generally used by nobles in Southeast Asia. Kris is a symbol of honor and self-defense. This weapon is used to stab at close range. The position of the kris in history as a symbol of honor is undeniable, that in the kingdom it was clearly seen as a form of self-protection, as well as pride. Even in modern history, the function continues to develop as an object of history, and can also be a determinant of history based on the period of manufacture and the type of material used. Up to now in Riau Malay customs and culture, always cooperating with kris in every dress as a complementary weapon from generation to generation. However, what is different in the form of kris from adat in Java is, if the use of kris in Java is tucked in the back of the waist, in Riau and the Malay people, in general, the use of kris is in front. Economics The economy of Riau expands faster (8.66% in 2006) than the Indonesian average (6.04% in 2006), and is largely a resource-based economy, including crude oil (600,000 bpd), palm oil, rubber trees and other forest products. Local government income benefits from a greater share of tax revenue (mainly from crude oil) due to the decentralisation law of 2004. The province has natural resources, both riches contained in the bowels of the earth, in the form of oil and gas, as well as gold, as well as forest products and plantations. Along with the implementation of regional autonomy, gradually began to apply the system for results or financial balance between central and local. The new rules provide expressly limits the obligations of investors, resource utilization, and revenue-sharing with the surrounding environment. Riau's economy in the first quarter of 2017 grew by 2.82 percent, improving compared to the same period in the previous year which grew 2.74 percent (year-over-year). This growth was supported by growth in almost all businesses, except mining and excavation which contracted 6.72 percent. The highest growth occurred in the Corporate Services Business Field at 9.56 percent, followed by the processing Industry of 7.30 percent, and government administration, defense and obligatory social security of 6.97 percent. Riau's economy in the first quarter of 2017 contracted by 4.88 percent compared to the fourth quarter of 2016. This contraction was influenced by seasonal factors in the Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Business Field (−5.04 percent). In addition, contractions occur due to a decrease in several business fields, including: Mining and Excavation (−3.50 percent); Processing Industry (−5.41 percent); Large Trade and Retail, Car and Motorcycle Repair (−2.46 percent); and Construction (−8.94 percent). Energy and natural resources The energy and mineral resources sector is one sector that plays a major role in the development of the province. The leading commodities in the energy and mineral resources sector in Riau include electricity and mining. Electricity is an important commodity for human life at this time. Without electricity, almost certainly many construction sectors will be paralyzed. Most of the electricity in Riau Province is still supplied by the Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN). From 2013 to 2015, the electricity capacity produced was 114 Kva/Kwh in hydropower, 94.6 Kva/Kwh in diesel power and 131.2 Kva/Kwh in the gas power. The amount of this electricity capacity does not increase or shrink as well as the number of power generating units. Throughout Riau Province there are 1 unit of hydroelectric power plants, 65 units of diesel power plants and 6 units of gas power plants. Farming The agricultural sector is also one of the factors that play a role in the economic development of Riau. The main commodities of agriculture are rice, corn and soybeans. In addition, other agricultural products which are commodities of Riau Province are peanuts, green beans, cassava and sweet potatoes. In 2015, rice production in Riau reached 393,917 tons of milled dry grain. The production was calculated to increase by 2.2 percent compared to production in 2014. The increase in production was influenced by the increase in the harvested area of 107,546 hectares which increased by around 1,509 hectares (1.42%) compared to the previous year. In addition, rice productivity also increased by around 0.26 quintal / hectare or around 0.71%. While the increase occurred in corn production, which amounted to 30,870 tons of dry shelled rice, this production increased by around 7.75 percent or 2,219 tons of dry shelled rice. This increase can be affected because of an increase in the area of maize production by 368 hectares (3.1%) compared to the production area in 2014 of 12,057 hectares. The increase also occurred in corn productivity in 2015 amounting to 1.09 quintal / hectare from 2014 or around 4.59%. Soybean production also decreased in 2015 by 187 tons of dry beans (8.02%) from soybean production in 2014. The decrease in production was influenced by the harvested area of 1,516 hectares which decreased by around 514 hectares (25.32%). However, soybean productivity increased by 2.66 quintal / hectare or 23.15% compared to the previous year. In 2015, peanut production was lower than in previous years. This production fell by 8.39 percent compared to 2014 and 16.65 percent compared to 2013. The decline in production was influenced by the declining area of peanut farming compared to 2013 and 2014, each of 18.41 percent and 9.23 percent . In 2015, green beans production was lower than in previous years. This production fell by 7.28 percent compared to 2014 and 3.39 percent compared to 2013. The decline in production was influenced by the decline in the area of green beans compared to 2013 and 2014, respectively 1.53 percent and 3.67 percent. In addition, cassava production also experienced a decline in 2015 of 11.89 percent compared to 2014. Actually, cassava production had increased in 2014 by 14.08 percent. This decrease in production was also influenced by the decline in cassava farming area by 11.61 compared to 2014. In the last three years, sweet potato production in 2015 was the lowest. This yield fell by 5.36 percent in 2014 and again fell by 18.05 percent. As before, the decline in production was also influenced by the declining area of sweet potato farming by 4.96 percent in 2014 and 18.83 percent in 2015. Fishing One of Riau's leading commodities is the fisheries sector. The geographical condition of Riau where 17.40% of the total area is an oceanic area and there are 15 rivers making the fisheries sector well developed. In addition, the vast extent of untapped land is a great potential for inland aquaculture to develop. In addition, the market demand for fishery products has increasingly made the catchment sector not enough so that fish farming activities such as cages, ponds, public fisheries and ponds are well developed. Riau fisheries production mostly comes from marine fisheries. In 2015, the data showed that marine fisheries were 106,233.1 tons or decreased 1 percent from the previous year. In addition, the number of fishery households decreased to 14,610 households, an increase of 0.98 percent. In addition, there was also a decline in the number of fishing vessels as many as 123 units. The land fishery product processing industry can be divided into four types, namely floating nets, ponds, public fisheries and ponds. In 2015, fish production from floating nets was 5,378.56 tons or decreased by 82.52 percent. This decrease was caused by a decrease in the number of floating nets as many as 157,638 units. Fish production in public fisheries also decreased by 3.9 percent due to a decrease in the number of households. Fish pond production increased by 5,425.2 tons or 10.8 percent. Temporary data on fish pond production showed a drastic decrease of 82.23 percent even though the number of fish ponds increased by 89.15 hectares compared to 2014. Stockbreeding Along with increasing public consumption needs for livestock products, both in terms of consumption of livestock meat and other livestock products, such as milk and eggs, the Riau provincial government through the Agriculture and Livestock Service Office continues to try to meet these needs. In addition to the commitment of Riau province to increase food self-sufficiency in 2020, the number of animal populations continues to be increased to meet consumption needs. This is reflected in the increase in some aspects of livestock in Riau in the last 3 years. Agriculture and plantation Plantation growing is rubber and oil palm plantations, either run by the state or by the people. There is also a citrus and coconut plantations. For oil palm plantation area currently Riau province has a land area of 1:34 million hectares. In addition there have been about 116 palm oil mills (PKS) which operates with the production of coconut palm oil (CPO) 3.3868 million tons per year. Industry In this province there are several international companies engaged in the oil and gas as well as the processing of forest products and oil. In addition there is also a copra and rubber processing industry. Several major companies including Chevron Pacific Indonesia a subsidiary of Chevron Corporation, PT. Indah Kiat Pulp & Paper Tbk in Perawang, and PT. Riau Andalan Pulp & Paper in Pangkalan Kerinci Riau provincial mining. Minerals are petroleum, gas, and coal. Finance and banking In the field of banking in the province is growing rapidly, this marked the number of private banks and rural banks, in addition to local government-owned banks such as Bank of Riau Kepri. Transportation Sultan Syarif Kasim II International Airport in Pekanbaru is the largest airport in the province. It serves as the gateway to Pekanbaru and Riau in a whole. The airport serves flights to other major cities in Indonesia such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung and Medan. Moreover, the airport also serves international flights to cities neighbouring countries such as Singapore, Malacca and Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia. Furthermore, the airport also was used for hajj embarkation to Jeddah and Medina in Saudi Arabia. On 16 July 2012, a Rp 2 trillion ($212 million) new terminal has been opened to accommodate 1.5 million passengers a year. The new terminal spanning 17,000 square meters and a more spacious aircraft apron which can accommodate 10 wide-body aircraft, twice the capacity of the old apron. The new terminal is designed with a mix of Malay and modern architecture. The physical form of the building is inspired from the typical flying fauna form of Riau, Serindit birds. To meet the technical requirements of a world-class airport, the airport runway is extended from 2,200 meters to 2,600 meters and then to 3,000 meters. There are other smaller airports in Riau which mostly serves regional or charter flights, such as Pinang Kampai Airport in Dumai, Tuanku Tambusai Airport in Pasir Pangaraian, Japura Airport in Rengat, Sei Pakning Airport in Tembilahan, Sei Pakning Airport in Sungai Pakning and Sultan Syarief Haroen II Airport in Pangkalan Kerinci. The Trans-Sumatran Highway runs along the length of the province. Riau serves as a junction of the highway, with North Sumatra to the north, Jambi to the south and West Sumatra to the west. Most of the roads have been paved, but there are some sections that is in poor condition. Road damage was allegedly due to the large number of trucks carrying palm oil crops passing from Riau to North Sumatra or vice versa. As part of the Trans-Sumatra Toll Road program, the government is currently constructing the 131,48 km long Pekanbaru–Dumai Toll Road, which would connect Pekanbaru, the provincial capital and the port city of Dumai on the Strait of Malacca. The first section between Pekanbaru and Minas is expected to begin operation in December 2019 and the whole toll road is expected to begin operation in 2020. Another toll road connecting Pekanbaru and Padang in West Sumatra is also under the planning stage. Construction is expected to start on the Riau side due to land clearing issue on the West Sumatran side. The project would also include the construction of the construction of an 8.95 km tunnel in the Payakumbuh area that will penetrate the Bukit Barisan Mountains, which would be the longest tunnel in Indonesia. The Port of Dumai is the largest port in the province. It serves both passengers and cargo. The port serves ferries to Batam and Tanjung Pinang in the Riau Islands, as well as international destinations such as Singapore, Johor and Malacca in Malaysia. River transportation is also important in Riau, as the province is crossed by many large rivers. After the Pekanbaru Railway was abandoned at the end of World War II, there is currently no active railway line in Riau. However, there has been a proposal of reactivating the Pekanbaru-West Sumatra railway to connect Pekanbaru and Padang on the western coast of Sumatra, as well as building the Pekanbaru-Duri-Rantau Prapat railway which would connect Riau and the existing railway line in North Sumatra, as well as building the Pekanbaru-Jambi-Betung-Palembang railway which would connect Riau with Jambi and th existing railway line in South Sumatra. Overall, this railway system would form the Trans-Sumatra Railway. Tourism The prime tourist attractions of Riau can be divided into natural environment, as well as the culture and history of the Riau Malay people. Tourist attractions in Riau are diverse, ranging from marine tourism, because of the location of Riau which is directly facing the Strait of Malacca. And also natural tourism is equally attractive when compared to other provinces in Sumatra. This province has a long history and is present throughout the province, thus making its historical and cultural tourism diverse and well-known. Each of the regencies in Riau has a tourist attraction within. The Indragiri Hilir Regency has a long story before the Dutch colonial period. Quite a lot of power shifts while still in the kingdom. Starting from Keritang Kingdom, Kemuning Kingdom, Batin Enam Suku Kingdom to Indragiri Kingdom. besides having an interesting history, Indragiri Hilir Regency also has interesting tourist attractions, and one of them is Solop Beach which is also a mainstay of tourist attractions in Riau. As Indragiri Hilir was once the seat of the Indragiri Sultanate, there are many relics from the sultanate than can be still found throughout the region, such as the Indragiri Kings Cemetery in Rengat and traditional houses with typical Malay architecture. Moreover, Indragiri Hilir is also known for its many waterfalls. Similar to Indragiri Hilir, the Indragiri Hulu Regency is filled of many tourism spots, such as waterfalls and relic of ancient Malay kingdoms. Furthermore, Indragiri Hulu also serves as the gateway to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park. The location of Kampar Regency which is directly adjacent with the province of West Sumatra allows its culture to be greatly influenced by the culture of the Minangkabau people. Kampar Regency also has some famous and historical attractions, such as the Muara Takus Buddhist Temple. There are also many spectacular waterfalls spread throughout Kampar. Moreover, there are also tombs of Malay and Minangkabau kings in Kampar. The city of Bangkinang has many tourist attractions that have nuances of nature, history, religion and culinary that cannot be found in any parts of Indonesia. The Kepulauan Meranti Regency has a variety of marine tourism destinations. Therefore, making it one of the biggest contributors to tourist attractions in Riau that attract both domestic and international tourists each year. The capital Selat Panjang has a Chinese-majority population, making it one of the few cities to have this characteristic. This explains why the culture of Selat Panjang as well as the whole of Kepulauan Meranti is highly influenced by both Chinese and Malay culture. Moreover, there are several Chinese temples that can be found in Selat Panjang and the surrounding area, including the Hoo Ann Kiong Temple, which so the oldest Chinese Taoism temple in Selat Panjang. Kuantan Singingi Regency, commonly known as Kuansing, is a rantau (migration) area for the Minangkabau people from West Sumatra. Therefore, the culture and customs of Kuansing is highly influenced by Minangkabau culture. On the other hand, Kuansing also contains many tourist destinations. Kuansing is known for its cultural festival that usually happens during the Eid al-Fitr and other holidays such as the Baganduang Boat Festival (Indonesian: Festival Perahu Baganduang). The Baganduang Boat Festival was first held as a festival in 1996. These boats are then decorated with flags, coconut leaves, umbrellas, long cloths, pumpkins, photos of the president and vice president, and other objects that have traditional symbols. For example, rice symbolizes agricultural fertility and buffalo horns that symbolize livestock. In the festival, guests were presented with a variety of entertainment, including Rarak Calempong, Panjek Pinang, and Potang Tolugh. The process of making a baganduang boat is usually blessed with a Malay ceremony. Another festival in Kuansing is the Pacu Jalur Festival. Pacu Jalur is the largest annual festival for the people of the Kuantan Singingi Regency, especially in the capital, Taluk Kuantan, which is along the bank of the Kuantan River. Originally, the festival was held to commemorate the Islamic holidays such as the Mawlid, or the commemoration of the New Year's Eve. But after the Indonesian independence, Pacu Jalur is now usually held to celebrate the Independence Day of the Republic of Indonesia. Pacu Jalur is a long rowing boat race, similar to the Dragon Boat race in neighboring Malaysia and Singapore, which is a boat or canoe made of wood that can reach 25 to 40 meters in length. In the Taluk Kuantan area, the native people called the longboat used in the festival as Jalur. The boat rower team ranges from 50 to 60 people. Pelalawan Regency has a long history, even as the name Pelalawan was taken from the name of the former Pelalawan Kingdom. And the Pelalawan Kingdom was once victorious in 1725 and was very famous with its Sultan Syed Abdurrahman Fachrudin. Apart from its history, Pelalawan also stores quite a lot of tourist attractions besides its history. Remnants of the old Pelalawan Kingdom can still be seen throughout the regency, such as Sayap Pelalawan palace where the former Sultan of Pelalawan reside. Inside the Pelalawan Wing Palace there are many relics, such as keris weapons, spears, and various other relics placed in the palace central room. Another remnants is tomb of the sultans of Pelalawan. Most of the tourist who frequented the tomb are usually pilgrims and certain days the tomb is quite crowded with pilgrims. Moreover, Pelalawan serves as the gateway to the Tesso Nilo National Park. Rokan Hilir Regency as one of the regencies in Riau which is directly facing the Strait of Malacca, was once the largest fish producer in Indonesia. Since the Dutch colonial era, Rokan Hilir with its capital Bagansiapiapi has already become more advanced than other region especially in terms of trade. The tourism industry in Rokan Hilir is also quite well known both on a national and international scale. Rokan Hilir is known for its tourist spots and festival such as the Junk burning festival. Known in the local Riau Hokkien as Go Gek Cap Lak (Chinese: 五月十六日; pinyin: wǔ yuè shíliù rì; Hokkien POJ: gō͘-go̍eh-cha̍p-la̍k-ji̍t), the Junk burning festival is an annual ritual of the community in Bagansiapiapi which has been well known overseas and is included in the Indonesian tourism tourist. Every year this ritual can attract tourists from Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan to Mainland China. Now this annual event is heavily promoted by the government of Rokan Hilir Regency as a source of tourism. The initial history of the festival was started by Chinese people who lived in Bagansiapiapi to commemorate their ancestors and also as a gesture of gratitude to the God Kie Ong Ya. Other than that, Bagansiapiapi and the surrounding area has many Chinese temples that can be visited. The Rokan Hulu Regency has the nickname Negeri Seribu Suluk. The district is bordered by two provinces, namely North Sumatra and West Sumatra. It is certain that the acculturation of culture in Rokan Hulu Regency has become more diverse, starting from customs and traditions. Rokan Hulu contains many lakes, waterfalls and caves that is spread throughout the region. One of the historical assets that is still standing firmly in Rokan Hulu, is the Palace of Rokan Hulu. This palace, which is already 200 years old, is a relic of the Nagari Tuo Sultanate. Although there are some parts of the repair but the architecture is still intact and also the carvings on the wood are still clearly visible. Siak Regency is the number two richest district in Riau after Bengkalis Regency. The main export of Siak Regency is petroleum which finally can deliver it to become the second richest regency in the province. On the other hand, the regency is currently boosting the tourism sector to attract more visitors. As Siak was once the house of the Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura, the regency contains remnants of the sultanate that is still well-preserved, such as the Siak Sri Indrapura Palace. The palace complex has an area of about 32,000 square meters consisting of 4 palaces namely Istana Siak, Istana Lima, Istana Padjang, and Istana Baru. Each of the palace including Siak Palace itself has an area of 1,000 square meters. The palace contains royal ceremonial objects, such as a gold-plated crown set with diamonds, a golden throne and personal objects of Sultan Syarif Qasyim and his wife, such as the Komet, a multi-centennial musical instrument which is said to have been made only two copies in the world. Presently, the komet is still functioning and is used to play works by composers such as Beethoven, Mozart and Strauss. Siak is also home to the tomb of Sultan Syarif Kasim II, the last Sultan of Siak. Dumai is a city located in Riau whose location is very strategic especially for international trade because of its location in the Strait of Malacca. In addition, Dumai is the largest city in Indonesia at this time. Dumai is home to many beaches and mangrove forests. The capital of Riau, Pekanbaru, contains several tourist attractions. The Idrus Tintin Art Building is named after an Indonesian artist named Idrus Tintin. Judging from the architecture of the Idrus Tintin Art Building almost looks like a Malay Royal Palace, even though this building functioned as an art performance venue. Various works by Indonesian artists are displayed in the building. The An-Nur Great Mosque is the pride of Pekanbaru. An-Nur Great Mosque is one of the grandest mosques in Indonesia. An-Nur Great Mosque was built in 1968 from the side of its architecture which is similar to the Taj Mahal in India. Therefore, many people Riau called the mosque as the "Taj Mahal of Riau". Soeman H.S Library is named after Soeman H.S, a novelist from Riau and his name is immortalized as the name of the library in downtown Pekanbaru. The architectural style of the building is similar to open books or like a rehal (placemats for the Qur'an). This tourist spot in Riau has quite a collection of books, and has even been the largest library in Asia. Cuisine The cuisine of Riau is heavily influenced by Malay and Minangkabau cuisines, and also slightly influenced by Chinese and Javanese cuisines. The cuisine in Riau is somewhat similar to the cuisine in the Malay Peninsula across the Strait of Malacca. Traditional Malay cuisine in Riau has much in common with other Malay cuisines in other part of the Malay world and Sumatran cuisine which generally uses spices and coconut milk to produce spicy, fatty and thick curry.. Most dishes use basic ingredients of fish, from pangasius, mystus, anchovy, Spanish mackerels, rays, and prawns, and often uses buffalo or ox meat. Additional ingredients commonly used are Belacan. Almost every Malay dish is served with white rice or with nasi lemak and is usually eaten using hands. Nasi Lemak is a typical Riau food in the form of rice cooked with coconut milk to provide a savory flavor and fragrant aroma. Nasi Lemak is generally served with side dishes such as eggs, fried anchovy, chili sauce, cucumber slices and other side dishes. This nasi lemak is easily found in stalls and restaurants in Pekanbaru. In archipelagic region like Riau Islands province of Indonesia, usually seafood are used to accompany nasi lemak, such as ikan bilis (anchovy), ikan tamban (Sardinella longiceps), ikan selar kuning (Selaroides leptolepis), sotong or cumi-cumi (squid) or small prawns. The Riau islands traditional nasi lemak is quite similar to Malaysian version; it comes as a platter of coconut rice wrapped in banana leaf, with cucumber slices, small dried anchovies (ikan bilis), roasted peanuts, hard boiled egg, and hot spicy sauce (sambal). The Riau islands version however, comes with an addition of small fish locally known as ikan tamban, usually fried with sambal chili paste and very crispy, the whole fish is edible. Prawns and squids are also commonly stir-fried in chili paste as sambal udang or sambal cumi. In Indonesia, nasi lemak is often sprinkled with bawang goreng (crispy fried shallot granules). In Pekanbaru city in Sumatran province of Riau however, freshwater river fishes are commonly used as lauk to accompany nasi lemak. The freshwater fishes includes ikan selais (Kryptopterus cryptopterus) and ikan patin (Pangasius). Other fish such as ikan lomek (Harpadon nehereus) is also commonly used. These fishes are usually cooked in Minang style lado ijo (green chili pepper), minced and fried as perkedel ikan, or just plainly fried. The Gulai Ikan Patin (Catfish soup) has a very delicious and powerful taste and it can be easily be found around Pekanbaru. Gulai Ikan Patin is a typical Pekanbaru food that has a deep yellow sauce to soak the pieces of catfish. The people of Riaum especially Pekanbaru, generally also consume other ingredients other than the catfish. There are sidedishes accompanying the dish, such as boiled yams, leaf tops and more. Gulai Ikan Patin is usually cooked with the etlingera elatior to enhance the flavouring. Asam pedas (or Asam padeh in Minangkabau) is a Malay-Minangkabau dish that can be found in Riau and the surrounding area.. It is a type sour and spicy fish stew dish. The main ingredients in asam pedas are usually seafood or freshwater fish. They are cooked in asam (tamarind) fruit juice with chilli and spices. The cooking process involves soaking the pulp of the tamarind fruit until it is soft and then squeezing out the juice for cooking the fish. Asam paste may be substituted for convenience. Vegetables such as terong or brinjals (Indian eggplants), okra and tomatoes are added. Fish and seafood – such as mackerel, mackerel tuna, tuna, skipjack tuna, red snapper, gourami, pangasius, hemibagrus or cuttlefish – either the whole body or sometimes only the fish heads are added to make a spicy and tart fish stew. It is important that the fish remain intact for serving so generally the fish is added last. In the Riau region, the most common fish used in asam pedas is tongkol (mackerel tuna). Aside from the main dish, typical Riau restaurant also serves local snacks. An example is the roti jala. Roti jala typical Riau food which is influenced by Malay culture. Roti jala is a dish that is generally present at large parties such as weddings. This food is made from the basic ingredients of flour which, after being cooked, will be served with a spill of durian sauce for those who like sweet foods. Aside from being served with sauce, roti jala is also commonly eaten with curry chicken, mutton or beef. Roti jala has a triangular shape that is produced from a mold. Although it is usually white in color, some creative cooker also gives food coloring such as pandanus to make the roti jala green in color. Roti cane is a typical Riau food. This bread has much in common with roti pratha in India and Singapore aside from the taste and eating method. Sports Riau has a football team, PSPS Pekanbaru, based in Kaharuddin Nasution Stadium, Pekanbaru. There is also has local football team PS Siak. In 2012, Riau hosted Pekan Olahraga Nasional. See also Zapin Api, a type of performing arts from the shores of Riau List of people from Riau Deforestation in Indonesia 2012 Pekan Olahraga Nasional References Strait of Malacca Provinces of Indonesia States and territories established in 1957

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baraita

Baraita

Baraita (Aramaic: "external" or "outside"; pl. Barayata or Baraitot; also Baraitha, Beraita; Ashkenazi: Beraisa) designates a tradition in the Jewish oral law not incorporated in the Mishnah. Baraita thus refers to teachings "outside" of the six orders of the Mishnah. Originally, "Baraita" probably referred to teachings from schools outside the main Mishnaic-era academies – although in later collections, individual Baraitot are often authored by sages of the Mishna (Tannaim). According to Maimonides (Introduction to Mishneh Torah), the baraitot were compiled by Rabbi Hoshaya and Bar Kappara, although no compilation was passed down to us as the Tosefta was. Because the Mishnah encapsulates the entire Oral Law in a purposely compact form (designed to both facilitate and necessitate oral transmission), many variant versions, additional explanations, clarifications and rulings were not included in the Mishnah. These were later compiled in works called the "Baraitot" – often in the form of a list of teachings by one sage. Baraita can thus also designate collections of such traditions. The main collections of Baraita are the Tosefta and the Halakhic Midrashim (Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre). The authority of the Baraita is somewhat less than that of the Mishnah. Nevertheless, these works are the basic "proof-text" cross-referenced by the Talmudic sages in their analysis and interpretation of the Mishna; see Gemara. Here, a teaching from the Baraita is usually introduced by the Aramaic word "Tanya" ("It was orally taught") or by "Tanu Rabanan" ("Our Rabbis have orally taught"), whereas "Tnan" ("We have orally taught") introduces quotations from the Mishnah. Anonymous Baraitot are often attributed to particular Tannaim by the Talmud. In the Jerusalem Talmud, references to Baraitot are less common. The style of the Baraita is basically indistinguishable from that of the Mishna, but some come closer to Mishnaic idiom than others. For example, the second chapter of Kallah Rabbathi, a beraita compilation, is often appended to Pirkei Avoth, as both are similar in style and content. See also Gemara Midrash Talmud References Baraita, jewishencyclopedia.com Maimonides Introduction to the Mishneh Torah (English translation) Tosefta and Baraita (Hebrew), Maimonides, Introduction to the Commentary on the Mishna The Oral Tradition by Aryeh Kaplan External links Brief General Introduction to the Babylonian Talmud Tannaitic literature Talmud Aramaic words and phrases Aramaic words and phrases in Jewish prayers and blessings

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rengat

Rengat

Rengat (Jawi: رڠات ) is a kecamatan (subdistrict) in Riau province of Indonesia and it is the capital (seat) of Indragiri Hulu Regency. The WWF keeps a conservation forest (it is named "Bukit Tiga Puluh") near the town, but the conservation area is no longer well-protected. Many companies take the nature resources from the forest without legal permit. Rengat is a city in the province of Riau, Indonesia and Indragiri Hulu regency capital. The city is traversed by the Indragiri River. Native to this area is the Talang Mamak tribe. Some other tribes as ethnic immigrants in Rengat include: Malay, Minang, Batak, Tionghuoa, and Sunda. The Rengat massacre In 1949, during the Indonesian National Revolution, Dutch paratroopers massacred perhaps some thousands of people in Rengat according to Indonesian sources. Dutch documents show that 80 inhabitants were killed. Culture A monument is dedicated to the victims of the Rengat Massacre, including the father of famed author Chairil Anwar. Rengat typical fruit is kedondong. In the city center there is an hour and a sculptured monument with amra fruit on it. Dodoo amra fruit is processed products are also preferred. Hotels Star hotels in Rengat, among others: Tourism Some interesting places in Rengat, among others: Raja Lake (Danau Raja) The Great Mosque of Rengat (Masjid Raya Rengat) Bukit Tigapuluh National Park (Taman Nasional Bukit Tigapuluh) Menduyan Lake (Danau Menduyan) Hulu Lake (Danau Hulu) Tall House (Rumah Tinggi) Sungai Arang Waterfall (Air Terjun Sungai Arang) Pontianai Waterfall (Air Terjun Pontianani) Pejangki Waterfall (Air Terjun Pejangki) Nunusan Waterfall (Air Terjun Nunusal) Siamang Waterfall (Air Terjun Siamang) Buyung Waterfall (Air Terjun Buyung) Pintu Tujuh Waterfall (Air Terjun Pintu Tujuh) Tembulun Waterfall (Air Terjun Tembulun) Bukit Lancang Waterfall (Air Terjun Bukit Lancang) Sungai Pampang Cave (Gua Sungai Pampang) Sungai Keruh Cave (Gua Sungai Keruh) Sungai Kandi Cave (Gua Sungai Kandi) Duplicate of Indragiri Palace (Duplikat Istana Indragiri) Boat Kijang Serong (Boat Oversized King) [Perahu Kijang Serong (Perahu Kebesaran Raja] Loyang Pond (Kolam Loyang) Indigenous Cultural of Talang Mamak (Budaya Suku Asli Talang Mamak) Other meanings Rengat is also the name of a male Sumatran tiger at the Toronto Zoo. References External links Government Official Site Community Site Riau Regency seats of Riau

262705

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special%20forces%20of%20India

Special forces of India

India has several special forces (SF) units. The three branches of the Indian Armed Forces have separate special forces units, viz. the Para SF of the Indian Army, the MARCOS of the Indian Navy and the Garud Commando Force of the Indian Air Force. There are other special forces which are not controlled by the military but operate under civilian organisations such as Home ministry’s National Security Guard. Small groups from the military SF units are deputed in the Armed Forces Special Operations Division, which has a unified command and control structure. Research and Analysis Wing, the external Intelligence agency of India, has separate special forces under its control, namely the Special Group and the Special Frontier Force. Indian Army Para (Special Forces) The Parachute Regiment (Special Forces), or Para (SF), are the special forces of the Indian Army. This unit was created in June 1966 in the aftermath of the 1965 Indo-Pakistani war. An impromptu commando unit called Meghdoot Force, which took part in the 1965 war, formed the first nucleus of the permanent Para commando battalion which was to be raised under the Parachute Regiment. By 1969, the unit had grown into 2 battalions, viz. the 9 Para and the 10 Para. The unit's first combat missions were conducted during the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war in which they undertook raids against Pakistan's military. In 1988, the 3 Para (SF) and 6 Para participated in the first known foreign intervention by the Indian Army during Operation Cactus in Maldives. Operation Cactus was launched to thwart a coup against the government of president Maumoon Abdul Gayoom. In the late 1980s, the Para (SF) were deployed in Sri Lanka where they conducted helicopter-borne assaults and security operations. Since the 1990s, the Para (SF) have been deployed on counter-terrorism operations in the Kashmir region against insurgents. These operations include raids and ambushes. In 1999, Para (SF) undertook operations against Pakistan’s military during the Kargil war which included raids against Pakistani infantry and special forces. In 2002, the 2 Para (SF) participated in Operation Khukri in Sierra Leone to rescue 223 soldiers of the Indian Army's 5/8 Gorkha Rifles who were deployed as UN peacekeepers but were surrounded by militants from the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone. Some of the later reported missions carried out by Para (SF) include the 2016 ′Surgical Strikes′ and the 2015 Operation Hot Pursuit, purportedly undertaken inside Myanmar. The list of PARA (SF) Battalions is as follows: 1 PARA (SF)"1st PARAs/Red Devils" 2 PARA (SF)"Predators" 3 PARA (SF)"Russell's Vipers" 4 PARA (SF)"Daggers" 9 PARA (SF)"Mountain Rats/Ghosts/Pirates" 10 PARA (SF)"Desert Scorpions" 11 PARA (SF)"Vipers" 12 PARA (SF)"Dirty Dozens" 21 PARA (SF)"Waghnakhs" Indian Navy MARCOS First conceived in 1985, the Marine Commando Force, also called MARCOS, was raised in February 1987. It is the special forces unit of the Indian Navy. Initially, the U.S. Navy SEALs and British special forces trained a few officers of the Indian navy who formed the first core of MARCOS. Months after their creation, MARCOS were deployed in Sri Lanka against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in July 1987. In the 1990s, MARCOS undertook numerous operations such as Operation Tasha (1991) against the LTTE, Operation Zabardust (1992) against a ship that was smuggling arms and in support of the United Nations in Somalia (1993). They also participated in the 1999 Kargil War. Since 1995, MARCOS are permanently deployed for counter-terrorism operations in Jammu and Kashmir against militants. MARCOS had participated in efforts against the 2008 Mumbai attacks alongside the National Security Guards but their effectiveness was diluted due to bureaucratic indecision. MARCOS have also been deployed in anti-piracy operations. After a 10 week long basic training, MARCOS are sent to train alongside Indian Army’s Para commandos for 3 weeks. Advanced training follows, during which MARCOS learn skills such as sky-diving, weapons training, counter-insurgency, languages and warfare in different terrains, among other things. Each MARCOS squad, called Prahar, is composed of 8 soldiers. Some of the responsibilities of MARCOS are- Providing support to Amphibious operations. Special surveillance and reconnaissance operations. Clandestine operations inside hostile territory, including diving operations and raids. Counter-terrorism operations. Indian Air Force Garud Commando Force The Garud commandos are the special forces of the Indian Air Force (IAF). Their tasks include counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, providing security to IAF’s vulnerably located assets and various air force-specific special operations. First conceived in 2002, this unit was officially established on February 6, 2004. All Garuds are volunteers who are imparted a 52-week basic training, which includes a three-month probation followed by special operations training, basic airborne training and other warfare and survival skills. The last phase of basic training sees Garuds been deployed to get combat experience. Advanced training follows, which includes specialised weapons training. The mandated tasks of the Garuds include direct action, special reconnaissance, rescuing downed pilots in hostile territory, establishing airbases in hostile territory and providing air-traffic control to these airbases. The Garuds also undertake suppression of enemy air defences and the destruction of other enemy assets such as radars, evaluation of the outcomes of Indian airstrikes and use laser designators to guide Indian airstrikes. The security of IAF installations and assets are usually performed by the Air Force Police and the Defence Security Corps even though some critical assets are protected by the Garuds. Research and Analysis Wing Special Group The Special Group is a confidential special forces unit of the Research and Analysis Wing. It was formed in 1981. The responsibilities of the Special Group includes clandestine intelligence operations and covert operations, with which the Government of India may not wish to be overtly associated. Special Frontier Force The Special Frontier Force is a confidential special forces unit of the Research and Analysis Wing which was created on 14 November 1962 to undertake operations against the Chinese People's Liberation Army. Based in Chakrata, Uttarakhand, SFF is also known as the Establishment 22. The force was put under the direct supervision of the Intelligence Bureau, and later, the Research and Analysis Wing, India's external intelligence agency. It consists primarily of Tibetan people who are tasked to undertake operations in the tough terrain of the Himalayas and Tibet, whose main goal was to conduct covert operations behind Chinese lines in case of another war between the People's Republic of China and India. Internal security agency with SF mandate National Security Guard The National Security Guard, which is a specialized counter-terrorism Federal Contingency Force. The NSG was formally created in 1986. It is modelled on the basis of the British Special Air Service and the German GSG 9. The NSG are popularly referred to as the 'Black Cats' due to their distinct black uniforms. It consists of the following two elements- SAG (Special Action Group), which recruits personnel from the Indian Army. SRG (Special Rangers Group), which recruits personnel from the Central Armed Police Forces. Special Protection Group The Special Protection Group is a specialised unit which provides protection to former Prime Ministers and the current Prime Minister of India, along with their family members for a minimum duration of 5 years. It was set up in 1985 after the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. It is also special operations capable and has well-equipped soldiers trained for that purpose. In Popular Culture In April 2017, a web series titled The Test Case was released featuring the fictional story of the first woman training to serve in a combat role within the Indian special force. Uri: The Surgical Strike (2019) is a dramatised account of the tactical strike reportedly conducted by the Para (Special Forces) on the camps of terrorists across the Line of Control in retaliation for the 2016 Uri attack. See also Armed Forces Special Operations Division, Indian tri-services command at operational level References Counter-terrorist organizations

262712

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash-and-burn

Slash-and-burn

Slash-and-burn agriculture is a farming method that involves the cutting and burning of plants in a forest or woodland to create a field called a swidden. The method begins by cutting down the trees and woody plants in an area. The downed vegetation, or "slash", is then left to dry, usually right before the rainiest part of the year. Then, the biomass is burned, resulting in a nutrient-rich layer of ash which makes the soil fertile, as well as temporarily eliminating weed and pest species. After about three to five years, the plot's productivity decreases due to depletion of nutrients along with weed and pest invasion, causing the farmers to abandon the field and move over to a new area. The time it takes for a swidden to recover depends on the location and can be as little as five years to more than twenty years, after which the plot can be slashed and burned again, repeating the cycle. In Bangladesh and India, the practice is known as jhum or jhoom. Slash-and-burn is a type of shifting cultivation, an agricultural system in which farmers routinely move from one cultivable area to another. A rough estimate is that 200 million to 500 million people worldwide use slash-and-burn. Slash-and-burn causes temporary deforestation. Ashes from the burnt trees help farmers by providing nutrients for the soil. In low density of human population this approach is very sustainable but the technique is not scalable for large human populations. A similar term is assarting, which is the clearing of forests, usually (but not always) for the purpose of agriculture. Assarting does not include burning. History Historically, slash-and-burn cultivation has been practiced throughout much of the world. Fire was already used by hunter-gatherers before the invention of agriculture, and still is in present times. Clearings created by the fire were made for many reasons, such as to provide new growth for game animals and to promote certain kinds of edible plants. During the Neolithic Revolution, groups of hunter-gatherers domesticated various plants and animals, permitting them to settle down and practice agriculture, which provided more nutrition per hectare than hunting and gathering. Some groups could easily plant their crops in open fields along river valleys, but others had forests covering their land. Thus, since Neolithic times, slash-and-burn agriculture has been widely used to clear land to make it suitable for crops and livestock. Large groups wandering in the woodlands was once a common form of society in European prehistory. The extended family burned and cultivated their swidden plots, sowed one or more crops, and then proceeded on to the next plot. Technique Slash-and-burn fields are typically used and owned by a family until the soil is exhausted. At this point the ownership rights are abandoned, the family clears a new field, and trees and shrubs are permitted to grow on the former field. After a few decades, another family or clan may then use the land and claim usufructuary rights. In such a system there is typically no market in farmland, so land is not bought or sold on the open market and land rights are traditional. In slash-and-burn agriculture, forests are typically cut months before a dry season. The "slash" is permitted to dry and then burned in the following dry season. The resulting ash fertilizes the soil and the burned field is then planted at the beginning of the next rainy season with crops such as rice, maize, cassava, or other staples. This work was once done using simple tools such as machetes, axes, hoes and shovels. Benefits and drawbacks This system of agriculture provides millions of people with food and income. It has been ecologically sustainable for thousands of years. Because the leached soil in many tropical regions, such as the Amazon, are nutritionally extremely poor, slash-and-burn is one of the only types of agriculture which can be practiced in these areas. Slash-and-burn farmers typically plant a variety of crops, instead of a monoculture, and contribute to a higher biodiversity due to creating mosaic habitats. The general ecosystem is not harmed in traditional slash-and-burn, aside from a small temporary patch. Slash and burn agriculture may be thought of as a form of agroforestry. This technique is most unsuitable for the production of cash crops. A huge amount of land, or a low density of people, is required for slash-and-burn. When slash-and-burn is practiced in the same area too often, because the human population density has increased to an unsustainable level, the forest will eventually be destroyed. Regionally South Asia Tribal groups in the northeastern Indian states of Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland and the Bangladeshi districts of Rangamati, Khagrachari, Bandarban and Sylhet refer to slash-and-burn agriculture as jhum or jhoom cultivation. The system involves clearing land, by fire or clear-felling, for economically-important crops such as upland rice, vegetables or fruits. After a few cycles, the land's fertility declines and a new area is chosen. Jhum cultivation is most often practiced on the slopes of thickly-forested hills. Cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight to reach the land, burning the trees and grasses for fresh soil. Although it is believed that this helps fertilize the land, it can leave it vulnerable to erosion. Holes are made for the seeds of crops such as sticky rice, maize, eggplant and cucumber. After considering jhums effects, the government of Mizoram has introduced a policy to end the method in the state. Americas Some American civilizations, like the Maya, sometimes used this agricultural technique. Native Americans in the United States also used fire in agriculture and hunting. Northern Europe Slash-and-burn techniques were used in northeastern Sweden in agricultural systems. In Sweden the practice is known as . Telkkämäki Nature Reserve in Kaavi, Finland, is an open-air museum where slash-and-burn agriculture is demonstrated. Farm visitors can see how people farmed when slash-and-burn was the norm in the Northern Savonian region of eastern Finland beginning in the 15th century. Areas of the reserve are burnt each year. is a Swedish and Norwegian term for slash-and-burn agriculture derived from the Old Norse word , which means "to burn". This practice originated in Russia in the region of Novgorod and was widespread in Finland and Eastern Sweden during the Medieval period. It spread to western Sweden in the 16th Century when Finnish settlers were encouraged to migrate there by King Gustav Vasa to help clear the dense forests. Later, when the Finns were persecuted by the local Swedes, farming was spread by refugees to Eastern Norway in the Eastern part of Solør, in the area bordering Sweden known as Finnskogen ("the Finnish woods"). The practice also spread to New Sweden in North America. Reinforced by the use of fire in agriculture and hunting by Native Americans, it became an important part of pioneering in America. Description of process involved stripping a ring of bark completely around the trunk of coniferous trees like pine or spruce or felling them, allowing them to dry, setting fire to the dried forest and growing crops on the fertile ash-covered soil. The resulting ash was highly fertile, but only for a short period. The clearing was initially planted to rye as soon as the ash had fully settled and sufficiently cooled. When the rain came, it packed the ash around the rye. The rye germinated and grew prolifically, with anywhere from 25 to 100 stalks (or straws), each with multiple grains. Only two tools were required, the axe and the sickle. The axe cut the trees to start the cycle. When the rye had ripened, it was harvested with a sickle, which could reach among the rocks and stumps where a scythe would have been ineffective. In the second and third year the field would be sown with turnips or cabbages. It then might be grazed for several years before being allowed to return to woodland. culture required felling new forest and burning a new area every year. It was necessary to allow the former fields to regrow with forest for 10–30 years before repeating the cycle. As a result, the dwellings were often many kilometers from the fields. Furthermore, since the process was man-power intensive, extended families tended to work together and live in compact communities. The farming approach required a large area. When forest was plentiful, the Finns were very prosperous. As population grew and restrictions were placed on the forest which could be burned, it became increasingly difficult. By 1710, during the conflict with Sweden, because of their suspect loyalties Norwegian authorities considered expelling them from the border area, but did not do so because it was judged they were too poor to survive if evicted. Research This type of agriculture is discouraged by many developmental or environmentalist organisations, with the main alternatives being promoted are switching to more intensive, permanent farming methods, or promoting a shift from farming to working in different, higher-paying industries altogether. Other organisations promote helping farmers achieve higher productivity by introducing new techniques. Not allowing the slashed vegetation to burn completely and ploughing the resultant charcoal into the soil (Slash-and-char) has been proposed as way to boost yields. Promoters of a project from the early 2000s claimed that slash-and-burn cultivation could be reduced if farmers grew black pepper crops between Inga trees, which they termed 'Inga alley cropping'. A method of improving the yields in a type of traditional assarting cultivation used to grow common beans in Central American called 'slash-and-cover', has been proposed, by additionally planting leguminous shrubs to act as a fallow crop after the soil is exhausted and one is ready to clear a new patch of forest. Gallery See also 2006 Southeast Asian haze 2013 Southeast Asian haze 2015 Southeast Asian haze 2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires History of the forest in Central Europe Scorched earth General literature Nesholen, Birger (1994). "Svedjebrukerne", Østlandske Skogsområder, Den Norske Turistforening. Pyne, Stephen J. (1997). Vestal Fire: An Environmental History, Told Through Fire, of Europe and Europe's Encounter with the World. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. . Stagg, Frank Noel (1956). East Norway and Its Frontier. Allen & Unwin. Citations External links Video of slash-and-burn at the Telkkämäki Nature Reserve, Finland, in 2012 Video of slash-and-burn in Sweden around 1930–32 (from the YouTube channel of the Nordic Museum) Agriculture by type Environmental issues with forests Fire in culture Tropical agriculture Forest management Agriculture in Sweden Agriculture in the United Kingdom Forestry in Finland Forestry in Norway Forestry in Russia Forestry in Sweden Forestry in the United Kingdom Agriculture in Russia Agriculture in Finland

262713

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial%20bombing%20of%20cities

Aerial bombing of cities

The aerial bombing of cities is an optional element of strategic bombing, which became widespread in warfare during World War I. The bombing of cities grew to a vast scale in World War II, and is still practiced today. The development of aerial bombardment marked an increased capacity of armed forces to deliver ordnance from the air against combatants, military bases, and factories, with a greatly reduced risk to its ground forces. The killing of civilians and non-combatants in bombed cities has variously been a deliberate goal of strategic bombing, or unavoidable collateral damage resulting from intent and technology. A number of multilateral efforts have been made to restrict the use of aerial bombardment so as to protect non-combatants. Before World War I Kites Incendiary kites were first used in warfare by the Chinese. During the Song dynasty the Fire Crow, a kite carrying incendiary powder, a fuse, and a burning stick of incense was developed as a weapon. Walter de Milemete's 1326 De nobilitatibus, sapientiis, et prudentiis regum treatise depicts a group of knights flying kite laden with a black-powder filled firebomb over the wall of city. In the 17th century, the forces of Thai king Phetracha tied gunpowder barrels to kites used for airborne assault. Venice 1849 In 1849, Austrian forces besieging Venice launched some 200 incendiary balloons, each carrying a 24- to 30-pound bomb that was to be dropped from the balloon with a time fuse over the besieged city. The balloons were launched from land and from the Austrian navy ship SMS Vulcano that acted as a balloon carrier. Italian Invasion of Libya The first ever air raid was conducted during the Italo-Turkish War by Italian forces against the Ottoman province of Libya on November 1, 1911. Giulio Gavotti dropped 1.5 kg of bombs on Ain Zara, a village 8 km west of the capital Tripoli. Balkan War Adrianople (presently Edirne) was bombed by Bulgaria in 1912 in the First Balkan War. Historically, it was the first bombardment of a city from a heavier-than-air aircraft. In the morning of 29 October 1912 at 9:30 a.m. the plane Albatros F-3 took off from an airfield near the village of Mustafa Pasha – present day Svilengrad, Bulgaria. The pilot was captain Radul Mikov with spotter and bombardier Prodan Tarakchiev. The airfield was specially created to carry out the take off and landing. According to the report weather conditions were perfect. The flight lasted for 1 hour and 20 minutes and the altitude was 500m. During the flight the crew flew over the city of Edirne, discovered hidden Ottoman forces in the nearby villages and flew towards to city railroad station, near the village of Karaagach. The plane was equipped with two bombs, which were released at 10:00 am over the station. The crew landed successfully at the airfield with 4 holes on the hull. A number of journalists and military attachés attended the site. Mexican Revolution In May 1914, during the revolution of 1910–17, General Venustiano Carranza, later president, ordered a biplane to bomb Neveria Hill adjacent to the downtown area of Mazatlán in order to take the city. The bomb landed not on target but in a city street and in the process killed four civilians, including a French diplomat, and wounded several others. World War I The first civilian target to be bombed from the air was the Belgian city of Antwerp. This city, at that moment the National Redoubt of Belgium, was bombed during the night of 24–25 August 1914. Instead of targeting the surrounding fortresses, the Zeppelin LZ 25's intention was to bomb the clearly distinguishable historical centre of the city. The zeppelin dropped approximately ten bombs, killing ten people and injuring forty. The British Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) undertook the first Entente strategic bombing missions on 22 September 1914 and 8 October, when it bombed the Zeppelin bases in Cologne and Düsseldorf. The aeroplanes carried twenty-pound bombs, and at least one airship was destroyed. On 19 January 1915 two German Zeppelins dropped 24 fifty-kilogram (110 lb) high-explosive bombs and ineffective three-kilogram incendiaries on the English towns of Great Yarmouth, Sheringham, King's Lynn, and the surrounding villages; in all, four people were killed, 16 injured, and monetary damage was estimated at £7,740. London was bombed for the first time on 30 May 1915. In July 1916, the German government allowed directed raids against urban centers, sparking 23 airship raids in 1916 in which 125 tons of ordnance were dropped, killing 293 people and injuring 691. Gradually British air defenses improved and the Germans also introduced large bomber aircraft for bombing Britain. In 1917 and 1918 there were only eleven Zeppelin raids against England, and the final raid occurred on 5 August 1918, which resulted in the death of KK Peter Strasser, commander of the German Naval Airship Department. By the end of the war, 51 raids had been undertaken, in which 5,806 bombs were dropped, killing 557 people and injuring 1,358. In the course of the Zeppelin raids the Germans lost more than half their airships and 40% of their crew. It has been argued that the raids were effective far beyond material damage inflicted, in diverting and hampering wartime production, and diverting twelve squadrons and over 10,000 men to air defenses. The British developed an Independent Force of long-range bombers that could bomb Berlin, but the war ended before these raids began. After the war, bombers' increasing sophistication led to the general belief that aerial bombing would both destroy cities and be impossible to stop; as Stanley Baldwin stated in a 1932 speech, "The bomber will always get through". Interbellum period Iraqi revolt against the British After World War I, there were protests in Iraq against continued British rule. Many Iraqis across a wide spectrum of opinion opposed the British Mandate for Iraq. The Iraqi revolt against the British began, with peaceful demonstrations in May 1920. Initial demands were rejected by the British administration, and fighting broke out in June 1920. This was suppressed, with many deaths, and at very high costs to the Empire. A policy of 'aerial policing', an invention of Winston Churchill's was brought in. This amounted to aerial bombing of rebelling tribesmen, followed up by pacification by ground troops. This continued up to the mid 1920s. The aerial campaign included Sir Arthur Harris, 1st Baronet, who commanded a Vickers Vernon squadron engaged in the bombing and strafing of revolting tribesmen. Harris once remarked that "the only thing the Arab understands is the heavy hand." Somaliland Campaign Following the end of World War I, the British stepped up their efforts in their war against the Dervish movement, their sultan Diiriye Guure and emir, the so-called "Mad Mullah", whom they had been fighting for the control the area formerly known as British Somaliland. However, they had been unable to defeat the Dervish movement for nearly 25 years. In January 1920, the British launched a combined aerial and land attack against the Dhulbahante garesas, bombarding Taleeh, the capital of the revolt. The Somaliland Campaign has been described as one of the bloodiest and longest-running conflicts in the history of sub-Saharan Africa and the Somali forces are noted for concurrently repelling the invading British, Italian and Abyssinian forces for a period of 25 years. Tulsa race massacre In the United States during the Tulsa race massacre of May 31 – June 1, 1921, private aircraft flown by white men dropped kerosene bombs on the Greenwood neighborhood. Cristero War During the Cristero War in Mexico in 1929, Irish pilot and mercenary Patrick Murphy mistakenly dropped several improvised "suitcase bombs" on the border town of Naco, Arizona, while bombing government forces in the adjacent town of Naco, Sonora, for the Cristero revolutionaries. The bombing, which caused damage to many buildings and injured several bystanders on the American side of the international border, became the first aerial bombardment of the Continental United States by a foreign power in American history. Second Italo-Abyssinian War The Italians used aircraft against the Ethiopian cities in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. For example, in February 1936, the Italian invasion forces in the south prepared for a major thrust towards the city of Harar. On 22 March, the Regia Aeronautica bombed Harar and Jijiga as a prelude. Both cities were reduced to ruins even though Harar had been declared an "open city".<ref>Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936, p. 112</ref> Spanish Civil War During the Spanish Civil War, the Nationalists under Francisco Franco made extensive use of aerial bombing on civilian targets. Nazi Germany gave aircraft to Franco to support the overthrow of the Spanish Republican government. The first major example of this came in November 1936, when German and Spanish aircraft bombed Republican-held Madrid; this bombardment was sustained throughout the Siege of Madrid. Barcelona and Valencia were also targeted in this way. On 26 April 1937, the German Luftwaffe (Condor Legion) bombed the Spanish city of Guernica carrying out the most high-profile aerial attack of the war. This act caused worldwide revulsion and was the subject of a famous painting by Picasso, but by the standards of bombings during World War II, casualties were fairly minor (estimates ranging from 500 to 1,500). Shortly after, the front-page headlines of the Diario de Almeria, dated June 3, 1937, referred to the press in London and Paris carrying the news of the "criminal bombardment of Almeria by German planes". Barcelona was bombarded for three days beginning on 16 March 1938, at the height of the Spanish Civil War. Under the command of the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, Italian aircraft stationed on the island of Majorca attacked 13 times dropping 44 tons of bombs, aimed at the civil population. The medieval Cathedral of Barcelona suffered bomb damage and more than one thousand people died, including many children. The number of people injured is estimated to be in the thousands. Many others Spanish towns and cities were bombed by the German Legion Condor and the Italian Aviazione Legionaria among them Jaen, Durango, Granollers and Alicante. The Spanish Republican government also used aerial bombings, but not as extensively, as they did not have as many planes available. Cities like Valladolid, Granada, Sevilla, Zaragoza or Burgos were bombarded, killing some people. The biggest aerial attack against civil population was in Cabra, a small town away from the war front, and with no strategic value, that was bombed due to an error. 109 people were killed and more than 200 wounded. Planes coming from Barcelona launched three bombs against the Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar on August 3rd, 1936. The bombs failed to detonate, but did damage one of the cupolas painted by Goya. The fact was considered a miracle, as, if the bombs had exploded, the eastern half of the Cathedral would have been completely destroyed. Second Sino-Japanese War During the Manchurian Incident of 1931, the Japanese widely used airplanes to indiscriminately bomb key targets and cities, such as Mukden. After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service, in conjunction with the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service, began relentlessly bombing Shanghai, Beijing (Peking), Tianjin (Tientsin) and several cities on the Chinese coast from the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937. The bombing campaigns on Nanking and Canton which started in September 1937 evoked protests from the Western powers culminating in a resolution by the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations. An example of the many expressions of indignation came from Lord Cranborne, the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs: Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. They are often directed against places far from the actual area of hostilities. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take a completely second place. The main object seems to be to inspire terror by the indiscriminate slaughter of civilians ... World War II European Theater At the beginning of World War II, bombing of cities prior to invasion was an integral part of Nazi Germany's strategy. In the first stages of war, the Germans carried out many bombings of towns and cities in Poland (1939), including the capital Warsaw (also bombed in 1944), with Wieluń being the first city destroyed by 75%. The Soviet Union also attempted strategic bombing against Poland and Finland, bombing Helsinki. Rotterdam was bombed by Germany at 14 May 1940. The city had already surrendered an hour earlier, but the attack was not called off. Germany began aerial bombing of British cities immediately after the British declaration of war on Germany in September 1939, while the first British bombing raids against Germany were on the night of 15/16 May of 1940, with 78 bombers against oil targets, 9 against steelworks and 9 against marshalling yards, all military and industrial targets in the German hinterland. Oil remained the main British objective until the summer of 1941, although German cities and towns were regularly bombed from May 1940. Previous raids had been carried out by the RAF, but when targets were not found, the bombers returned without making an attack. After the Fall of France, the Luftwaffe redirected its full attention to the United Kingdom. The scale of the attack increased greatly in July 1940, with 258 civilians killed, and again in August with 1,075 dead. During the night of 25 August, British bombers raided targets in and around Greater Berlin for the first time, in response to the misdirected bombing of Oxford Street and the West End by the Luftwaffe while it was bombing the London docks. On 4 September 1940 Hitler, frustrated by the RAF's superiority over the Luftwaffe and enraged by its bombing of German cities, decided to retaliate by bombing London and other cities in the UK. On 7 September the Luftwaffe began massed attacks on London. The bombing campaign was known in the UK as "the Blitz", and ran from September 1940 through to May 1941. The Coventry Blitz and the Belfast Blitz were two of the heaviest of all bombings by the Luftwaffe, killing 568–1,000 civilians of Coventry, killing over 1,100 civilians in Belfast, and destroying much of both city centres. British bombing policy evolved during the war. In the beginning, the RAF was forbidden to attack urban targets in Germany due to the risk of accidental civilian casualties. Following a German attack on military targets in the Orkney Islands on 16 March 1940 that killed a civilian, the RAF mounted an attack on the seaplane base on the island of Sylt. The RAF began attacking transport targets west of the Rhine on the night of 10 May following the German invasion of the Low Countries, and military targets in the rest of Germany after the bombing of Rotterdam. On 9 September 1940 RAF crews were instructed that due to the "indiscriminate" nature of German bombing, if they failed to find their assigned targets they were to attack targets of opportunity rather than bring their bombs home. On the 15/16 December the RAF carried out its first area bombing attack (destroying 45% of the city of Mannheim), officially in response to the raid on Coventry. In 1942, the goals of the British attacks were defined: the primary goal was the so-called "morale bombing", to weaken the will of the civil population to resist. Following this directive intensive bombing of highly populated city centers and working class quarters started. On 30 May 1942, the RAF Bomber Command launched the first "1,000 bomber raid" when 1,046 aircraft bombed Cologne in Operation Millennium, dropping over 2,000 tons of high explosive and incendiaries on the medieval town and burning it from end to end. 411 civilians and 85 combatants were killed, more than 130,000 had to leave the city. Two further 1,000 bomber raids were executed over Essen and Bremen, but to less effect than the destruction at Cologne. The effects of the massive raids using a combination of blockbuster bombs and incendiaries created firestorms in some cites. The most extreme examples were caused by the bombing of Hamburg in Operation Gomorrah (45,000 dead), and the bombings of Kassel (10,000 dead), Darmstadt (12,500 dead), Pforzheim (21,200 dead), Swinemuende (23,000 dead), and Dresden (25,000 dead). The Allies also bombed urban areas in the other countries, including occupied France (Caen) and the major industrial cities of northern Italy, like Milan and Turin. Some cities were bombed at the different times by the Luftwaffe and the Allies, for example Belgrade in Yugoslavia and Bucharest in Romania. The Luftwaffe also bombed cities in the Soviet Union, destroying Stalingrad in a massive air raid at the start of the Battle of Stalingrad and bombing Leningrad during the siege of the city of 1941–1943. The Soviet bombing of the German cities was limited in comparison with the RAF bombing (destruction caused by the Soviet army was mainly due to the land artillery). The Soviet Air Force also bombed Budapest in Hungary. Asiatic-Pacific Theater In the Asiatic-Pacific Theater, Japan continued to bomb Chinese cities and expanded its air operations towards others in Asia such as Singapore, Rangoon, and Mandalay. In the first few months of the war with the Western Powers, Japan projected its airpower on settlements as distant as Honolulu, Darwin, and Unalaska. The capture of the Mariana Islands in 1944 enabled the United States Army Air Forces to reach the Japanese home islands using the Boeing B-29 Superfortress. The U.S. firebombed Tokyo on the night of March 9–10, 1945, and killed more than 100,000 people in the deadliest conventional bombing in history, known as Operation Meetinghouse. In a few hours, 100,000 people who were in Tokyo including civilians died either by the bombing or the conflagration that followed the bombing by 325 B-29's night attacks. The bombing was meant to burn wooden buildings and indeed the bombing caused fire that created a 50 m/s wind that is comparable to tornadoes. A total of 381,300 bombs amounting to 1783 tons, were used in the bombing. After the successful Operation Meetinghouse raid, the USAAF went on to firebomb other Japanese cities in effort to pulverize the Japanese war industry and shatter Japanese civilian morale. From March to August 1945, the U.S. firebombing of 67 Japanese cities had killed 350,000 civilians. In addition, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed 120,000 people. Since World War II Philadelphia, PA On May 13, 1985 the Philadelphia police confronted a group of citizens belonging to the MOVE organization. The city's effort to evict the group led to an armed confrontation that ended with the dropping of a satchel bomb on the row house occupied by the MOVE members. In the resulting conflagration eleven people including five children were killed. The flames spread and sixty-one adjacent homes were destroyed leaving 250 people homeless. Korean War During the Korean War of 1950–1953, U.S.-led UN air forces heavily bombed the cities in North Korea and the North-occupied South Korea, including their respective capital cities. There were also plans to use nuclear weapons against North Korea and the People's Republic of China. Vietnam War From 1965 to 1968, during the Vietnam War, the United States Air Force conducted an aerial campaign known as Operation Rolling Thunder. The campaign began with interdiction of supply lines in rural areas of southern North Vietnam but incrementally spread northward throughout the country. In 1966, restrictions against bombing the capital city of Hanoi and the country's largest port, Haiphong, were lifted, and they were bombed by the USAF and Navy. The bombing of the city centers continued to be prohibited. However, the South Vietnamese cities seized by the communists were bombed, including the former capital of Huế during the 1968 Tet Offensive. The Republic of Vietnam Air Force bombed contested cities in South Vietnam in 1968, 1972 and 1975, while the Vietnam People's Air Force attacked Southern cities (including the capital city of Saigon) in 1975. Arab–Israeli conflict The Lebanese capital of Beirut was attacked by the Israeli aircraft during the Siege of Beirut in 1982, and during the 2006 Lebanon War (using guided munitions). Israeli cities were bombed by Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian aircraft during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war and the Six-Day War. The bombing included attacks on some of Israel's largest cities, such as Tel Aviv, Jerusalem and Haifa. Israel also conducted air strikes targeting Palestinian targets during the Second Intifada, including against Hamas in Gaza. Wars in Afghanistan In March 1979, in response to an uprising, the Khalq-control army of Democratic Republic of Afghanistan carpet-bombed the Afghanistan's third-largest city of Herat, causing massive destruction and some 5,000 to 25,000 deaths. Herat was also repeatedly bombed during the following Soviet involvement in the Afghan civil war. Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the U.S.-led coalition attacked the urban targets in Afghanistan using mainly precision-guided munitions (or "smart bombs"). The United States government maintains that it has a policy of striking only significant combatant targets while doing all possible to avoid what it terms "collateral damage" to civilians and non-combatants during the U.S.-led war in Afghanistan. Iran–Iraq War Saddam Hussein's Iraq attacked civilian targets in Iranian cities in the War of the Cities during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, with Iranians retaliating in kind (both sides soon switched to ballistic missile attacks). Iraqi aircraft also bombed the Iraqi Kurdistan city of Halabjain 1988 with conventional and chemical weapons in 1988, killing more than 5,000 people in the largest aerial poison gas attack in history. Somalia's campaign against Isaaq In 1988 Somali Air Force aircraft conducted intense aerial bombardment of major Isaaq cities targeting civilian Isaaqs during its campaign against Somali National Movement in the north of the country. Civilians were also strafed by Somali Air Force aircraft as they were fleeing the aerial bombardment. The artillery shelling and aerial bombardment caused the deaths of estimated 50,000–200,000 Isaaq civilians, as well as the complete destruction of Somalia's second and third largest cities. It also caused up to 500,000 Somalis (primarily of the Isaaq clan) to flee and cross the border into Hartasheikh in Ethiopia as refugees in what was described as "one of the fastest and largest forced movements of people recorded in Africa", and resulted in the creation of the world's largest refugee camp then (1988), with another 400,000 being internally displaced. The scale of destruction led to Hargeisa being known as the 'Dresden of Africa'. Gulf War The Iraqi Air Force attacked Kuwait City in 1990 and bombed their own cities during the 1991 uprisings in Iraq, targeting civilians with the use of bomb-carrying helicopters (use of airplanes was banned by the Coalition as part of the ceasefire agreement that ended hostilities of the Gulf War but not the war itself). UN-led coalition aircraft attacked targets in Iraqi cities, including in the capital Baghdad and the largest southern city of Basra during Operation Desert Storm in 1991. On 13 February 1991, two laser-guided smart bombs destroyed the Amiriyah blockhouse, which was a civilian air-raid shelter, killing hundreds of civilians. U.S. officials claimed that the blockhouse was also a military communications centre. Jeremy Bowen, a BBC correspondent, was one of the first television reporters on the scene. Bowen was given access to the site and did not find evidence of military use. However, Wafiq al-Sammarrai, Chief of Iraqi General Military Intelligence would later assert that the shelter had been used by elements of the Iraqi Intelligence Service, and that it had been visited on occasion by Saddam Hussein himself. A day after the Amiriyah attack, a British warplane fired a laser-guided missile at a bridge in the Al-Fallujah neighborhood west of Baghdad. It missed and hit a residential area, killing up to 130 civilians. When friends and relatives rushed to the scene to assist the injured, British warplanes returned to bomb them, as well. Yugoslav wars At the beginning of the Yugoslav Wars, in Croatia (1991), the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) carried out aerial bombing of Dubrovnik and Vukovar. NATO's aerial bombing of FR Yugoslavia in 1999, an answer to the Yugoslav campaign of ethnic cleansing in Kosovo, included targeted aerial bombing throughout Serbia, notably of targets in Belgrade, Novi Sad and Niš. In addition to military casualties, there were at least 500 civilian casualties. Despite the NATO campaign appearing to violate NATO's charter, the UNSC rebutted the case on March 24 and March 26, 1999. In addition to purely military targets NATO targeted the national power grid (leaving many cities in the dark), water purification plants, oil refineries, fertilizer factories, and a petrochemical plant in Pancevo. The 78-day bombing campaign is assessed as having been an 'economic catastrophe', cutting the Yugoslav economy in half. Chechen wars Post-Soviet Russia heavily bombed the Chechen capital of Grozny from the air with mostly unguided munitions (including fuel-air explosives) as well as bombarding it with a massive artillery barrages (1994–1995, 1996 and 1999–2000), killing thousands of people (some estimates say 27,000 civilians were killed during the 1994–1995 siege alone) including civilians during the First and Second Chechen Wars. Although the Russian pilots and soldiers were ordered to attack designated targets only, such as the Presidential Palace, due to their inexperience and lack of training, Russian soldiers and pilots bombed and shelled random targets inside the city. In 2003, the UN still called Grozny the most destroyed city on earth. Iraq War In 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the U.S.-led coalition aircraft again bombed Iraq, including the Shock and Awe campaign of precision bombing of government targets in the city centers. From 2003 to 2011 and 2014 to 2018, coalition aircraft attacked Iraqi insurgent targets, including in urban locations like Najaf, Fallujah, Mosul, Basra, and Baghdad. There are frequent reports of civilian casualties, though it is often hard to distinguish guerrillas and civilians. Syria Syrian MiG-23s bombed the city of Aleppo on 24 July 2012, the first use of aerial bombing in the Syrian Civil War. Over the course of the war, the Syrian government has dropped tens of thousands of bombs, mostly unguided barrel bombs, on the cities of Aleppo, Damascus, Homs, Hama, Deir ez-Zor, Hasakah, Daraa, Darayya, and Al-Bab. Other conflicts Budapest was attacked by intense Soviet air strikes in 1956 during the Hungarian Revolution. A year before, on 16 June 1955, Casa Rosada, the Argentine government seat at Buenos Aires, was the target of four waves of fighter-bombers during a military uprising to overthrow Juan Peron. Fourteen-tons of bombs scattered on a wide area, killing hundreds of civilian passers-by as well as 11 soldiers. In 2008, the cities of Tskhinvali and Gori were hit by the Georgian and Russian aircraft during the war in Georgia. International law Air warfare, theoretically, must comply with laws and customs of war, including international humanitarian law by protecting the victims of the conflict and refraining from attacks on protected persons. These restraints on aerial warfare are covered by the general laws of war, because unlike war on land and at sea – which are specifically covered by rules such as the 1907 Hague Convention and Protocol I additional to the Geneva Conventions, which contain pertinent restrictions, prohibitions and guidelines – there are no treaties specific to aerial warfare. To be legal, aerial operations must comply with the principles of humanitarian law: military necessity, distinction, and proportionality: An attack or action must be intended to help in the defeat of the enemy; it must be an attack on a legitimate military objective, and the harm caused to civilians or civilian property must be proportional and not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated. See also Area bombardment Civilian casualties of strategic bombing Roerich Pact Strategic bombing United States Strategic Bombing Survey V-2 rocket, the world's first long-range guided ballistic missile to cross the boundary of space, developed in Nazi Germany as a "vengeance weapon" Notes References Francisco Javier Guisández Gómez, a colonel in the Spanish Air Force ICRC: "The Law of Air Warfare" International Review of the Red Cross no 323, pp. 347–63 Jefferson D. Reynolds. "Collateral Damage on the 21st century battlefield: Enemy exploitation of the law of armed conflict, and the struggle for a moral high ground". Air Force Law Review Volume 56, 2005(PDF) pp. 4–108 Charles Rousseau, Le droit des conflits armés, Editions Pedone, Paris, 1983 Further reading Joan T. Phillips. List of documents and web links relating to the law of armed conflict in air and space operations, May 2006. Bibliographer, Muir S. Poochild Research Information Center Maxwell (United States) Air Force Base, Alabama. Hansen, Randall. Fire and Fury: the Allied Bombing of Germany (Doubleday 2008). Wetta, Frank J., and Martin A. Novelli. "Good Bombing, Bad Bombing: Hollywood, Air Warfare, and Morality in World War I and World War II." OAH Magazine of History'' 22.4 (2008): 25-29. online .Cities Aerial .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanatory%20gap

Explanatory gap

In philosophy of mind and consciousness, the explanatory gap is the difficulty that physicalist theories have in explaining how physical properties give rise to the way things feel when they are experienced. It is a term introduced by philosopher Joseph Levine. In the 1983 paper in which he first used the term, he used as an example the sentence, "Pain is the firing of C fibers", pointing out that while it might be valid in a physiological sense, it does not help us to understand how pain feels. The explanatory gap has vexed and intrigued philosophers and AI researchers alike for decades and caused considerable debate. Bridging this gap (that is, finding a satisfying mechanistic explanation for experience and qualia) is known as "the hard problem". To take an example of a phenomenon in which there is no gap, a modern computer's behavior can be adequately explained by its physical components alone, such as its circuitry and software. In contrast, it is thought by many mind-body dualists (e.g. René Descartes, David Chalmers) that subjective conscious experience constitutes a separate effect that demands another cause that is either outside the physical world (dualism) or due to an as yet unknown physical phenomenon (see for instance quantum mind, indirect realism). Proponents of dualism claim that the mind is substantially and qualitatively different from the brain and that the existence of something metaphysically extra-physical is required to "fill the gap". Similarly, some argue that there are further facts—facts that do not follow logically from the physical facts of the world—about conscious experience. For example, they argue that what it is like to experience seeing red does not follow logically from the physical facts of the world. Implications The nature of the explanatory gap has been the subject of some debate. For example, some consider it to simply be a limit on our current explanatory ability. They argue that future findings in neuroscience or future work from philosophers could close the gap. However, others have taken a stronger position and argued that the gap is a definite limit on our cognitive abilities as humans—no amount of further information will allow us to close it. There has also been no consensus regarding what metaphysical conclusions the existence of the gap provides. Those wishing to use its existence to support dualism have often taken the position that an epistemic gap—particularly if it is a definite limit on our cognitive abilities—necessarily entails a metaphysical gap. Levine and others have wished to either remain silent on the matter or argue that no such metaphysical conclusion should be drawn. He agrees that conceivability (as used in the Zombie and inverted spectrum arguments) is flawed as a means of establishing metaphysical realities; but he points out that even if we come to the metaphysical conclusion that qualia are physical, they still present an explanatory problem. While I think this materialist response is right in the end, it does not suffice to put the mind-body problem to rest. Even if conceivability considerations do not establish that the mind is in fact distinct from the body, or that mental properties are metaphysically irreducible to physical properties, still they do demonstrate that we lack an explanation of the mental in terms of the physical. However, such an epistemological or explanatory problem might indicate an underlying metaphysical issue—the non-physicality of qualia, even if not proven by conceivability arguments is far from ruled out. In the end, we are right back where we started. The explanatory gap argument doesn't demonstrate a gap in nature, but a gap in our understanding of nature. Of course a plausible explanation for there being a gap in our understanding of nature is that there is a genuine gap in nature. But so long as we have countervailing reasons for doubting the latter, we have to look elsewhere for an explanation of the former. At the core of the problem, according to Levine, is our lack of understanding of what it means for a qualitative experience to be fully comprehended. He emphasizes that we don't even know to what extent it is appropriate to inquire into the nature of this kind of experience. He uses the laws of gravity as an example, which laws seem to explain gravity completely yet do not account for the gravitational constant. Similarly to the way in which gravity appears to be an inexplicable brute fact of nature, the case of qualia may be one in which we are either lacking essential information or in which we're exploring a natural phenomenon that simply is not further apprehensible. Levine suggests that, as qualitative experience of a physical or functional state may simply be such a brute fact, perhaps we should consider whether or not it is really necessary to find a more complete explanation of qualitative experience. Levine points out that the solution to the problem of understanding how much there is to be known about qualitative experience seems even more difficult because we also lack a way to articulate what it means for actualities to be knowable in the manner that he has in mind. He does conclude that there are good reasons why we wish for a more complete explanation of qualitative experiences. One very significant reason is that consciousness appears to only manifest where mentality is demonstrated in physical systems that are quite highly organized. This, of course, may be indicative of a human capacity for reasoning that is no more than the result of organized functions. Levine expresses that it seems counterintuitive to accept this implication that the human brain, so highly organized as it is, could be no more than a routine executor. He notes that although, at minimum, Materialism appears to entail reducibility of anything that is not physically primary to an explanation of its dependence on a mechanism that can be described in terms of physical fundamentals, that kind of reductionism doesn't attempt to reduce psychology to physical science. However, it still entails that there are inexplicable classes of facts which are not treated as relevant to statements pertinent to psychology. See also Animal consciousness Blindsight Causality Consciousness Explanation Functionalism (philosophy of mind) Further facts Ideasthesia Materialism Mind Mind-body problem Philosophical zombie Philosophy of mind Problem of other minds Qualia Reductionism Reverse engineering Sentience Solipsism Turing test Vitalism References External links Joseph Levine's homepage "What is it like to be a bat?" Thomas Nagel, The Philosophical Review LXXXIII, 4 (October 1974): 435-50. Arguments in philosophy of mind Consciousness studies Mind–body problem Philosophical analogies Philosophy of science

262723

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanotype

Cyanotype

Cyanotype is a photographic printing process that produces a cyan-blue print. Engineers used the process well into the 20th century as a simple and low-cost process to produce copies of drawings, referred to as blueprints. The process uses two chemicals: ferric ammonium citrate and potassium ferricyanide. History The English scientist and astronomer Sir John Herschel discovered the procedure in 1842. Though the process was developed by Herschel, he considered it as mainly a means of reproducing notes and diagrams, as in blueprints. Anna Atkins created a series of cyanotype limited-edition books that documented ferns and other plant life from her extensive seaweed collection, placing specimens directly onto coated paper and allowing the action of light to create a silhouette effect. By using this photogram process, Anna Atkins is sometimes considered the first female photographer. Cyanotype photography was popular in Victorian England, but became less popular as photography improved. Another proponent of the craft was Washington Teasdale from Leeds. Numerous contemporary artists employ the cyanotype process in their art: Christian Marclay, Marco Breuer, Kate Cordsen and John Dugdale. Process In a typical procedure, equal volumes of an 8.1% (w/v) solution of potassium ferricyanide and a 20% solution of ferric ammonium citrate are mixed. The overall contrast of the sensitizer solution can be increased with the addition of approximately 6 drops of 1% (w/v) solution potassium dichromate for every 2 ml of sensitizer solution. This mildly photosensitive solution is then applied to a receptive surface (such as paper or cloth) and allowed to dry in a dark place. Cyanotypes can be printed on any surface capable of soaking up the iron solution. Although watercolor paper is a preferred medium, cotton, wool and even gelatin sizing on nonporous surfaces have been used. Care should be taken to avoid alkaline-buffered papers, which degrade the image over time. An image can be produced by exposing sensitised paper to a source of ultraviolet light (such as sunlight) as a contact print. The combination of UV light and the citrate reduces the iron(III) to iron(II). This is followed by a complex reaction of the iron(II) with ferricyanide. The result is an insoluble, blue pigment (ferric ferrocyanide) known as Prussian blue. The exposure time varies widely, from a few seconds in strong direct sunlight, to 10–20 minute exposures on a dull day. After exposure, the paper is developed by washing in cold running water: the water-soluble iron(III) salts are washed away. The parts that were exposed to ultraviolet turn blue as the non-water-soluble Prussian blue pigment remains in the paper. This is what gives the print its typical blue color. The blue color darkens upon drying. Printmaking The simplest kind of cyanotype print is a photogram, made by arranging objects on sensitised paper. Fresh or pressed plants are a typical subject but any solid object will create an image. A sheet of glass will press flat objects into close contact with the paper, resulting in a sharp image. Otherwise, three-dimensional objects or less than perfectly flat ones will create a more or less blurred image. A variant of photograms are chemigrams. The cyanotype solution is applied, poured or sprayed irregularly. A variant of action painting results from repeated washing and application, placing objects on top. More sophisticated prints can be made from artwork or photographic images on transparent or translucent media. The cyanotype process reverses light and dark, so a negative original is required to print as a positive image. Large format photographic negatives or transparent digital negatives can produce images with a full tonal range, or lithographic film can be used to create high-contrast images. Toning In a cyanotype, blue is usually the desired color. However, a variety of alternative effects can be achieved. These fall into three categories: reducing, intensifying, and toning. It is common to bleach prints before toning them, but also possible to achieve different effects by toning prints without bleaching. Bleaching processes are ways of decreasing the intensity of the blue. Sodium carbonate, ammonia, borax, Dektol photographic developer and other chemicals can be used to do this. Household bleach is also effective, but tends to destroy the paper base. How much and how long to bleach depends on the image content, emulsion thickness and what kind of toning is being used. When using a bleaching agent it is important to control the bleaching process by washing in clean water as soon as the desired effect is achieved, to prevent loss of detail in the highlights. Intensifying processes will strengthen the blue effect. Chemicals used are hydrogen peroxide or mild acidic substances: citric acid, lemon juice, vinegar or acetic acid etc. These can also used to speed up the oxidation process that creates the blue pigment. Toning processes are used to change the color of the iron oxide in the print. The color change varies with the reagent used. A variety of agents can be used, including various types of tea, coffee, wine, urine, tannic acid or pyrogallic acid, resulting in tones varying from brown to black. Most toning processes will to some extent tint the white parts of a print. Long-term preservation In contrast to most historical and present-day processes, cyanotype prints do not react well to basic environments. As a result, it is not advised to store or present the print in chemically buffered museum board, as this makes the image fade. Another unusual characteristic of the cyanotype is its regenerative behavior: prints that have faded due to prolonged exposure to light can often be significantly restored to their original tone by simply temporarily storing them in a dark environment. Cyanotypes on cloth are permanent but must be washed by hand with non-phosphate soap so as to not turn the cyan to yellow. Large cyanotypes There have been some very large cyanotypes. The largest one is 276.64 m (2977.72 ft), created by Stefanos Tsakiris (Greece) in Thessaloniki, Greece, on 18 September 2017. Artistic use See also Cyanography Sepia Monochrome Film tinting Spirit duplicator Mimeograph Duotone References Notes Further reading External links Mike Ware's New Cyanotype – A new version of the cyanotype that address some of the classical cyanotype's shortcomings as a photographic process. The largest cyanotype photograph Gallery of over 100 artists working in cyanotypes on AlternativePhotography.com Photographic processes dating from the 19th century Non-impact printing Alternative photographic processes

262729

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20compression

Audio compression

Audio compression may refer to: Audio compression (data), a type of lossy or lossless compression in which the amount of data in a recorded waveform is reduced to differing extents for transmission respectively with or without some loss of quality, used in CD and MP3 encoding, Internet radio, and the like Dynamic range compression, also called audio level compression, in which the dynamic range, the difference between loud and quiet, of an audio waveform is reduced

262733

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic%20range%20compression

Dynamic range compression

Dynamic range compression (DRC) or simply compression is an audio signal processing operation that reduces the volume of loud sounds or amplifies quiet sounds, thus reducing or compressing an audio signal's dynamic range. Compression is commonly used in sound recording and reproduction, broadcasting, live sound reinforcement and in some instrument amplifiers. A dedicated electronic hardware unit or audio software that applies compression is called a compressor. In the 2000s, compressors became available as software plugins that run in digital audio workstation software. In recorded and live music, compression parameters may be adjusted to change the way they affect sounds. Compression and limiting are identical in process but different in degree and perceived effect. A limiter is a compressor with a high ratio and, generally, a short attack time. Types There are two types of compression, downward and upward. Both downward and upward compression reduce the dynamic range of an audio signal. Downward compression reduces the volume of loud sounds above a certain threshold. The quiet sounds below the threshold remain unaffected. This is the most common type of compressor. A limiter can be thought of as an extreme form of downward compression as it compresses the sounds over the threshold especially hard. Upward compression increases the volume of quiet sounds below a certain threshold. The louder sounds above the threshold remain unaffected. Some compressors also have the ability to do the opposite of compression, namely expansion. Expansion increases the dynamic range of the audio signal. Like compression, expansion comes in two types, downward and upward. Downward expansion make the quiet sounds below the threshold even quieter. A noise gate can be thought of as an extreme form of downward expansion as the noise gate make the quiet sounds (for instance: noise) quieter or even silent, depending on the floor setting. Upward expansion make the louder sounds above the threshold even louder. Design The signal entering a compressor is split; one copy is sent to a variable-gain amplifier and the other to a side-chain where the signal level is measured and a circuit controlled by the measured signal level applies the required gain to the amplifier. This design, known as a feed-forward type, is used today in most compressors. Earlier designs were based on a feedback layout where the signal level was measured after the amplifier. There are a number of technologies used for variable-gain amplification, each having different advantages and disadvantages. Vacuum tubes are used in a configuration called variable-mu where the grid-to-cathode voltage changes to alter the gain. Optical compressors use a photoresistor stimulated by a small lamp (incandescent, LED, or electroluminescent panel) to create changes in signal gain. Other technologies used include field effect transistors and a diode bridge. When working with digital audio, digital signal processing (DSP) techniques are commonly used to implement compression as audio plug-ins, in mixing consoles, and in digital audio workstations. Often the algorithms are used to emulate the above analog technologies. Controls and features A number of user-adjustable control parameters and features are used to adjust dynamic range compression signal processing algorithms and components. Threshold A compressor reduces the level of an audio signal if its amplitude exceeds a certain threshold. Threshold is commonly set in decibels (dBFS for digital compressors and dBu for hardware compressors), where a lower threshold (e.g.−60 dB) means a larger portion of the signal is treated. When the signal level is below the threshold, no processing is performed and the input signal is passed, unmodified, to the output. Thus a higher threshold of, e.g.,−5 dB, results in less processing, less compression. Threshold timing behavior is subject to attack and release settings (see below). When the signal level goes above threshold, compressor operation is delayed by the attack setting. For an amount of time determined by the release after the input signal has fallen below the threshold, the compressor continues to apply dynamic range compression. Ratio The amount of gain reduction is determined by ratio: a ratio of 4:1 means that if input level is 4 dB over the threshold, the output signal level is reduced to 1 dB over the threshold. The gain and output level has been reduced by 3 dB. Another way of stating this is that any input signal level over the threshold will, in this case, be output at a level which is only 25% as much over the threshold as its input level was. The highest ratio of ∞:1 is often known as limiting, and effectively denotes that any signal above the threshold is brought down to the threshold level once the attack time has expired. Attack and release A compressor may provide a degree of control over how quickly it acts. The attack is the period when the compressor is decreasing gain in response to increased level at the input to reach the gain determined by the ratio. The release is the period when the compressor is increasing gain in response to reduced level at the input to reach the output gain determined by the ratio, or, to unity, once the input level has fallen below the threshold. Because the loudness pattern of the source material is modified by the time-varying operation of compressor, it may change the character of the signal in subtle to quite noticeable ways depending on the attack and release settings used. The length of each period is determined by the rate of change and the required change in gain. For more intuitive operation, a compressor's attack and release controls are labeled as a unit of time (often milliseconds). This is the amount of time it takes for the gain to change a set amount of dB or a set percentage towards the target gain. There is no industry standard for the exact meaning of these time parameters. In many compressors, the attack and release times are adjustable by the user. Some compressors, however, have the attack and release times determined by the circuit design and cannot be adjusted. Sometimes the attack and release times are automatic or program dependent, meaning that the behavior may change depending on the input signal. Soft and hard knees Another control a compressor might offer is hard knee or soft knee selection. This controls whether the bend in the response curve between below threshold and above threshold is abrupt (hard) or gradual (soft). A soft knee slowly increases the compression ratio as the level increases and eventually reaches the compression ratio set by the user. A soft knee reduces the potentially audible transition from uncompressed to compressed, and is especially applicable for higher ratio settings where the changeover at the threshold would be more noticeable. Peak vs RMS sensing A peak-sensing compressor responds to the peak level of the input signal. While providing tighter peak level control, peak level sensing does not necessarily relate to human perception of loudness. Some compressors apply a power measurement function (commonly root mean square or RMS) on the input signal before comparing its level to the threshold. This produces a more relaxed compression that more closely relates to human perception of loudness. Stereo linking A compressor in stereo linking mode applies the same amount of gain reduction to both the left and right channels. This is done to prevent image shifting that can occur if each channel is compressed individually. This becomes particularly noticeable when a loud element that is panned close to either edge of the stereo field raises the level of the program to the compressor's threshold, causing its image to shift toward the center of the stereo field. Stereo linking can be achieved in two ways: The compressor uses the sum of the left and right inputs to produce a single measurement that drives the compressor; or, the compressor calculates the required amount of gain reduction independently for each channel and then applies the highest amount of gain reduction to both (in such case it could still make sense to dial different settings on left and right channels as one might wish to have less compression for left-side events). Make-up gain Because a downward compressor only reduces the level of the signal, the ability to add a fixed amount of make-up gain at the output is usually provided so that an optimum output level is produced. Look-ahead The look-ahead function is designed to overcome the problem of being forced to compromise between slow attack rates that produce smooth-sounding gain changes, and fast attack rates capable of catching transients. Look-ahead is implemented by splitting the input signal and delaying one side (the audio signal) by the look-ahead time. The non-delayed side (the gain control signal) is used to drive the compression of the delayed signal, which then appears at the output. This way a smooth-sounding slower attack rate can be used to catch transients. The cost of this solution is added audio latency through the processor. Uses Public spaces Compression is often applied in audio systems for restaurants, retail, and similar public environments that play background music at a relatively low volume and need it compressed, not just to keep the volume fairly constant, but also to make quiet parts of the music audible over ambient noise. Compression can increase average output gain of a power amplifier by 50 to 100% with a reduced dynamic range. For paging and evacuation systems, this adds clarity under noisy circumstances and saves on the number of amplifiers required. Music production Compression is often used in music production to make instruments more consistent in dynamic range, so that they "sit" more nicely in the mix with the other instruments (neither disappear during short periods of time, nor overpower the other instruments during short periods). Vocal performances in rock music or pop music are compressed for the same reason. Compression can also be used on instrument sounds to create effects not primarily focused on stabilizing the volume. For instance, drum and cymbal sounds tend to decay quickly, but a compressor can make the sound appear to have a more sustained tail. Guitar sounds are often compressed to produce a fuller, more sustained sound. Most devices capable of compressing audio dynamics can also be used to reduce the volume of one audio source when another audio source reaches a certain level; this is called side-chaining. In electronic dance music, side-chaining is often used on basslines, controlled by the kick drum or a similar percussive trigger, to prevent the two from conflicting, and provide a pulsating, rhythmic dynamic to the sound. Voice A compressor can be used to reduce sibilance ('ess' sounds) in vocals (de-essing) by feeding the compressor's side-chain an equalized version of the input signal, so that specific, sibilance-related frequencies (typically 4000 to 8000 hz) activate the compressor more. Compression is used in voice communications in amateur radio that employ single-sideband (SSB) modulation to make a particular station's signal more readable to a distant station, or to make one's station's transmitted signal stand out against others. This is applicable especially in DXing. An SSB signal's strength depends on the level of modulation. A compressor increases the average level of the modulation signal thus increasing the transmitted signal strength. Most modern amateur radio SSB transceivers have speech compressors built-in. Compression is also used in land mobile radio, especially in transmitted audio of professional walkie-talkies and remote control dispatch consoles. Broadcasting Compression is used extensively in broadcasting to boost the perceived volume of sound while reducing the dynamic range of source audio. To avoid overmodulation, broadcasters in most countries have legal limits on instantaneous peak volume they may broadcast. Normally these limits are met by permanently inserted compression hardware in the on-air chain. Broadcasters use compressors in order that their station sounds louder than comparable stations. The effect is to make the more heavily compressed station jump out at the listener at a given volume setting. This is not limited to inter-channel differences; they also exist between programme material within the same channel. Loudness differences are a frequent source of audience complaints, especially TV commercials and promos that seem too loud. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) has been addressing this issue in the EBU PLOUD group, which consists of over 240 audio professionals, many from broadcasters and equipment manufacturers. In 2010, the EBU published EBU R 128 which introduces a new way of metering and normalizing audio. The Recommendation uses ITU-R BS.1770 loudness metering. , several European TV stations have announced their support for the new norm and over 20 manufacturers have announced products supporting the new EBU Mode loudness meters. To help audio engineers understand what loudness range their material consists of (e.g. to check if some compression may be needed to fit it into the channel of a specific delivery platform), the EBU also introduced the Loudness Range (LRA) descriptor. Marketing Most television commercials are heavily compressed to achieve near-maximum perceived loudness while staying within permissible limits. This causes a problem that TV viewers often notice: when a station switches from minimally compressed program material to a heavily compressed commercial, the volume sometimes seems to increase dramatically. Peak loudness might be the same—meeting the letter of the law—but high compression puts much more of the audio in the commercial at close to the maximum allowable, making the commercial seem much louder. Over-usage Record companies, mixing engineers and mastering engineers have been gradually increasing the overall loudness of commercial albums. This is achieved by using higher degrees of compression and limiting during mixing and mastering; compression algorithms have been engineered specifically to accomplish the task of maximizing audio level in the digital stream. Hard limiting or clipping can result, affecting the tone and timbre of the music. The effort to increase loudness has been referred to as the loudness war. Other uses Noise reduction systems use a compressor to reduce the dynamic range of a signal for transmission or recording, expanding it afterward, a process called companding. This reduces the effects of a channel or recording medium with limited dynamic range. Instrument amplifiers often include compression circuitry to prevent sudden high-wattage peaks that could damage the speakers. Electric bass players often use compression effects, either effects units available in pedal, rackmount units, or built-in devices in bass amps, to even out the sound levels of their basslines. Gain pumping, where a regular amplitude peak (such as a kick drum) causes the rest of the mix to change in volume due to the compressor, is generally avoided in music production. However, many dance and hip-hop musicians purposefully use this phenomenon, causing the mix to alter in volume rhythmically in time with the beat. Hearing aids use a compressor to bring the audio volume into the listener's hearing range. To help the patient perceive the direction sound comes from, some hearing aids use binaural compression. Compressors are also used for hearing protection in some electronic active hearing protection earmuffs and earplugs, to let sounds at ordinary volumes be heard normally while attenuating louder sounds, possibly also amplifying softer sounds. This allows, for example, shooters wearing hearing protection at a shooting range to converse normally, while sharply attenuating the much louder sounds of the gunshots, and similarly for musicians to hear quiet music but be protected from loud noises such as drums or cymbal crashes. In applications of machine learning where an algorithm is training on audio samples, dynamic range compression is a way to augment samples for a larger data set. Limiting Compression and limiting are identical in process but different in degree and perceived effect. A limiter is a compressor with a high ratio and, generally, a fast attack time. Compression with ratio of 10:1 or more is generally considered limiting. Brick wall limiting has a very high ratio and a very fast attack time. Ideally, this ensures that an audio signal never exceeds the amplitude of the threshold. Ratios of 20:1 all the way up to ∞:1 are considered brick wall. The sonic results of more than momentary and infrequent brick-wall limiting are harsh and unpleasant, thus it is more common as a safety device in live sound and broadcast applications. Some bass amps and PA system amplifiers include limiters to prevent sudden volume peaks from causing distortion or damaging the speakers. Side-chaining A compressor with a side-chain input controls gain from main input to output based on the level of the signal at the side-chain input. An early innovator of side-chain compression in an effects unit was the Eventide Omnipressor from 1974. With side-chaining, the compressor behaves in the conventional manner when both main and side-chain inputs are supplied with the same signal. The side-chain input is used by disc jockeys for ducking – lowering the music volume automatically when speaking. The DJ's microphone signal is routed to the side-chain input so that whenever the DJ speaks the compressor reduces the volume of the music. A sidechain with equalization controls can be used to reduce the volume of signals that have a strong spectral content within a certain frequency range: it can act as a de-esser, reducing the level of vocal sibilance in the range of 6–9 kHz. Another use of the side-chain in music production serves to maintain a loud bass track without the bass drum causing undue peaks that result in loss of overall headroom. Parallel compression Insert the compressor in a parallel signal path is known as parallel compression. It is a form of upward compression that facilitates dynamic control without significant audible side effects so long as the ratio is relatively low and the compressor's sound is relatively neutral. On the other hand, a high compression ratio with significant audible artifacts can be chosen in one of the two parallel signal paths. This is used by some concert mixers and recording engineers as an artistic effect called New York compression or Motown compression. Combining a linear signal with a compressor and then reducing the output gain of the compression chain results in low-level detail enhancement without any peak reduction; The compressor significantly adds to the combined gain at low levels only. Multiband compression Multiband compressors can act differently on different frequency bands. The advantage of multiband compression over full-bandwidth compression is that problems related to a specific frequency range can be fixed without unnecessary compression in the other, unrelated frequencies. The downside is that frequency-specific compression is more complex and requires more processing capacity than full-bandwidth compression and can introduce phase issues. Multiband compressors work by first splitting the signal through some number of band-pass filters, crossover filters or filter banks. Each split signal then passes through its own compressor and is independently adjustable for threshold, ratio, attack, and release. The signals are then recombined and an additional limiting circuit may be employed to ensure that the combined signals do not create unwanted peak levels. In music production, multiband compressors are primarily an audio mastering tool, but their inclusion in digital audio workstation plug-in sets is increasing their use among mix engineers. On-air signal chains of radio stations commonly use multiband compressors to increase loudness while avoiding overmodulation. Having a louder sound is often considered an advantage in commercial broadcasting. Serial compression Serial compression is a technique used in sound recording and mixing. Serial compression is achieved by using two fairly different compressors in a signal chain. One compressor generally stabilizes the dynamic range while the other aggressively compresses stronger peaks. This is the normal internal signal routing in common combination devices marketed as compressor-limiters, where an RMS compressor (for general gain control) is followed by a fast peak-sensing limiter (for overload protection). Done properly, even heavy serial compression can sound natural in a way not possible with a single compressor. It is most often used to even out erratic vocals and guitars. Software audio players Some software audio players support plugins that implement compression. These can increase loudness of audio tracks, or level out the volume of highly-variable music (such as classical music, or a playlist that spans multiple music types). This improves the listenability of audio played through poor-quality speakers, or when played in noisy environments (such as in a car or during a party). Objective influence on the signal In an article published in January 2014 by the Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, Emmanuel Deruty and Damien Tardieu performed a systematic study describing the influence of compressors and brickwall limiters on the musical audio signal. The experiment involved four software limiters: Waves L2, Sonnox Oxford Limiter, Thomas Mundt’s Loudmax, Blue Cat’s Protector, as well as four software compressors: Waves H-Comp, Sonnox Oxford Dynamics, Sonalksis SV-3157, and URS 1970. The study provides objective data on what limiters and compressors do to the audio signal. Five signal descriptors were considered: RMS power, EBU R 128 integrated loudness, crest factor, R 128 LRA, and density of clipped samples. RMS power accounts for the signal's physical level, R 128 loudness for the perceived level. The crest factor, which is the difference between the signal's peak and its average power, is on occasions considered as a basis for the measure of micro-dynamics, for instance in the TT Dynamic Range Meter plug-in. Finally, R 128 LRA has been repeatedly considered as a measure of macro-dynamics or dynamics in the musical sense. Limiters The tested limiters had the following influence on the signal: increase of RMS power, increase of EBU3341 loudness, decrease of crest factor, decrease of EBU3342 LRA, but only for high amounts of limiting, increase of clipped sample density. In other words, limiters increase both physical and perceptual levels, increase the density of clipped samples, decrease the crest factor and decrease macro-dynamics (LRA) given that the amount of limiting is substantial. Compressors As far as the compressors are concerned, the authors performed two processing sessions, using a fast attack (0.5 ms) in one case, and a slow attack (50 ms) in the other. Make-up gain is deactivated, but the resulting file is normalized. Set with a fast attack, the tested compressors had the following influence on the signal: slight increase of RMS power, slight increase of EBU3341 loudness, decrease of crest factor, decrease of EBU3342 LRA, slight decrease of clipped sample density. In other words, fast-attack compressors increase both physical and perceptual levels, but only slightly. They decrease the density of clipped samples, and decrease both crest factor and macro-dynamics. Set with a slow attack, the tested compressors had the following influence on the signal: decrease of RMS power, decrease of EBU3341 loudness, no influence on crest factor, decrease of EBU3342 LRA, no influence on clipped sample density. In other words, slow-attack compressors decrease both physical and perceptual levels, decrease macro-dynamics, but have no influence on crest factor and clipped sample density. See also Squelch Automatic gain control Audio & Design (Recording) Ltd Gain compression Noise gate De-essing LA-2A Leveling Amplifier 1176 Peak Limiter Tone mapping, the photographic equivalent Pumping (audio) Levelator, freeware that applies dynamic range compression across wave files References External links Description of expansion, compression, and limiting in an audio processor Dynamic range compression Article on Optical Compressors from Sweetwater Sound Information on Loudness from the EBU Information on Compression in Home Recording Audio engineering Dynamics processing

262734

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoatzin

Hoatzin

The hoatzin or hoactzin (Opisthocomus hoazin), also known as the reptile bird, skunk bird, stinkbird, or Canje pheasant, is a species of tropical bird found in swamps, riparian forests, and mangroves of the Amazon and the Orinoco basins in South America. It is notable for having chicks that have claws on two of their wing digits. It is the only member of the genus Opisthocomus (Ancient Greek: "long hair behind", referring to its large crest). This is the only extant genus in the family Opisthocomidae. The taxonomic position of this family has been greatly debated by specialists, and is still far from clear. Description The hoatzin is pheasant-sized, with a total length of , and a long neck and small head. It has an unfeathered blue face with maroon eyes, and its head is topped by a spiky, rufous crest. The long, sooty-brown tail is a broadly tipped buff. The upper parts are dark, sooty-brown-edged buff on the wing coverts, and streaked buff on the mantle and nape. The under parts are buff, while the crissum (the undertail coverts surrounding the cloaca), primaries, underwing coverts and flanks are rich rufous-chestnut, but this is mainly visible when it opens its wings. The hoatzin is a herbivore, eating leaves and fruit, and has an unusual digestive system with an enlarged crop used for fermentation of vegetable matter, in a manner broadly analogous to the digestive system of mammalian ruminants. The alternative name of "stinkbird" is derived from the bird's foul odour, which is caused by the fermentation of food in its digestive system. This is a noisy species, with a variety of hoarse calls, including groans, croaks, hisses and grunts. These calls are often associated with body movements, such as wing spreading. Taxonomy, systematics and evolution The hoatzin was originally described in 1776 by German zoologist Statius Müller. There has been much debate about the hoatzin's relationships with other birds. Because of its distinctness it has been given its own family, the Opisthocomidae, and its own suborder, the Opisthocomi. At various times, it has been allied with such taxa as the tinamous, the Galliformes (gamebirds), the rails, the bustards, seriemas, sandgrouse, doves, turacos and other Cuculiformes, and mousebirds. A whole genome sequencing study published in 2014 places the hoatzin as the sister taxon of a clade composed of Gruiformes (cranes) and Charadriiformes (plovers). In 2015, genetic research indicated that the hoatzin is the last surviving member of a bird line that branched off in its own direction 64 million years ago, shortly after the extinction event that killed the non-avian dinosaurs. Fossil record With respect to other material evidence, an undisputed fossil record of a close hoatzin relative is specimen UCMP 42823, a single cranium backside. It is of Miocene origin and was recovered in the upper Magdalena River Valley, Colombia in the well known fauna of La Venta. This has been placed into a distinct, less derived genus, Hoazinoides, but clearly would be placed into the same family as the extant species. It markedly differs in that the cranium of the living hoatzin is characteristic, being much domed, rounded, and shortened, and that these autapomorphies were less pronounced in the Miocene bird. Miller discussed these findings in the light of the supposed affiliation of the hoatzins and the Galliformes, which was the favored hypothesis at that time, but had been controversial almost since its inception. He cautioned, however, "that Hoazinoides by no means establishes a phyletic junction point with other galliforms" for obvious reasons, as we know today. Anything other than the primary findings of Miller are not to be expected in any case, as by the time of Hoazinoides, essentially all modern bird families are either known or believed to have been present and distinct. Going further back in time, the Late Eocene or Early Oligocene (some 34 million years ago) Filholornis from France has also been considered "proof" of a link between the hoatzin and the gamebirds. The fragmentary fossil Onychopteryx from the Eocene of Argentina and the quite complete but no less enigmatic Early-Middle Eocene (Ypresian-Lutetian, some 48 million years ago) Foro panarium are sometimes used to argue for a hoatzin-cuculiform (including turacos) link. But as demonstrated above, this must be considered highly speculative, if not as badly off the mark as the relationship with Cracidae discussed by Miller. The earliest record of the order Opisthocomiformes is Protoazin parisiensis, from the latest Eocene (approximately 34 mya) of Romainville, France. The holotype and only known specimen is NMB PG.70, consisting of partial coracoid, partial scapula, and partial pedal phalanx. According to the phylogenetic analysis performed by the authors, Namibiavis, although later, is more basal than Protoazin. Opisthocomiforms seem to have been much more widespread in the past, with the present South American distribution being only a relic. By the Early to Middle Miocene, they were probably extinct in Europe already, as formations dated to this time and representing fluvial or lacustrine palaeoenvironments, in which the hoatzin thrives today, have yielded dozens of bird specimens, but no opisthocomiform. A possible explanation to account for the extinction of Protoazin between the Late Eocene and the Early Miocene in Europe, and of Namibiavis after the Middle Miocene of Sub-Saharan Africa is the arrival of arboreal carnivorans, predation by which could have had a devastating effect on the local opisthocomiforms, if they were as poor flyers and had similarly vulnerable nesting strategies as today's hoatzins. Felids and viverrids first arrived in Europe from Asia after the Turgai Sea closed, marking the boundary between the Eocene and the Oligocene. None of these predators, and for the matter, no placental predator at all was present in South America before the Great American Interchange 3 mya, which could explain the survival of the hoatzin there. In addition to being the earliest fossil record of an opisthocomiform, Protoazin was also the earliest find of one (1912), but it was forgotten for more than a century, being described only in 2014. Hoazinavis is an extinct genus of early opisthocomiform from Late Oligocene and Early Miocene (about 24–22 mya) deposits of Brazil. It was collected in 2008 from the Tremembé Formation of São Paulo, Brazil. It was first named by Gerald Mayr, Herculano Alvarenga and Cécile Mourer-Chauviré in 2011 and the type species is Hoazinavis lacustris. Namibiavis is another extinct genus of early opisthocomoform from early Middle Miocene (approximately 16 mya) deposits of Namibia. It was collected from Arrisdrift, southern Namibia. It was first named by Cécile Mourer-Chauviré in 2003 and the type species is Namibiavis senutae. Behavior Feeding The hoatzin is a folivore - it eats the leaves (and to a lesser degree of fruits and flowers) of the plants that grow in the marshy and riverine habitats where it lives. It clambers around clumsily along the branches, and being quite tame (though they become stressed by frequent visits), often allows close approach and is reluctant to flush. The hoatzin uses a leathery bump on the bottom of its crop to help balance itself on the branches. Once it was thought that the species could eat the leaves of only arums and mangroves, but the species is now known to consume the leaves of more than fifty species. One study undertaken in Venezuela found that the hoatzin's diet was 82% leaves, 10% flowers, and 8% fruit. Any feeding of insects or other animal matter is purely accidental. One of this species' many peculiarities is that it has a digestive system unique amongst birds. Hoatzins use bacterial fermentation in the front part of the gut to break down the vegetable material they consume, much as cattle and other ruminants do. Unlike ruminants, however, which possess the rumen (a specialized stomach for bacterial fermentation), the hoatzin has an unusually large crop, folded in two chambers, and a large, multi-chambered lower esophagus. Its stomach chamber and gizzard are much smaller than in other birds. The crop of the hoatzin is so large as to displace the flight muscles and keel of the sternum, much to the detriment of their flight capacity. Because of aromatic compounds in the leaves they consume and the bacterial fermentation, the bird has a disagreeable, manure-like odor and is only hunted by humans for food in times of dire need. Breeding Hoatzins are seasonal breeders, breeding during the rainy season, the exact timing of which varies across its range. Hoatzins are gregarious and nest in small colonies, laying two or three eggs in a stick nest in a tree hanging over water in seasonally flooded forests. The chicks, which are fed on regurgitated fermented food, have another odd feature; they have two claws on each wing. Immediately on hatching, they can use these claws, and their oversized feet, to scramble around the tree branches without falling into the water. When predators such as the great black hawk attack a hoatzin nesting colony, the adults fly noisily about, trying to divert the predator's attention, while the chicks move away from the nest and hide among the thickets. If discovered, however, they drop into the water and swim under the surface to escape, then later use their clawed wings to climb back to the safety of the nest. This has inevitably led to comparisons to the fossil bird Archaeopteryx, but the characteristic is rather an autapomorphy, possibly caused by an atavism toward the dinosaurian finger claws, whose developmental genetics ("blueprint") presumably is still in the avian genome. Since Archaeopteryx had three functional claws on each wing, some earlier systematists speculated that the hoatzin was descended from it, because nestling hoatzins have two functional claws on each wing. Modern researchers, however, hypothesize that the young hoatzin's claws are of more recent origin, and may be a secondary adaptation from its frequent need to leave the nest and climb about in dense vines and trees well before it can fly. Relationship with humans In Brazil, indigenous peoples sometimes collect the eggs for food, and the adults are occasionally hunted, but in general this is rare, as hoatzin meat is reputed to have a bad taste. While its preferred habitats of mangrove and riverine forest are disappearing quickly in some regions, it is less threatened than the Amazon rainforest, which is a primary target for deforestation. The hoatzin therefore remains fairly common in a large part of its range. The hoatzin is the national bird of Guyana. See also Turaco, a convergently evolved bird in the order Musophagiformes which is a large-crested, arboreal, mainly herbivorous bird whose nestlings also use wing claws for climbing. Footnotes References External links Cornell Lab of Ornithology: Mystery Birds: Hoatzin Adults and Young. Retrieved 2008-JUN-16. Hoatzin videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection. Opisthocomiformes Birds of the Guianas Birds of the Amazon Basin Extant Eocene first appearances Folivores Herbivorous vertebrates Herbivorous animals Birds described in 1776 Birds of Brazil Taxa named by Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller

262738

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission%20Elmira

Mission Elmira

During World War II, Mission Elmira was the landing of a significant part of the 82nd Airborne Division’s glider train in Normandy on the evening of 6 June 1944 as part of Operation Neptune, the assault phase of Operation Overlord. Mission composition and purpose Elmira consisted of 176 C-47 Skytrain troop carrier aircraft acting as glider tugs, 36 CG-4 Waco gliders, and 140 Horsa gliders, divided into one serial of 26 and three serials of 50 tug-glider combinations. One additional C-47, which had returned to base earlier in the day without dropping its stick of paratroopers, accompanied the last flight of the mission. The planned and briefed landing zone for the gliders was LZ W, located two miles (3 km) southeast of Sainte-Mère-Église, but a smaller landing zone had also been put in operation that morning north of the town on Drop Zone O. Elmira was considered an essential mission, delivering two battalions of glider artillery and 24 howitzers to the 82nd Airborne. It consisted of four serials of aircraft, the first to arrive ten minutes after Mission Keokuck, a similar but much smaller mission to reinforce the 101st Airborne Division. To reduce congestion over the landing zones, two serials of mission Elmira were delayed two hours until just before sunset. These carried both battalions of glider field artillery and their guns. Because the missions were flown on British Double Summer Time, both were daylight missions, with the first wave taking off at 1907 and arriving at 2104, and the second wave taking off at 2037 and arriving at 2255. Mission details The first two serials of 76 tug-glider combinations came under heavy ground fire just before the release point. Two C-47s were shot down after release and half the survivors suffered battle damage. Unknown to the troop carriers, troops of the German 795th Georgian Battalion occupied part of the landing zone, and the "Eureka" transponding radar beacon landing aids had been moved two miles (3 km) to the northwest on Drop Zone/Landing Zone O. The C-47s released their gliders for the original LZ, unaware of the aids on LZ O. Although the 82nd Airborne considered the landings inaccurate because they did not land on LZ O, most came down within of the original LZ. Of the 3 Wacos and 21 Horsa destroyed, most were the result of German mortar and artillery fire after landing. The second wave of mission Elmira arrived at 2255 just as the terrain was enveloped in shadow, and since no other pathfinder aids were operating, headed for the Eureka beacon on LZ O. Approximately halfway there, it came under the most severe ground fire of the day, since the route to LZ O passed directly over and along the German lines. Despite this, damage was similar to that of the serials that had come in two hours earlier, with three C-47s ditching on the way home. The last two glider serials had mixed accuracy. The first released early and came down near or within German lines, but the second came down on Landing Zone O, except for 5 who followed their briefing orders and landed on LZ W. Even so, virtually all of the personnel of both battalions made their way to the 82nd Airborne positions by morning, and had 15 of their 24 guns in operation by sundown of June 8. Casualties in mission Elmira were 15 killed, 17 wounded, and 4 missing among the glider pilots; and 33 killed and 124 wounded among the passengers. Strom Thurmond, then a lieutenant colonel in a civil affairs unit was at age 41 credited with being the oldest person attached to the division to go into Normandy with the invasion. He later became the longest-serving senator in United States history. Air movement table - mission Elmira . Sources Warren, Dr. John C. USAF Historical Study 97: Airborne Operations in World War II, European Theater (1956). Air University. U.S. Airborne in Cotentin Peninsula References Further reading External links American airborne landings in Normandy Operation Overlord Gliding in the United States

262739

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECM

ECM

ECM may refer to: Economics and commerce Engineering change management Equity capital markets Error correction model, an econometric model European Common Market Mathematics Elliptic curve method European Congress of Mathematics Science and medicine Ectomycorrhiza Electron cloud model Engineered Cellular Magmatics Erythema chronicum migrans Extracellular matrix Sport European Championships Management Technology Electrochemical machining Electronic contract manufacturing Electronic countermeasure Electronically commutated motor Energy conservation measure Engine control module Enterprise content management Error correction mode Other uses Editio Critica Maior, a critical edition of the Greek New Testament ECM Records, a record label ECM Real Estate Investments, a defunct real estate developer based in Luxembourg Edinburgh City Mission, a Christian organization in Scotland Elektrani na Severna Makedonija (), a power company in North Macedonia Episcopal Conference of Malawi Every Child Matters, a UK Government initiative for children Every Child Ministries, a Christian charity for African children Exceptional case-marking, in linguistics

262742

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opisthocomidae

Opisthocomidae

Opisthocomidae is a family of birds, the only named family within the order Opisthocomiformes. The only living representative is the hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) which lives in the Amazon and the Orinoco delta in South America. Several fossil species have been identified, including one from Africa and one from Europe. Phylogeny The phylogeny below is based on the work of Hughes & Baker 1999 and Mayr & De Pietri 2014. Traditionally classified among the fowl-like birds (Galliformes), recent studies have favored Opisthocomidae's placement within the Neoaves. Taxonomy Family Opisthocomidae Swainson 1837 Genus ?†Foro Olson 1992 (mid-Eocene, USA) - cuculiform? Species †Foro panarium Olson 1992 Genus ?†Onychopteryx Cracraft 1971 (Early Eocene of Argentina) – falconid? A nomen dubium Species †Onychopteryx simpsoni Cracraft 1971 Genus †Protoazin Mayr & De Pietri 2014 (late Eocene of France) Species †Protoazin parisiensis Mayr & De Pietri 2014 Genus †Namibiavis Mourer-Chauviré 2003 (Middle Miocene of Namibia) Species †Namibiavis senutae Mourer-Chauviré 2003 Genus †Hoazinavis Alvarenga, Mayr & Mourer-Chauviré 2011 (Late Oligocene and Early Miocene of Brazil) Species †Hoazinavis lacustris Alvarenga, Mayr & Mourer-Chauviré 2011 Genus †Hoazinoides Miller 1953 (middle Miocene of Colombia) Species †Hoazinoides magdalenae Miller 1953 Genus Opisthocomus Illiger 1811 Species Opisthocomus hoazin (Müller 1776) Illiger 1811 [Phasianus hoazin Müller 1776] Description The only living representative is the hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin), which lives in the Amazon and the Orinoco delta in South America. Several fossil species have been identified, including one from Africa and one from Europe. The hoatzin is a stunning, colourful bird from South America. The hoatzin is found in the rainforest of the Amazon. It has a long, permanently erected crest which gives the species a stunning silhouette. This gregarious species is often found in groups of more than 40 birds, and up to 100 birds during breeding season which occurs during rainfalls. The nest is a flat platform in bush or tree above water. The chicks are semi-precocial and leave the nest at about two to three weeks of age. The adults feed them with semi-digested slimy mass from their crops, and the young are fed during the first four or five months of their life. The young nestlings can jump out into the water, and swim with wings and feet, in order to escape predators at nest. Hoatzin embryos are known to develop very quickly compared to other birds. The hoatzin lives in tropical forested wetlands of 200 to 500 meters elevation. The hoatzin is an arboreal species and is folivorous, feeding on leaves, flowers and fruits of a small number of plant species. It has a large crop that uses bacteria to break down the leaves that it eats. The hoatzin is unique because it has bacteria in its crop that breaks down its food while it is still in the crop. This is a process called foregut fermentation. It rarely drinks because its diet includes water. The hoatzin is sedentary and widespread in suitable habitat. They are noisy birds, calling in unison, uttering large numbers of varied sounds. In addition to foregut fermentation, the hoatzin has a highly modified skeleton to accommodate its large crop, and in the young of this species, wing claws at the wrist joint which are used to climb among the branches of the nest tree. References Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics Monotypic bird families Opisthocomiformes Herbivorous vertebrates Extant Eocene first appearances

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20McIntyre%20%28politician%29

Robert McIntyre (politician)

Robert Douglas McIntyre (15 December 1913 – 2 February 1998) was a Scottish physician and a Scottish National Party politician and Member of Parliament. McIntyre studied Medicine at the University of Edinburgh and the University of Glasgow, and worked as a GP and a consultant pulmonologist. He came to political prominence in 1945 when he won the Motherwell by-election, becoming the SNP's first ever Member of Parliament. McIntyre served as the Leader of the Scottish National Party from 1947–56, and as President of the SNP from 1958–1980. He was the Provost of Stirling from 1967–1975. Known affectionately as "Doc Mac", he was often referred to as the "Father of the SNP". Early life and medical career McIntyre was born in Motherwell, the son of John Ebenezer McIntyre, a minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. He was educated at Hamilton Academy and Daniel Stewart's College. After a short period working at an accountants’ office, McIntyre managed to acquire the necessary qualifications to attend the University of Edinburgh, where he initially studied Chemistry, before switching to study Medicine. At university, he was Chairman of the University Labour Party and an active member of Edinburgh University Socialist Society. He also served as the University Labour Party's delegate on the Edinburgh Trades and Labour Council in 1935. In December 1938, McIntyre graduated with an MB ChB, and joined a general practice in Warwick, England as an assistant. Following brief spells as a General practitioner in Musselburgh and Polmont, he served as a house surgeon at Stirling Royal Infirmary, and then as House Physician at Bangour Village Hospital. In this period, he developed an interest in the area of public health and studied at the University of Glasgow to gain a Diploma in Public Health. After qualifying, McIntyre was appointed as Senior Resident at Hawkhead Hospital in Paisley; a hospital for infectious diseases. The early-1940s witnessed a dramatic increase in the confirmed cases of diphtheria in Scotland. McIntyre was in charge of a major campaign of diphtheria immunisation directed at Paisley's schoolchildren, visiting every school in the area to persuade the children and their parents to get themselves vaccinated against the lethal disease. Robert McIntyre then took up a position under Glasgow Corporation’s Department of Health as Port Boarding Medical Officer, based at Greenock. This involved his being part of a team which had the responsibility of ensuring that ships were free of infections before they proceeded up the River Clyde to Glasgow, and also liaising with the vessels’ medical staff. Following his defeat at the 1945 general election, he served for a short period as a locum GP on North Uist, before obtaining a position with Stirling County Council as a Tuberculosis Officer responsible to the Medical Officer for Health. With the creation of the National Health Service in 1948, McIntyre was appointed as Consultant Chest Physician at Stirling Royal Infirmary. He would remain in the post until his retirement. Political career McIntyre had joined the Labour Party in 1936, and was active in Labour politics at Edinburgh University. However, he had become increasingly disillusioned with the Labour Party's commitment to Scottish home rule and had been disappointed when he and his fellow students at the Edinburgh University Labour Party had sent a resolution to the Scottish Council of the Labour Party, only to be informed that the Council was not involved in the formation of Labour Party policy. Steeped in Scottish history and culture, he believed in the right of small nations to self-government. In 1940, McIntyre joined the Scottish National Party and became the party's membership secretary when it was still headed by John MacCormick, but he resisted MacCormick's later attempts to change the SNP from supporting a policy of full Scottish independence to supporting a modicum of Home Rule. MacCormick would leave the SNP in 1942 from which point McIntyre became the party's leading figure, serving as National Secretary (1942-1945) and as vice-chairman (1945-1947), before being chosen as Chairman (leader) of the SNP in May 1947. On 13 April 1945, shortly before the end of World War II, McIntyre won the Motherwell by-election, with a narrow majority of 617 votes over his Labour opponent. He made history as the first SNP candidate to be elected as a Member of Parliament. Upon arriving at Parliament, he had difficulty finding the customary two sponsors to allow him to take his seat, as members did not want to break party loyalties. Two reluctant sponsors were found but McIntyre chose to present himself to the Speaker alone, later writing "I very clearly stated to the people of Motherwell and Wishaw that I would give no allegiance to the London-controlled parties". A vote to waive the rule was lost, and eventually he accepted the sponsorship of James Barr and Alexander Sloan "under protest". He lost the seat only three months later at the 1945 general election, to the Labour Party. He then returned to his medical practice, working in Stirling Royal Infirmary to treat and prevent tuberculosis. However, he continued to stand at every subsequent general election, up to October 1974. After McIntyre stood down as party leader in 1956, he was elected as President of the Scottish National Party, holding this office until 1980. In 1956, he was also elected as a member of Stirling Burgh Council, a position he held until 1975. He was Provost of Stirling from 1967–1975. McIntyre was first (and last) vice-president of the Celtic League (from 1961–71). Gwynfor Evans was president at the time. In 1962 he was nominated by the Scottish Nationalist Association as a candidate for Rector of the University of Glasgow, where he finished second behind Albert Luthuli who was then the President of the African National Congress. Personal life McIntyre married Letitia Macleod in 1954 and they had one son together. Robert McIntyre died on 2 February 1998, aged 84. See also List of United Kingdom MPs with the shortest service References External links Detailed biography of McIntyre by Dick Douglas, former Labour and SNP MP 1913 births 1998 deaths Scottish National Party councillors Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Scottish constituencies Leaders of the Scottish National Party Presidents of the Scottish National Party Provosts in Scotland 20th-century Scottish medical doctors Scottish National Party MPs Scottish nationalists People educated at Hamilton Academy People educated at Stewart's Melville College Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Alumni of the University of Glasgow UK MPs 1935–1945 People from Motherwell Politicians from North Lanarkshire

262750

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bondage%20cuffs

Bondage cuffs

Bondage cuffs are restraints designed for use in sexual bondage situations. Compared to conventional handcuffs, they are wide wrist and ankle restraints generally made of leather, often padded with soft leather or fake fur. Bondage cuffs may be fastened at the wrists and/or ankles by a locking mechanism, by a buckle or by velcro. They are secured around the wrist or ankle, and the cuffs may then be attached to each other or another object. They may be fitted with D-ring attachments or buckles to which nylon webbing, chain or another restraining strap may be attached. The straps may have a loop mechanism to allow the tightening of the straps. Bondage cuffs are typically secured to each wrist and ankle, and to each other and other objects depending on the needs of each play. A set of cuffs may be used to create a hogtie, and a pair of ankle cuffs can be used together with thigh-width straps to create a frogtie. They are typically used in conjunction with other bondage equipment, such as leg spreaders. Safety considerations Bondage cuffs are designed to be safer than conventional handcuffs. Unlike bondage cuffs, the primary design goals of handcuffs are not comfort and safety, but immobilization and prevention of escape, and they are not padded to try to reduce the risk of nerve damage and other injuries. Nevertheless, as with all restraint devices, it is still possible for the use of bondage cuffs to cause serious injuries if misused or not monitored carefully. Ordinary bondage cuffs are not designed to be safe when used to carry any significant load. Suspension cuffs are a specialized form of bondage cuffs, designed to be used to suspend the body during suspension bondage. References See also Bondage collar Handcuffs Legcuffs Thumbcuffs Harness gag BDSM Testicle cuffs Physical restraint BDSM equipment

262751

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamanda%20Gal%C3%A1s

Diamanda Galás

Diamanda Galás (born August 29, 1955) is an American musician, singer-songwriter, visual artist and soprano. With her art she campaigns for AIDS education and the rights of the infected. Her commitment to addressing social issues and her involvement in collective action has made her concentrate on themes as diverse as the AIDS epidemic, mental illness, despair, loss of dignity, as well as political injustice, historical revisionism and war crimes, among much else. Galás has attracted the attention of the press particularly for her voice – a soprano sfogato – and written accounts that describe her work as original and thought-provoking refer to her as "capable of the most unnerving vocal terror", an "aesthetic revolutionary", "a mourner for the world's victims" and "an envoy of risk, honesty and commitment". As a composer, pianist, organist and performance artist, Galás has presented mainly her own work, but her live performances have also included works by other musicians, such as the avant-garde composers Iannis Xenakis and Vinko Globokar, jazz musician Bobby Bradford, saxophonist John Zorn, and Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones. Galás's recordings have also included collaborations, some of which are with the bands Recoil and Erasure, instrumentalist Barry Adamson, and musician Can Oral (also known as Khan), among others. Background and education Galás was born and raised in San Diego, California, to a Maniot Greek-American mother from Dover, New Hampshire, Georgianna Koutrelakos-Galás, and an Egyptian-American father from Lynn, Massachusetts, James Galás, both of whom belonged to the Greek Orthodox culture but considered themselves agnostic. Her father's Greek ancestors were from Smyrna, Pontus, and Chios, while one of his grandmothers was an Egyptian from Alexandria. Galás does not refer to her Smyrniote and Pontic ancestry as "Turkish", but rather as Anatolian. Galás's first contact with music was during her childhood in San Diego, where her parents lived and worked as teachers. Her father, who was a gospel choir director, taught her how to play the piano when she was three years old, while introducing her later to classical music, the New Orleans jazz tradition, rebetika and other classics of his Greek heritage, some Blues standards, and other historical music genres. Galas also took cello and violin lessons, and studied a wide range of musical forms. By the age of fourteen, she had been playing gigs in San Diego with her father's band, performing Greek and Arabic music, and she had also made her orchestral debut with the San Diego Symphony as the soloist for Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1. But while her father encouraged her to play the piano, he did not want her to sing because he believed that singing was for "hookers and idiots." Galás and her brother Phillip-Dimitri acquired a taste for dark literature at an early age. Their inspirations were Marquis de Sade, Friedrich Nietzsche, Antonin Artaud, and Edgar Allan Poe. In the 1970s, Galás studied biochemistry at the University of Southern California, specializing in immunology and hematology studies. Her post-graduate studies include a master's program in the music department of the University of California, San Diego, which encouraged her to work at its Center for Music Experiment to develop her own vocal technique. Outside academia, Galás's vocal training was supported by private lessons in San Diego with bel canto tutor Frank Kelly, and with voice coaches Vicky Hall in Berlin and Barbara Maier in New York. Music Early years (1970s–1986) In the early 1970s, Galás and her friend contra-bass player Mark Dresser joined the jazz band Black Music Infinity, which included drummer Stanley Crouch, trumpeter Bobby Bradford, cornetist Butch Morris, flutist James Newton and saxophonist David Murray. She later collaborated with members of the San Diego band CETA VI, which included, among others, jazz saxophonist Jim French, with whom Galás went on to record and release her first compositions, as part of the album If Looks Could Kill (1979), together with guitarist and sound engineer Henry Kaiser. At the same time, Galás was preparing for her live solo debut, which took place at the 1979 Festival d'Avignon, in France, where she was doing post-graduate studies. It was a performance of Vinko Globokar's Un Jour Comme un Autre (A Day Like Any Other), an opera based on Amnesty International's documentation about the arrest and torture of a Turkish woman for alleged treason. Globokar was the director of the Instruments and Voice department at the music and sound research center IRCAM (Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique), where Galás had been doing further experimentation on her vocal technique. During her time in Paris, Galás also met the Greek composer and architect Iannis Xenakis, whose composition Akanthos (1977) she sang with IRCAM's Ensemble InterContemporain in 1980, while she was still in Europe. After her return to the US, Galás performed one more work by Xenakis, his composition N'Shima (1975), in the US premiere of it in New York in 1981, alongside soprano Genevieve Renon-McLaughlin, who sang one of the two vocal parts of this piece. Her first solo album, The Litanies of Satan (1982), was also an operatic work. It included only two compositions: a twelve-minute piece entitled 'Wild Women with Steak-Knives', which was described by Galás in the album notes as tragedy-grotesque deriving from her work "Eyes Without Blood", and another lengthy composition, 'Litanies of Satan', an adaptation to music of a section from Charles Baudelare's poem Les Fleurs du Mal. Her second album, Diamanda Galas (1984), also contained two lengthy compositions. They were 'Panoptikon', which was dedicated to Jack Henry Abbott, whose 1981 autobiographical book In the Belly of the Beast described his experience of the prison system, and 'Tragoudia Apo To Aima Exoun Fonos' ('Song From the Blood of Those Murdered'), a Greek-language piece dedicated to those political prisoners who were either murdered or executed during the Greek military regimes in the years 1967-74. Mute Records (1986–2008) Galás began writing and performing on the subject of AIDS around 1984, while living in San Francisco. This theme resulted in the trilogy Masque of the Red Death, an operatic trilogy which included The Divine Punishment (1986), Saint of the Pit (1986) and You Must Be Certain of the Devil (1988). In these three works Galás detailed the suffering of people with AIDS. Shortly after the recording of the trilogy's first volume began, her brother, playwright Philip-Dimitri Galás, became sick with AIDS, which inspired her to join activist groups that raised awareness about this new illness. Her brother died in 1986, just before the completion of the trilogy. Taking a break from her own recordings, Galás appeared on the 1989 studio album Moss Side Story by former Magazine and Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds instrumentalist Barry Adamson. In Moss Side Story, which was described by the press as a "soundtrack for a non-existent film-noir", Galás sang the opening track, 'On the Wrong Side of Relaxation'. In 1992, Galás released the album Vena Cava, a series of unaccompanied voice pieces recorded in New York during a live performance at The Kitchen. For her next record, Galás changed stylistic direction by turning to the blues tradition and interpreting a wide range of songs with only a piano and solo voice. This stylistic turn produced the studio album The Singer (1992), on which she covered songs by Willie Dixon, Roy Acuff, and Screamin' Jay Hawkins, as well as "Gloomy Sunday", a song written by Hungarian pianist and composer Rezső Seress in 1933 and translated into English by Desmond Carter. This material formed the basis of the video Judgement Day, which was released in 1993. In the next three years, Galás returned to collaborations with other musicians. She first worked with Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones, a longtime admirer of her work, to write material for a record, and the album The Sporting Life was produced with him in 1994. A tour that followed the album's release saw the two musicians performing together live on stage as well as on the popular MTV show The Jon Stewart Show. Then, in the same year, two of Galás's songs from her previous album were featured on the soundtrack for Oliver Stone's film Natural Born Killers. In 1995, Galás contributed vocals to the eponymous album of British synth-pop duo Erasure at the invitation of the lead singer, Andy Bell, and the following year she took part in the album Closed on Account of Rabies, a tribute to Edgar Allan Poe which also included Iggy Pop, Debbie Harry and Marianne Faithfull, who lent their voices to the tales of the legendary author. Galás's reading of "The Black Cat" was the longest recording on the compilation. In 1998, Galás released Malediction and Prayer, which was recorded live in 1996 and 1997. In 2000, Galás worked with Recoil by contributing her voice to the album Liquid. She was the lead vocalist on the album's first single, "Strange Hours", for which she also wrote the lyrics, and can be heard on "Jezebel" and "Vertigen" as a backing vocalist. Galás's next project revolved around the Armenian, Anatolian-Greek and Assyrian genocides that occurred between 1914 and 1923. This work took the title 'Defixiones – Will and Testament' in reference to the last wishes of the dead who had been taken to their graves under extreme circumstances, as 'defixiones' in Greece and Asia Minor is associated with the warnings written on gravestones by relatives of the dead to warn people against desecrating them. This material formed part of the 80-minute long album Defixiones: Will and Testament (2003), which was released simultaneously with La Serpenta Canta (2003), a live album including cover versions recorded between May 1999 and November 2002. One of the unaccompanied vocal pieces from Defixiones: Will and Testament (2003), "Orders from the Dead", was later used on the album Aealo (2010) by Greek black metal band Rotting Christ. In 2008, Galás released her seventh live album, Guilty Guilty Guilty, a collection of cover songs that she used to play as a piano accompanist in her father's band when she was young. The album emerged from material she began to work on around the time when her parents - to whom it is dedicated - happened to stay in the same hospital at the same time for different treatments; seeing how they handled it and how they held hands and took courage from each other during that time reminded her of the love songs she had learned in her father's band. Galás has stated that these songs also made her explore her own emotions at a time when a long-term personal relationship had ended, particularly Henderson's and Brown's "The Thrill Is Gone", a song performed by Chet Baker and others. This set of new re-interpretations of old, love songs was recorded live at Galás's Valentine's Day concert at New York's Knitting Factory in 2006. Intravenal Sound Operations (2009–present) After 2009 Galás found herself without a record deal, and until 2016 she was remixing and remastering her earlier works as well as recording some new songs which were made available online digitally as self-released singles. Galás's focus in this period was on regaining ownership and control of her entire catalogue, since the selling of her records by Mute to EMI, which passed them to BMG, had made Galás's back catalogue unavailable. In the meantime, two new albums, All the Way (2017) and At Saint Thomas the Apostle Harlem (2017), were released simultaneously through her own label, Intravenal Sound Operations, and a world tour followed. In 2019, Galás regained the rights of her back catalogue and her discography was made available again. The result was the release of a remastered version of her debut album The Litanies of Satan (1982), which had been originally released on Y Records. This was followed by the 21-minute piano work De-formation: Piano Variations (2020), which was based on music for the 1912 poem Das Fieberspital (The Fever Hospital) by the German expressionist writer Georg Heym. Art Performance art Although Galás found herself in the mid-70s studying and practicing music and performance in the West Coast, where performance artists tended to be much more reliant on text and closer to the theatrical event than their European and East-Coast counterparts, her use of text did not restrict her performances to a script, as her introduction of electronically processed sounds shifted her attention towards vocal improvisation to allow more freedom. Her first public performances at New York's The Kitchen and the 1980 Moers Festival reflect this direction, and works such as 'Wild Women with Steak-Knives' and 'Panoptikon', which were developed in this period and used heavily the improvisation element and vocal experimentation, were later recorded and released as music records for her first two solo albums in 1982 and 1984 respectively. In 1990, Galás selected material from her AIDS trilogy and created a performance piece for the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York. With a theme addressing the Roman Catholic Church's indifference to sufferers of HIV and Galás's introduction of theatrical props, such as artificial blood and special lights, her performance, for some members of her audience, "combined ululating shrieks, whispers and howls with an intensity that left the audience stunned." The performance was documented in photographs and audio, and a live album was released under the title Plague Mass in 1991. Painting Galás has stated that, for her, painting acts as "an exorcism of that which is troubling [her] deeply", and that the visual language she uses allows her "to paint an analogue of the experience, the misery, and therefore get rid of it for the time being. But only because of that vocabulary", she adds. Commentators suggest that Galás's paintings look to the past by presenting stylistic similarities with artworks by Expressionist artists such as Edvard Munch, Paul Klee and Jean Dubuffet. One of the Expressionist artists that Galás mentions as influential to her is the Austrian painter and playwright Oskar Kokoschka, especially with his short play Murderer, the Hope of Women (1909), which has very little text but creates 'explosions' by being immensely expressive. According to art historian Donald Kuspit, looking back to early modern art, particularly to Expressionism, was an interest in subjects from that period by late-70s and early-80s Neo-expressionist artists, such as Georg Baselitz, Paula Rego and Jean-Michel Basquiat, who painted objects and human forms in a distorted way, yet not entirely un-recognisable. Galás has also been compared to the artist David Wojnarowicz, whose work is seen as falling within the wider limits of neo-expressionism, for the similarities in which they invite horror through immediate and explicit expression. For Galás, the visual art that she does "has the same impulse and subject material" as her music, because she cannot interrupt the creative process when working on a subjects, "so these are simply different treatments of similar subjects." Many of Galás's paintings often borrow their subjects from themes she has explored in her performances and recordings, looking back to the same historical events that have been inspiring her to write lyrics and compose music, as is made apparent by the use of titles such as 'Ragip:Turkish Prison for Infidels', 'Medusa', 'Artemis', Cleopatra', 'Mani: Me Epifilakzin – Salt Maketh A Man Who Fears No God' and 'Ethiopian Martyr/Amharic Brother to Greek Orthodox, Egyptian Coptic and Palestinian Orthodox', among others. In 2011, Galás donated a painting to the Coilhouse International Fundraising Silent Auction, which was part of The Black & White & Red All Over Ball organized by New York's digital and print magazine, and corresponding blog, Coilhouse. Galás's work was a luminescent, or a 'glow-in-the-dark fabric painting', as described by the magazine editors, featuring "mysterious and ferocious organic shapes painted on a thick piece of black fabric and adorned with a bright prism″. Installation In 1988, Galás provided the music to the audiovisual installation Faded Wallpaper (1988) by British artist Tina Keane, which included a neon sign and a video work that featured, among other material, extracts from Charlotte Perkins Gilman's 1892 story 'The Yellow Wallpaper'. In 2010, a four-minute video artwork entitled A Fire in My Belly (1992), which was made using a composition by Galás from her album Plague Mass (1991) and a film by the artist David Wojnarowicz, was featured in the exhibition Hide/Seek at Smithsonian's National Portrait Gallery. The artwork was deemed by some groups to be controversial and it was removed from that show, with Galas immediately responding to the Smithsonian's removal with a written statement that was circulated in the press. In 2011, Galás collaborated with Soviet dissident artist Vladislav Shabalin on Aquarium, a sound installation inspired by the environmental disaster in the Gulf of Mexico. The event took place at Leonhardskirche in Basel (Switzerland) from June 12 to 19. Aquarium was then installed at the church of San Francesco in Udine (Italy), at the festival "Vicino/Lontano", from May 9 to 12, 2013. In July 2020, Galás presented via Fridman Gallery's online space a work inspired by poetry and visuals related to physical and mental scars in soldiers who were injured in the First World War. With collaborators such as artist and sound engineer Daniel Neumann, video artist Carlton Bright, and artist Robert Knocke on a guest appearance, Galás produced 'Broken Gargoyles', an installation based on the words of German poet Georg Heym and on photographs by Ernst Friedrich. Films In 1984, Galás made a voice cameo appearance, performing the voices for the Japanese assassins and flying weapons in Cannon Films' Ninja III: The Domination. This was followed by three more film appearances: she made the voice of the witch in John Milius's Conan the Barbarian (1982), the voice of the dead in Wes Craven's film The Serpent and the Rainbow, and also offered her voice to Francis Ford Coppola's 1992 film, Bram Stoker's Dracula, adding erotically charged moans, breathless sighs, and high-pitched shrieks. She also contributed the song "Exeloume" to the film. In 1995, Galás was commissioned to record a cover version of the Schwartz-Dietz song "Dancing in the Dark" for Clive Barker's film Lord of Illusions, and her song appeared during the closing credits. While two of her earlier recordings, "Le Treizième Revient" and "Exeloume", appeared on the soundtrack to Derek Jarman's The Last of England (1987), Galás herself also made an appearance in a film, as in 1990 she took part in Rosa von Praunheim's documentary Positive about AIDS in the New York gay scene. Also, excerpts from Galás's "I Put a Spell on You", "Vena Cava", "The Lord is My Shepherd" and "Judgement Day" can be heard in Oliver Stone's Natural Born Killers, and her vocal improvisation in Hideo Nakata's film The Ring Two (2005). In 2011, Galás premiered Schrei 27, a film made in collaboration with Italian filmmaker Davide Pepe. It was based on Schrei X, a 1994 radio piece which was a co-commission to Galás by New American Radio and the Walker Art Center, and it has been described as an "unrelenting" portrait of a body suffering torture in a medical facility. Most recently, Galás contributed work to James Wan's 2013 horror film, The Conjuring, and her composition "Free Among the Dead" from the album The Divine Punishment (1986) was featured in Zoe Mavroudi's Ruins: Chronicle of an HIV Witch-Hunt (2013), a documentary about the criminalization of AIDS. Awards In 2005, Galás was awarded Italy's prestigious Demetrio Stratos International Career Award. Activism In 1986, Galás's brother, playwright Philip-Dimitri Galás, died from AIDS, and this inspired her to join the AIDS activist group ACT UP. Her subsequent involvement in ACT UP's Stop the Church demonstration resulted in her arrest on December 10, 1989 during her performance inside Saint Patrick's Cathedral. The group was protesting John Cardinal O'Connor's opposition to AIDS education and to the distribution of condoms in public schools. Galás was among 53 people arrested that day. Cultural references Galás was mentioned in Michael Kustow's autobiographical book One in Four (1987), which uses the form of a journal to tell the author's story for the year 1986, when he was working as a Commissioning Editor for the Arts in the British TV station Channel Four. Galás's name does not appear directly in the book, but several references to her are made in a conversation between the author and the owner of the independent music label Some Bizzare Records Stevo Pearce, such as the use of cutting-edge technology in her live performances, her singing technique, and her Greek heritage. The following dialogue between these two persons illustrates best how this is an indirect mention of Galás:My label's called Some Bizzare. ... I've got the best f***ing TV show you'll ever see. Drama, video art, music, films made by the bands themselves. You'll get ratings. Innovation? I can give Channel Four all the innovation it wants. Greek singer, for example. She wears twenty contact microphones round her body, like necklaces, she's an opera singer, it's pure unaccompanied transformed voice. It'll drive your viewers crazy! Critical analyses Musicologist Susan McClary has written about Galás in her study Feminist Endings: Music, Gender, and Sexuality (2002). McClary looks at Galás's work in a discussion about the representation of women in famous operas as an example of how Galás's approach confronts the narrow portrayal of women in those works and how she renovated the operatic tradition with subjects created through enactment. Art historian Nicholas Chare discusses the concert performance Todesfuge (Death's Fugue) by Diamanda Galás in his study Auschwitz and Afterimages: Abjection, Witnessing and Representation (2011). Chare is interested in the Holocaust and representations of it in painting, photography, musical performance and museum artefacts, so in the section where he examines how Galás has transformed the words in the poem Todesfuge, which was written by the Romanian-born German-language poet Paul Celan, he looks at her work to investigate the relationship between style and horror in music, poetry and art. Influences Galás has cited multiple artists as influences on her music, including Maria Callas, Annette Peacock, Patty Waters, John Lee Hooker, Johnny Cash, Ray Charles, and Jimi Hendrix. She is additionally influenced greatly by Greek and Middle Eastern styles of singing, and also blues music. Galás has also expressed admiration for the comedian Don Rickles, who she has called "my hero", as well as the work of poets such as Henri Michaux and Georg Heym, and an array of other musicians, including Chet Baker, Doris Day, The Supremes, Gladys Knight, Miki Howard, Whitney Houston, Amy Winehouse and Adele. Discography Studio albums 1979 – If Looks Could Kill (w/Jim French and Henry Kaiser) 1982 – The Litanies of Satan 1984 – Diamanda Galas 1986 – The Divine Punishment 1986 – Saint of the Pit 1988 – You Must Be Certain of the Devil 1992 – The Singer 1994 – The Sporting Life (w/John Paul Jones) 2003 – Defixiones: Will and Testament 2017 – All the Way 2020 - De-formation: Piano Variations Compilation albums 1989 – Masque of the Red Death Live performance albums 1991 – Plague Mass 1993 – Vena Cava 1996 – Schrei x 1998 – Malediction and Prayer 2003 – La serpenta canta 2008 – Guilty Guilty Guilty 2017 – At Saint Thomas the Apostle Harlem Long-form videos 1986 – The Litanies of Satan (VHS) 1993 – Judgement Day (VHS) Promotional videos 1988 – Double-Barrel Prayer 1994 – Do You Take This Man? Books 1996 – The Shit of God 2017 – "Morphine & Others" featured in Outside: An Anthology References Further reading Anon. "The Woman who knows too much: A conversation with Diamanda Galás, avenging queen of the damned". Bluefat.com. March 2008. Anon. "Interview with Diamanda Galás". Hellenism.net. July 2009. Batchelder, Edward. "Diamanda Galás: The Politics of Disquiet". People & Ideas in Profile. New Music Box. November 1, 2003. Interview and accompanying video. Fischer, Tobias. "Interview with Diamanda Galás". tokafi. August 24, 2005. Golden, Barbara. "Conversation with Diamanda Galás". 12.2 — Conversations at the 'Crack o’ Dawn'. eContact!. April 2010. Montréal: CEC. Zanchi, Luca. Lamentazione e Maledizione. Una Introduzione a Diamanda Galàs (Lamentation and Curse. An Introduction to Diamanda Galàs). Roma: Aracne, 2014. External links Diamanda Galás discography on Discogs Twitchfilm: Interview with Diamanda Galás run-riot: Interview Live footage of Diamanda Galás from the Claxon Festival in the Netherlands (Holland Festival 1984) - video starts at 41:16 Avant-garde singers 1955 births Living people American women composers American blues singers American performance artists Arabic-language singers Experimental composers Women classical composers American women in electronic music HIV/AIDS activists LGBT rights activists from the United States Mute Records artists American people of Egyptian descent American people of Greek descent Activists from California Modern Greek-language singers Musicians from San Diego 20th-century American composers 21st-century American composers 20th-century classical composers 21st-century classical composers 20th-century American women singers 20th-century American singers 21st-century American women singers 21st-century American singers 20th-century women composers 21st-century women composers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tango

Tango

Tango is a partner dance and social dance that originated in the 1880s along the Río de la Plata, the natural border between Argentina and Uruguay. It was born in the impoverished port areas of these countries, in neighborhoods which had predominantly African descendants. The tango is the result of a combination of Rioplatense Candombe celebrations, Spanish-Cuban Habanera, and Argentinean Milonga. The tango was frequently practiced in the brothels and bars of ports, where business owners employed bands to entertain their patrons with music. The tango then spread to the rest of the world. Many variations of this dance currently exist around the world. On August 31, 2009, UNESCO approved a joint proposal by Argentina and Uruguay to include the tango in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. History Tango is a dance that has influences from African, South American and European culture. Dances from the candombe ceremonies of former African slave peoples helped shape the modern day tango. The dance originated in lower-class districts of Buenos Aires and Montevideo. The music derived from the fusion of various forms of music from Europe. The words "tango" and "tambo" around the River Plate basin were initially used to refer to musical gatherings of slaves, with written records of colonial authorities attempting to ban such gatherings as early as 1789. Initially, it was just one of the many dances, but it soon became popular throughout society, as theatres and street barrel organs spread it from the suburbs to the working-class slums, which were packed with hundreds of thousands of European immigrants. When the tango began to spread internationally around 1900, cultural norms were generally conservative, and so tango dancing was widely regarded as extremely sexual and inappropriate for public display. This led to a phenomenon of culture shock. Additionally, the combination of African, Native American and European cultural influences in tango was new and unusual to most of the Western world. Many neighbourhoods of Buenos Aires have their particular tango histories: for example La Boca, San Telmo and Boedo. At Boedo Avenue, Cátulo Castillo, Homero Manzi and other singers and composers used to meet at the Japanese Cafe with the Boedo Group. In the early years of the 20th century, dancers and orchestras from Buenos Aires travelled to Europe, and the first European tango craze took place in Paris, soon followed by London, Berlin, and other capitals. Tango historian Nardo Zalko, a native of Buenos Aires who lived most of his life in Paris, investigated the mutual fertilization between the two cities in his work, Paris – Buenos Aires, Un Siècle de Tango ("A Century of Tango"). Towards the end of 1913, it hit New York City as well as Finland. In the U.S., around 1911, the word "tango" was often applied to dances in a or rhythm such as the one-step. The term was fashionable and did not indicate that tango steps would be used in the dance, although they might be. Tango music was sometimes played but at a rather fast tempo. Instructors of the period would sometimes refer to this as a "North American tango", versus the so-called "Argentine tango". The tango was controversial because of its perceived sexual overtones and, by the end of 1913, the dance teachers who had introduced the dance to Paris were banished from the city. By 1914, more authentic tango stylings were soon developed, along with some variations like Albert Newman's "Minuet" tango. In Argentina, the onset in 1929 of the Great Depression, and restrictions introduced after the overthrow of the Hipólito Yrigoyen government in 1930, caused tango to decline. Its fortunes were reversed in the late 1940s as the tango again became widely fashionable and a matter of national pride under the first Perón government, which in turn had a major effect on Argentinian culture overall. Mariano Mores played a significant role in the resurgence of the tango in 1950s Argentina. Mores's Taquito Militar was premiered in 1952 during a governmental speech by President Juan D. Perón, which generated a strong political and cultural controversy between different views of the concepts of "cultured" music and "popular" music, as well as the links between both "cultures". Tango declined again in the late 1950s, as a result of economic depression and the banning of public gatherings by the military dictatorships; male-only tango practice—the custom at the time—was considered "public gathering". That, indirectly, boosted the popularity of rock and roll because, unlike tango, it did not require such gatherings. However, in the 1990s the tango again experienced a resurgence in Argentina due in large part to the endeavors of Osvaldo Peredo. In 2009, the tango was added to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. Etymology There are several theories regarding the origin of the word tango, none of which has been proven. An African culture is often credited as the creator of this word; in particular, it is theorized that the word derives from the Yoruba word shangó, which refers to Shango, the God of Thunder in traditional Yoruba religion. This theory suggests that the word “shangó” was morphed through the dilution of the Nigerian language once it reached South America via slave trade. According to an alternative theory, tango is derived from the Spanish word for "drum", tambor. This word was then mispronounced by Buenos Aires’ lower-class inhabitants to become tambo, ultimately resulting in the common tango. It is also sometimes theorized that the word is derived from the Portuguese word tanger, which means "to play a musical instrument". Another Portuguese word, tangomão, a combination of the verb tanger ("to touch") with the noun mão ("hand") meaning "to play a musical instrument with one's hands", has been suggested as the etymon of tango. According to some authors, tango is derived from the Kongo word ntangu which means "sun", "hour", "space-time". Styles The tango consists of a variety of styles that developed in different regions and eras of Argentina as well as in other locations around the world. The dance developed in response to many cultural elements, such as the crowding of the venue and even the fashions in clothing. The styles are mostly danced in either open embrace, where lead and follow have space between their bodies, or close embrace, where the lead and follow connect either chest-to-chest (Argentine tango) or in the upper thigh, hip area (American and International tango). Different styles of tango are: Tango aalon Tango argentino Tango canyengue Tango fantasia Tango liso Tango oriental Tango orillero Tango salon Tango camacupense (Angola) Tango milonguero (tango apilado) (see also "Milonguero") Tango nuevo (new tango) Tango vals (Tango waltz) Milonga Ballroom tango Finnish tango Uruguayan tango Maxixe (Brazilian tango) These are danced to several types of music: Tango Electronic tango-inspired music (Tango electronico) "Alternative tango", i.e. music that is an alternative to tango, or non-tango music employed for use in tango-inspired dance The milonguero style is characterized by a very close embrace, small steps, and syncopated rhythmic footwork. It is based on the or style of the crowded downtown clubs of the 1950s. In contrast, the tango that originated in the family clubs of the suburban neighborhoods (Villa Urquiza/Devoto/Avellaneda etc.) emphasizes long elegant steps, and complex figures. In this case the embrace may be allowed to open briefly, to permit execution of the complex footwork. The complex figures of this style became the basis for a theatrical performance style of tango seen in the touring stage shows. For stage purposes, the embrace is often open, and the complex footwork is augmented with gymnastic lifts, kicks, and drops. A newer style sometimes called tango nuevo or 'new tango' has been popularized in recent years by a younger generation of dancers. The embrace is often quite open and very elastic, permitting the leader to lead a large variety of very complex figures. This style is often associated with those who enjoy dancing to jazz- and techno-tinged "alternative tango" music, in addition to traditional tango compositions. Tango de salon (salon tango) Tango canyengue Tango canyengue is a rhythmic style of tango that originated in the early 1900s and is still popular today. It is one of the original roots styles of tango and contains all fundamental elements of traditional Tango from the River Plate region (Uruguay and Argentina). In tango canyengue the dancers share one axis, dance in a closed embrace, and with the legs relaxed and slightly bent. Tango canyengue uses body dissociation for the leading, walking with firm ground contact, and a permanent combination of on- and off-beat rhythm. Its main characteristics are its musicality and playfulness. Its rhythm is described as "incisive, exciting, provocative". The complex figures of this style became the basis for a theatrical performance style of Tango seen in the touring stage shows. For stage purposes, the embrace is often very open, and the complex footwork is augmented with gymnastic lifts, kicks, and drops. Tango nuevo A newer style sometimes called tango nuevo or 'new tango' was popularized after 1980 by a younger generation of musicians and dancers. Ástor Piazzolla, composer and virtuoso of the bandoneón (so-called "tango accordion") played a major role in the innovation of traditional tango music. The embrace is often quite open and very elastic, permitting the leader to initiate a great variety of very complex figures. This style is often associated with those who enjoy dancing to jazz- and techno-tinged, electronic and alternative music inspired in old tangos, in addition to traditional Tango compositions. Tango nuevo is largely fueled by a fusion between tango music and electronica (), though the style can be adapted to traditional tango and even non-tango songs. Gotan Project released its first tango fusion album in 2000, quickly following with La Revancha del Tango in 2001. Bajofondo Tango Club, a Rioplatense music band consisting of seven musicians from Argentina and Uruguay, released their first album in 2002. Tanghetto's album Emigrante (electrotango) appeared in 2003 and was nominated for a Latin Grammy in 2004. These and other electronic tango fusion songs bring an element of revitalization to the tango dance, serving to attract a younger group of dancers. New tango songs In the second half of the 1990s, a movement of new tango songs was born in Buenos Aires. It was mainly influenced by the old orchestra style rather than by Piazzolla's renewal and experiments with electronic music. The novelty lies in the new songs, with today's lyrics and language, which find inspiration in a wide variety of contemporary styles. In the 2000s, the movement grew with prominent figures such as the Orquesta Típica Fernandez Fierro, whose creator, Julian Peralta, would later start Astillero and the Orquesta Típica Julián Peralta. Other bands also have become part of the movement such as the Orquesta Rascacielos, Altertango, Ciudad Baigón, as well as singer and songwriters Alfredo "Tape" Rubín, Victoria di Raimondo, Juan Serén, Natalí de Vicenzo and Pacha González. Ballroom tango Ballroom tango, divided in recent decades into the "International" and "American" styles, has descended from the tango styles that developed when the tango first went abroad to Europe and North America. The dance was simplified, adapted to the preferences of conventional ballroom dancers, and incorporated into the repertoire used in International Ballroom dance competitions. English tango was first codified in October 1922, when it was proposed that it should only be danced to modern tunes, ideally at 30 bars per minute (i.e. 120 beats per minute – assuming a measure). Subsequently, the English tango evolved mainly as a highly competitive dance, while the American tango evolved as an unjudged social dance with an emphasis on leading and following skills. This has led to some principal distinctions in basic technique and style. Nevertheless, there are quite a few competitions held in the American style, and of course mutual borrowing of technique and dance patterns happens all the time. Ballroom tangos use different music and styling from the tangos from the River Plata region (Uruguay and Argentina), with more staccato movements and the characteristic head snaps. The head snaps are totally foreign to Argentine and Uruguayan tango, and were introduced in 1934 under the influence of a similar movement in the legs and feet of the tango from the River Plate, and the theatrical movements of the pasodoble. This style became very popular in Germany and was soon introduced to England. The movements were very popular with spectators, but not with competition judges. Finnish tango Tango arrived in Finland in 1913. The tango spread from the dominant urban dance form to become hugely popular across Finland in the 1950s after World War I and World War II. The melancholy tone of the music reflects the themes of Finnish folk poetry; Finnish tango is almost always in a minor key. The tango is danced in very close full thigh, pelvis and upper body contact in a wide and strong frame, and features smooth horizontal movements that are very strong and determined. Dancers are very low, allowing long steps without any up and down movement, although rises and falls are optional in some styles. Forward steps land heel first except when descending from a rise, and in backward steps dancers push from the heel. In basic steps, the passing leg moves quickly to rest for a moment close to the grounded leg. Dips and rotations are typical. There is no open position, and typically feet stay close to the floor, except in dips the follower might slightly raise the left leg. Unlike in some Argentine-Uruguayan tango styles, in Finnish tango there is no kicking of any kind, and there are no aerials. The annual Finnish tango festival Tangomarkkinat draws over 100,000 tango fans to the central Finnish town of Seinäjoki; the town also hosts the Tango Museum. Comparison of techniques Argentine-Uruguayan and ballroom tango use very different techniques. In Argentine and Uruguayan tango, the body's center moves first, then the feet reach to support it. In ballroom tango, the body is initially set in motion across the floor through the flexing of the lower joints (hip, knee, ankle) while the feet are delayed, then the feet move quickly to catch the body, resulting in snatching or striking action that reflects the staccato nature of this style's preferred music. In tango, the steps are typically more gliding, but can vary widely in timing, speed, and character, and follow no single specific rhythm. Because the dance is led and followed at the level of individual steps, these variations can occur from one step to the next. This allows the dancers to vary the dance from moment to moment to match the music (which often has both legato and/or staccato elements) and their mood. The Tango's frame, called an abrazo or "embrace", is not rigid, but flexibly adjusts to different steps, and may vary from being quite close, to offset in a "V" frame, to open. The flexibility is as important as is all movement in dance. The American Ballroom Tango's frame is flexible too, but experienced dancers frequently dance in closed position: higher in the elbows, tone in the arms and constant connection through the body. When dancing socially with beginners, however, it may be better to use a more open position because the close position is too intimate for them. In American Tango open position may result in open breaks, pivots, and turns which are quite foreign in Argentine tango and International (English) tango. There is a closed position as in other types of ballroom dance, but it differs significantly between types of tango. In Tango from the River Plata region, the "close embrace" involves continuous contact at the full upper body, but not the legs. In American Ballroom tango, the "close embrace" involves close contact in the pelvis or upper thighs, but not the upper body. Followers are instructed to thrust their hips forward, but pull their upper body away and shyly look over their left shoulder when they are led into a "corte". In tango from the River Plate region, the open position, the legs may be intertwined and hooked together, in the style of Pulpo (the Octopus). In Pulpo's style, these hooks are not sharp, but smooth ganchos. In Tango from the River Plata, Uruguay and Argentina, the ball or toe of the foot may be placed first. Alternatively, the dancer may take the floor with the entire foot in a cat-like manner. In the International style of Tango, "heel leads" (stepping first onto the heel, then the whole foot) are used for forward steps. Ballroom tango steps stay close to the floor, while the River Plata Tango (Uruguayan and Argentine) includes moves such as the boleo (allowing momentum to carry one's leg into the air) and gancho (hooking one's leg around one's partner's leg or body) in which the feet travel off the ground. Both Uruguayan and Argentine tango features other vocabulary foreign to ballroom, such as the parada (in which the leader puts his foot against the follower's foot), the arrastre (in which the leader appears to drag or be dragged by the follower's foot), and several kinds of sacada (in which the leader displaces the follower's leg by stepping into her space). Famous tango singers Carlos Acuña (1915–1999) was known for his deep, high and expressive voice. His foreign travels brought him success in Uruguay, Mexico, Italy and Spain, where he became a close friend of the exiled Juan Perón. Néstor Fabián Carlos Gardel Roberto Goyeneche Julio Sosa (1926–1964) from Uruguay was one of the most important tango singers during tango's unhappy years in the 1950s and early 1960s. His passion for poetry led to his sole published book; his passion for fast cars led to his young death. Olavi Virta Reijo Taipale Tita Merello Edmundo Rivero Pyotr Leschenko Tango influence Music and dance elements of tango are popular in activities related to gymnastics, figure skating, synchronized swimming, etc., because of its dramatic feeling and its cultural associations with romance. For the 1978 FIFA World Cup in Argentina, Adidas designed a ball and named it Tango, likely a tribute to the host country of the event. This design was also used in 1982 FIFA World Cup in Spain as Tango Málaga, and in 1984 and 1988 UEFA European Football Championships in France and West Germany. Tango in society Tango appears in different aspects of society: Regular milongas and special festivals. A very famous festival is the Tango Buenos Aires Festival y Mundial in Buenos Aires also known as World tango dance tournament. On a regional level there are also many festivals inside and outside of Argentina. One local festival outside Argentina is Buenos Aires in the Southern Highlands in Australia. Gender and tango Typically the tango is performed between a man and a woman, however the two have very different aspirations within the tango. Women often looked to the tango to help them gain confidence and to help them find a potential relationship. Men however looked to the tango for intimate reasons, and were known to be flirty and sexually willing. Women, however, were primarily focused on the dance itself and became wealthy. As time went on and the tango culture changed, women and men often wanted to travel and compete and also teach tango classes and then both women and men are viewed as equals. Gender roles also plays a big part in the mechanics of tango due to the tango needing a leader. But in more recent times this is being challenged due to woman not wanting to be dependent on the male for the dance. In the early 1900s, there were often more male dancers than female so the dance was performed between two men. This allowed for both men to learn the leading and following roles of tango and adapt to both lead equally in the dance. This changed the mechanics of the dance to be closer to two equally leading roles between men and women or same sex pairs. Tango in film Argentine tango is the main subject in these films: ¡Tango! (1933) Kaatru Veliyidai (2017), directed by Mani Ratnam with the song Tango Kelayo composed by Oscar winner A.R. Rahman and lyrics written by vairamuthu. Adiós Buenos Aires (1938) Tango: El Exilio de Gardel/Tangos: the Exile of Gardel (1985), starring Philippe Léotard, directed by Fernando Solanas Tango Bar (1988), starring Raúl Juliá The Tango Lesson (1997), starring Sally Potter and Pablo Verón, directed by Sally Potter Tango (1998), starring Cecilia Narova and Mía Maestro, directed by Carlos Saura Assassination Tango (2002), starring Robert Duvall, Rubén Blades and Kathy Baker, directed by Robert Duvall Orquesta Típica (2005), documentary film about typical orchestra Fernandez Fierro, directed by Nicolas Entel 12 Tangos – Adios Buenos Aires (2005), directed by Arne Birkenstock Tango libre (2012), directed by Frédéric Fonteyne Vaje v objemu / Practice in embrace (2012), directed by Metod Pevec A number of films show tango in several scenes, such as: The Threepenny Opera (Die 3-Groschen-Oper) (1931), directed by G. W. Pabst, has number called Tango Ballade. The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936), directed by Pare Lorentz. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921), starring Rudolph Valentino and Alice Terry, directed by Rex Ingram. L'amore in città (1953), segment "Paradise for three hours" (Paradiso per tre ore), directed by Dino Risi, starring nonprofessional actors, featuring a long sequence in a ballroom, where a passionate tango of Mario Nascimbene is played. Il Conformista (1970), starring Jean-Louis Trintignant and Dominique Sanda, directed by Bernardo Bertolucci. Last Tango in Paris (1972), starring Marlon Brando and Maria Schneider, directed by Bernardo Bertolucci. The World's Greatest Lover (1977), starring Gene Wilder (who also directed), Carol Kane and Dom DeLuise. Death on the Nile (1978), Peter Ustinov and Olivia Hussey tango whilst David Niven is the unfortunate partner to Angela Lansbury's rather eccentric version of the dance. Tango (1981), a short animation film by Zbigniew Rybczynski. Received an Oscar for Best Animated Short Film, Academy Awards 1982. Never Say Never Again (1983), starring Sean Connery and Kim Basinger, directed by Irvin Kershner. Naked Tango (1990), starring Vincent D'Onofrio and Mathilda May, directed by Leonard Schrader. Scent of a Woman (1992), Al Pacino as blind Colonel dances Argentine tango. Strictly Ballroom (1992), directed by Baz Luhrmann. Addams Family Values (1993), Raul Julia and Anjelica Huston dance a tango so passionate that it literally burns the floor and makes all the champagne bottles in the nightclub pop their corks. Schindler's List (1993), starring Liam Neeson. True Lies (1994), starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, Jamie Lee Curtis and Tia Carrere, directed by James Cameron. Evita (1996), Madonna and Antonio Banderas dance a ballroom tango. Happy Together (1997), directed by Wong Kar-wai. Moulin Rouge! (2001), featuring Ewan McGregor and "El Tango de Roxanne". Waking Life (2001), directed by Richard Linklater. Le Tango Des Rashevski (2002). Chicago (2002), starring Renée Zellweger, Catherine Zeta-Jones, and Richard Gere, directed by Rob Marshall includes a song titled "Cell Block Tango" and is accompanied with a dance. Frida (2002), Salma Hayek and Ashley Judd dance a tango to the Lila Downs performed song "Alcoba Azul". Shall We Dance (2004), starring Richard Gere, Jennifer Lopez and Susan Sarandon, directed by Peter Chelsom. Madonna featured choreography inspired by the Argentine tango styles for the Die Another Day section of her 2004 Re-Invention Tour. Segments of the 2005 documentary I'm Going To Tell You A Secret show this choreography in use. Rent (2005) had Anthony Rapp and Tracie Thoms perform a semi-elaborate ballroom tango in the song "Tango:Maureen" to describe their emotional relations and issues over a promiscuous girl they both dated. Mad Hot Ballroom (2005), documentary directed by Marilyn Agrelo. Love and Other Disasters (2006), Jacks (Brittany Murphy) and Paolo (Santiago Cabrera) perform a tango together. Take the Lead (2006), starring Antonio Banderas, directed by Liz Friedlander. Another Cinderella Story (2008), starring Selena Gomez and Drew Seeley. Performed during the Black and White Ball in the scene where Mary drops her Zune. Easy Virtue (2008), in which Jessica Biel and Colin Firth dance a tango. Step Up 3D (2010), in which Rick Malambri, Sharni Vinson and some of the supporting characters at a ballroom dance a tango to Jazmine Sullivan's Bust Your Windows. Pixilation II (2011), short animation film by Kambras. Finnish tango is featured to a greater or lesser extent in the following films: Onnen maa (1993), starring Pertti Koivula and Katariina Kaitue, directed by Markku Pölönen. Levottomat (2000), starring Mikko Nousiainen and Laura Malmivaara, directed by Aku Louhimies. Tulitikkutehtaan tyttö (1990), starring Kati Outinen, directed by Aki Kaurismäki. Mies vailla menneisyyttä (2002), starring Markku Peltola and Kati Outinen, directed by Aki Kaurismäki. Varjoja paratiisissa (1986), starring Matti Pellonpää and Kati Outinen, directed by Aki Kaurismäki. Kuutamolla (2002), starring Minna Haapkylä and Laura Malmivaara, directed by Aku Louhimies. Tango Kabaree (2001), starring Martti Suosalo and Aira Samulin, directed by Pekka Lehto. Minä soitan sinulle illalla (1954), starring Olavi Virta, directed by Armand Lohikoski. Tango in popular culture A Sesame Street episode features a Tango Festival being held at the Furry Arms Hotel. The Backyardigans uses the Tango genre for the episode; Secret Agent. Gallery References Further reading Davis, Kathy (2015). Dancing Tango: passionate encounters in a globalising world'. NYUP. Kassabova, Kapka (2011). Twelve Minutes of Love, a tango story (English), Portobello., 9781846272851 Nau, Nicole (1999). Tango Dimensionen (German), Kastell Verlag GmbH, . Nau, Nicole (2000). Tango, un baile bien porteño (Spanish), Editorial Corregidor, Park, Chan (2005). Tango Zen: Walking Dance Meditation (English), Tango Zen House, Park, Chan (2008). TangoZen: Caminar y Meditar Bailando (Spanish-English), Editorial Kier, Savigliano, Marta E. (1995) Tango and the Political Economy of Passion. Westview Press, Turner, David (2006). A Passion for Tango'' (English), Dingley Press 2004 Revised and augmented, External links Argentine Tango Radio Tango in the Movies Tango dance Partner dance Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity Urban street dance and music Articles containing video clips

262756

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tango%20%28drink%29

Tango (drink)

Tango is a soft drink originating in the United Kingdom, primarily sold in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It was first launched by Corona in 1950. Corona was purchased by the Beecham Group in 1958, and Corona Soft Drinks by Britvic in 1987. , the flavours available in the United Kingdom include Orange, Apple, Strawberry and Watermelon and Tropical in addition to flavours of the "Tango Ice Blast" slush range. Tango is known in the United Kingdom for their advertisements, mostly those broadcast on television in the 1990s from the Howell Henry Chaldecott Lury advertising agency. Advertising Beginning in the late 1980's, surrealism was becoming a mainstream technique in advertising. Answering Tango's search for a new ad campaign, ad agency HHCL created the catchphrase "You know when you've been Tango'd". The campaign began in 1992 with the advert Orange Man; it featured a man drinking Tango and immediately being slapped around the face by a portly man painted orange (Peter Geeves). The advert received widespread condemnation after a craze for "Tangoing" people swept the nation's playgrounds, and there were reports of children receiving serious injuries, or even being deafened by being slapped on the ears. Tango voluntarily replaced the "slapping" advert with an almost identical new version, where the orange clad person kisses the man instead of hitting him. The original version was ranked third in a list of the "100 Greatest Adverts", in a 2000 poll conducted by The Sunday Times and Channel 4. Most subsequent Tango advertisements have avoided showing violence, except for the advert from October 2004, "Pipes", which showed a man rolling down a hill with concrete pipes, causing it to be banned, and the advert from March 1997, "Vote Orange Now", where the orange clad man made another appearance, slapping the advert's protagonist several times. This latter advert was featured in the first advert break on Channel 5. In March 2000, an advert originally produced in 1998, which depicted a pre-fame James Corden being bullied for not drinking Tango, was banned because it was seen as encouraging the bullying of overweight children. The replacement was a satirically inoffensive advert, Drink Tango: It's Nice. During August 1999, Tango teamed up with the newspapers Daily Mail and Daily Record to extend their summer peak sales period in a campaign called "Tango Time". The main thread of the campaign activity was a competition where a time of day is printed on the base of cans of Tango. The winning 'Tango Time' was published in the Daily Mirror and Daily Record and winners invited to call a prize claim line. The newspaper adverts were trailed by branding on the front page, including a free offer for a bottle of Tango. The adverts containing the winning 'Tango Time' ran for twenty six days in August 1999. Tango Apple has often been subject to experimental advertising including an "Apple Tango Calendar" given free in June 1996 with the Daily Star and, in 2003, the "Big Drench Tour", a roadshow of a thirty foot tall apple shaped installation filled with water. Players must stand underneath and take part in a game of 'drench roulette' to win prizes. Later that year, as Tango Strange Soda launched, three ultimately unsuccessful advertisements for the drink (Taste Buds, Trainers and Classroom) were aired featuring a man's "taste buddies" which are a group of young men behaving as the man's taste buds that vibrate rapidly when the man consumes Strange Soda. The "taste buddy" actors in the advertisements were shot as live action, with the actor standing on a moveable circular frame which was then manoeuvred via a handle to give the "vibrating" trembling effect for each of the "buddies" seen on screen. In August 2009, a billboard campaign extolled the "weird and wonderful" side effects of drinking too much "Tango with added Tango Orange" (such as "Too much Tango made me suck a bull's udder"). The British press pointed out that the initials of "Tango With Added Tango" spelled the insult "twat" when read vertically, and this was later revealed to be intentional. Tango advertisements have sometimes featured phone numbers for viewers to call, although the phone numbers would typically appear too briefly on the screen for viewers to type in the number or write it down. Many of these advertisements incorporate a send-away prize, including a rubber doll or a clown horn (the Tango Horn). A notable exception was an advert which first premièred in 1993 for Still Tango disguised as a subvert falsely alerting people that the drink is unauthorised, and features a phone number for 'affected' viewers to call. Tango sponsored the television show The Word in 1994 and the Underage Festival in 2010. Historically, slogans have included "You Taste the Tang in Tango Every Sparkling Sip You Take" in the 1960s and "The Whole Fruit" in the late 1980s. Logos and packaging The first packaging that Britvic introduced, upon buying the brand in 1987, featured the word 'Tango' on a circle with an orange background. In 1989, the cast, material and graphic design of the can changed considerably. No longer molded in the shape of a baked bean can in a non reusable steel material, Tango was now available in a recyclable aluminium composition, with an innovative new ring pull system. On the can itself, the word 'Tango' was featured inside an oval on a backdrop of half sliced oranges. The design was often seen on display in the form of laminated stickers, in the shop windows of confectionery stores and newsagents. 1992 saw the packaging change again, with the 'Tango' logo depicted on the fruit the drink was flavoured with against a black background, with the flavour specified at the bottom. In the beginning of 1996, Tango packaging changed again, with the words 'Tango' and the respective flavour written on something representing the drink (for example, an orange explosion for Tango Orange). Slight changes were made in 1997, adding more detail. In April 2002, another revamp occurred, with a more three dimensional logo. The design was dropped in 2007, although is still used by Tango Ice Blast. The Diet Tango Orange products from this era featured a grey background instead of a black one. The summer of 2007 saw a much simpler logo and design, featuring the 'Tango' logo on top of a carved version of the fruit, with the flavour written in lower case at the bottom. Intended to help restore sales of Tango, it actually led to a further decline. May 2009 saw new packaging created by Blue Marlin Brand Design. It featured mashed up images of fruit and graffiti style type, and contributed to a rise in sales. For limited edition variations of Tango, special packaging has sometimes been produced for them. Notably, the 'Tango Talk' rebrand of Tango Orange and Tango Apple featured a mobile phone in place of the flavour representation featured on regular versions of the flavours at the time. The 2009 larger can packaging of Tango Orange known as "Tango with Added Tango Orange" featured more oranges in the background. The same can be said for the 2010 "King Tango" Tango Orange bottles. More apples were used on the label for King Tango Apple and more cherries for King Tango Cherry. No changes to flavour was made only the size of the can or bottle. The labelling of the short lived Tango Strange Soda featured a "strange" fruit with facial features, patterned after the name and flavour of the drink. "Tango Orange Sound System: Official Can", a 2010 repackaging of the notably large "Tango with Added Tango Orange" featured speakers on the can, in place of the mashed-up fruit. Both these large cans were advertised as "the first time Tango cans are larger". This is not true, as from 1991 until roughly 2000, all Tango flavours could be purchased in similar size larger cans. The large cans, at the initial 1991 launch, were called "King-Size". During 2000, short lived 250ml bottles of Tango were introduced as part of a £42m campaign by Britvic, to market their drinks as being suitable for children's lunch boxes. The campaign also introduced the popular Robinson's line of juice drinks Fruit Shoot. Tango Cherry and Tango Lemon were first to feature the revamp of 2002, getting the treatment in September 2001. Flavours and variants In addition to orange, Tango has been sold in numerous flavours. Tango Lemon was introduced in the 1950s, and more recent flavours have included apple in the 1980s, and blackcurrant and cherry in the 1990s. A range of Diet Tango products were released in the 1990s, later branded as "Tango No Added Sugar". Some variants are still sold, but most have been discontinued. Tango Clear was also available for a limited time before being discontinued in 2007. The orange flavour was the only original flavour, and for this reason is the flagship flavour of the brand. As well as drinks, the brand have also sold two different chocolate bars, and chewy ball sweets. There have been two product recalls of the drink throughout its long history. In June 1994, the brand recalled more than a million bottles of Still Tango, after complaints that the drink was fermenting on the shelves. The drink was not relaunched until September 1995. Then, on 25 August 2005, over 100,000 cans of Tango Cherry and Tango Fruit Fling were recalled over fears they could explode due to an ingredient in the drink. In July 2011, Turbo Tango, when launched, was described as the "first aerosol drink". In October 2000, Tango introduced a flavoured bar of Crunchie. During 2011, several flavours of Chew Stick and Chewy Bonbons were introduced. In January 2013, a Tango branded shower gel was launched. A Tango branded hand soap was also launched around the same time. Blackcurrant Tango Blackcurrant Tango was launched in 1996. The drink is notable for the multiple award-winning television commercial from 1997, St George, which was used to promote it. Blackcurrant Tango was relaunched in August 2011, as an exclusive flavour to Asda, and since December 2012, is sold by other retailers. For the launch of Blackcurrant Tango in 1996, HHCL produced the "St. George" television and cinema advertisement. In the advertisement, a member of Tango's customer service staff, Ray Gardner, provides a response to a letter of complaint about the flavour of Blackcurrant Tango he has received from Sebastien Loyes, a French exchange student. The letter prompts an increasingly jingoistic tirade during which Ray Gardner removes his suit to reveal bright purple boxing shorts. In one seemingly continuous take, he walks from his office, marches out of Tango's building, and is joined by a flag waving crowd as he enters a boxing ring. As the camera pulls back, the ring is revealed to be perched on the edge of the White Cliffs of Dover. As the camera circles, Gardner can be heard shouting, "Come on France, Europe, the world. I'll take you all on! I'm Ray Gardner. I drink Blackcurrant Tango. Come and get me!" whilst three Harrier Jump Jets with purple landing lights hover in the background. The advertisement was notable for the use of digital editing to seamlessly merge a number of tracking shots, including the final transition from a sky camera to a helicopter shot. Ray Gardner later won the ITV Best Actor In A Commercial award for his performance. The commercial was voted the Best Long Commercial (1956–2001), by the United Kingdom's Film4 television channel in June 2007. The song that appeared in the advertisement, "Don't You Want Me" by Felix, was rereleased with Tango branding. Ice Blast range Since 2001, Tango has offered a frozen slush range branded as "Tango Ice Blast", which is primarily sold in Odeon & Vue cinemas. The drink was also sold in Cineworld locations, but in 2019 it was discontinued and replaced by Icee. They have been sold as individual flavours or in flavour combinations. The drop tower at Blackpool Pleasure Beach has been marketed as "The Blast in promotion with Tango." Current flavours Orange Apple Blue Raspberry Strawberry & Watermelon Dark Berry Wild Cherry Limited editions Peach & Pomegranate (2019) Sour Watermelon (2018) Dark Cherry (2015-2016) (coincided with The Last Jedi release) Summer Flavour Festival (2015) Citrus Tropical Strawberry & Kiwi Summer Flavour Festival (2016) Pina Coco'lada Lemon Fizz Pineapple Punchy Peach and Passionfruit References External links Fruit sodas Products introduced in 1950 1950 establishments in the United Kingdom Orange sodas

262757

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%20al-Rahman%20al-Sufi

Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi

'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi ( (December 7, 903 – May 25, 986) was a Persian astronomer also known as 'Abd ar-Rahman as-Sufi, 'Abd al-Rahman Abu al-Husayn, 'Abdul Rahman Sufi, or 'Abdurrahman Sufi and, historically, in the West as Azophi and Azophi Arabus. The lunar crater Azophi and the minor planet 12621 Alsufi are named after him. Al-Sufi published his famous Book of Fixed Stars in 964, describing much of his work, both in textual descriptions and pictures. Al-Biruni reports that his work on the ecliptic was carried out in Shiraz. He lived at the Buyid court in Isfahan. Biography 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was one of the nine famous Muslim astronomers. His name implies that he was from a Sufi Muslim background. He lived at the court of Emir Adud ad-Daula in Isfahan, Persia, and worked on translating and expanding Greek astronomical works, especially the Almagest of Ptolemy. He contributed several corrections to Ptolemy's star list and did his own brightness and magnitude estimates which frequently deviated from those in Ptolemy's work, with only 55% of Al-Sufi's magnitudes being identical to Ptolemy's. He was a major contributor of translation into Arabic of the Hellenistic astronomy that had been centered in Alexandria, Egypt, the first to attempt to relate the Greek with the traditional Arabic star names and constellations, which were completely unrelated and overlapped in complicated ways. Astronomy Al-Sufi made his astronomical observations at a latitude of 32.7° in Isfahan. It has been claimed that he identified the Large Magellanic Cloud but this seems to be a misunderstanding of a reference to some stars south of Canopus which he admits he has not seen. He also made the earliest recorded observation of the Andromeda Galaxy in 964 AD, describing it as a "small cloud". This was the first galaxy other than the Milky Way to be mentioned in writing. Al-Sufi published Kitab al-Kawatib al-Thabit al-Musawwar (also commonly known as the Book of Fixed Stars) in AD 964 and dedicated it to Adud al-Dawla, the current ruler of Buwayhid at the time. This book describes forty-eight constellations and the stars that they are composed of. Within the Book of Fixed Stars, Al-Sufi compared Greek and Arabic constellations and stars to equate the same ones to each other. He included two illustrations of each constellation, one showing the orientation of the stars from the perspective of outside the celestial globe and the other from the perspective of looking at the sky while standing on the earth. He separated the constellations into three groups: twenty-one northern constellations, twelve zodiac constellations, and fifteen southern constellations. For each of these forty-eight constellations, Al-Sufi provided a star chart that contains all of the stars that form the constellation. Each star chart names and numbers the individual stars in the constellation, provides their longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates, the magnitude or brightness of each star, and its location north or south of the ecliptic. Although the magnitude was given for each star, of the 35 remaining copies of the Book of Fixed Stars the star magnitudes are not consistently the same number for each star due to scribal error. Al-Sufi organized the stars in each of his drawings into two groups: the stars that form the image that the constellation is meant to depict, and the stars that are in close proximity to the constellation but do not contribute to the overall image. He identified and described stars that Ptolemy did not, but he did not include them in his star charts. Al-Sufi states at the beginning of the Book of Fixed Stars that his charts are modeled after those that were produced by Ptolemy, so Al-Sufi left them out of his charts as well. Eight hundred thirty-nine years had passed since Ptolemy had published the Almagest, so the longitudinal placement of the stars within constellations had changed. To account for the procession of the stars, Al-Sufi added 12° 42' to the longitudes Ptolemy had previously suggested for the placement of the stars. Al-Sufi differed in Ptolemy by having a three leveled scale to measure the magnitude of stars instead of a two leveled scale. This extra level increased the accuracy of his measurements. His methods of determining these magnitude measurements cannot be found in any remaining texts. Despite the importance of the Book of Fixed Stars in the history of astronomy, it took more than a thousand years until, in 2010, the first English translation was published. Al-Sufi observed that the ecliptic plane is inclined with respect to the celestial equator and more accurately calculated the length of the tropical year. Al-Sufi also wrote about the astrolabe, finding numerous additional uses for it: he described over 1000 different uses, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla, Salat prayer, etc. Al-Sufi's astronomical work was used by many other astronomers that came soon after him, including Ulugh Beg who was both a prince and astronomer. Tribute Since 2006, Astronomy Society of Iran – Amateur Committee (ASIAC) hold an international Sufi Observing Competition in the memory of Al-Sufi. The first competition was held in 2006 in the north of Semnan Province and the second was held in the summer of 2008 in Ladiz near the Zahedan. More than 100 attendees from Iran and Iraq participated in the event. On December 7, 2016, Google Doodle commemorated his 1113th birthday. Gallery See also Al Sufi's Cluster Astronomy in Islam List of Iranian scientists List of Muslim scientists Citations General sources "Abd al-Rahman Al-Sufi's (Azophi) 1113th Birthday". Google.com. December 7, 2016. Al-Qifti. Ikhbar al-'ulama' bi-akhbar al-hukama (History of Learned Men). In: Άbdul-Ramān al-Şūfī and his Book of the Fixed Stars: A Journey of Re-discovery by Ihsan Hafez, Richard F. Stephenson, Wayne Orchiston (2011). In: Orchiston, Wayne, Highlighting the history of astronomy in the Asia-Pacific region: proceedings of the ICOA-6 conference. Astrophysics and Space Science Proceedings. New York: Springer. . "... is the honored, the perfect, the most intelligent and the friend of the King Adud al-Dawla Fanakhasru Shahenshah Ibn Buwaih. He is the author of the most honored books in the science of astronomy. He was originally from Nisa and is of a Persian descent." "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-10-20. Retrieved 2009-01-07. Cavin, Jerry D. (2012). The amateur Astronomer's Guide to the Deep-Sky Catalogs. Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. . OCLC 759795491. Dr. Emily Winterburn (National Maritime Museum) (2005). "Using an Astrolabe". Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. Retrieved 2008-01-22. Hafez, Ihsan; Stephenson, Richard; Orchiston, Wayne, (2011-01-01), Abdul-Rahman al-Sufi and his Book of the Fixed Stars, pp. 121–138, , retrieved 2019-11-13. Kepple, George Robert; Glen W. Sanner (1998). The Night Sky Observer's Guide. 1. Willmann-Bell. p. 18. . Knobel, E. B. (June 1885). "On Al Sufi's star magnitudes". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 45: 417–425. "Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi)". Archived from the original on April 16, 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-19. "Observatoire de Paris (LMC)". Archived from the original on April 17, 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-19. Orchiston, Wayne; Green, David A.; Strom, Richard (2014-11-24). New Insights From Recent Studies in Historical Astronomy: Following in the Footsteps of F. Richard Stephenson: A Meeting to Honor F. Richard Stephenson on His 70th Birthday. Springer. . Robert Harry van Gent. Biography of al-Sūfī. "The Persian astronomer Abū al-Husayn ‘Abd al-Rahmān ibn ‘Umar al-Sūfī was born in Rayy (near Tehrān) on 7 December 903 [14 Muharram 291 H] and died in Baghdād on 25 May 986 [13 Muharram 376 H] ... the Persian astronomer Abū al-Husayn ‘Abd al-Rahmān ibn ‘Umar al-Sūfī who was commonly known by European astronomers as Azophi Arabus". University of Utrecht, Netherlands. Retrieved 2014-01-11. Schaefer, Bradley E. (2013-02). "The Thousand Star Magnitudes in the Catalogues of Ptolemy, Al Sufi, and Tycho are All Corrected for Atmospheric Extinction". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 44 (1): 47-A91. . . Selin, Helaine (2008). Encyclopedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures. Berlin; New York: Springer. p. 160. . Al-Sūfī was an astronomer in the Arabic-Islamic area. He was of Persian origin, but wrote in Arabic, the language of all science in that time. Upton, Joseph M. (March 1933). "A Manuscript of 'The Book of the Fixed Stars' by 'Abd Ar-Rahmān As-Sūfī". Metropolitan Museum Studies. 4: 179–197. . . External links Liber locis stellarum fixarum, 964 da www.atlascoelestis.com Liber locis stellarum fixarum, 964, manoscritto del 1417 riprodotto il 1730 da www.atlascoelestis.com Ulug Beg in www.atlascoelestis.com Al-Sufi's constellations Al-Sūfī’s Book of the Constellations of the Fixed Stars and its Influence on Islamic and Western Celestial Cartography 10th-century astronomers 10th-century Iranian people 10th-century Muslims 903 births 986 deaths Astronomers of medieval Islam Buyid scholars Greek–Arabic translators Medieval Persian astronomers People from Rey, Iran

262758

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UBL

UBL

The acronym UBL can also mean: Hubli Junction railway station, station code:UBL Ulster Bank Limited, a retail banking subsidiary of NatWest Group Ultimate Band List United Bank Limited Unilever Bangladesh Limited United Basketball League Universal Business Language, an ISO standard XML vocabulary for invoices, purchase orders, waybills, etc. Usama bin Laden (1957–2011) Saudi Arabian terrorist and leader of al-Qaeda Ubiquitin-like proteins

262761

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-bondage

Self-bondage

Self-bondage refers to the use of restraints on oneself for erotic pleasure. It is a form of erotic bondage which can be practiced alone. Self-bondage is characterized by experimentation and ingenuity, and can be riskier than conventional bondage. Self-bondage requires use of techniques for self-binding as movement becomes increasingly restricted as more restraints are applied, and also requires a reliable release mechanism. Many types of bondage equipment can be applied before the one that restrains the hands. For example, leg irons can be applied, as well as gags, blindfolds, etc. For many of its practitioners, the added challenges and dangers are a part of the appeal of self-bondage, who often devise elaborate self-bondage schemes and release mechanisms, both in practice and in erotic fiction. Risks Self-bondage is considered a higher-risk activity than many other BDSM practices — particularly when combined with autoerotic asphyxia — and has led to a number of recorded deaths. The death in 1994 of Stephen Milligan, the British Conservative MP for Eastleigh, was a case of autoerotic asphyxiation combined with self-bondage. Self-bondage has all the risks of physical restraint and sexual bondage, with the added factor that should anything go wrong, there is no one to effect a rescue. For example, if blood circulation cuts off sensation in limbs, the planned escape mechanism may not be usable. Types Self-bondage can be either strict or sensual. Sensual self-bondage In sensual self-bondage, escape from restraints is simple and available immediately, if desired. For example, the keys might be within reach or the knots loosely tied. The chief aim is the sensation of immobility and of constrained movement. Strict self-bondage Strict self-bondage requires that the means of escape be unavailable until the lapse of time before the release mechanism activates itself. This feature of strict self-bondage makes it potentially more hazardous, but some practice it for the greater sense of helplessness it creates. Emergency intervention A compromise position between safety and strictness allows for a backup release mechanism that is available immediately, but carries with it some penalty or cost with its use. For example, keys could be placed in a bucket of paint. The person in self-bondage can escape quickly if necessary, such as a fire breaking out, or excessive numbness of limbs. However, the annoyance of cleaning up the paint afterwards would coerce the person into waiting for the main release mechanism to come into effect if he or she were merely bored or uncomfortable. Another penalty may be the need to contact somebody, with the penalty being having to explain what has happened. Release mechanisms Many release mechanisms are used in self-bondage to allow the practitioner to escape the restraints after a period of time. There are various trade-offs to be made between ease of use, reliability, precision of timing, cost, and so forth. There should be several mechanisms available, thus ensuring redundancy and safety. Ice cubes are commonly used as a release mechanism. For example, a key can be placed in water which is then frozen. The key will not be available until the ice melts. Advantages include simplicity and reliability. The disadvantage is that it can be difficult to gauge precisely how long a scenario will last, although some enjoy the uncertainty. Ice locks are frozen together and do not move until the ice has melted down. These can be used alone (to lock a person to a stationary object) or in combination with tightening devices (to keep the tension for a certain period of time). "Salt locks": Salt, sugar or any other safe water-soluble substance blocks parts of a lock. It needs to be dissolved in order to release the mechanism. Combination locks can be used as release mechanisms. These can rely on the time needed to try every possibility for an unknown combination, or they can rely on light in order to see to enter the known combination correctly. Unknown combination: The idea is that the lock is reset to an unknown combination, then used to lock the bondage in place. The person must find the correct combination by trial and error. A three digit combination lock contains a thousand possibilities. At a second per attempt, this could take up to 16 minutes and 40 seconds, usually less assuming the combination starts with lower numbers. For a four-digit lock, it is nearer two hours. Disadvantages include the fact that it may be distracting to actively "crack" the lock. In darkness: Even if the number is known, for many locks, it is not possible to enter the combination without being able to see the faces of the dials. This release mechanism relies on darkness. The light can be provided either by the morning sunlight, or, preferably, through a light on a time switch. The advantages include a large amount of control over how long the bondage lasts (with a timer), and a backup of the onset of daylight. The disadvantages are only being able to use the technique at night, and having to perform the bondage in the dark. Electromagnets: Electromagnets can be used to release keys after a delay. If combined with electronics or a computer, a large amount of control is possible over the timing, and the mechanism is somewhat "fail-safe" — if power fails, the key will fall early. Disadvantages include complexity and cost. The powerful electromagnets used in door locks can also be adapted for use directly as restraints. Soldering irons: Soldering irons can be used, in conjunction with a timing mechanism, to cut a nylon rope, or to release keys. This may be a fire hazard unless appropriate precautions are taken. The use of a delivery/messenger service or regular mail in order to obtain the object (usually key/keys) needed in order to become released. This relies on the delivery service being 100% reliable. Emergency backup There are also a number of release mechanisms designed to be emergency backups. The idea behind these release mechanisms is that triggering them will cause something undesirable to happen, and thus are only used in situations where death or serious injury could occur otherwise. Paint tin: A backup key is stored in a bucket of paint, ink or motor oil in such a way that recovering the key will cause the contents of the container to spill, causing costly damage to a carpet or other possessions. This mechanism can be used for extremely quick release in an emergency such as a fire, but can make the situation worse if a flammable liquid is used. Unpleasant drink: An unpleasant liquid, such as urine (the safety of this is discussed in the article Urophagia), is stored in a container. The key is only released when the contents of the container have been drunk (it should be designed so that the contents can not be spilled). The idea is to make the drink so unpleasant that it will only be considered as a last resort. Rescue: A friend or relative is notified to come over at a certain time (that time being after the bondage session is planned to end). The friend may or may not be aware of the bondage. An alternative is to position a phone somewhere that is accessible during the bondage, so that a friend or the emergency services may be called if the planned release mechanisms fail. Techniques Apart from release mechanisms, self-bondage poses a somewhat awkward problem of getting into bondage, especially when using rope. What might be a relatively simple matter for couples can be considerably more complex alone. With rope, the main difficulty is tying the hands in a way that is not easy to untie. One common solution is to use a cinch noose — essentially a kind of slip knot — together with a coil (a loop of rope). The wrists are placed through the coil with the cinch noose between the wrists and around the coil. To achieve a basic hogtie position, the cinch noose is tied to the ankles. With pressure, the noose tightens the wrist coil, securing the hands. It proves very difficult to escape from, and usually a knife or scissors is required to cut free. Equipment that can be tightened only, and not loosened, often has application in self-bondage. This includes handcuffs, zip ties and ratcheting pulleys. Commercial equipment While for the most part self-bondage is performed using ordinary and easily available equipment (indeed, it lends itself to impromptu adaptation and a "do it yourself" approach), a few commercial products have appeared — in the United States and United Kingdom for the most part — catering for the self-bondage practitioner. See also Escape artist References External links A set of summaries of and references to articles on self-bondage fatalities Soc.subculture.bondage-bdsm FAQ appendix Time release methods Self-bondage techniques Translation of the term "self-bondage" to other languages Glossary of clinical sexology (it - en) Bondage (BDSM) BDSM activities Physical restraint

262764

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen%20Yun

Chen Yun

Chen Yun (, pronounced ; 13 June 1905 – 10 April 1995) was one of the most influential leaders of the People's Republic of China during the 1980s and 1990s and one of the major architects and important policy makers for the Reform and opening up, alongside Deng Xiaoping. He was also known as Liao Chenyun (), as he took his uncle's (Liao Wenguang; ) family name when he was adopted by him after his parents died. He was one of the major political leaders of China both during and after the Chinese Civil War, along with Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, Zhu De and Ren Bishi, and was later recognized as one of the Eight Elders of the Chinese Communist Party. In the 1980s and 1990s, Chen Yun was regarded as the second-most powerful person in China, after Deng Xiaoping. Biography Early life A native of Qingpu, Jiangsu (now part of Shanghai), Chen was one of the few Communist Party organizers from an urban working-class background; he worked underground as a union organizer in the late 1920s, participated in the Long March, and served on the Central Committee from 1931 to 1987. He was active throughout his career in the field of economics, despite receiving no formal education after elementary school. As a typesetter for the famous Commercial Press of Shanghai, Chen played a prominent role as a younger organizer in the labor movement during the early and mid-1920s, joining the CCP in 1924. Following the May Thirtieth Movement of 1925, Chen was an important organizer under Zhou Enlai and Liu Shaoqi. After Chiang Kai-shek turned against the CCP in 1927, Chen fled to his hometown, but soon returned to Shanghai and secretly continued his work as a labor unionist. He served on the Central Committee in the Third Plenary Session of Sixth Central Committee of CCP in 1930 and became a member of the Politburo in 1934. In 1933 he evacuated to Ruijin, in Jiangxi province, the headquarters of the CCP's main "soviet" area. He was in overall charge of the Party's "white areas" work, that is, underground activities in places not under Party control. On the Long March he was one of the four Standing Committee members of the Political Bureau who attended the January 1935 Zunyi Conference. He left the Long March sometime in the spring of 1935, returning to Shanghai, and in September 1935 he went to Moscow, serving as one of the CCP's representatives to the Comintern. In 1937 Chen returned to China as an adviser to the Xinjiang leader Sheng Shicai. Chen later joined Mao in Yan'an, probably before the end of 1937. In November 1937 he became director of the Party's Organization Department, serving in that capacity until 1944, and by the early 1940s was in the inner circle of Mao's advisers. His writings on organization, ideology, and cadre training were included in the important study materials for the Yan'an Rectification Movement of 1942, a campaign of political persecutions which consolidated Mao's power within the Party. Maoist politician Chen's economic career began in 1942, when he was replaced by Ren Bishi as head of the CCP Organization Department. In his new position, Chen was assigned responsibility for the financial management of Northwest China. Two years later, he was identified as responsible for finance in the Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region as well. He added Northeast China to his portfolio in 1946 (then under the overall leadership of General Lin Biao and Political Commissar Peng Zhen). In May 1949, Chen Yun was named head of the new national Central Finance and Economic Commission. In early 1952, Zhou Enlai led a team to draft the first Five-Year Plan which included Chen, Bo Yibo, Li Fuchun and General Nie Rongzhen. Zhou, Chen and Li presented the draft to Soviet experts in Moscow, who rejected it. In early 1953, Gao Gang and the State Planning Commission began work on what would eventually become the final version. After Gao's fall, Chen Yun, Bo Yibo, Li Fuchuan and (later) Li Xiannian would manage the Chinese economy for the next 30+ years. Chen Yun was elected Party Vice Chairman in 1956. Throughout the 1950s, Chen was the official who did the most to moderate Mao's radical economic reforms. Looking back, Chen would later believe that it was the Chairman's errors that most kept China from achieving its Five-Year Plans. In 1956, when the 8th National Congress of Chinese Communist Party was held, Chen was elected a Vice-chairman of the Central Committee. Around that time, both Mao and Chen had come to believe that the economic system, modeled on that of the Soviet Union, was overly centralized, but had different ideas about what to do about it. Chen's proposal was to make wider use of the market, allowing for the operation of supply and demand rather than simple government fiat in determining the allocation of resources. He argued that decisions concerning prices and production should be made by individual firms, in conformity with business logic. At the same time he favored giving the central government ministries stronger control over these firms, to assure that their decisions did not transgress the boundaries of the plan. Mao's idea, rather, was to devolve powers to provincial and local authorities, in practice Party committees rather than state technocrats, and to use mass mobilization rather than either a detailed central plan or the market to promote economic growth. Mao's program prevailed, and these policies converged with the rest of the ultimately disastrous Great Leap Forward. By early 1959 the economy was already showing signs of strain. In January of that year Chen Yun published an article calling for increased Soviet aid. In March he published a subdued but general critique of the Leap, especially its reliance on the mass movement. Economic growth, he asserted, is not simply a matter of speed. It requires attention to safe working conditions and quality engineering. It depends on technical skill, not just political awareness. Leading China's economic recovery This was Chen's last public statement during Mao's lifetime. In the summer of 1959 the Party convened a meeting at the resort town of Lushan to review the policies of the Leap. The Minister of Defense, Marshal Peng Dehuai, attacked the radicalism of the Leap, and Mao took this, or affected to take it, as an attack on himself and his authority. Mao responded with a vicious personal attack on Peng. Peng lost his military positions and the Party undertook a general purge of what Mao termed right opportunism. Further reform of the Leap policies was now out of the question. China continued on its set course for another year or more, and by the end of 1960 had fallen deep into famine. Chen Yun was certainly in sympathy with Peng Dehuai's criticism of the Leap and joined forces with Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping to manage the economy in the post-Great Leap Forward period, which required deft handling of Chairman Mao's sensitivity to criticism. Chen retained his positions as Party vice chairman and member of the Politburo and continued to express his opinions behind the scenes. In 1961 he conducted investigations of the rural areas around Shanghai. According to a Cultural Revolution attack on him by the radical group within the finance system, he reported the peasants as saying: "In the days of Chiang Kai-shek we had rice to eat. In the glorious era of Chairman Mao, we have only gruel." According to his obituary, Chen was one of the main designers of the economic policies of the 1961-1962 "capitalist road" era, when China's economic policy stressed material incentives and sought to encourage economic growth in preference to pursuing ideological goals. This approach is often referred to as Chen's "bird-cage" theory of post-Great Leap economic recovery, where the bird represents the free market and the cage represents a central plan. Chen proposed that a balance should be found between "setting the bird free" and choking the bird with a central plan that was too restrictive; this theory would later become a focal point of criticism against Chen during the Cultural Revolution. His only public appearance during this time was a photograph of him published on the front page of the People's Daily and other major newspapers on May 1, 1962, showing Chen shaking hands with Chairman Mao, while Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, Zhu De, and Deng Xiaoping (the entire inner core of leadership of that time, with the exception of Lin Biao) look on. There was no caption or any other explanation. During the Cultural Revolution, Chen Yun was denounced in Red Guard publications but not in the official press. He was re-elected to the Central Committee in the Ninth Party Congress in April 1969 but not to the Politburo. He no longer held any functional positions. Later that year he was "evacuated" from Beijing, as were many other inactive or disgraced first-generation leaders, as part of a supposed plan preparing against the eventuality of an invasion by the Soviet Union with whom China had a serious split. Chen was put to work in a factory in Nanchang in Jiangxi province, where he stayed for three years. In January 1975, he was elected to the Standing Committee of China's legislature, the National People's Congress. Criticism of Maoism after Mao Following the death of Mao in September 1976 and the coup d'état against the radical Gang of Four a month later, Chen became increasingly active in the country's political life. He and General Wang Zhen petitioned Party chairman Hua Guofeng to rehabilitate Deng Xiaoping at the March 1977 CCP CC Work Conference, but were turned down. After Deng was rehabilitated later that year, Chen led the attack on the Maoist era at the November–December 1978 CCP CC Work Conference, raising the sensitive "six issues": the purges of Bo Yibo, Tao Zhu, Wang Heshou and Peng Dehuai; the 1976 Tiananmen Incident; and, Kang Sheng's errors. Chen raised the six issues in order to undermine Hua and his leftist supporters. Chen's intervention tipped the balance in favor of movement toward an open repudiation of the Cultural Revolution and Deng Xiaoping's promotion, in December 1978, to de facto head of the regime. Chen laid the basis for Deng's "reform and opening" program. In July 1979, Chen Yun was named head (and Li Xiannian deputy head) of the new national Economic and Financial Commission staffed with his own allies and conservative economic planners. In April and July of that year he made further provocative statements in internal Party meetings, although their authenticity was denied (in an equivocal manner) by official spokesmen. In these Chen deplored China's lack of economic progress and the people's loss of confidence in the Party. In April he criticized the luxurious life of Party leaders (including himself), and said if he had known in the period before Liberation what the past ten-some years would be like (that is, the Cultural Revolution period), he would have defected to Chiang Kai-shek. He deplored Mao's dictatorial ways and implied, although not very strongly, that the Party should take a milder line against dissidents. If "Lin Biao and the Gang of Four; that is, the radical leftists" had been able to assure the people food and clothing, he said, they would not have been so easy to overthrow. In July, Chen developed these themes in another exposition (which also included some sarcastic observations on the late Chairman's taste in literature). Chen said: "We say the old dynasties and the KMT 'ruled' the country, but talk instead of the 'leadership' of the Communist Party. But the Party is in fact a ruling party, and if it wishes to keep its position it must also keep the support of the people. It should not float above the masses but should live among them as their servants. Both the welfare of the people and the Party's ruling position require that the Party shrink the distance between itself and the people." The old dynasties, Chen said, knew the value of a policy of yielding or retreating from untenable positions. The Party has to be able to step back from its past practices: in economy, culture, education, science, and ideology. Without compromising the basic principle of socialism, Chen believed that the Party must accommodate, for the time being, co-existence with aspects of capitalism. But all of this, Chen added, must be done carefully: otherwise China would be in danger of abandoning socialism and restoring capitalism. These pronouncements presaged the major reorientation of Chinese communism in the reform movement. Role in promoting China's economic reform Though Deng Xiaoping is credited as the architect of modern China's economic reforms, Chen Yun contributed much to the strategy adopted by Deng, and Chen was more directly involved in the details of its planning and construction. A key feature of the reform was to use the market to allocate resources, within the scope of an overall plan. The reforms of the early 1980s were, in effect, the implementation, finally, of the program Chen had outlined in the mid-1950s. Chen called this the "birdcage economy". According to Chen, "the cage is the plan, and it may be large or small. But within the cage the bird [the economy] is free to fly as he wishes." In 1981 a rival "Financial and Economic Leading Group" was established under Zhao Ziyang and staffed by a balanced mix of economic planners. In 1982 Chen Yun, who was 77 years old, stepped down from the Politburo and Central Committee and served as Chairman of the new Central Advisory Commission, an institution set up to provide a place for leadership of the founding generation to remain involved in public affairs. During the 1980s, Chen was very much involved in policy discussions. In the beginning and as one of the major architects for the reform and opening up, he supported Deng and the liberal market reforms that had been so successful in agriculture to urban areas and the industrial sector. Moreover, he still posited for the state to retain an active role in market development and planning, a policy that would influence future generations of leadership, including Jiang Zemin, Hu Jintao, and Xi Jinping. He played an active role in the "Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign" organised in late 1983, to help safeguard China's political status quo and domestic stability. Chen Yun was widely admired and respected for striking a balance between excessive laissez faire capitalism and retaining state leadership in guiding China's market economy. Deng and Chen's reforms and foresight helped make generations of Chinese become richer since the days of Mao's Cultural Revolution, as well as propel China into becoming one of the top economies in the world (number one by PPP and number two by nominal GDP). Late opponent of reform Chen was not, in principle, opposed to the scope of Deng's reforms: China's economic policy had effectively frozen consumer prices for decades, to the point that prices in China no longer had much relationship to the relative value of resources, goods, or services. Chen did object to the way in which the urban reforms were carried out. The immediate consequence of Deng's price reform was a sudden and massive inflation, unprecedented in the experience of the younger generation and particularly frightening to older folks who could still remember the rampant inflation in the last years of the Nationalist regime. The increasing circulation of money in the economy, together with a hybrid system in which those in official position or with official connections were particularly well-placed to take advantage of the new opportunities to make a profit, encouraged official corruption. The government's first response to inflation was to issue bonuses to workers in state-owned enterprises, to help make up for the price increases. Chen Yun argued that, if there were to be such bonuses, they should be gauged to increased productivity. In practice these bonuses were universal throughout the state sector, and had the same economic effect as if the government had simply printed more money. Because Chinese farmers were not eligible for bonuses (since they were not technically state employees), China's agricultural sector, which had prospered in the first stage of the reform, was especially damaged by inflation. Chen's theory had been that the market should supplement the plan. In the context of radical Maoism this made him seem like a social democratic proponent of market socialism. It turned out, however, that Chen meant exactly what he had said. He was much less enthusiastic about the market than Deng Xiaoping and Deng's younger colleagues. Although in his "secret" pronouncements of 1979 Chen had shown an unusual personal disdain for Mao, he also indicated he shared the late Chairman's worries that China would abandon socialism and revert to capitalism. During the 1980s Chen emerged as the main figure among the more hard-line opponents of reform. He supported the vigorous campaign in the early 1980s against the "three kinds of people", a general purge of all those who had been identified with radical factions during the Cultural Revolution. He made common cause with conservatives among other Party elders. During the reform era Chen refused to meet with foreigners. Chen never visited the new Special Economic Zones. In a memorial tribute to Li Xiannian, an old colleague from the economic system (and, like Chen, one of the few real proletarians among the first generation of Party leaders), Chen stated that he was not necessarily opposed to everything about the Special Economic Zones. While Chen became the moral leader of the conservative opposition to Deng Xiaoping, he did not challenge Deng's personal primacy as head of regime. Although Zhao Ziyang's promotion of political and economic reform made Zhao one of Chen's main political rivals, Chen was one of the Party elders active in the 1980s who Zhao respected most. In Zhao's autobiography, Chen was one of the few elders who Zhao referred to regularly as a "comrade". Before implementing new policies, Zhao made a habit of visiting Chen, in order to solicit Chen's advice and attempt to gain Chen's approval. In the event that Zhao failed to gain Chen's approval, Zhao would then normally attempt to fall back on the favor of Deng Xiaoping in order to promote reforms. In 1989, Chen, alongside Deng Xiaoping, Li Peng, and others, was among the Party elders responsible for making the key decisions concerning the student-led Tiananmen Square protests. There is no evidence that Chen indulged in diatribes against the students or actively advocated their violent repression. While Chen was opposed to the violent suppression of the students, he did give his support to the military once the action had begun. Chen agreed that Zhao Ziyang should be replaced as the formal head of the Party, and he endorsed Li Xiannian's nomination of Jiang Zemin as the new Party General Secretary. Retirement After the 13th Party Congress in November 1987, Chen ended his 56 years long career as a member of the CCP Central Committee, which he has also left the powerful Politburo Standing Committee with both Deng Xiaoping and Li Xiannian. However, Chen succeeded Deng as the Chairman of the Central Advisory Committee. Chen, at the age of 87, retired from politics with other party elders at the 14th Party Congress in October 1992 when the Central Advisory Committee was abolished. Legacy Chen Yun was known for his foundational role in spearheading the reform and opening up alongside Deng Xiaoping. During Deng's term, Chen Yun was the second most powerful person in China. Chen was praised for implementing many of the reforms that made the new generation of Chinese richer, but was also admired for striking a balance between too much laissez-faire economics and retaining state control over key areas of the market. He was liberal in the beginning, but later more cautious and conservative, especially in his last years. He was widely admired by the Chinese populace, known for his wide-sweeping economic strategic planning, morality and incorruptibility. Chen's political perspective is generally viewed as liberal until about 1980, but conservative after about 1984. Chen Yun remains one of China's most powerful and influential leaders, especially in the PRC's first 50 years, as he was a central decision-maker for the CCP, serving on the Central Committee and Politburo for over 40 years. In the beginning, Chen supported Deng, carried out and implemented many of the influential reforms that made a generation of Chinese richer. But later, Chen realized that the state still needed an active iron hand involvement in the market to prevent the private sector from becoming untamable. Chen's criticism of Deng's later economic reforms was widely influential within the Communist Party and was reflected in the policies of China's leaders after Deng. Chen's theories supported the efforts of Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao to use state power to provide boundaries for the operation of the market, and to mediate the damage that capitalism can do to those who find it difficult to benefit from the free market. Chen's notion of the CCP as a "ruling party" is central to the redefinition of the role of the Party in Jiang Zemin's Three Represents. In 2005, on the occasion of the hundredth anniversary of Chen's birth, the Party press published, over the course of several weeks, the proceedings of a symposium discussing Chen's contributions to CCP history, theory and practice. Although Chen opposed the Mao regime and opposed some of Deng's later policies, Chen was still widely respected as one of the leading elders of the Chinese Communist Party. During the Cultural Revolution, Chen was able to escape political persecution, especially in Mao's time, as he carefully avoided challenging the top leadership too much. Whatever the wisdom of his substantive positions, Chen consistently appeared to act on principle rather than for personal advantage, and retained his influence in the party throughout the Mao and Deng eras. His eldest son, Chen Yuan, is the first Governor of the China Development Bank and former Vice Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference. On Mao Zedong Chen Yun was one of the top leaders under Mao Zedong. He is known for his realistic assessments on Mao's policies and Maoism, as exemplified by his quotes on Mao. Works References Citations Sources Chen Yunzhuan, Biography of Chen Yun, Jin Chongji and Chen Qun, Beijing: Central Literature Publishing House, 2005, 2 vols. China News Analysis, 1182 (June 6, 1982) Donald W. Klein & Anne B. Clark, Biographic Dictionary of Chinese Communism, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971) Vol 1, pp. 149–153. Exupoli. "Bird Cage Economics". Exupoli.net. 2009. Retrieved October 12, 2011. Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), pp. 195–208. Roderick MacFarquhar, "Foreword". In: Zhao Ziyang, Prisoner of the State: The Secret Journal of Premier Zhao Ziyang. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. 2009. . Nicholas R. Lardy and Kenneth Lieberthal, eds., Chen Yün's Strategy for China's Development: A Non-Maoist Alternative (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1983). Ye Yonglie, 1978: Zhongguo Mingyun Da Zhuanzhe (Canton: Guangzhou Renmin Zhubanshe, 1997), pp. 255–260, 584–595. The Tiananmen Papers, compiled by Zhang Liang, edited by Andrew J. Nathan and Perry Link (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), p. 308. External links Chen Yun, Stefan Landsberger's Page 1905 births 1995 deaths Chen Yun family People's Republic of China politicians from Shanghai Chinese Communist Party politicians from Shanghai Vice Premiers of the People's Republic of China Secretaries of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Members of the 12th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Members of the 11th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Members of the 8th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Members of the 7th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party Vice Chairpersons of the National People's Congress International Lenin School alumni Burials at Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery

262765

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Latchkey

Operation Latchkey

Operation Latchkey was a series of 38 nuclear tests conducted by the United States in 1966-1967 at the Nevada Test Site. These tests followed the Operation Flintlock (nuclear test) series and preceded the Operation Crosstie series. List of the nuclear tests References Explosions in 1966 Explosions in 1967 1966 in military history 1967 in military history Latchkey 1966 in the United States 1967 in the United States

262766

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount%20leader

Paramount leader

The paramount leader also named supreme leader () of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and Government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) is an informal term for the most prominent political leader in China. The officeholders are usually General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and Chairman of the Central Military Commission. The paramount leader is not, however, a formal position nor an office unto itself. The term gained prominence during the era of Deng Xiaoping (1978–1989), when he was able to wield political power without necessarily holding any official or formally significant party or government positions at any given time (head of state, head of government or CCP General Secretary). There has been significant overlap between paramount leader status and leadership core status, with a majority but not all of paramount leaders being also leadership cores, though they are separate concepts. The term has been used less frequently to describe Deng's successors, Jiang Zemin, Hu Jintao and Xi Jinping, who have all formally held the offices of General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (party leader), President of the People's Republic of China (head of state) and Chairman of the Central Military Commission (commander-in-chief). Jiang, Hu and Xi are therefore usually referred to as president in the international scene, the title used by most other republican heads of state. However, Deng's successors derive their real power from the post of general secretary, which is the primary position in the Chinese power structure and generally regarded by scholars as the post whose holder can be considered paramount leader. The president is a largely ceremonial office according to the Constitution, and a 2019 report by the United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission, a bipartisan commission within the United States Congress, recommends that the Chinese leader Xi Jinping be called "general secretary" rather than "president", arguing that the title "president" incorrectly implies that the Chinese leader is democratically elected. In August 2020, American lawmakers have introduced a bill to change the way the federal government refers to the general secretary of the CCP, prohibiting the use of the term "president". The current paramount leader, Xi Jinping, is considered to have become paramount leader in November 2012, when he became CCP general secretary, rather than in March 2013 when he succeeded Hu Jintao as president. The position of general secretary is the highest authority leading China's National People's Congress, State Council, Political Consultative Conference, Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate in Xi Jinping's administration. History Chairman Mao Zedong was the undisputed ruler of Communist China from its beginning in 1949 and held three Chairman offices at once: Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, Chairman of the Central Military Commission and Chairman of the People's Republic of China (1954–1959), making him the leader of the party, military and state, respectively. Following the Cultural Revolution, a rough consensus emerged within the party that the worst excesses were caused by the lack of checks and balances in the exercise of political power and the resulting "rule of personality" by Mao. Beginning in the 1980s, the leadership experimented with a quasi-separation of powers, whereby the offices of general secretary, president and premier were held by different people. In 1985, for example, the CCP General Secretary was Hu Yaobang, the Chinese President was Li Xiannian and the Chinese Premier was Zhao Ziyang. However, Deng Xiaoping was still recognized as the core of the leadership during this period. Both Hu and Zhao fell out of favour in the late 1980s, but Deng was able to retain ultimate political control. The paramount leader label has been applied to Deng's successors, Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, though it is generally recognized that they did not wield as much power as Deng despite their having held more offices of leadership. There has also been a greater emphasis on collective leadership, whereby the top leader is a first among equals style figure, exercising power with the consensus of the Politburo Standing Committee. This was particularly apparent during the tenure of Hu Jintao. Beginning in 1993, Jiang formally held the three offices that made him the head of the party, state and military: General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party: the party leader and the primary position of the state. Chairman of the Central Military Commission: Supreme Military Command of the People's Liberation Army. President of the People's Republic of China: the largely ceremonial head of state under the 1982 Constitution. When Jiang left the offices of General Secretary and President in 2002 and 2003, respectively, he held onto the position of Chairman of the Central Military Commission. Military power had always been an important facet in the exercise of political power in Communist-ruled China and as such holding the top military post meant that Jiang retained some formal power. When Jiang stepped down from his formal posts between 2002 and 2004, it was ambiguous who the paramount leader was at the time. Hu Jintao held the same trio of positions during his years in power. Hu transferred all three positions onto his successor Xi Jinping between November 2012, when Xi became CCP General Secretary and Chairman of the Central Military Commission; and March 2013, when Xi became president. Since Xi's ascendance to power, two new bodies, the National Security Commission and Central Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission, have been established, ostensibly concentrating political power in the paramount leader to a greater degree than anyone since Deng. These bodies were tasked with establishing the general policy direction for national security as well as the agenda for economic reform. Both groups are headed by the General Secretary. List of paramount leaders Bold offices refer to the highest position in the Chinese Communist Party. Spouse of the Paramount leader All six leaders have had a spouse during their terms of office. The current spouse is Peng Liyuan, wife of General Secretary Xi Jinping. See also Chairman of the Central Military Commission Generations of Chinese leadership Leadership core List of Chinese leaders List of leaders of the Chinese Communist Party Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Maximum Leader (disambiguation) Orders of precedence in the People's Republic of China Primus inter pares Supreme leader Explanatory notes References Organization of the Chinese Communist Party China Politics of China Positions of authority Communist terminology

262770

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Tango%20Lesson

The Tango Lesson

The Tango Lesson () is a 1997 drama film written and directed by Sally Potter. It is a semi-autobiographical film starring Potter and Pablo Verón, about Argentinian Tango. The film, a co-production of Argentina, France, Germany, Netherlands and the United Kingdom, was produced by Christopher Sheppard in Britain and Oscar Kramer in Argentina, and was shot mostly in black and white in Paris and Buenos Aires. The soundtrack includes original recordings of Carlos Gardel's Mi Buenos Aires querido and Ástor Piazzolla's Libertango, two of the most iconic tangos in the history of the genre. It also includes an original song written and sung by Potter. Synopsis Sally, a filmmaker and screenwriter suffering from writer's block, is dissatisfied with her film project, a murder mystery called Rage, which features the fashion industry. Taking a break, she travels to Paris, where she sees the dancer Pablo (Pablo Verón) performing tango. She becomes obsessed with the dance and offers Pablo a part in her film in exchange for dance lessons. The two become deeply involved as dancers and as lovers. Their emotional intimacy threatens the success of their dancing together. The film explores the conflict between the woman dancer accepting the man's lead in the dance, while the man must accept the woman's lead in the film. It is a love story and a showcase for Verón's dancing. Cast Sally Potter as Sally Pablo Verón as Pablo Morgane Maugran as Red Model Géraldine Maillet as Yellow Model Katerina Mechera as Blue Model David Toole as Fashion Designer George Yiasoumi as Photographer Michele Parent as Seamstress Claudine Mavros as Seamstress Monique Couturier as Seamstress Matthew Hawkins as Bodyguard Simon Worgan as Bodyguard Carolina Iotti as Pablo's partner Zobeida as Pablo's Friend Orazio Massaro as Pablo's Friend Gustavo Naveira as Gustavo Fabián Salas as Fabian Carlos Copello as Carlos María Noel as Film Executive Gregory Dayton as Film Executive Distribution The film was first presented at the Venice Film Festival in Italy on 29 August 1997. One week later it was screened at the Toronto International Film Festival in Canada on 8 September 1997. The picture screened at various film festivals, including: the Mar del Plata Film Festival, Argentina; the Reykjavik Film Festival, Iceland; the Istanbul Film Festival, Turkey; and others. Film soundtrack Milonga Triste composed by Sebastián Piana and Homero Manzi, performed by Hugo Díaz y su Conjunto, recorded in Buenos Aires in 1972. Now composed by Sally Potter & Fred Frith, sung by Sally Potter, recorded in Paris 1996. Quejas de bandoneón composed by Juan de Dios Filiberto, performed by Aníbal Troilo y su Orquesta típica, recorded in Buenos Aires in 1958. Red, yellow, blue composed by Sally Potter & Fred Frith, recorded in Paris in 1996. Mi Buenos Aires querido composed by Carlos Gardel and Alfredo Le Pera, sung by Carlos Gardel, recorded in New York in 1934. El flete composed by Gerónimo Gradito and Vicente Greco, performed by Juan D'Arienzo y su Orquesta Típica, recorded in Buenos Aires in 1936. Rage composed by Sally Potter & Fred Frith, sung by Sally Potter, recorded in Paris in 1996. Zum composed by Astor Piazzolla, performed by Osvaldo Pugliese y su Orquesta, recorded in Buenos Aires in 1973. Amor y celos composed by Miguel Padula & Alfredo F. Roldán, performed by Juan D'Arienzo y su Orquesta Típica, recorded in Buenos Aires in 1936. Doyna composed by Frank London, David Licht & David Krakauer, performed by The Klezmatics, recorded in New York in 1994. Danse de cuisine composed by Sally Potter & Fred Frith, sung by Sally Potter, recorded in Paris in 1996. Pensalo bien composed by Juan Jose Visiglio, Nola Lopez & Julio Alberto, sung by Alberto Echague with the Juan D'Arienzo y su Orquesta Típica, recorded in Buenos Aires in 1938. La yumba composed by Osvaldo Pugliese, performed by Osvaldo Pugliese y su Orquesta, recorded in Buenos Aires in 1946. Jacob and the angel composed by Sally Potter & Fred Frith, sung by Sally Potter, recorded in Paris in 1996. Milonga de mis amores composed by Pedro B. Laurenz & José Maria Contursi, performed by Juan D'Arienzo y su Orquesta Típica, recorded in Buenos Aires in 1970. Gallo ciego, composed by Agustín Bardi, performed by Osvaldo Pugliese y su Orquesta, recorded in Buenos Aires in 1959. Libertango composed by Astor Piazzolla, performed by Astor Piazzolla & orchestra, recorded in Milan in 1974. Bahia Blanca composed by Carlos di Sarli, performed by Carlos Di Sarli y su Orquesta Típica, recorded in Buenos Aires in 1958. I am you, composed by Sebastian Piana & Homero Manzi with English lyrics by Sally Potter, sung by Sally Potter with Yo-Yo Ma (cello), Nestor E. Marconi (bandoneon), Antonio Agri (violin), Leonardo D. Marconi (piano) & Horacio Malvicino (guitar), recorded in Buenos Aires in 1997. Libertango (reprise) composed by Astor Piazzolla, performed by Yo-Yo Ma (cello), Antonio Agri (violin), Nestor E. Marconi (bandoneon), Horacio Malvicino (guitar). Exhibition dates Argentina: 20 November 1997 France: 8 April 1998 Germany: 9 October 1997 Netherlands: 15 January 1998 United Kingdom: 28 November 1997 United States: 14 November 1997 Critical reception New York Times film critic, Janet Maslin, thought the film was rather simple, and wrote, "Stiffly playing a filmmaker with a growing passion for the tango, [Sally Potter] makes this a handsome, dryly meticulous film with no real fire anywhere beyond its supple dance scenes. The lessons are numbered and cataloged with an obsessive care like that of Peter Greenaway, but this material has little of his corresponding complexity." Chicago Sun-Times film critic Roger Ebert discussed in his review the film's major goal, writing, "Most dances are for people who are falling in love. The tango is a dance for those who have survived it, and are still a little angry about having their hearts so mishandled. The Tango Lesson is a movie for people who understand that difference." Edward Guthmann, San Francisco Chronicle staff critic, lauded the film and the courage of director Potter, and wrote, "British director Sally Potter stuck her neck out when she made The Tango Lesson, a fictionalized account of her relationship with Argentine tango master Pablo Veron...Potter takes what seemed like a recipe for embarrassment and excess and delivers a film that's sweet and understated and devoid of diva posturing...[the film is] smoothly directed, nicely written and falters only in the performance that Potter was able to squeeze out of herself while performing her multiple tasks."Yet, Guthmann says Potter should have cast another actor in her role. He adds, "It's too bad, then, that Potter couldn't have figured out a way to use another actress to play herself. She often looks worn out, which makes sense given her offscreen responsibilities but works against her tale of courtship, infatuation and the emotional sparks that fly between two gifted, bullheaded artists." Awards Wins Mar del Plata Film Festival: Best Film, Sally Potter; 1997. National Board of Review: Special Recognition, for excellence in filmmaking; 1997. American Choreography Awards: American Choreography Award Outstanding Achievement in Feature Film, Pablo Verón; 1998. Nominations British Academy of Film and Television Arts: BAFTA Film Award; Best Film not in the English Language; 1998. References External links Official Web-site La lección de tango at the cinenacional.com 1997 films Argentine films Argentine black-and-white films British black-and-white films Dutch black-and-white films German black-and-white films British films Dutch films Films directed by Sally Potter French films German films 1997 romantic drama films Tango films British romantic drama films Films set in Buenos Aires Films shot in Buenos Aires 1990s Spanish-language films 1990s French-language films 1990s English-language films English-language Argentine films English-language Dutch films English-language French films English-language German films Sony Pictures Classics films

262772

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoerotic%20fatality

Autoerotic fatality

Autoerotic fatalities are accidental deaths that occur during sexual self-stimulation when an apparatus, device or prop that is being employed to enhance pleasure causes the death. Researchers only apply the term to unintentional deaths resulting from solitary sexual activity, not suicide or acts with a partner. The incidence of autoerotic fatalities in Western countries is around 0.5 per million inhabitants each year. Autoerotic asphyxia is the leading cause. 70 to 80% of autoerotic deaths are caused by hanging, while 10 to 30% are attributed to plastic bags or chemical use. Both of these lead to autoerotic asphyxia. 5 to 10% are related to electrocution, foreign body insertion, overdressing/body wrapping, or another atypical method. Specific causes include the use of chemicals such as amyl nitrite, GHB, or nitrous oxide, and props and tools such as knives, oversized dildos, ligatures or bags for asphyxiation, duct tape, electrical apparatus for shocks, water for self-immersion, fire-making equipment for self-immolation, or sharp, unhygienic or large fetishized objects. Male victims might be more likely to use a variety of devices during autoerotic behaviour than female victims. The subject has been treated in two books, Autoerotic Fatalities by Hazelwood et al. (1983) and Autoerotic Asphyxiation: Forensic, Medical, and Social Aspects by Sheleg et al. (2006). Famous cases Although Paula Yates contradicted earlier statements she had made by saying during a 1999 interview that Michael Hutchence's 1997 death might have been caused by autoerotic asphyxiation, the coronial inquest found it to be suicide due to a combination of depression and intoxication with alcohol and other drugs. Peter Anthony Motteux, English author, playwright, translator, publisher and editor of The Gentleman's Journal, "the first English magazine", from 1692 to 1694, died from apparent autoerotic asphyxiation in 1718, which is probably the first recorded case. Frantisek Kotzwara, composer, died from erotic asphyxiation in 1791. Albert Dekker, stage and screen actor, was found dead in his bathroom in 1968 with his body graffitied and a noose around his neck. Nigel Tetley (c. 1924 – 2 February 1972) was a British sailor who was the first person to circumnavigate the world solo in a trimaran. His body was found hanging from a tree in woods near Dover, England. At the coroner's inquest, it was revealed that the body had been discovered clothed in lingerie and the hands were bound behind the back. The opinion offered by a pathologist suggested masochistic sexual activity. Vaughn Bodé, artist, died from autoerotic asphyxiation in 1975. Diane Herceg sued Hustler magazine in 1983, accusing it of causing the death of her 14-year-old son, Troy D., who had experimented with autoerotic asphyxia after reading about it in that publication. Stephen Milligan, a British politician and Conservative MP for Eastleigh, died from autoerotic asphyxiation combined with self-bondage in 1994. Kevin Gilbert, a musician and songwriter, died of apparent autoerotic asphyxiation in 1996. David Carradine died on 4 June 2009 from accidental asphyxiation, according to the medical examiner who performed a private autopsy on the actor. His body was found hanging by a rope in a closet in his hotel room in Thailand, and there was evidence of a recent orgasm; two autopsies were conducted and concluded that his death was not suicide, and the Thai forensic pathologist who examined the body stated that his death may have been due to autoerotic asphyxiation. Two of Carradine's ex-wives, Gail Jensen and Marina Anderson, stated publicly that his sexual interests included the practice of self-bondage. Further reading See also Death during consensual sex References External links An Objective Overview of Autoerotic Fatalities Causes of death Masturbation Sexual health

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahab-3

Shahab-3

The Shahab-3 (; meaning "meteor-3") is a liquid-propelled medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) developed by Iran and based on the North Korean Nodong-1. The Shahab-3 has a range of ; a MRBM variant can now reach (can hit targets as far as Israel, Egypt, Romania, Bulgaria and Greece). It was tested from 1998 to 2003 and added to the military arsenal on 7 July 2003, with an official unveiling by Ayatollah Khamenei on July 20. With an accuracy of 140 m CEP, the Shahab-3 missile is primarily effective against large, soft targets (like cities). Given the Shahab-3’s payload capacity, it would likely be capable of delivering nuclear warheads. According to the IAEA, Iran in the early 2000s may have explored various fuzing, arming and firing systems to make the Shahab-3 more capable of reliably delivering a nuclear warhead. The forerunners to this missile include the Shahab-1 and Shahab-2. In 2007, the then-Iranian Defence Minister Admiral Shamkhani has denied that Iran plans to develop a Shahab-4. Some successors to the Shahab have longer range and are also more maneuverable. Operating under the Sanam Industrial Group (Department 140), which is part of the Defense Industries Organization of Iran, the Shahid Hemmat Industrial Group (SHIG), led the development of the Shahab missile. US Air Force National Air and Space Intelligence Center estimates that as of June 2017 fewer than 50 launchers were operationally deployed. Variants Shahab is the name of a class of Iranian missiles, service time of 1988–present, which comes in six variants: Shahab-1, Shahab-2, Shahab-3, Shahab-4, Shahab-5, and Shahab-6. Shahab-3B The Shahab-3B differs from the basic production variant. It has improvements to its guidance system and warhead with a greater range, a few small changes on the missile body, and a new re-entry vehicle whose terminal guidance system and rocket-nozzle steering method are completely different from the Shahab-3A's spin-stabilized re-entry vehicle. The new re-entry vehicle uses a triconic aeroshell geometry (or "baby bottle" design) which improves the overall lift to drag ratio for the re-entry vehicle. This allows greater range maneuverability which can result in better precision. The triconic design also reduces the overall size of the warhead from an estimated to . The rocket-nozzle control system allows the missile to change its trajectory several times during re-entry and even terminal phase, effectively preventing interceptor guidance via trajectory prediction by early warning radar—a method nearly all long range ABM systems use. As a high-speed ballistic missile and pre-mission fueling capability, the Shahab-3 has an extremely short launch/impact time ratio. This means that the INS/gyroscope guidance would also remain relatively accurate until impact (important, given the fact that the gyroscopes tend to lose accuracy with longer flights). The CEP is estimated to be at or less. However, the accuracy of the missile is largely speculative and cannot be confidently predicted for wartime situations. These improvements would increase the Shahab-3B's survivability against ABM systems such as Israel's Arrow 2 missile defence system (though its ability to overcome Arrow is very questionable) as well as being used for precision attacks against high-value targets such as command, control, and communications centres. Shahab-3C and D Little is known about Shahab-3C and Shahab-3D. From what can be gathered, the missiles have an improved precision, navigation system, and a longer range. The missiles were indigenously developed, and are being mass-produced. Iran had in 2008 a production capacity of 70 units per year. Galleries History and tests The Shahab-3 was first seen in public on 25 September 1998, in Azadi Square, Tehran, in a parade held to commemorate the Iranian Sacred Defence Week. Iran has conducted at least six test flights of the Shahab-3. During the first one, in July 1998, the missile reportedly exploded in mid-air during the latter portion of its flight; U.S. officials wondered whether the test was a failure or the explosion was intentional. A second, successful test took place in July 2000. In September 2000, Iran conducted a third test, in which the missile reportedly exploded shortly after launch. In May 2002, Iran conducted another successful test, leading then-Iranian Defense Minister Ali Shamkhani to say the test improved the Shahab-3's "power and accuracy". Another successful test reportedly occurred in July 2002. On 7 July 2003, the foreign ministry spokesman said that Iran had completed a final test of the Shahab 3 "a few weeks ago" that was "the final test before delivering the missile to the armed forces", according to a New York Times report. On 9 November 2004, Shamkhani said Iran could mass-produce the missile. On 2 November 2006, Iran fired unarmed missiles to begin 10 days of military war games. Iranian state television reported "dozens of missiles were fired including Shahab-2 and Shahab-3 missiles. The missiles had ranges from to up to ...Iranian experts have made some changes to Shahab-3 missiles installing cluster warheads in them with the capacity to carry 1,400 bombs". These launches come after some United States-led military exercises in the Persian Gulf on 30 October 2006, meant to train for blocking the transport of weapons of mass destruction. 2008 Great Prophet III test On 8 July 2008, Iran test fired a non-upgraded version of the Shahab-3 as one of 9 medium- and long-range missiles launched as part of the Great Prophet III exercise, within a few weeks of a recently concluded military exercise by Israel. Other missiles fired include the surface-to-surface Fateh-110 and Zelzal missiles. Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps air and naval units conducted these tests in a desert location. Air Force commander Hossein Salami advised that Iran was ready to retaliate to military threats, saying "We warn the enemies who intend to threaten us with military exercises and empty psychological operations that our hand will always be on the trigger and our missiles will always be ready to launch". One day later, on 9 July 2008, Iran once-again fired a version of the Shahab-3, amongst other missiles, which officials have said has a range of and is armed with a 1-ton conventional warhead. These tests were conducted at the Strait of Hormuz, which Iran has threatened to shut down traffic into if it is attacked. Independent national security webblog, ArmsControlWonk.com, analyzed Iranian launch footage and concluded that Iranian claims of testing an upgraded Shahab missile were unfounded. A senior Republican Guard commander said Iran would maintain security in the Strait of Hormuz and the Persian Gulf. Gen. Mohammad Hejazi, chief of the Guards' joint staff, called the missile tests a "defensive measure against invasions". He also said, Iran will not jeopardize the interests of neighboring countries. According to the Israeli newspaper Haaretz, the French news agency Agence France-Presse which published pictures from the missile test reported that "Iran had apparently doctored photographs of missile test-firings and exaggerated the capabilities of the weapons" and that an additional missile was added afterwards to cover up a failed launch". In a sign of commercial fallout from the second missile test in two days, the French oil company Total S.A. announced the conditions were not right to invest in Iran as major oil companies have been under increasing political pressure from the United States and its allies over their activities in Iran amid mounting tensions over Iran's nuclear program. To ratchet up the pressure further, Israel also showed off its latest spy plane in what is seen as a display of strength in response to Iranian war games (missile tests). The test on 8 July 2008 caused anxiety, the tests were seen widely as a response to Israeli aerial war games staged earlier in the month. Ali Shirazi, representative of the Revolutionary Guards naval forces said, warned that Iran would "set fire" to Israel and the U.S. Navy in the Persian Gulf as its first response to any pre-emptive strike by America or Israel over its nuclear program. Brig. Gen. Hoseyn Salami, commander of Iran's Revolutionary Guards' air force, said: "Our missiles are ready for shooting at any place and any time, quickly and with accuracy". He also made the statement that "enemy targets are under surveillance". Speaking on a visit to Malaysia on the first day of the tests, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad dismissed the possibility of an attack by the United States or Israel as a "joke". General Mohammad Hejazi, chief of the Guards' joint staff, called the missile tests a "defensive measure against invasions". He also said that Iran will not jeopardize the interests of neighboring countries. Operators Current operators Aerospace Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps See also Military of Iran Iranian military industry Equipment of the Iranian Army References External links Shahab-3: an Advanced IRBM Encyclopedia Astronautica Iranian Missiles, from Sarbaz.org, website of former Iranian Imperial Army loyalists Missile Threat CSIS - Shahab 3 Missile Threat CSIS - Shahab 3 Variants (Emad, Ghadr) Shahab-3 MRBM from Military Periscope (login required) Russia and the Development of the Iranian Missile Program Írán - Námořní cvičení—visual comparison of Shahab-3B and Fajr-3 Janes Defence Weekly Volume 43 and Issue 37 Iran's ballistic missile developments - long-range ambitions Ballistic missiles of Iran Surface-to-surface missiles of Iran Medium-range ballistic missiles of Iran Theatre ballistic missiles Military equipment introduced in the 2000s

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hwasong-7

Hwasong-7

The Hwasong-7 (; spelled Hwaseong-7 in South Korea, lit. Mars Type 7), also known as Nodong-1 (Hangul: ; Hanja: ), is a single-stage, mobile liquid propellant medium-range ballistic missile developed by North Korea. Developed in the mid-1980s, it is a scaled up adaptation of the Soviet SS-1, more commonly known by its NATO reporting name "Scud". Inventory is estimated to be around 200–300 missiles. US Air Force National Air and Space Intelligence Center estimates that as of June 2017 fewer than 100 launchers were operationally deployed. One variant Rodong-1M is called Hwasong-9. It influenced the design of Pakistan's Ghauri-1 missile, as well as the Iranian Shahab-3. Overview It is believed North Korea obtained Scud-B designs from Egypt, and possibly Scud-C designs from China, allowing them to reverse-engineer them into a larger and longer-distance weapon. United States reconnaissance satellites first detected this type in May 1990 at the Musudan-ri test launch facility, in northeastern North Korea. The precise capabilities and specifications of the missile are unknown; even the fact of its production and deployment are controversial. It is a larger variant of the Scud-B, scaled up so its cross-sectional area is about double that of the Scud, with a diameter of and a length of . Its aerodynamic design is stable, reducing the need for modern active stabilization systems while the missile is flying in the denser lower atmosphere. It can only be fueled when vertical, therefore it cannot be fueled before transport as is normal for modern missiles. Its range is estimated as 900 km (960 mi) with a 1,000 kg payload to a range of between 1,000 km to 1,500 km. North Korea test-fired three Hwasong-7 missiles consecutively on 5 September 2016 and they all flew for about 1000 km, landing in the Japan Air Defense Identification Zone. It has an estimated circular error probable (CEP) of one or two kilometers. North Korea is believed to possess some 300 Hwasong-7 missiles and fewer than 50 mobile launchers. The Hwasong-7's technology has been exported to foreign nations (such as Iran and Pakistan) in secrecy on the basis of mutual exchange of technologies, with Iran being one of the largest beneficiaries of such technology. Successful variants were tested and deployed by Iran after developing the Shahab-3 which is roughly based on Hwasong-7. Pakistan, however, suffered with repeated failure initially due to flawed design given in exchange but succeeded in reevaluating the missile's conceptual design and its electronic system in 1998 through reverse engineering. The Ghauri_(missile) was later (independently) developed by Kahuta Research Labs and eventually entered in to active military service in 2003.It is believed that it is redesigned/ reverse engineered model of Rodong-1. A few Hwasong-7 missiles were launched in the 2006 North Korean missile test, and a further two in a 2014 test over a range of 650 km. Although it has an estimated range of , launches in March 2014 flew only . Their range was shortened by firing at a higher launch angle. The missiles flew to an altitude of 160 km (100 mi) at Mach 7. U.S. and South Korean Patriot PAC-2/3 interceptors are more specialized to hit Scud-type missiles up to 40 km high. On 5 September 2016, North Korea fired three consecutive Rodong-1 missiles into the Sea of Japan and at a range of about 1,000 km. This marked the Rodong-1 as a credible and matured missile suitable for operational deployment since its first successful launch in 1993. The United Nations Security Council condemned North Korea's missile launches. To enable interception at higher altitudes, South Korea is indigenously developing the long-range surface-to-air missile (L-SAM), and on 8 July 2016 the U.S. agreed to deploy one Terminal High Altitude Area Defense missile defense system in Seongju County, in the south of South Korea, by the end of 2017. See also Strategic Rocket Forces (North Korea) North Korean missile tests North Korean defense industry Military of North Korea References External links CSIS Missile Threat - No-Dong 1 CNS report North Korea's Ballistic Missile Capabilities 2006 Center for Nonproliferation Studies, North Korea's Ballistic Missile Program GlobalSecurity.org, Nodong-1 National Threat Initiative, Nodong: Overview and Technical Assessment Ballistic missiles of North Korea Medium-range ballistic missiles Medium-range ballistic missiles of North Korea Military equipment introduced in the 1990s

262775

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20Shamkhani

Ali Shamkhani

Ali Shamkhani (Persian: , born 29 September 1955) is an Iranian two-star general. He is the secretary of the Supreme National Security Council of Iran. Early life and education Shamkhani was born on 29 September 1955 in Ahvaz, Khuzestan. His family are of Iranian Arab origin. Before the Iranian Revolution, Shamkhani was member of a clandestine Islamist guerilla group named Mansouroun (), engaging in armed struggle against the Pahlavi dynasty. After the revolution, he joined the Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization. He studied engineering at Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz. Career Shamkhani served as the commander of the IRGC navy with the rank of rear admiral. Later he also commanded the Artesh navy in addition to the IRGC navy. He was appointed the Minister of Revolutionary Guards in 1988. Then he held the post of the minister of defense from August 1997 until August 2005 in the government of Mohammad Khatami. Shamkani was replaced by Mostafa Mohammad-Najjar in the post. Shamkhani also ran for office in the 2001 presidential elections. He was the director of the Iranian Armed Forces' Center for Strategic Studies from 2005 to 2013. He is also military advisor to the Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. On 10 September 2013, Shamkhani was appointed secretary of the Supreme National Security Council (SNSC) by Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. After the US airstrike that was responsible for killing on 3 January 2020 the head of IRGC's Quds force Qasem Soleimani as he travelled in Baghdad Iraq, Shamkhani said on 6 January of the response that it would be a "historic nightmare" for the US: "Even if the weakest of these scenarios gains a consensus, the implementation of it can be a historic nightmare for the Americans... The entirety of the resistance forces will retaliate," he said to the Fars news agency. The SNSC was assessing 13 revenge scenarios. On 10 January 2020, the US State Department extended its sanctions under Executive Order 13876 to Shamkhani and seven other individuals, and "twenty-two entities and three vessels pursuant to Executive Order 13871" as well as a Chinese steel trading organization under the Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act. On 20 February 2020, the US Treasury Department extended its sanctions again under Executive Order 13876 to Shamkhani amongst other individuals, following "the disqualification of several thousand electoral candidates by Iran’s Guardian Council". At a Baghdad news conference after meeting with Iraqi politicians on 7 March 2020, Shamkhani said "Zionists are against regional security." Awards and honors In 2003, Shamkhani received the Shoja'at Medal, the highest military medal from President Mohammad Khatami. He was also honored for his eight years service as minister of defence in 2005. In 2004, Shamkhani received the Order of Abdulaziz Al Saud, the highest Medal in Saudi Arabia from King Fahd for his prominent role in the design and implementation in developing relations with Arabic countries in the Persian Gulf. He is the first Iranian minister to receive the medal. See also List of Iranian two-star generals since 1979 References External links 1955 births Living people People from Ahvaz Iranian Arab military personnel Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps personnel of the Iran–Iraq War Defence ministers of Iran Candidates in the 2001 Iranian presidential election Recipients of the Order of Fath Islamic Republic of Iran Navy rear admirals Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization politicians Representatives of the Supreme Leader Commanders of Islamic Republic of Iran Navy Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz alumni Iranian Shia Muslims Iranian civil servants Iranian individuals subject to the U.S. Department of the Treasury sanctions

262776

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheree%20Fitch

Sheree Fitch

Sheree Fitch (born 3 December 1956) is a Canadian author and literacy advocate. Known primarily for her children's books, she has also published poetry and fiction for adults. Biography Sheree Fitch was born on 3 December 1956 in Ottawa, Ontario, where her father was serving with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Her father was originally from Nova Scotia, and her mother was from Sussex, New Brunswick. Sheree is the eldest of three children. When she was less than a year old, the family moved to Miramichi, New Brunswick. Three years later they moved to Moncton, where they lived for ten years, and then to Fredericton. Sheree Fitch graduated from Fredericton High School in 1974 as her class's valedictorian. She married while still in her teens and had two sons, whom she raised as a single parent after divorcing at the age of 24. Sheree Fitch attended St. Thomas University in Fredericton as a mature student and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1987. She earned a Master of Arts in English from Acadia University in 1994. Her MA thesis was entitled "The Sweet Chorus of Ha, Ha, He!" Polyphony in utterature: A collection of writings on children's poetry. In it she coined the term "utterature" to refer to "all literature which depends upon the oral tradition and community of listeners". In the 1990s Sheree Fitch was based in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where her second husband Gilles Plante worked for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. In 2001 he was transferred to Washington, D.C., and she spent almost 10 years there. Sheree Fitch and her husband now live in River John, Nova Scotia. Writing for children Sheree Fitch is best known as the author of children's poetry books characterized by "exuberant wordplay and humour". She began writing poems for her own young sons, and took creative writing courses to develop her skills. She performed her poems at schools and libraries for several years before her first book, Toes in My Nose, with illustrations by Molly Bobak, was published in 1987. Her second book, Sleeping Dragons All Around, was published in 1989 and won that year's Atlantic Booksellers' Choice Award. Its title comes from a line in the poem The Eve of St. Agnes, by John Keats. During the 1990s Doubleday Canada published several of Sheree Fitch's books of children's poetry, a number of which won awards. In 1992 There Were Monkeys in My Kitchen won the Canadian Children's Book Centre's Mr. Christie's Book Award for a book for children eight years and under. Her 1995 book Mabel Murple won the Ann Connor Brimer Award, and in 2000 she was awarded the Vicky Metcalf Award for Literature for Young People, which is presented to a Canadian author for a "body of work (at least four books) that, in the opinion of the judges, demonstrates the highest literary standards". If You Could Wear My Sneakers: A Book about Children's Rights, which was published in 1998, was commissioned by UNICEF. Its 15 poems are based on some of the articles of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, including the rights to education, privacy, free speech and protection from war. Canadian journalist and broadcaster Peter Gzowski wrote the foreword for the book, which won the Ontario Library Association's Silver Birch Award and the Atlantic Canadian Hackmatack Children's Choice Award. In the 2000s Sheree Fitch continued to publish books for young children, including her first board book, Kisses Kisses Baby-O, which was presented to the families of all babies born in Nova Scotia in 2008 as part of a family literacy program. She also expanded her range to the young adult fiction audience with her 2002 novel One More Step, followed by The Gravesavers in 2005. In addition to poetry and novels, Sheree Fitch has written two non-fiction books for children who are aspiring writers: Breathe, Stretch, Write: Learning to Write with Everything You've Got, and Writing Maniac: How I Grew up to be a Writer (And You Can Too). Writing for adults In 1993 Sheree Fitch's book of poetry for adults, In This House are Many Women, was published. It deals with serious issues in the lives of working-class women. The title refers to a sequence of poems set in a shelter for women escaping domestic violence. The author identifies strongly with the women in her poems, who are presented as survivors. Like her work for children, the adult poems play with words, but the material is darker, as in "Civil Servant", in which a receptionist in an unemployment office imagines herself as Saint Peter at the Pearly gates, asking her clients "Can I have your sin?" (i.e. Social Insurance Number). An expanded edition of In This House are Many Women was published in 2004. Sheree Fitch's first novel for adults, Kiss the Joy as it Flies, was published in 2008. The heroine is a single parent and a writer with "realistic financial and familial problems, who experiences dark times without losing her playfulness and humour". Kiss the Joy as it Flies was shortlisted for the 2009 Stephen Leacock Memorial Medal for Humour. Literacy advocacy and honours Sheree Fitch is active in the promotion of literacy, both through her writing and performing for children, and through her support of literacy organizations. In the 1990s she was a frequent guest and member of a discussion panel on Peter Gzowski's Morningside radio program on CBC Radio One. As a result, she became involved in the Peter Gzowski Invitational (PGI) golf tournaments, which raise funds for literacy organizations. She has often acted as the PGI tournament's poet laureate, including several times when the event was held in the Arctic. She is the Honorary Patron of the Literacy Coalition of New Brunswick (LCNB). The LCNB's Sheree Fitch Adult Learner Scholarship Awards, which are awarded annually, honour her commitment to the cause of literacy. She is also Honorary Spokesperson for the Nova Scotia Read to Me program. She sponsors the annual Sheree Fitch Prize for Young Writers awarded by the Writers' Federation of New Brunswick to a writer between 14 and 18 years old. Sheree Fitch was granted an honorary Doctor of Letters degree by Saint Mary's University in Halifax in May 1998. In May 2004 she was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters degree by Acadia University. St. Thomas University awarded her an honorary doctorate in May 2010, citing her contributions as an author, educator, and "tireless advocate for literacy". Bibliography For children Toes in My Nose and Other Poems. Illustrated by Molly Bobak. Toronto, Doubleday, 1987. Sleeping Dragons All Around. Illustrated by Michelle Nidenoff. Toronto, Doubleday, 1989. Merry-Go-Day. Illustrated by Molly Bobak. Toronto, Doubleday, 1991. There Were Monkeys in My Kitchen. Illustrated by Marc Mongeau. Toronto, Doubleday, 1992. I Am Small. Illustrated by Kim LaFave. Toronto, Doubleday, 1994. Mabel Murple. Illustrated by Maryann Kovalski. Toronto, Doubleday, 1995. If You Could Wear My Sneakers. Illustrated by Darcia Labrosse. Toronto, Doubleday, 1997. The Hullabaloo Bugaboo Day. Illustrated by Jill Quinn. East Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, Pottersfield Press, 1997. There's A Mouse In My House!. Illustrated by Leslie E. Watts. Toronto, Doubleday, 1998. If I Were The Moon. Illustrated by Leslie E. Watts. Toronto, Doubleday, 1999. The Other Author, Arthur. Illustrated by Jill Quinn. East Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, Pottersfield Press, 1999. Everybody's Different on Everybody Street. Illustrated by Laura Jolicoeur. Halifax, Nova Scotia Hospital Foundation. 2001. No Two Snowflakes. Illustrated by Janet Wilson. Victoria, B.C., Orca, 2001. Persnickety Pete (The Cleanest Boy in the World). Illustrated by Jane Wallace-Mitchell. Melbourne, Pearson Education Australia, 2003. Pocket Rocks. Illustrated by Helen Flook. Victoria, B.C., Orca, 2004. Peek-a-Little Boo. Illustrated by Laura Watson. Victoria, B.C., Orca, 2005. If I Had A Million Onions. Illustrated by Yayo. Vancouver, Tradewind Books, 2005. Kisses Kisses Baby-O!. Illustrated by Hilda Rose. Halifax, Nimbus, 2008. Night Sky Wheel Ride. Illustrated by Yayo. Vancouver, Tradewind Books, 2013. For young adults One More Step. Victoria, B.C., Orca, 2002. The Gravesavers. Toronto, Doubleday, 2005. Pluto's Ghost. Toronto, Doubleday, 2010. I Died on a Hot June Day. Halifax, Fierce Ink Press, 2013. E-book For adults In This House There Are Many Women, and Other Poems. Fredericton, N.B., Goose Lane, 2004. Kiss The Joy As It Flies. Halifax, Nimbus, 2008. Educational Writing Maniac: How I Grew Up to Be a Writer (And You Can, Too!). Markham, Ontario, Pembroke Publishers, 2000. The Poetry Experience: Choosing and Using Poetry in the Classroom . Sheree Fitch and Larry Swartz. Markham, Ontario, Pembroke Publishers, 2008. Breathe, Stretch, Write: Learning to Write with Everything You've Got. Markham, Ontario, Pembroke Publishers, 2011. References External links Official Sheree Fitch website 2010 Interview at book website Pickle Me This Sheree Fitch at the 2014 Nova Scotia Peter Gzowski Invitational golf tournament Sheree Fitch at the 2009 Ottawa International Writers Festival Sheree Fitch's page in the Atlantic Canadian Poets Archive 1956 births Living people Canadian children's writers Literacy advocates Canadian people of English descent People from Moncton Writers from Ottawa Writers from Halifax, Nova Scotia St. Thomas University (New Brunswick) alumni Acadia University alumni

262777

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan%20Miller

Jonathan Miller

Sir Jonathan Wolfe Miller CBE (21 July 1934 – 27 November 2019) was an English theatre and opera director, actor, author, television presenter, humourist and physician. After training in medicine and specialising in neurology in the late 1950s, he came to prominence in the early 1960s in the comedy revue Beyond the Fringe with Peter Cook, Dudley Moore and Alan Bennett. Miller began directing operas in the 1970s. His 1982 production of a "Mafia"-styled Rigoletto was set in 1950s Little Italy, Manhattan. In its early days, he was an associate director at the National Theatre. He later ran the Old Vic Theatre. As a writer and presenter of more than a dozen BBC documentaries, Miller became a television personality and public intellectual in Britain and the United States. Life and career Early life Miller grew up in St John's Wood, London, in a well-connected Jewish family. His father Emanuel (1892–1970), who was of Lithuanian descent and suffered from severe rheumatoid arthritis, was a military psychiatrist and subsequently a paediatric psychiatrist at Harley House. His mother, Betty Miller (née Spiro) (1910–1965), was a novelist and biographer who was originally from County Cork, Ireland. Miller had an elder sister, Sarah (died 2006) who worked in television for many years and retained an involvement with Judaism that Miller, as an atheist, always eschewed. The young Miller was brought for assessment to several child psychiatrists, including Donald Winnicott. As a teenager he had many sessions with the psychiatrist Leopold Stein, whose sessions he enjoyed and in which they "simply conversed about philosophy and Hughlings Jackson's early neurological theories." Miller was educated at Taunton School and St Paul's School, London where he developed an early (and ultimately lifelong) interest in the biological sciences. While at St Paul's School at the age of 12, Miller met and became close friends with Oliver Sacks and Sacks's best friend Eric Korn, friendships which remained crucial throughout the rest of their lives. In 1953, before leaving secondary school, he performed comedy several times on the BBC radio programme Under Twenty Parade. Miller studied natural sciences and medicine at St John's College, Cambridge (MB BChir, 1959), where he was a member of the Cambridge Apostles before going on to train at University College Hospital in London. While studying medicine, Miller was involved in the Cambridge Footlights, appearing in the revues Out of the Blue (1954) and Between the Lines (1955). Good reviews for these shows, and for Miller's performances in particular, led to his performing on a number of radio and television shows while continuing his studies; these included appearances on Saturday Night on the Light, Tonight and Sunday Night at the London Palladium. He qualified as a physician in 1959 and then worked as a hospital house officer for two years, including at the Central Middlesex Hospital as house physician for gastroenterologist Francis Avery Jones. 1960s: Beyond the Fringe Miller helped to write and produce the satirical revue Beyond the Fringe, which premiered at the Edinburgh Festival in August 1960. This launched, in addition to his own, the careers of Alan Bennett, Peter Cook and Dudley Moore. Miller quit the show shortly after its move from London to Broadway in 1962, and took over as editor and presenter of the BBC's arts programme Monitor in 1965. The Monitor appointment arose because Miller had approached Huw Wheldon about taking up a place on the BBC's director training course. Wheldon assured him that he would "pick it up as he went along". Miller's first experience of directing a stage-play was for John Osborne, whose Under Plain Cover he directed in 1962. In 1964, he directed the play The Old Glory by the American poet Robert Lowell in New York City. It was the first play produced at the American Place Theatre and starred Frank Langella, Roscoe Lee Brown, and Lester Rawlins. The play won five Obie Awards in 1965 including an award for "Best American Play" as well as awards for Langella, Brown and Rawlins. He wrote, produced, and directed an adaptation for television of Alice in Wonderland (1966) for the BBC. He followed this with Whistle and I'll Come to You (1968) starring Michael Hordern, a television adaptation of M. R. James's 1904 ghost story "Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad". He produced a National Theatre Company production of The Merchant of Venice starring Sir Laurence Olivier. He later resigned as associate director. 1970s: Medical history and opera Miller held a research fellowship in the history of medicine at University College London from 1970 to 1973. In 1974, he also started directing and producing operas for Kent Opera and Glyndebourne, followed by a new production of The Marriage of Figaro for English National Opera in 1978. Miller's other turns as an opera director included productions of Rigoletto (in 1975 and 1982) and the operetta The Mikado (in 1987). Miller drew upon his own experiences as a physician as writer and presenter of the BBC television series The Body in Question (1978), which caused some controversy for showing the dissection of a cadaver. For a time, he was a vice-president of the Campaign for Homosexual Equality. In 1971, he defended multiracial immigration to the UK at length with Enoch Powell on the Dick Cavett Show. 1980s: Shakespeare and neuropsychology In 1980, Miller was persuaded to join the troubled BBC Television Shakespeare project (1978–85). He became producer (1980–82) and directed six of the plays himself, beginning with a well received Taming of the Shrew starring John Cleese. In the early 1980s, Miller was a popular and frequent guest on PBS' Dick Cavett Show. Miller wrote and presented the BBC television series, and accompanying book, States of Mind in 1983 and the same year directed Roger Daltrey as Macheath, the outlaw hero of the BBC's production of John Gay's 1728 ballad opera, The Beggar's Opera. He also became chair of Edinburgh Festival Fringe board of directors. In 1984, he studied neuropsychology with Dr. Sandra Witelson at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, before becoming a neuropsychology research fellow at the University of Sussex the following year. 1990s In 1990, Miller wrote and presented a joint BBC/Canadian production titled, Born Talking: A Personal Inquiry into Language. The four-part series looked into the acquisition of language, and complexities surrounding language production, with special focus on sign language used by deaf people. This interest was contemporaneous with his friend Oliver Sacks' immersion in, and writing/publishing a book about Deaf Culture and deaf people entitled Seeing Voices. Miller then wrote and presented the television series Madness (1991) and Jonathan Miller on Reflection (1998). The five-part Madness series ran on PBS in 1991. It featured a brief history of madness and interviews with psychiatric researchers, clinical psychiatrists, and patients in therapy sessions. In 1992, Opera Omaha staged the United States premiere of the Gioachino Rossini's 1819 opera Ermione, directed by Miller. 2000s: Atheism and return to directing In 2004, Miller wrote and presented a television series on atheism entitled Atheism: A Rough History of Disbelief (more commonly referred to as Jonathan Miller's Brief History of Disbelief) for BBC Four, exploring the roots of his own atheism and investigating the history of atheism in the world. Individual conversations, debates and discussions for the series that could not be included due to time constraints were aired in a six-part series entitled The Atheism Tapes. He also appeared on a BBC Two programme in February 2004, called What the World Thinks of God appearing from New York. The original three-part series aired on public television in the United States in 2007. In 2007, Miller directed The Cherry Orchard at The Crucible, Sheffield, his first work on the British stage for 10 years. He also directed Monteverdi's L'Orfeo in Manchester and Bristol, and Der Rosenkavalier in Tokyo and gave talks throughout Britain during 2007 called An Audience with Jonathan Miller in which he spoke about his life for an hour and then fielded questions from the audience. He also curated an exhibition on camouflage at the Imperial War Museum. He appeared at the Royal Society of the Arts in London discussing humour (4 July 2007) and at the British Library on religion (3 September 2007). In January 2009, after a break of 12 years, Miller returned to the English National Opera to direct his own production of La Bohème, notable for its 1930s setting. This same production ran at the Cincinnati Opera in July 2010, also directed by Miller. 2010s On 15 September 2010 Miller, along with 54 other public figures, signed an open letter published in The Guardian, stating their opposition to Pope Benedict XVI's state visit to the UK. In April and May 2011, Miller directed Verdi's La traviata in Vancouver, Canada, and in February and March 2012, Mozart's Così fan tutte in Washington, D.C. On 25 November 2015 the University of London awarded Miller an honorary degree in Literature. Personal life Miller married Rachel Collet in 1956. They had two sons and a daughter. From 1961 to his death he lived on Gloucester Crescent in Camden Town, north London. On 27 November 2019, Miller died at the age of 85, following a long battle with Alzheimer's. Parodies and representations Stevie Smith, a friend of his mother Betty Miller, "rather disloyally" included a thinly disguised and uncomplimentary version of the nine-year-old Miller, "precocious and brattish... constantly demanding attention", in her short story 'Beside the Seaside: A Holiday with Children' (1949). Private Eye (which had a falling-out with Miller) occasionally lampooned him under the name "Dr Jonathan", depicting him as a Dr Johnson-like self-important man of learning. In the film for television Not Only But Always about the careers of Peter Cook and Dudley Moore, Jonathan Aris played Jonathan Miller as a young man; Aris reprised the role in the BBC Radio 4 play Good Evening (2008) by Roy Smiles. Along with the other members of Beyond the Fringe, he is portrayed in the play Pete and Dud: Come Again by Chris Bartlett and Nick Awde. In the BBC Radio Four series The Burkiss Way edition 35, broadcast on 2 April 1979, he was impersonated by Nigel Rees in a fairly lengthy parody "The Blood Gushing All over the Screen in Question", in which the history of nasty diseases was traced and the style of Miller's presentation was sent up. It was written by Andrew Marshall and David Renwick. In the 1980s a puppet of Miller appeared frequently in Spitting Image sketches, most notably "Bernard Levin and Jonathan Miller Talk Bollocks". In series 4, episode 6 of Peep Show, Jez is explaining that a "Melon-Off" involves a competition between men stood with melons on their erections, with the first man whose melon falls off declared the loser. Mark replies, "Right, and who won – Gore Vidal or Dr Jonathan Miller?" Honours and awards Special Tony Award (1963), with co-stars Alan Bennett, Peter Cook, Dudley Moore, "for their brilliance which has shattered all the old concepts of comedy" in the musical revue Beyond the Fringe. Distinguished Supporter, Humanists UK. Honorary Associate, National Secular Society. Honorary Fellow, University College London. Honorary Fellow, Royal College of Art. Associate member, Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Cambridge (1982). Honorary Fellow, Royal College of Physicians (London and Edinburgh). Honorary D.Phil., University of Cambridge. Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE; 1983). Nomination: Best Director Tony Award (1986), for his revival of O'Neill's Long Day's Journey into Night. Knight Bachelor (2002), for services to music and the arts. Nominated artist of honour at Bornholm thanks to his instruction in Rønne Theater (Opera Island Bornholm; 2003). Foreign Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. President, Rationalist Association (2006–2019) Lifetime Achievement Award, Medical Journalists' Association (2012) Bibliography Books (1994 Jonathan Cape [pop-up book]) (pop-up book intended for children) (The Applause Acting Series) (University Research Lecture Series No. 5) [collection of his photographs] Editor Contributor – Jonathan Miller: 'King Lear in Rehearsal: A Talk' and seven other essays Essays by Jonathan Miller Geoffrey O'Brien, Charles Rosen, Tom Stoppard and Garry Wills Introductions and forewords (directors note) Discography Actor Bridge on the River Wye (1962 Parlophone LP; as American Announcer, American G.I., American Lieutenant, British Sergeant) Filmography Actor Beyond the Fringe (1964), TV version. One Way Pendulum (1964) Sensitive Skin (as "Dr Cass", 2 episodes, 2005) Director Alice in Wonderland (1966; BBC television drama; Also writer and producer; Provides commentary track on DVD version) Whistle and I'll Come to You (1968; BBC television drama). Take a Girl Like You (1970, starring Hayley Mills). BBC Television Shakespeare (1978–85): The Taming of the Shrew (1980), starring John Cleese. Timon of Athens (1981), starring Jonathan Pryce. Antony and Cleopatra (1981), starring Colin Blakely. Othello (1981), starring Anthony Hopkins and Bob Hoskins. Troilus and Cressida (1981). King Lear (1982), starring Michael Hordern. The Beggar's Opera (1983; BBC television opera), starring Roger Daltrey and Bob Hoskins. Presenter-writer Monitor (1962; also editor). The Zoo in Winter (1969), BBC, directed by Patrick Garland. The Body in Question (1978–79), 13 episodes. Equinox - Prisoner of Consciousness (1986) Born Talking: A Personal Inquiry into Language (1990), 4 episodes. Madness (1991). Equinox - Moving Pictures (1991) Jonathan Miller's Opera Works (1997), 6 episodes. Jonathan Miller on Reflection (1998). Absolute Rubbish with Jonathan Miller (2004) Atheism: A Rough History of Disbelief (2004), 3 episodes. The Atheism Tapes (2004). Interviewee In 1988 Miller made an extended appearance on the discussion programme After Dark, described here. Miller appears on the Puccini and Bach DVDs of this BBC series. In the Bach episode, he discusses his affection for the famous "Erbarme Dich" aria of the St Matthew Passion. Miller appears in this one-hour program on the painter. Selected stage productions Musical revue Beyond the Fringe (performer, writer, producer; Edinburgh Festival; 1960). Beyond the Fringe (performer, writer; Fortune Theatre, London; 1961–62). Beyond the Fringe (performer, writer; John Golden Theatre. NYC; 27 October 1962 to 30 May 1964; 667 performances). Oratorio St. Matthew Passion (Director; St. George's Theatre, London, February 1994) with Paul Goodwin. A dramatised production of J.S. Bach's masterpiece, recorded for BBC Television. This production was also revived at London's National Theatre in September/October 2011 with Southbank Sinfonia, conducted by Paul Goodwin. Drama The Old Glory (Director; American Place Theatre, 1964) starring Frank Langella, Roscoe Lee Brown, and Lester Rawlins. The Merchant of Venice (Director; Cambridge Theatre, 1970) starring Laurence Olivier. Danton's Death (Director; 1972) starring Christopher Plummer. Long Day's Journey into Night (Director; Broadhurst Theatre, 28 April to 29 June 1986; 54 performances), starring Jack Lemmon. Camera Obscura (Director; Almeida Theatre, 13 May to 8 June 2002; Theatre Royal, Bath, 11 to 15 June 2002; Theatre Royal, Winchester, 18 to 22 June 2002; The Oxford Playhouse 25 to 29 June 2002, starring Peter Eyre, and Diana Hardcastle. King Lear (Director; Vivian Beaumont Theater 4 March to 18 April 2004; 33 performances). The Cherry Orchard (Director; Crucible Theatre, 2007). Opera Over four decades, Miller has directed more than 50 operas in cities including London, New York, Florence, Milan, Berlin, Munich, Zurich, Valencia and Tokyo. Così fan tutte (Stage director; Kent Opera, 1974). The first of seven operas Miller directed for Kent Opera. Rigoletto (Stage director; 1975). Set in the 19th century. The Cunning Little Vixen (Producer; Glyndebourne, 1975). Le nozze di Figaro (Stage director; English National Opera, 1978). A televised version was made in 1991. Rigoletto (Stage and video director; English National Opera, 1982). Set in 1950s Little Italy, Manhattan. The Mikado (Stage and video director; English National Opera, 1987) starring Eric Idle. La traviata (Stage director; Glimmerglass Opera, 1989). Kát'a Kabanová (Stage director and producer; Metropolitan Opera, 1991). La fanciulla del West (Stage and video director; 1991). Pelléas et Mélisande (Stage director and producer; Metropolitan Opera, 1995). Rodelinda (Stage director; Salomons Science Theatre, Tunbridge Wells, 1996). The Rake's Progress (Stage director and producer; Metropolitan Opera, 1997). Le nozze di Figaro (Stage director and producer; Metropolitan Opera, 1998). Die Zauberflöte (Stage and video director; 2000). Tamerlano (Stage and video director; 2001). Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Stage and video director; 2003). Falstaff (Stage director; New National Theatre Tokyo, 2004). Jenůfa (Stage director; Glimmerglass Opera with New York City Opera in Cooperstown, New York, 29 July to 29 August 2006). L'Orfeo (Stage director; Manchester and Bristol productions, 2007). Der Rosenkavalier (Stage director; New National Theatre Tokyo, 2007). La traviata (Stage director; Glimmerglass Opera, 2009). La bohème (Stage director; Cincinnati Opera, 2010). Pelléas et Mélisande (Stage director; Metropolitan Opera, 2005 and 2010). La traviata (Director; Vancouver Opera, 2011)). Miller's most recent opera productions in England were Cosi fan Tutte and Don Pasquale at the Royal Opera House (both revived in 2012) and La Boheme and L'Elisir d'Amore at the English National Opera. His production of Rigoletto at the ENO is still being revived after 28 years and his production of The Mikado is about to return in its 25th year. His 1987 ENO production of The Barber of Seville has often been revived, most recently in 2017. Museum and gallery exhibitions Miller curated an exhibition on "Reflexion" (1998) at the National Gallery and one on "Motion in Art and Photography" at the Estorick Gallery in Islington. Miller had three exhibitions of his own art work at Flowers East, the Boundary Gallery and at the Katz Gallery in Bond Street, London. See also Las Meninas – considered by Miller in his On Reflection Notes and references Further reading [A memoir by Miller's son.] External links Production details, Theatre Archive, University of Bristol Jonathan Miller bio. – Miller's agents Audio: Jonathan Miller in conversation on the BBC World Service discussion show The Forum What the World Thinks of God Jonathan Miller radio series on the origin of life – "Self Made Things" A six-part history of Public Health in England (includes a spill-over interview series) Jonathan Miller's choices on "Desert Island Discs" Jonathan Miller's Brief History of Disbelief Jonathan Miller on Language and the Mind English theatre directors 1934 births 2019 deaths 20th-century atheists 21st-century atheists Academics of University College London Academics of the University of Sussex Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Alumni of University College London British atheism activists British opera directors British secularists Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Edinburgh Festival Fringe staff English atheists English humanists English Jews English male writers English people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent English people of Irish-Jewish descent English satirists English television presenters English writers Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge Jewish atheists Knights Bachelor Laurence Olivier Award winners Materialists People associated with Conway Hall Ethical Society Special Tony Award recipients Writers from London Neurological disease deaths in England Deaths from Alzheimer's disease

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern%20Jive

Modern Jive

Modern Jive is a dance style derived from swing, Lindy Hop, rock and roll, salsa and others, the main difference being the simplification of footwork by removing syncopation such as chasse. The term "French Jive" is occasionally used instead, reflecting the origins of the style, as is the term "Smooth Jive". The word "modern" distinguishes it from ballroom Jive. History Modern Jive was developed in the United Kingdom during the 1980s at three London clubs: Ceroc, Le Roc, and Cosmopolitan Jive. The style was based on a type of Jive that evolved in France after World War II when American dances such as the jitterbug were popular due to the presence of the American military. Modern Jive was not created in France, but its origin owes something to the French version of Le Bop. The dance commonly known as Modern Jive is different from Le Bop, a high tempo dance. Michel Ange Lau played a major role in the change from Le Bop to Modern Jive at a club called Centre Charles Peguy). Two British people, James Cronin and Christine Keeble, saw Le Bop in France and wanted to learn the dance when they returned to London. They were among Lau's students. The style of music played at discos was changing, and high tempo dances like Rock and Roll and Le Bop were becoming less popular. The change in music prompted the birth of Modern Jive; in 1980 Lau and the Le Bop dancers changed the timing of Le Bop, causing a revolution in the dance. This change in timing not only allowed Lau and his students to dance to a much larger variety of music but also to create more intricate moves. What is Modern Jive? Modern Jive adapts moves from other dance styles such as West Coast Swing, Salsa, Ballroom and Latin. The key to understanding Modern Jive is the beginner moves. These 20-plus moves continually reinforce the absolutes to the dance. The consistencies allow modern jive dancers to dance together, despite their preferences. Modern Jive absolutes and consistencies Due to Modern Jives unique timing it has the ability to be danced to a wide variety of tempos (extremes 60bpm - 180bpm, typically 110bpm - 140bpm, although this varies considerably with geography), and the dance is generally danced to 2 beats in 4. Danced to the stressed beats 1, 3, 5, & 7, it's on these beats the dancers are in position (moving through the less-stressed beats 2, 4, 6, & 8), e.g. a classical Yo Yo has 8 positions danced to 16 beats of music. The step back at the start of each move; this derived from the Rock Step and changed to a simple step back when the timing changed. The step back creates the in & out or concertina motion that many people consider to be an essential part of the dance style; both dancers step away from each other at the start of a move / pattern, to achieve tension and compression/extension in the connection point. This extension assists lead and follow technique, but perhaps more importantly the step back into extension is the consistent part that allows an infinite number of moves to be joined in any order, depending on which handhold or other connection the lead is using. The follows right hand is key to the dance, each beginner move starts with the follows right hand (sometimes both hands), whenever the follow spins or hand is released it's the right hand that's they needs to offer. The motion of the dance, for the majority of the beginner moves the follow steps in to the leads right side on count two (this is not always consistent at intermediate level moves, and the lead often signals with their right hand behind their back to bring the follow down the left side) e.g. Pretzel, (a lead technique can also be developed to bring the follow down the left hand side). Off phrase dancing, Modern Jive is a 'Off phrase' dance. This means a move does not always have to start on a particular beat e.g. beat 1 or beat 2 (Cha Cha) of the music – this allows the massive flexibility, diversity, and high level of musicality that's often seen in the dance. Moves often have varying numbers of beats to them e.g. Catapult 8 counts (16 beats of music), Octopus 7 counts (14 beats of music). Modern Jive popular variants Dancing to slower tempos (in some groups referred to as Modern Jive Blues). Slower tempos in Modern Jive allow for more styling and musical interpretation. The slower tempo allows the follower to indicate when they want freestyle time, the dance can also use body leads at slower tempos and dancers often dance a lot closer. Dancing to slower music allows for a lot more two way communication, allowing more freedom, and music interpretation, however good Modern Jive dancers should be able to adapt their dancing and dance to a full spectrum of tempos. At higher tempos timing becomes more of a skill, where two way communication is reduced, at higher tempos musicality (e.g. hitting the music phrasing / breaks and interpreting the music), is more difficult to achieve as both dancers have to be in tune together but also with the music. Most dancers dancing Modern Jive Blues originate from Modern Jive and are familiar with Modern Jive Beginners moves and associated absolutes. Rotating Slot In the classical form, Modern Jive naturally rotates (normally clockwise). This is due to 2 or 3 consistencies that can be seen in the beginner moves and more often than not in the intermediate moves. a) the follow continually steps into the leads right side, causing a clockwise rotation – rarely to the leads left side, b) Often on count three the follow is turned or spun clockwise (1st move basic, Yo Yo, Hatchback.....), c) a lot of the beginner moves finish with an anti clockwise return – causing the follow to stabilise on the left foot stepping slightly to her left (clockwise), instead of directly back. This is Modern Jive danced in its natural form, and should not be confused with a really bad technique where the follow continually skips around the lead (also known as 'Roundy Roundy' in the UK), despite his lead. This 'Roundy Roundy' style is often found at higher tempos by inexperienced follow dancers and is totally different from the slightly rotating slot (of the natural dance). Slotted dancing Over roughly the last decade, Modern Jive has been influenced by West Coast Swing, an American partner dance developed from Lindy Hop with the addition of the 'slot' meaning it is danced up and down an imaginary line. As WCS teaching tends to be more technique focused, it tends to attract experienced dancers from Modern Jive, who then bring elements of the dance back into M-J. The slot concept is one that has taken a hold in Modern Jive and is now very often taught even from beginner level, although more commonly in the Ceroc franchise venues and other groups that run competitions, than independents such as LeRoc. Dancing slotted allows the follow (and lead) to always complete a full turn, which helps to avoid dizziness, and has many other technical advantages. However, some dancers find that at high tempos (140BPM and above) it is easier to abandon the slot and revert to a rotational style. These dancers find that many of the older Modern Jive moves done in the classical form, such as the YoYo, the Catapult and the Push Spin work better at higher tempos, and are less suitable for slow tempos (100BPM or lower) where other moves and a more elastic style of dancing are more appropriate. When Modern Jive tends to be danced rotationally, it is still often taught on stage in two directions, to allow large classes to observe the instruction and instructors often compensate to be seen. In these classes, directional leads are often not taught effectively at beginner level (even at intermediate level), and so as soon as the class goes to freestyle dancing the dancers start to rotate in a rotating slot style. For these groups, dancing in the slot is an advanced technique / preference that can be developed and adds another dimension to Modern Jive, and it also looks impressive when a group of dancers are dancing slotted in the same area in the same direction. Where Modern Jive tends to be danced slotted by default, slotted dancing tends to be taught rather more effectively, and it's reinforced in social dancing where it is possible to pack many more people onto a dance floor more safely if they are all dancing slotted. These groups have also tended to modify older moves slightly from the classical form, in order to take advantage of the known direction of momentum and other technical advantages of the slotted form. Presenting forward / Blocking Presenting forward is a skill often developed by professionals, competition dancers and showcase dancers and requires further skills and additional techniques. Here the dancers develop the skill of presenting in one consistent direction (usually forward or towards an audience as compared to facing each other). Dips, drops, poses, exiting moves / lifts and even smiling consistently in one direction in order to present the best possible picture to spectators, judges and/or audiences are all factors. Branding The term Modern Jive was coined in 1990 by Christine Keeble on a program called 'How to Jive', designed to promulgate this new style of jive. At that time the dance was known variously as Ceroc, LeRoc, or French Jive. Christine Keeble used the term 'modern jive' to encompass all of these names. The term 'modern jive' was adopted, despite the absence of chasse or triple step (typical of "real" jive forms). Various clubs used the umbrella term as the dance spread out from its two earliest centres of London and Bristol and it later became accepted as a generic term for the dance. It is now used by a large number of independent teachers across the UK and internationally. It is also used by many of the franchise operators, although these companies often still prefer to use their own branding. Organizations In the English-speaking world, Modern Jive classes and events are often franchised or run under various brand names, including, Jive Addiction, Blitz, DanceJive, ViBe Dance Nights, "Revolution Dance" Northwest, Ceroc, LeRoc, Ginger Jive, Mo'Jive, Cloud9, Jiveasy, South Coast Modern Jive, The Thing, and others. Beyond the bounds of the English-speaking world, modern jive has still to make a significant impact. In Europe there are JiveNation Poland in Poland, M-Jive and Jive.Berlin in Germany and Leroc Zürich and Modern Jive Zürich in Switzerland which are slowly bringing the dance style to a wider audience. Following a different but similar evolutionary path, dance styles such as Discofox (in Germany and Switzerland and derived from Foxtrott ) and Bugg (found in Sweden) may sometimes be indistinguishable from the Modern Jive found in the UK and elsewhere in Europe. Dance moves While these forms of Modern Jive have Swing and Rock-and-Roll dance moves in common, moves from many forms of dance including Salsa and Tango may be included, according to the specific franchise or even the particular dance teacher. Because of its eclectic nature there are hundreds of moves and variations that can be learnt, introduced or adapted. Although dance routines are developed and rehearsed for competitions, Modern Jive is most frequently danced freestyle, providing additional challenges to more advanced dancers in terms of musical interpretation and expression; which is why some Modern Jive dancers prefer Blues Music, drawing out the move and allowing the follow to improvise and partake in the dance (as opposed to being dragged around the floor). Move naming Different franchises or teachers often have different names for identical moves, and different signals to indicate the next move. The Man's Spin taught at one venue may be identical to the Man's Pass taught by a different venue. Due to its origins, Modern Jive moves may be similar to moves from other dance styles; the First Move Triple Steps in Modern Jive is similar to the Lindy Hop Jockey, for example. Despite this there is rarely a problem dancing with people who have been taught other styles, at least with the less advanced moves. A solid lead is better than using a signal (which may only be suited to one dance style); thus allowing good follows to dance regardless of the learning style. Lead variations Like many Western partner dances, Modern Jive is most often a male-led dance. The gender of the lead is irrelevant to the technique required, however many moves are more easily led by a taller lead on a shorter follow, and thus a shorter lead will need to modify their lead and the move to allow for the differences in angle, or choose different moves that are more easily led by them. Modern Jive is also occasionally danced by three dancers, with one lead and two followers (a variant known as "Double Trouble" in the UK or "Triples" in Australia/New Zealand). It can also be danced with two leads smoothly and continuously swapping with each other to dance with one follow, or two follows doing the same with one lead (known in the UK as "Tag", and in Australia/New Zealand as "Swaps 'n' Steals") Step footwork vs rock footwork Many of the Australian offshoots of Ceroc transitioned to a footwork coined "Step" in about 1995. The original "rock" footwork specifies a step back with either foot, transferring the weight to the moved foot on each of the odd numbered beats (1, 3, 5, 7) The moved foot is returned to its starting position on the even beats. (2, 4, 6, 8). "Step" footwork specifies that the leader takes a step back with the right foot on the half beat or "and" count and "closes", stepping backwards with the left foot on the numbered count. "closing" implies that the feet end up close together. On the next count the leader steps forward with their right foot on the "and" count and closes with their left on the numbered count. The follower mirrors this by stepping back on their left and "closing" with their right and then stepping forward with their left and closing with their right. Rock footwork was originally offered as a "beginner" footwork in Australia. More recently it has been dropped. The reason for it being dropped is pedagogical. The problem appeared to be that the transition from beginner to intermediate dancer (so-called) meant one had to "unlearn" one and then "re-learn" another rhythm and weight change components of the dance. Unfortunately, the "rock" footwork is actually more suited to fast music (leaning towards "advanced" dancers) as it reduces the number of weight changes required during any rhythm unit. Thus, the preference for "step" footwork has reduced the "terminal velocity" modern jive can be danced at - because it forces a weight change every beat. Music Modern Jive is generally danced to music with four beats to the bar (Quadruple or Common time), from latest chart hits to big band music and everything between, in a wide variety of tempos from slow to very fast. Some teachers or franchises may concentrate on particular musical styles, such as swing. Music is typically between 108 and 160 bpm. Experienced jivers occasionally dance to music outside those broad constraints. Weekenders Around the world there are a number of "weekenders" (short dance-focused holidays, typically running from Friday - Monday) running annually. Jive Time originally started weekenders in the UK but now Ceroc run the majority of the weekenders; with independent organisers still running a number of other weekender events, such as the Jive Addiction, Jive Time or MJ Roc events. Competitions Modern Jive competitions are typically judged based on the following criteria: Musicality Content & execution Style & Technique Presentation Depending on how the scoring is done, the judges may award marks for each of these, or may just give an overall mark or place, based on considering each of these factors. UK competitions As of 2015, Modern Jive Competitions in the United Kingdom include: UK Contemporary Blues & Smooth Dance Champs, Huddersfield (February) World Modern Jive Champs, Blackpool (March) English Modern Jive Champs Horsham (April) Ceroc Champs, London (May) Ceroc Northern Champs, Manchester (June) International Open Modern Jive Championships, Dorking (July) Ceroc Welsh Champs, Cardiff (September) European Blues Open Championships, (Ceroc Breeze) (October) Britroc, London (October) Ceroc Scotland Champs, Edinburgh (November) UK Modern Jive Champs, Whitby (November) Ceroc Midlands Champs, Stoke-on-Trent (November) New Zealand competitions As of 2019, Modern Jive Competitions in New Zealand include: Cerocmania Weekend, Auckland (March) Christchurch Modern Jive Champs, Christchurch (April) Waikato Ceroc Champs, Tamahere (May) Ceroc Coast to Coast Weekend, Tauranga (June) iDance Classic Champs, Wellington (June) Auckland Ceroc Champs, Auckland (September) iDance Simply Dance Weekend, Wellington (October) Ceroc Jurassic Jam, Auckland (October) Ceroc NZ National Champs, Auckland (November) Australian competitions As of 2019, Modern Jive Competitions in Australia include: SummerJive, Canberra (February) Victorian Modern Jive Championships, Melbourne (May) Australian Ceroc Dance Championships, Sydney (June) Gold Coast Champs, Gold Coast (July) IGNITE Queensland Modern Jive Championships, Gold Coast (August) DanceMAD, Melbourne (November) Other competitions Ceroc Pan Asia Dance Championships, various (October) Some competition categories are more serious (Freestyle and Dance With A Stranger) while others are more about having fun (Battle of the Sexes, Steals). See also List of basic dance topics List of dances Social dance References Swing dances Partner dance

262783

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SkyOS

SkyOS

SkyOS (Sky Operating System) is a discontinued prototype commercial, proprietary, graphical desktop operating system written for the x86 computer architecture. As of January 30, 2009 development was halted with no plans to resume its development. In August 2013, developer Robert Szeleney announced the release of a public beta on the SkyOS website. This allows public users to download a Live CD of the SkyOS operating system, for testing and to optionally install the system. History Development started in 1996 with the first version released in December 1997. Up until version 4.x the OS was freely available. Starting with beta development of SkyOS 5 in 2003, users were required to pay US$30 to get access to beta releases. SkyOS adapted new filesystem SkyFS based on OpenBFS in 2004 and its graphics subsystem was improved in 2006 with support for desktop compositing including double buffering and transparency. The OS also moved to ELF binaries then. The last beta build 6947 was released in August 2008 and there was no status update for several months. As the OS was mainly the work of one man, Robert Szeleney, there was increasing difficulty to add new device drivers. Considering lack of development under Robert Szeleney, going open source was viewed by the tech press as the best option for SkyOS. Although Szeleney tried to bypass the lack of drivers by using a new kernel based on Linux or NetBSD, and reported some progress in this regard, development has not resumed. SkyOS website disappeared in 2013 and final public build from August 2008 was released for free shortly thereafter. Features Kernel SkyOS is a Unix-like operating system with a monolithic kernel. The OS supports multiple users and symmetric multiprocessing. Graphics and GUI SkyOS has an integrated graphics subsystem with support for desktop compositing including double buffering and transparency. SkyOS GUI also allows system-wide mouse gestures. SkyFS SkyFS is a fork of the OpenBFS filesystem. SkyOS can also be run from the following filesystems: FAT32/FAT16/FAT12 ISO 9660 Fast searching SkyOS offers real-time file content query searches with multiple keywords (comparable to Beagle in Linux or Spotlight in macOS), including indexing of files and programs. Porting applications Most command-line applications that were written to be compiled with the GNU Toolchain can be ported to SkyOS with little or no modification. SkyOS contains several frameworks for creating applications (including Mono port). Ported applications include Mozilla Firefox, Mozilla Thunderbird, Nvu, GIMP and AbiWord. There was also a monetary incentive for porting applications as the SkyOS community voted for desired programs and then supported developers with donations. Reception Although SkyOS includes many interesting features, limited application and hardware support are among its weaknesses (e.g. only a few graphics cards allow 2D acceleration). Kernel and drivers updates were solely worked on by Szeleney, and because of this he was unable to keep up with new devices. This was one of the reasons the development ended for this project. In the end, the OS was not able to expand beyond a small albeit dedicated user community. Apart from a short early open source time period, the OS had a proprietary licence with a commercial model based on paid beta-testing. This led to some controversy as SkyOS developers were accused of unauthorized use of open source software. No proof of any wrongdoing was given, but the public image of the OS was tarnished nevertheless. See also List of operating systems References External links SkyOS.org—The SkyOS Homepage SkyOS.at—The SkyOS Homepage (Alternative Address) TechIMO—SkyOS Developers Interview Slashdot—Walking Through SkyOS 5.0 Beta Slashdot—Thunderbird and Firefox Ported to SkyOS OSNews.com—SkyOS, The 7th Beta and Robert Szeleney SkyOS archive and downloads Proprietary operating systems X86 operating systems 1997 software

262784

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu%20Guanzheng

Wu Guanzheng

Wu Guanzheng (born August 11. 1938) is a former Chinese politician and one of the major leaders of the Chinese Communist Party during the administration of Hu Jintao. He served on the Politburo Standing Committee, the country's top ruling body, from 2002 to 2007. During that time he also served as the Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Chinese Communist Party, the party's anti-graft body. He had a lengthy political career, having served as mayor of Wuhan, Governor then Party Secretary of Jiangxi, then party chief of Shandong. Wu retired in 2007 and left public life. Career Wu was born in Yugan County, Jiangxi province. He joined the Chinese Communist Party in March 1963. Wu graduated from the department of thermal engineering at Beijing's Tsinghua University in 1968, where he studied thermal measurement and automated controls. He was then sent to Wuhan during the Cultural Revolution to work as a shop floor technician at the Gedian Chemical Engineering factory, where he was promoted to supervisor a few years later. Wu served as the mayor of Wuhan from 1983 to 1986. He became the governor of his native province Jiangxi in 1986 after the removal of Ni Xiance by the provincial People's Congress. He was later promoted to Jiangxi party chief and served between 1995 and 1997. He moved to Shandong in 1997 to become the party chief of the province and was made a full member of the Politburo the same year. It was said that Zeng Qinghong, a major confidant of then party General Secretary and President Jiang Zemin, was fond of Wu's work, and recommended him for further elevation, resulting in his promotion to the Politburo in 1997. Thereafter, Wu was known to have cultivated good relationships with both Jiang Zemin and his putative successor Hu Jintao. Wu and Hu graduated in the same year, both of them alumni of Tsinghua University. Some sources considered him to be Hu's ally, while other consider him to be Jiang's. As a result, he was sometimes included in the list of people in the Shanghai clique. In 2002, Wu joined the Politburo Standing Committee as the head of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the party's anti-graft agency. Wu was seen as an easy compromise candidate since he had "cross-factional appeal". Wu Guanzheng retired from Standing Committee and Central Commission for Discipline Inspection after the 17th Party Congress in October 2007. In 2009, a judge in Spain's Audiencia Nacional indicted Wu and four other officials for genocide against Falun Gong, though later legislation was passed limiting the impact of the ruling. See also Politics of the People's Republic of China External links Wu Guanzheng biography @ China Vitae, online database of China VIPs Biography of Wu Guanzheng, People's Daily Online References 1938 births Living people Governors of Jiangxi Chinese Communist Party politicians from Jiangxi Mayors of Wuhan Tsinghua University alumni People's Republic of China politicians from Jiangxi Politicians from Shangrao Political office-holders in Shandong Secretaries of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Members of the 16th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Members of the 15th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party

262785

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puffbird

Puffbird

The puffbirds and their relatives in the near passerine family Bucconidae are tropical tree-dwelling insectivorous birds that are found from South America up to Mexico. Together with their closest relatives, the jacamars, they form a divergent lineage within the order Piciformes, though the two families are sometimes elevated to a separate order Galbuliformes. Lacking the iridescent colours of the jacamars, puffbirds are mainly brown, rufous or grey, with large heads, large eyes, and flattened bills with a hooked tip. Their loose, abundant plumage and short tails makes them look stout and puffy, giving rise to the English name of the family. The species range in size from the rufous-capped nunlet, at and , to the white-necked puffbird, at up to and . Taxonomy and naming Puffbirds get their common name from their fluffy plumage. In Spanish, they have been nicknamed bobo ("dummy") from their propensity to sit motionless waiting for prey. American naturalist Thomas Horsfield defined the Bucconidae in 1821. The family was classified as part of the Piciformes by Alexander Wetmore in his work A Systematic Classification for the Birds of the World (1930, revised in 1951 and 1960). The placement of the combined puffbird and jacamar lineage was in question, with some bone and muscle features suggesting they may be more closely related to the Coraciiformes. However, analysis of nuclear DNA in a 2003 study placed them as sister group to the rest of the Piciformes, also showing that the groups had developed zygodactyl feet (two toes facing forward and two aft) before separating. Per Ericson and colleagues, in analysing genomic DNA, confirmed that puffbirds and jacamars were sister groups and their place in Piciformes. The lineage is sometimes elevated to order level as Galbuliformes, first proposed by Sibley and Ahlquist in 1990. Molecular investigation of the Bucconidae in 2004 indicated that the nunlets (genus Nonnula) diverged from the common ancestor of other puffbirds an estimated 25 million years ago, with the genus Malacoptila the next to branch off around 19.1 million years ago. A fossil right wing recovered from Lower Eocene beds in Lincoln County Wyoming was initially classified as a puffbird and given the name Primobucco mcgrewi. However, the discovery of more complete specimens, including twelve in 2010, has indicated that Primobucco was instead an early type of roller. Distribution and habitat Puffbirds are found from Mexico to southern Brazil, with the greatest variety of species found in the Amazon Basin. They live in forested or wooded habitats, including lowland, foothills, and open woodland. The white-faced nunbird is the only member of this species known to live in highlands. The swallow-winged puffbird also lives in more open country. No species of puffbirds have been recorded of moving any significant distance beyond its home territory. Description Generally dull-plumaged birds, puffbirds may have brightly colored bills, eyebrows and irises. They have large heads, short wings and strong bills, with short legs and diminutive feet. There is some sexual dimorphism; the female is slightly larger and slightly duller-plumaged than the male. Juvenile birds have shorter beaks. Voice Puffbirds are one of the most silent birds in the Neotropics and vocalize very rarely. The most vocal species are the numbirds and those in the genus Nystalus. When calling they mostly do so at dawn and dusk. The main vocalizations consists of repeated and high-pitched whistles. The nunbirds are the most vocal of the family; they have a wide repertoire of calls and often give very loud shouts. Behavior Puffbirds are by nature arboreal. Mostly secretive, they are found singly or in small family groups. Species of the genus Monasa, known as nunbirds, are more gregarious and found in flocks. Feeding Puffbirds are sit-and-wait hunters, perching unmoving for long periods, while watching for insect prey. As well as arthropods, they may eat small lizards and plant material. Arthropod exoskeletons are regurgitated as pellets. The swallow-winged puffbird is the only member in the family that is known to capture insects from open perches. Breeding The breeding behaviour of puffbirds is not well known. Nests are burrows in dirt, rotten wood or termite mounds. Puffbirds are known to lay clutches of two or three eggs. The eggs are round, small, and white. The incubation period is around 15 days, and performed by both parents. Born blind and naked, the young can crawl to the entrance of the nest burrow at one or two days of age. There, their mother feeds them partly chewed insects. They fledge at around 20 to 21 days. Species References Stiles and Skutch, A guide to the birds of Costa Rica External links Internet Bird Collection.com: Puffbird−Bucconidae videos . Birds of Central America Birds of South America Taxa named by Thomas Horsfield

262789

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith%20Fitzgerald

Judith Fitzgerald

Judith Ariana Fitzgerald (11 November 1952 – 25 November 2015) was a Canadian poet and journalist. Born in Toronto, Ontario, she attended York University (where she earned her BA and MA; she did her doctoral work at the University of Toronto). She authored over twenty books of poetry, as well as biographies of musician Sarah McLachlan and Marshall McLuhan. She died in her home in Northern Ontario, at the age of 63. Bibliography Poetry 1970: Octave. Toronto: Dreadnaught 1972: City Park. Agincourt, ON: Northern Concept 1975: Journal Entries. Toronto: Dreadnaught Press 1975: Victory. Toronto: Coach House Press 1977: Lacerating Heartwood. Toronto: Coach House Press 1981: Easy Over. Windsor: Black Moss Press 1983: Split/Levels. Toronto: Coach House Press 1984: The Syntax of Things. Toronto: Prototype 1983: Heart Attack[s]. Canada: privately published 1984: Beneath the Skin of Paradise: The Piaf Poems. Windsor: Black Moss Press 1985: My Orange Gorange. Windsor: Black Moss Press 1985: Given Names: New and Selected Poems 1972–1985. Ed. Frank Davey. Windsor: Black Moss Press 1986: Whale Waddleby. Windsor: Black Moss Press 1987: Diary of Desire. Windsor, ON: Black Moss Press 1991: Rapturous Chronicles. Stratford, ON: Mercury Press Ultimate Midnight. Windsor, ON: Black Moss Press 1992: Habit of Blues: Rapturous Chronicles II. Stratford, ON: Mercury Press, 1993 1993: walkin' wounded. Windsor, ON: Black Moss Press 1995: River. Toronto: ECW Press 1999: 26 Ways Out of This World. Ottawa: Oberon 2003: Iphigenia's Song (Adagios Quartet vol. 1). Ottawa: Oberon Press 2004: Orestes' Lament (Adagios Quartet vol. 2). Ottawa: Oberon Press 2006: Electra's Benison (Adagios Quartet vol. 3). Ottawa: Oberon Press 2007: O, Clytaemnestra! (Adagios Quartet vol. 4). Ottawa: Oberon Press 2015: wtf, Prose 1997: Building A Mystery: The Story of Sarah McLachlan and Lilith Fair. Kingston, ON: Quarry Music Books 2000: Sarah McLachlan: Building a Mystery. Kingston, ON: Quarry Music Books, Millennial Edition 2001: Marshall McLuhan: Wise Guy. Montreal: XYZ Edited 1982: Un Dozen: Thirteen Canadian Poets. Windsor, ON: Black Moss 1986: SP/ELLES: Poetry by Canadian Women. Windsor, ON: Black Moss Press 1988: First Person Plural. Windsor, ON: Black Moss Press 2000: Bagne, or, Criteria for Heaven, by Rob Mclennan. Fredericton, NB: Broken Jaw Press Except where noted, bibliographic information courtesy Brock University. References W. H. New, ed. Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002: 376. Notes External links Judith Fitzgerald's WriteSite Official Website The Canadian Encyclopedia Philip Milito on Judith Fitzgerald's life, career, and contribution to Canadian culture (with links) Ottawa Poetry Newsletter Concerning The Mad Bomber of Canada's House of Commons 1952 births 2015 deaths 20th-century Canadian poets Canadian women poets Writers from Toronto 21st-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian women writers 21st-century Canadian women writers

262792

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VideoLAN

VideoLAN

VideoLAN is a non-profit organization which develops software for playing video and other media formats. It originally developed two programs for media streaming, VideoLAN Client (VLC) and VideoLAN Server (VLS), but most of the features of VLS have been incorporated into VLC, with the result renamed VLC media player. The VideoLAN project began as a student endeavor at École Centrale Paris (France), but after releasing the software under the free software/open source GNU General Public License, the project is now multinational with a development team spanning 40 nations. The project has been completely separated from École Centrale Paris since 2009 when it was constituted as a non-profit organization. The current President of the VideoLAN non-profit organization is Jean-Baptiste Kempf, who is also one of the project's developers. Projects VLC VLC (standing for VideoLAN Client) is a portable multimedia player, encoder, and streamer supporting many audio and video codecs and file formats as well as DVDs, VCDs, and various streaming protocols. It is able to stream over networks and to transcode multimedia files and save them into various formats. It is one of the most platform-independent players available, with versions for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, iOS, Android, Windows Phone, Linux, BeOS, BSD, Solaris, Chrome OS, and is widely used with over 2.1 billion downloads as of September 2017. VLMC VLMC (standing for VideoLAN Movie Creator) is a cross-platform, non-linear, video editing software application based on the VLC Media Player. The software is still in early development. The latest version is 0.2.0 (released 2014-10-30), released under the GPLv2 license. VLS The VLS (standing for VideoLAN Server) project was originally intended to be used as a server for streaming videos. It has since been merged with the VLC project, and use of VLS is not encouraged. Codecs The VideoLAN project also hosts several audio/video decoding and decryption libraries, such as libdvdcss which allows the content of CSS protected DVDs to be unscrambled, x264 which can encode H.264/MPEG-4 AVC video, x265 which can encode HEVC video, x262 which can encode MPEG-2 video, dav1d which can decode AV1 video, libdca which can decode DTS audio, and the git repository of the multimedia framework FFmpeg. VLMa A new project has been developed, called VLMa (standing for VideoLAN Manager). VLMa is an application to manage broadcasts of TV channels, received through digital terrestrial or satellite ways. Its interface is provided as a web-site written in Java. It is also capable of streaming audio and video files. VLMa consists of a daemon (called VLMad) and a web interface (called VLMaw). VLMa is released under the GNU General Public License like VLC media player. VLC media player Skin Editor The VLC Skin Editor is a simple program developed by VideoLAN. The simple interface allows users to create new skins for the VLC media player without knowledge of the VLC Skins2 XML System. The program lets users change features on the main window, playlist window, and equalizer window. Commercial use In May 2008, Neuros Technology and Texas Instruments began work on a port of VideoLAN to their next generation open set-top box. VLC is currently used in products through the use of libVLC and also as raw or customized VLC for Android versions on devices. Some features have been publicly merged, such as 360° support. Opposition to software-bundling VideoLAN developers have expressed dismay at how users searching for their products see search advertising from websites that use unwanted software bundling to modify official download files with wrappers that include unwanted programs. VideoLAN does not have the money to sue the many companies abusing their trademarks. See also Google Video – used VideoLAN technology in its media player web browser plugin. Comparison of audio player software Comparison of video player software VideoLan VideoConference References External links Free software project foundations Free software projects Multimedia software Non-profit organizations based in France Portable software Software DVD players Streaming

262793

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim%20Clijsters

Kim Clijsters

Kim Antonie Lode Clijsters (; born 8 June 1983) is a Belgian professional tennis player. Clijsters has been a world No. 1 in both singles and doubles, having held both rankings simultaneously in 2003. She has won a total of six Grand Slam tournament titles, four in singles and two in doubles. Clijsters has competed professionally from 1997 in an era in which her primary rivals were compatriot Justine Henin and 23-time Grand Slam singles champion Serena Williams. Coming from a country with limited success in men's or women's tennis, Clijsters became the first Belgian player to attain the No. 1 ranking. Together with Henin, she established Belgium as a leading force in women's tennis as the two of them led their country to their first Fed Cup crown in 2001 and were the top two players in the world in late 2003. Individually, Clijsters has won 41 singles titles and 11 doubles titles on the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) Tour. She was a three-time winner of the WTA Tour Championships. Between singles and doubles, she has been a champion at all four Grand Slam tournaments, winning the US Open and the Australian Open in singles and Wimbledon and the French Open in doubles with Ai Sugiyama. Her success at majors has been highlighted by winning three consecutive appearances at the US Open. Plagued by injuries and having lost some of her desire to compete, Clijsters initially retired from tennis in 2007 at the age of 23 to get married and have a daughter. She returned to the sport two years later and won her second US Open title as an unranked player in just her third tournament back. She defended her title the following year and then won the Australian Open in 2011 en route to becoming the first mother to be ranked No. 1 by the WTA. Along with Margaret Court, she also holds the record for most Grand Slam singles titles won as a mother, with three such titles, and was the first to win one since Evonne Goolagong Cawley in 1980. Clijsters retired again following the 2012 US Open. After seven years, she began a second comeback in early 2020. Clijsters was born to athletic parents with backgrounds in professional football and gymnastics. She was renowned for her athleticism, which was highlighted by her ability to perform splits on court in the middle of points. She built the offensive side of her game around controlled aggression while also using her exceptional movement to become an elite defensive player. Clijsters was very popular and well-liked as a player, having won the Karen Krantzcke Sportsmanship Award eight times. She was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2017. Early life and background Kim Clijsters was born on 8 June 1983 in Bilzen, a small town in northeastern Belgium. She grew up with her younger sister Elke in the nearby town of Bree in the Flemish province of Limburg. Kim is the daughter of Lei Clijsters and Els Vandecaetsbeek, both of whom were accomplished athletes. Her mother Els was a Belgian national artistic gymnastics champion. Her father Lei was a professional football defender who played for a variety of clubs in the top-flight Belgian First Division, including KV Mechelen with whom he won the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1988. He was also a member of the Belgium national football team, tallying 40 caps and competing in two World Cups. Clijsters credits her parents for giving her a footballer's legs and a gymnast's flexibility. She also attributes her success to the freedom they gave her when she was a young player, saying, "Without the support I've had from my family, I wouldn't be where I am. They've let me make my own decisions." When Clijsters was five years old, her father built a clay tennis court at their home as a gift to his daughter to celebrate him winning the 1988 Gouden Schoen, an award given to the player of the year in the Belgian First Division. He had previously announced the idea of the gift as a celebration of the award during a television interview. Clijsters began playing tennis earlier that year after attending a lesson with her cousins and her uncle while her parents were away. From then on, she became fixated on the sport. She began playing with her sister at the Tennisdel club in Genk by the time she was seven. Her first coach Bart Van Kerckhoven recalled that she was extremely energetic and never wanted to leave the tennis court, adding that, "If the group before her did some sprints to finish off the session, Kim would join in. Then she put her heart and soul into her own training session, after which she joined the next group for their warm-up exercises." At the age of nine, Clijsters began working with Benny Vanhoudt in the more distant town of Diest. Along with her sister, she trained for fifteen hours a week, including five hours of individual instruction, which Vanhoudt said was "an insane amount [of total hours]." She continued to train in Diest until she was twelve. During this time, she also first worked with Carl Maes and Wim Fissette, both of whom would coach Clijsters later in her professional career. When she was thirteen, Maes took over as her primary coach at the Flemish Tennis Association in Antwerp. Junior career Clijsters had success at both the national and international levels at a very young age. In 1993, she won the 12-and-under division of the Belgian Junior Championships (the Coupe de Borman) in doubles with her future longtime rival Justine Henin. At the time, Clijsters was ten years old and Henin was eleven. A year later, she won the 12-and-under singles event at the same tournament. Clijsters continued to play alongside Henin, winning the doubles event at the 14-and-under European Junior Championships as well as the 14-and-under European Junior Team Championships for Belgium, both in 1996 and the latter of which also with Leslie Butkiewicz. Her first big international junior title came at Les Petits As, a high-level 14-and-under tournament. She defeated future top 25 players Iveta Benešová and Elena Bovina in the semifinals and final respectively. Clijsters played two full seasons on the ITF Junior Circuit, the premier junior tour that is run by the International Tennis Federation (ITF). At the very end of 1997, she partnered with Zsófia Gubacsi to win her first ITF title in the doubles event at the Grade A Orange Bowl, one of the highest level junior tournaments. In 1998, Clijsters had her best year on the junior tour, finishing the season at career-high rankings of world No. 11 in singles and world No. 4 in doubles. She won two junior Grand Slam doubles titles, the French Open with Jelena Dokic and the US Open with Eva Dyrberg. She defeated her French Open partner Dokic in the US Open doubles final. In singles, she made it to the Wimbledon final, but finished runner-up to Katarina Srebotnik. Professional career 1997–99: Maiden WTA title, Newcomer of the Year As a fourteen year old, Clijsters could only enter professional tournaments through qualifying since the WTA Tour's policy did not allow players her age to receive main draw wild cards. In August 1997, Clijsters qualified for her first main draw at her second career tournament on the lower-level ITF Women's Circuit, which was held in the Belgian coastal town of Koksijde. She won seven matches in total, including five in qualifying, to reach the quarterfinals. Clijsters did not enter another professional tournament until after her runner-up finish at the Wimbledon girls' singles event the following summer. Playing in Brussels in July 1998, she won both the singles and doubles events for her first career professional titles. Clijsters continued to excel at the ITF level, winning four more titles within the next year, two in both singles and doubles. Clijsters began 1999 with a WTA singles ranking of No. 420 in the world. Around this time, Belgian women's tennis was beginning to flourish. Both Dominique Van Roost and Sabine Appelmans had been ranked in the top 20 within the previous two years, complementing the rise of Clijsters and Henin on the junior tour. This success helped lead to the revival of the only WTA tournament in Belgium, which was relaunched as the Flanders Women's Open in Antwerp after not being held in six years. Clijsters made her WTA debut at the tournament in May, entering the main draw as a lucky loser after losing in the final round of qualifying. She won her first career tour-level match against Miho Saeki and advanced to the quarterfinals, where she was defeated by top seed Sarah Pitkowski despite holding match points. One week after Clijsters turned sixteen, she entered Wimbledon as the youngest player in the top 200. After barely having a high enough ranking to get into the qualifying draw, she ultimately made it to the round of sixteen in her Grand Slam tournament debut. She defeated world No. 10 Amanda Coetzer in the third round and did not drop a set until losing to Steffi Graf one round later, her only career match against her childhood idol. Clijsters also had a good showing at the US Open, losing to the eventual champion Serena Williams in the third round after squandering a chance to serve for the match. Clijsters next played at the Luxembourg Open held in the town of Kockelscheuer just outside the capital. She won the title with relative ease in just her fourth career WTA event, taking affinity for the friendly atmosphere of the smaller tournament and the faster carpet courts. Most notably, she faced off against Van Roost in the final and only conceded four games to the top-ranked Belgian. Clijsters also made the singles final in Bratislava at her next tournament, finishing runner-up to No. 11 Amélie Mauresmo. Nonetheless, she was able to win the doubles event with compatriot Laurence Courtois as her partner. At the end of the season, Clijsters was named WTA Newcomer of the Year, having risen to No. 47 in the world. 2000–02: French Open finalist, Tour champion Clijsters was unable to repeat her success at the Grand Slam tournaments in 2000, not advancing past the second round at any of the singles events. However, she continued her steady climb in the rankings up to No. 18 on the strength of two more titles, one at the Tasmanian International in her first tournament of the year and another at the Sparkassen Cup in Germany near the end of the season. The latter victory was Clijsters's first at a Tier II event (the second highest level tournament) and followed up a loss in another Tier II final to world No. 1 Martina Hingis earlier that month. In the middle of the year, Clijsters also finished runner-up at the Wimbledon mixed doubles event alongside her boyfriend Lleyton Hewitt. At the Indian Wells Open in early 2001, Clijsters finally defeated Hingis in her fourth meeting against the world No. 1 player to reach her first Tier I final. After winning the first set of the final, she ended up losing in three sets to Serena Williams. The match was overshadowed by the controversy of the crowd booing Williams for her sister Venus's late withdrawal from their semifinal, leading to both sisters boycotting the tournament for 14 years. A few months later at the French Open, Clijsters became the first Belgian to contest a Grand Slam singles final. She had defeated No. 16 Henin in the semifinals in their closest and highest profile match to date, coming back from a set and a break down, and also having saved three break points that would have put her behind 5–2 in the second set. The final against Australian Open champion and world No. 4 Jennifer Capriati was an even tighter match. Playing a day after her 18th birthday, Clijsters won the first set but lost the second. After a French Open final record 22 games and 2 hours 21 minutes in total, she was defeated by Capriati 12–10 in the deciding set. The match was ranked as the greatest French Open women's final in Open Era history by Tennis.com. Clijsters would go on to make it to at least the quarterfinals at each of the next three majors. She also played in her first Grand Slam doubles final at Wimbledon later that year, with Ai Sugiyama as her partner. She won three singles titles in 2001, including her second titles at both the Luxembourg Open and the Sparkassen Cup, to help her finish the season at No. 5 in the world. With four doubles finals in total, she was also ranked No. 15 in doubles at the end of the year. Clijsters maintained her top ten ranking throughout 2002 despite struggling with an ongoing shoulder injury in the first half of the year. Her best result at a Grand Slam event came at the Australian Open, where she lost another three-set match to Capriati in the semifinals in their first meeting since the French Open final. Nonetheless, she continued to rise in the rankings to No. 3 by March, her best ranking for the season. Although Clijsters did not reach another Grand Slam quarterfinal the rest of the year, she won three more titles leading up to the year-end WTA Tour Championships in Los Angeles. She received her third invite to the event, which only the top 16 players in the world are guaranteed entry. Clijsters made it to the final with ease after dropping only six games in the first three rounds, including a victory over Henin in the quarterfinals and a retirement due to injury from Venus Williams in the semifinals. Her opponent in the final was Serena Williams, who entered the match with a 56–4 record on the season and having won the last three majors of the year. Although Serena had won their first five encounters and was considered a clear favourite, Clijsters upset Serena in straight sets to win the championship. After the tournament, she said, "This is the best victory of my career." 2003: World No. 1 in singles and doubles The 2003 season was Clijsters's "annus mirabilis". She competed in 21 singles events, reaching the semifinals in all but one of them, advancing to 15 finals, and winning nine titles. With a record of 90–12, she was the first player to accrue 90 wins since Martina Navratilova in 1982 and the first to play more than 100 matches since Chris Evert in 1974. Clijsters also played an extensive doubles schedule, compiling a total of 170 matches between both disciplines. She partnered with Sugiyama the entire year, winning seven titles in thirteen events. This season also marked the peak of the rivalry between Clijsters and Henin, as the pair faced each other eight matches, the last six of which were in finals. In doubles, five of her ten finals were against the team of Virginia Ruano Pascual and Paola Suárez. With her success, Clijsters became the first Belgian world No. 1 in singles or doubles, achieving both feats in August. Singles: Two Grand Slam finals, Tour Championship defense Clijsters began her singles season by winning the Sydney International over Lindsay Davenport, her third consecutive title. She extended her tour win streak to 17 matches—all without dropping a set—before she was defeated by Serena Williams in an Australian Open semifinal where she had a 5–1 lead in the third set as well as two match points on serve. She said afterwards, "The only thing I regret a little bit, is those two double faults [to start the game at 5–4]. I could feel that she was really trying to step it up, and that she was hitting the balls a lot more aggressive and had almost no unforced errors at the end." Williams won the title to complete her "Serena Slam". After losing in the final at her next two tournaments, Clijsters recovered at the Indian Wells Open to win her first Tier I title. Like in Sydney, she defeated Davenport in the final. She won another Tier I title on clay in May at the Italian Open over No. 4 Amélie Mauresmo, who had a chance to serve for the match in the second set. At the French Open, both Clijsters and Henin reached the final to guarantee that the winner would become the first Belgian Grand Slam singles champion. Henin had won their only meeting in a final in 2003 thus far at the German Open, which was also their only other encounter on clay. While both players had match points in Germany, Henin won in Paris in a lopsided affair where she only lost four games. After losing in the semifinals at Wimbledon to Venus Williams, Clijsters rebounded to win two Tier II titles at the Stanford Classic and the Los Angeles Open. With the second of those titles, she attained the world No. 1 ranking, in part because the top-ranked Serena Williams had not played on tour since Wimbledon due to a knee injury. She was the first woman to become No. 1 without winning a Grand Slam singles title. Clijsters regained the top ranking in doubles the following week to become only the fifth player in WTA history to be No. 1 in singles and doubles simultaneously. Despite playing the US Open as the top seed, Clijsters again lost to Henin in the final in straight sets. Clijsters had been regarded as the favourite entering the match because of her performance in the earlier rounds and Henin's lengthy semifinal match the previous day. The title helped Henin rise to No. 2 in the world. The last stage of the season featured Clijsters battling Henin for the top ranking. Clijsters defeated Henin in the final of the Tennis Grand Prix in Filderstadt to defend her title and her world No. 1 ranking. This was the eighth time in WTA history where the top two players in the world faced off for the top ranking. Although Clijsters lost the top ranking to Henin the following week, she regained it a week later by winning the Luxembourg Open for the third year in a row. She finished her season by defending her title at the WTA Tour Championships in the first year where the tournament switched to a round robin format in the initial stage. Clijsters swept her group of Mauresmo, Elena Dementieva, and Chanda Rubin. She won her semifinal against Capriati before defeating Mauresmo again for the title. With the million dollar prize, Clijsters finished the season as the tour prize money leader and became the first player to earn four million dollars in a season on the WTA Tour. Nonetheless, Henin took the year-end No. 1 ranking by improving on her performance at the event from the previous season. Doubles: French Open and Wimbledon titles In the early part of the season, Clijsters and Sugiyama won three titles on hard courts. However, they did not win any big titles through May, losing in the Australian Open quarterfinals to the Williams sisters and finishing runners-up at their first two Tier I finals. They entered the French Open and Wimbledon and made it to the finals at both events. Clijsters and Sugiyama defeated the top seeds Ruano Pascual and Suarez in both finals for Clijsters's first two Grand Slam tournament titles. The French Open final was a tighter match, ending 9–7 in the third set. Despite these titles, the duo remained behind Ruano Pascual and Suarez in the rankings until August when Clijsters became world No. 1. She held the top ranking for four non-consecutive weeks. The pair were the top seeds at the US Open, but withdrew in the second round due to rain delaying Sugiyama's fourth round singles match for three days. They ended the season by finishing runners-up to Ruano Pascual and Suarez at the WTA Tour Championships. Despite Clijsters's success in 2003, she seldom played doubles during the rest of her career. 2004–05: Extended injury absence, first Grand Slam singles title Although Clijsters maintained her form into 2004, her season was ultimately marred by injuries. It was feared that she would need surgery and miss the Australian Open after she injured her left ankle in the Hopman Cup. Nonetheless, she competed at the event and reached the championship match without dropping a set, despite aggravating her ankle injury in the quarterfinals. Her opponent in the final was Henin and unlike their previous two Grand Slam finals, Clijsters was able to win a set. With Henin up a break at 4–3 in the third set, the chair umpire incorrectly overruled a line call on break point that would have leveled the match. Henin ended up winning the game and the match. Clijsters said afterwards, "I'm just as disappointed as after the last two grand slam [finals], but I played a lot better this time". In February, she won her next two tournaments, including the Diamond Games in Antwerp for her first WTA title in her home country. After Clijsters withdrew from the Indian Wells Open following one match with a torn left wrist tendon, she only played in two more WTA events the remainder of the season. She returned to the WTA Tour six weeks later with a wrist brace, but again withdrew after one match. In June, she found out she would need surgery to remove a cyst in her wrist. As a result, she remained out until the Hasselt Cup in Belgium where she needed to retire in her third match. There were few expectations on Clijsters entering 2005, as it still was not certain whether she would be able to play. After missing the Australian Open, she returned to the tour in February. In her second and third tournaments back, Clijsters won both Tier I events in March, the Indian Wells Open and the Miami Open, to become the second woman to complete the Sunshine Double after Steffi Graf in 1994 and 1996. She defeated world No. 1 Lindsay Davenport in the final of Indian Wells, as well as No. 2 Amélie Mauresmo and No. 3 Maria Sharapova in her last two matches in Miami. These titles lifted her ranking from outside the top 100 back into the top 20. Clijsters was unable to continue her success into the clay or grass court seasons, winning just one title and losing in the fourth round in three sets to Davenport at both the French Open and Wimbledon. After Wimbledon in late June, Clijsters only lost one more match through early October. During this stretch, she won five titles including her third Stanford Classic and her fifth Luxembourg Open. She also built up a 22-match win streak and defeated Henin in the final of the Tier I Canadian Open in their only meeting of the year. Clijsters's most important title of the season was the US Open, her first Grand Slam singles title. As the fourth seed, she was not tested until the quarterfinals, when Venus Williams was two games away from defeating her at a set and a break up. Clijsters rebounded to win the match in three sets and then defeated the top seed and world No. 2 Sharapova in the semifinals, also in three sets. Despite her previous struggles in Grand Slam singles finals, she won the championship against No. 13 Mary Pierce with ease, only conceding four games. As the winner of the US Open Series, Clijsters received double the standard amount of prize money. Her $2.2 million prize was the largest in women's sports history at the time. Clijsters's last tournament of the year was the WTA Tour Championships. Although she had a chance to return to No. 1 if she outperformed the top-ranked Davenport, she only won one match and did not advance out of her round robin group. She finished the year ranked No. 2, having won a tour-best nine titles and all of her finals. She was named both the WTA Player of the Year and the WTA Comeback Player of the Year. Despite this success, Clijsters announced in August that she was planning to retire in 2007 because of her injury troubles. 2006–07: Return to No. 1, hastened retirement The 2006 season saw a variety of injury issues for Clijsters. She only played in 14 tournaments, missing the US Open as well as the Fed Cup final. While she reached the semifinals at the other three Grand Slam singles events, she was unable to advance to another final. Clijsters withdrew from her first tournament of the year, the Sydney International with hip and back problems. Although she recovered from those issues in time to reach the semifinals at the Australian Open, she needed to retire from that match as well after twisting her ankle while down a break in the third set against Amélie Mauresmo. Nonetheless, with Davenport losing in the quarterfinals, Clijsters regained the No. 1 ranking. She held the top ranking through mid-March. Clijsters returned for the Diamond Games where she finished runner-up to Mauresmo, but needed to withdraw from the Indian Wells Open because of the same ankle injury. While she was healthy enough to play a regular schedule during the clay and grass court seasons, Henin continued her recent dominance of their rivalry over this stretch. She defeated Clijsters in the semifinals of three consecutive events, including the French Open and Wimbledon. During the US Open Series, Clijsters won her fourth Stanford Classic and finished runner-up to Maria Sharapova at the Tier I San Diego Classic. However, her summer season came to an end when she fell on her left wrist in her opening round match at the Canadian Open. This injury kept her out until late October. She made her return at the Hasselt Cup and won her second consecutive title at the event. Clijsters entered the WTA Tour Championships ranked No. 5 in the world, where all three other players she was grouped with were Russian. Although she lost to her group's top seed, Sharapova, she defeated Svetlana Kuznetsova and Elena Dementieva to advance. Her season ended in the semifinals, where she lost to world No. 1 Mauresmo. Clijsters entered 2007 intending to retire at the end of the season, but only ended up playing in five tournaments due to injuries. She won her only title of the year in her first tournament, the Sydney International. The Australian Open was her only Grand Slam event of the season. For the second consecutive season, she lost in the semifinals, this time to top seed Sharapova. Clijsters's last tournament in Belgium was the Diamond Games, where she finished runner-up to Mauresmo for the second year in a row. A hip injury limited Clijsters's remaining schedule. In her last two tournaments, she lost to Li Na in the fourth round of the Miami Open in March and qualifier Julia Vakulenko in her opening match at the Warsaw Open in May. Her last win was against Samantha Stosur in Miami. A few days after losing in Warsaw, Clijsters announced her retirement at the age of 23, forgoing plans to finish the season. Two-year hiatus A few months after Clijsters retired, she married basketball player Brian Lynch. She gave birth to a daughter in early 2008, less than two months after her father Leo Clijsters was diagnosed with lung cancer. He died twelve months later in January 2009. Clijsters said, "The birth of Jada was the best moment of my life, but it also taught me a lesson because we knew that my Dad was terminally ill. I realised that new life had been born, but a few months later another life would disappear. It was a very intense period in our lives." Nearly two months after her father's death, it was announced that Clijsters would play in an exhibition in May with Tim Henman against Steffi Graf and Andre Agassi to test the new retractable roof on Centre Court at Wimbledon. In March, Clijsters stated that she was planning to come out of retirement, motivated by returning to the "training schedule from [her] pro days" to prepare for the Wimbledon exhibition. She added that she was taking a different approach to tennis, saying, "I am looking at this as a second career, not as a comeback as I am now in a situation where not everything revolves around tennis 24 hours a day." Clijsters and Henman won the exhibition doubles, and Clijsters also defeated her idol Graf in singles. She commented, "I wanted to feel good here on court. And I've enjoyed it. This is the pleasure which was lacking at the end of my first career. But now I've got my motivation back." 2009–10: Start of second career, back-to-back US Open titles With no ranking, Clijsters needed wild cards to begin her comeback. She requested and received wild cards for the Cincinnati Open, the Canadian Open, and the US Open. In her return to the tour in Cincinnati, Clijsters defeated three top 20 opponents, including No. 6 Svetlana Kuznetsova, before losing to world No. 1 Dinara Safina in the quarterfinals. She recorded another top ten victory in Canada over No. 9 Victoria Azarenka. Clijsters was still unranked entering the US Open, as players needed three tour events to have a ranking at the time. Nonetheless, she made it to the final, notably upsetting both Williams sisters, No. 3 Venus in the fourth round and No. 2 Serena in the semifinals. She defeated Venus in a tight third set after they split the first two 6–0. Her straight sets win over Serena was overshadowed by her opponent receiving a point penalty on match point for verbally abusing a line judge. Clijsters then defeated No. 8 Caroline Wozniacki to win her second US Open championship. She became the first unseeded woman to win the title at the event, and the first mother to win a Grand Slam singles title since Evonne Goolagong Cawley in 1980. With the title, she entered the WTA rankings at No. 19. Her only other tournament of the year was the Luxembourg Open, where she lost her second match. At the end of the season, she won the WTA Comeback Player of the Year award for the second time. Clijsters planned a limited schedule for 2010 to keep her focus on her family and ended up playing just eleven tournaments. In her first event of the year, she won the Brisbane International, narrowly defeating Henin in a third set tiebreak in Henin's first tournament back from her own retirement. She entered the Australian Open as one of the favourites, but was upset by No. 19 Nadia Petrova in the third round, only winning one game in that loss. Clijsters did not return to the tour until March. After an early loss at the Indian Wells Open, she won the Miami Open for the second time. The only set she lost was in the semifinals to Henin, who she again defeated in a third set tiebreak. She only conceded three games in the final against Venus Williams. During the clay court season, Clijsters tore a muscle in her left foot, which kept her out of the French Open. Although she returned for Wimbledon, she was upset in the quarterfinals by Vera Zvonareva after recording another win over Henin in the previous round. In the latter half of the year, Clijsters entered only four tournaments. During the US Open Series, she won the Cincinnati Open, the tournament where she returned from retirement a year earlier. At her next event, she was eliminated in the quarterfinals of the Canadian Open by Zvonareva while struggling with a thigh injury. Nonetheless, Clijsters recovered to defend her title at the US Open. In the last three rounds, she defeated three top ten players in No. 6 Samantha Stosur, No. 4 Venus Williams, and No. 8 Vera Zvonareva. Venus came the closest to ending her title defense, but lost in three sets after serving two double faults in the second set tiebreak which could have won her the match. Clijsters won the final over Zvonareva with ease in less than an hour. This was her third consecutive title at the US Open and the fourth consecutive time she made it to the championship match, having skipped the tournament four times since 2003. Clijsters' final event of the season was the WTA Tour Championships, where she qualified for the seventh time. Despite a loss to Zvonareva in her last round robin match, she advanced to the knockout rounds and defeated No. 5 Stosur and world No. 1 Caroline Wozniacki for her third title at the year-end championships. Clijsters finished the season at No. 3 and was named WTA Player of the Year for the second time. 2011–12: Australian Open champion, last reign at No. 1 By the start of 2011, Clijsters knew she was planning to retire in 2012 as she did not want to be on the tour while her daughter was in school. She began the season at the Sydney International, where she finished runner-up to Li Na in straight sets despite winning the first five games of the match. The two also met in the final of their next tournament, the Australian Open. Although Clijsters again lost the first set, she recovered to win the championship, her fourth Grand Slam singles title and first outside of the US Open. This title would be the last of Clijsters's career. She made one last final at her next WTA event, the Paris Open, where she was defeated by Petra Kvitová. Nonetheless, this result helped Clijsters regain the world No. 1 ranking before Caroline Wozniacki took it back one week later. During the rest of the season, Clijsters was limited by a variety of injuries and only played five more tournaments. She needed to retire from a fourth round match at the Indian Wells Open due to a shoulder injury. Then, as a result of a right ankle injury suffered while dancing at a wedding in April, the French Open was the only clay court event she entered. At the second Grand Slam tournament of the year, she was upset in the second round by No. 114 Arantxa Rus after failing to convert two match points in the second set. Aggravating that ankle injury at her next event then forced her to miss Wimbledon. Clijsters returned for the Canadian Open, where she suffered an abdominal injury that kept her out the remainder of the season. Clijsters was unable to stay healthy in her last year on the WTA Tour. In the first week of the season, she returned to the tour for the Brisbane International. After winning her first three matches back, she needed to retire in the semifinals due to hip spasms, a precautionary measure to prepare for the Australian Open. As the defending champion at the year's first Grand Slam event, Clijsters made it to the semifinals. Her fourth round victory came against No. 5 Li Na in a rematch of the 2011 final. She overcame rolling her ankle in the first set and saved four match points at 6–2 in the second set tiebreak to win in three sets. After Clijsters defeated world No. 1 Caroline Wozniacki in the quarterfinals, she lost to No. 3 Victoria Azarenka in another three set match. Both her hip and ankle continued to trouble her for months after the tournament, forcing her to skip the clay court season. After playing once in March and returning in mid-June, the last WTA events of Clijsters's career were the final two Grand Slam tournaments of the season. She lost at Wimbledon in the fourth round to No. 8 Angelique Kerber, only winning two games. Clijsters entered the US Open having not lost a match there since the 2003 final. She recorded her last WTA singles match win against Victoria Duval in the first round before falling to Laura Robson in her next match. Her career ended with a second round mixed doubles loss alongside Bob Bryan to the eventual champions Ekaterina Makarova and Bruno Soares, at which point she officially retired. Second comeback in 2020–21 After more than seven years of retirement, Clijsters returned to professional tennis in February at the Dubai Tennis Championships as a wildcard. Clijsters lost to Australian Open runner-up Garbiñe Muguruza in the opening round. She next entered the Monterrey Open as a wildcard losing in the first round to Johanna Konta in two sets. No tournaments were played due to the COVID-19 pandemic from March to July. Clijsters received wildcards at the inaugural Top Seed Open in singles and doubles alongside Sabine Lisicki. Clijsters withdrew from both singles and doubles. Clijsters next played the US Open losing in the first round to Ekaterina Alexandrova in three sets. Clijsters underwent knee surgery in October and did not play another tournament in 2020. Clijsters pulled out of the 2021 Miami Open, saying she did not feel ready to compete after her surgery and contracting COVID-19 in January. She played her first tournament of the year at the Chicago Fall Tennis Classic, having accepted a wildcard, but lost in the first round to Hsieh Su-Wei in three sets. She entered the doubles draw too, the partner was Kirsten Flipkens, but they lost in the first round. Clijsters then participated in postponed Indian Wells Masters, drew Kateřina Siniaková and lost in three sets in the first round. National representation Fed Cup Clijsters made her Fed Cup debut for Belgium in 2000 at the age of 16. The top-tier World Group that year consisted of 13 teams, 12 of which were divided into three round robin groups. The winners of the round robin groups in April would compete with the defending champion United States team in a knockout format for the title in November. Belgium was placed in a group with Australia, France, and Russia. Each tie was contested over one day as a best-of-three rubbers, two in singles and the last in doubles. Clijsters only played singles, while Els Callens and Laurence Courtois played all three doubles matches. Although Clijsters narrowly lost her debut to Jelena Dokic of Australia by a score of 9–7 in the third set, her teammates were able to secure the tie. She won her other two matches against Nathalie Tauziat of France and Anna Kournikova of Russia, both of which were crucial as Belgium won each of those ties 2–1 as well to win the group. In the semifinals, Henin returned to the team as they faced the United States, the hosts for the final rounds. After Henin lost to Monica Seles, Clijsters needed to defeat Lindsay Davenport to keep Belgium in the tournament. She won the second set, but ultimately lost the match. The following year, the format for the Fed Cup changed again. The entire competition was played out in November. The three round robin pools were reduced to two and the winners of each pool would contest a final tie for the title. Belgium's team of Clijsters, Henin, Callens, and Courtois from the 2000 final all returned for 2001. The United States withdrew before the start of the event, citing security concerns a few months after the 11 September terrorist attacks. With Henin and Clijsters exclusively playing singles, and Callens and Courtois playing doubles, Belgium won all nine of their rubbers against Spain, Germany, and Australia to advance to the final. Facing Russia, Henin defeated Nadia Petrova and Clijsters defeated Elena Dementieva to secure Belgium's first Fed Cup crown. Courtois commented, "We were never under any pressure, mainly because Kim and Justine were so strong." While Clijsters and Henin were on the team, Belgium came closest to another Fed Cup triumph in 2006. In this year, the World Group consisted of eight teams in a knockout tournament. The three rounds were spread out over April, July, and September. Each tie was played as a best-of-five rubbers, with four singles followed by one doubles. In the first round against Russia, both Clijsters and Henin made themselves available and won three out of four singles matches to advance. Although Henin missed the semifinal, Clijsters and Kirsten Flipkens were able to lead Belgium to a victory over the United States, who were also short-handed without Lindsay Davenport or the Williams sisters. However, Clijsters was forced to miss the Fed Cup final due to a wrist injury. Henin and Flipkens returned for the final, which Belgium hosted against Italy. The tie was decided by the doubles rubber, which Belgium lost after Henin aggravated a knee injury she suffered in one of her singles rubbers and needed to retire down 2–0 in the third set. Clijsters also played on the Belgium Fed Cup team from 2002 to 2005, and 2010–11 after she returned from retirement. The team's best results in those years were two semifinal appearances in 2003 and 2011. Clijsters missed the ties in which Belgium was eliminated in both instances. Overall, Clijsters compiled a 24–4 record in Fed Cup, split across 21–3 in singles and 3–1 in doubles. Hopman Cup Clijsters participated in the Hopman Cup from 2001 to 2004, partnering with Olivier Rochus in the first instance and Xavier Malisse thereafter. The tournament consists of eight teams, each with one female and one male player from the same country. The teams are divided into two round robin groups, the winners of which compete for the title. Each tie consists of a women's singles match, a men's singles match, and a mixed doubles match. The Belgian team did not advance to final in any of the years Clijsters participated. Their best performances came in 2002 and 2003 when they won two out of three round robin ties. In 2002, they finished tied for first with the United States and Italy in a group that also featured France. Belgium's only loss came against the United States, with Clijsters and Malisse losing both singles matches to Monica Seles and Jan-Michael Gambill respectively. Although the United States lost to Italy, they advanced out of the group on the tiebreak criteria, having won six rubbers compared to the five won by each of Belgium and Italy. Both of the ties Belgium had won were by a score of 2–1, with Clijsters losing to Francesca Schiavone against Italy and the pair losing the mixed doubles against the French team of Virginie Razzano and Arnaud Clément. The following year, Clijsters and Malisse again lost to the United States, who fielded a different team of Serena Williams and James Blake. Olympics Clijsters did not compete at the Olympics until 2012 near the end of her career. She had been ranked inside the top 40 in the months leading up to the 2000 Sydney Olympics in September, high enough to qualify. However, she did not make herself available for selection for a variety of reasons including issues with her shoulder and the event's timing a week after the US Open. During the 2004 Athens Olympics, she was in the middle of a long absence from competition after undergoing wrist surgery. However, she had announced before the year began that she did not intend to compete at the Games because Adidas was the Belgian team's uniform sponsor and her contract with Fila forbade her from wearing clothing from another company. The 2008 Beijing Olympics took place during her first retirement. Having missed these three previous events, Clijsters's desire to represent Belgium at the Olympics was one of the underlying reasons why she prolonged her second career until the 2012 London Games in late July. At the time, she did not have good results at her most recent tournaments, withdrawing from the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships in the semifinals in June due to injury and suffering a lopsided loss in the fourth round at Wimbledon. In her Olympic debut, Clijsters won her first three matches in straight sets, defeating Roberta Vinci, Carla Suárez Navarro, and No. 12 Ana Ivanovic in succession. She faced No. 3 Maria Sharapova in the quarterfinals, losing in straight sets one match before the medal rounds. Rivalries Clijsters vs. Henin Clijsters's biggest rival was Justine Henin, who grew up in the French-speaking part of Belgium. They have been regarded as having little in common except their nationality and their relationship has varied over time. Their rivalry began during their junior years when they were both considered promising young talents. They started out as friends and won the Belgian Junior Championships as doubles partners at ages ten and eleven respectively, despite only being able to communicate with hand signals due to Clijsters not knowing French and Henin not knowing Flemish. However, their friendship began to fade by their mid-teens, leading to disputes that their coaches would try to keep out of the media. Clijsters attributed this deterioration in part to one of Henin's coaches telling Henin, "she had to hate all of her opponents, and only then could she win." She also acknowledged they had very different personalities. Clijsters and Henin typically downplayed any disagreements between them, saying they were overdramatized by the media. When they were professionals, Clijsters accused Henin of routinely faking injuries in their matches to receive medical timeouts. Additionally, Clijsters's father seemed to allege that Henin was taking performance-enhancing drugs. Although they had won the Fed Cup together in 2001, they were not interested in playing on the same team in 2004 or 2005. The following year, Clijsters's former coach Carl Maes, who was then the Belgium Fed Cup captain, helped convince Clijsters to reunite with Henin, and together they ultimately reached another final. On the court, they played each other in 25 WTA matches, making each of them the other's most frequent opponent. Although Clijsters won the series 13–12, Henin won seven out of their eleven meetings in finals including all three at Grand Slam tournaments. The latest stage win Clijsters had at a major was in the semifinals of the 2001 French Open. She also defeated Henin en route to her first WTA Tour Championship in 2002. Clijsters dominated their hard court meetings 8–4, while Henin dominated on clay 5–1. Henin also won three of their five grass court encounters. Before both of their first retirements, Henin was leading the series 12–10. However, Clijsters won all three of their meetings during their comebacks to win the series. Clijsters vs. Williams sisters The Williams sisters are frequently recognized for having a transformative impact on tennis through the power in their style of play, their longevity, their marketability, and their success at the Grand Slam tournaments and Olympics. They were both No. 1 in the world and combined for 15 Grand Slam singles titles while Clijsters was on tour, and Serena in particular has been ranked as the greatest women's tennis player of the Open Era. Clijsters had a record of just 2–7 against Serena, who she called her toughest opponent. She fared better against Venus, compiling a winning record of 7–6. Clijsters's rivalry with Serena included two of the biggest controversies in Serena's career: the 2001 Indian Wells final which led to both Williams sisters' long boycott of the tournament, and the 2009 US Open semifinal which Serena lost on a point penalty. Serena defeated Clijsters in their first five meetings. She also won all four of their three-set encounters, including their 1999 US Open third round match and their 2003 Australian Open semifinal where Clijsters had the opportunity to serve for both matches. Although Clijsters only had two wins against Serena, both were considered big upsets and among the most important wins of her career. Her victory in the 2002 WTA Tour Championship final gave Clijsters her biggest title at the time, and her win at the 2009 US Open set up her first Grand Slam singles title as a mother one match later. Clijsters also defeated Venus in both of those tournaments, making her the only player to record wins over both Williams sisters at the same event twice. Venus also initially dominated her rivalry with Clijsters. She won six of their first eight meetings, including two in the late stages of Grand Slam tournaments in the quarterfinals of the 2001 US Open and the semifinals of 2003 Wimbledon. Venus also eliminated Clijsters from the Diamond Games in Belgium twice in 2003 and 2005. Additionally, one of Clijsters's first two wins against Venus was a retirement due to injury at the 2002 WTA Tour Championships. Nonetheless, Clijsters rebounded to win their last five meetings and end her career leading in their head-to-head record. Three of those five victories came at the US Open en route to her three titles at the event in 2005, 2009, and 2010. Other rivals In addition to Henin and the Williams sisters, Clijsters also developed rivalries with several other players who had been ranked No. 1 in the world. Two of her most frequent opponents were Lindsay Davenport and Amélie Mauresmo. Clijsters narrowly had winning records against both of them, going 9–8 versus Davenport and 8–7 versus Mauresmo. Davenport had won six of their first seven meetings before Clijsters won eight of their next nine encounters, including all five in 2003. Clijsters defeated Davenport in all four of their meetings in finals, including two at the Indian Wells Open. While Davenport had a 5–1 lead in Grand Slam tournaments, Clijsters won their latest-stage such meeting in the semifinals of the 2003 US Open. Unlike against Davenport, Clijsters initially dominated her rivalry with Mauresmo, winning eight of their first ten matches before Mauresmo took the last five. They met in two WTA Tour Championship finals, which they split. Mauresmo also denied Clijsters chances to win more titles in her home country when she won their finals at both the 2006 and 2007 Diamond Games. Exhibition matches During Clijsters's first retirement, the invitation to participate in the roof test exhibition series at Wimbledon in May 2009 inspired her to return to the WTA Tour. In the summer, she joined the St. Louis Aces of the World Team Tennis league to help prepare for her comeback. She also participated in World Team Tennis the following year as a member of the New York Sportimes. Ten years after the roof test on Centre Court that inspired her comeback, Clijsters returned to Wimbledon to participate in an exhibition series to test the new roof on Court No. 1 in which she played a set of singles against Venus Williams as well as a set of mixed doubles. On 8 July 2010, an exhibition match between Clijsters and Henin was scheduled as an attempt to set a new world record for largest attendance at a tennis match. The contest took place at the King Baudouin Stadium and was a part of the Best of Belgium national festival. After Henin needed to withdraw from the match due to an elbow injury, Serena Williams was chosen as a replacement. Although Williams injured her foot several days before the match, she chose to play. Clijsters defeated Williams in straight sets. A total of 35,681 people attended the match, breaking the world record of 30,472 set in 1973 by the Battle of the Sexes between Billie Jean King and Bobby Riggs. Beginning in 2009, the Diamond Games in Antwerp was reorganized from a WTA tournament into an exhibition series. During her comeback, Clijsters played at the event three times, winning matches against Venus Williams in 2009, Henin in 2010, and world No. 1 Caroline Wozniacki in 2011. She continued to play at the event after retiring. The 2012 edition was named "Kim's Thank You Games" in honor of her retirement, and the following year the event was known as the Kim Clijsters Invitational. In 2015, the Diamond Games were revived as a WTA event with Clijsters serving as the tournament director. She also played an exhibition set with finalist Andrea Petkovic after her opponent withdrew before the start of the championship match due to injury. Since her retirement in 2012, Clijsters has regularly played in the legends, champions, and invitation doubles events at all four Grand Slam tournaments. One of her matches in the 2017 Wimbledon ladies' invitation doubles event drew public interest for Clijsters inviting a male spectator onto the court to play a few points. The spectator, Chris Quinn, had suggested Clijsters try a body serve when she had asked the crowd whether she should serve left or right. Before playing the points, she gave Quinn a women's shirt and skort so that he could abide by Wimbledon's all-white dress code. A video of the incident has over four million views on YouTube. Legacy Clijsters has been ranked as the 14th-greatest women's tennis player in the Open Era by Tennis.com. Her 41 singles titles are the 14th-most in the Open Era. Since 2000, only the Williams sisters, Justine Henin, and Maria Sharapova have won more than her four Grand Slam singles titles. The three titles she won at the WTA Tour Championships are tied for the fifth-most in history behind only Martina Navratilova, Steffi Graf, Serena Williams, and Chris Evert. Clijsters was a champion at all four Grand Slam tournaments, winning the French Open and Wimbledon in doubles and the US Open and Australian Open in singles. Her prowess at singles and doubles is also highlighted by her becoming one of six players in WTA history to be No. 1 in the world in both rankings at the same time. Clijsters and Henin are recognized for "putting Belgium on the tennis map". Before they established themselves in the upper echelon of women's tennis, Dominique Van Roost was the only player in Belgian history to be ranked in the top ten of the ATP or WTA rankings, a mark she did not achieve until 1998 after Clijsters and Henin turned professional. The Belgium Fed Cup team had never reached the quarterfinals until 1997 when they made the semifinals. With Clijsters on the team, Belgium made it to at least the semifinals four times, reaching the final in 2006 and winning the championship in 2001. She also became the first Belgian to be ranked No. 1 in each of singles and doubles. Belgium was regarded as dominating women's tennis when Clijsters and Henin were the top two players in the world for several months in late 2003. After Clijsters's retirement, she established the Kim Clijsters Academy in her hometown of Bree. The academy is run by Clijsters's longtime coach Carl Maes and is intended to serve young players. Compatriot Elise Mertens is among those who train at the facility. Clijsters was one of the most popular and well-liked players in tennis among both fans and her fellow players. She won the Karen Krantzcke Sportsmanship Award a record eight times. Clijsters was proud of her reputation as one of the nicest players on the WTA Tour, saying, "I always try every day to be a good person and to be nice to others, and I think that’s probably the most important thing. I’m proud that I won tournaments and everything, but I want players to think that Kim was a nice person." Clijsters was also regarded as a source of inspiration to mothers on the WTA Tour, a role she embraced. She is one of three mothers to win a Grand Slam singles title, and her three such titles are tied with Margaret Court for the most of all-time. Additionally, Clijsters is the only mother to be ranked No. 1 in the world since the start of the WTA rankings in 1975. She appeared on the Time 100 list in 2011 as one of the most influential people in the world in large part because of her successful comeback. Playing style Clijsters is an all-court player who employed a mixture of offensive and defensive styles of play. On the defensive side, her movement is regarded as exceptional, enabling her to endure long rallies. Maria Sharapova has commented that, "You just have to expect that she's going to get every ball back." In addition to her movement, Clijsters often extends points with her signature shot, a stretched-out wide forehand, also known as a squash shot. This type of forehand involves hitting the ball with slice to make up for being out of position. When hitting a squash shot on the run, Clijsters is known for her trademark play of sliding towards the ball and finishing in a split to extend her reach. While most players can only slide on clay, Clijsters can slide on any surface. Tennis journalist Peter Bodo has noted, "Grass and hard courts do not 'permit' sliding unless your name is Kim Clijsters." The strengths of Clijsters's game are built around playing aggressively to generate offense without losing control. She excels at hitting both forehand and backhand winners from the baseline. Clijsters is regarded as one of the best returners of serve and tries to "take control of the point immediately... to [put herself] in an offensive position from the beginning". She was aggressive in the middle of points as well. While the squash shot is generally regarded as a defensive shot, Clijsters can turn it into an offensive weapon by placing it well enough to have time to recover into a good court position. Additionally, she possesses the ability to quickly move in from the baseline to the net, setting herself up to hit winners and finish points. She is adept at hitting swinging volleys on both the forehand and backhand sides because of her solid groundstroke technique. Clijsters credits her experience in doubles for improving her net game in singles, saying "it made [her] focus on going to the net more" and helped her "know when to come to the net". Her coach Wim Fissette attributed her success at Grand Slam events after her comeback to being more aggressive than she was before her first retirement. Coaches Clijsters worked with Belgian coaches throughout her career. Her first coach was Bart Van Kerckhoven, who she later invited to her championship match at the 2010 US Open. She began her professional career with Carl Maes as her coach. Maes was a student of Benny Vanhoudt who led the Saturday training sessions while Clijsters was also working with Vanhoudt in Diest. He moved to the Flemish Tennis Association Centre in Wilrijk when Clijsters was 13 years old and invited her to join him. In her first year in Wilrijk, she also worked with Marc De Hous. Maes coached Clijsters from 1996 to May 2002, during which she won the Fed Cup and finished as the runner-up at the 2001 French Open. Shortly before the 2002 US Open, she hired De Hous as her new coach and continued to work with him through 2005. Under De Hous, Clijsters won two WTA Tour Championships and two Grand Slam doubles titles. They split a week after she won her first Grand Slam singles title at the 2005 US Open. It was reported that De Hous left because he was unhappy with only receiving a $7,500 bonus from her $2.2 million in US Open prize money; however, he denied this was his only financial compensation and attributed his departure to wanting to "take on new challenges" after all of their success in 2005. Clijsters opted to play without a coach from then until her first retirement. When Clijsters began her comeback in 2009, she hired Wim Fissette to be her coach. Fissette, who is three years older, had trained with Clijsters under Vanhoudt when they were both juniors. He had also served as her hitting partner from 2005 until her first retirement. With Fissette as her coach, Clijsters won three more Grand Slam singles titles and regained the world No. 1 ranking. In June 2011, she rehired Maes as her coach, leading to Fissette's departure several months later. Clijsters worked with Maes until her second retirement. In 2020, coinciding with her second comeback, Clijsters announced her new coach as Fred Hemmes Jr. Endorsements During her playing career, Clijsters was represented by Belgian company Golazo Sports. Babolat has sponsored her racquets since 1999, and she specifically has used the Pure Drive model. Fila has been Clijsters's clothing sponsor since 2002. She had previously worn Nike apparel, but was not under contract. Clijsters is conscious about selecting which products to endorse, saying, "If it's not healthy for kids, for example, I'm not going to endorse a product. I don't want to give the wrong impression. We try to live a healthy lifestyle and if it doesn't match me as a person, I turn it down. To have my name on a product, I want to be behind it fully." She has turned down Nutella in addition to endorsements that involved her daughter. While on tour, she endorsed banana supplier Chiquita and United Soft Drinks, the producer of the AA sports drink. Additionally, she was a brand ambassador for nutrition company USANA as well as the Citizen Watch Signature Collection. She also had endorsement deals with Belgian telecommunications company Telenet, personnel services firm Adecco, and the travel services company Thomas Cook Group. Since Clijsters's retirement, Van Lanschot banking helps sponsor the Kim Clijsters Academy. Personal life Clijsters is married to Brian Lynch, an American basketball coach and former player. Lynch played college basketball at Villanova before pursuing a professional career in Europe. The two met while Lynch was a member of Euphony Bree, the team based in Clijsters's hometown, and initially bonded over both having pet bulldogs. They became a couple in 2005 and married in 2007. They have three children: a daughter Jada (born 2008), and two sons Jack (born 2013) and Blake (born 2016). The family splits their time living in Bree and New Jersey. Clijsters's sister Elke, who is younger by a year and a half, was also a promising tennis player. Like Kim, Elke won two junior Grand Slam doubles titles. She was also the ITF World Junior Doubles Champion in 2002. On the professional tour, she achieved a top 400 ranking in singles and a top 250 ranking in doubles. Kim and Elke entered one doubles tournament together on the WTA Tour at the 2004 Diamond Games in Antwerp. They won their opening match against Selima Sfar and Caroline Vis before losing to the second-seeded team of Émilie Loit and Petra Mandula in the next round. Elke retired in 2004 at age 19 due to persistent back problems. In Clijsters's early career, she was in a long-term relationship with Australian tennis player Lleyton Hewitt. They met at the 2000 Australian Open and were engaged before mutually ending their relationship in late 2004. The pair entered the mixed doubles event at Wimbledon in 2000, losing in the final. Their relationship earned Clijsters the nickname "Aussie Kim" and made her popular among Australian tennis fans even after they separated. When Clijsters won the 2011 Australian Open, she believed she earned her nickname, saying, "Now you can finally call me Aussie Kim". Clijsters's childhood tennis idol was Steffi Graf. She cites her lone WTA Tour match against Graf at Wimbledon in 1999 as being very influential, saying, "It was unbelievable. All I wanted to do was watch her. I wanted to see how she tied her shoelaces, what her ponytail looked like, how she carried her bag. Even though I lost, the impact of that and the motivation it gave me was huge. It was definitely the biggest moment of my career". She also looked up to Monica Seles and viewed both Graf and Seles as role models, drawing inspiration from their level of focus. Clijsters is involved with multiple organizations that help children. She has served as an ambassador for SOS Children's Villages in Belgium since 2010. SOS provides aid to children living without their parents and to impoverished families. Clijsters has also founded Ten4Kim, a nonprofit that funds junior tennis players who cannot afford the costs associated with training at a high level. While Clijsters was retired, she served as a part-time coach to several players, including compatriots Elise Mertens and Yanina Wickmayer. She also occasionally was a commentator at the Grand Slam tournaments, working for the BBC and Fox Sports Australia at Wimbledon and for Channel 7 at the Australian Open. Career statistics Performance timelines Singles Doubles Grand Slam tournament finals Singles: 8 (4 titles, 4 runner-ups) Doubles: 3 (2 titles, 1 runner-up) Mixed doubles: 1 (1 runner-up) Sources: ITF profile and WTA profile Awards ITF awards World Champion: 2005 WTA awards Newcomer of the Year: 1999 Karen Krantzcke Sportsmanship Award: 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2012 Peachy Kellmeyer Player Service Award: 2003, 2006, 2010 Comeback Player of the Year: 2005, 2009 Player of the Year: 2005, 2010 Humanitarian of the Year: 2006 National awards Belgian Promising Youngster of the Year (Beloftevolle Jongere van het Jaar): 1998 Belgian Sportswoman of the Year: 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011 Flemish Giant (Vlaamse Reus): 2000, 2001, 2010 Flemish Sportsjewel (Vlaams Sportjuweel): 2001 Belgian National Sports Merit Award: 2001 (with Henin) Belgian Sports Personality of the Year: 2003 Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown, by Royal Decree of King Albert II (Grootkruis in de Kroonorde): 2003 (with Henin) Belgian Sporting Team of the Year: 2006 (with Fed Cup team members Butkiewicz, Flipkens, Henin, and Caroline Maes) International awards Laureus World Sports Award for Comeback of the Year: 2010 International Tennis Hall of Fame inductee: 2017 See also List of Grand Slam women's singles champions List of Grand Slam women's doubles champions References Books External links 1983 births Living people Australian Open (tennis) champions Belgian female tennis players French Open champions People from Bilzen People from Wall Township, New Jersey US Open (tennis) champions Wimbledon champions World No. 1 tennis players French Open junior champions US Open (tennis) junior champions Hopman Cup competitors Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Belgium) Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics Olympic tennis players of Belgium Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' doubles Sportspeople from Limburg (Belgium) Laureus World Sports Awards winners International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVB-S

DVB-S

Digital Video Broadcasting – Satellite (DVB-S) is the original DVB standard for Satellite Television and dates from 1995, in its first release, while development lasted from 1993 to 1997. The first commercial applications was by Star TV in Asia and Galaxy in Australia, enabling digitally broadcast, satellite-delivered Television to the public. It is used via satellites serving every continent of the world. DVB-S is used in both Multiple Channel Per Carrier (MCPC) and Single channel per carrier modes for Broadcast Network feeds as well as for direct-broadcast satellite services like Sky (UK & Ireland) via Astra in Europe, Dish Network and Globecast in the U.S. and Bell Satellite TV in Canada. While the actual DVB-S standard only specifies physical link characteristics and framing, the overlaid transport stream delivered by DVB-S is mandated as MPEG-2, known as MPEG transport stream (MPEG-TS). Some amateur television repeaters also use this mode in the 1.2 GHz amateur band. References External links ETSI DVB-S/S2 DVB-S TR 101 198 V1.1.1 (09/97) Implementation of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation in DVB satellite transmission systems DVB-S EN 300 421 V1.1.2 (08/97) Framing structure, channel coding and modulation for 11/12 GHz satellite services Irdeto history Digital Video Broadcasting Satellite broadcasting Television transmission standards

262796

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVB-T

DVB-T

DVB-T, short for Digital Video Broadcasting — Terrestrial, is the DVB European-based consortium standard for the broadcast transmission of digital terrestrial television that was first published in 1997 and first broadcast in Singapore in February, 1998. This system transmits compressed digital audio, digital video and other data in an MPEG transport stream, using coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (COFDM or OFDM) modulation. It is also the format widely used worldwide (including North America) for Electronic News Gathering for transmission of video and audio from a mobile newsgathering vehicle to a central receive point. It is also used in the US by Amateur television operators. Basics Rather than carrying one data carrier on a single radio frequency (RF) channel, COFDM works by splitting the digital data stream into a large number of slower digital streams, each of which digitally modulates a set of closely spaced adjacent sub-carrier frequencies. In the case of DVB-T, there are two choices for the number of carriers known as 2K-mode or 8K-mode. These are actually 1,705 or 6,817 sub-carriers that are approximately 4 kHz or 1 kHz apart. DVB-T offers three different modulation schemes (QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM). DVB-T has been adopted or proposed for digital television broadcasting by many countries (see map), using mainly VHF 7 MHz and UHF 8 MHz channels whereas Taiwan, Colombia, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago use 6 MHz channels. Examples include the UK's Freeview. The DVB-T Standard is published as EN 300 744, Framing structure, channel coding and modulation for digital terrestrial television. This is available from the ETSI website, as is ETSI TS 101 154, Specification for the use of Video and Audio Coding in Broadcasting Applications based on the MPEG-2 Transport Stream, which gives details of the DVB use of source coding methods for MPEG-2 and, more recently, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC as well as audio encoding systems. Many countries that have adopted DVB-T have published standards for their implementation. These include the D-book in the UK, the Italian DGTVi, the ETSI E-Book and the Nordic countries and Ireland NorDig. DVB-T has been further developed into newer standards such as DVB-H (Handheld), which was a commercial failure and is no longer in operation, and DVB-T2, which was initially finalised in August 2011. DVB-T as a digital transmission delivers data in a series of discrete blocks at the symbol rate. DVB-T is a COFDM transmission technique which includes the use of a Guard Interval. It allows the receiver to cope with strong multipath situations. Within a geographical area, DVB-T also allows single-frequency network (SFN) operation, where two or more transmitters carrying the same data operate on the same frequency. In such cases the signals from each transmitter in the SFN needs to be accurately time-aligned, which is done by sync information in the stream and timing at each transmitter referenced to GPS. The length of the Guard Interval can be chosen. It is a trade-off between data rate and SFN capability. The longer the guard interval the larger is the potential SFN area without creating intersymbol interference (ISI). It is possible to operate SFNs which do not fulfill the guard interval condition if the self-interference is properly planned and monitored. Technical description of a DVB-T transmitter With reference to the figure, a short description of the signal processing blocks follows. Source coding and MPEG-2 multiplexing (MUX): Compressed video, compressed audio, and data streams are multiplexed into MPEG program streams (MPEG-PSs). One or more MPEG-PSs are joined together into an MPEG transport stream (MPEG-TS); this is the basic digital stream which is being transmitted and received by TV sets or home Set Top Boxes (STB). Allowed bit rates for the transported data depend on a number of coding and modulation parameters: it can range from about 5 to about 32 Mbit/s (see the bottom figure for a complete listing). Splitter: Two different MPEG-TSs can be transmitted at the same time, using a technique called Hierarchical Transmission. It may be used to transmit, for example a standard definition SDTV signal and a high definition HDTV signal on the same carrier. Generally, the SDTV signal is more robust than the HDTV one. At the receiver, depending on the quality of the received signal, the STB may be able to decode the HDTV stream or, if signal strength lacks, it can switch to the SDTV one (in this way, all receivers that are in proximity of the transmission site can lock the HDTV signal, whereas all the other ones, even the farthest, may still be able to receive and decode an SDTV signal). MUX adaptation and energy dispersal: The MPEG-TS is identified as a sequence of data packets, of fixed length (188 bytes). With a technique called energy dispersal, the byte sequence is decorrelated. External encoder: A first level of error correction is applied to the transmitted data, using a non-binary block code, a Reed–Solomon RS (204, 188) code, allowing the correction of up to a maximum of 8 wrong bytes for each 188-byte packet. External interleaver: Convolutional interleaving is used to rearrange the transmitted data sequence, in such a way that it becomes more rugged to long sequences of errors. Internal encoder: A second level of error correction is given by a punctured convolutional code, which is often denoted in STBs menus as FEC (Forward error correction). There are five valid coding rates: 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6, and 7/8. Internal interleaver: Data sequence is rearranged again, aiming to reduce the influence of burst errors. This time, a block interleaving technique is adopted, with a pseudo-random assignment scheme (this is really done by two separate interleaving processes, one operating on bits and another one operating on groups of bits). Mapper: The digital bit sequence is mapped into a base band modulated sequence of complex symbols. There are three valid modulation schemes: QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM. Frame adaptation: the complex symbols are grouped in blocks of constant length (1512, 3024, or 6048 symbols per block). A frame is generated, 68 blocks long, and a superframe is built by 4 frames. Pilot and TPS signals: In order to simplify the reception of the signal being transmitted on the terrestrial radio channel, additional signals are inserted in each block. Pilot signals are used during the synchronization and equalization phase, while TPS signals (Transmission Parameters Signalling) send the parameters of the transmitted signal and to unequivocally identify the transmission cell. The receiver must be able to synchronize, equalize, and decode the signal to gain access to the information held by the TPS pilots. Thus, the receiver must know this information beforehand, and the TPS data is only used in special cases, such as changes in the parameters, resynchronizations, etc. OFDM modulation: The sequence of blocks is modulated according to the OFDM technique, using 1705 or 6817 carriers (2k or 8k mode, respectively). Increasing the number of carriers does not modify the payload bit rate, which remains constant. Guard interval insertion: to decrease receiver complexity, every OFDM block is extended, copying in front of it its own end (cyclic prefix). The width of such guard interval can be 1/32, 1/16, 1/8, or 1/4 that of the original block length. Cyclic prefix is required to operate single frequency networks, where there may exist an ineliminable interference coming from several sites transmitting the same program on the same carrier frequency. DAC and front-end: The digital signal is transformed into an analogue signal, with a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), and then modulated to radio frequency (VHF, UHF) by the RF front end. The occupied bandwidth is designed to accommodate each single DVB-T signal into 5, 6, 7, or 8 MHz wide channels. The base band sample rate provided at the DAC input depends on the channel bandwidth: it is samples/s, where is the channel bandwidth expressed in Hz. Technical description of the receiver The receiving STB adopts techniques which are dual to those ones used in the transmission. Front-end and ADC: the analogue RF signal is converted to base-band and transformed into a digital signal, using an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). Time and frequency synchronization: the digital base band signal is searched to identify the beginning of frames and blocks. Any problems with the frequency of the components of the signal are corrected, too. The property that the guard interval at the end of the symbol is placed also at the beginning is exploited to find the beginning of a new OFDM symbol. On the other hand, continual pilots (whose value and position is determined in the standard and thus known by the receiver) determine the frequency offset suffered by the signal. This frequency offset might have been caused by Doppler effect, inaccuracies in either the transmitter or receiver clock, and so on. Generally, synchronization is done in two steps, either before or after the FFT, in such way to resolve both coarse and fine frequency/timing errors. Pre-FFT steps involve the use of sliding correlation on the received time signal, whereas Post-FFT steps use correlation between the frequency signal and the pilot carriers sequence. Guard interval disposal: the cyclic prefix is removed. OFDM demodulation: this is achieved with an FFT. Frequency equalization: the pilot signals are used to estimate the Channel Transfer Function (CTF) every three subcarriers. The CTF is derived in the remaining subcarriers via interpolation. The CTF is then used to equalize the received data in each subcarrier, generally using a Zero-Forcing method (multiplication by CTF inverse). The CTF is also used to weigh the reliability of the demapped data when they are provided to the Viterbi decoder. Demapping: since there are Gray-encoded QAM constellations, demapping is done in a "soft" way using nonlinear laws that demap each bit in the received symbol to a more or less reliable fuzzy value between -1 and +1. Internal deinterleaving Internal decoding: uses the Viterbi algorithm, with a traceback length larger than that generally used for the basic 1/2 rate code, due to the presence of punctured ("erased") bits. External deinterleaving External decoding MUX adaptation MPEG-2 demultiplexing and source decoding Countries and territories using DVB-T or DVB-T2 Americas (decided on 10 July 2007) (decided on 28 August 2008) (Uses DVB-T/H.264/MPEG-4 for SD and HD since 2011) (Nuuk TV) (decided on 12 May 2009) (uses DVB-T/MPEG-2 for SD and DVB-T/H.264/MPEG-4 for HD transmissions.) (experimental DVB-T MPEG2) (experimental ATSC) (In 2008 KTV Ltd. implemented DVB-T, 64QAM, 7/8, 1/32, MPEG2 for both SD and HD transmissions) Europe (uses MPEG-2 for SD and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for HD transmissions). (transition to DVB-T2) (uses DVB-T MPEG-2 and DVB-T2 H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) (uses DVB-T H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for SD and HD transmission and DVB-T2 for pay SD and HD transmissions) (H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, FEC=2/3, guard interval - 1/4, 64 QAM. Official simulcast started in March 2013, full switch has been done on 30 September 2013.) From 2020 the transmission is on DVB-T2 H.265/HEVC with HD 1080p50 - see Television in Croatia (MPEG-2, DVB-T2 HEVC H.265 started in 2017) (H.264/MPEG-4 AVC video) (uses H.264/AVC for SD and HD transmissions. See DVB-T in Denmark.) (uses H.264/AVC video) (uses H.264/AVC for free HD, pay SD and pay HD transmissions. See Digital terrestrial television#France.) (partly still DVB-T MPEG-2, SD only; since 2016 transition to DVB-T2 H.265/HEVC with HD 1080p50 - see Television in Germany) (ERT Digital and Digital Union use MPEG-2 but will shift to H.264/MPEG-4 AVC. Digea, ERT / ERT HD and Digital Union (in Region of Thessalia) use H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) (branded MinDigTV, uses H.264/MPEG-4 AVC video exclusively.) (uses H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for HD and SD transmissions, see Saorview) (uses MPEG-2 for SD, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for HD). Transition to DVB-T2 scheduled in 2022. (uses H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) (uses H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) (uses DVB-T MPEG-2 for SD and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for HD) (DVB-T in Macedonia) (uses MPEG-2. H.264/AVC is being tested.) (uses DVB-T2, operated by Digitenne) (uses H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for SD and HD transmissions) (uses H.264/AVC video for SD and HD transmissions; see DVB-T in Poland) (uses H.264/AVC video;) DVB-T was only used experimentally in two cities, and is being phased out. The official terrestrial broadcasting standard in Romania is DVB-T2, and implementations started in 2015. (uses DVB-T2 H.264/AVC) (uses DVB-T2 H.264/AVC) (uses MPEG-2 for SD and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for HD, testing DVB-T2 H.264/AVC) (uses H.264/MPEG-4 AVC video since 2007. See DVB-T in Slovenia) (uses DVB-T MPEG-2 for SD and DVB-T H.264/MPEG-4 for HD transmissions.) (uses MPEG-2 and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) for SD, and DVB-T2 with H.264/AVC for SD and HD transmissions. See DVB-T in Sweden.) (one regional DVB-T station remaining. Terrestrial national TV broadcasting restored using DVB-T2 near Austria, soon near France) (Not officially rolled out. Last known DVB-T2 test broadcasting TRT 4K ended on 1 June 2017) (uses DVB-T MPEG-2 for SD and DVB-T2 H.264/AVC for HD transmissions. See DVB-T in United Kingdom.) (uses DVB-T2 H.264/AVC for all nationwide broadcasts) Oceania (mostly uses MPEG-2 for SD transmissions and H.264/AVC for HD transmissions, refer to this list of digital television channels in Australia) (uses MPEG-4/H.264 video; see Freeview New Zealand) Asia (uses DVB-T2 MPEG-4 launched April 2015) (in assessment) (Announced) (uses DVB-T2) (uses MPEG-2 for SD and MPEG-4 for HD transmissions) (adopted DVB-T2 H.264/AVC on 2 February 2012) (uses DVB-T MPEG-4/H.264/AAC SD :720x576i HD :1920x1080i); since 2020 transition to DVB-T2 H.265/HEVC with HD 1080p50 - see Television in Iran) (started in Kurdistan region-Iraq by MIX Media 31 December 2011 uses MPEG-4) (uses MPEG-4/H.264 video) (will use DVB-T2) (DVB-T2) (7 DVB-T channels across 2 transponders during trial, final system uses DVB-T2 nationwide, 17 TV channels and 14 radio channels across 2 transponders in UHF, analog shutdown on 31 Oct 2019. Uses H.264 video and AAC audio) (Experimental ISDB-T) (uses DVB-T2) (uses DVB-T2, trial began on 2012) (in assessment) (Experiment DTMB) (in assessment) (4 DVB-T Channels on 1 January 2007 and 7 DVB-T2 Channels on 13 December 2013) (Experimental ISDB-T) (using DVB-T, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4.) (uses DVB-T/MPEG-2 for SD and DVB-T/H.264/MPEG-4 for HD transmissions) (DVB-T2) (uses DVB-T2 H.264/AVC with HE-AAC codec for both SD and HD transmissions launched on April 1, 2014) (Experiment DTMB) Africa (is using Japanese-Brazilian ISDB-T, since 2013) (Experimental DTMB) (Will use DVB-T2MPEG-4) (use DVB-T2 on paid network) (is already using DVB-T/MPEG-4 and will soon migrate to DVB-T2) (will use DVB-T2, after briefly considering ISDB-T) (experimental) DTT switch-off While many countries have expected a shift to digital terrestrial television, a few have moved in the opposite direction following unsuccessful trials. Switzerland : Swiss public broadcaster SRG terminated DTT network on 3 June 2019. A regional station from the Geneva area has kept broadcasting. A DVB-T2 antenna was later activated in the east of the country to relay Swiss TV to Austrian cable operators. A similar broadcast is planned to cover Grand Geneva. Turkey terminated DTT network on 1 June 2017. See also ATSC (Advanced Television Systems Committee, North American Standard) Digital Audio Broadcasting (low bit rate video suitable for moving receivers) Digital Video Broadcasting (technical standards underpinning DVB-T) DTV channel protection ratios DVB over IP DVB-T2 Digital terrestrial television DMB-T - Digital Multimedia Broadcast-Terrestrial Interactive television ISDB - Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting ISDB-T International Multimedia Home Platform (standard to deliver interactive TV applications over DVB) OFDM system comparison table Personal video recorder Spectral efficiency comparison table Teletext Notes References ETSI Standard: EN 300 744 V1.5.1, Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Framing structure, channel coding and modulation for digital terrestrial television, available at ETSI Publications Download Area (This will open ETSI document search engine, to find the latest version of the document enter a search string; free registration is required to download PDF.) External links Website of the DVB Project Official factsheet of DVB-T DigiTAG website Digital Video Broadcasting Television transmission standards Video formats

262797

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line%20dance

Line dance

A line dance is a choreographed dance in which a group of people dance along to a repeating sequence of steps while arranged in one or more lines or rows. These lines usually face all in the same direction, or less commonly face each other. Unlike circle dancing, line dancers are not in physical contact with each other. Each dance is usually associated with, and named for, a specific song, such as the Cha Cha Slide, Macarena (both eponymous) or Electric Slide (associated with the 1982 single "Electric Boogie") are a few of the line dances that have consistently remained part of modern American culture for years. Line dancing is practiced and learned in country-western dance bars, social clubs, dance clubs and ballrooms. It is sometimes combined on dance programs with other forms of country-western dance, such as two-step, western promenade dances, and as well as western-style variants of the waltz, polka and swing. Line dances have accompanied many popular music styles since the early 1970s including pop, swing, rock and roll, disco, Latin (salsa suelta), rhythm and blues and jazz. The term "modern line dance" is now used in many line dance clubs around the world to indicate the styles of dance that will be taught will include a mix from all genres, including pop, Latin, Irish, big band and country. It indicates clubs who no longer wear western style clothing or boots. Participants dress in casual clothing and often wear dance trainers. Russ W. Ocker has been credited with inventing moves like: The Super Slide, The Super Duper Slide, The Triple Heel Tap, and The Left, Right, Left, Left, Left, Left, Left, Right. The last move he affectionately named the “Every which way but loose”, which is considered by many to be the most dangerous move in line dancing. “A World Without Line Dancing, Now That’s A Horrible Thought” - Russ W. Ocker (1998) History The precise origins of line dancing are not entirely clear. Of the confusion, music historian Christy Lane has stated that "If you were to ask 10 people with some knowledge of when line dancing began, you'd probably get 10 different answers". By and large, the growth and popularity of line dancing has mainly been tied to country and western music. It is likely that at least some of the steps and terminology used in modern line dancing originated from the dances brought to North America by European immigrants in the 1800s. Throughout the 1860s–1890s, the style that would later be known as country–western dance began to emerge from these dances. Schools in the United States began to incorporate dancing, particularly folk dancing, into physical education classes in the 1900s, which popularized folk and country dancing as a social activity. Finally, servicemen returning from World War I and World War II sometimes brought European dances back to the United States, incorporating elements into American dance styles. 1950s–1970s: development of style One of the first true line dances was the Madison, a novelty dance created and first danced in Columbus, Ohio, in 1957. The local popularity of the dance and record in Baltimore, Maryland, came to the attention of the producers of The Buddy Deane Show in 1960, which led to other dance shows picking it up. The 1961 "San Francisco Stomp" meets the definition of a line dance. During the disco music era of the 1970s, numerous new dance styles emerged, including many line dances choreographed to disco songs. The "L.A. Hustle", a modified version of the Madison, began in a small Los Angeles disco in the summer of 1975, and hit the East Coast (with modified steps) in the spring of 1976 as the "Bus Stop". Another 70s line dance is the Nutbush, performed to Tina Turner's song "Nutbush City Limits". The popular dance Electric Slide, associated with the song "Electric Boogie," was created in 1976 from a demo tape of the song, which was not released as a single until 1982. The release of the film Saturday Night Fever in 1977 took disco and its associated dance styles to a new height of popularity. Line dancing to country music also became popular during this era, with two notable dances dating to 1972: the Walkin' Wazi and the Cowboy Boogie. 1980s–present The 1980 film Urban Cowboy caused a trend for country and western culture, particularly the associated dance, music, and clothing. Over a dozen line dances were created for country songs during the 1980s. Many other early line dances were adaptations of disco line dance. The Chicken Dance is an example of a line dance adopted by the Mod revival during the 1980s. The music video for the 1990 Billy Ray Cyrus song "Achy Breaky Heart" has been credited for launching line dancing into the mainstream. In the 1990s, the hit Spanish dance song "Macarena" inspired a popular line dance. A line dance for the 1990 Asleep at the Wheel single "Boot Scootin' Boogie" was choreographed by Bill Bader. The 1992 Brooks & Dunn cover of the song has resulted in there being at least 16 line dances with "Boot Scootin' Boogie" in the title. Billy Ray Cyrus' 1992 hit "Achy Breaky Heart" helped catapult western line dancing into the mainstream public consciousness. In 1994 choreographer Max Perry had a worldwide dance hit with "Swamp Thang" for the song "Swamp Thing" by The Grid. This was a techno song that fused banjo sounds in the melody line and helped to start a trend of line dancing to forms of music other than country. In this mid-1990s period, country western music was significantly influenced by the popularity of line dancing. Max Perry, along with Jo Thompson Szymanski, Scott Blevins and several others, began to use ballroom rhythms and technique to take line dancing to the next level. In 1997, the band Steps created further interest outside of the U.S. with the techno dance song "5,6,7,8". In 1999, American retailer Gap Inc. debuted the "Khaki Country" ad at that year's Academy Awards ceremony, in which line dancers performed to the 1999 version of "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" by Dwight Yoakam. The arrival of the Country Music Television channel to Europe fed the popularity of line dancing there. In 2008, line dancing gained the attention of the French government. Based on per capita ranking of MeetUp Groups in the US, Durham, N.C. was declared the line dancing capital of America in 2014. Wall Each dance is said to consist of a number of walls. A wall is the direction in which the dancers face at any given time: the front (the direction faced at the beginning of the dance), the back or one of the sides. Dancers may change direction many times during a sequence, and may even, at any given point, be facing in a direction half-way between two walls; but at the end of the sequence they will be facing the original wall or any of the other three. Whichever wall that is, the next iteration of the sequence uses that wall as the new frame of reference. In a one-wall dance, the dancers face the same direction at the end of the sequence as at the beginning (either no turn or a full turn, 360 degrees). In a two-wall dance, repetitions of the sequence end alternately at the back and front walls. In other words, the dancers have effectively turned through 180 degrees during one set (half turn). The samba line dance is an example of a two-wall dance. While doing the "volte" step, the dancers turn 180 degrees to face a new wall. In a four-wall dance, the direction faced at the end of the sequence is 90 degrees to the right or left from the direction in which they faced at the beginning (quarter turn). As a result, the dancers face each of the four walls in turn at the end of four consecutive repetitions of the sequence, before returning to the original wall. The hustle line dance is an example of a four-wall dance because in the final figure they turn 90 degrees to the left to face a new wall. In some dances, they turn 270 degrees, a "three-quarter turn," to face the new wall. See also Haka Chorus line References External links "Complete list of official line dance world records: "World's Longest Line Dances" and "World's Largest Line Dances" (according to Guinness and also prior to Guinness' world records for line dancing) Folk dance

262798

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVB-C

DVB-C

Digital Video Broadcasting - Cable (DVB-C) is the DVB European consortium standard for the broadcast transmission of digital television over cable. This system transmits an MPEG-2 or MPEG-4 family digital audio/digital video stream, using a QAM modulation with channel coding. The standard was first published by the ETSI in 1994, and subsequently became the most widely used transmission system for digital cable television in Europe, Asia and South America. It is deployed worldwide in systems ranging from the larger cable television networks (CATV) down to smaller satellite master antenna TV (SMATV) systems. Technical description DVB-C transmitter With reference to the figure, a short description of the single processing blocks follows. Source coding and MPEG-2 multiplexing (MUX): video, audio, and data streams are multiplexed into an MPEG program stream (MPEG-PS). One or more MPEG-PSs are joined together into an MPEG transport stream (MPEG-TS). This is the basic digital stream which is being transmitted and received by home set top boxes (STB) or relevant integrable decoder (e.g.Conax) module. Allowed bit rates for the transported MPEG-2 depend on a number of modulation parameters: it can range from about 6 to about 64 Mbit/s (see the bottom figure for a complete listing). MUX adaptation and energy dispersal: the MPEG-TS is identified as a sequence of data packets, of fixed length (188 bytes). With a technique called energy dispersal, the byte sequence is decorrelated. External encoder: a first level of protection is applied to the transmitted data, using a nonbinary block code, a Reed–Solomon RS (204, 188) code, allowing the correction of up to a maximum of 8 wrong bytes for each 188-byte packet. External interleaver: convolutional interleaving is used to rearrange the transmitted data sequence, such way it becomes more rugged to long sequences of errors. Byte/m-tuple conversion: data bytes are encoded into bit m-tuples (m = 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8). Differential coding: In order to get a rotation-invariant constellation, this unit shall apply a differential encoding of the two Most Significant Bits (MSBs) of each symbol. QAM Mapper: the bit sequence is mapped into a base-band digital sequence of complex symbols. There are 5 allowed modulation modes: 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM, 256-QAM. Base-band shaping: the QAM signal is filtered with a raised-cosine shaped filter, in order to remove mutual signal interference at the receiving side. DAC and front-end: the digital signal is transformed into an analog signal, with a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), and then modulated to radio frequency by the RF front-end. DVB-C receiver The receiving STB adopts techniques which are dual to those ones used in the transmission. Front-end and ADC: the analog RF signal is converted to base-band and transformed into a digital signal, using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). QAM Demodulation Equalization Differential decoding Outer interleaving Outer decoding MUX adaptation MPEG-2 demultiplexing and source decoding Programmable Transport Stream DVB-C2 On February 18, 2008 it was announced that a new standard – DVB-C2 – would be developed during 2008, and a "Call for Technologies" was issued. Proposals including simulation programs and information on patent rights could be submitted until June 16, 2008. "The results of the DVB-C2 Study Mission already provided clear indications that technologies are available allowing the performance of the second generation DVB cable transmission system to get so close to the theoretical Shannon Limit that any further improvements in the future would most likely not be able to justify the introduction of a disruptive third generation of cable transmission system." (DVB-C2 CfT) By using state of the art coding and modulation techniques, DVB-C2 should offer greater than 30% higher spectrum efficiency under the same conditions, and the gains in downstream channel capacity will be greater than 60% for optimized HFC networks. The final DVB-C2 specification was approved by the DVB Steering Board in April 2009. DVB-C2 allows bit rates up to 83.1 Mbit/s on an 8 MHz channel bandwidth when using 4096-QAM modulation; future extensions will allow up to 97 Mbit/s and 110.8 Mbit/s per channel using 16384-QAM and 65536-AQAM modulation. Modes and features of DVB-C2 in comparison to DVB-C: Countries that use DVB-C See also ATSC Standards Digital cable Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) Digital television (DTV) DVB-CI QAM - the US term for the North American equivalent to DVB-C References External links Website of the DVB Project ETSI Standard: ETSI EN 300 429 V1.2.1 (1998-04), Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Framing structure, channel coding and modulation for cable systems, download from ETSI. Official factsheet of DVB-C2 Digital Video Broadcasting Television transmission standards

262800

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max%20Clifford

Max Clifford

Maxwell Frank Clifford (6 April 1943 – 10 December 2017) was an English publicist. During his publicist career, he was particularly associated with promoting 'kiss and tell' stories in tabloid newspapers. Clifford was arrested in December 2012 on suspicion of sexual offences, as part of Operation Yewtree. He was sentenced to eight years in prison in May 2014 after being found guilty of eight counts of indecent assault on four girls and women aged between 15 and 19. Clifford died in December 2017, after suffering a heart attack in prison. Early life Maxwell Frank Clifford was born in Kingston upon Thames on 6 April 1943, the son of Lilian (née Boffee) and electrician Frank Clifford. He was the youngest of four children, with one sister and two brothers. The family survived their father's regular bouts of unemployment, gambling, and alcoholism with the help and support of their grandmother and Clifford's sister, who was employed as a PA to the London Vice-President of Morgan Guarantee Trust Bank. Clifford left school at 15 with no qualifications, and he was sacked within four months of his first job at Ely's department store in Wimbledon. His brother Bernard used his print union connections to secure Clifford a job as editorial assistant on the Eagle. When the publication moved premises, Clifford decided to take redundancy, buying his first house and finding work with the South London Press to train as a journalist. Career Early work as a publicist After working in newspapers for a few years, writing an occasional record/music column and running a disco, Clifford replied to an advertisement and joined as the second member of the EMI press office in 1962, under Chief Press Officer Syd Gillingham. As the youngest and the only trained journalist in a team of four, Clifford claimed he was given the job of promoting the then relatively unknown Beatles, including during their first tour of the United States. After Gillingham left EMI, he asked Clifford to join him at Chris Hutchins's PR agency. Among the artists they represented were Paul and Barry Ryan, who introduced Clifford to their stepfather, impresario Harold Davidson, who handled the UK affairs of Frank Sinatra and Judy Garland. In 1970, aged 27, and after Gillingham retired, Clifford left Hutchins and started his own agency, Max Clifford Associates. Based in the offices of Joe Cocker's manager, he started off by representing Sinatra, Cocker, Paul and Barry Ryan, Don Partridge, and Marvin Gaye. He later also represented Muhammad Ali and Marlon Brando. Pamella Bordes Clifford was approached by a brothel madame, who had provided one of Clifford's clients with various services, worried about publicity from an investigative reporter from the News of the World. Clifford asked the madame to reveal details of her girls and clients, and found that one prostitute, Pamella Bordes, was simultaneously dating Andrew Neil (then editor of The Sunday Times), Donald Trelford (then editor of The Observer), Conservative minister for sport Colin Moynihan, and billionaire arms dealer Adnan Khashoggi. Clifford rang News of the World editor Patsy Chapman and drip-fed her the story of Bordes through the investigative reporter she was using on the madam. The story was published in March 1989 under the headline "Call Girl Works in Commons", since it was discovered she had a House of Commons security pass arranged by MPs David Shaw and Henry Bellingham. Clifford claimed Bordes was never his client, and that he earned his fee for "writing" the story, which ultimately served the purpose of saving the madame from any adverse publicity or court case. Clients Clifford came to public attention after creating the infamous "Freddie Starr ate my hamster" headline for The Sun in an effort to draw attention to his client, Freddie Starr. In May 2006 the BBC nominated "Freddie Starr ate my hamster" as one of the most familiar British newspaper headlines over the last century. Clifford later represented various clients, including former Liverpool left-wing politician Derek Hatton, for whom Clifford created an affair to change his image; O. J. Simpson—Clifford claimed to have received death threats while acting as his publicist; Gillian McKeith, whose adverts he believed harmed her image; Rebecca Loos, when she negotiated with the press about her alleged affair with England football captain David Beckham; and Jade Goody, during the reality star's cervical cancer and death. Clifford represented Simon Cowell for over a decade and was credited with shaping his public image; Cowell dropped Clifford following Clifford's 2014 conviction. In 2016, a judge awarded former client Paul Burrell £5,000 damages after Burrell sued Clifford, saying that Clifford forwarded private material in a fax to Rebekah Brooks at News of the World in 2002. Journalist Louis Theroux followed Clifford in the BBC Two series When Louis Met... in a 2002 episode titled When Louis Met ... Max Clifford. During filming, it appeared that Clifford was trying to set up Theroux during a PR stunt in Sainsbury's. It backfired after Clifford was heard lying on his microphone, unaware it was still on. Clifford represented a witness in the case against Gary Glitter. In 2005, Clifford paid damages to settle defamation proceedings brought by Neil and Christine Hamilton after he represented Nadine Milroy-Sloane, who was later found to have falsely accused the pair of sexual assault. Also in 2005, he told reporters that he would not represent Michael Jackson after he was found not guilty of child abuse charges, saying: "It would be the hardest job in PR after [representing] Saddam Hussein". Following the Jimmy Savile sexual abuse scandal, but prior to his arrest, Clifford claimed that dozens of "big name stars" contacted him and feared they would become implicated in the scandal; he claimed that in the 1960s and 70s they "never asked for anybody's birth certificate" before having sex. LGBT clients Clifford helped clients who wished to conceal their sexual orientation from the public. He claimed that he was approached twice by major football clubs to help make players present a "straight" image. In an interview with Pink News, reported on 5 August 2009, Clifford said that if a gay or bisexual football player came out, his career would be over: To my knowledge there is only one top-flight professional gay footballer who came out – Justin Fashanu. He ended up committing suicide. I have been advising a top premiership star who is bisexual. If it came out that he had gay tendencies, his career would be over in two minutes. Should it be? No, but if you go on the terraces and hear the way fans are, and also, that kind of general attitude that goes with football, it's almost like going back to the dark ages. Clifford said none of his clients had been outed. In December 2009, he told The Independent on Sunday that he had represented two high-profile Premier League footballers in the past five years whom he advised to stay in the closet because football "remains in the dark ages, steeped in homophobia". Politics Clifford stated that what motivated him was much more than just money; he said he could not stand hypocrisy in public life, reserved a particular disgust for lying politicians, and watched with growing anger what he thought happened to the NHS over the past 20 years. For this reason, and because of his working-class background, Clifford was a traditional Labour supporter who worked to bring down the government of John Major because he felt that the National Health Service was being mismanaged. The Major government In light of Clifford's view of the deteriorating state of the NHS – having obtained treatment for his daughter, who has juvenile idiopathic arthritis – and moral differences with members of the John Major government, Clifford worked to expose stories to help the Labour Party to power. Although not instrumental in exposing David Mellor's affair with Antonia de Sancha, Clifford's battle in representing de Sancha against the contrived post-spin story of the "family man Mellor" handled by counter PR Tim Bell ultimately derailed Major's 'Back to Basics' agenda. Clifford invented the story which claimed Mellor made love in a Chelsea F.C. football kit, though he was blocked from mentioning it in his memoirs. Clifford also helped to expose Jeffrey Archer's perjury in the 1980s during his candidacy for the post of Mayor of London. On 18 February 1995 he was interviewed at length by Andrew Neil for his one-on-one interview show Is This Your Life?, made by Open Media for Channel 4. The Blair government Although a supporter of the Labour party, Clifford's approach in dealing with the Blair government was similar to that which he employed with Major's preceding Conservative government. The first instance of this was the story of the Secretary of State for Wales, Ron Davies. Then Clifford was accused by David Blunkett at the beginning of November 2005 of having a role in Blunkett's second resignation. This derived from claims made on behalf of a much younger woman, who had become involved with Blunkett, over Blunkett's business interests, which were published in The Times. Later that week, Clifford was accused of arranging a distraction from the assault made by his friend Rebekah Wade on her then husband, EastEnders actor Ross Kemp, via the "coincidence" of the other "Mitchell brother", Steve McFadden being in a similar incident with an ex-partner. Clifford denied all responsibility. On 26 April 2006, Clifford represented John Prescott's diary secretary Tracey Temple, in selling her story for "an awful lot more" than £100,000 to the Mail on Sunday. The story was about the affair between Prescott and Temple which took place between 2002 and 2004. On 4 May 2006, Clifford announced his intention to expose politicians who fail to abide by the standards expected of them in public office. He called his team of undercover investigators "a dedicated and loyal bunch". Although he usually backed Labour, Clifford supported, and did some publicity work for, UKIP during the 2004 European election campaign. Clifford said at the time that "The UK Independence Party and myself are in complete agreement that the British people should be the masters of their own destiny through our parliament at Westminster, not subservient to Brussels." Charity works According to his memoirs he handled the publicity for the Daniels family and helped set up the Rhys Daniels Trust from resultant media fees to combat Batten disease. Clifford was also a patron of the Royal Marsden; but after his conviction, staff at the hospital stated he was no longer a patron. Also, following his 2014 conviction for indecent assault, Shooting Star CHASE and Woking and Sam Beare Hospices announced that Clifford was no longer a patron for either charity. Indecent assault convictions Clifford was arrested at his home on 6 December 2012 by Metropolitan Police officers on suspicion of sexual offences; the arrest was part of Operation Yewtree which was set up in the wake of the Jimmy Savile sexual abuse scandal. He was taken to a central London police station for questioning. The two alleged offences dated from 1977. On 26 April 2013, he was charged with a further eleven indecent assaults between 1966 and 1985 on girls and women aged 14 to 19. Clifford claimed the allegations were "completely false". On 28 May 2013, Clifford pleaded not guilty at Westminster Magistrates' Court; a hearing took place at Southwark Crown Court on 12 June 2013 when a date for his trial was set for 4 March 2014. On 28 April 2014, Clifford was convicted of eight counts of indecent assault against four victims by a jury at Southwark Crown Court. He was acquitted of two charges of indecent assault, and the jury failed to reach a verdict on another charge. Following the verdict the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children's Director of National Services Peter Watt stated: Max Clifford has rightly been unmasked as a ruthless and manipulative sex offender who preyed for decades on children and young women. On 2 May 2014, Judge Anthony Leonard sentenced Clifford to a total of eight years in prison. Judge Leonard told Clifford he should serve at least half his sentence in prison, adding that he was sure Clifford had also assaulted a 12-year-old girl in Spain, although this charge could not be pursued in the British courts. The judge added that if the offences had taken place after the law was changed in 2003, several of the offences of which Clifford was found guilty would have been tried as rape, which carries a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. One of Clifford's victims explained to the court that Clifford's assault on her (at age 15) had prevented her from having her first sexual relationship with a partner her own age, while another said that in the years following the assault she had cried whenever she saw Clifford on television, and had feared that the police would laugh at her. Clifford dismissed his victims as "fantasists" and "opportunists". The judge concluded that Clifford had caused an "additional element of trauma" to his victims by his "contemptuous attitude" during the trial. On 7 November 2014, Clifford's appeal against his eight-year sentence for sex offences was rejected by the Court of Appeal. The court ruled the sentence handed to Clifford earlier that year was "justified and correct." The court compared Clifford's case with that of broadcaster Stuart Hall in 2013; Clifford had clowned and claimed innocence, but did not directly dispute the claims of his victims. In contrast Hall had publicly denounced his victims and accused one of seeking "instant notoriety". A lawyer commented on the Clifford appeal court ruling "Nothing Clifford did resembled the disastrous approach taken by Stuart Hall who, prior to pleading guilty to abusing them as girls, denounced his accusers as gold-diggers and liars." Clifford's actions were deemed merely to show no remorse, and not to justify an increased penalty on appeal, although ruling out a reduction in sentence due to mitigating factors; in contrast Hall's sentence was actually increased on appeal. It was reported on 12 March 2015 that Clifford had been arrested again by Operation Yewtree police. On 3 July 2015, Clifford was charged with a single count of indecent assault stemming from an alleged incident from 1981. He pleaded not guilty on 20 October, and was cleared by a jury of the charge on 7 July 2016. At the time of his death, in December 2017, Clifford was still being sued by some of his victims. Clifford had won the right to challenge his conviction at the Court of Appeal before his death, his daughter, Louise continued to challenge his 2014 conviction posthumously, the appeal failed and the original conviction was unanimously upheld on 2 April 2019 by the Court of Appeal. Personal life Clifford married Elizabeth Louise Porter at St Barnabas Church in Southfields, London, on 3 June 1967. Porter died of lung cancer in Sutton, on 8 April 2003. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Clifford ran and took part in weekly adult parties for his friends and clients around London. This brought him into contact with various madams and prostitutes, a connection which he later used to satisfy the needs of his clients, and introduced him to deviant behaviour. In March 2010, the News of the World settled out of court after Clifford sought legal action against it for intercepting his voicemail. After a lunch with editor Rebekah Brooks, the paper agreed to pay Clifford's legal fees and an undisclosed "personal payment" not described as damages. The sum exceeded £1 million. The money was paid in exchange for him exclusively giving the paper stories over the next several years. Clifford lived in Hersham, Surrey, before his incarceration. On 4 April 2010, he married his former PA, Jo Westwood; guests included Des O'Connor, Bobby Davro, and Theo Paphitis. In May 2014, Westwood was granted a decree nisi, subsequently ending her four-year marriage to Clifford. Death On 7 December 2017 Clifford collapsed in HM Prison Littlehey after trying to clean his cell. He was taken to Hinchingbrooke Hospital, near Huntingdon, and died on 10 December 2017 of a heart attack at the age of 74. The Inquest into Clifford's death heard medical evidence of his poor health leading up to his death in 2017. In December 2019, the Coroner ruled that the verdict of the Court was that he had died of natural causes. References External links Max Clifford: Behind the headlines, BBC News, 11 August 2001 1943 births 2017 deaths 20th-century English criminals 21st-century English criminals English male criminals English people convicted of indecent assault Charity fundraisers (people) Criminals from London English male journalists English people convicted of child sexual abuse English people who died in prison custody English sex offenders English prisoners and detainees English public relations people Labour Party (UK) people Operation Yewtree People acquitted of sex crimes People from Hersham People from Kingston upon Thames Prisoners who died in England and Wales detention Violence against women in England

262801

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Anthelme%20Brillat-Savarin

Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin

Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (; 1 April 1755, Belley, Ain – 2 February 1826, Paris) was a French lawyer and politician, who, as the author of The Physiology of Taste (Physiologie du Goût), gained fame as an epicure and gastronome: "Grimod and Brillat-Savarin. Between them, two writers effectively founded the whole genre of the gastronomic essay." Biography Brillat-Savarin was born in the town of Belley, Ain, where the Rhône River then separated France from Savoy, to a family of lawyers. He studied law, chemistry, and medicine in Dijon in his early years and later practiced law in his hometown. In 1789, at the opening of the French Revolution, he was sent as a deputy to the Estates-General that soon became the National Constituent Assembly, where he acquired some limited fame, particularly for a public speech in defense of capital punishment. His father Marc Anthelme adopted his second surname in 1733 upon the death of an aunt named Savarin who left him her entire fortune on the condition that he adopt her name. He returned to Belley and was for a year the elected mayor. At a later stage of the Revolution, a bounty was placed on his head. He sought shelter in Switzerland, first at the home of some relatives in Moudon and then at the Hôtel du Lion d'Argent in Lausanne. He later moved to Holland, and then to the United States, where he stayed for three years in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Hartford, living on the proceeds of giving French and violin lessons. For a time, he was first violin in the Park Theater in New York City. He returned to France under the Directory in 1797 and acquired the magistrate post he would hold for the remainder of his life, as a judge of the Court of Cassation. Writings He published several works on law and political economy. He also wrote an erotic short story, Voyage à Arras. He remained a bachelor, but not a stranger to love, which he counted the sixth sense; his inscription of the Physiologie to his beautiful cousin Juliette Récamier reads: "Madam, receive kindly and read indulgently the work of an old man. It is a tribute of a friendship which dates from your childhood, and, perhaps, the homage of a more tender feeling...How can I tell? At my age a man no longer dares interrogate his heart." His famous work, Physiologie du goût (Physiology of Taste), was published in December 1825, two months before his death. The full title is Physiologie du Goût, ou Méditations de Gastronomie Transcendante; ouvrage théorique, historique et à l'ordre du jour, dédié aux Gastronomes parisiens, par un Professeur, membre de plusieurs sociétés littéraires et savantes. The book has not been out of print since it first appeared, shortly before Brillat-Savarin's death. Its most notable English translation was done by food writer and critic M. F. K. Fisher, who remarked, "I hold myself blessed among translators." Her translation was first published in 1949. The body of his work, though often wordy or excessively – and sometimes dubiously – aphoristic and axiomatic, has remained extremely important and has repeatedly been reanalyzed through the years since his death. In a series of meditations that owe something to Montaigne's Essays, and have the discursive rhythm of an age of leisured reading and a confident pursuit of educated pleasures, Brillat-Savarin discourses on the pleasures of the table, which he considers a science. His French models were the stylists of the Ancien Régime: Voltaire, Rousseau, Fénelon, Buffon, Cochin, and d'Aguesseau. Aside from Latin, he knew five modern languages well, and when the occasion suited, was not shy of parading them; he never hesitated to borrow a word, like the English "sip" when French seemed to him to fail, until he rediscovered the then-obsolete verb siroter. The philosophy of Epicurus lies at the back of every page; the simplest meal satisfied Brillat-Savarin, as long as it was executed with artistry: Those persons who suffer from indigestion, or who become drunk, are utterly ignorant of the true principles of eating and drinking. Low-carbohydrate diet Brillat-Savarin is often considered as the father of low-carbohydrate diet. He considered sugar and white flour to be the cause of obesity and he suggested, instead, protein-rich ingredients. Sure enough, carnivorous animals never grow fat (consider wolves, jackals, birds of prey, crows, etc.). Herbivorous animals do not grow fat easily, at least until age has reduced them to a state of inactivity; but they fatten very quickly as soon as they begin to be fed on potatoes, grain, or any kind of flour. ... The second of the chief causes of obesity is the floury and starchy substances which man makes the prime ingredients of his daily nourishment. As we have said already, all animals that live on farinaceous food grow fat willy-nilly, and man is no exception to the universal law. He promoted a diet that avoided starch, grains, sugar, and flour. He recommended meats, root vegetables, cabbage, and fruit. Death and legacy Brillat-Savarin was buried at the Cimetière du Père Lachaise in Paris. His reputation was revitalized among modern gastronomes in many parts of the world, by his influence over Chairman Kaga of the TV series Iron Chef, which introduced to millions to his famous aphorism: "Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are." Eneas Sweetland Dallas wrote Kettner's Book of the Table, a Manual of Cookery, 1877, a treatise on gastronomy based on the work of Brillat-Savarin. Dallas published his book under the pseudonym of A. Kettner. Brillat-Savarin cheese, the Savarin mould, a ring mold with a rounded contour, and Gâteau Savarin are named in his honor. The Café Savarin, a French restaurant that was located at the former Equitable Life Assurance Building was named after him. There are streets named after him in Orléans, Perpignan and Rivesaltes in France. Quotes 'Whoever receives friends and does not participate in the preparation of their meal does not deserve to have friends.' "A dessert without cheese is a beauty with only one eye." "The discovery of a new dish confers more happiness on humanity than the discovery of a new star." "Tell me what you eat: I will tell you what you are." "A man who was fond of wine was offered some grapes at dessert after dinner. 'Much obliged', said he, pushing the plate aside, 'I am not accustomed to taking my wine in pills'." "To receive guests is to take charge of their happiness during the entire time they are under your roof." "Cooking is one of the oldest arts and one that has rendered us the most important service in civic life." "The most indispensable qualification of a cook is punctuality : it must be that of the guest also." "The pleasure of the table belongs to all ages, to all conditions, to all countries, and to all areas; it mingles with all other pleasures, and remains at last to console us for their departure." References External links La Physiologie du goût Original French text of the 1848 illustrated edition of The Physiology of Taste; a freely licensed copy hosted on the Bibliothèque nationale de France's digital library, Gallica. The Physiology of Taste In an English translation by Fayette Robinson, available under a free licence from the University of Adelaide Library. Works by Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin at Bibliothèque nationale de France 1755 births 1826 deaths 19th-century French judges 19th-century French writers Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery Court of Cassation (France) judges French food writers French male non-fiction writers 18th-century French male violinists Low-carbohydrate diet advocates Members of the National Constituent Assembly People from Belley Politicians from Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes

262804

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20Robinson

Anne Robinson

Anne Josephine Robinson (born 26 September 1944) is an English television presenter and journalist. She was the host of BBC game show The Weakest Link (2000–2012, 2017). She has presented the Channel 4 game show Countdown since 28 June 2021, taking over from Nick Hewer. Early life Robinson was born in Crosby, Lancashire, on 26 September 1944 and is of Irish descent. Her father was a schoolteacher. Her mother, Anne Josephine (née Wilson), who was an alcoholic, was an agricultural businesswoman from Northern Ireland, where she was the manager of a market stall. When she came to England, she married into her husband's family of wholesale chicken dealers, and sold rationed rabbit following the Second World War. She inherited the family market stall in Liverpool and transformed it into one of the largest wholesale poultry dealing businesses in the north of England. Brought up initially at the family home in Crosby, Robinson attended a private Roman Catholic convent boarding school in Hampshire, Farnborough Hill Convent, now known as Farnborough Hill. She was hired as a chicken gutter and saleswoman during the holidays in the family business, before taking office jobs at a law firm. The family spent their summers on holiday in France, often at the Carlton Hotel in Cannes. Career Early career On leaving school, Robinson chose journalism over training for the theatre. After working in a news agency, she arrived in London in 1967 as the first young female trainee on the Daily Mail. Robinson's mother's going-away present to her daughter was an MG sports car and a fur coat. Robinson secured a permanent position as a result of scooping the details of the story of Brian Epstein's death from being a family friend of the Liverpool solicitor handling the legalities, offering him a ride to Euston railway station when he could not find an available taxi. Her work became more uncomfortable for her when she met and fell in love with the deputy news editor, Charlie Wilson; the couple married in 1968, but he subsequently had to terminate her employment because of the marriage. Robinson joined The Sunday Times, and in 1970 the couple had a daughter, Emma Wilson, who is now a British radio disc jockey and has also hosted Scaredy Camp, a game show in the United States on the Nickelodeon network. In 1977, her inability to hand in her copy due to an alcohol-related incident led to her being terminated by The Sunday Times. She then began working for the Liverpool Echo. Press Robinson returned to Fleet Street in 1980, working as columnist and assistant editor of the Daily Mirror. She also wrote a column under the pseudonym of the "Wednesday Witch", in which she developed her vitriolic style. During her career as a newspaper journalist, she developed a flair for writing tabloid headlines. In discussing a rise with Mirror boss Robert Maxwell, she asked for a doubling of her salary and a brand-new Mercedes to be written in her contract. Following the departure of her husband, Robinson demanded that Maxwell make up the difference in their joint income, which he did. Robinson wrote obituaries to Maxwell following his death in 1991, saying: "He left me reeling from his charm, his amazing panache and the sheer speed at which his brain worked. He was my inspiration and my hero". Her closeness to Maxwell was mocked by Ian Hislop in 1999 as a panellist on Have I Got News for You, as well when she became the first guest presenter of the show in 2002. In Memoirs of an Unfit Mother in 2001, Robinson criticised Maxwell's fraudulent misappropriation of the Mirror pension fund (which fully came to light after his death), in which she said: "we failed to monitor what was happening on our doorstep", adding: "cowards had made his behaviour possible. Bankers, accountants, lawyers, who should have known better ... said yes when they should have said no." On 14 November 1982, Robinson attended a formal dinner attended by Queen Elizabeth II, at which she noted that Diana, Princess of Wales, arrived late. Robinson asked the Mirrors Royal editor James Whitaker to investigate and, after conversations with various sources including Diana's sister Lady Sarah McCorquodale, confirmed that Diana was suffering from an eating disorder, named as anorexia in a scoop article on 19 November 1982. As a result, Buckingham Palace Press Secretary Michael Shea rang then Mirror editor Mike Molloy, asking him to remove Robinson. She was subsequently removed from the editorial rota, and was advised by Molloy to "do more television, blossom, that's what you're good at". Robinson has written weekly columns for a succession of other British newspapers, such as Today, The Sun, The Express, The Times, and The Daily Telegraph. Television and radio Robinson began appearing on BBC television in 1982, initially as an occasional panellist on Question Time and presenting her 'TV Choice' on Breakfast Time. From 1986, she began sitting in on television viewers' show Points of View for regular presenter Barry Took, taking over from Took permanently in 1988 and remaining for 11 years. In 1993, she took over the presentation and writing of the consumer affairs television programme Watchdog. Robinson presented a Saturday morning show on Radio 2 from 1988 to 1993. Robinson is best known in the UK for hosting the game show The Weakest Link, and in the United States its NBC primetime counterpart, Weakest Link. She originally started with an icy, mysterious appearance and persona, remaining indifferent to funny and friendly moments throughout; however, she toned down that approach over the years, with her often smiling and on occasion laughing, especially on the celebrity episodes. Her use of insults, caustic remarks and personal questions fiercely directed at contestants became famous. Her blunt utterance "You are the weakest link – goodbye!" became a catchphrase soon after the show started in 2000. Asked by the Duke of Edinburgh to present some Duke of Edinburgh's Awards, she agreed subject to his taking part in the Weakest Link. The Duke declined. In 2005, she made an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, admitting she had been an unfit mother. Also in 2005, she appeared on an episode of the revived Doctor Who, entitled "Bad Wolf", voicing a futuristic android version of herself named the "Anne Droid" on a lethal version of The Weakest Link in the year 200,100. When contestants lose, the android blasts them with a disintegrator in its mouth, which really teleports them away to a Dalek fleet. Robinson hosted the BBC's outtakes programme Outtake TV until 2009. She currently hosts a satirical news-based chat show on BBC One called What's the Problem? With Anne Robinson, and the BBC's interactive quiz Test the Nation. In 2009, Robinson returned to presenting BBC One's long-running consumer show Watchdog. She finished presenting The Weakest Link in 2012 after twelve years as the host of 1,693 shows. On 10 September 2015, it was announced that Robinson would step down from Watchdog once again, this time in order to film a new series of Britain's Spending Secrets for the channel. She had presented Watchdog for a total of 15 years. In 2016, Robinson presented Anne Robinson's Britain for BBC One. The series consisted of three episodes, each focusing on different aspects of British life. Episode one was centred on parenting, episode two on the nation's love of pets and particularly cats and dogs, and the final episode focused on the nation's fixation with how they look. In February 2021, Robinson was announced as the next host of the game show Countdown following the resignation of Nick Hewer. Her premiere as host aired on 28 June 2021. Personal life In 1973, Robinson lost a custody battle for her only child, Emma, then aged two. Charles Wilson was granted sole custody, care and control of Emma, who subsequently lived with her father until she left home at 16 for boarding school. An admitted alcoholic, Robinson stopped drinking on 12 December 1978 after picking her daughter up from school and driving to a petrol station to buy a bottle of vodka and joined Alcoholics Anonymous that year. Robinson married journalist John Penrose in 1980. On 30 September 2007, the couple announced that they were planning to divorce, citing "irreconcilable differences". In 2001, she published her autobiography, Memoirs of an Unfit Mother, in which she describes her former drinking problem. In 2001, Robinson was diagnosed with skin cancer and had surgery to treat it. She has two grandchildren. Controversies In 2001, she was accused of hatred towards the Welsh, after describing them as "irritating and annoying" while appearing as a guest on Room 101. The BBC received 16 complaints after Robinson asked wine connoisseur Olly Smith, who was competing on the celebrity version of The Weakest Link, to feel her breasts, after he described her as a "full-bodied, expensive red". The programme was broadcast on Saturday 5 April 2008 on BBC One. Robinson caused controversy on The Weakest Link when she made former Blue Peter presenter John Noakes cry after asking "What was the end for Shep?" Shep had been Noakes's pet dog both on and off Blue Peter. Robinson is a vocal supporter of fox hunting and, before it was banned in 2004, was a key supporter of the pro-hunt cause. The Guardian claims she has ridden with the White Horse Hunt. In an interview with Radio Times in September 2000, Robinson was asked what her first act as world leader would be, replying: "I'd lock up all the hunt saboteurs because they are destructive. They are campaigning about something of which they know nothing." In February 2002, she hosted a spin-off version of The Weakest Link in Cirencester to raise funds for the local White Horse Hunt. The event was picketed by around 100 protesters from the League Against Cruel Sports, around 70 animal rights activists returning from another demonstration joined the picket, culminating in a near riot. The event eventually went ahead after Robinson was escorted into the venue by local police. A report published in 2006, which concluded that the BBC is "endemically homophobic", highlighted as one example of anti-gay bigotry in the network Robinson's treatment of a male contestant at The Weakest Link – Celebrity Chefs, to whom she made questions such as "What do you do in your restaurant – just mince around?", and "Before you go, and bear in mind that this is a family show, what's the strangest thing you've ever put in your mouth?" The previous year she was also accused of bigotry when she told a female prison officer that she must be a lesbian. At the end of October 2017 on BBC Radio's Today programme, Robinson responded to the accusations of sexual abuse made against multiple men which had followed Harvey Weinstein allegations published earlier in the month. She accused women of not complaining until now. According to Robinson, "40 years ago, there were very few of us women in power and, I have to say, we had a much more robust attitude to men behaving badly". At the present time, she claimed, there "is a sort of fragility amongst women who aren't able to cope with the treachery of the workplace". Referring to an allegation made against the trade minister Mark Garnier about him asking a female assistant to buy sex toys: "It shouldn't be happening but, on the other hand, why have women lost confidence". She said this incident led her to be "in despair". Robinson outlined her method of dealing with the problem: "In my day we gave them a slap, and told them to grow up!" Robinson was accused of victim blaming on social media. References External links 1944 births Living people 20th-century British journalists 20th-century British non-fiction writers 20th-century English women writers 20th-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century British journalists 21st-century British non-fiction writers 21st-century English women writers Daily Mail journalists Daily Mirror people English autobiographers English columnists English game show hosts English journalists English non-fiction writers English people of Irish descent English radio DJs English television presenters English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English people of Northern Ireland descent Journalists from Liverpool People educated at Farnborough Hill People from Crosby, Merseyside The Sunday Times people Television presenters from Liverpool The Times people Writers from Liverpool BBC Radio 2 presenters Women autobiographers Women radio presenters Women columnists

262806

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davina%20McCall

Davina McCall

Davina Lucy Pascale McCall (born 16 October 1967) is an English television presenter. She was the presenter of the reality show Big Brother during its run on Channel 4 between 2000 and 2010. She also hosted Channel 4's Streetmate (1998–2001, 2016), The Million Pound Drop (2010–2015), Five Minutes to a Fortune (2013), and The Jump (2014–2017), as well as ITV's The Biggest Loser (2011–2012), Long Lost Family (2011–present), and This Time Next Year (2016–2019). From 2010 to 2014, McCall presented the Sky One dance competition show Got to Dance. Since 2020, she has been a judge on the ITV musical competition show The Masked Singer, and since 2021, a spin-off of the show, The Masked Dancer. After a difficult childhood, in her early twenties McCall had pursued various jobs, including becoming a singer and a model, but later embarked on a career on television with a first job presenting for MTV in 1992. After further work on terrestrial channels, she became a household name thanks to Big Brother, while also continuing to work with other hosting vehicles on various channels, such as game shows and talent shows. She was a regular co-presenter of the Comic Relief annual telethons from 2005 to 2015. Early life and education McCall was born on 16 October 1967 in Wimbledon, London to a French mother, Florence (née Hennion) and an English father, Andrew McCall, a graphic designer and events organiser for Portsmouth Harbour Authority. At the age of three she went to live with her paternal grandparents in Surrey after the break-up of her parents' marriage. Her mother Florence—whom McCall has described as something of a "wild child" and later, specifically as "an alcoholic"—returned to Paris, and McCall saw her only when on holidays. McCall attended St Catherine's School, Bramley near Guildford, Surrey and Godolphin and Latymer Girls School, an independent school in Hammersmith, West London. At secondary level, McCall studied for nine O levels and two A levels. Career McCall's first career was as a singer, and she had been performing in a band, Lazy Bear, while still at school. By age 19, she had decided to pursue a professional career as a solo classical artist, and briefly commenced classical vocal coaching. Dissatisfied with her lack of success in the music industry, McCall gave up singing and took a job at Models 1 on the men's desk as a booker. Later she ran a restaurant for two years before a brief spell in Paris as a Moulin Rouge-style cabaret performer. On her return to London she worked on the nightclub scene as a hostess. Work in this period also included an appearance as a dancer in the video for the 1991 Kylie Minogue single "Word Is Out", wearing a striped sweater and beret in a nod to her French ancestry. In 1992, McCall was hired as a presenter on Ray Cokes' Most Wanted on MTV Europe. She then presented Hitlist UK. In 1995, she went on to host the ITV late night game show God's Gift. Channel 4 In 1998, McCall hosted cult dating show Streetmate in which she toured the country meeting single people and matching them up. McCall was chosen as the presenter of the inaugural series of Big Brother, in which ten housemates entered a sealed house for up to nine weeks and their every move was filmed and then broadcast as a daily highlights television show. McCall hosted the weekly live eviction show, where one contestant would be removed from the house, until the last housemate became the winner. McCall also hosted the celebrity version Celebrity Big Brother, the first series of which ran for eight days in March 2001. McCall's performance on the final night of the sixth series in 2005 attracted press attention and some complaints for her treatment of housemate Makosi Musambasi. In December 2007, McCall presented a New Year's edition of The Friday Night Project, entitled The Friday Night New Year Project 2007. By the ninth series of Big Brother in 2008, McCall was earning a reported £85,000 per episode. Responding to tabloid claims before the series that she was about to quit Big Brother she said, "I'm not leaving ... They would have to kill me before I'd stop doing it". The ninth series proved to be a low point, however, becoming the least watched summer series in the show's history. McCall became the regular presenter of the live Big Brother companion show Big Brother's Big Mouth for the tenth and eleventh series, after it was re-formatted into an hour-long show after the weekly live eviction show, having previously occupied the slot after each daily highlights show. With audience figures falling, Channel 4 decided that the eleventh series in summer 2010 would be the last Big Brother broadcast on their channel, although the show's future was in the hands of the rights holder Endemol. After presenting the seventh and final series of Celebrity Big Brother in January 2010, she fronted her eleventh and final regular edition over the summer. As a finale to the series on Channel 4, McCall also presented the Ultimate Big Brother show, which started immediately after the main series, and featured selected past celebrity and non-celebrity housemates. Having made the decision to leave the show after Ultimate Big Brother, McCall confirmed she would not be returning as host when Channel 5 announced in April 2011 that they had secured the rights to relaunch Big Brother in summer 2011. She gave her backing to Emma Willis as her replacement, stating she still believed the show had potential. Big Brother 2 and Ultimate Big Brother winner Brian Dowling was ultimately chosen to take over McCall's role as presenter of the Channel 5 version, though in 2013 Emma Willis became his successor as the new presenter. In between the final celebrity and regular editions of Big Brother on Channel 4, McCall began presenting a new game show, The Million Pound Drop. The final episode aired on 20 March 2015, with the primetime series axed in 2016. On 14 July 2017, it was announced that the format would return as a daytime series under the name The £100K Drop. From 2012 to 2016, McCall co-hosted charity telethon Stand Up to Cancer with Alan Carr, Christian Jessen and Adam Hills. As part of the 2014 telethon, McCall and Carr also hosted a companion series Stars at Your Service. In April 2013, McCall presented one series of Five Minutes to a Fortune. From January 2014 to March 2017, McCall presented reality competition The Jump which was broadcast live from Innsbruck and Kühtai in Austria. In 2016, McCall presented Make My Body Better on Channel 4. Sky Davina co-presented the first series of Prickly Heat alongside Julian Clary on Sky1. She was replaced by Denise van Outen for further two series. On 20 December 2009, McCall began hosting reality programme Got to Dance. On 24 October 2014, it was confirmed that the show had been axed after five series. In 2015, McCall presented One Hundred and Eighty, a darts-based game show for Sky1. ITV McCall co-presented the six part series Birthrace 2000 with Lisa Riley in 1999, which featured couples trying to have the first baby of the millennium. McCall co-presented four series of Don't Try This at Home for ITV. Her co-presenters were Kate Thornton, Paul Hendy and Darren Day. When Don't Try This at Home ended in 2001, McCall continued with the channel, presenting series such as Popstars: The Rivals and The Vault (1st series) in 2002, Reborn in the USA in 2003 and Love on a Saturday Night in 2004. She also hosted the British Academy Television Awards 2004 for ITV and again in 2006. In 2011, McCall began hosting The Biggest Loser and Long Lost Family. After just two series, it was announced that The Biggest Loser had been axed by ITV in September 2012. Long Lost Family, however, is still being broadcast on the channel, with McCall and Nicky Campbell as hosts. In 2013, McCall presented Stepping Out which was seen as a rival to BBC One's Strictly Come Dancing. In 2016, Davina presented a four-part factual series for ITV called Davina McCall: Life at the Extreme. From 2016 to 2019, she has presented three series of This Time Next Year for the channel. In January 2017, McCall guest presented three episodes of This Morning alongside Phillip Schofield. She returned to guest present an episode in February 2018 with Ore Oduba. McCall guest presented five episodes of The Nightly Show in March 2017. In 2018, she was the host of A&E Live, a three part series to commemorate 70 years of the NHS. On 9 September 2019, McCall was announced as a judge for The Masked Singer, the UK version of the international music game show Masked Singer. Series 1 aired in January 2020, and series 2 began airing in December 2020. On 4 March 2021, it was announced by ITV that McCall would be appearing as a judge on the brand new spin off show of The Masked Singer UK, The Masked Dancer UK, which is set to air in spring 2021. BBC During 2005, McCall presented He's Having a Baby, where she followed and advised eight young men who were to become first-time fathers at various stages during the show's ten-week run. It received poor ratings. McCall has been one of the co-presenters of the annual British charity telethons that are organised by Comic Relief on BBC One. Organised on an alternating comedy/sport theme and televised live in March, Red Nose Day has been co-hosted by McCall since 2005. She had previously presented or appeared on various related Comic Relief shows, including: The Record Breaker (1999), Naked Red Nose Ground Force in Practice and Say Pants to Poverty (2001), The Big Hair Do (2003) and Comic Relief Does Fame Academy (2005). From early 2006, McCall fronted her own prime-time chat show, Davina. Receiving scathing reviews and with viewing figures falling to below half of the six million watching The Bill on ITV at the same time, the show was axed in April for not reaching expectations. UKTV McCall presented her own show on the W channel from September 2017, called The Davina Hour. Other ventures In 2001, McCall appeared with Ed Byrne, Tristan Gemmill and Tameka Empson as the title character in Sam's Game, a Friends-style sitcom. Slammed by the critics, it aired just once. McCall has voiced the android Davina McCall in the 2005 Doctor Who episode "Bad Wolf", and in 2008 she played herself as both a human and a zombie in Dead Set, a five-part horror parody of Big Brother set in the house. In documentary television, McCall has fronted Let's Talk Sex about sex education and how it is taught in the United Kingdom (which then had one of the countries of Europe with the highest teenage pregnancy levels). She also published a companion book to the series. McCall has also appeared in a video for schools called "Watch Over Me," talking about her drug addiction and peer pressure. McCall is also the face of cosmetics brand Garnier in the United Kingdom. In August 2014, McCall was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue. Personal life Family Her first marriage was to Andrew Leggett in 1997. In November 2017, McCall separated from husband Matthew Robertson, presenter of Pet Rescue, with whom she has three children: two daughters, Holly and Tilly, and a son, Chester. Robertson is McCall's second husband; they were married in June 2000 at Eastnor Castle, Herefordshire. McCall's previous partners included family friend Eric Clapton. He also helped her when in her early 20s she developed a drug problem; it was only after overcoming this that she gained her own television show on MTV. She gave up smoking when she was 24. McCall is fluent in French, as her mother is French. Ancestry McCall's ancestry was examined for a 2009 episode of Who Do You Think You Are?. With the help of historians Jean-Marc Berliere and Simon Kitson, McCall learned that she is the great-granddaughter of onetime Prefect of Police Célestin Hennion (1862–1915), and the great-great-great-granddaughter, on her father's side, of James Thomas Bedborough (1787–1860), a stonemason, councillor, Mayor, property developer and entrepreneur, who worked on Windsor Castle and Upton Park in Slough. Bedborough was said to be an illegitimate son of George IV according to a story told by McCall's grandmother, but this was neither proved nor disproved on the show. Participants in the programme included Françoise Hennion (Hennion's granddaughter and McCall's mother's cousin) and Pierre, Hennion's son and McCall's grandfather. Pierre gave McCall his father's Royal Victorian Order medal. McCall met Alfred Dreyfus's great-granddaughter, Yael Ruiz, after learning of the part her ancestor Célestin Hennion played in the Dreyfus affair. Charity work In February 2014, McCall undertook a BT Sport Relief challenge called 'Davina – Beyond Breaking Point', seven days of either running, swimming or cycling across the UK to raise money for the UK charity Sport Relief. This challenge was filmed by the BBC as a one-off 60-minute documentary which aired on 20 March 2014 at 21:00 on BBC One. During the live telethon, it was announced that McCall had raised over £2.2 million for Sport Relief 2014. Filmography Television Guest appearances The Kumars at No. 42 (2001) Top Gear (2005) Room 101 (2007, 2017) Question Time (2007) The Paul O'Grady Show (2008, 2015) Would I Lie to You? (2008, 2009) Chris Moyles' Quiz Night (2009) Who Do You Think You Are? (2009) Alan Carr: Chatty Man (2009, 2010, 2012, 2013) Celebrity Juice (2010, 2011, 2012, 2014) A Comedy Roast (2010) This Morning (2011, 2013, 2014, 2015) The Jonathan Ross Show (2014) Mel and Sue (2015) Through the Keyhole (2015) Alan Carr's 12 Stars of Christmas (2016) Alan Davies: As Yet Untitled (2017) John Bishop: In Conversation With... (2017) Celebrity Catchphrase (2019) Fitness DVDs Davina: Power of 3 (released 27 December 2004) Davina – My Three 30 Minute Workouts (released 5 December 2005) Davina – My Pre & Post Natal Workouts (released 5 March 2007) Davina – High Energy Five (released 3 December 2007) Davina – Super Body Workout (released 8 December 2008) Davina Fit (released 7 December 2009) Davina – Body Buff (released 6 December 2010) Davina – Ultimate Target (released 5 December 2011) Davina Intense (released 10 December 2012) Davina – Fit in 15 (released 2 December 2013) Davina: 7 Minute Fit (released 26 December 2014) Davina: 5 Week Fit (released 26 December 2015) Davina: 30 Day Fat Burn (released 26 December 2016) Davina: Toned in 10 (released 26 December 2017) Bibliography Davina's 5 Weeks to Sugar Free (released 8 January 2015) Davina's Smart Carbs (released 31 December 2015) Lessons I've Learned (released 22 September 2016) Davina's Sugar-Free in a Hurry (released 29 December 2016) References External links Twitter 1967 births Living people English game show hosts English people of French descent English television actresses English television presenters English television talk show hosts People educated at Godolphin and Latymer School People educated at St Catherine's School, Bramley People from Wadhurst People from Wimbledon, London Television personalities from London

262807

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceroc

Ceroc

Ceroc is an international dance club with more than 200 venues across the UK as well as national and regional competitions and weekend events throughout the year. It also has franchises in many other countries in Europe, Asia and the Antipodes. The name 'Ceroc' is said to derive from the French "C'est le roc" (it's roc), used to describe rock and roll dancing in France. History James Cronin, the son of writer Vincent Cronin and a grandson of Scottish author A. J. Cronin, founded Ceroc in London, England. In January 1980 he held the first Ceroc event in Porchester Hall in London. By 1982 Ceroc had a cabaret team, which performed routines in London nightclubs and venues. Throughout the spring and summer of 1982 the Ceroc troupe worked with choreographer Michel Ange Lau, whose classes Cronin and Sylvia Coleman had attended in 1980 at the Centre Charles Peguy, a French youth centre in Leicester Square. The first video-recording of a Ceroc event appears on the description for the ‘Gold Bug’ routine, performed at the 1982 Ceroc Ball, a charity event at the Hammersmith Palais. In the late 1980s and early 1990s Cronin and Sylvia Coleman established Ceroc Enterprises, registered "Ceroc" as a trademark and started to sell Ceroc franchises around the country. In 1992 the Ceroc Teachers Association (CTA) was formed, with associated examinations: all Ceroc teachers had to pass the relevant CTA examinations before gaining licences to teach at Ceroc events. In 1994 Ceroc introduced ‘taxi dancers’ to their venues – volunteers who are experienced dancers, designated to assist beginners. In the early 2000s Cronin and Coleman sold Ceroc Enterprises to Mike Ellard. By 2004 Ceroc Enterprises were running more than 100 different venues and claimed attendance figures of 500,000. In 2006 Ceroc started expanding into the ‘Weekender’ market. In October 2019 Ceroc Enterprises was sold to The Dance Holiday Company, owned by Robert Thompson, who then changed the name to Ceroc Enterprises. The sale was financed by a debenture over the assets of the company held by Mike Ellard. Ceroc Enterprises had franchises operating in Ireland, France, Italy, Spain, the UAE, Canada, the United States and Hong Kong. more than 30 Ceroc franchises operated in the United Kingdom, with 150 Ceroc venues there. Ceroc organizations trade in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, South Africa and Dubai. Apart from the franchises listed above, Ceroc organisations operate in Australia and New Zealand. Ceroc Enterprises is a separate company from Ceroc Australia and Ceroc and Modern Jive Dance Company or CMJ (also based in Australia). These Australian companies are not franchisees of Ceroc Enterprises. Similarly there is no legal connection between Ceroc Enterprises and Ceroc New Zealand. In November 2013 'Ceroc Australia' was sold by Mark Harding to Ceroc and Modern Jive Dance Company or CMJ to bring them both back under the same umbrella following their split in 1998. Modern Jive Outside the Ceroc Franchise, the dance style Modern Jive is also taught and danced in many independent venues, where it is commonly called LeRoc. Originally the same dance style was taught in Ceroc venues and independents but they have diverged enormously over the last 20 years. However dancers who have learned at either Ceroc venues or independents can dance together in freestyle, since apart from stylistic differences it is fundamentally the same dance. Ceroc franchise venues often attract a younger demographic than independents, largely because of their branding and because they often recruit younger teachers. In 1990 Robert Austin, an original Ceroc franchisee who had broken away from Ceroc to form LeJive, coined the term ‘Modern Jive’, a generic term for the dance form used by teachers and clubs not affiliated to Ceroc Enterprise. Ceroc does not now use the term Modern Jive and Ceroc’s web site states that it now teaches dance in general and not a specific dance form. Class format Most Ceroc venues run regular weekly classes, usually on Monday to Thursdays. Ceroc class formats are quite different from most other dance forms in that: Students are typically taught in rows from a stage rather than gathered around the teacher. Classes are typically larger, with often more than 100 people in some UK venues. Classes are highly structured: a precise routine is taught to the leads who then lead the follows. Beginner routines are centrally controlled: each venue teaches the same beginner class on a given day. Partners are rotated frequently, allowing Ceroc to advertise classes as "no partner required". This helps in the learning process since when you attend a Ceroc lesson you will dance with experienced and beginners alike. Lessons are organised so that partners are rotated every few minutes or every couple of moves. A small number of volunteer experienced dancers (called taxi dancers or taxis) are often available specifically to dance with beginners. Dancers pay for the evening rather than per class. UK format In the UK the franchise nature of Ceroc enforces a degree of uniformity across all teachers and all venues. Ceroc classes typically follow the same format, and comprise: A Beginners lesson, involving a routine of three moves drawn from a restricted repertoire of 12 moves, and lasting approximately 45 minutes. The Beginners routine taught on any given day is the same across all teachers and all venues. This is intended to allow beginners to practise what they have learned with beginners from other venues. A freestyle period of approximately 15 minutes, in which beginners are encouraged to practise what they have learned and experienced dancers are free to dance whatever they wish. No moves are barred during a freestyle period, except aerials, and moves are improvised on the spot to the music. Partner-swapping occurs whenever the music changes and does not require leaving the dance floor. An Intermediate lesson, involving a routine of three moves drawn from a much larger repertoire of Intermediate-level moves and lasting approximately 45 minutes. At least one of the Intermediate moves will be a Classic move intended for new Intermediate dancers. Many of the harder Intermediate moves are based around these Classic moves. There are 24 Classic moves. Individual teachers are less constrained as to the content of the intermediate-level lesson. Intermediate moves are more complex and may contain footwork. In many venues, depending on available space, a Beginners Practice Session takes place at the same time, where beginners may review the moves taught in the Beginners lesson with the help of the taxi dancers. Beginners may instead watch the Intermediate lesson, if they so choose. The usual recommendation is for Beginners to complete approximately six Beginners classes before attempting to move up to Intermediate level. A second freestyle period lasting for the rest of the evening, which is around an hour and a half to two hours. The start time varies from venue to venue but is generally between 7pm and 8pm. Sunday classes often start earlier. Whatever the start time, the entire evening lasts three to four hours in most venues (with rare exceptions). Australian format A Beginner Progression class (also known variously as Bridging, Beginner Consolidation, Intromediate or Freestyle class ) taught at the same time as the Intermediate or Intermediate/Advanced class has also been introduced in Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth, and Adelaide, involving a breakdown of technique and either a review of the preceding Beginner class (possibly with some extensions or variations to the moves from that class) or a new routine drawn from a mixture of intermediate and beginner level moves . This class is taught at the same time as the Intermediate class. Individual teachers are less constrained as to the content of the Intermediate classes, however there is generally a stronger focus on technique (footwork, frame & connection, balance etc.), intermediate skills (dips & drops, leans, spinning etc.) and styling rather than just teaching moves. A video clip of a Ceroc class filmed in Melbourne can be seen at Mind Body & Soul Most Australian schools teach "Step" footwork. See Modern Jive#Step footwork vs Rock footwork New Zealand format In New Zealand there are typically Beginners, Intermediate and Advanced classes, with the clearer separation of moves between the classes. Moving up the classes leads to moves which are more complicated, more syncopated and physically closer. Beginners moves have 2-4 timing, preserve contact between partners at all times, have single speed, single turn spins, the dancers keep their balance (no leans, drops or dips) and partners only contact with each other is hands, arms and shoulders. Intermediate moves introduce single speed double spins and assisted double speed turns, contact with the partners back, and leans (in which one partner takes the others' weight with their body). Advanced moves can include multiple speed, multiple turn spins, loss of contact, significant syncopation, dips and drops (in which one partner takes the weight of the other with their arms) and/or contact with different body parts. Events Freestyles and Tea Dances As well as regular class nights, most Ceroc franchises put on special events, termed 'Freestyles', on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays. Sunday freestyles are termed 'tea dances' and are often held in the afternoon rather than evening. Some freestyle events begin with an 'icebreaker' class, usually at an intermediate level as beginners are unlikely to attend freestyles. A typical Saturday night freestyle would begin at either 8pm or 9pm and run until between 12midnight and 2am. Freestyles are usually held at larger venues such as town halls, and often have two rooms: the Main Room, usually the largest room playing up tempo music between 100 and 150BPM; and often a 'Blues Room' or 'Chillout' room, playing slower music between 80 and 110BPM, allowing for slower dancing focusing more on connection, interpretation and musicality. Workshops Many Ceroc teachers also occasionally run daytime dance workshops at weekends, which in the UK are known as Cerocshops. A workshop lasts for four hours, and covers more moves than are covered in a single regular evening class. The standard Ceroc workshops are graded (Beginners 1, Beginners 2, Beginners Plus, Intermediate 1, Intermediate 2, and Intermediate Plus). Specialised workshops may also be available which cover more advanced techniques and styles such as Dips & Drops, Baby Aerials, Double Trouble (one lead, two follows), Switch it Up (swapping partners), Ceroc to Blues, Footwork, Frame, Spins & Turn technique, Musicality, Connection & Posture. The frequency and content of these workshops depends on the resident teacher or guest teachers who may teach various workshops over the course of a weekend often with a freestyle party in the evening such as Ceroc Aberdeen's Beach Ballroom Weekend or Ceroc Conexion's Extreme Mini Weekender. Championships Ceroc Enterprises holds an annual UK Ceroc dance championship. This is held in London (currently at the Watford Colosseum) at the beginning of May with a mix of freestyle dancing and competitions. Competitions range from beginner oriented categories, such as the Lucky Dip (a Jack and Jill competition) and 'Ceroc X' where competitors are restricted to a set list of 8 basic moves, which they have to dance to different musical styles and are judged on performance and musicality. In recent years, the Intermediate and Advanced Freestyle Categories have been merged into an All Stars category divided into three different age brackets. Above this there is still the Open category, and Top Cats, another Jack and Jill where individual competitors are judged rather than couples. Other categories include Aerials, Showcase, and Team Cabaret competitions. There are other championships held on a regional or franchise basis, for example the Midlands, Ceroc Scotland and Welsh champs, and the Australasian. Ceroc also hosts the European Neo-Blues Championships. This is held at the weekender 'Breeze' at the Pontins at Brean Sands in October, and includes an invitational Masters Jack and Jill, Blues Open, Blues DWAS, and Showcase categories. Weekenders Ceroc hosts a number of 'Ceroc Escape' dance weekenders throughout the year, attracting hundreds of dancers from around the UK and Europe. Most of these take place at the Pontins holiday resorts at Camber Sands, at Southport and in Somerset. Other more luxurious weekenders are held at hotels, such as LUX and Swish. Freestyle dancing begins on the Friday night and carries on until the Monday morning. During the day a range of classes and workshops is available with teachers from around the country. Most events have a Saturday-night cabaret, featuring teachers, competition and showcase performances. In 2005 Ceroc Enterprises completed the purchase of Rebel Roc, along with its annual dance weekender event at Pontins, Camber Sands. The first such event under the ownership of Ceroc Enterprises was Ceroc ‘Storm’ at Camber Sands in March 2006. Ceroc Enterprises has expanded its weekender offerings and took over weekender venues from JiveTime (Camber Sands) at the end of 2007 and Jive Addiction (Southport) in August 2008. References Further reading The History of Ceroc Times article about Ceroc External links The Ceroc Enterprises international web site What to expect of a Ceroc Night Directory of Modern Jive organizations world-wide UK Jive - Independent directory of UK dance organisations and events 'Lynda's List' of current and forthcoming UK dance events Jiveoholics Anonymous - directory of dance moves The LeRoc Modern Jive Federation Ceroc and Modern Jive Dance Company Australia web site Ceroc Perth Western Australia web site Modern Jive Sydney Australia web site The Jive Treasure Box - A comprehensive database of Modern Jive moves illustrated Swing dances Partner dance

262815

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon%20Hassell

Jon Hassell

Jon Hassell (March 22, 1937 – June 26, 2021) was an American trumpet player and composer. He was best known for developing the concept of "Fourth World" music, which describes a "unified primitive/futurist sound" combining elements of various world ethnic traditions with modern electronic techniques. The concept was first articulated on Fourth World, Vol. 1: Possible Musics, his 1980 collaboration with Brian Eno. Born in Tennessee, Hassell studied contemporary classical music in New York and later in Germany under composer Karlheinz Stockhausen. He subsequently worked with minimalist composers Terry Riley (on a 1968 recording of In C) and La Monte Young (as part of his Theatre of Eternal Music group), and studied under Hindustani singer Pandit Pran Nath. His association with Brian Eno in the early 1980s would introduce Hassell to a larger audience. He subsequently worked with musical artists such as Talking Heads, David Sylvian, Farafina, Peter Gabriel, Tears for Fears, Ani DiFranco, Techno Animal, Ry Cooder, Moritz von Oswald, and Carl Craig. Life and career Born in Memphis, Tennessee, United States, Hassell received his master's degree from the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York. During this time he became involved in European serial music, especially the work of Karlheinz Stockhausen, and so after finishing his studies at Eastman, he enrolled in the Cologne Course for New Music (founded and directed by Stockhausen) for two years, where he met Irmin Schmidt and Holger Czukay, who would later go on to form Can . Hassell returned to the U.S. in 1967, where he met Terry Riley in Buffalo, New York and performed on the first recording of Riley's seminal work In C in 1968. He pursued his Ph.D. in musicology in Buffalo and performed in La Monte Young's Theatre of Eternal Music in New York City, contributing to the 1974 LP Dream House 78' 17". On his return to Buffalo in the early 1970s, Hassell was introduced to the music of Indian Pandit Pran Nath, a specialist in the Kiranic style of singing. Hassell, Young, Marian Zazeela, and Riley went together to India to study with Nath. His work with Nath awoke his appetite for traditional musics of the world, and on the album Vernal Equinox, he used his trumpet (treated with various electronic effects) to imitate the vocal techniques to which Nath had exposed him. He stated: "From 1973 up until then I was totally immersed in playing raga on the trumpet. I wanted the physical dexterity to be able to come into a room and be able to do something that nobody else in the world could do. My aim was to make a music that was vertically integrated in such a way that at any cross-sectional moment you were not able to pick a single element out as being from a particular country or genre of music." In 1980, he collaborated with Brian Eno on the album Fourth World, Vol. 1: Possible Musics and appeared on the Eno-produced Talking Heads album Remain in Light. The same year Hassell also performed solo at the Mudd Club. His 1981 release, Dream Theory in Malaya, led to a performance at the first World of Music, Arts and Dance (WOMAD) Festival, organized by Peter Gabriel. He performed and co-wrote tracks on David Sylvian's first solo album Brilliant Trees, and its instrumental EP follow-up Words with the Shaman. In the late 1980s, Hassell contributed to Gabriel's Passion, the soundtrack album for Martin Scorsese's film, The Last Temptation of Christ. Hassell and Pete Scaturro composed the electronic theme music for the television show The Practice. In 1989, Hassell contributed to the Tears for Fears album The Seeds of Love. Hassell died from natural causes on June 26, 2021 at the age of 84. He had had health issues over the course of the previous year. Style Hassell coined the term "Fourth World" to describe his work on "a unified primitive/futuristic sound combining features of world ethnic styles with advanced electronic techniques." He used extensive electronic processing of his trumpet playing. In addition to nonwestern traditional musics, critics have noted the influence of Miles Davis on Hassell's style, particularly Davis' use of electronics, modal harmony, and understated lyricism. Both on record and during live performances, Hassell made use of western instruments—keyboards, bass, electric guitar, and percussion—to create modal, hypnotic grooves, over which he played microtonally-inflected trumpet phrases in the style of Nath's Kiranic vocals. Discography As leader or co-leader Vernal Equinox (Lovely Music, 1977) Earthquake Island (Tomato 1978) Fourth World, Vol. 1: Possible Musics (Editions EG, 1980), with Brian Eno Dream Theory in Malaya: Fourth World Volume Two (Editions EG, 1981) Aka/Darbari/Java: Magic Realism (Editions EG, 1983) Power Spot (ECM, 1986) The Surgeon of the Nightsky Restores Dead Things by the Power of Sound (Intuition, 1987), live recordings Flash of the Spirit (Intuition/EMI Electrola, 1988), with Farafina City: Works of Fiction (Opal/Warner Bros., 1990; expanded edition on All Saints, 2014) Dressing for Pleasure (Warner, 1994), with Bluescreen Sulla Strada (Materiali Sonori, 1995), with I Magazzini The Vertical Collection (Sketches) (Earshot, 1997), with Peter Freeman as Bluescreen Project Fascinoma (Water Lily Acoustics, 1999) Hollow Bamboo (Water Lily Acoustics, 2000), with Ry Cooder, Ronu Majumdar and Abhijit Banerjee Maarifa Street: Magic Realism Volume Two (Label Bleu, 2005) Last Night the Moon Came Dropping Its Clothes in the Street (ECM, 2009) Listening to Pictures (Pentimento Volume One) (Ndeya, 2018) Seeing Through Sound (Pentimento Volume Two) (Ndeya, 2020) Single tracks on compilations and remixes "Map of Dusk" on compilation Myths 3: La nouvelle serenité (Sub Rosa, 1987), recorded in 1985 with J.A. Deane "Pygmy Dance" on compilation Ai Confini / Interzone (New Tone, 1993), recorded live in Italy 1988 "Streetfaxx" and remixes by 808 State on EP Voiceprint (Blind from the Facts) (Opal, 1990; reissued on All Saints, 1993 and 2006) Personals, maxi-single with remixes of "Personals" and "G-Spot" by MC 900 Ft Jesus and Organized Konfusion (Warner, 1994) "Then and Now (Berchidda)" on compilation Then and Now (Time in Jazz 1998 | 2007) (Tàjrà It., 2008), live recording from 2001 in Italy with John Beasley, Rick Cox As sideman and guest appearances On almost all recordings Jon Hassell played trumpet (sometimes merely 'used' as sound color). In cases where he plays keyboards or electronics it is mentioned in the last column; the same applies to the credits as composer (or producer). Film soundtracks are labeled "O.S.T." (original sound track) preceding the film title. Artists and labels are linked by first appearance only. See also David Sylvian Erik Truffaz Erik Honoré List of ambient music artists Michael Brook Talking Heads References Bibliography Mark Prendergast, The Ambient Century. New York and London, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2000, Jon Hassell, program notes from Vernal Equinox. Lovely Music, LML 1021, 1977. External links Magic Realism, Vol. 2: Maarifa Street album site 1937 births 2021 deaths American trumpeters American male trumpeters American male composers 21st-century American composers Eastman School of Music alumni Musicians from Memphis, Tennessee Avant-garde trumpeters All Saints Records artists E.G. Records artists Pupils of Karlheinz Stockhausen Pupils of Pran Nath (musician) 21st-century trumpeters 21st-century American male musicians Label Bleu artists

262816

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before%20and%20After%20Science

Before and After Science

Before and After Science is the fifth studio album by British musician Brian Eno. Produced by Eno and Rhett Davies, it was originally released by Polydor Records in December 1977 in the United Kingdom and by Island U.S. soon after. Musicians from the U.K. and Germany collaborated on the album, including Robert Wyatt of Soft Machine, Fred Frith of Henry Cow, Phil Manzanera of Roxy Music, Paul Rudolph of Hawkwind, Andy Fraser of Free, Dave Mattacks of Fairport Convention, Jaki Liebezeit of Can, and Dieter Moebius and Hans-Joachim Roedelius of Cluster. Over one hundred tracks were written with only ten making the album's final cut. The musical styles of the album range from energetic and jagged to languid and pastoral. The album marks Eno's last foray into rock music as a solo artist in the 1970s, with nearly all of his following albums showcasing more of Eno's avant-garde and ambient music, which was hinted at on the second half of Before and After Science. The album was Eno's second to chart in the United States. The song "King's Lead Hat", the title of which is an anagram for Talking Heads, was remixed and released as a single, although it didn't chart in the United Kingdom. Critical response to the album has remained positive, with several critics calling it one of Eno's best works. Production Unlike Eno's previous albums, which were recorded in a very short time, Before and After Science was two years in the making. During this two-year period, Eno was busy working on his solo ambient music albums Music for Films and Discreet Music. Due to the very positive critical reception accorded his previous rock music-oriented album Another Green World, Eno was afraid of repeating himself but still wanted to release a high-quality product. As on previous rock-based recordings, for Before and After Science Eno worked with a plethora of guest musicians. Several artists from German and British groups of the era contributed to the album, collaborating with Eno for the first time. Guitarist Fred Frith caught the attention of Brian Eno who was "excited by the timbral possibilities that [Frith had] been discovering" on his album Guitar Solos. Eno asked Frith to record with him, and this resulted in Frith playing much of the guitar on the album. Jaki Liebezeit of the German krautrock group Can played drums on "Backwater", while German ambient music group Cluster contributed to the songwriting and instrumentation of the track "By This River". Eno had previously worked with Cluster on their album Cluster & Eno released in 1977. Additional musicians included Dave Mattacks, who played drums on "Kurt's Rejoinder" and "Here He Comes" and Andy Fraser, (normally a bass guitarist in British blues rock band Free), who played the drums on "King's Lead Hat". Several musicians who had worked with Eno on previous albums returned as well. Percy Jones of Brand X and Phil Collins of Genesis, played bass and drums respectively. Other returning contributors included Robert Fripp, Paul Rudolph and Bill MacCormick. Phil Manzanera makes a brief appearance as well. "Shirley Williams" is credited on the album sleeve for "time" and "brush timbales" on "Through Hollow Lands" and "Kurt's Rejoinder". This is Robert Wyatt recording under a pseudonym. Working extensively with the musicians and his instructional cards—the Oblique Strategies—during the two years working on the album, Eno wrote over one hundred songs. The vast majority of this material has never been heard. Music and lyrics Jim DeRogatis, author of Turn on Your Mind: Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock, described the overall sound of Before and After Science as "the coldest and most clinical of Eno's pop efforts", while David Ross Smith of online music database AllMusic wrote that "Despite the album's pop format, the sound is unique and strays far from the mainstream". According to David Bowie's biographer Thomas Jerome Seabrook, the album is "split between up-tempo art-rock on side one and more pastoral material on side two", while Piotr Orlov of LA Weekly categorized it as an art pop record. The album's opening tracks "No One Receiving" and "Backwater" start the album as upbeat and bouncy songs. "King's Lead Hat" is an anagram of Talking Heads, a new wave group Eno had met after a concert in England when they were touring with Ramones. Eno would later produce Talking Heads' second, third and fourth albums, including Remain in Light. The last five songs of the album have been described as having "an occasional pastoral quality" and being "pensive and atmospheric". Opposed to Another Green World'''s music, which Eno described as "sky music", Eno referred to the music of Before and After Science as "ocean music". References to water in the lyrics appear in songs such as "Backwater", "Julie With..." and "By this River". Author Simon Reynolds noted themes of "boredom" and "bliss" through the album, citing "Here He Comes", about "a boy trying to vanish by floating through the sky through a different time" and "Spider and I", about a boy watching the sky and dreaming about being carried away with a ship, as examples. Eno's songwriting style was described as "a sound-over-sense approach". Influenced by poet Kurt Schwitters, Eno consciously did not make songwriting or lyrics the main focus in the music. Tom Carson of Rolling Stone noted this style, stating that the lyrics are "only complementary variables" to the music on the album. Lester Bangs commented on Eno's lyrical style on "Julie with..." stating that the lyrics' themes "could be a murderer's ruminations, or simply a lovers' retreat... or Julie could be three years old". Schwitters' influence is also shown on the song "Kurt's Rejoinder", on which samples of Schwitters' poem "Ursonate" can be heard. Release Before and After Science was released in December 1977 on Polydor in the United Kingdom and on Island in the United States. The first pressings of the album included four offset prints by Peter Schmidt. The back cover of the LP says "Fourteen Pictures" under the album title, referencing Eno's ten songs and Peter Schmidt's 4 prints. These prints included "The Road to the Crater", "Look at September, look at October", "The Other House" and "Four Years". The album did not chart in the United Kingdom, but was Eno's first album since Here Come the Warm Jets to chart in the United States, where it peaked at 171 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart. "King's Lead Hat" was remixed and released as a single in January 1978, featuring the B-side "R.A.F.", which is credited to "Eno & Snatch" (in the UK, not the US). This single failed to chart and has never been reissued in any form.Before and After Science was re-issued on compact disc through E.G. Records in January 1987. In 2004, Virgin Records began reissuing Eno's albums in batches of four to five. The remastered digipak release of Before and After Science was released on 31 May 2004 in the United Kingdom and on 1 June 2004 in North America. Critical reception On the album's initial release, the album received very positive reviews from rock critics. Writing for Creem, Joe Fernbacher called the Before and After Science "the perfect Eno album", while Mitchell Schneider wrote a positive review in Crawdaddy, stating that he couldn't "remember the last time a record took such a hold of [him]—and gave [him] such an extreme case of vertigo, too". In DownBeat, Russell Shaw wrote that "[Before and After Science] is another typically awesome, stunning and numbing Brian Eno album—the record Pink Floyd could make if they set their collective mind to it." Tom Carson of Rolling Stone noted that the album "is less immediately ingratiating than either Taking Tiger Mountain or Here Come the Warm Jets. Still, the execution here is close to flawless, and despite Eno's eclecticism, the disparate styles he employs connect brilliantly." Critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A− rating, stating that he "didn't like the murkiness of the quiet, largely instrumental reflections that take over side two", but did not find that this "diminishes side one's oblique, charming tour of the popular rhythms of the day". In 1979, Before and After Science was voted 12th best album of the year on The Village Voices Pazz & Jop critics' poll for 1978. Modern reviews of Before and After Science have also been positive. David Ross Smith of AllMusic awarded the album the highest rating of five stars stating that it ranks alongside Here Come the Warm Jets and Another Green World "as the most essential Eno material". The music webzine Tiny Mix Tapes awarded the album their highest rating, stating that it "is not only one of the best albums in Eno's catalog, but of the 1970s as a whole". Douglas Wolk of the webzine Pitchfork gave Before and After Science a perfect rating, calling the album "the most conceptually elegant of Eno’s '70s song-albums". Pitchfork placed Before and After Science at number 100 on their list of "Top 100 Albums of the 1970s", referring to it as a "lovely, charming album" and going on to state that, while "not formally groundbreaking, it's frequently overlooked when discussing great albums from an era that's romanticized as placing premiums on progression and innovation—and particularly in the context of Eno's career, which is so full of both". Track listing Personnel Musicians Brian Eno – voices (on all tracks, except 4 and 9), piano (tracks 1, 2, 5, 6, 7), synthesizer (1, 3), guitar (1, 7), synthesized percussion (1), rhythm guitar (2, 5), brass (2), chorus (3,4), 'jazz' piano (3), keyboards (4, 9, 10), vibes (4), metallics (5), CS80 (6, 7, 8), Moog (6, 9), AKS (7, 10), Minimoog and bell (7), melody guitar (9) Paul Rudolph – bass (1, 2, 5, 6, 7), rhythm guitar (1), harmonic bass (7) Percy Jones – fretless bass (1, 4), analogue delay bass (3) Phil Collins – drums (1, 4) Rhett Davies – agong-gong and stick (1) Jaki Liebezeit – drums (2) Dave Mattacks – drums (3,6) Shirley Williams (Robert Wyatt) – brush timbales (3), time (9) Kurt Schwitters – voice sample (from Ursonate) (3) Fred Frith – modified guitar (4), cascade guitars (9) Phil Manzanera – rhythm guitar (5), guitar (6) Robert Fripp – guitar solo (5) Andy Fraser – drums (5) Achim Roedelius – grand piano and electric piano (8) Möbi Moebius – bass Fender piano (8) Bill MacCormick – bass (9) Brian Turrington – bass (10)Production' Chart positions Notes References External links Album online at radio3net.ro Before and After Science at Google music (US only) Before and After Science'' at Rate Your Music Brian Eno – "Early Works" reissues at Astralwerks 1977 albums Brian Eno albums Albums produced by Brian Eno Albums produced by Rhett Davies Polydor Records albums Island Records albums Experimental pop albums Art pop albums Avant-pop albums

262818

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeRoc

LeRoc

LeRoc is a form of Modern Jive, a dance style that evolved in the 1980s out of dances including Swing, Lindy Hop and Rock and Roll. The main innovation was to simplify the footwork, making LeRoc very adaptable to different types of music in a 4-beat, fast or slow. According to the particular teacher, it may incorporate elements of other dance styles including Salsa and Tango. Both LeRoc and, later, Ceroc evolved in London during the Jive revival in the early 1980s, with dancers often being members of both clubs. LeRoc dances at the Notre Dame Hall, off Leicester Square, and Ceroc dances at the Porchester Hall in Bayswater rarely conflicted so it was easy to attend both, and rivalry between the clubs spurred the development of new dance moves. The split had occurred when James Cronin decided to trademark the word "Ceroc", and run the Ceroc club as a franchised business. The members of the LeRoc club, led by Michel Ange Lau, decided not to run it for potential income, preferring to concentrate on perfecting the dance. This means that, today, many unrelated Modern Jive organisations are free to use "LeRoc" in their names as it remains a generic term. "The LeRoc Modern Jive Federation" is a non-profit federation of independent dance teachers that was set up in 1991, but it is not mandatory to join. It offers advantages (such as membership of the United Kingdom Alliance of Professional Teachers of Dancing and Kindred Arts (UKA) to its members. It is said that the dance style came from France, where Swing / Rock and Roll dancing had not been so suppressed by the onslaught of Disco. LeRoc was named by Michel Ange Lau to describe a "distinctive" style of rock dancing, or "this Rock", while Ceroc, which appears a closer translation from French, is actually derived from "C'est le roc". Despite the reported French roots of LeRoc, there is currently very little Modern Jive danced in France. References External links The LeRoc Modern Jive Federation AfterFive "A Dancer's Guide", a free downloadable guide to dancing Modern Jive (including Ceroc and LeRoc), plus maps, links, etc. Modern Jive Resource Centre Modern Jive classes and events for the UK 'Lynda's List' of current dance events Jiveoholics Anonymous - directory of dance moves Swing dances

262819

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowballing

Snowballing

Snowballing often refers to a situation which rapidly gets out of control, as when a snow ball grows larger while rolling downhill. Snowballing might also refer to: Behavior Snowballing (sexual practice), the act of spitting semen into a partner's mouth after oral sex Economy A situation in which the exercise of stop orders in a declining market or advancing market or specific share creates further downward or upward pressure, triggering more stop orders, magnifying the decline or advance Debt-snowball method: A method of paying down credit card debt by paying the minimum on all balances, except the one with the highest interest rate Games The throwing of snowballs A PvP element in the winter event of the online role-playing game series Guild Wars When an enemy faction or group keeps gaining territory and becomes unstoppable Science and engineering In social science research, snowball sampling, or "snowballing": a technique for developing a research sample In chemical and industrial engineering, snowballing is the second and last phase, after aggregation, of the pelletization process. Other uses Bataille de boules de neige, an 1896 French silent film also known as Snowballing See also Snowball (disambiguation) Snowball, a spherical object made from snow

262822

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil%20Blaney

Neil Blaney

Neil Terence Columba Blaney (1 October 1922 – 8 November 1995) was an Irish politician. He was first elected to Dáil Éireann in 1948 as a Fianna Fáil Teachta Dála (TD) representing Donegal East. Blaney served as Minister for Posts and Telegraphs (1957), Minister for Local Government (1957–1966) and Minister for Agriculture and Fisheries (1966–1970). He was Father of the Dáil from 1987 until his death. Early life Neil Blaney was born in 1922 in the village of Rossnakill in rural Fanad Peninsula in the north of County Donegal, in Ireland. The second eldest of a family of eleven, Blaney's father Neal had been a commander of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in Donegal during the War of Independence and the Civil War. His father served as both a TD and as a Senator from 1927 through 1948; at which point Neil Blaney succeed him in that role. It was from his father that Blaney got his strong republican views and his first introduction to politics. He was educated locally at Tamney on the rugged Fanad Peninsula and later attended St Eunan's College in Letterkenny as a boarder. Blaney later worked as an organiser with the Irish National Vintners and Grocers Association. Early political career Blaney was first elected to Dáil Éireann for the Donegal East constituency in a by-election in December 1948, following the death of his father from cancer. He also became a member of Donegal County Council. Upon his election Blaney was the youngest member of the Dáil. He remained on the backbenches for a number of years before he was one of a group of young party members handpicked by Seán Lemass to begin a re-organisation drive for the party following the defeat at the 1954 general election. Within the party Blaney gained fame by running the party's by-election campaigns throughout the 1950s and 1960s. He introduced the concept of cavalcades after his election victories in his constituency together with roadside bonfires. At the time this was an alien political concept in Ireland. Blaney also adopted wearing sunglasses, chewing gum and wearing bright ties and colourful suits. His dedicated bands of supporters earned the sobriquet 'the Donegal Mafia', and succeeded in getting Des O'Malley and Gerry Collins elected to the Dáil. Ministerial career Following Fianna Fáil's victory at the 1957 general election Éamon de Valera, as Taoiseach, brought new blood into the Cabinet in the shape of Blaney, Jack Lynch, Kevin Boland and Mícheál Ó Móráin. Blaney was appointed Minister for Posts and Telegraphs, becoming the first government minister from Donegal, however, he moved to the position of Minister for Local Government at the end of 1957 following the death of Seán Moylan. Blaney proved to be an innovative minister and his first task as minister was to prepare the groundwork for the referendum to scrap the proportional representation electoral system and replace it with the first-past-the-post voting system. The referendum failed to be passed, however, Blaney was retained in the post when Lemass succeeded de Valera as Taoiseach in 1959. In 1963 he introduced the Planning Act to rationalise planning throughout the local authorities in the state. This act also created the agency, An Forás Forbatha, to bring planning experts together. His department underwent a very large programme to provide piped water to rural homes. In 1965 Blaney introduced the Road Traffic Act which required that motorists take a driving test in roadworthy cars. During his tenure it became possible to pay rates (property taxes) by instalment and he also introduced legislation which entitled non-nationals to vote in local elections. In 1966 Lemass resigned as Taoiseach and Fianna Fáil leader. The subsequent leadership election saw George Colley and Charles Haughey emerge as the two front-runners. Blaney was unimpressed with the choice and, with the support of the like-minded Kevin Boland, he threw his hat in the ring, declaring himself to be the "Radical Republican" candidate. However outside the Northwest and apart from Boland, Blaney failed to attract much support. After some pressure from Lemass the Cork politician, Jack Lynch, entered the race and was deemed to be an unbeatable candidate. Haughey and Boland withdrew in support of Lynch, however, Colley forced a contest. He was defeated heavily with Lynch becoming party leader and Taoiseach. In the subsequent cabinet reshuffle Blaney was appointed Minister for Agriculture and Fisheries. Arms Crisis In 1969, when conflict broke out in Northern Ireland, Blaney was one of the first to express strong Irish republican views in support of Northern nationalists, views which contradicted the policy of the Irish Government. Blaney was a native of Ulster, and was affected by the outbreak of violence in parts of his home province. He was concerned about the plight of the Nationalist majority in West Tyrone and in Derry, areas that bordered his constituency in West Ulster. From around late 1968 onwards, Blaney formed and presided over an unofficial Nationalist group in Leinster House popularly known as 'the Letterkenny Table', so named because this group of politicians used to meet at a certain table in either the Dáil bar or the Dáil restaurant. The group was dominated by Blaney up until his death. He had also been one of a four-member Cabinet sub-committee set up to decide on government policy to Northern Ireland together with Charles Haughey, Pádraig Faulkner, and Joseph Brennan. A fund of £100,000 was set up to give to the nationalist people in the form of aid. However, those involved have denied that the government supported the importation of arms. There was general surprise when, in an incident known as the Arms Crisis, Blaney, along with Haughey, was sacked from Taoiseach Jack Lynch's cabinet amid allegations of the use of the funds to import arms for use by the IRA. Opposition leader Liam Cosgrave was informed by the Garda that a plot to import arms existed and included government members. Cosgrave told Lynch he knew of the plot and would announce it in the Dáil next day if he did not act. Lynch asked for Haughey and Blaney's resignations. Both men refused, saying they did nothing illegal. Lynch then advised President de Valera to sack Haughey and Blaney from the government. Kevin Boland resigned in sympathy, while Mícheál Ó Móráin was dismissed one day earlier in a preemptive strike to ensure that he was not the Minister for Justice when the crisis broke. Lynch chose government chief whip Des O'Malley for the role. Haughey and Blaney were subsequently tried in court along with an army Officer, Captain James Kelly, and Albert Luykx, a Belgian businessman who allegedly used his contacts to buy the arms. At trial, all the accused were acquitted, but many of their critics refused to recognise the verdict of the courts. Although Blaney was cleared of wrongdoing, his ministerial career was brought to an end. Lynch subsequently moved against Blaney so as to isolate him in the party. He was defeated by George Colley in a vote for the position of Joint Honorary Treasurer at the 1971 Ardfheis, while his constituency colleague, Liam Cunningham, had been appointed a Parliamentary Secretary in the cabinet reshuffle. In the Dáil, Blaney abstained on a motion of no confidence on the worthiness of cabinet minister Jim Gibbons for office, sponsored by the opposition. Paudge Brennan and Desmond Foley acted similarly and, while the government survived, they were all expelled from the parliamentary party. When Blaney and his supporters tried to organise the party's national collection independently, Lynch acted, and in 1972 Blaney was expelled from the Fianna Fáil party for 'conduct unbecoming'. Independent Fianna Fáil Following his expulsion from Fianna Fáil, Kevin Boland tried to persuade Blaney to join the Aontacht Éireann party he was creating but Blaney declined. Instead, he contested all subsequent elections for Independent Fianna Fáil – The Republican Party, an organisation that he built up, chiefly in the County Donegal constituencies from disaffected members of the Fianna Fáil party who remained loyal to him along with a large number of Republicans. Throughout the 1970s there were frequent calls for his re-admittance to Fianna Fáil but the most vocal opponents of this move were Fianna Fáil delegates from County Donegal. At the 1979 European elections Blaney topped the poll in the Connacht–Ulster constituency to the annoyance of Fianna Fáil. He sat in the Technical Group of Independents and served as chair of the group along with the Italian Radical Marco Pannella and Danish left-wing Eurosceptic Jens-Peter Bonde. He narrowly lost the seat at the 1984 election but was returned to serve as an MEP in 1989 election where he sat with the regionalist Rainbow Group. He also canvassed for IRA hunger striker Bobby Sands in the Fermanagh and South Tyrone by-election, in which Sands was elected to Westminster. Blaney contracted cancer from which he died at the age of 73 on 8 November 1995. He held his Dáil seat until his death and was the reigning Father of the Dáil at that time. His death occurred at the Mater Private Hospital in Dublin. In the resulting by-election on 2 April 1996, the Fianna Fáil candidate reclaimed the seat. However, Blaney's brother, Harry Blaney, was elected as an Independent Fianna Fáil TD at the 1997 general election. He was replaced by his son, Niall Blaney, who was elected at the 2002 general election. But in July 2006 Niall rejoined Fianna Fáil. This was opposed by other members of the Blaney family, including all seven children of Neil Blaney and his widow Eva, who issued a press release prior to Niall Blaney's decision castigating the Fianna Fáil party and disassociating themselves from any so called 'truce' with them. Legacy A road in Letterkenny is named the Neil T. Blaney Road in his honour. See also Families in the Oireachtas References External links 1922 births 1995 deaths Neil Deaths from cancer in the Republic of Ireland Fianna Fáil TDs Independent Fianna Fáil TDs Independent MEPs for Ireland Irish farmers Members of the 13th Dáil Members of the 14th Dáil Members of the 15th Dáil Members of the 16th Dáil Members of the 17th Dáil Members of the 18th Dáil Members of the 19th Dáil Members of the 20th Dáil Members of the 21st Dáil Members of the 22nd Dáil Members of the 23rd Dáil Members of the 24th Dáil Members of the 25th Dáil Members of the 26th Dáil Members of the 27th Dáil MEPs for the Republic of Ireland 1979–1984 MEPs for the Republic of Ireland 1989–1994 Ministers for Agriculture (Ireland) People educated at St Eunan's College Politicians from County Donegal

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umberto%20Boccioni

Umberto Boccioni

Umberto Boccioni (, ; 19 October 1882 – 17 August 1916) was an influential Italian painter and sculptor. He helped shape the revolutionary aesthetic of the Futurism movement as one of its principal figures. Despite his short life, his approach to the dynamism of form and the deconstruction of solid mass guided artists long after his death. His works are held by many public art museums, and in 1988 the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City organized a major retrospective of 100 pieces. Biography Umberto Boccioni was born on 19 October 1882 in Reggio Calabria. His father was a minor government employee, originally from the Romagna region in the north, and his job included frequent reassignments throughout Italy. The family soon relocated further north, and Umberto and his older sister Amelia grew up in Forlì (Emilia-Romagna), Genoa and finally Padua. At the age of 15, in 1897, Umberto and his father moved to Catania, Sicily, where he would finish school. Some time after 1898, he moved to Rome and studied art at the Scuola Libera del Nudo of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Roma. He also studied under the Liberty style poster artist Giovanni Mataloni. The little known about his years in Rome is found in the autobiography of his friend Gino Severini (1883–1966), who recalled their meeting in 1901 and mutual interest in Nietzsche, rebellion, life experiences and socialism. Boccioni's writings at this time already express the combination of outrage and irony that would become a lifelong characteristic. His critical and rebellious nature, and overall intellectual ability, would contribute substantially to the development of the Futurism movement. After building a foundation of skills, having studied the classics through Impressionism, both he and Severini became students of Giacomo Balla (1871–1958), a painter focusing on the modern Divisionist technique, painting with divided rather than mixed color and breaking the painted surface into a field of stippled dots and stripes. Severini wrote "It was a great stroke of luck for us to meet such a man, whose direction was decisive of all our careers." In 1906, he briefly moved to Paris, where he studied Impressionist and Post-Impressionist styles, before visiting Russia for three months, getting a first-hand view of the civil unrest and governmental crackdowns. Returning to Italy in 1907, he briefly took drawing classes at the Accademia di Belle Arti of Venice. He had first visited the Famiglia Artistica, a society for artists in Milan, in 1901. As he travelled from one city to the other, in parallel with his most ground-breaking artistic endeavours, he worked as a commercial illustrator. Between 1904 and 1909 he provided lithographs and gouache paintings to internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Berlin-based Stiefbold & Co. Boccioni’s production in this field shows his awareness of contemporary European illustration, such as the work of Cecil Aldin, Harry Eliott, Henri Cassiers and Albert Beerts, and attests to his information of contemporary trends in the visual arts more in general. Boccioni moved to Milan in 1907. There, early in 1908, he met the Divisionist painter Gaetano Previati. In early 1910 he met Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, who had already published his Manifesto del Futurismo ("Manifesto of Futurism") in the previous year. On 11 February 1910 Boccioni, with Balla, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo and Severini, signed the Manifesto dei pittori futuristi ("Manifesto of Futurist painters"), and on 8 March he read the manifesto at the Politeama Chiarella theatre in Turin. Boccioni became the main theorist of the artistic movement. "Only when Boccioni, Balla, Severini and a few other Futurists traveled to Paris toward the end of 1911 and saw what Braque and Picasso had been doing did the movement begin to take real shape." He also decided to be a sculptor after he visited various studios in Paris, in 1912, including those of Georges Braque, Alexander Archipenko, Constantin Brâncuși, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, August Agero and, probably, Medardo Rosso. In 1912 he exhibited some paintings together with other Italian futurists at the Galerie Bernheim-Jeune, and the following year returned to show his sculptures at the Galerie La Boétie: all related to the elaboration of what Boccioni had seen in Paris, where he had visited the studios of Cubist sculptors, including those of Constantin Brâncuși, Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Alexander Archipenko to further his knowledge of avant-garde sculpture. In 1914 he published Pittura e scultura futuriste (dinamismo plastico) explaining the aesthetics of the group: <blockquote> "While the impressionists paint a picture to give one particular moment and subordinate the life of the picture to its resemblance to this moment, we synthesize every moment (time, place, form, color-tone) and thus paint the picture.</blockquote> He exhibited in London, together with the group, in 1912 (Sackville Gallery) and 1914 (Doré Gallery): the two exhibitions made a deep impression on a number of young English artists, in particular C.R.W. Nevinson, who joined the movement. Others aligned themselves instead to its British equivalent, Vorticism, led by Wyndham Lewis. "Boccioni's gift was to bring a fresh eye to reality in ways that, we now recognise, defined the nature of the modern movement in the visual arts and literature, too." --Michael Glover (art critic, The Independent) Military service and Death Italian involvement in the First World War began late in May 1915 with Italy's declaration of war on Austro-Hungary. The "Lombard Battalion Volunteers Cyclists and Motorists", which Boccioni was part of, set off in early June from Milan to Gallarate, then on to Peschiera del Garda, in the rear of the Trentino front. In July 1915, the volunteers were intended for a sector of the front around Ala and the Gardesana. On 24 October 1915, Boccioni participated in the battle of Dosso Casina. On 1 December 1915 the battalion was dissolved as part of a general reorganization; the volunteers were laid off temporarily, then each was called up along with the class. In May 1916 Boccioni was drafted into the Italian Army, and was assigned to an artillery regiment at Sorte of Chievo, near Verona. On 16 August 1916, he was thrown from his horse during a cavalry training exercise and was trampled. He died the following day, age thirty-three, at Verona Military Hospital, and he was buried in the Monumental Cemetery of that city. Works Early portraits and landscapes From 1902 to 1910, Boccioni focused initially on drawings, then sketched and painted portraits – with his mother as a frequent model. He also painted landscapes – often including the arrival of industrialization, trains and factories for example. During this period, he weaves between Pointillism and Impressionism, and the influence of Giacomo Balla, and Divisionism techniques are evident in early paintings (although later largely abandoned). The Morning (1909) was noted for "the bold and youthful violence of hues" and as "a daring exercise in luminosity." His 1909–10 Three Women, which portrays his mother and sister, and longtime lover Ines at center, was cited as expressing great emotion – strength, melancholy and love. Development of Futurism Boccioni worked for nearly a year on La città sale or The City Rises, 1910, a huge (2m by 3m) painting, which is considered his turning point into Futurism. "I attempted a great synthesis of labor, light and movement" he wrote to a friend. Upon its exhibition in Milan in May 1911, the painting attracted numerous reviews, mostly admiring. By 1912 it had become a headline painting for the exhibition traveling Europe, the introduction to Futurism. It was sold to the great pianist, Ferruccio Busoni for 4,000 lire that year, and today is frequently on prominent display at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, at the entrance to the paintings department.La risata (1911, The Laugh) is considered Boccioni's first truly Futurist work. He had fully parted with Divisionism, and now focused on the sensations derived from his observation of modern life. Its public reception was quite negative, compared unfavorably with Three Women, and it was defaced by a visitor, running his fingers through the still fresh paint. Subsequent criticism became more positive, with some considering the painting a response to Cubism. It was purchased by Albert Borchardt, a German collector who acquired 20 Futurist works exhibited in Berlin, including The Street Enters the House (1911) which depicts a woman on a balcony overlooking a busy street. Today the former also is owned by the Museum of Modern Art, and the latter by the Sprengel Museum in Hanover. thumb|Dynamism of a Cyclist, 1913 Boccioni spent much of 1911 working on a trilogy of paintings titled "Stati d'animo" ("States of Mind"), which he said expressed departure and arrival at a railroad station – The Farewells, Those Who Go, and Those Who Stay. All three paintings were originally purchased by Marinetti, until Nelson Rockefeller acquired them from his widow and later donated them to the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Beginning in 1912, with Elasticità or Elasticity, depicting the pure energy of a horse, captured with intense chromaticism, he completed a series of Dynamist paintings: Dinamismo di un corpo umano (Human Body), ciclista (Cyclist), Foot-baller, and by 1914 Dinamismo plastico: cavallo + caseggiato (Plastic Dynamism: Horse + Houses). While continuing this focus, he revived his previous interest in portraiture. Beginning with L'antigrazioso (The antigraceful) in 1912 and continuing with I selciatori (The Street Pavers) and Il bevitore (The Drinker) both in 1914. In 1914 Boccioni published his book, Pittura, scultura futuriste (Futurist Painting and Sculpture), which caused a rift between himself and some of his Futurist comrades. As a result, perhaps, he abandoned his exploration of Dynamism, and instead sought further decomposition of a subject by means of colour. With Horizontal Volumes in 1915 and the Portrait of Ferruccio Busoni in 1916, he completed a full return to figurative painting. Perhaps fittingly, this last painting was a portrait of the maestro who purchased his first Futurist work, The City Rises. Sculpture The writing of his (Technical manifesto of Futurist sculpture), published on 11 April 1912, was Boccioni's intellectual and physical launch into sculpture; he had begun working in sculpture in the previous year. By the end of 1913 he had completed what is considered his masterpiece, Forme uniche della continuità nello spazio (Unique Forms of Continuity in Space), in wax. His goal for the work was to depict a "synthetic continuity" of motion, instead of an "analytical discontinuity" that he saw in such artists as František Kupka and Marcel Duchamp. During his life, the work only existed as a plaster cast. It was first cast in bronze in 1931. This sculpture has been the subject of extensive commentary, and in 1998 it was selected as the image to be engraved on the back of the Italian 20-cent euro coin. Soon after Boccioni's death in 1916 (and after a memorial exhibition was held in Milan), his family entrusted them for an impermanent time to a fellow sculptor, Piero da Verona; da Verona then requested that his assistant place them in the local rubbish-dump. Marinetti's outraged account of the destruction of the sculptures was slightly different; in his memoirs, he stated that the sculptures were destroyed by workmen to clear the room the "envious passèist narrow-minded sculptor" had placed them. Thus, much of his experimental work from late 1912 to 1913 was destroyed, including pieces relating to contemporaneous paintings, which are known only through photographs. One of the few surviving pieces is the Antigrazioso (Anti-Graceful, also called The Mother). In 2019, the Estorick Collection of Modern Italian Art held an exhibition reconstructing several of the destroyed sculptures. Publications Article – Manifesto dei pittori futuristi, 1910 (Manifesto of Futurist Painters) Article – Manifesto of Futurist Sculpture, April 1912 Article – The Plastic Foundation of Futurist Sculpture and Painting, in Lacerba, March 1913 issue Article – Esposizione di scultura futurista del pittore e scultore futurista, 1913 Article – Manifesto tecnico della scultura futurista, 1914 Book – Pittura, scultura futuriste (Futurist painting and sculpture), 1914 Exhibitions Estorick Collection of Modern Italian Art, 2019 – Umberto Boccioni: Recreating the Lost Sculptures Estorick Collection of Modern Italian Art, 2009 – Centenary of Marinetti's Futurist Manifesto, with 20 works Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, 2004 – Exhibition centered on Materia, with 23 other works. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1988 – Major Retrospective Retrospective catalogue: Umberto Boccioni, by Ester Coen, 272pp, 1988 Castelvecchio Museum Verona, 1985–1986 & Pinacoteca di Brera Milan, 1986 & San Stae Venice, 1986 – Boccioni a VeneziaPalazzo Reale di Milano, 1982–1983 & Kunstmuseum, Hanover, 1983 – Boccioni a MilanoPalazzo Reale di Milano, 1973–1974 – Boccioni e il suo tempoGallery References Further reading Giovanni Lista, Futurisme : manifestes, documents, proclamations, L'Age d'Homme, coll. "Avant-gardes", Lausanne, 1973. Umberto Boccioni, Dynamisme plastique, textes réunis, annotés et préfacés par Giovanni Lista, traduction de Claude Minot et Giovanni Lista, L'Age d'Homme, coll. "Avant-gardes", Lausanne, 1975. Giovanni Lista, "De la chromogonie de Boccioni à l'art spatial de Fontana", in Ligeia, dossiers sur l'art, n° 77-78-79-80, juillet-décembre 2007, Paris. Giovanni Lista, Le Futurisme : création et avant-garde, Éditions L'Amateur, Paris, 2001. Danih Meo, Della memoria di Umberto Boccioni, Mimesis, Milano 2007. Gino Zaccaria, The Enigma of Art. On the Provenance of Artistic Creation'', Brill, Leiden-Boston 2021. External links Umberto Boccioni papers, 1899–1986. Getty Research Institute, Research Library. Los Angeles, California. – Exhibition catalog (15 September 1988, to 8 January 1989) Italian Futurist painters Futurist sculptors 1882 births 1916 deaths Divisionist painters Italian male painters Italian male sculptors Italian military personnel killed in World War I Deaths by horse-riding accident in Italy People from Reggio Calabria 20th-century Italian painters 20th-century Italian sculptors 20th-century male artists

262824

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy%E2%80%93Thorndike%20experiment

Kennedy–Thorndike experiment

The Kennedy–Thorndike experiment, first conducted in 1932 by Roy J. Kennedy and Edward M. Thorndike, is a modified form of the Michelson–Morley experimental procedure, testing special relativity. The modification is to make one arm of the classical Michelson–Morley (MM) apparatus shorter than the other one. While the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the speed of light is independent of the orientation of the apparatus, the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment showed that it is also independent of the velocity of the apparatus in different inertial frames. It also served as a test to indirectly verify time dilation – while the negative result of the Michelson–Morley experiment can be explained by length contraction alone, the negative result of the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment requires time dilation in addition to length contraction to explain why no phase shifts will be detected while the Earth moves around the Sun. The first direct confirmation of time dilation was achieved by the Ives–Stilwell experiment. Combining the results of those three experiments, the complete Lorentz transformation can be derived. Improved variants of the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment have been conducted using optical cavities or Lunar Laser Ranging. For a general overview of tests of Lorentz invariance, see Tests of special relativity. The experiment The original Michelson–Morley experiment was useful for testing the Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction hypothesis only. Kennedy had already made several increasingly sophisticated versions of the MM experiment through the 1920s when he struck upon a way to test time dilation as well. In their own words: Referring to Fig. 1, key optical components were mounted within vacuum chamber V on a fused quartz base of extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion. A water jacket W kept the temperature regulated to within 0.001 °C. Monochromatic green light from a mercury source Hg passed through a Nicol polarizing prism N before entering the vacuum chamber, and was split by a beam splitter B set at Brewster's angle to prevent unwanted rear surface reflections. The two beams were directed towards two mirrors M1 and M2 which were set at distances as divergent as possible given the coherence length of the 5461 Å mercury line (≈32 cm, allowing a difference in arm length ΔL ≈ 16 cm). The reflected beams recombined to form circular interference fringes which were photographed at P. A slit S allowed multiple exposures across the diameter of the rings to be recorded on a single photographic plate at different times of day. By making one arm of the experiment much shorter than the other, a change in velocity of the Earth would cause changes in the travel times of the light rays, from which a fringe shift would result unless the frequency of the light source changed to the same degree. In order to determine if such a fringe shift took place, the interferometer was made extremely stable and the interference patterns were photographed for later comparison. The tests were done over a period of many months. As no significant fringe shift was found (corresponding to a velocity of 10±10 km/s within the margin of error), the experimenters concluded that time dilation occurs as predicted by Special relativity. Theory Basic theory of the experiment Although Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction (Lorentz contraction) by itself is fully able to explain the null results of the Michelson–Morley experiment, it is unable by itself to explain the null results of the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment. Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction is given by the formula: where is the proper length (the length of the object in its rest frame), is the length observed by an observer in relative motion with respect to the object, is the relative velocity between the observer and the moving object, i.e. between the hypothetical aether and the moving object is the speed of light, and the Lorentz factor is defined as . Fig. 2 illustrates a Kennedy–Thorndike apparatus with perpendicular arms and assumes the validity of Lorentz contraction. If the apparatus is motionless with respect to the hypothetical aether, the difference in time that it takes light to traverse the longitudinal and transverse arms is given by: {| class="wikitable" style="border: 1px solid darkgray;" |- ! |- |} The time it takes light to traverse back-and-forth along the Lorentz–contracted length of the longitudinal arm is given by: where T1 is the travel time in direction of motion, T2 in the opposite direction, v is the velocity component with respect to the luminiferous aether, c is the speed of light, and LL the length of the longitudinal interferometer arm. The time it takes light to go across and back the transverse arm is given by: The difference in time that it takes light to traverse the longitudinal and transverse arms is given by: {| class="wikitable" style="border: 1px solid darkgray;" |- ! |- |} Because ΔL=c(TL-TT), the following travel length differences are given (ΔLA being the initial travel length difference and vA the initial velocity of the apparatus, and ΔLB and vB after rotation or velocity change due to Earth's own rotation or its rotation around the Sun): . In order to obtain a negative result, we should have ΔLA−ΔLB=0. However, it can be seen that both formulas only cancel each other as long as the velocities are the same (vA=vB). But if the velocities are different, then ΔLA and ΔLB are no longer equal. (The Michelson–Morley experiment isn't affected by velocity changes since the difference between LL and LT is zero. Therefore, the MM experiment only tests whether the speed of light depends on the orientation of the apparatus.) But in the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment, the lengths LL and LT are different from the outset, so it is also capable of measuring the dependence of the speed of light on the velocity of the apparatus. According to the previous formula, the travel length difference ΔLA−ΔLB and consequently the expected fringe shift ΔN are given by (λ being the wavelength): . Neglecting magnitudes higher than second order in v/c: For constant ΔN, i.e. for the fringe shift to be independent of velocity or orientation of the apparatus, it is necessary that the frequency and thus the wavelength λ be modified by the Lorentz factor. This is actually the case when the effect of time dilation on the frequency is considered. Therefore, both length contraction and time dilation are required to explain the negative result of the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment. Importance for relativity In 1905, it had been shown by Henri Poincaré and Albert Einstein that the Lorentz transformation must form a group to satisfy the principle of relativity (see History of Lorentz transformations). This requires that length contraction and time dilation have the exact relativistic values. Kennedy and Thorndike now argued that they could derive the complete Lorentz transformation solely from the experimental data of the Michelson–Morley experiment and the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment. But this is not strictly correct, since length contraction and time dilation having their exact relativistic values are sufficient but not necessary for the explanation of both experiments. This is because length contraction solely in the direction of motion is only one possibility to explain the Michelson–Morley experiment. In general, its null result requires that the ratio between transverse and longitudinal lengths corresponds to the Lorentz factor – which includes infinitely many combinations of length changes in the transverse and longitudinal direction. This also affects the role of time dilation in the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment, because its value depends on the value of length contraction used in the analysis of the experiment. Therefore, it's necessary to consider a third experiment, the Ives–Stilwell experiment, in order to derive the Lorentz transformation from experimental data alone. More precisely: In the framework of the Robertson-Mansouri-Sexl test theory, the following scheme can be used to describe the experiments: α represents time changes, β length changes in the direction of motion, and δ length changes perpendicular to the direction of motion. The Michelson–Morley experiment tests the relationship between β and δ, while the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment tests the relationship between α and β. So α depends on β which itself depends on δ, and only combinations of those quantities but not their individual values can be measured in these two experiments. Another experiment is necessary to directly measure the value of one of these quantities. This was actually achieved with the Ives-Stilwell experiment, which measured α as having the value predicted by relativistic time dilation. Combining this value for α with the Kennedy–Thorndike null result shows that β necessarily must assume the value of relativistic length contraction. And combining this value for β with the Michelson–Morley null result shows that δ must be zero. So the necessary components of the Lorentz transformation are provided by experiment, in agreement with the theoretical requirements of group theory. Recent experiments Cavity tests In recent years, Michelson–Morley experiments as well as Kennedy–Thorndike type experiments have been repeated with increased precision using lasers, masers, and cryogenic optical resonators. The bounds on velocity dependence according to the Robertson-Mansouri-Sexl test theory (RMS), which indicates the relation between time dilation and length contraction, have been significantly improved. For instance, the original Kennedy–Thorndike experiment set bounds on RMS velocity dependence of ~10−2, but current limits are in the ~10−8 range. Fig. 3 presents a simplified schematic diagram of Braxmaier et al.'s 2002 repeat of the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment. On the left, photodetectors (PD) monitor the resonance of a sapphire cryogenic optical resonator (CORE) length standard kept at liquid helium temperature to stabilize the frequency of a Nd:YAG laser to 1064 nm. On the right, the 532 nm absorbance line of a low pressure iodine reference is used as a time standard to stabilize the (doubled) frequency of a second Nd:YAG laser. Lunar laser ranging In addition to terrestrial measurements, Kennedy–Thorndike experiments were carried out by Müller & Soffel (1995) and Müller et al. (1999) using Lunar Laser Ranging data, in which the Earth-Moon distance is evaluated to an accuracy of centimeters. If there is a preferred frame of reference and the speed of light depends on the observer's velocity, then anomalous oscillations should be observable in the Earth-Moon distance measurements. Since time dilation is already confirmed to high precision, the observance of such oscillations would demonstrate dependence of the speed of light on the observer’s velocity, as well as direction dependence of length contraction. However, no such oscillations were observed in either study, with a RMS velocity bound of ~10−5, comparable to the bounds set by Hils and Hall (1990). Hence both length contraction and time dilation must have the values predicted by relativity. References Tests of special relativity Aether theories 1932 in science

262825

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour%20Party%20%28Ireland%29

Labour Party (Ireland)

The Labour Party (, literally "Party of the Working People") is a centre-left, social-democratic, and pro-European political party in the Republic of Ireland. Founded on 28 May 1912 in Clonmel, County Tipperary, by James Connolly, James Larkin, and William O'Brien as the political wing of the Irish Trades Union Congress, it describes itself as a "democratic socialist party" in its constitution. Labour continues to be the political arm of the Irish trade union and labour movement and seeks to represent workers' interests in the Dáil and on a local level. Unlike many other Irish political parties, Labour did not arise as a faction of the original Sinn Féin party, although it incorporated Democratic Left in 1999, a party that traced its origins back to Sinn Féin. The party has served as a partner in coalition governments on eight occasions since its formation: seven times in coalition either with Fine Gael alone or with Fine Gael and other smaller parties, and once with Fianna Fáil. This gives Labour a cumulative total of twenty-five years served as part of a government, the third-longest total of any party in the Republic of Ireland after Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael. Led by Alan Kelly, the fifth-largest party in Dáil Éireann, with seven seats, and is the joint third-largest party in Seanad Éireann, with four seats, making Labour the fifth-largest party in the Oireachtas overall as of 2021. The Labour Party is a member of the Progressive Alliance, Socialist International, and Party of European Socialists (PES). History Foundation James Connolly, James Larkin and William O'Brien established the Irish Labour Party on 28 May 1912, as the political wing of the Irish Trades Union Congress. This party was to represent the workers in the expected Dublin Parliament under the Third Home Rule Act 1914. However, after the defeat of the trade unions in the Dublin Lockout of 1913 the labour movement was weakened; the emigration of James Larkin in 1914 and the execution of James Connolly following the Easter Rising in 1916 further damaged it. The Irish Citizen Army (ICA), formed during the 1913 Lockout, was informally the military wing of the Labour Movement. The ICA took part in the 1916 Rising. Councillor Richard O'Carroll, a Labour Party member of Dublin Corporation, was the only serving elected representative to be killed during the Easter Rising. O'Carroll was shot by John Bowen-Colthurst and died several days later, on 5 May 1916. The ICA was revived during Peadar O'Donnell's Republican Congress but after the 1935 split in the Congress most ICA members joined the Labour Party. Early history In Larkin's absence, William O'Brien became the dominant figure in the Irish Transport and General Workers' Union (ITGWU) and wielded considerable influence in the Labour Party. O'Brien also dominated the Irish Trades Union Congress. The Labour Party, led by Thomas Johnson from 1917, declined to contest the 1918 general election in order to allow the election to take the form of a plebiscite on Ireland's constitutional status (although some candidates did run in Belfast constituencies under the Labour banner against Unionist candidates). It also refrained from contesting the 1921 elections. As a result, the party was left outside Dáil Éireann during the vital years of the independence struggle, though Johnson sat in the First Dáil. In the Irish Free State The Anglo-Irish Treaty divided the Labour Party. Some members sided with the Irregulars in the Irish Civil War that quickly followed, however O'Brien and Johnson encouraged its members to support the Treaty. In the 1922 general election the party won 17 seats. However, there were a number of strikes during the first year and a loss in support for the party. In the 1923 general election the Labour Party only won 14 seats. From 1922 until Fianna Fáil TDs took their seats in 1927, the Labour Party was the major opposition party in the Dáil. Labour attacked the lack of social reform by the Cumann na nGaedheal government. From 1927, a large number of the Labour Party’s voters were pre-empted by Fianna Fáil, with its almost identical policies. Labour lacked Fianna Fáil’s ‘republican’ image, which was a contributing factor to this loss. Larkin returned to Ireland in April 1923. He hoped to resume the leadership role in the ITGWU which he had previously left, but O'Brien resisted him. Larkin also created a pro-communist party called the Irish Worker League. O'Brien regarded Larkin as a "loose cannon." Following a failed challenge to O'Brien's leadership and association with communist militancy, Larkin was expelled from the ITGWU and created the WUI, a communist alternative to the ITGWU, in 1924. Two-thirds of the Dublin membership of the ITGWU defected to the new union. O'Brien blocked the WUI from admission to the ITUC. Larkin was elected to Dáil Éireann at the September 1927 general election. However, the Labour Party prevented him from taking his seat as an undischarged bankrupt for losing a libel case against Labour leader Tom Johnson. In 1932, the Labour Party supported Éamon de Valera's first Fianna Fáil government, which had proposed a programme of social reform with which the party was in sympathy. In the 1943 general election the party won 17 seats, its best result since 1927. The Irish Labour Party and the Irish Trades Union Congress separated in 1930. Future leader William Norton was prominent in urging the separation of the political and industrial wings of the labour movement into autonomous organisations, arguing that the move was necessary to broaden the party's electoral appeal beyond a trade union constituency. The party was socially conservative compared to similar European parties, and its leaders from 1932 to 1977 (William Norton and his successor Brendan Corish) were members of the Knights of Saint Columbanus. Despite this, In the 1930s the Labour Party received adverse publicity and was accused of tacitly supporting Soviet Communism while the Irish Trades Union Congress was accused of circulating an article which proclaimed the Roman Catholic Church as an enemy of the workers. These were extremely negative accusations in an Ireland that was ardently anti-communist. William Norton wrote a letter to Pope Pius XII (then known as Cardinal Pacelli, Secretary of State at the Vatican), stating that "as a Catholic and the accepted leader of the Irish Labour Party, I desire most to repudiate both statements." A pamphlet was produced, entitled Cemeteries of Liberty, which asserted that the Labour Party viewed both communism and fascism as "Cemeteries of Liberty". In an article, the Rev. Dr. George Clune, at the suggestion of the Rev. Fr. Edward Cahill, stated in support of the Labour Party that "the Irish Labour Party never at any time construed the term 'A Workers' Republic' as meaning a Republic of the Russian sort. This phrase was evolved by Connolly more than forty years ago, long before the establishment of Russian Bolshevism. This term was used by him, and subsequently accepted by the Irish Labour Party to denote a republic within which working men would have family security as contra-distinguished from the Republics of France and America, which suffered from the excesses of Capitalism ... The Party does not stand for (nor did it ever stand) for the nationalisation of private property, but for the nationalisation of certain services such as transport and flour-milling. Hence, this comes within the pronouncements of Pope Pius XI." Split with National Labour and the first coalition governments Despite efforts in the 1930s to sternly downplay the idea of Communist influence over the party, by the 1940s internal conflict and complementary allegations of communist infiltration caused a split in the Labour Party and the Irish Congress of Trade Unions. Tensions peaked in 1941 when party founder Jim Larkin and a number of his supporters were re-admitted to the party and subsequently accused of "taking over" Labour branches in Dublin. In response William X. O'Brien left with six TDs in 1944, founding the National Labour Party, whose leader was James Everett. O'Brien also withdrew the ITGWU from the Irish Trades Unions Congress and set up his own congress. The split damaged the Labour movement in the 1944 general election. The ITGWU attacked "Larkinite and Communist Party elements" which it claimed had taken over the Labour Party. The split and the anti-communist assault put Labour on the defensive. It launched its own inquiry into communist involvement, which resulted in the expulsion of six members. Alfred O'Rahilly in The Communist Front and the Attack on Irish Labour widened the assault to include the influence of British-based unions and communists in the ITUC. The National Labour Party juxtaposed itself against this by emphasising its commitment to Catholic Social Teaching. However, Labour also continued to emphasise its anti-communist credentials. It was only after Larkin's death in 1947 that an attempt at unity could be made. After the 1948 general election National Labour had five TDs – Everett, Dan Spring, James Pattison, James Hickey and John O'Leary. National Labour and Labour (with 14 TDs) both entered the First Inter-Party Government, with the leader of National Labour becoming Minister for Posts and Telegraphs. In 1950, the National Labour TDs rejoined the Labour Party. From 1948 to 1951 and from 1954 to 1957, the Labour Party was the second-largest partner in the two inter-party governments (the largest being Fine Gael). William Norton, the Labour Party leader, became Tánaiste on both occasions. During the First Inter-Party Government he served as Minister for Social Welfare, while during the Second Inter-Party Government he served as Minister for Industry and Commerce. (See First Inter-Party Government and Second Inter-Party Government.) Re-establishment in Northern Ireland The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 and Ireland Act 1949 precipitated a split in the Northern Ireland Labour Party (NILP) with Jack Macgougan leading anti-Partition members out and affiliating branches to the Dublin party, joined by other left-wing and nationalist representatives and branded locally as "Irish Labour". At Westminster, Jack Beattie held Belfast West from 1951 to 1955; the British Labour party refused Beattie its whip. At Stormont, Belfast Dock was won by Murtagh Morgan in 1953 and Paddy Devlin in 1962, but Devlin in 1964 left for the Republican Labour Party and Irish Labour contested no further Westminster or Stormont elections. In the 1949 local elections it won 7 seats on Belfast City Council, 6 (unopposed) on Armagh urban district council (UDC) and one on Dungannon UDC. In Derry, the party collapsed when Stephen McGonagle left after 1952. It was strongest in Warrenpoint and Newry UDCs, winning control of the former in 1949 and the latter in 1958, retaining seats in both until their 1973 abolition. Tommy Markey was expelled from the party in 1964 for taking a salute as Newry council chair from the Irish Guards. Party branches still existed in Warrenpoint and Newry as late as 1982, though candidates were heavily defeated in Newry and Mourne District Council at the 1973 local elections. The Social Democratic and Labour Party founded in 1970 took most of Irish Labour's voters and soon had its formal endorsement. Under Brendan Corish, 1960–1977 Brendan Corish became the new Labour leader in 1960. As leader, he advocated for more socialist policies to be adopted by the party; although initially tempering by this describing these policies as "a form of Christian socialism", he would later feel comfortable enough to drop the "Christian" prefix. In contrast to his predecessors, Corish adopted an anti-coalition stance. He attempted to give his fractious, divided party a coherent national identity, lurched it to the left and insisted Labour was the natural party of social justice. In the late 1960s, Labour began to embrace the ‘New Left,’ and Corish presented his A New Republic document at the 1967 Labour national conference, alongside a famous speech which declared that "The seventies will be socialist", which later became a Labour campaign slogan. Corish's new socialist direction for Labour was generally well-received internally; the membership's faith in Corish had already been bolstered by encouraging election results in 1965 and 1967. However, there were a number of notable and vocal dissidents: Patrick Norton, Labour politician and son of former leader William ‘Bill’ Norton, accused the party of embracing “Cuban socialism” and left Labour in 1967, insisting it had been captured by “a small but vocal group of fellow travellers.” He joined Fianna Fáil. Following further accusations of being sympathetic to communism ahead of the 1969 general election, Labour politician Brendan Halligan cited papal encyclicals, such as St. John XXIII’s Mater at Magistra to support Labour’s position. Although Labour's share of the vote improved to 17% in the 1969 Irish general election, the best in 50 years, the party only won 17 seats - 5 fewer than in the 1965 general election. The result dented Corish's confidence and caused him to reconsider his anti-coalition stance. Labour promoted a Eurosceptic outlook in the 1961 general election, and in 1972, the party campaigned against membership of the European Economic Community (EEC). Between 1973 and 1977, the Labour Party formed a coalition government with Fine Gael. The coalition partners lost the subsequent 1977 general election, and Corish resigned immediately after the defeat. Late 1970s and 1980s: Coalition, internal feuding, electoral decline and regrowth In 1977, shortly after the election defeat, members grouped around the Liaison Committee for the Labour Left split from Labour and formed the short-lived Socialist Labour Party. From 1981 to 1982 and from 1982 to 1987, the Labour Party participated in coalition governments with Fine Gael. In the later part of the second of these coalition terms, the country's poor economic and fiscal situation required strict curtailing of government spending, and the Labour Party bore much of the blame for unpopular cutbacks in health and other public services. The nadir for the Labour party was the 1987 general election where it received only 6.4% of the vote. Its vote was increasingly threatened by the growth of the Marxist and more radical Workers' Party, particularly in Dublin. Fianna Fáil formed a minority government from 1987 to 1989 and then a coalition with the Progressive Democrats. The 1980s saw fierce disagreements between the wings of the party. The more radical elements, Labour Left, led by such figures as Emmet Stagg, Sam Nolan, Frank Buckley and Helena Sheehan, and Militant Tendency, led by Joe Higgins, opposed the idea of Labour entering into coalition government with either of the major centre-right parties (Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael). At the 1989 Labour Party conference in Tralee a number of socialist and Trotskyist activists, organised around the Militant Tendency and their internal newspaper, were expelled. These expulsions continued during the early 1990s and those expelled, including Joe Higgins, went on to found the Socialist Party. 1990s: Growing political influence and involvement The early 1990s saw a sustained period of growth for the Labour Party. In 1990 former Labour Senator Mary Robinson became the first President of Ireland to have been proposed by the Labour Party. Although she had contested the election as an independent candidate, having resigned from the party over her opposition to the Anglo Irish Agreement, her victory was generally considered as reflecting very well on Labour, who had supported her campaign. Not only was it the first time a woman held the office but it was the first time, apart from Douglas Hyde, that a non-Fianna Fáil candidate was elected. It was also in 1990 that Limerick East TD Jim Kemmy's Democratic Socialist Party merged into the Labour Party, and in 1992 Sligo–Leitrim TD Declan Bree's Independent Socialist Party also followed suit and joined the Labour Party. At the 1992 general election the Labour Party won a record 19.3% of the first preference votes, more than twice its share in the 1989 general election. The party's representation in the Dáil doubled to 33 seats in a momentum swing dubbed by the Irish national media as the "Spring Tide", who attributed much of the surge in the party's popularity to its leader Dick Spring. After a period of negotiations, the Labour Party formed a coalition with Fianna Fáil, taking office in January 1993 as the 23rd Government of Ireland. Fianna Fáil leader Albert Reynolds remained as Taoiseach, and Labour Party leader Dick Spring became Tánaiste and Minister for Foreign Affairs. After less than two years the government fell in a controversy over the appointment of Attorney General, Harry Whelehan, as president of the High Court. The parliamentary arithmetic had changed as a result of Fianna Fáil's loss of two seats in by-elections in June, where the Labour Party itself had performed disastrously. On the pretext that the Labour Party voters were not happy with involvement with Fianna Fáil, Dick Spring withdrew his support for Reynolds as Taoiseach. The Labour Party negotiated a new coalition, the first time in Irish political history that one coalition replaced another without a general election. Between 1994 and 1997 Fine Gael, the Labour Party, and Democratic Left governed in the 24th Government of Ireland. Dick Spring became Tánaiste and Minister for Foreign Affairs again. Merger with Democratic Left The Labour Party presented the 1997 general election, held just weeks after spectacular electoral victories for the French Socialist Party and British Labour Party, as the first-ever choice between a government of the left and one of the right; but the party, as had often been the case following its participation in coalitions, lost support and lost half of its TDs. Labour's losses were so severe that while Fine Gael gained seats, it still came up well short of the support it needed to keep Bruton in office. This, combined with a poor showing by Labour Party candidate Adi Roche in the subsequent election for President of Ireland, led to Spring's resignation as party leader. In 1997 Ruairi Quinn became the new Labour Party leader. Following negotiations in 1999, the Labour Party merged with Democratic Left, keeping the name of the larger partner. This had been previously opposed by the former leader Dick Spring. Members of Democratic Left in Northern Ireland were invited to join the Irish Labour Party but were not permitted to organise. Quinn resigned as leader in 2002 following the poor results for the Labour Party in the 2002 general election. Former Democratic Left TD Pat Rabbitte became the new leader, the first to be elected directly by the members of the party. Rabbitte as leader '02 to '07 Prior to the 2004 local elections, party leader Pat Rabbitte had endorsed a mutual transfer pact with Fine Gael leader Enda Kenny. Rabbitte proposed an extension of this strategy, named "the Mullingar Accord", going into the 2007 general election. Although Rabbitte's strategy was opposed by some influential members such as Brendan Howlin it was supported by approximately 80% of Labour conference delegates. However, at 2007 general election the Labour Party failed to increase its seat total and had a net loss of 1 seat, returning with 20 seats. Fine Gael, the Labour Party, the Green Party and independents did not have enough seats to form a government. Pat Rabbitte resisted calls to enter negotiations with Fianna Fáil on forming a government. Eventually, Fianna Fáil entered government with the Progressive Democrats and the Green Party with the support of independents. In the aftermath, Rabbitte resigned as Labour Party leader in late August, taking responsibility for the general election result. In his wake Eamon Gilmore was elected, unopposed, as the new Labour leader. Gilmore as leader '07 to 2014 Initial surge of support Following the onset of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn, Labour's political fortunes began to alter rapidly. At the local elections of 5 June 2009, the Labour Party added 31 new councillors to their tally and performed particularly well in the Dublin region. At the 2009 European Parliament election held on the same day, the Labour Party increased its number of seats from one to three, retaining the seat of Proinsias De Rossa in the Dublin constituency, while gaining seats in the East constituency with Nessa Childers, and in the South constituency with Alan Kelly. It was the first time since the 1979 European Parliament Elections that Labour had equalled the number of seats held in Europe by either Fianna Fáil or Fine Gael. On 11 June 2010, a poll by MRBI was published in The Irish Times which, for the first time in the history of the state, showed the Labour Party as the most popular, at 32%, ahead of Fine Gael at 28% and Fianna Fáil at 17%. Eamon Gilmore's approval ratings were also the highest of any Dáil leader, standing at 46%. Entering government in 2011 and subsequent decline in support At the 2011 general election, Labour received 19.5% of first preference votes, and 37 seats. It was the most amount of seats the Labour party had ever won in the Dáil, and their highest percentage of first-preference-votes since the Spring Tide of 1992. On 9 March 2011, it became the junior partner in a coalition government with Fine Gael for the period of the 31st Dáil. Eamon Gilmore was appointed as Tánaiste (deputy prime minister) and Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade. In October 2011 the Labour Party's candidate, Michael D. Higgins was elected as the 9th President of Ireland. On the same day, Labour's Patrick Nulty won the Dublin West by-election, making the Labour Party the first government party in Ireland to win a by-election since 1982. Labour lost seven parliamentary members over the course of the 31st Dáil. On 15 November 2011 Willie Penrose resigned over the closure of an army barracks in his constituency. On 1 December 2011 Tommy Broughan lost the party whip after voting against the government in relation to the Bank Guarantee Scheme. On 6 December 2011 Patrick Nulty lost the party whip after voting against the VAT increase in the 2012 budget. On 26 September 2012 Róisín Shortall resigned as Minister of State for Primary Care and lost the party whip after conflict with the Minister for Health James Reilly. On 13 December 2012 Colm Keaveney lost the party whip after voting against the cut to the respite care grant in the 2013 budget. Senator James Heffernan lost the party whip in December 2012 after voting against the government on the Social Welfare Bill. MEP Nessa Childers resigned from the parliamentary party on 5 April 2013, saying that she "no longer want[ed] to support a Government that is actually hurting people", and she resigned from the party in July 2013. In June 2013, Patrick Nulty and Colm Keaveney resigned from the Labour Party. Willie Penrose returned to the parliamentary Labour Party in October 2013. On 26 May 2014, Gilmore resigned as party leader after Labour's poor performance in the European and local elections. On 4 July 2014, Joan Burton won the leadership election, defeating Alex White by 78% to 22%. On her election, she said that the Labour Party "would focus on social repair, and govern more with the heart". Burton was the first woman to lead the Labour Party. 2016 general election In the 2016 general election, Labour achieved a poor result, receiving only 6.6% of first preference votes, and 7 seats. It was the worst general election in its history, with a loss of 30 seats on its showing in 2011. Recent history On 20 May 2016, Brendan Howlin was elected unopposed as leader; some controversy arose from the fact that there was no contest for the leadership because none of his parliamentary colleagues were prepared to second the nomination of Alan Kelly. Howlin stated that as leader he was prepared to bring Labour back into government, citing the lack of influence on policy from opposition. He denied any suggestions that Labour could lose any further support from their 2016 performance, stating "We’re not some outfit that comes out of the morning mist and disappears again. We're the oldest party in the state". In the Local and European Elections of May 2019, despite a decreased vote share by 1.4%, Labour increased their seat count on local authorities to 57, an increase of 6. This maintained Labour's position as the country's 4th-largest party at local government level. However, the party failed to win a European seat with their three candidates, Alex White, Sheila Nunan and Dominic Hannigan, leaving the S&D Group unrepresented by an Irish MEP for the first time since 1984. At the February 2020 election, the party's first preference vote dropped to 4.4%, a record low. While the party made gains in Dublin Bay North and Louth, Joan Burton and Jan O'Sullivan both lost their seats and the party failed to retain its seat in Longford-Westmeath caused by the retirement of Willie Penrose. In addition former TDs Emmet Stagg, Joanna Tuffy, and Joe Costello failed to re-capture the seats they lost in 2016. In the subsequent Seanad elections, Labour won 5 seats, which tied them with Sinn Féin as the third-largest party in the House. After the General Election, Brendan Howlin announced his intention to step down as the leader of the Labour Party. On 3 April 2020 Alan Kelly was elected as party leader, edging out fellow Dáil colleague Aodhán Ó Ríordáin 55% to 45%. In 2021, the party gained a seventh TD in the Dáil after Ivana Bacik won the 2021 Dublin Bay South by-election. Ideology and policies Overview The Labour Party is a party of the centre-left which has been described as a social democratic party but is referred to in its constitution as a democratic socialist party. Its constitution refers to the party as a "movement of democratic socialists, social democrats, environmentalists, progressives, feminists (and) trade unionists". It has been described as a “big tent” party by the Irish Independent. The stance of the Labour Party has changed dramatically over time. In 1964, American historian Emmet Larkin described the Irish Labour Party as “the most opportunistically conservative Labour Party anywhere in the known world,” due to its Catholic outlook in an Ireland where 95 percent of the population was Roman Catholic. It was known for its longstanding unwillingness (along with Ireland's other major parties) to support any policy that could be construed as sympathetic to secularism or communism. However, from the 1980s it was associated with advocacy for socially liberal policies, with former leader Eamon Gilmore stating in 2007 that “more than any other political movement, it was Labour and its allies which drove the modernisation of the Irish state.” In the past Labour has been referred to, derisively, as “the political wing of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul.” That Labour was influenced by Catholicism is not unusual in the Irish context (likewise, both Fine Gael and Fianna Fáil were also products of a predominantly Catholic society). Labour's ethos and often its language was profoundly Christian. Following the official separation of the Irish Labour Party and Irish Trade Union Congress into two different organisations in 1930, early drafts of Labour's constitution referred to the responsibilities of the ‘Christian state’, but these had all been removed by the time the constitution was put before the new party's conference for approval. However, the Free State's commitment to a full-scale devotional revival of Catholicism was reflected in the outlook and policies of the party. The ‘Starry Plough,’ the traditional symbol of Labour, reflects a Catholic tradition and biblical reference to Isaiah 2:3-4, which is integral to its design. Like Fianna Fáil, Labour embraced corporatist policies, again influenced by the Catholic Church. This was deemed to be important for both in terms of winning electoral support from the lower and middle classes. However, Labour later became associated with increasing secularism and championing socially liberal causes in relation to contraception, divorce, LGBT rights and abortion. Its support base also shifted greatly towards postmaterialists. The Labour Party also changed its position from Euroscepticism in 1972 to pro-Europeanism and ideological integration with European social-democratic parties. LGBT rights policies The Labour Party has been involved in various campaigns for LGBT rights and put forward many bills. The party was in government in 1993 when homosexuality was decriminalised in Ireland, and it was President Mary Robinson, herself a longstanding LGBT advocate, who signed the bill into law. Mervyn Taylor published the Employment Equality Bill in 1996, which was enacted in 1998, outlawing discrimination in the workplace on the grounds of sexual orientation. Taylor also published the Equal Status Bill in 1997, enacted in 2000, outlawing discrimination in the provision of goods and services on grounds listed including sexual orientation. At the 2002 general election, only the manifestos of the Green Party and Labour explicitly referred to the rights of same-sex couples. In 2003, Labour LGBT was founded. This was the first time a political party in Ireland had formed an LGBT wing. In December 2006, Labour TD Brendan Howlin tabled a private member's civil unions bill in Dáil Éireann, proposing the legalisation of civil partnerships and adoption for same-sex couples. The Fianna Fáil government amended the bill to delay it for six months time, however the Dáil was dissolved for the 2007 Irish general election before this could happen. Labour again brought this bill before the Dáil in 2007 but it was voted down by the government, with the Green Party, who had formerly supported gay marriage, also voting in opposition to the bill, with spokesperson Ciarán Cuffe arguing that the bill was unconstitutional. At their 2010 national conference Labour passed a motion calling for transgender rights and to legislate for a gender recognition act. During their time in government, Ireland became the first country to legalise same-sex marriage by popular vote. Social policies Labour supported the repeal of the Eighth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland in 2018 to legalise abortion, and canvassed for a Yes vote in that referendum. Alan Kelly sponsored a bill in 2020 that called for all workers to receive a legal right to sick pay, as well as paid leave for employees whose children have to stay home from school due to COVID-19 measures. The government amended this bill to delay it for six months, a decision that senator Marie Sherlock branded as "unacceptable". Education policies In 2020, Labour TD Aodhán Ó Riordáin successfully campaigned for Ireland's free school meals campaign to be extended across summer. Labour have called for all primary education to be made free by providing grants for books, uniforms and students, and ending the two tier pay system for teachers and secretaries. Housing policies In 2020, Labour proposed building 80,000 social and affordable houses, investing €16 billion into housing and freezing rents. In 2021, they called for a three-year rent freeze and a tax to be placed on vacant houses, as well as investment into student housing and preventing student housing from being converted to short term rentals. Health policies In their 2020 manifesto, Labour proposed spending an additional 1 billion euro per year on health and delivering free GP care for all under 18s. In 2021, Labour proposed nationalising two hospitals - one in Dublin and one in either Galway or Cork. Climate policies In their climate manifesto in 2020, the party called for halving the country's emissions by 2030, supporting farms transitioning to more environmental forms of farming, restoring peatlands and bogs, banning offshore drilling and supporting a just transition. Drug policies In 2017, Labour leader Brendan Howlin became the first traditional party leader to back the full decriminalisation of cannabis in Ireland. This came after a motion endorsed by Aodhán O'Riordáin supporting the legalisation of cannabis for recreational usage was passed at Labour conference. O'Riordáin had previously voiced his support for the decriminalisation of all drugs, stating that "About 70 per cent of the drugs cases that are before our courts at the moment are for possession for personal use, which to be honest is a complete waste of garda time and criminal justice time", saying that someone suffering from addiction "is fundamentally a patient, who should be surrounded by compassion, not somebody who should be sitting in a court room." The current party leader Alan Kelly has previously stated that he supports the legalisation of marijuana in Ireland on both medicinal and recreational grounds. In their 2020 manifesto, Labour called for expanding public access to anti-overdose drugs such as Naloxone, and ending criminalisation for possession of small amounts of drugs, but focusing on punishing drug trafficking. Cultural policies The party has called for a campaign to promote the usage of spoken Irish, funding outreach initiatives for minorities and marginalised communities and creating a fund for artists. Historical archives The Labour Party donated its archives to the National Library of Ireland in 2012. The records can be accessed by means of the call number: MS 49,494. Subsequently, the records of Democratic Left were also donated to the library and can be access via the call number: MS 49,807. Electoral results Dáil Éireann European Parliament Northern Ireland Westminster (House of Commons) Stormont (Parliament of Northern Ireland) Structure The Labour Party is a membership organisation consisting of Labour (Dáil) constituency councils, affiliated trade unions and socialist societies. Members who are elected to parliamentary positions (Dáil, Seanad, European Parliament) form the Parliamentary Labour Party (PLP). The party's decision-making bodies on a national level formally include the executive board (formerly known as the National Executive Committee), Labour Party Conference and Central Council. The executive board has responsibility for organisation and finance, with the Central Council being responsible for policy formation – although in practice the Parliamentary leadership has the final say on policy. The Labour Party Conference debates motions put forward by branches, constituency councils, party members sections and affiliates. Motions set principles of policy and organisation but are not generally detailed policy statements. For many years Labour held to a policy of not allowing residents of Northern Ireland to apply for membership, instead supporting the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). The National Conference approved the establishment of a Northern Ireland Members Forum but it has not agreed to contest elections there. As a party with a constitutional commitment to democratic socialism founded by trade unions to represent the interests of working class people, Labour's link with unions has always been a defining characteristic of the party. Over time this link has come under increasing strain, with most craft based unions based in the public sector and Irish Congress of Trades Unions having disaffiliated since the 1950s. The remaining affiliated unions are primarily private sector general unions. Currently affiliated unions still send delegates to the National Conference in proportion to the size of their membership. Recent constitutional changes mean that in future, affiliated unions will send delegations based on the number of party members in their organisation. Sections Within the Labour Party there are different sections: Labour Youth Labour Women Labour Trade Unionists Labour Councillors Labour Equality (this section also includes groups such as Labour LGBT) Labour Disability Affiliates The Irish Labour Party constitution makes provision for both Trade Unions and Socialist Societies to affiliate to the party. There are currently seven Trade Unions affiliated to the Party: Munster & District Graphical Society Fórsa (Municipal Employees Division) National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT) General, Municipal and Boilermakers' Union (GMB) Services, Industrial, Professional and Technical Union (SIPTU) Bakers, Food and Allied Workers Union (BFWAU) Transport Salaried Staffs Association (TSSA) Socialist Societies Affiliated to the Party: Labour Party Lawyers Group Association of Labour Teachers Labour Social Services Group Leadership Party leader The following are the terms of office as party leader and as Tánaiste: Deputy leader Seanad leader Elected Representatives Parliamentary Labour Party The Parliamentary Labour Party (PLP) is the section of the party that is made up of its members of the Houses of the Oireachtas and of the European Parliament. As of July 2021 there are 11 members of the PLP: 7 TDs and 4 Senators. Labour Party TDs in the 33rd Dáil Éireann (2020- ) Labour Party Senators in the 26th Seanad Éireann (2020- ) Front Bench Councillors At the 2014 local elections Labour lost more than half of local authority seats; 51 councillors were elected - this result led to the resignation of party leader, Eamon Gilmore. Following the 2019 Irish local elections, the party had 567 local representatives. See also History of the Labour Party (Ireland) Democratic Left (Ireland) Social Democratic and Labour Party (Northern Ireland) References Further reading External links Labour Youth – Youth section 1912 establishments in Ireland Full member parties of the Socialist International Centre-left parties in Europe Party of European Socialists member parties Political parties established in 1912 Political parties in the Republic of Ireland Progressive Alliance Pro-European political parties in Ireland Social democratic parties in Europe Social democratic parties in Ireland

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Ryan%20%28Irish%20politician%29

James Ryan (Irish politician)

James Ryan (6 December 1892 – 25 September 1970) was an Irish politician who served in every Fianna Fáil government from 1932 to 1965, successively as Minister for Agriculture (1932–1947), Health and Social Welfare (1947–1948 and 1951–1954), and Finance (1957–1965). He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for Wexford from 1918 to 1922 and 1923 to 1965, and as senator from 1965 to 1969. He was a member of Sinn Féin until he joined Fianna Fáil upon that party's foundation in 1926. Early and private life Ryan was born on the family farm at Tomcoole, near Taghmon, County Wexford, in 1892. The second-youngest of twelve children, he was educated at St Peter's College, Wexford, and Ring College, Waterford. In 1911, he won a county council scholarship to University College Dublin where he studied medicine. He passed his final medical exam in March 1917 and subsequently opened a medical practice in Wexford. Four years later, in 1921, Ryan moved to Dublin where he opened a practice at Harcourt Street, specialising in skin diseases at the Skin and Cancer Hospital on Holles Street. He left medicine in 1925, after he bought Kindlestown, a large farm near Delgany, County Wicklow. Ryan lived there and it remained a working farm until his death. In July 1919, Ryan married Máirín Cregan, originally from County Kerry and a close friend of Sinéad de Valera throughout her life. Cregan, like her husband, had also fought in the Easter Rising and was subsequently an author of children's stories in Irish. They had three children together. One of Ryan's sisters, Mary Kate, married Seán T. O'Kelly, one of Ryan's future cabinet colleagues and a future President of Ireland. Following her death O'Kelly married her sister, Phyllis Ryan. Another of Ryan's sisters, Josephine ('Min') Ryan, married Richard Mulcahy, a future leader of Fine Gael. Another sister, Agnes, married Denis McCullough, a Cumann na nGaedheal TD from 1924 to 1927. He is also the great-grandfather of Ireland and Leinster Rugby player James Ryan Revolutionary career While studying at university in 1913 Ryan joined the Gaelic League at Clonmel. The company commander recruited the young catholic nationalist, who became a founder-member of the Irish Volunteers and was sworn into the Irish Republican Brotherhood the following year. During the Easter Rising in 1916, Ryan was the medical officer in the General Post Office (GPO). He was, along with James Connolly, one of the last people to leave the GPO when the evacuation took place. Following the surrender of the patriots Ryan was deported to HM Prison Stafford in England and subsequently at Frongoch internment camp. He was released in August 1916. Ryan rejoined the Volunteers immediately after his release from prison, and in June 1917, he was elected Commandant of the Wexford Battalion. His political career began the following year when he was elected as a Sinn Féin candidate for the constituency of Wexford South in the 1918 general election. Like his fellow Sinn Féin MPs, Ryan refused to attend the Westminster Parliament. Instead he attended the proceedings of the First Dáil on 21 January 1919. As the War of Independence went on, Ryan became Brigade Commandant of South Wexford and was also elected to Wexford County Council, serving as chairman on one occasion. In September 1919, he was arrested by the British and interned on Spike Island and later Bere Island until he was released after the June 1921 truce. Anglo-Irish Treaty which he voted against. In the 1922 "pact election" Ryan and one of the other two anti-Treaty Wexford TDs lost their seats to pro-Treaty candidates, and Ryan was imprisoned during the subsequent Civil War. While interned he won back his Dáil seat as an abstentionist at the 1923 general election. Political career In 1926, Ryan was among the Sinn Féin TDs who followed leader Éamon de Valera out of the party to found Fianna Fáil. They entered the Dáil in 1927 and spent five years on the opposition benches. Minister for Agriculture Following the 1932 general election, Fianna Fáil came to power appointing Ryan Minister for Agriculture, a position he would continuously hold for fifteen years. In agriculture the government's policy was based on the idea of self-sufficiency or autarky. "Irish farmers should have always been looking for prosperity from the towns of Britain. If they got people working in our own towns they would consume Irish produce," he declared at Blackwater, County Wexford calling it the idea of a cyclical arrangement. Ryan was given the task of implementing the following policies: imports of wheat, sugar and other agricultural produce were restricted; farmers were given a guaranteed price for wheat; farmers were forced to use home-produced grain in animal feed and bakers had to use a certain percentage of Irish flour in their bread; and the sugar beet industry was expanded with the opening of new factories. While these policies saw increases in sugar-beet production and in the growing of wheat the small farmers of Munster and Connacht gained little while the large farmers were the real beneficiaries. Ryan faced severe criticism over the Economic War with Britain: serious harm was done to the cattle trade, Ireland's main export earner. The government tried to compensate by giving bounties equal to the British duties, however, these had to be paid for by the taxpayer. The economic war ended in 1938 with the signing of the Anglo-Irish Trade Agreement between both governments, after a series of talks in London between the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, de Valera, Ryan and Seán Lemass. During World War II self-sufficiency in food became essential. The Department of Agriculture ordered every farmer to till one-eighth of his land. This was raised to three-eighths in 1944. In spite of strict rationing and severe shortages, basic foodstuffs remained available. At war's end farmers discontent emerged once again. A new political party, Clann na Talmhan, was established in the late 1930s to represent the interests of smaller farmers in the west of Ireland. Similarly, much of the country's land had become exhausted due to increased wartime productivity and a shortage of fertilisers. Minister for Health and Social Welfare In 1947, after spending fifteen years as Minister for Agriculture, Ryan was appointed to the newly created position of Minister for Health and Social Welfare. The minister brought the draft Health Bill to the cabinet's attention later that year. This was a radical and innovative piece of legislation which proposed to modernise the health service into two aspects – mother and child welfare and infectious diseases. De Valera was anxious about accepting these measures as government policy due to opposition from the Catholic Church. In fact, much of the legislation was controversially enacted by Noel Browne, Ryan's successor as Minister from 1948 to 1951. Following Fianna Fáil's return to power at the 1951 general election, Ryan returned as Minister for Health and Social Welfare. During his second period in office he clashed with the Church once again over the implementation of the remaining aspects of the 'Mother and Child Scheme'. Following negotiations with the hierarchy, adjustments on such issues as means testing and medical inspections were made and the legislation was passed in the Dáil. Following the 1954 general election, Fianna Fáil lost power and Ryan moved to the backbenches once again. Minister for Finance Following the 1957 general election, Fianna Fáil were back in power and de Valera's cabinet had a new look to it. In a clear message that there would be a change to economic policy Ryan, a close ally of Seán Lemass, was appointed Minister for Finance, replacing the conservative Seán MacEntee. The first sign of a new economic approach came in 1958, when Ryan brought the First Programme for Economic Development to the cabinet table. This plan, the brainchild of T. K. Whitaker, recognised that Ireland would have to move away from self-sufficiency towards free trade. It also proposed that foreign firms should be given grants and tax breaks to set up in Ireland. When Seán Lemass succeeded de Valera as Taoiseach in 1959, Ryan was retained in the Finance portfolio. Lemass also wanted to reward him for his loyalty by naming him Tánaiste, however, the new leader felt obliged to appoint Seán MacEntee, one of the party elders to the position. Ryan continued to implement the First Programme throughout the early 1960s, achieving a record growth rate of 4 per cent by 1963. That year an even more ambitious Second Programme was introduced, however, it overreached and had to be abandoned. In spite of this the annual growth rate averaged five per cent, the highest achieved since independence. Retirement and death Ryan did not stand in the 1965 general election, after which he was nominated by the Taoiseach to Seanad Éireann (the upper house of the Oireachtas), where he joined his son, Eoin Ryan Snr. At the 1969 dissolution he retired to his farm at Kindlestown in County Wicklow, where he died at age 77 on 25 September 1970. His grandson Eoin Ryan Jnr served in the Oireachtas from 1989 and later in the European Parliament until 2009. References 1892 births 1970 deaths Fianna Fáil TDs Early Sinn Féin TDs Ministers for Finance (Ireland) Members of the 1st Dáil Members of the 2nd Dáil Members of the 4th Dáil Members of the 5th Dáil Members of the 6th Dáil Members of the 7th Dáil Members of the 8th Dáil Members of the 9th Dáil Members of the 10th Dáil Members of the 11th Dáil Members of the 12th Dáil Members of the 13th Dáil Members of the 14th Dáil Members of the 15th Dáil Members of the 16th Dáil Members of the 17th Dáil Members of the 11th Seanad Members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Wexford constituencies (1801–1922) Alumni of University College Dublin Politicians from County Wexford UK MPs 1918–1922 Ministers for Health (Ireland) Ministers for Agriculture (Ireland) Ministers for Social Affairs (Ireland) Nominated members of Seanad Éireann Fianna Fáil senators People educated at St Peter's College, Wexford

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A1n%20MacEntee

Seán MacEntee

Seán Francis MacEntee (; 23 August 1889 – 9 January 1984) was an Irish Fianna Fáil politician who served as Tánaiste from 1959 to 1969, Minister for Social Welfare from 1957 to 1961, Minister for Health from 1957 to 1965, Minister for Local Government and Public Health from 1941 to 1948, Minister for Industry and Commerce from 1939 to 1941, Minister for Finance from 1932 to 1939 and 1951 to 1954. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1918 to 1969. At the time of his death, he was the last surviving member of the First Dáil. Early life Born as John McEntee at 47 King Street, Belfast on 23 August 1889, the son of James McEntee, a publican, and his wife, Mary Owens, both of whom were from Monaghan. In 1901 and 1911, the family's address was 49 King Street. James McEntee was a prominent Nationalist member of Belfast Corporation and a close friend of Joe Devlin MP. MacEntee was educated at St Mary's Christian Brothers School, St Malachy's College and the Belfast Municipal College of Technology where he qualified as an electrical engineer. His early political involvement was with the Irish Socialist Republican Party in Belfast city. He quickly rose through the ranks of the trade union movement becoming junior representative in the city's shipyards. Following his education MacEntee worked as an engineer in Dundalk, County Louth, and was involved in the establishment of a local corps of the Irish Volunteers in the town. He mobilised in Dundalk and fought in the General Post Office Garrison in the Easter Rising in 1916. He was sentenced to death for his part in the rising. This sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment. MacEntee was released in the general amnesty in 1917, and was later elected a member of the National Executives of both Sinn Féin and the Irish Volunteers in October 1917. MacEntee was later elected Sinn Féin Member of Parliament (MP) for Monaghan South at the 1918 general election. Rebellion years An attempt to develop his career as a consulting engineer in Belfast was interrupted by the War of Independence in 1919. MacEntee served as Vice-Commandant of the Belfast Brigade of the Irish Republican Army. He was also a member of the Volunteer Executive, a sort of Cabinet and Directory for the Minister for Defence and the HQ Staff But MacEntee remained one of the few Sinn Féiners from the north. On 6 August 1920, MacEntee presented 'a Memorial' lecture to the Dáil from the Belfast Corporation. He told the Dáil it was the only custodian of public order, and that a Nationalist pogrom was taking place, he advised them to fight Belfast. The Dáil government's policy was dubbedHibernia Irredenta or 'Greening Ireland'. Sean MacEntee was asked to resign his South Monaghan seat, after voting against a bunting celebration in Lurgan to mark the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. Path to civil war From April 1921, when MacEntee was transferred to Dublin to direct a special anti-partition campaign in connection with the May general election. It remained Collins policy, he declared, that the largely Protestant shipyard workers of Belfast were being directed by the British, urging all Irishmen to rejoin the Republic. Correspondingly the Ulster Unionist Council rejected the call for a review of the boundary commission decision made on Northern Ireland. But when Ulstermen chose James Craig as Premier, Collins denounced democracy in the north as a sham. It was on the partition of Ireland issue that MacEntee voted against the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921. During the subsequent Civil War MacEntee commanded the IRA unit in Marlboro Street Post Office in Dublin. He later fought with Cathal Brugha in the Hamman Hotel, and was subsequently interned in Kilmainham and Gormanstown until December 1923. Politician in the Free State After his release from prison, MacEntee devoted himself more fully to his engineering practice, although he unsuccessfully contested Dublin County by-election of 1924. He became a founder-member of Fianna Fáil in 1926 and was eventually elected a TD for Dublin County at the 1927 general election. MacEntee founded the Association of Patent Agents in 1929, having gained his interest in Patents when he worked as an assistant engineer in Dundalk Urban District Council. On MacEntee's appointment as Minister for Finance in 1932, his colleague, Francis Litton who was acting as Secretary of the Association, circulated the members with a notice to the effect that the Association was "suspended" until such time as MacEntee could return as he now had to devote his energies to the affairs of the State. However, the other members decided to carry on. MacEntee must have valued his status as a Patent Agent since he maintained his name on the Register for over 30 years while he held Ministerial rank in the Irish Government, although he is not thought to have taken any active part in the patent business, which was carried on by his business partners. In the first Fianna Fáil government (1932–1948) In 1932, Fianna Fáil came to power for the very first time, with MacEntee becoming Minister for Finance. In keeping with the party's protectionist economic policies his first budget in March of that year saw the introduction of new duties on forty-three imports, many of them coming from Britain. This saw retaliation from the British government, which in turn provoked a response from the Irish government. This was the beginning of the Economic War between the two nations, however, a treaty in 1938, signed by MacEntee and other senior members who brought an end to the issue. During the Dáil debates on the Constitution of Ireland in 1937, MacEntee described it as 'the Constitution of a Catholic State'. In 1939, World War II broke out and a cabinet reshuffle resulted in MacEntee being appointed as Minister for Industry and Commerce, taking over from his rival Seán Lemass. During his tenure at this department MacEntee introduced the important Trade Union Act (1941). In 1941, another reshuffle of ministers took place, with MacEntee becoming Minister for Local Government and Public Health. The Health portfolio was transferred to a new Department of Health in 1947. Following the 1948 general election, Fianna Fáil returned to the opposition benches for the first time in sixteen years. Later Fianna Fáil governments (1951–1954, 1957–1965) In 1951, Fianna Fáil were back in government, although in minority status, depending on independent deputies for survival. MacEntee once again returned to the position of Minister for Finance where he felt it was vital to deal with the balance of payments deficit. He brought in a harsh budget in 1951 which raised income tax and tariffs on imports. His chief aim was to cut spending and reduce imports, however, this came at a cost as unemployment increased sharply. The increases were retained in his next two budgets in 1952 and 1953. It is often said that it was MacEntee's performance during this period that cost Fianna Fáil the general election in 1954. The poor grasp on economics also did his political career tremendous damage as up to that point he was seen as a likely successor as Taoiseach. Now, however, Seán Lemass was firmly seen as the "heir apparent". In 1957, Fianna Fáil returned to power with an overall majority with MacEntee being appointed Minister for Health. The financial and economic portfolios were dominated by Lemass and other like-minded ministers who wanted to move away from protection to free trade. He is credited during this period with the reorganisation of the health services, the establishment of separate departments of health and social welfare, and the fluoridation of water supplies in Ireland. In 1959, MacEntee became Tánaiste when Seán Lemass was elected Taoiseach. Retirement and death Following the 1965 general election, MacEntee was 76 years old and retired from the government. This did not mean that he went quietly to the backbenches. He re-emerged in 1966 to launch a verbal attack on Seán Lemass for deciding to step down as party leader and Taoiseach. The two men, however, patched up their differences shortly afterwards. MacEntee retired from Dáil Éireann in 1969 at the age of 80, making him the oldest TD in Irish history. He had a negative view of the Provisional IRA. MacEntee served in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe and repeatedly proposed amendments that would have watered down resolutions against the Greek junta (see Greek case). MacEntee died in Dublin on 9 January 1984, at the age of 94. Family In June 1921, he had married a strongly nationalistic woman from County Tipperary, Margaret Browne (1893–1976), who later taught Irish at Alexandra College and then at UCD. Among Margaret's brothers were Cardinal Michael Browne, poet and academic Monsignor Pádraig de Brún, and author Monsignor Maurice Browne. One of Seán and Margaret's daughters was the Irish poet Máire Mhac an tSaoi (1922 - 2021). She was married to the politician Conor Cruise O'Brien until his death. Their other daughter was Barbara MacEntee-Biggar (1928–1995), who was married to Irish Ambassador Frank Biggar (1917–1974); Barbara and Frank's eldest son is former Irish ambassador John Biggar (1952–). Seán and Margaret also had a son, Seamus MacEntee (1924–2000), who lived mostly in England, working as a psychiatrist, as well as being an artist painting under the name Sagesson ("Sage's son" is an English translation of the name MacEntee, which is an anglicisation of the Irish Mac an tSaoi, meaning "Son of the wise man"). References Bibliographical sources Beaslai, Piaras, Michael Collins and the Making of a New Ireland 2 vols, (Dublin 1926) Boyce, George D & Alan O' Day (eds.) The Ulster Crisis 1885–1921 (Basingstoke 2006) Coogan, Tim Pat, Michael Collins: A biography (London 1990) Costello, Francis, Enduring the Most: The Life and Death of Terence MacSwiney (Dingle 1995) Curran, Joseph, The Birth of the Irish Free State (Tuscaloosa, Ala, USA 1980) Doherty, Gabriel & Dermot Keogh (eds) Michael Collins and the Making of the Irish State (Cork 1998) Farrell, Brian, Creation of the Dail (Dublin 1994) Original from the University of Michigan. Digitized 30 Jun 2010 Foy, Michael T., Michael Collins' Intelligence War: The Struggle between the British and the IRA 1919–1921 (Stroud 2006) Lynch, Robert, The Northern IRA and the Early Years of Partition, 1920–1922 (Dublin 2006) McDermott, Jim, Northern Divisions: The Old IRA and the Belfast Pogroms 1920–22 (Belfast 2001) Morgan, Austen, Labour and Partition: The Belfast Working Class 1905–23 (London 1990) Phoenix, Eamon, Northern Nationalism: Nationalist Politics, Partition and the Catholic Minority in Northern Ireland, 1890–1940 (Belfast 1994) External links 1889 births 1984 deaths Politicians from Belfast People educated at St. Mary's Christian Brothers' Grammar School, Belfast Ministers for Finance (Ireland) Fianna Fáil TDs Irish Republican Army (1919–1922) members Irish Republican Army (1922–1969) members Irish republicans interned without trial Irish poets Tánaistí People of the Irish Civil War (Anti-Treaty side) Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Monaghan constituencies (1801–1922) UK MPs 1918–1922 Members of the 1st Dáil Members of the 2nd Dáil Members of the 5th Dáil Members of the 6th Dáil Members of the 7th Dáil Members of the 8th Dáil Members of the 9th Dáil Members of the 10th Dáil Members of the 11th Dáil Members of the 12th Dáil Members of the 13th Dáil Members of the 14th Dáil Members of the 15th Dáil Members of the 16th Dáil Members of the 17th Dáil Members of the 18th Dáil Prisoners sentenced to death by the United Kingdom Irish prisoners sentenced to death Early Sinn Féin TDs Presidential appointees to the Council of State (Ireland) People educated at St Malachy's College Ministers for Health (Ireland) Ministers for Social Affairs (Ireland) 20th-century Irish poets 20th-century male writers Ministers for Enterprise, Trade and Employment

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translatio%20imperii

Translatio imperii

Translatio imperii (Latin for "transfer of rule") is a historiographical concept that originated from the Middle Ages, in which history is viewed as a linear succession of transfers of an imperium that invests supreme power in a singular ruler, an "emperor" (or sometimes even several emperors, e.g., the Eastern Roman Empire and the Western Holy Roman Empire). The concept is closely linked to translatio studii (the geographic movement of learning). Both terms are thought to have their origins in the second chapter of the Book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible (verses 39–40). Definition Jacques Le Goff describes the translatio imperii concept as "typical" for the Middle Ages for several reasons: The idea of linearity of time and history was typical for the Middle Ages; The translatio imperii idea typically also neglected simultaneous developments in other parts of the world (of no importance to medieval Europeans); The translatio imperii idea didn't separate "divine" history from the history of "worldly power": medieval Europeans considered divine (supernatural) and material things as part of the same continuum, which was their reality. Also the causality of one reign necessarily leading to its successor was often detailed by the medieval chroniclers, and is seen as a typical medieval approach. Each medieval author described the translatio imperii as a succession leaving the supreme power in the hands of the monarch ruling the region of the author's provenance: Adso of Montier-en-Der (French area, 10th century): Roman Empire → Carolingian Franks → Saxons Otto of Freising (living in German region): Rome → Franks → Longobards → Germans (=Holy Roman Empire); Chrétien de Troyes (living in medieval France): Greece → Rome → France Richard de Bury (England, 14th century): "Athens" (Greece) → Rome → "Paris" (France) → England Ibrahim Pasha (Ottoman Empire, 16th century) Roman Empire → Eastern Roman Empire → Seljuk Empire → Sultanate of Rum → Ottoman Empire Snorri Sturluson (Prose Edda Prologue, Iceland/Norway, 13th c.): "Troy" (Turkey) → "Thrúdheim" (Thrace) → Norway Later, continued and reinterpreted by modern and contemporary movements and authors (some known examples): Fifth Monarchists (England, 17th century): Caldeans (Babylonians) → Persians → Macedonian Empire → Rome → England (and the British Empire later) António Vieira (Portugal, 17th century): Assyro-Caldeans (Babylonians) → Persians → Greeks → Romans → Portuguese Empire Fernando Pessoa (Portugal, 20th century): Greece → Rome → Christianity → Europe → Portugal Medieval and Renaissance authors often linked this transfer of power by genealogically attaching a ruling family to an ancient Greek or Trojan hero; this schema was modeled on Virgil's use of Aeneas (a Trojan hero) as progenitor of the city of Rome in his Aeneid. Continuing with this tradition, the twelfth-century Anglo-Norman authors Geoffrey of Monmouth (in his Historia Regum Britanniae) and Wace (in his Brut) linked the founding of Britain to the arrival of Brutus of Troy, son of Aeneas. In a similar way, the French Renaissance author Jean Lemaire de Belges (in his Les Illustrations de Gaule et Singularités de Troie) linked the founding of Celtic Gaul to the arrival of the Trojan Francus (i.e. Astyanax), the son of Hector; and of Celtic Germany to the arrival of Bavo, the cousin of Priam; in this way he established an illustrious genealogy for Pepin and Charlemagne (the legend of Francus would also serve as the basis for Ronsard's epic poem, "La Franciade"). From the Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire to the Holy Roman Empire The cardinal point in the idea of the translatio imperii is the link between the Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Constantine I established Constantinople, a New Rome, as a second capital of the Roman Empire in 330. After the death of Emperor Theodosius I (347–395), the Roman Empire was permanently divided into the Western and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire). With the demise of the Western Empire in 476/480, the Byzantine Empire remained the sole Roman Empire. Byzantine Emperor Constantine V married his son Leo IV to Irene of Athens on 17 December 768, brought to Constantinople by the father on 1 November 768. On 14 January 771, Irene gave birth to a son, Constantine. Following the deaths of Constantine V in 775 and Leo IV in 780, Irene became regent for their nine-year-old son, Constantine VI. As early as 781, Irene began to seek a closer relationship with the Carolingian dynasty and the Papacy. She negotiated a marriage between her son Constantine and Rotrude, a daughter of the ruling Frankish king, Charlemagne. Irene went as far as to send an official to instruct the Frankish princess in Greek; however, Irene herself broke off the engagement in 787, against her son's wishes. As Constantine VI approached maturity, the relationship between mother/regent and son/emperor was increasingly strained. In 797 Irene deposed her son, with his eyes being mutilated, who died before 805. Some Western authorities considered the Byzantine throne, now occupied by a woman, to be vacant and instead recognized that Charlemagne, who controlled Italy and much part of the former Western Roman Empire, had a valid claim to the imperial title. Pope Leo III, crowned Charlemagne as Roman Emperor in 800, an act not recognized by the Byzantine Empire. Irene is said to have endeavored to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne, but according to Theophanes the Confessor, who alone mentioned it, the scheme was frustrated by Aetios, one of her favorites. In 802, Empress Irene was deposed by a conspiracy and replaced by Nikephoros I. She was exiled and died the following year. Pax Nicephori, a peace treaty in 803 between the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne and Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros I, Basileus of the Eastern Roman Empire. Recognition of Charlemagne as Emperor (Basileus) in 812 by Emperor Michael I Rangabe of the Byzantine Empire (crowned on 2 October 811 by the Patriarch of Constantinople), after he reopened negotiations with the Franks. While acknowledging Charlemagne strictly as “Emperor”, Michael only referred to himself as “Emperor of the Romans”. In exchange for that recognition, Venice was returned to the Byzantine Empire. On February 2, 962, Otto I was solemnly crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII. Ten days later at a Roman synod, Pope John XII, at Otto's desire, founded the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Merseburg, bestowed the pallium on the Archbishop of Salzburg and Archbishop of Trier, and confirmed the appointment of Rather as Bishop of Verona. The next day, the emperor issued a decree, the famous Diploma Ottonianum, in which he confirmed the Roman Church in its possessions, particularly those granted by the Donation of Pepin. On April 972 14, Otto I married his son and heir Otto II to the Byzantine Princess Theophanu. Through their wedding contract, Otto was recognized as Emperor in the West, a title Theopanu was to assume together with her husband through the Consortium imperii after his death. See also Succession of the Roman Empire Legacy of the Roman Empire Problem of two emperors Third Rome Rûm Sultanate of Rûm Rumelia Surah ar-Rum Fifth Empire Caliphate Emperor of China Mandate of Heaven References Historiography Historiography of the Middle Ages Latin words and phrases

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami%20Vice

Miami Vice

Miami Vice is an American crime drama television series created by Anthony Yerkovich and produced by Michael Mann for NBC. The series stars Don Johnson as James "Sonny" Crockett and Philip Michael Thomas as Ricardo "Rico" Tubbs, two Metro-Dade Police Department detectives working undercover in Miami. The series ran for five seasons on NBC from September 16, 1984 to January 25, 1990. The USA Network began airing reruns in 1988 and broadcast an originally unaired episode during its syndication run of the series on January 25, 1990. Unlike standard police procedurals, the show drew heavily upon 1980s New Wave culture and is noted for its integration of contemporary pop and rock music and stylish or stylized visuals. People magazine states that Miami Vice was the "first show to look really new and different since color TV was invented". Michael Mann directed a film adaptation of the series, which was released July 28, 2006. Conception The conception of the show is unclear. One version of events states that the head of NBC's Entertainment Division, Brandon Tartikoff, wrote a brainstorming memo that simply read "MTV cops", and later presented it to series creator Anthony Yerkovich, formerly a writer and producer for Hill Street Blues. Yerkovich, however, has indicated he devised the concept after learning about asset forfeiture statutes allowing law enforcement agencies to confiscate the property of drug dealers for official use. The initial idea was for a movie about a pair of vice cops in Miami. Yerkovich then wrote a script for a two-hour pilot, titled Gold Coast, but later renamed it to Miami Vice. Yerkovich was immediately drawn to South Florida as a setting for his new-style police show. Production In keeping with the show's title, most episodes focus on combating drug trafficking and prostitution. Episodes often end in an intense gun battle, claiming the lives of several criminals before they can be apprehended. An undercurrent of cynicism and futility underlies the entire series. The detectives repeatedly refer to the "Whac-A-Mole" nature of drug interdiction, with its parade of drug cartels quickly replacing those that are apprehended. Co-executive producer Yerkovich explained: The choice of music and cinematography borrowed heavily from the emerging New Wave culture of the 1980s. As such, segments of Miami Vice sometimes used music-based stanzas, a technique later featured in Baywatch. As Lee H. Katzin, one of the show's directors, remarked, "The show is written for an MTV audience, which is more interested in images, emotions and energy than plot and character and words." These elements make the series into an instant hit, and in its first season saw an unprecedented fifteen Emmy Award nominations. While the first few episodes contain elements of a standard police procedural, the producers soon abandoned them in favor of a more distinctive style. Influenced by an Art Deco revival, no "earth tones" were allowed to be used in the production by executive producer Michael Mann. A director of Miami Vice, Bobby Roth, recalled: Miami Vice was one of the first American network television programs to be broadcast in stereophonic sound. It is mixed in Stereo sound for its entire run. Casting Nick Nolte and Jeff Bridges were considered for the role of Sonny Crockett, but since it was not lucrative for film stars to venture into television at the time, other candidates were considered. Mickey Rourke was also considered for the role, but he turned down the offer. Larry Wilcox, of CHiPs, was also a candidate for the role of Crockett, but the producers felt going from one police officer role to another would not be a good fit. After dozens of candidates and a twice-delayed pilot shooting, Don Johnson and Philip Michael Thomas were chosen as the vice cops. For Johnson, who was by then 34 years old, NBC had particular doubts about the several earlier unsuccessful pilots in which he starred. Jimmy Smits played Eddie Rivera, Crockett's ill-fated partner, in the pilot episode. After two seasons, Don Johnson threatened to walk from the series as part of a highly publicized contract dispute. The network was ready to replace him with Mark Harmon, who had recently departed St. Elsewhere, but the network and Johnson were able to resolve their differences and he continued with the series until its end. Locations Before production started, the idea was to do all or most of the exterior filming in Los Angeles, and pass it off to viewers as urban Miamian approach put into practice two decades later during the filming of CSI: Miami. But instead, nearly all filming, both exterior and interior, was done in Miami and Florida. Many episodes of Miami Vice were filmed in the South Beach section of Miami Beach, an area which, at the time, was blighted by poverty and crime, with its demographic so deteriorated that there "simply weren't many people on the street. Ocean Drive's hotels were filled with elderly, mostly Jewish retirees, many of them frail, subsisting on meager Social Security payments. ... They were filming all over Miami Beach. ... They could film in the middle of the street. There was literally nobody there. There were no cars parked in the street". In early episodes in particular, local elderly residents were frequently cast as extras. Some street corners of South Beach were so run down that the production crew actually decided to repaint the exterior walls of some buildings before filming. The crew went to great lengths to find the correct settings and props. Bobby Roth recalled, "I found this house that was really perfect, but the color was sort of beige. The art department instantly paints the house gray for me. Even on feature films people try to deliver what is necessary but no more. At Miami Vice they start with what's necessary and go beyond it." Miami Vice is to some degree credited with causing a wave of support for the preservation of Miami's famous Art Deco architecture in the mid-1980s to early 1990s; and many of those buildings, among them many beachfront hotels, have been renovated since filming, making that part of South Beach one of South Florida's most popular places for tourists and celebrities. Other places commonly filmed in the series include locations around Broward and Palm Beach counties. Interior scenes were initially supposed to be filmed at Universal Studios in Los Angeles, but to simplify cross-country logistics, the decision was made to use the facilities of Greenwich Studios in North Miami instead, and only carry out post-production in L.A. In a few scenes, particularly in earlier episodes, Greenwich Studios' rear loading dock is repeatedly used as the back room of the Gold Coast Shipping building, where the offices of the vice squad are located. Music Miami Vice is noted for its innovative use of stereo broadcast music, particularly pop and rock hits of the 1980s and the distinctive, synthesized instrumental music of Jan Hammer. While other television shows used made-for-TV music, Miami Vice would spend $10,000 or more per episode to buy the rights to original recordings. Getting a song played on Miami Vice was a boost to record labels and artists. In fact, some newspapers, such as USA Today, would let readers know the songs that would be featured each week. Among the many well-known bands and artists, as well as underground or 'new wave' associated acts, who contribute their music to the show were: Several artists guest-star in episodes, including Phil Collins, Miles Davis, Power Station, Glenn Frey, Suicidal Tendencies, Willie Nelson, Ted Nugent, Frank Zappa, The Fat Boys, Sheena Easton, Gloria Estefan, and Gene Simmons. An iconic scene from the Miami Vice oeuvre involves Crockett and Tubbs driving through Miami at night to Phil Collins' song "In the Air Tonight". Jan Hammer credits executive producer Michael Mann with allowing him great creative freedom in scoring Miami Vice. The collaboration resulted in memorable instrumental pieces, including the show's title theme, which climbed to the top of the Billboard charts in November 1985. The Miami Vice original soundtrack, featuring the theme song and Glenn Frey's "Smuggler's Blues" and "You Belong to the City" (a No. 2 hit), remained at the top of the U.S. album chart for 11 weeks in 1985, making it the most successful TV soundtrack at the time. The theme song was so popular that it also garnered two Grammy Awards in 1986. It was also voted the number-one theme song of all time by TV Guide readers. "Crockett's Theme", another recurring tune from the show, became a No. 1 hit in several European countries in 1987. During the show's run, three official soundtrack albums with original music from the episodes were released. Hammer also released several albums with music from the series; among them are Escape from Television (1987), Snapshots (1989), and after many requests from fans, Miami Vice: The Complete Collection (2002). Fashion The clothes worn on Miami Vice had a significant influence on men's fashion. They popularized, if not invented, the "T-shirt under Armani jacket"–style, and popularized Italian men's fashion in the United States. Don Johnson's typical attire of Italian sport coat, T-shirt, white linen pants, and slip-on sockless loafers became a hit. Crockett initially wore an 18k Rolex Day-Date "President" model in the first season, until Ebel won the contract for the remaining seasons. Similarly, Crockett's perpetually unshaven appearance sparked a minor fashion trend, inspiring men to wear designer stubble at all times. In an average episode, Crockett and Tubbs wore five to eight outfits, appearing in shades of pink, blue, green, peach, fuchsia, and the show's other "approved" colors. Designers such as Vittorio Ricci, Gianni Versace, and Hugo Boss were consulted in keeping the male leads looking trendy. Costume designer Bambi Breakstone, who traveled to Milan, Paris, and London in search of new clothes, said that, "The concept of the show is to be on top of all the latest fashion trends in Europe." Jodi Tillen, the costume designer for the first season, along with Michael Mann, set the style. The abundance of pastel colors on the show reflects Miami's Art-deco architecture. During its five-year run, consumer demand for unstructured blazers, shiny fabric jackets, and lighter pastels increased. After Six formal wear even created a line of Miami Vice dinner jackets, Kenneth Cole introduces Crockett and Tubbs shoes, and Macy's opened a Miami Vice section in its young men's department. Crockett also boosted Ray Ban's popularity by wearing a pair of Model L2052, Ray-Ban Wayfarers, which increases sales of Ray Bans to 720,000 units in 1984. In the spring of 1986, an electric razor became available named the "Stubble Device", allowing users to have a beard like Don Johnson's character. It was initially named the "Miami Device" by Wahl, but in the end the company opted to avoid a trademark infringement lawsuit. Many of the styles popularized by the TV show, such as the T-shirt under pastel suits, no socks, rolled up sleeves, and Ray-Ban sunglasses, have become the standard image of 1980s culture. The influence of Miami Vices fashions continued into the early 1990s, and to some extent persists today. Firearms Miami Vice also popularized certain brands of firearms and accessories. After Johnson became dissatisfied with his gun holster, the Jackass Leather Company (later renamed Galco International) sent their president, Rick Gallagher, to personally fit Don Johnson with an "Original Jackass Rig", later renamed the Galco "Miami Classic". The Bren Ten, manufactured by Dornaus & Dixon, was a stainless-steel handgun used by Don Johnson during Miami Vice's first two seasons. Dornaus & Dixon went out of business in 1986, and Smith & Wesson was offered a contract to outfit Johnson's character with a S&W Model 645 during season three. Several firearms never before seen on TV were featured prominently for the first time in the show, including the Glock 17 pistol. In addition, firearms not yet well known to the public, including the Steyr AUG, MAC-10 and the Desert Eagle, were showcased to a wide audience on this show. Even heavy guns came to use, as Zito is seen maneuvering an M60 machine gun from a roof top in the episode "Lombard". Cars Two automobiles drew a lot of attention in Miami Vice, the Ferrari Daytona and Testarossa. During the first two seasons and two episodes of the third season, Detective Sonny Crockett drove a black 1972 Ferrari Daytona Spyder 365 GTS/4 kit replica built on a Chevrolet Corvette C3 chassis. The car was fitted with Ferrari-shaped body panels by specialty car manufacturer McBurnie Coachcraft. Once the car gained notoriety, Ferrari Automobili filed suit demanding that McBurnie and any others cease and desist producing and selling Ferrari replicas and infringing upon the Ferrari name and styling. As a result, the Daytona lasted until season 2, at which point it was 'blown-up' in the season three premiere episode, "When Irish Eyes Are Crying". Neither the kit car nor its backup were actually destroyed, as the production company simply blew up a small, plastic model for both cost and safety reasons. The fake Ferraris were removed from the show, with Ferrari donating two brand new 1986 Testarossas as replacements. The Ferrari Daytona is the subject of a huge continuity goof on the show, when it suddenly reappears in "El Viejo", six episodes after its destruction, without explanation. Originally "El Viejo" was set to be the third-season premiere, but studio executives felt the Daytona's destruction would serve as a more dramatic opening to the season. Don Johnson's contract-holdout at the start of the season also played a part, delaying filming to the point where "El Viejo" could not finish in time for the season premiere. The series' crew also used a third Testarossa look-alike, which was the stunt car. Carl Roberts, who had worked on the Daytona kit cars, offered to build the stunt car. Roberts decided to use a 1972 De Tomaso Pantera, which had the same wheelbase as the Testarossa and thus was perfect for the body pieces. The vehicle was modified to withstand daily usage on-set, and continued to be driven until the series ended. Crockett was also seen driving a black 1978 Porsche 911 SC Targa in a flashback to 1980 in the Season 3 episode "Forgive Us Our Debts." Crockett's partner, Ricardo Tubbs, drove a 1964 Cadillac Coupe de Ville Convertible. Stan Switek drove a turquoise 1961 Ford Thunderbird. Gina Calabrese drove a 1971 Mercury Cougar XR-7 convertible. When Stan and Larry were undercover, they drove a Dodge Ram Van. Other notable vehicles that appear in Miami Vice include Lamborghinis, AMG Mercedes-Benzes, BMWs, Maseratis, Lotuses, DeLoreans, Porsches, and Corvettes. American muscle cars, such as the Pontiac GTO and Firebird Trans Am, Ford Mustang, Chevrolet Camaro, Plymouth GTX and Barracuda, Chevrolet Monte Carlo SS, and the Buick Grand National also made appearances. Boats and flying boats Throughout the series, Sonny Crockett lives on an Endeavour sailboat, St. Vitus' Dance, while in the pilot episode, Crockett is seen on a 38-foot Cabo Rico sailboat. In season 1, he is seen living on an Endeavour 40 sailboat, while in the rest of the series (seasons 2 to 5) he is seen living on an Endeavour 42 sailboat (priced at $120,000 in 1986). The allure of the sailboats was such that the Endeavour 42 used for the 1986 season of Miami Vice was sold to a midwest couple, while the Endeavour 40, was sold to a chartering service in Fort Lauderdale. At the same time, Endeavour was building a new 42 for the 1987 season of Miami Vice. In the pilot episode, and for the first season, Crockett piloted a Chris-Craft Stinger 390 X – a 39-foot deep-v offshore racing boat. For the other four Stingers, Chris-Craft showed the production crew a color scheme that included the red – however, since Michael Mann decided that the color red was to never show up on the show, a blue color scheme was chosen instead. The Stingers used on the show were not free from Chris-Craft. This situation caused the production team to switch to using Wellcraft 38 Scarab KVs for the remainder of the show. The Scarab 38 KVs were a 28-hued, twin 440-hp boat that sold for $130,000 in 1986. As a result of the attention the Scarab 38 KV garnered on Miami Vice, Wellcraft received “an onslaught of orders", increasing sales by twenty-one percent in one year. In appreciation, Wellcraft gave Don Johnson an exact duplicate of the boat. Afterward, Johnson was frequently seen arriving to work in it. Altogether, one hundred copies of the boat (dubbed the "Scarab 38KV Miami Vice Edition") were built by Wellcraft. The Miami Vice graphics and color scheme, which include turquoise, aqua, and orchid, was available by special order on any model Scarab from 20 to 38 feet. Don Johnson also participated in the design of the Scarab Excel 43 ft, Don Johnson Signature Series (DJSS), and raced a similar one. The Don Johnson Signature Series was powered by twin 650-hp Lamborghini V-12 engines, which caused some problems to the design of the boat due to their size. Overall the boat cost $300,000 with each engine amounting to between $60–$70,000. His interest in boat racing eventually led Johnson to start his own offshore powerboat racing team, named Team USA. Joining him were Hollywood stars including Kurt Russell and Chuck Norris. Johnson won the Offshore World Cup in 1988 and continued racing into the 1990s. In both the pilot episode, "Brother's Keeper", and the season 4 episode, "Baseballs of Death", a Grumman Turbo Mallard (G-73T) amphibious airplane (registration # N2969) made an appearance. In the former episode, the drug dealer Calderone used N2969 to successfully escape from Crockett and Tubbs at the climax of the episode. In the latter episode, Guerrero made an attempt to escape from the vice team in N2969 but ran out of fuel and was killed after he stole a fisherman's boat that ran ashore and exploded. In December 2005, N2969 suffered a catastrophic structural failure when the right wing separated from the fuselage as the plane climbed out of Miami bound for the Bahamas. Both crew members and all 18 passengers were killed upon water impact. N2969 was completely destroyed. Episodes Overview Scripts are loosely based on actual crimes that occurred in Miami over the years. This includes both local and international and global organized crime. Many episodes focus on drug trafficking (for which real-life Miami was a main hub and entrance point into North America in the early 1980s). Other episodes are based on crimes such as firearms trafficking, for which Miami was equally a gateway for sales to Latin America, as well as the Miami River Cops scandal (a real police corruption ring that involves narcotic thefts, drug dealing and murders), street prostitution, serial home burglaries, crimes committed by Cuban immigrants to Miami following the Mariel Boatlift, and Yakuza and Mafia activity in Miami. The series also took a look at political issues such as the Northern Ireland conflict, the drug war in South America (e.g. "Prodigal Son"), U.S. support of generals and dictators in Southeast Asia and South America, and the aftermath of the Vietnam War. Social issues like child abuse, homophobia, and the AIDS crisis are also covered. Personal issues also arose: Crockett separates from his wife Caroline (Belinda Montgomery) in the pilot and divorces in the fourth episode, and later his second wife Caitlin Davies (Sheena Easton) is killed by one of his enemies. In the three episodes "Mirror Image", "Hostile Takeover", and "Redemption in Blood", a concussion caused by an explosion causes Crockett to believe he was his undercover alter ego Sonny Burnett, a drug dealer. Tubbs had a running, partly personal vendetta with the Calderone family, a member of which orders the death of his brother Rafael, a New York City police detective. Lieutenant Martin Castillo is also frequently haunted by his past in Southeast Asia, which he had spent as a DEA agent in the Golden Triangle. In the first seasons the tone was lighter, especially when comical characters such as police informants Noogie Lamont (Charlie Barnett) and Izzy Moreno (Martin Ferrero) appears. Later the content was darker and cynical, with Crockett and Tubbs fighting corruption, and storylines emphasizing the aspect of human tragedy behind a crime. The darker episodes sometimes lacks a denouement, each episode ending abruptly after a climax involving violence and death, often giving the episodes a despairing and sometimes nihilistic feel, despite the trademark glamor and conspicuous wealth. Given its idiosyncratic "dark" feel and touch, Miami Vice is frequently cited as an example of made-for-TV neo-noir. Michael Mann, who serves as executive producer for the majority of the show's five-year run, is often credited with being one of the most influential neo-noir directors. The second-season episode "Out Where the Buses Don't Run" ranks #90 on TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time list. Changes During its five-year run, Miami Vice underwent several noticeable changes in its formula and content. Between seasons one and two, however, these changes were mostly subtle and involves details such as the degree of perfection with which color shades of scene backdrops, props and clothing are matched to each other. For its third season in 1986–87 after the cancellation of Knight Rider, the show moves from its traditional time slot of 10pm on Friday nights to 9pm, which now put it up against perennial Top 10 show Dallas. This began the show's decline, and in March, 1987, TV Guide ran a cover story entitled, "Dallas Drubs the Cops: Why Miami Vice Seems to be Slipping." Miami Vices season ratings slipps from #9 in Season 2 down to #27 by the end of Season 3. Before leaving the series to work on his new television series, Crime Story, Michael Mann hands the role of executive producer to future Law & Order creator Dick Wolf prior to the third season (1986–1987). Wolf had the show focus on contemporary issues like the Troubles in Northern Ireland and capital punishment. In addition to losing the battle against new timeslot rival Dallas, the general tone of season 3 episodes starts to become more serious and less lighthearted than in previous seasons. Comedic scenes and subplots became distinctly rare. True to Dick Wolf's "grabbed from the headlines" approach which he later employs in TV series like Law & Order, storylines focus more on the serious human aspect of crime than on glamorizing the tropical lifestyles of drug dealers and other high-profile criminals. This shift in tone also reflects in the series' fashions, color schemes, and its choice of music. The cast starts wearing pronouncedly dark clothing and even earthtones, which had famously been avoided by executive producer Michael Mann in seasons one and two. Color palettes of scene backdrops start becoming much darker as well, with pastels replaced by harsher-appearing shades of neon. Whereas seasons one and two always feature a diverse selection of contemporary, mostly "upbeat" chart music and classic rock and pop, the third season's music lineup became much more somber, with songs like "In Dulce Decorum" by The Damned, "Lives in the Balance" by Jackson Browne, "Mercy" by Steve Jones, and "Never Let Me Down Again (Aggro Mix)" by Depeche Mode. All these changes are decidedly unwelcome both by critics and by many viewers who had become fans of the TV series due to the package that the first two seasons delivers. It causes the producers to retool their approach to Miami Vice for the following fourth season. By Season 4, most of the original writers had left the series. Stories and story arcs include a courtship and marriage between Sonny Crockett (Don Johnson) and Caitlin Davies (Sheena Easton), and a plot in which Crockett develops amnesia (during which he mistakes himself for his drug dealer alter ego, and becomes a hitman). Moreover, Caroline Crockett, Sonny's first wife, as well as his son Billy reappear briefly. Jan Hammer departs from the series at the end of the fourth season, having already handed much of the weekly scoring workload during the season over to John Petersen. The tone of many season 4 episodes grew lighter again, albeit sometimes veering off into the bizarre, e.g. episodes like "The Big Thaw", "Missing Hours", and "The Cows of October". Fashions and scene backdrops largely reassumes the pastel hues of seasons 1 and 2, and the choice of music became more varied again. Hopes by the producers of propitiating former and remaining fans this way only materializing very mutedly, and reception was lukewarm, as evidenced by the show's still declining ratings during season four. The fifth season (1988–1989) saw the show return to its original timeslot, 10pm on Friday nights and took the show on a yet more serious tone, with storylines becoming dark and gritty – enough so that even some of the most loyal fans are left perplexed. Tim Truman took over scoring the episodes for the remainder of the series' run and brought with him a style of instrumental synthesizer music that was markedly different from Jan Hammer's. Cancellation After still-deteriorating ratings during the fourth season, NBC originally plans to order just a shortened fifth season of only 13 episodes, but eventually settles for another full run, which was, either way, going to be the final season. At the beginning of season five, Olivia Brown recalled, "The show was trying to reinvent itself." Dick Wolf said in an interview for E! True Hollywood Story, after the fifth season, it was all just "...kind of over", and that the show had "run its course". In May 1989, NBC airs the two-hour series finale, "Freefall". Despite its status as the "series finale", there were three episodes that did not air ("World of Trouble", "Miracle Man", and "Leap of Faith"), which appears during the June re-runs as "Lost Episodes". A fourth, previously unaired episode, "Too Much Too Late", is aired for the first time in 1990, on the USA Network. It has since been run by other networks in syndication with the fifth-season episodes. Cast Main characters Don Johnson as Detective James "Sonny" Crockett: An undercover detective of the Metro-Dade Police Department. A former University of Florida Gators football star, he sustains a knee injury which put an end to his sports career. He served two tours in Vietnam – or as he calls it, the "Southeast Asia Conference". In 1975 he became a Metro-Dade uniformed patrol officer and later an undercover detective of the vice unit. Crockett's alias is Sonny Burnett, a drug runner and middleman. His vehicles include a Ferrari Daytona Spyder (later a Ferrari Testarossa), a "Scarab" offshore power-boat, and a sailboat on which he lives with his pet alligator Elvis. The name "Sonny Crockett" had previously been used for a criminal played by actor Dennis Burkley on Hill Street Blues in 1983, where creator Anthony Yerkovich was a writer. Coincidentally, Gregory Sierra who later plays Crockett's boss on Vice appears in the same episodes. Philip Michael Thomas as Detective Ricardo "Rico" Tubbs: A former New York police detective who travels to Miami as part of a personal vendetta against Calderone, the man who murders his brother Rafael. After temporarily teaming up with Crockett, Tubbs follows his friend's advice and transfers to "a career in Southern law enforcement", fearing that after his serious violations of NYPD codes of conduct in the pilot episode, he would not be able to resume his job in New York. He joins the Miami department and becomes Crockett's permanent partner. He often poses as Rico Cooper, a wealthy buyer from out of town. Edward James Olmos as Lieutenant Martin "Marty" Castillo: He replaces the slain Rodriguez as head of the OCB. A very taciturn man, Castillo lives a reclusive life outside of work. He was formerly a DEA commanding officer in the Golden Triangle of Southeast Asia during the late 1970s. During his time as a DEA commanding officer, he opposes the CIA in endorsing the trafficking of heroin to finance their overseas operations. Saundra Santiago as Detective Regina "Gina" Navarro Calabrese: A fearless female detective, who after Crockett's divorce, held a brief romance with him. Even after their relationship did not progress, they still have a strong friendship. Olivia Brown as Detective Trudy Joplin: Gina's patrol partner. Though tough, she sometimes struggles to face consequences of her job, such as when she shoots and kills a man. Later in the series she has an encounter with a UFO and an alien portrayed by James Brown. Michael Talbott as Detective Stanley "Stan" Switek: A fellow police detective and Larry Zito's best friend. Although a good policeman, later on in the series he falls prey to a gambling addiction. He is also a big fan of Elvis Presley. John Diehl (1984–1987) as Detective Lawrence "Larry" Zito: A detective and Switek's surveillance partner and best friend. He is killed in the line of duty when a drug dealer gives him a fatal overdose. Gregory Sierra (1984) as Lieutenant Louis "Lou" Rodriguez: A police lieutenant who serves as commander of the Vice Unit. He is killed in the fourth episode by an assassin hired to kill Crockett. Recurring characters Charlie Barnett (1984–1987) as Nugart Neville "Noogie" Lamont: A friend of Izzy's and informant for Crockett and Tubbs. His role was largely taken over by Izzy Moreno after the first season. In his final appearance in Season 4, his role is reduced from street informant to comic relief. Sheena Easton (1987–1988) as Caitlin Davies-Crockett: A pop singer who is assigned a police bodyguard, Crockett, for her testimony in a racketeering case. While protecting Caitlin, Sonny falls in love with her and they marry. Months after their marriage, Caitlin is killed by one of Crockett's former nemeses. Sonny later learns she was seven weeks pregnant, causing him further emotional turmoil. Martin Ferrero (1984–1989) as Isidore "Izzy" Moreno: A petty criminal and fast talker, Izzy is always known for getting into quick money schemes and giving Crockett and Tubbs the latest information from the street. Jose Perez (1985, 1989) as Juan Carlos Silva, a drug dealer and father of Rosetta Silva, and as Jorge "Georgie" Esteban, cousin of Izzy Moreno. Pam Grier (1985, 1989) as Valerie Gordon: A New York Police Department Officer and on-and-off love interest of Tubbs. Belinda Montgomery (1984–1989) as Caroline Crockett/Ballard: Crockett's former wife who moves to Ocala, Florida to remarry and raise their child, Billy. Caroline was having a baby with her second husband in her last appearance. Guest appearances Many actors, actresses, musicians, comedians, athletes and celebrities appear throughout the show's five-season run. They play many different roles from drug dealers to undercover cops to madams. The full list can be seen at the link above, as this is just a partial list. Musicians include Sheena Easton, John Taylor, Andy Taylor, Willie Nelson, Gene Simmons, and Ted Nugent Additionally Glenn Frey, Frank Zappa, Phil Collins, Miles Davis, Frankie Valli, Little Richard, James Brown, Leonard Cohen, the band Power Station, Coati Mundi, and Eartha Kitt. Other personalities include auto executive Lee Iacocca and Watergate conspirator G. Gordon Liddy. Athletes include Boston Celtics center Bill Russell, Bernard King, racecar driver Danny Sullivan, and boxers Roberto Durán, and Randall "Tex" Cobb. Notable actors include Dean Stockwell, Pam Grier, Clarence Williams III, and Brian Dennehy. The show frequently features guest appearances from up-and-coming actors and actresses, including: Laurence Fishburne, Viggo Mortensen, Dennis Farina, Stanley Tucci, Jimmy Smits, Bruce McGill, David Strathairn, Ving Rhames, Liam Neeson, Lou Diamond Phillips, Bruce Willis, Ed O'Neill, and Julia Roberts. Additionally Michael Madsen, Ian McShane, Bill Paxton, Luis Guzmán, Kyra Sedgwick, Esai Morales, Terry O'Quinn, Joaquim de Almeida, Wesley Snipes, John Turturro, Melanie Griffith and Annie Golden to name a few. Notable comedians included: John Leguizamo, David Rasche, Ben Stiller, Chris Rock, Tommy Chong, Richard Belzer, and Penn Jillette. Reception Awards and nominations Ratings Series Finale: 22 million viewers & a 14.7 rating on May 21, 1989 from 9 to 11pm. Competition: Everybody's Baby: The Rescue of Jessica McClure (22.9 rating) & Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer: Murder Takes All (12.8 rating) Final Airing on NBC: 16.1 million viewers/11.1 rating (June 28, 1989) China Beach drew 10.8 million viewers/8 rating. Critical response Critics object to the show's usage of violence by dressing it with pretty photography. Others complain that the show relies more on visual aspects and music than on coherent stories and fully drawn characters. Civic leaders in Miami have also objected to the show's airing of the city's crime problems all across America. Most civic leaders, however, were placated due to the show's estimated contribution of $1 million per episode to the city's economy and because it boosted tourism to Miami. Gerald S. Arenberg of the National Association of Chiefs of Police criticized the show's glamorous depiction of vice squads, saying "no real vice cops chase drug dealers in a Ferrari while wearing $600 suits. More often than not, they're holed up in a crummy room somewhere, wearing jeans with holes in them, watching some beat-up warehouse in a godforsaken part of town through a pair of dented binoculars". At the 1985 Emmy Awards Miami Vice was nominated for 15 Emmy Awards, including "Outstanding Writing in a Dramatic Series", "Outstanding Film Editing", "Outstanding Achievement for Music Composition for a series (dramatic underscore)", and "Outstanding Directing". At the end of the night, Miami Vice only won four Emmys. The following day, the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner could only conclude that the conservative Emmy voters (at the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences) simply refused to recognize an innovative new series that celebrates hedonism, violence, sex, and drugs. Television critics Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz ranked Miami Vice as the 51st greatest American television series of all time in their 2016 book titled TV (The Book), with Seitz stating how the show was more influenced by 1960s art house cinema from Europe than by any other contemporary television drama: "Miami Vice superimposed 'ripped-from-the-headlines' details about drug smuggling, arms dealing, and covert war onto a pastel noir dreamscape. It gave American TV its first visionary existential drama". Impact on popular culture Miami Vice was a groundbreaking police program of the 1980s. It had a notable impact on the decade's popular fashions and set the tone for the evolution of police drama. Series such as Homicide: Life on the Street, NYPD Blue, and the Law & Order franchise, though being markedly different in style and theme from Miami Vice, follows its lead in breaking the genre's mold; Dick Wolf, creator and executive producer of the Law & Order franchise, was a writer and later executive producer of Miami Vice. Parodies and pastiches of it have continued decades after it airs, such as Only Fools and Horses Christmas episode Miami Twice (1991) and Moonbeam City (2015). The video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, published by Rockstar Games in 2002, is heavily inspired by Miami Vice in multiple ways. It is set in a stylized 1980s Miami inspired fictional city named "Vice City". One of the main characters, Lance Vance, was actually voiced by Philip Michael Thomas. Two undercover police officers appear in a police sports car within the game when the player obtains a three-star wanted level. The two officers, one white and one black, resemble the two leading characters of Miami Vice. In the prequel, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories, there are two officers in the multiplayer mode named Cracker and Butts, a parody of Crockett and Tubbs; these characters share the same role as the undercover cops in Vice City. Many of the fashion styles and trends popularized by the TV show, such as fast cars and speed boats, unshaven beard stubble, a T-shirt under pastel suits, no socks, rolled up sleeves, boat shoes and Ray Ban sunglasses symbolize the stereotypical image of 1980s fashion and culture. The show also had a lasting impact on Miami itself. It drew a large amount of media attention to the beginning revitalization of the South Beach and Art Deco District areas of Miami Beach, as well as other portions of Greater Miami, and increases tourism and investment. Even 30 years after Miami Vice first airs, it is still responsible for its share of tourist visits to the city. The fact that Crockett and Tubbs were Dade County officers and not City of Miami police represents the growing notion of metro government in Miami. In 1997, a county referendum changing the name from Dade County to Miami-Dade County. This allows people to relate the county government to recognize notions and images of Miami, many of which arere first popularized by Miami Vice. The Dade County Sheriff's Office now became the Miami-Dade Police Department. The Overwatch League's Florida Mayhem who represents the cities of Miami and Orlando on January 6, 2020 announces the change of their color scheme to a Miami Vice-inspired Black Neon Pink and Neon Blue. Home media Universal Studios has released all Miami Vice seasons on DVD for regions 1, 2, and 4. Seasons 1 & 2 were released in 2005, and seasons 3 through 5 were released in 2007. The DVD release of the series had been significantly slow due to one of the signature features of the show: the heavy integration of 1980s pop and rock music. The music was difficult to source the rights to and acquire permission to use. (On at least one VHS release of the pilot, The Rolling Stones' song "Miss You" had been replaced by generic rock music.) In the November 2004 announcement for the DVD release of the series, Universal promises that all original music in the series would be intact. On August 21, 2007 Universal announces the November 13, 2007 release of the complete series, with all five seasons on 27 single-sided DVDs. The seasons are in their own Digipak-style cases, and the set is housed in a faux alligator-skin package. Seasons 1 & 2 contained six single-sided discs, rather than the three double-sided discs in the initial release. The Region 2 version has different packaging, does not use double-sided discs, and although there are no special features stated on the packaging they are contained within the season 1 discs. On March 8, 2016, it is announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to the series in Region 1; they subsequently re-release the first two seasons on DVD on May 3, 2016. On October 4, 2016, Mill Creek re-release Miami Vice – The Complete Series on DVD and also release the complete series on Blu-ray. References External links Miami Vice forum Official Miami Vice DVD website Miami Vice at the Museum of Broadcast Communications Miami Vice on Hulu.com Miami Vice on NBC.com 1980s American crime drama television series 1980s American police procedural television series 1980s fads and trends 1984 American television series debuts 1990 American television series endings Thriller television series Culture of Miami English-language television shows Fictional portrayals of the Miami-Dade Police Department NBC original programming Neo-noir television series Television series about illegal drug trade Television series about organized crime Television series by Universal Television Television shows filmed in Florida Television shows set in Miami Works about Colombian drug cartels Works about organized crime in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian%20Wood%20%28This%20Bird%20Has%20Flown%29

Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)

"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1965 album Rubber Soul. It was written mainly by John Lennon and credited to the Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership. Influenced by the introspective lyrics of Bob Dylan, the song is considered a milestone in the Beatles' development as songwriters. The track features a sitar part, played by lead guitarist George Harrison, that marked the first appearance of the Indian string instrument on a Western rock recording. The song was a number 1 hit in Australia when released on a single there in 1966, coupled with "Nowhere Man". Lennon wrote the song as a veiled account of an extramarital affair he had in London. When recording the track, Harrison chose to add a sitar part after becoming interested in the instrument's exotic sound while on the set of the Beatles' film Help!, in early 1965. "Norwegian Wood" was influential in the development of raga rock and psychedelic rock during the mid-1960s. The song also helped elevate Ravi Shankar and Indian classical music to mainstream popularity in the West. Many other rock and pop artists, including the Byrds, the Rolling Stones and Donovan, began integrating elements of the genre into their musical approach. "Norwegian Wood" is also recognised as a key work in the early evolution of world music. Rolling Stone magazine ranked "Norwegian Wood" number 83 on its 2004 list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". Composition The song's lyrics are about an extramarital affair that John Lennon was involved in, as hinted in the opening couplet: "I once had a girl, or should I say, she once had me." Although Lennon never revealed whom he had an affair with, writer Philip Norman speculates that it was either Lennon's close friend and journalist Maureen Cleave or Sonny Freeman. Paul McCartney explained that the term "Norwegian Wood" was an ironic reference to the cheap pine wall panelling then in vogue in London. McCartney commented on the final verse of the song: "In our world the guy had to have some sort of revenge. It could have meant I lit a fire to keep myself warm, and wasn't the decor of her house wonderful? But it didn't, it meant I burned the fucking place down as an act of revenge, and then we left it there and went into the instrumental." According to Lennon in 1970, "Norwegian Wood" was his creation, with McCartney assisting on the middle eight. In 1980, Lennon changed his claim, saying it was "my song completely". Since Lennon's death, however, McCartney has contended that Lennon brought the opening couplet to one of their joint songwriting sessions, and that they finished the song together, with the middle eight and the title (and the "fire") being among McCartney's contributions. McCartney's statement about the level of his involvement was one of the controversial claims he made in his 1997 authorised biography, Many Years from Now. Regardless, Lennon began writing the song in January 1965, while on holiday with his wife, Cynthia, and record producer George Martin at St. Moritz in the Swiss Alps. Over the following days, Lennon expanded on an acoustic arrangement of the song, which was written in a Dylanesque time signature, and showed it to Martin while he recovered from a skiing injury. In his book The Songs of Lennon: The Beatle Years, author John Stevens describes "Norwegian Wood" as a turning point in folk-style ballads, writing that "Lennon moves quickly from one lyrical image to another, leaving it up to the listener's imagination to complete the picture". He also said the song marked a pivotal moment in Lennon's use of surreal lyrics, following on from the songs "Ask Me Why" and "There's a Place". Between 5 and 6 April 1965, while filming the second Beatles film, Help!, at Twickenham Film Studios, George Harrison first encountered a sitar, the Indian string instrument that would be a prominent feature in "Norwegian Wood". It was one of several instruments being played by a group of Indian musicians in a scene set in an Indian restaurant. "Norwegian Wood" was not the first Western pop song in which an Indian influence was evident: the raga-like drone was found in the Beatles' "Ticket to Ride", as well as in the Kinks' song "See My Friends". The Yardbirds also created a similar sound with a distorted electric guitar on "Heart Full of Soul". Barry Fantoni, a friend of Ray Davies of the Kinks, said that the Beatles first got the idea to use Indian instrumentation when Fantoni played them "See My Friends". According to author Ian MacDonald, however, while the Kinks' single most likely influenced the Beatles, Davies could well have been influenced by "Ticket to Ride" when recording "See My Friends". Rather than the Kinks or the Yardbirds, Harrison attributed his growing interest in Indian sounds to people mentioning the name of Indian sitarist Ravi Shankar to him, culminating in a discussion he had with David Crosby of the Byrds. The discussion took place in Los Angeles on 25 August, during the Beatles' 1965 American tour. Once back in London, Harrison followed Crosby's suggestion by seeking out Shankar's recordings, and he also purchased a cheap sitar, from the Indiacraft store on Oxford Street. Ringo Starr later cited Harrison's use of sitar on "Norwegian Wood" as an example of the Beatles' eagerness to incorporate new sounds in 1965, saying: "you could walk in with an elephant, as long as it was going to make a musical note." Recording The Beatles recorded an early version of "Norwegian Wood" during the first day of sessions for their album Rubber Soul, on 12 October 1965. The session took place at EMI Studios in London, with Martin producing. Titled "This Bird Has Flown", the song was extensively rehearsed by the group, who then taped the rhythm track in a single take, featuring two 12-string acoustic guitars, bass, and a faint sound of cymbals. Harrison added his sitar part, with the take emphasising the drone quality of the instrument more so than the remake that was eventually released. The sound of the sitar proved difficult to capture, according to sound engineer Norman Smith, who recalled problems with "a lot of nasty peaks and a very complex wave form". He declined to use a limiter, which would have fixed the technical problem with distortion, but would have affected the sound. Lennon overdubbed a lead vocal, which he double tracked at the end of each line in the verses. Designed as a comedy number, this version exhibited a less folk-orientated sound, relative to the recording issued on Rubber Soul, instead highlighting laboured vocals and an unusual sitar conclusion. The band were unsatisfied with the recording, however, and decided to return to the song later in the sessions. This discarded version of "Norwegian Wood" was first released on the 1996 compilation album Anthology 2. On 21 October, the Beatles recorded three new takes, including the master. The group experimented with the arrangement, with the second take introducing a double-tracked sitar opening that complemented Lennon's acoustic melody. Though the group completely reshaped "Norwegian Wood", it was far from the album version. Harrison's sitar playing is still at the forefront, alongside heavy drumbeats. The take was not considered suitable for overdubbing, so the band scrapped it, and re-evaluated the arrangement. By the third take, the song was called "Norwegian Wood", and the group changed the key from D major to E major. The Beatles skipped the rhythm section on this take, and decided to jump directly to the master take. In all, the rhythm section accommodates the acoustics, and the band thought the musical style was an improvement over earlier run-throughs. Therefore, the sitar is an accompaniment, consequently affecting the droning sound evident in past takes. Looking back on the recording sessions in the 1990s, Harrison explained his inclusion of the sitar to be "quite spontaneous from what I remember", adding, "We miked it up and put it on and it just seemed to hit the spot". Release and reception "Norwegian Wood" was released on Rubber Soul on 3 December 1965. The song marked the first example of a rock band playing a sitar or any Indian instrument on one of their recordings. It was also issued on a single with "Nowhere Man" in Australia and was a number 1 hit there in May 1966. The two songs were listed together, as a double A-side, during the single's two weeks at number 1. In the United Kingdom, the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) awarded the song a silver certification for sales and streams exceeding 200,000 units. Writing for AllMusic, music historian Richie Unterberger describes "Norwegian Wood" as possessing "more than enough ambiguity and ingenious innuendo to satisfy even a Dylan fan" while demonstrating to the Beatles' audience how "the group had sure come a long way since 'She Loves You' just two years back." Unterberger concludes his review by commenting: "The power of the track is greatly enhanced by McCartney's sympathetic high harmonies on the bridge, and its exoticism confirmed by George Harrison's twanging sitar riffs". A reviewer for Rolling Stone magazine noted "Norwegian Wood" and "Think for Yourself" as documents of the Beatles' increasing awareness and creativity in the studio. Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork considers the song to be one of the most self-evident Lennon pieces on Rubber Soul to exemplify his maturity as a songwriter, and praises the composition as "an economical and ambiguous story-song highlighted by Harrison's first dabbling with the Indian sitar". In his book on the Rubber Soul era, subtitled The Enduring Beauty of Rubber Soul, John Kruth refers to "Norwegian Wood" as a "striking from the first listen" kind of tune that "transported Beatles fans north to the pristine forests of Scandinavia". Music critic Kenneth Womack admires how the song "reinterprets a familiar theme, in this case the loss of 'love' (well represented in earlier songs such as 'Don't Bother Me' and 'Misery'), providing listeners with security yet challenging those inclined to acknowledge the standard treatment". Musical influence and legacy Although droning guitars had been used previously to mimic the qualities of the sitar, "Norwegian Wood" is generally credited as sparking a musical craze for the sound of the novel instrument in the mid-1960s. The song is often identified as the first example of raga rock, while the trend it initiated led to the arrival of Indian rock and formed the essence of psychedelic rock. "Norwegian Wood" is also recognised as an important piece of what is typically called "world music", and it was a major step towards incorporating non-Western musical influences into Western popular music. The composition, coupled with advice given by Harrison, sparked the interest of Rolling Stones multi-instrumentalist Brian Jones, who soon integrated the sitar into "Paint It Black", another landmark song in the development of raga and Indian rock. Other pieces exemplifying the rapid growth of interest in Indian music by contemporary Western musicians include Donovan's "Sunshine Superman", the Yardbirds' "Shapes of Things" and the Byrds' "Eight Miles High", among others. According to author Jonathan Gould, the impact of "Norwegian Wood" "transformed" Ravi Shankar's career, and the Indian sitarist later wrote of first being aware of a "great sitar explosion" in popular music during the spring of 1966, when he was performing a series of concerts in the UK. Harrison developed a fascination for Indian culture and mysticism, introducing it to the other Beatles. In June 1966, Harrison met Shankar in London and became a student under the master sitarist. Having added the sitar accompaniment to "Norwegian Wood", Harrison expanded upon his initial effort by writing "Love You To", which showcased his immersion in Indian music, and presented an authentic representation of a non-Western music form in a rock song. Before the recording sessions for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, Harrison made a pilgrimage to Bombay, India with his wife Pattie, where he continued his studies with Shankar and was introduced to the teachings of several yogis. Harrison contributed "Within You Without You" to Sgt. Pepper, featuring himself as the only performing Beatle together with uncredited musicians playing dilruba, swarmandal and tabla, alongside a string section. For the remainder of his career, he evolved his understanding of Indian musicianship, particularly in his slide guitar playing. In 2006, Mojo placed "Norwegian Wood" at number 19 in the magazine's list of "The 101 Greatest Beatles Songs", as compiled by a panel of music critics and musicians. In their commentary on the song, Roy Harper and John Cale both identified the track as an influence on their musical careers during the 1960s. Harper wrote: We all knew that they were good ... What you weren't prepared for was Rubber Soul. They were writing with a deeper resonance, in another time zone ... I was envious and inspired at the same moment. They'd come onto my turf, got there before me, and they were kings of it, overnight. We'd all been outflanked. The best song on the record was one of the shortest, Norwegian Wood. Tears came to my eyes, I wished I'd written it. The music was sublimely different. George's sitar was a well-placed act of fusion and the song was full of Lennon wit. After a few times on the turntable, you realised that the goal posts had been moved, forever, and you really wanted to hear the next record – now. Cale recalled that Rubber Soul was an inspiration to him and Lou Reed as they developed their band the Velvet Underground. He described the song's mood as "very acid ... what you remember in a flashback is a sound, how your senses were bombarded", adding: "I don't think anybody got that sound or that closeted feeling as well as The Beatles did on Norwegian Wood." In his book The Beatles Through Headphones, Ted Montgomery comments: "Perhaps no other song in rock and roll history captures a feel and nuance more succinctly and powerfully in 2:05 than 'Norwegian Wood'." The song has been covered by numerous artists, including Waylon Jennings, Tangerine Dream, Cilla Black, Hank Williams Jr, Cornershop, Rahul Dev Burman, Buddy Rich, P.M. Dawn and Heather Nova. The Chemical Brothers sampled "Norwegian Wood" in their 1997 song "The Private Psychedelic Reel". In 1968, Alan Copeland won the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Performance by a Chorus for a medley of "Norwegian Wood" and the theme from Mission: Impossible. Personnel Personnel per Walter Everett John Lennon – double-tracked vocals, acoustic guitar Paul McCartney – bass guitar, harmony vocals George Harrison – 12-string acoustic guitar, double-tracked sitar Ringo Starr – tambourine, bass drum, maracas, finger cymbals See also "4th Time Around" Sitar in popular music Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links Full lyrics for the song at the Beatles' official website 1965 songs The Beatles songs Parlophone singles Songs written by Lennon–McCartney Song recordings produced by George Martin Songs published by Northern Songs The Beatles and India British folk rock songs Raga rock songs

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruthenians

Ruthenians

Ruthenian and Ruthene () are exonyms of Latin origin, formerly used in Eastern and Central Europe as common ethnonyms for East Slavs, particularly during the late medieval and early modern periods. Latin term Rutheni was found in medieval sources to describe all Eastern Slavs of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, as an exonym for people of the former Kievan Rus', thus including ancestors of the modern Russians, Ukrainians, Rusyns, and Belarusians. The use of Ruthenian and related exonyms continued through the early modern period, developing several distinctive meanings, both in terms of their regional scopes and additional religious connotations (such as affiliation with the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church). In medieval sources, the Latin term Rutheni was commonly applied to East Slavs in general, thus encompassing all endonyms and their various forms (Ukrainian: русини, Belarusian: русіны, but Russian singular: русин). By opting for the use of exonymic terms, authors who wrote in Latin were relieved from the need to be specific in their applications of those terms, and the same quality of Ruthenian exonyms are often recognized by modern, mainly Western authors, particularly those who prefer to use exonymic (foreign in origin) over endonyms. During the early modern period, the exonym Ruthenian was most frequently applied to the East Slavic population of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, an area encompassing territories of modern Ukraine and Belarus from the 15th up to the 18th centuries. In the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, the same term () was employed (up to 1918) as an official exonym for the entire East Slavic population within the borders of the Monarchy. History Ruteni, a misnomer that was also the name of an extinct and unrelated Celtic tribe in Ancient Gaul, was used in reference to Rus' in the Annales Augustani of 1089. An alternative early modern Latinisation, Rucenus (plural Ruceni) was, according to Boris Unbegaun, derived from Rusyn. Baron Herberstein, describing the land of Russia, inhabited by the Rutheni who call themselves Russi, claimed that the first of the governors who rule Russia is the Grand Duke of Moscow, the second is the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the third is the King of Poland. According to professor of Ukrainian origin John-Paul Himka from the University of Alberta the word Rutheni did not include the modern Russians, who were known as Moscovitae. Vasili III of Russia, who ruled the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the 16th century, was known in European Latin sources as Rhuteni Imperator. Jacques Margeret in his book "Estat de l'empire de Russie, et grande duché de Moscovie" of 1607 explained, that the name "Muscovites" for the population of Tsardom (Empire) of Russia is an error. During conversations, they called themselves rusaki (which is a colloquial term for Russians) and only the citizens of the capital called themself "Muscovites". Margeret considered that this error is worse than calling all the French "Parisians." Professor David Frick from the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute has also found in Vilnius the documents from 1655, which demonstrate that Moscovitae were also known in Lithuania as Rutheni. The 16th century Portuguese poet Luís Vaz de Camões in his Os Lusíadas" (Canto III, 11) clearly writes "...Entre este mar e o Tánais vive estranha Gente: Rutenos, Moscos e Livónios, Sármatas outro tempo..." differentiating between Ruthenians and Muscovites. After the partition of Poland the term Ruthenian referred exclusively to people of the Rusyn- and Ukrainian-speaking areas of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, especially in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, Bukovina, and Transcarpathia. At the request of Mykhajlo Levitsky, in 1843 the term Ruthenian became the official name for the Rusyns and Ukrainians within the Austrian Empire. For example, Ivan Franko and Stepan Bandera in their passports were identified as Ruthenians (). By 1900 more and more Ruthenians began to call themselves with the self-designated name Ukrainians. A number of Ukrainian members of the intelligentsia, such as Mykhailo Drahomanov and Ivan Franko, perceived the term as narrow-minded, provincial and Habsburg. With the emergence of Ukrainian nationalism during the mid-19th century, use of "Ruthenian" and cognate terms declined among Ukrainians and fell out of use in Eastern and Central Ukraine. Most people in the western region of Ukraine followed suit later in the 19th century. During the early 20th century, the name Ukrajins’ka mova ("Ukrainian language") became accepted by much of the Ukrainian-speaking literary class in the Austro-Hungarian Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. Following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, new states emerged and dissolved; borders changed frequently. After several years the Rusyn and Ukrainian speaking areas of eastern Austria-Hungary found themselves divided between the Ukrainian Soviet Republic, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Romania. When commenting on the partition of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in March 1939, US diplomat George Kennan noted, "To those who inquire whether these peasants are Russians or Ukrainians, there is only one answer. They are Neither. They are simply Ruthenians." Dr. Paul R. Magocsi emphasizes that modern Ruthenians have "the sense of a nationality distinct from Ukrainians" and often associate Ukrainians with Soviets or Communists. After the expansion of Soviet Ukraine following World War II, several groups who had not previously considered themselves Ukrainians were merged into the Ukrainian identity. Ruthenian terminology in Poland In the Interbellum period of the 20th century, the term rusyn (Ruthenian) was also applied to people from the Kresy Wschodnie (the eastern borderlands) in the Second Polish Republic, and included Ukrainians, Rusins, and Lemkos, or alternatively, members of the Uniate or Greek Catholic Church churches. In Galicia, the Polish government actively replaced all references to "Ukrainians" with the old word rusini ("Ruthenians"), an action that caused many Ukrainians to view their original self-designation with distaste. The Polish census of 1921 considered Ukrainians no other than Ruthenians. However the Polish census of 1931 counted Belarusian, Ukrainian, Russian, and Ruthenian as separate language categories, and the census results were substantially different from before. According to Rusyn-American historian Paul Robert Magocsi, Polish government policy in the 1930s pursued a strategy of tribalization, regarding various ethnographic groups—i.e., Lemkos, Boikos, and Hutsuls, as well Old Ruthenians and Russophiles—as different from other Ukrainians (although no such category existed in the Polish census apart from the first-language speakers of Russian), and offered instructions in Lemko vernacular in state schools set up in the westernmost Lemko Region. The Polish census of 1931 listed "Russian", "Ruthenian" and "Ukrainian" (Polish: rossyjski, ruski, ukraiński, respectively) as separate languages. Carpatho-Ruthenian designations By the end of the 19th century, another set of terms came into use in several western languages, combining regional Carpathian with Ruthenian designations, and thus producing composite terms such as: Carpatho-Ruthenes or Carpatho-Ruthenians. Those terms also acquired several meanings, depending on the shifting geographical scopes of the term Carpathian Ruthenia. Those meanings were also spanning from wider uses as designations for all East Slavs of the Carpathian region, to more narrower uses, focusing on those local groups of East Slavs who did not accept modern Russian or Ukrainian identities, but rather opted to keep their traditional Rusyn identity. The designations Rusyn and Carpatho-Rusyn were banned in the Soviet Union by the end of World War II in June 1945. Ruthenians who identified under the Rusyn ethnonym and considered themselves to be a national and linguistic group separate from Ukrainians and Belarusians were relegated to the Carpathian diaspora and formally functioned among the large immigrant communities in the United States. A cross-European revival took place only with the collapse of communist rule in 1989. This has resulted in political conflict and accusations of intrigue against Rusyn activists, including criminal charges. The Rusyn minority is well represented in Slovakia. The single category of people who listed their ethnicity as Rusyn was created in the 1920s, however, no generally accepted standardised Rusyn language existed. The government of Slovakia has proclaimed Rusyns (Rusíni) to be a distinct national minority (1991) and recognised Rusyn language as a distinct language (1995). Speculative theories Since the 19th century, several speculative theories emerged regarding the origin and nature of medieval and early modern uses of Ruthenian terms as designations for East Slavs. Some of those theories were focused on a very specific source, a memorial plate from 1521, that was placed in the catacombe Chapel of St Maximus in Petersfriedhof, the burial site of St Peter's Abbey in Salzburg (modern Austria). The plate contains Latin inscription that mentions Italian ruler Odoacer (476-493) as king of "Rhutenes" or "Rhutenians" (), and narrates a story about the martyrdom of St Maximus during an invasion of several peoples into Noricum in 477. Due to the very late date (1521) and several anachronistic elements, the content of that plate is considered as legendary. In spite of that, some authors (mainly non-scholars) employed that plate as a "source" for several theories that were trying to connect Odoacer with ancient Celtic Ruthenes from Gaul, thus also providing an apparent bridge towards later medieval authors who labeled East Slavs as Ruthenes or Ruthenians. On those bases, an entire strain of speculative theories was created, regarding the alleged connection between ancient Gallic Ruthenes and later East Slavic "Ruthenians". As noted by professor Paul R. Magocsi, those theories should be regarded as "inventive tales" of "creative" writers. Geography From the 9th century, the main Rus' state, which was known later as Kievan Rus' – and is now part of the modern states of Ukraine, Belarus and Russia – was known in Western Europe by a variety of names derived from Rus'. From the 12th century, the land of Rus' was usually known in Western Europe by the Latinised name Ruthenia. See also American Carpatho-Ruthenian Orthodox Diocese Coat of arms of Carpathian Ruthenia Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church Ruthenian nobility Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church Ukrainian Russophiles References Sources Nakonechny, Ye. УКРАДЕНЕ ІМ’Я чому русини стали українцями [Stolen Name: Why Ruthenians Became Ukrainians] . Stefanyk Science Library (National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine). Lviv, 2001. External links Carpatho-Rusyn Heritage - The Carpathian Connection Exonyms Grand Duchy of Lithuania Ukrainian studies

262839

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumps%20of%20Doom

Trumps of Doom

Trumps of Doom is a fantasy novel by American writer Roger Zelazny, the first book in the second Chronicles of Amber series and the sixth book in the Amber series. Whereas the first series was narrated by Corwin, this series is narrated by his son, Merlin. Trumps of Doom won the Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel in 1986. Plot summary Merlin has spent the last several years on Earth learning computer science while building Ghostwheel, a trump- and pattern-based computer, elsewhere in Shadow. Having completed his project, he wishes to know who has been trying to kill him every April 30, and why some of the better attempts failed, before he leaves. He meets with his friend Lucas Reynard (Luke), a salesman, who tries to convince him to stay, and who tells him that Julia Barnes, Merlin's ex-girlfriend, may be in trouble. Merlin investigates and finds Julia slain by creatures from another shadow. Merlin investigates through shadow, and is given orders by king Random to shut down Ghostwheel. However, Ghostwheel has become sentient and capable of defending itself. Eventually, Luke - who, it turns out, is Brand's son - imprisons Merlin in a blue crystal cave so he can attempt to take control of Ghostwheel for himself. Cultural allusions Merlin's landlord "Mr. Mulligan" is an allusion to Buck Mulligan from James Joyce's Ulysses. Merlin tells Luke that Ghostwheel's operations involve "a lot of theoretical crap involving space and time and some notions of some guys named Everett and Wheeler". The Everett-Wheeler theory of quantum mechanics proposes a "many worlds" interpretation in which the universe instantly fragments into a bundle of alternate histories each time the quantum state of any particle in the universe changes via interaction. At the conclusion of this volume, Merlin is imprisoned in a crystal cave, just like his namesake from Arthurian legend. References External links Trumps of Doom at Worlds Without End 1985 novels The Chronicles of Amber books 1985 fantasy novels Arbor House books

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goole

Goole

Goole is a port town and civil parish on the River Ouse in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. The town's historic county is the West Riding of Yorkshire. According to the 2011 UK census, Goole parish had a population of 19,518, an increase on the 2001 UK census figure of 17,600. It is north-east of Doncaster, south of York and west of Hull. The town has the United Kingdom's furthest inland port, being about from the North Sea. It is capable of handling nearly 2 million tonnes of cargo per year, making it one of the most important ports on England's east coast. Goole is twinned with Złotów in Poland. Goole was informally twinned with Gibraltar in the 1960s; at that time, Gibraltar Court was named in Goole and Goole Court was named in Gibraltar. History Etymology Unusually for an English place-name, 'Goole' has its origins in Middle English. It derives from the word goule, meaning 'stream' or 'channel', or possibly 'outlet drain'. Not recorded in the Domesday Book, its first mention was in 1362 as Gulle. Background The Dutch civil engineer Cornelius Vermuyden diverted the River Don northwards to the River Ouse in 1626–1629 in order to drain the marshland of Hatfield Chase at the behest of King Charles I. It made the new lower Don – known as the Dutch River – navigable for barges so that coal from the South Yorkshire Coalfield could be transported to the new confluence for transfer to seagoing vessels. There the engineers built a new wooden bridge – rebuilt in iron in the 1890s and now known as the Dutch River Bridge – to the east of which a new village called 'Goole' formed. Development In the 1820s the Aire and Calder Navigation company proposed development of a new canal to transport coal from the existing broad canal from Knottingley in the northern sector of the coalfield in 1826. Once it reached Goole the company proposed development of a new floating dock capable of handling larger sea-going vessels. Chief engineer Thomas Hamond Bartholomew was instructed to build the canal, docks and an associated company town to house both the dock workers and visiting seamen. Bartholomew commissioned civil engineer and builder Sir Edward Banks company to construct part of the canal and the eight transshipment docks and to lay out the associated new town to the west of the existing wooden bridge. The Banks Arms Hotel on Aire Street – today known as the Lowther Hotel - was in 1824 the first building constructed in what was known as New Goole; The Macintosh Arms public house on the same street took its name from engineer Hugh Macintosh. When Goole port opened on 20 July 1826 it was a new community of about 450 people. Now it is a town with about 18,000 inhabitants. William Hamond Bartholomew succeeded his father T. H. Bartholomew in 1853 and in 1863 introduced the Tom Pudding system of compartment boats, which could carry around of coal. On reaching the docks the barges were lifted by large hoists, from which they could be discharged direct into seagoing ships, a system so successful that it competed against rail until 1985. Education Goole has several primary schools and a High School with a sixth-form college attached to it. Goole College is affiliated with Hull College. There are Further Education colleges in Selby, York, Scunthorpe and Bishop Burton. Goole College runs a scheme for showing the older students at the High School (in year 10 and above) what opportunities the college offers them. Transport The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway built a line from Pontefract and Wakefield in 1848 and the North Eastern Railway connected the port with Doncaster and Hull in 1870. The prosperity from the coal and general cargo trade with the West Riding industrial area continued for 150 years after the opening of the canal. Today Goole railway station is at the junction of the Hull and Doncaster Branch and the Pontefract Line. Service is provided to Hull Paragon Interchange, Doncaster, Sheffield, Leeds and the commuter stations in between. Goole is south of the M62 linking it with Kingston upon Hull in the east and Leeds and the West Yorkshire urban belt in the west. To the north the A63 road via Howden provides local access to the A19 road to Selby and York. The M18 runs west of the town, connecting it with South Yorkshire, the South and the Midlands. Bus services to surrounding towns and villages are provided by East Yorkshire Motor Services, Stagecoach in Hull and Arriva Yorkshire. Governance Before the reform of local government in 1974, brought about by the Local Government Act 1972, Goole was in the West Riding of Yorkshire. It was then placed in the Boothferry district of the county of Humberside until that was abolished in 1996. Since 1996 Goole has been in the East Riding of Yorkshire. It is represented by four councillors on the East Riding of Yorkshire Council. Goole is in the parliamentary constituency of Brigg and Goole, which has been represented in the House of Commons since 2010 by Andrew Percy, a Conservative. Landmarks Goole's most prominent landmarks are its twin water towers, nicknamed 'salt' and 'pepper'. The new white water-tower was the largest in Europe at the time of construction. In the winter months Goole's gas holder on Anderson Road is visible across the north of the town. Many of the hoists and cranes on the dockside can be seen across the town. The steeple of Goole Parish Church is tall enough to be seen across the town. The townscape is made up mostly of utility and industrial structures. There is a clock tower in the main shopping district of the town on a roundabout on the site of the former open-air marketplace. West Park is an Edwardian park in the town. Economy Goole has a modestly sized town centre with many high street shops, independent retailers and public houses. The main shopping area is Wesley Square, off Boothferry Road (which has been pedestrianised around the main shopping area). There is a modern retail development in the town centre, a leisure centre next to the docks and the Goole and District Hospital, to the north of the town. A theatre and cinema, 'Junction', opened in 2009. Industry Glass is produced in Goole, which is also the centre of an agricultural district. The town's former large employer was a clothing manufacture for the big multiples but it closed in the late 2000s. Goole's industrial park, Capitol Park / Goole36, has attracted two large employers: Guardian Industries, which built a glass-manufacturing plant, and Tesco, which built a distribution centre. The arrival of these employers resulted in the creation of hundreds of new jobs. A new Morrisons store opened in Goole on 2 August 2010, on land previously occupied by Timms Mill on Boothferry Road. A new railway rolling stock factory was built at the same location during 2018/2019. The plant, owned and operated by Siemens, builds the new tube trains for the Piccadilly line in London. Docks Three locks keep the water in of floating docks at a constant depth of by preventing the level from rising and falling with the tides in the River Ouse. Once ships are within the complex, eight docks provide a total quayside of . Beside the docks are transit sheds where cargo is stored, many of them equipped with overhead cranes. Unlike many ports every one of the eight docks has been in full commercial operation since its construction in the period from 1826 to 1912. For most of its life the port was most associated with the shipment of coal and associated cargoes, including the importation of pit props. With the demise of mining the former Timber Pond became a marina, trading under the name Goole Boathouse. It has berths for 150 boats. After a period of decline commodities were replaced by containers, the export of steel and the import of timber from north-eastern Europe. Today the Port of Goole has regular cargo liner services to Norway, Sweden, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, Morocco and South Africa and a transshipment route to Europort, Rotterdam. Sport Goole Town Cricket Club supports local cricket teams. Of its three teams, the first team plays in the club cricket York & District Senior League. A new clubhouse was constructed in 1996 providing facilities and a bar. Rugby Union is played close to the cricket club at Westfield Banks, sharing facilities with Goole Tennis Club and Goole Viking Striders running club. Goole RUFC currently fields two teams, the first team playing in Yorkshire Division Two. Goole Tennis Centre is a nine-court tennis club on the Westfield Banks site. Goole has two football teams - Goole A.F.C. and Goole United A.F.C. They currently play in the Northern Premier League Division One South and the Humber Premier League Division One respectively. They both play at the Victoria Pleasure Grounds on Marcus Street. The nearest professional teams are Rotherham United, Doncaster Rovers, Grimsby Town, Hull City, Leeds United, Barnsley, Scunthorpe United, Sheffield Wednesday, Sheffield United and York City. Goole used to have two golf clubs. The early course, founded in 1900, was at Rawcliffe Park. The later course was at Airmyn Park from 1911 to the Second World War. Currently Goole's nearest golf clubs are the Boothferry Golf Club in Spaldington and Drax Golf Club in Drax. Media Radio Medica is a not-for-profit radio station broadcast from the Goole And District Hospital. The town is served by a weekly tabloid newspaper, The Goole Times, published since 1853 and sold in Goole and neighbouring parts of the East Riding of Yorkshire. Notable people Roy Clarke, comedy writer, lives in Goole Sandra's Wedding, a four-piece alternative rock band from Goole Adi Vines, bassist for the band Swervedriver, born in Goole Betty, Hazel and Julie Dunderdale, who performed professionally as The Dale Sisters, a vocal trio that had limited chart success in the early 1960s Gavin Bryars, composer and double bassist, born in Goole Nigel Adams, Member of Parliament for Selby and Ainsty, born in Goole Hospital Anne Greaves (1889–) was the first woman to become a member of the Institute of Quarrying and created artificial stone through her quarrying company Gallery References General External links Goole Town Council Goole Civic Society Ports and harbours of Yorkshire Port cities and towns of the North Sea Civil parishes in the East Riding of Yorkshire Towns in the East Riding of Yorkshire

262842

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dariusz%20Michalczewski

Dariusz Michalczewski

Dariusz Tomasz Michalczewski (born 5 May 1968) is a Polish-German former professional boxer who competed from 1991 to 2005. He held multiple world championships in two weight classes, including the WBA, IBF, WBO and lineal light-heavyweight titles between 1994 and 2003, and the WBO junior-heavyweight title from 1994 to 1995. BoxRec currently ranks him No.63 in its ranking of the greatest pound for pound boxers of all time. Amateur career Michalczewski came up through Poland's state-run sports program as a boy and had a successful amateur career. He achieved an amateur record of 139–11–2 (89 KO). Highlights of his amateur career include: 1986 – European Junior Semi-Finalist in middleweight division, defeating Fabrice Tiozzo but losing to Ray Close 1990 – German National Champion in light heavyweight division 1991 – European Champion in light heavyweight division Defection to Germany On 24 April 1988, while competing beyond the Iron Curtain in West Germany for the Polish national team, Michalczewski defected from the amateur team to stay in West Germany. Becoming a citizen of the now united Germany in 1991 and turning professional the same year, he was soon signed by Universum Box-Promotion, one of the leading boxing promoters in Europe. His aggressive style earned him the nickname "Tiger". Professional career Michalczewski turned professional in September 1991. He won the German International light-heavyweight title early on 13 February 1993, a title for foreign-born fighters based in Germany. He then won the IBF Intercontinental title on 22 May 1993. Two-weight world champion On 10 September 1994, Michalczewski, at 23-0 (18 KOs), captured the WBO light-heavyweight title with a 12-round decision over defending champion Leeonzer Barber at Sporthalle, Alsterdorf, Hamburg, Germany. Between then and March 2003, Michalczewski made 23 successful defenses of his WBO title against 20 different boxers, and picked up three other belts along the way. Three months after beating Barber, he won the WBO cruiserweight title with a tenth-round knockout of Nestor Giovannini. However, he soon gave up that title to continue campaigning as a light-heavyweight. In 1996, Universum Box-Promotion's conditioning coach Fritz Sdunek became head coach and replaced Chuck Talhami as Michalczewski's trainer, which resulted in a marked improvement in Michalczewski's performances. Hill vs Michalczewski unification On 13 June 1997, he defeated Virgil Hill over 12 rounds to add Hill's WBA, IBF and Lineal light-heavyweight titles to his own. However, Michalczewski soon lost both alphabet titles; Scandalously, the WBA immediately stripped him for displaying its belt along with that of the WBO. Michalczewski was then forced to relinquish the IBF title when he was unable to defend the title in a court-ordered defense against mandatory challenger William Guthrie within a little over a month after the bout with Hill. After beating Hill, Michalczewski knocked out 14 consecutive opponents, all in defense of his Lineal/WBO titles. In 1998, he defeated Drake Thadzi, in 1999, he defeated Montel Griffin, and in 2000, he defeated Graciano Rocchigiani. Going for Marciano's record Michalczewski had a perfect record of 48-0 when he faced Julio César González of Mexico in defense of his title on 18 October 2003. Coming into the fight, he was within one victory of tying Rocky Marciano's record of 49 wins with no losses. A win also would have put him just one victory short of Joe Louis' all-time record for successful defenses at any weight class. However, as when Larry Holmes went for the same record against Michael Spinks, the now 35-year-old Michalczewski was unable to pull it off. He lost a split decision to the 27-year-old Gonzalez at the Color Line Arena in Hamburg, and his career record dropped to 48-1. Despite the loss, he still holds the record for the most consecutive successful world title defenses at light-heavyweight. Final fight In October 2004, it was announced that Michalczewski would come out of retirement to box France's Fabrice Tiozzo for the WBA light heavyweight title on 26 February 2005 in Hamburg. Michalczewski was stopped in six round, then he announced his retirement in May 2005. Michalczewski was to come out of retirement to fight German boxing icon Sven Ottke in Germany in May 2008, but the bout never materialized. In popular culture Tiger Energy Drink is named after the famous boxer. His picture and text "Recommended by Dariusz 'Tiger' Michalczewski" appears on the cans and bottles. Dariusz Michalczewski struck a friendship with performer Mark Wahlberg, known at the time by his stage name Marky Mark of the formation Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch. In 1995, Marky Mark released a track called "No Mercy" about his friend Dariusz Michalczewski, including excerpts in Polish from Dariusz, who also appears in the video clip shot by Frank Papenbroock. "No Mercy" appears in the album The Remix Album by Prince Ital Joe and Marky Mark, although this particular track is a solo effort by Marky Mark. In 2006, a documentary was made by Pawel Kocambasi alias P.M.Starost. The 60-minute documentary entitled "Tiger" took part in Filmfest München and won the award for the Best Documentary at the Biberacher Filmfestspiele. Social involvement In 2003 Dariusz Michalczewski established foundation "Równe Szanse" (equal chances) which was aimed at supporting initiatives for youth from dysfunctional families. Since 2014 he supports the social campaign for civil union and the right for adoption by homosexual couples. Professional boxing record See also List of light heavyweight boxing champions List of WBA world champions List of IBF world champions List of WBO world champions References External links Dariusz Michalczewski profile at Cyber Boxing Zone 1968 births Living people World Boxing Association champions International Boxing Federation champions World Boxing Organization champions Polish male boxers Sportspeople from Gdańsk Polish defectors Polish emigrants to Germany German male boxers Middleweight boxers World light-heavyweight boxing champions World cruiserweight boxing champions

262847

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacqueline%20de%20Jong

Jacqueline de Jong

Jacqueline de Jong (born 1939) is a Dutch painter, sculptor and graphic artist. She was born in the Dutch town of Hengelo to Jewish parents. Faced with the German invasion, they went into hiding. After an abortive escape attempt to England, her father Hans remained in Amsterdam while her mother and she made for Switzerland, accompanied by the Dutch painter Max van Dam. At the border they were captured by the French police, but just as they were about to be deported to the Drancy internment camp, they were rescued by the resistance, who helped them over the border. When they returned to the Netherlands following the war, Jacqueline could not speak Dutch. From 1947 on she went to school in Hengelo and Enschede (Gemeentelijk Lyceum). In 1957 she went to Paris and was employed in the boutique at Christian Dior in the meantime studying French and drama. After leaving for London spring 1958 studying drama at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, she returned to Amsterdam September 1958 – 1961 and was employed by the Stedelijk Museum, the home of Modern Art there. She visited London in 1959 where she met Danish painter Asger Jorn, the founder of the CoBrA group, They became companions. He was forty-five years old, compared to her twenty years. She joined the Situationist International in 1960, and started to participate in conferences and the Central committee. After the expulsion of Constant Nieuwenhuys and his group, she became the Dutch Section of the organization. She did not accept the way the German section, also known as Gruppe SPUR, had been expelled and resigned. The cleft between the Debordists and the Second Situationist International grew, however she refused to join either faction, instead stating that people should act as situationists. Between 1962 and 1968 she edited and published The Situationist Times involving Gaston Bachelard, Roberto Matta, Wifredo Lam and Jacques Prévert in this project. In 1968 she was in Paris, printing and distributing revolutionary posters. From starting her activities as a painter, sculptor and graphic artist she keeps on exhibiting all over Europe and the U.S.A. She realized wall paintings for the Amsterdam Town Hall and a separation installation for the Nederlandse Bank. In 1970 she left Asger Jorn and moved to Amsterdam with Hans Brinkman later on a gallery owner and organiser of exhibitions and international Fairs. They divorced in 1989. In 1990 she became the companion of lawyer Thomas H. Weyland (Tom 1931-2009). From 1995 Tom Weyland was on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property (de Gruyter Berlin- New York). They got married in 1998 in Airopolie (Greece). They gave several lectures on 'intellectual right, copyright, détournement and modification' in the Netherlands and U.K. In 1996 they bought their property in the Bourbonnais France where she has her vegetable garden and grows the potatoes which became Art ("Potatoe language" in 2003 van Abbe Museum Eindhoven invited by Jennifer Tee, "Baked Potatoes" 2006 Albisola Italy invited by Roberto Ohrt and the Golden and Platina jewellery "Pommes de Jong" 2008-2011. In 2003 a retrospective exhibition of her work was shown at the Cobra Museum for Contemporary Art in Amstelveen, the Netherlands and the KunstCentret Silkeborg Bad Denmark, whereas a monography was published 'Undercover in de Kunst/in Art' Edition Ludion, Belgium. Together with Tom she realized The Weyland de Jong Foundation early 2009. The main aim is to support avant-garde artists of all disciplines, architects and art-scientists having reached the age of 50 and over. Weyland died in May 2009. Lecture (Yale University, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, 7 May 2012) and Exhibition (Moderna Museet Stockholm, 25 February - 8 April 2012) were planned and are realized 2009-2012. Her Archive was purchased by Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale University USA ('The de Jong Papers') in 2011. An exhibition at the occasion on the 50th birthday of The Situationist Times (1962–2012) is planned in NYC at the Boo-Hooray Gallery, and at the Beinecke Library (Yale) and in Paris at Librairie Lecointre-Drouet in the year 2012. References External links www.jacquelinedejong.com Official website Jacqueline de Jong Papers. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. 1939 births Living people 20th-century Dutch women artists 21st-century Dutch women artists Dutch activists Dutch women activists Dutch painters People from Hengelo Painters from Amsterdam Dutch women painters

262850

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecil%20Foster

Cecil Foster

Cecil Foster (born September 26, 1954) is a Canadian novelist, essayist, journalist, Public intellectual and scholar. He is Chairman of the Department of Transnational Studies at the University of Buffalo. Early life and education Foster was born in Bridgetown, Barbados on 26 September 1954 to Fred and Doris Goddard. When Foster was two years old, his parents migrated to Britain, leaving their children with relatives. The family was extremely poor; Foster remembers a childhood where there was rarely enough to eat. Foster attended Harrison College, a prestigious high school in Barbados. He immigrated to Canada in 1978. Foster completed his PhD at York University in 2002. Career Foster began working for the Caribbean News Agency in Bridgetown as the senior reporter and editor (1975–77), and the Barbados Advocate News as the reporter and columnist (1977–79), Foster emigrated to Canada in 1979. He went on to work for the Toronto Star as a reporter (1979–82). Foster then began working for The Contrast as an editor (1979–82), Transportation Business Management as an editor (1982–83), The Globe and Mail as a reporter (1983–89), The Financial Post as a senior editor (1989), and also served as special adviser to Ontario's Ministry of Culture, through the mid-1990s. His most recent book, Where Race Does Not Matter (2004), explores the potential of multiculturalism in Canada. It also expands on some of his earlier work that deals with issues of race in his own life as well as in the history of Canada. He is well known for exploring race through immigration, and empowers this culture and beliefs through "Blacks in Action". Foster continues to bring his own personal experiences, and real-life issues to the work that he continues to produce. Island Wings: A Memoir (1998) was written as an autobiography of his own life, and is often referred to as more informative, rather than entertainment. Foster completed his PhD, a phenomenological exploration of the concept of Blackness in Canada, at York University in 2003. His philosophical influences include Hegel, Marx, Alexandre Kojève, Will Kymlicka, Charles Taylor, and former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. Foster taught sociology at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada. He is a well-regarded novelist. Foster served as a judge for the 2015 Scotiabank Giller Prize. He won the Writers' Trust of Canada's Gordon Montador Award in 1997 for his book A Place Called Heaven for the Best Canadian Book on Contemporary Social Issues, the novel “Sleep On, Beloved” was shortlisted for the Ontario Trillium Book Prize, and “Blackness and Modernity: The Colour of Humanity and the Quest for Freedom” (McGill-Queen’s UP 2007), won the 2008 John Porter Tradition of Excellence Book Award by the Canadian Sociology Association. In 2019 he published the non-fiction book They Called Me George: The Untold Story of Black Train Porters and the Birth of Modern Canada, a study of the history of Black Canadian train porters. Books No Man in the House - 1991 Distorted mirror: Canada’s Racist Face - 1991 Caribana, the Greatest Celebration - 1995 (about Caribana) Sleep On, Beloved - 1995 A Place Called Heaven: The Meaning of Being Black in Canada - 1996 Slammin' Tar - 1998 Island Wings: A Memoir - 1998 Dry Bones Memories - 2001 Where Race Does Not Matter: The New Spirit of Modernity - 2004 Blackness and Modernity: The Colour of Humanity and the Quest for Freedom - 2007 Genuine Multiculturalism: The Tragedy and Comedy of Diversity - 2013 Independence - 2014 They Called Me George: The Untold Story of Black Train Porters and the Birth of Modern Canada - 2019 See also Barbadian Canadian References External links Cecil Foster's Official Website 1954 births Living people Black Canadian writers Canadian male novelists Canadian sociologists Writers from Ontario People from Wellington County, Ontario People from Bridgetown Barbadian emigrants to Canada University at Buffalo faculty Canadian male non-fiction writers 20th-century Canadian novelists 20th-century Canadian non-fiction writers 20th-century Canadian male writers 21st-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian non-fiction writers 21st-century Canadian male writers

262852

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kittil%C3%A4

Kittilä

Kittilä (, , ) is a municipality of Finland and a popular holiday resort. It is located in northern Finland north of the Arctic Circle within the Lapland region. The municipality has a population of () and covers an area of of which is water. The population density is . The ski resort Levi is situated in the village of Sirkka, Kittilä on Levi Fell (in Finnish "Levitunturi") (elevation 531 metres (1742 feet)). The resort hosts a slalom event early each season on the Alpine World Cup circuit and offers both downhill and cross-country skiing to the public, as well as snow shoeing, including to the next nearest fell, Kätkätunturi, located west of Levitunturi. Kätkätunturi is high and long. On 5 June 2006, it was announced that a Canadian mining corporation Agnico-Eagle Mines will start a new gold mine in Kittilä. Once completed, it will be the biggest gold mine in Europe. Experts say that the deposits hold at least three million ounces of gold, by current market price worth 1.8 billion U.S. dollars. The mine is expected to produce an average of 150,000 ounces of gold annually for at least 13 years. Kittilä Airport is served by Finnair and Norwegian Air. TUI Airways also serves the airport from various UK bases as part of their programme of ski flights, as well as Christmas specials and flights in support of the When You Wish Upon A Star children's foundation. Kittilä is also famous for being the location of the lowest recorded temperature in Finnish history: , measured in January 1999 in Pokka. The "midnight sun" is above the horizon from 29 May to 16 July, and the period with continuous daylight lasts a bit longer, polar night from 14 December to 29 December. Climate Kittilä has a subarctic climate (Dfc) as a result of its northerly location and being far inland, which renders strong seasonal shifts. The sun does not set between 30 May and 15 July (47 days), and white nights lasts from early May to early August. The period that the sun does not rise lasts from 14 December to 29 December (16 days), the exact boundaries depending on local topography. Although winter temperatures are cold they are still less severe than in similar locations elsewhere in the world due to some Gulf Stream influence. In summer temperatures generally are moderate, although warm days are possible. In 28 January 1999 in Pokka, Kittilä there was recorded the official low temperature record of Finland, -51,5 °C (-60,7 °F). Notable residents Kalervo Palsa, artist Arto Paasilinna, novelist, born in Kittilä Reidar Särestöniemi, artist See also Aakenustunturi References External links Home page of Kittilä Ski Resort Levi levi-lapland.com Särestöniemi museo Populated places established in 1954

262853

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurore%20%28grape%29

Aurore (grape)

Aurore (also known as Seibel 5279) is a white complex hybrid grape variety produced by Albert Seibel and used for wine production mostly in the United States and Canada. Over a long lifetime Seibel produced many complex hybrid crosses (known as Seibel grapes) of Vitis vinifera to American grapes. It is a cross of Seibel 788 (which is Sicilien × Clairette Dorée Ganzin) and Seibel 29 (a crossing of Munson and an unidentified Vitis vinifera). The fruit of Aurore ripens early in the season between late August and early September. Although the vine is resistant of many mildew diseases, is productive and vigorous; the fruit suffers susceptibility from bunch rot and bird attack. Aurore is planted where growing seasons are short like the Northern United States, Canada and the United Kingdom but is also planted in more temperate climates to extend the harvest season. Aurore may be used as a table or wine grape. It tends not to be used as a table grape due to unsuitability for shipping and is generally used for bulk wine production for blending with wines made Vitis labrusca grape varieties. It is also used to a lesser extent to make fruity and sparkling wines though the wines tend to have neutral flavor and slight "foxy" character typical of many hybrids. History Aurore was created by the French viticulturist Albert Seibel, working from grapes varieties grown at his nursery and vineyard in Aubenas, Ardèche in the Rhône Valley. Seibel named the variety after Aurora, the Roman goddess of the dawn who according to legend would announce the arrival of the sun every morning. The name Aurora, itself, is derived from the Latin word for dawn and is today still used as a synonym for Aurore. The grape was originally bred to be a table grape variety but fell out of favor for table grape growers due to how quickly the freshly picked grapes spoiled and the tendency of berries to fall off the stem in transit. Aurore was first introduced to the United States, via Ellis Island, in the 1940s and from New York spread throughout the country. Soon it was the most widely planted non-Vitis labrusca grape variety in New York but since the 1970s its numbers have declined as growers began planting more Vitis vinifera and other hybrid varieties. The first plantings of Aurore in Canada were planted in 1946. Pedigree Aurore is known as a "complex hybrid", meaning that within its lineage are grape varieties from a number of species in the Vitis genus--including Vitis vinifera, Vitis rupestris and Vitis lincecumii. The two parent varieties of Aurore, Seibel 788 & Seibel 29, were also Seibel grapes with complex pedigrees themselves. Seibel 788 was a crossing of the two hybrid varieties Sicilien and Clairette Dorée Ganzin. Sicilien is a crossing of two Vitis vinifera varieties, Bicane and Pascal blanc, while Clairette Dorée Ganzin was an interspecific crossing produced by French grape breeder Victor Ganzin. The two parents of Clairette Dorée Ganzin were the Vitis vinifera variety Bourboulenc and the hybrid Ganzin 60 (itself a cross of Aramon noir and a Vitis rupestris variety). Seibel 29 is a crossing of an unknown Vitis vinifera variety and the Munson hybrid grape (also known as Jaeger 70) that was created by the Missouri viticulturist Hermann Jaeger. Munson is a crossing of a Vitis lincecumii and Vitis rupestris vine. Viticulture While classified as a white grape varieties and only used to produce white wines, clusters of Aurore blanc often will have a pink tinge to them (similar to Pinot gris and Gewürztraminer though not as dark as those two varieties can be). Aurore is known to be a very vigorous and productive vine, capable of producing high yields and expansive foliage if not kept in check with winter pruning and summer leaf-pulling. It is a very early ripening variety, coming to full ripeness even before varieties such as Chasselas in cold climates. The variety is moderately winter-hardy, able to sustain winter freezes down to . While Aurore has good resistance to downy mildew, the variety is very susceptible to the viticultural hazards of Eutypa dieback, powdery mildew, black rot and botrytis bunch rot. The smooth leaves of the vine also makes it susceptible to angular leaf scorch as well as infestation from the invasive Japanese beetle. Growers practicing organic viticulture will often use diatomaceous earth as a dusting spray to help deter the beetle but this method is only effective if the dust comes into direct contact with the beetle and gets easily washed off by rains. Aurore berries can be very thin skinned and prone to splitting if rainfall happens too close to harvest. Very mature berries also have a tendency of falling off the stem. Wine regions While Aurore originated in France and in the early 20th century had around 288 hectares (712 acres) planted in the northeastern reaches of the country and in the southwest, today it is hardly found in France. Outside France it is found in several states in the United States (most notably the cool-climate states of Minnesota, New York, New Hampshire and Nebraska). In 2009, wine producers in New York crushed 3,530 tons of the Aurore for both blended and varietal white wine. In New Hampshire, Jewell Towne Vineyards is noted for producing an Aurore varietal. Other states in the US with plantings of Aurore include: Connecticut, Indiana, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan (in the Leelanau Peninsula AVA), Missouri, New Mexico, Ohio (in the Lake Erie AVA), Pennsylvania, Washington (in the Puget Sound AVA), West Virginia and Wisconsin. In Canada, Aurore was once widely planted throughout British Columbia but since the 1980s have seen its number of plantings drop drastically along with other hybrid varieties as producers in regions such as the Okanagan Valley transition away from hybrid varieties to international varieties such as Pinot noir and Chardonnay. In Ontario, between 2007 and 2012 around 200 tons of Aurore in total was crushed in the province as the numbers of plantings there also decline. In Québec, producers such as Domaine des Côtes d'Ardoise are still producing varietal examples of Aurore. Styles Aurore is used to produce a wide range of both blended and varietal white wine styles at a variety of sweetness levels from dry to off-dry. Some producers also use the grape to make sparkling wine. While the grape does not travel well for commercial table grape production, it can be a favorite eating grape for home gardeners due to its soft, juicy flesh. According to Master of Wine Jancis Robinson, Aurore tends to produce light-bodied floral wines that are relatively neutral in flavor but often exhibit the characteristic "foxy" note typical of many hybrids. This "foxy" aroma note tends to be more pronounced from examples produced in the eastern United States than in the west. Very ripe examples of Aurore also tend to exhibit more "foxy" flavors. Synonyms and confusion with other grapes Over the years Aurore has been known under a variety of synonyms including Aurora, Feri Szőlő, Finánc Szőlő, Redei, S-5279, and Seibel 5279. Aurore is often confused with a South American table grape known as Aurora that was produced at the Instituto Agronomico de Campinas in Brazil. This confusion stems in part to Aurore's history of being originally bred to be a table grape itself and Aurora being one of the known synonyms for the Seibel wine grape. References White wine grape varieties Seibel grapes

262861

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeroth%20law%20of%20thermodynamics

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Accordingly, thermal equilibrium between systems is a transitive relation. Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium with respect to each other if they are linked by a wall permeable only to heat and they do not change over time. As a convenience of language, the same is also sometimes said of unlinked systems that would not change if they did have such a wall. Another formulation by Maxwell is "All heat is of the same kind". Another statement of the law is "All diathermal walls are equivalent". The law is important for the mathematical formulation of thermodynamics. Mathematically, the zeroth law makes the relation of thermal equilibrium between systems an equivalence relation, which is precisely the type of relation that can represent equality of some quantity associated to each system. A quantity that is the same for two systems if and only if they can be placed in thermal equilibrium with each other is a scale of temperature; the zeroth law is needed in order for there to exist any (and therefore many) such scales. The condition justifies the use of practical thermometers. Equivalence relation A thermodynamic system is by definition in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, that is to say, there is no change in its observable state (i.e. macrostate) over time and no flows occur in it. One precise statement of the zeroth law is that the relation of thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on pairs of thermodynamic systems. In other words, the set of all systems each in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium may be divided into subsets in which every system belongs to one and only one subset, and is in thermal equilibrium with every other member of that subset, and is not in thermal equilibrium with a member of any other subset. This means that a unique "tag" can be assigned to every system, and if the "tags" of two systems are the same, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and if different, they are not. This property is used to justify the use of empirical temperature as a tagging system. Empirical temperature provides further relations of thermally equilibrated systems, such as order and continuity with regard to "hotness" or "coldness", but these are not implied by the standard statement of the zeroth law. If it is defined that a thermodynamic system is in thermal equilibrium with itself (i.e., thermal equilibrium is reflexive), then the zeroth law may be stated as follows: If a body C, be in thermal equilibrium with two other bodies, A and B, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with one another. This statement asserts that thermal equilibrium is a left-Euclidean relation between thermodynamic systems. If we also define that every thermodynamic system is in thermal equilibrium with itself, then thermal equilibrium is also a reflexive relation. Binary relations that are both reflexive and Euclidean are equivalence relations. Thus, again implicitly assuming reflexivity, the zeroth law is therefore often expressed as a right-Euclidean statement: If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. One consequence of an equivalence relationship is that the equilibrium relationship is symmetric: If A is in thermal equilibrium with B, then B is in thermal equilibrium with A. Thus we may say that two systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other, or that they are in mutual equilibrium. Another consequence of equivalence is that thermal equilibrium is a transitive relationship and is occasionally expressed as such: If A is in thermal equilibrium with B and if B is in thermal equilibrium with C, then A is in thermal equilibrium with C . A reflexive, transitive relationship does not guarantee an equivalence relationship. In order for the above statement to be true, both reflexivity and symmetry must be implicitly assumed. It is the Euclidean relationships which apply directly to thermometry. An ideal thermometer is a thermometer which does not measurably change the state of the system it is measuring. Assuming that the unchanging reading of an ideal thermometer is a valid tagging system for the equivalence classes of a set of equilibrated thermodynamic systems, then the systems are in thermal equilibrium, if a thermometer gives the same reading for each system. If the system are thermally connected, no subsequent change in the state of either one can occur. If the readings are different, then thermally connecting the two systems causes a change in the states of both systems. The zeroth law provides no information regarding this final reading. Foundation of temperature Nowadays, there are two nearly separate concepts of temperature, the thermodynamic concept, and that of the kinetic theory of gases and other materials. The zeroth law belongs to the thermodynamic concept, but this is no longer the primary international definition of temperature. The current primary international definition of temperature is in terms of the kinetic energy of freely moving microscopic particles such as molecules, related to temperature through Boltzmann's constant . The present article is about the thermodynamic concept, not about the kinetic theory concept. The zeroth law establishes thermal equilibrium as an equivalence relationship. An equivalence relationship on a set (such as the set of all systems each in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium) divides that set into a collection of distinct subsets ("disjoint subsets") where any member of the set is a member of one and only one such subset. In the case of the zeroth law, these subsets consist of systems which are in mutual equilibrium. This partitioning allows any member of the subset to be uniquely "tagged" with a label identifying the subset to which it belongs. Although the labeling may be quite arbitrary, temperature is just such a labeling process which uses the real number system for tagging. The zeroth law justifies the use of suitable thermodynamic systems as thermometers to provide such a labeling, which yield any number of possible empirical temperature scales, and justifies the use of the second law of thermodynamics to provide an absolute, or thermodynamic temperature scale. Such temperature scales bring additional continuity and ordering (i.e., "hot" and "cold") properties to the concept of temperature. In the space of thermodynamic parameters, zones of constant temperature form a surface, that provides a natural order of nearby surfaces. One may therefore construct a global temperature function that provides a continuous ordering of states. The dimensionality of a surface of constant temperature is one less than the number of thermodynamic parameters, thus, for an ideal gas described with three thermodynamic parameters P, V and N, it is a two-dimensional surface. For example, if two systems of ideal gases are in joint thermodynamic equilibrium across an immovable diathermal wall, then = where Pi is the pressure in the ith system, Vi is the volume, and Ni is the amount (in moles, or simply the number of atoms) of gas. The surface = constant defines surfaces of equal thermodynamic temperature, and one may label defining T so that = RT, where R is some constant. These systems can now be used as a thermometer to calibrate other systems. Such systems are known as "ideal gas thermometers". In a sense, focused on in the zeroth law, there is only one kind of diathermal wall or one kind of heat, as expressed by Maxwell's dictum that "All heat is of the same kind". But in another sense, heat is transferred in different ranks, as expressed by Sommerfeld's dictum "Thermodynamics investigates the conditions that govern the transformation of heat into work. It teaches us to recognize temperature as the measure of the work-value of heat. Heat of higher temperature is richer, is capable of doing more work. Work may be regarded as heat of an infinitely high temperature, as unconditionally available heat." This is why temperature is the particular variable indicated by the zeroth law's statement of equivalence. Dependence on the existence of walls permeable only to heat In Carathéodory's (1909) theory, it is postulated that there exist walls "permeable only to heat", though heat is not explicitly defined in that paper. This postulate is a physical postulate of existence. It does not say that there is only one kind of heat. This paper of Carathéodory states as proviso 4 of its account of such walls: "Whenever each of the systems S1 and S2 is made to reach equilibrium with a third system S3 under identical conditions, systems S1 and S2 are in mutual equilibrium". It is the function of this statement in the paper, not there labeled as the zeroth law, to provide not only for the existence of transfer of energy other than by work or transfer of matter, but further to provide that such transfer is unique in the sense that there is only one kind of such wall, and one kind of such transfer. This is signaled in the postulate of this paper of Carathéodory that precisely one non-deformation variable is needed to complete the specification of a thermodynamic state, beyond the necessary deformation variables, which are not restricted in number. It is therefore not exactly clear what Carathéodory means when in the introduction of this paper he writes It is possible to develop the whole theory without assuming the existence of heat, that is of a quantity that is of a different nature from the normal mechanical quantities. It is the opinion of Lieb and Yngvason (1999) that the derivation from statistical mechanics of the law of entropy increase is a goal that has so far eluded the deepest thinkers. Thus the idea remains open to consideration that the existence of heat and temperature are needed as coherent primitive concepts for thermodynamics, as expressed, for example, by Maxwell and Planck. On the other hand, Planck (1926) clarified how the second law can be stated without reference to heat or temperature, by referring to the irreversible and universal nature of friction in natural thermodynamic processes. History Writing long before the term "zeroth law" was coined, in 1871 Maxwell discussed at some length ideas which he summarized by the words "All heat is of the same kind". Modern theorists sometimes express this idea by postulating the existence of a unique one-dimensional hotness manifold, into which every proper temperature scale has a monotonic mapping. This may be expressed by the statement that there is only one kind of temperature, regardless of the variety of scales in which it is expressed. Another modern expression of this idea is that "All diathermal walls are equivalent". This might also be expressed by saying that there is precisely one kind of non-mechanical, non-matter-transferring contact equilibrium between thermodynamic systems. According to Sommerfeld, Fowler coined the term zeroth law of thermodynamics while discussing the 1935 text by Meghnad Saha and B.N. Srivastava. They write on page 1 that "every physical quantity must be measurable in numerical terms". They presume that temperature is a physical quantity and then deduce the statement "If a body is in temperature equilibrium with two bodies and , then and themselves are in temperature equilibrium with each other". Then they italicize a self-standing paragraph, as if to state their basic postulate: Any of the physical properties of which change with the application of heat may be observed and utilised for the measurement of temperature. They do not themselves here use the phrase "zeroth law of thermodynamics". There are very many statements of these same physical ideas in the physics literature long before this text, in very similar language. What was new here was just the label zeroth law of thermodynamics. Fowler & Guggenheim (1936/1965) wrote of the zeroth law as follows: ... we introduce the postulate: If two assemblies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third assembly, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. They then proposed that ... it may be shown to follow that the condition for thermal equilibrium between several assemblies is the equality of a certain single-valued function of the thermodynamic states of the assemblies, which may be called the temperature , any one of the assemblies being used as a "thermometer" reading the temperature on a suitable scale. This postulate of the "Existence of temperature" could with advantage be known as the zeroth law of thermodynamics. The first sentence of this present article is a version of this statement. It is not explicitly evident in the existence statement of Fowler and Guggenheim that temperature refers to a unique attribute of a state of a system, such as is expressed in the idea of the hotness manifold. Also their statement refers explicitly to statistical mechanical assemblies, not explicitly to macroscopic thermodynamically defined systems. Citations Further reading 0

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baco%20noir

Baco noir

Baco noir (pronounced BA-koh NWAHR) is a hybrid red wine grape variety produced by Francois Baco from a cross of Vitis vinifera var. Folle blanche, a French wine grape, and an unknown variety of Vitis riparia indigenous to North America. Regions In 1951 the variety was brought to the cooler viticulture regions of North America, such as British Columbia, Ontario, Nova Scotia, New York, Michigan, Mississippi, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania and Oregon. In 1955 the variety was brought back to Canada, where the "George" clonal variety is commonly used. Baco noir was the target of a vine-pull program in Canada in the early 1980s, which means that there are few older plots of this variety left in Canada. Oregon's first Baco Noir vines were imported by Philippe Girardet in 1971 for his winery located in the Umpqua Valley. This variety is also grown in certain parts of Colorado as vineyard area expands beyond the traditional AVA's of Colorado and across the Front Range. See also Baco 22A (Baco blanc) References 2. BC Baco Noir wineries Red wine grape varieties Hybrid grape varieties

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prill

Prill

A prill is a small aggregate or globule of a material, most often a dry sphere, formed from a melted liquid. Prilled is a term used in mining and manufacturing to refer to a product that has been pelletized. The pellets are a neater, simpler form for handling, with reduced dust. The material to be prilled must be in a solid state at room temperature and a low-viscosity liquid when melted. Prills are formed by allowing drops of the melted prill substance to congeal or freeze in mid-air after being dripped from the top of a tall prilling tower. Certain agrochemicals such as urea are often supplied in prilled form. Fertilizers (ammonium nitrate, urea, NPK fertilizer) and some detergent powders are commonly manufactured as prills. Melted material may also be atomized and then allowed to form smaller prills that are useful in cosmetics, food, and animal feed. See also Shot (pellet) References Agricultural chemicals Metallurgy

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturkampf

Kulturkampf

Kulturkampf (, 'culture struggle') was the conflict that took place from 1872 to 1878 between the government of Prussia led by Otto von Bismarck and the Roman Catholic Church led by Pope Pius IX. The main issues were clerical control of education and ecclesiastical appointments. A unique feature of Kulturkampf, compared to other struggles between the state and the Catholic Church in other countries, was Prussia's anti-Polish component. By analogy, the term Kulturkampf is sometimes used to describe any conflict between secular and religious authorities or deeply opposing values, beliefs between sizable factions within a nation, community, or other group. Background Europe and the Catholic Church Under the influence of new emerging philosophies and ideologies, such as the enlightenment, realism, positivism, materialism, nationalism, secularism and liberalism, the role of religion in society and the relationship between society and established churches underwent profound changes in the 18th and 19th centuries. Political leaders in many countries endeavored to strip the church of secular powers, whereas in earlier times the church and state were integrally connected; to reduce the duties of the church to spiritual affairs by secularising the public sphere and by separation of church and state; and to assert the supremacy of the state, especially in education. Róisín Healy (2003) argues that across Europe, the Kulturkampf operated mainly on the state level. It developed "especially in strongholds of liberalism, anti-clericalism, and anti-Catholicism". The Catholic Church resisted this development, which it portrayed as an attack on religion, and it sought to maintain and strengthen its strong role in the state and society. With the growing influence of enlightenment and after having lost much of its wealth, power and influence in the course of the mediatization and secularization of the early 19th century, the church had been in a state of decline. The papacy was at a weak point in its history, having lost all its territories to Italy, with the pope a "prisoner" in the Vatican. The church strove to regain its influence and to hold sway in such matters as marriage, family and education. It initiated a Catholic revival by founding associations, papers, schools, social establishments or new orders, and encouraging religious practices such as pilgrimages, mass assemblies, the devotion of the Virgin Mary or the sacred heart of Jesus and the veneration of relics; the pope himself became an object of devotion. Apart from the growth in religious orders, the 19th century was a time when numerous Catholic associations and organisations were founded, especially in Germany and in France. (In the United States, there was a comparable rise in fraternal organizations in the late nineteenth century.) Catholic propaganda, including the interpretation of daily events, was promoted through local and national Catholic newspapers that were prominent in all western European nations. In addition, organized missions and groups were dedicated to producing pious literature. In the 19th century, the Catholic Church promulgated a series of dogmas and encyclicals, such as Pope Gregory XVI's 1832 encyclical Mirari vos condemning liberalism and freedom of the press. These generated controversy in some quarters. Under the leadership of Gregory's successor, Pope Pius IX, the church proclaimed Mary's immaculate conception in 1854, published the encyclicals Quanta cura and Syllabus of Errors in 1864, and convened the First Vatican Council in 1870. The council, in turn, proclaimed the dogma of Papal infallibility. With its "Syllabus of Errors" of 1864, the Church sought to combat the new ideologies, condemning as false some 80 philosophical and political statements, mainly the foundations of the modern nation state. It rejected outright such concepts as freedom of religion, separation of church and state, civil marriage, sovereignty of the people, liberalism and socialism, reason as the sole base of human action, and in general condemned the idea of conciliation with progress. The announcements included an index of forbidden books. The Catholic Church gradually reorganized and began to use media expansively to promote its messages. In addition, the popes worked to increase their control of the Church. Under strong criticism by European governments, the Catholic Church centralized some functions and streamlined its hierarchy. The bishops sought direction from the Vatican, and the needs and views of the international church were given priority over the local ones. Opponents of the new hierarchical church organization pejoratively called it ultramontanism. In view of the church's opposition to enlightenment, liberal reforms, and the revolutions of the 18th/19th centuries, these dogmas and the church's expressed insistence on papal primacy angered the liberal-minded across Europe, even among some Catholics. Debates were heated. The dogmas were perceived as threatening the secularized state, as they reaffirmed that the fundamental allegiance of Catholics was not to their nation-state, but to the Gospel and the Church. The pope's teaching was promoted as absolutely authoritative and binding on all the faithful. Secular politicians wondered whether "Catholicism and allegiance to the modern liberal state were not mutually exclusive". British Prime Minister Gladstone wrote in 1874 that the teaching on papal infallibility compromised the allegiance of faithful English Catholics. For European liberalism, the dogmas were perceived as a declaration of war against the modern state, science and spiritual freedom. The pope's handling of dissent of the dogmas, e. g. by excommunication of critics or demanding their removal from schools and universities, was considered as "epitome of papal authoritarianism". In direct response to the Vatican's announcements, Austria passed the so-called May-Laws for Cisleithania in 1868, restricting the Concordat of 1855, and then cancelled the concordat altogether in 1870. Saxony and Bavaria withheld approval to publish the papal infallibility dogma; Hesse and Baden even denied it any legal validity. France refused to publish the doctrines altogether; Spain forbade publication of the Syllabus of Errors in 1864. Germany Pre-1871 By the mid-19th century, liberal policies had also come to dominate Germany and the separation of church and state became a prominent issue. The Kulturkampf in Prussia is usually framed by the years 1871 and 1878 with the Catholic Church officially announcing its end in 1880 but the struggle in Germany had been an ongoing matter without definite beginning and the years 1871 to 1878 only mark its culmination in Prussia. In the wake of other European countries, most German states had taken first steps of secularisation well before unification. Predominantly Catholic Baden was at the forefront curbing the power of the Catholic Church (Baden Church Dispute, 1852–1854) and (Badischer Kulturkampf, 1864–1876). Other examples are Prussia (1830s, 1850, 1859, and 1969), Württemberg (1859/1862), Bavaria (, 1867), Hesse-Nassau or Hesse-Darmstadt. In the 1837 Kölner Wirren () of legal and policy issues regarding the children of mixed Protestant-Catholic marriages, Prussia's final settlement was considered a defeat for the state as it had given in to demands of the Catholic Church. In 1850, Prussia again had a dispute with the church about civil marriage and primary schools and in 1852, it issued decrees against the Jesuits. As in many European countries, Jesuits were being banned or heavily restricted in many of the German states e. g. in Saxony (1831) and even in Catholic ones such as Bavaria (1851), Baden (1860) or Württemberg (1862). Not to be left out, the German areas to the west of the Rhine had already gone through a process of separation of church and state in line with a radical secularization after annexation by revolutionary and Napoleonic France in 1794. After their return to Germany in 1814, many if not most of the changes were kept in place. In the Vormärz period, Catholic publications usually portrayed revolutions as negative and dangerous to the existing order as well as to the interests of the Catholic Church. Most of them considered a viable Catholicism to be necessary for the very health of society and state and to be the only true and effective protection against the scourge of revolution. The unsuccessful German revolutions of 1848–49, which the Catholic Church had opposed, produced no democratic reforms and attempts to radically disentangle state-church relationships failed. In the revolutionary parliament, many prominent representatives of political Catholicism took the side of the extreme right-wingers. In the years following the revolution, Catholicism became increasingly politicized due to rising liberal ideologies contrasted with the anti-modernist and anti-liberal policies of the Vatican. In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and Franco-Prussian War of 1870 the Catholic Church sided against Prussia and it was an outspoken opponent of German unification under Prussia (as well as of Italy's unification). The Catholic dogmas and doctrines announced in 1854, 1864 and 1870 were perceived in Germany as direct attacks on the modern nation state. Thus, Bismarck, the Liberals and the Conservatives representing orthodox Protestants found the Centre Party's support of the pope highly provocative. Many Catholics shared these sentiments, especially against the pope's declared infallibility and the majority of Catholic German bishops deemed the definition of the dogma as "'unpropitious' in light of the situation in Germany". While most Catholics eventually reconciled themselves to the doctrine, some founded the small breakaway Old Catholic Church. According to the Bavarian head of government, Hohenlohe, the dogma of infallibility compromised the Catholic's loyalty to the state. He sent a circular to all the diplomatic representatives of the Bavarian Kingdom saying, "The only dogmatic thesis which Rome desires to have decided by the Council, and which the Jesuits in Italy and Germany are now agitating, is the question of the Infallibility of the Pope. This pretension once become a dogma, will have a wider scope than the purely spiritual spheres, and will become evidently a political question: for it will raise the power of the Sovereign Pontiff, even in temporal matters, above all the princes and peoples of Christendom." The liberal majorities in the Imperial Diet and the Prussian parliament as well as liberals in general regarded the Church as backward, a hotbed for reactionaries, enemies of progress and cast monastic life as the epitome of a backward Catholic medievalism. They were alarmed by the dramatic rise in the numbers of monasteries, convents and clerical religious groups in an era of widespread religious revival. The Diocese of Cologne, for example, saw a tenfold increase of monks and nuns between 1850 and 1872. Prussian authorities were particularly suspicious of the spread of monastic life among the Polish and French minorities. The Church, in turn, saw the National-Liberals as its worst enemy, accusing them of spearheading the war against Christianity and the Catholic Church. 1871–72 At unification in 1871, the new German Empire included 25.5 million Protestants (62% of the population) and 15 million Catholics (36.5% of the population). Although a minority in the empire, Catholics were the majority in the states of Bavaria, Baden, and Alsace-Lorraine as well as in the four Prussian Provinces of West Prussia, Posen, Rhineland, Westphalia and in the Prussian region of Upper Silesia. Since the Thirty Years' War the population was generally segregated along religious lines and rural areas or towns were overwhelmingly if not entirely of the same religion. Education was also separate and usually in the hands of the churches. There was little mutual tolerance, interaction or intermarriage. Protestants in general were deeply distrustful of the Catholic Church. Unification had been achieved through many obstacles with strong opponents. These were the European powers of France and Austria, both Catholic nations, and the Catholic Church itself, the three of which Bismarck perceived as "Coalition of Catholic Revenge". For Bismarck, the empire was very fragile and its consolidation was an important issue. Biographer Otto Pflanze emphasizes, "Bismarck's belief in the existence of a widespread Catholic conspiracy that posed a threat to both his German and European policies." In a Protestant empire, the Catholic Church was to lose its good standing which it had enjoyed for centuries in the Catholic-dominated Holy Roman Empire and which it would have continued to enjoy in a German empire united under Austrian auspices. Thus, in 1870, on the eve of unification, the Center Party was explicitly founded to defend the position of the church in the new empire. Bismarck was highly concerned that many major members and supporters of this new party were not in sympathy with the new empire: the House of Hanover, the ethnic minority of the Poles, the southern German states. In 1871, the predominantly Catholic states of Southern Germany had only reluctantly joined the empire, increasing the overall share of the Catholic population to 36.5%. Among this Catholic share was Germany's largest ethnic minority, well over 2 million Poles in the east of Prussia, who under Prussia and Germany suffered discrimination and oppression. Bismarck regarded the new Centre Party not only as an illegal mixup of politics and religion and the church's "long arm" but also as a unifying force for Catholic Germans and Poles and thus a threat to the consolidation of the empire. He feared that the Centre Party would frustrate his broader political agendas and he accused the Catholic priests of fostering Polish nationalism as had been done openly in the provinces of Posen and Upper Silesia. The Liberals regarded the Catholic Church as a powerful force of reaction and anti-modernity, especially after the proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870 and the tightening control of the Vatican over the local bishops. The renewed vitality of Catholicism in Germany with its mass gatherings also attracted Protestants – even the heir to the Prussian throne, with the king's approval, attended one. Anti-liberalism, anti-clericalism, and anti-Catholicism became powerful intellectual forces of the time and the antagonism between Liberals and Protestants on one side and the Catholic Church on the other was fought out through mud-slinging in the press. A wave of anti-Catholic, anticlerical and anti-monastic pamphleteering in the liberal press was answered by anti-liberal preaching and propaganda in Catholic newspapers and vice versa. For these reasons, the government sought to wean the Catholic masses away from the hierarchy and the Centre Party and the liberal's demands to curb the power of the churches meshed well with Bismarck's main political objective to crush the Centre Party. According to historian Anthony J. Steinhoff:Bismarck's plan to disarm political Catholicism delighted liberal politicians, who provided the parliamentary backing for the crusade. Yet, the phrase the left-liberal Rudolf Virchow coined for this struggle, the Kulturkampf, suggests that the liberals wanted to do more than prevent Catholicism from becoming a political force. They wanted victory over Catholicism itself, the long-delayed conclusion of the Reformation.At least since 1847 and in line with the Liberals, Bismarck had also been of the professed opinion, that state and church should be completely separated and "the sphere of the state had to be made secure against the incursions by the church", although his ideas were not as far-reaching as in the United States or in Great Britain. He had in mind the traditional position of the Protestant church in Prussia and provoked considerable resistance from conservative Protestants. This became clear in a heated debate with Prussian culture minister von Mühler in 1871 when Bismarck said: "Since you stopped my plans in the Protestant church, I have to go via Rome." In August 1871, at Bad Ems, Bismarck revealed his intention to fight against the Centre Party, to separate state and church, to transfer school inspection to laymen, to abolish religious instruction from schools and to transfer religious affairs to the minister of justice. On 22 January 1872, liberal Adalbert Falk replaced conservative Heinrich von Mühler as Prussian minister for religion, education and health. In Bismarck's mind, Falk was "to re-establish the rights of the state in relation to the church". Yet, unlike Bismarck, whose main motivation for the Kulturkampf was the political power struggle with the Centre Party, Falk, a lawyer, was a strong proponent of state authority having in mind the legal aspects of state-church relationships. Falk became the driving force behind the Kulturkampf laws. Although Bismarck publicly supported Falk, he doubted the success of his laws and was unhappy with his lack of political tact and sensitivity. The differences in their attitudes concerning the Kulturkampf eventually put the two politicians at odds with each other. With this background and the determination of church and state, the Kulturkampf in Germany acquired an additional edge as it gathered in intensity and bitterness. Timeline, 1871–76 From 1871 to 1876, the Prussian state parliament and the federal legislature (Reichstag), both with liberal majorities, enacted 22 laws in the context of the Kulturkampf. They were mainly directed against clerics: bishops, priests and religious orders (anti-clerical) and enforced the supremacy of the state over the church. While several laws were specific to the Catholic Church (Jesuits, congregations etc.) the general laws affected both Catholic and Protestant churches. In an attempt to overcome increasing resistance by the Catholic Church and its defiance of the laws, new regulations increasingly went beyond state matters referring to the purely internal affairs of the church. Even many liberals saw them as an encroachment on civil liberties, compromising their own credo. Constitutionally, education and regulation of religious affairs were vested in the federal states and the leading actor of the Kulturkampf was Prussia, Germany's largest state. However, some of the laws were also passed by the Reichstag and applied to all of Germany. In general, the laws did not affect the press and associations including Catholic ones. 1871 8 June: Fusion of Catholic and Protestant sections in the Prussian Ministry of Culture (responsible for religious matters). The Catholic section had been installed in 1840. The reason given for the merger was, that "the exclusively political attitude of equal justice to all" was to be adopted and that for that purpose one ecclesiastical department was required. The merger was also a precondition for the School Supervision Act of the following year. 10 December: Empire, Pulpit Law (Kanzelparagraph) passed at the initiative of Bavaria and meant to curb what was considered the misuse of religious sermons for political agitation from the pulpit. The law read: "Any cleric or other minister of religion shall be punished with imprisonment or incarceration of up to two years if he, while exercising his occupation or having his occupation exercised, makes state affairs the subject of announcements or discussion either in public before a crowd, in a church, or before any number of people in some other place designated for religious gatherings in such a way that it endangers the public peace." 1872 22 January: Adalbert Falk became Prussian minister for spiritual, educational and health matters 11 March: Prussian (Schulaufsichtsgesetz). This legislation was at the heart of the Kulturkampf, abolishing church oversight of the Prussian primary school system (Catholic and Protestant), excluding the clergy from education and eliminating its influence in curricular matters. This was a milestone for liberalism, as placing education into the hands of the government had always been at the top of its agenda. Liberals believed it would create an open-minded and neutral system of education, seen as the prerequisite for a progressive society. In the eyes of Bismarck, this law was necessary after the church, putting itself in opposition to the state, used the schools to incite the young against the government. April: The Vatican rejected Gustav Adolf, Cardinal Prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst as German ambassador to the Holy See. Schillingsfürst had been critical of the infallibility dogma but eventually accepted the decision of the council. Therefore, Bismarck took him for a suitable mediator. In response to the rejection, the diplomatic mission was left vacant and Prussia suspended relations with the Vatican in December 1872. 4 July: Empire, Jesuit Law banning of the Jesuits who were seen as the emissaries of Rome and the spearhead of ultramontanism. By acknowledging the supremacy of Papal authority, the Jesuits were accused of contesting the secular authority. The law allowed for the dissolution of all Jesuit chapters and expulsion of its members. The following year the law was extended to closely related orders: the Redemptorists, Lazarists, Fathers of the Holy Ghost, and the Ladies of the Sacred Heart. Continued and increasing Church resistance and contempt of the 1871/1872 laws led to changes in the constitution and the enactment of further laws. In order to facilitate these laws, the Prussian Constitution was amended. 20 September: The Prussian bishops, at a conference in Fulda, protested against the regulations hostile to the church. 23 December: The pope, in an address to his cardinals, denounced the new laws as persecution of the church. 1873 17 January: The term Kulturkampf comes into play. Debating the law on education conditions for the employment of clerics, a Progressive deputy in the Prussian legislature – the distinguished medical scientist and pioneer of public health methods, Rudolf Virchow said: "Ich habe die Überzeugung, es handelt sich hier um einen großen Kulturkampf" ('I am of the conviction that this is about a great cultural struggle'). He repeated this term in a call for a vote by the German Progress Party on 23 March 1873. It was ironically picked up and derided in the Catholic press and enthusiastically defended in the liberal. 30 January: While the laws were being debated in parliament, the Prussian bishops submit a protest against the planned legislation and in a memorial, they announced their opposition to the new laws. 5 April: Prussia, Amendment of Sections 15, 16 and 18 of the Prussian Constitution: In section 15 the sentence "The Protestant and the Roman Catholic Church, as well as every other religious community, regulates and administers its affairs independently" is supplemented by "but remain subject to the laws of the state and its legally regulated superintendence". It is added, that the same applies to the possession or beneficial use of institutions for religion, teaching, charity, endowments and funds. Section 16, regarding the unrestricted dealings of religious communities with their seniors and public announcements according to general regulations was cancelled. Section 18 cancelled the state's right to appoint, nominate, elect or confirm clerics for a post. But the amendment added, that the state could regulate the minimum education required for clerical posts, the appointment and dismissal of clergymen and servicemen of religion, and define the limits of ecclesiastical disciplinary measures. 2 May: The bishops issued a common pastoral letter explaining to the faithful the necessity to unanimously and passively resist these laws. 11–14 May: Four "May Laws" passed in 1873 and were enacted on 11–14 May that year. 26 May: The bishops issued another pastoral letter calling on the faithful to resist the new laws and informed the Prussian government that they would not cooperate in their execution. Parish councils declined to elect new pastors or accept parish administrators. Exiled or imprisoned bishops used underground networks. The bishops of Münster and Paderborn refused the Kulturexamen for their seminaries and appointed priests without notifying authorities. Clergy obeying the mandate of the bishops immediately became subject to the punishments prescribed by the laws. Fines were imposed in hundreds of cases and the clerics resisted to pay at which, in turn, the government resorted to force, either by confiscation or imprisonment of up to two years. 21 November: In his encyclical Etsi multa on the persecution of the Church in Italy, Germany, and Switzerland, the pope wrote of Germany "No wonder, then, that the former religious tranquility has been gravely disturbed in that Empire by this kind of law and other plans and actions of the Prussian government most hostile to the Church. But who would wish to falsely cast the blame of this disturbance on the Catholics of the German Empire!" He claimed that Freemasonry was the motivating force behind the Kulturkampf. May Laws The Falk Laws, or 'May Laws' (Maigesetze), were a set of laws passed by the Prussian parliament in the years 1873, 1874, and 1875. Four laws passed in 1873 were enacted on 11–14 May that year: 1. Law on religious disaffiliation allowing a person to sever his connection with the church by simple declaration before a justice of the peace. This declaration freed him from all civil effects of belonging to a church, especially ecclesiastical burthens and dues. 2. Law on ecclesiastical disciplinary measures restricting the exercise of ecclesiastical punishments and means of discipline directed against the life, property, freedom or honour of citizens. This included the infliction of the great excommunication if proclaimed with the name of the guilty, because of possible disturbances of civil and social intercourse. Thus, disciplinary measures were almost totally restricted to the spiritual realm (see state Monopoly on violence). 3. Ecclesiastical disciplinary law concerning ecclesiastical power of discipline and the establishment of The Royal Court of Justice for Ecclesiastical Affairs. This subordinated the Catholic Church to state jurisdiction not only in external but also in internal matters. The law regulated the exercise of disciplinary power by church authorities against their officers for special violation of their duties. Members of the court had to be Germans residing in Germany. Bodily chastisement by the Church was entirely forbidden, fines were limited to maximum amounts, restrictions of freedom could only consist in banishment to a church institution within Germany no longer than 3 months and not against the will of the person concerned. On the other hand, the new court also was given jurisdiction over ecclesiastical officers in violation of state laws. With this law, the German clergy was to be exempt from any juridical body outside of the nation. Hence, judgments of the Holy See or the Roman Rota would not be binding upon them. The highest court was made up of Prussian ecclesiastics, all appointed with the permission of Prussian civil authorities. The Church's juridical and punitive powers were restricted by allowing clerics, e. g. those punished by the Church for not resisting the Kulturkampf laws, to appeal to the Royal Court of Justice for Ecclesiastical Affairs. Bishops in defiance of this law could be deposed. 4. Education standards and civic registry law concerning the education and appointment of priests. Regarding the Protestant Church, these regulations had already been in force for a long time. All men intended for priesthood needed a graduate degree (Abitur) from a German and study 3 years of theology at a German university. All appointments of clerics had to be approved by the state. Herewith, training and appointment of the clergy came under state supervision. The traditional regimen of clerical study was to be replaced by a modern education in a liberal German institution, thus ensuring that candidates to the priesthood were imbued with the spirit of secularism. Furthermore, ecclesiastical offices could only be filled with the permission of the highest civil authority in each province, essentially reviving the ancient practice of lay investiture. 1874 9 March: Prussian Civil Registry Law (birth, marriage, death). The same law was passed for the whole empire on 6 February 1875. 4 May: Empire, Expatriation Law was meant to curb the exercise of church duties by clerics without the required consent of authorities. The law stipulated, that in such cases, after a final conviction, a cleric would be banned from his parish or sent to another place within the empire and, in case of reoccurrence, that the cleric would be expatriated and expelled. 20 May: Prussian Law on the administration of vacant bishoprics. According to the law of 11 May 1873, administrators were to be elected for vacant bishoprics, authorizing laymen to assume administrative responsibilities at the parish level. This additional law stipulated that should an administrator not be elected according to the law, the property would be managed by a state superintendent. 13 July: In the town of Bad Kissingen, Eduard Kullmann attempted to assassinate Bismarck with a pistol, but only hit his hand. Kullmann cited church laws as the reason for his attempt; he was sentenced to 14 years of Zuchthaus (correctional facilities with harsh forced labor). The assassination attempt led to an intensification of the Kulturkampf measures. 1875 5 February: The encyclical Quod Nunquam declared that the May Laws were invalid, "insofar as they totally oppose the divine order of the Church." The Catholic newspaper Westfälischer Merkur was the first to publish the whole text on the 18th of the same month in Germany. All the following papers publishing the encyclical were confiscated. 22 April: The Prussian Payment Law (Breadbasket Law) stopped government subsidies and payments for the Catholic bishoprics and clerics unless they signed a declaration of adherence to all laws. 31 May: Prussian Congregations Law dissolving all orders within 6 months except those involved in care for the infirm. For teaching orders, the time could be extended. 20 June: Prussian Church Finances Administration Law providing for a representation and a council elected by the parish for the administration of property. 4 July: Prussian Old-Catholic Church Entitlement Law giving Old-Catholic communities of a certain size the right to use Catholic churches and cemeteries. 1876 The last two laws passed in 1876 were of no practical importance: 26 February: The possible punishment for violation of the pulpit law was extended to publications. 7 June: The State Supervision Act provided for government supervision of all church assets in the Catholic dioceses in Prussia. Mitigation and Peace Laws, 1878–1887 The political situation in Europe was very volatile. Initially perceived as a possible enemy hostile to German unification under Prussian leadership, Austria and Germany very quickly became friends and formed the Dual Alliance in 1879. The possibility of a war with France or Russia also became more remote. Therefore, social and economic problems moved to the fore and Bismarck's attention gradually turned to other topics he deemed more threatening such as the increasing popularity of the socialists or more important such as questions of import duties. In these matters, he could either not rely on the support of the liberals to pursue his goals or they were not sufficient to form a majority. Bismarck had not been comfortable with the increasing ferocity of the Kulturkampf. Concerning the rise of the Centre Party, the laws had proven to be greatly ineffective and even counterproductive. He soon realized that they were of no help battling the Centre Party and as far as separation of state and church was concerned, he had achieved more than he wanted. In order to garner support for his Anti-Socialist Laws and protective trade tariffs, Bismarck turned his back on the liberals in search of new alliances. The death of Pius IX on 7 February 1878 opened the door for a settlement with the Catholic Church. The new pope, Leo XIII was pragmatic and conciliatory and expressed his wish for peace in a letter to the Prussian king on the very day of his election followed by a second letter in a similar vein that same year. Bismarck and the Pope entered into direct negotiations without the participation of the Church or the Reichstag, yet initially without much success. It came to pass that Falk, vehemently resented by Catholics, resigned on 14 July 1879, which could be read as a peace offering to the Vatican. A decisive boost only came in February 1880, when the Vatican unexpectedly agreed to the civic registry of clerics. As the Kulturkampf slowly wound down the talks lead to a number of so-called mitigation and peace laws which were passed until 1887. 1880 July: The First Mitigation Law reallowed government payments to Prussian dioceses and freed the bishops from swearing allegiance to the Prussian laws. Hereupon, four new bishops were reinstated where seats had been left vacant after the death of former bishops. Catholic associations involved in the care of the infirm were readmitted. 1882: Resumption of diplomatic relations between Prussia (not Germany) and the Vatican, which had been cut in 1872 1882 May 31: The Second Mitigation Law allowed the waiver of government exams for clerics 1883 July: The Third Mitigation Law legalized all religious actions of bishops and in certain cases, the king could pardon deposed bishops. 280 expelled clerics were pardoned. On 29 September 1885, as another sign of peace, Bismarck proposed the Pope as arbiter in a dispute with Spain about the Caroline Islands and accepted his verdict in favour of Spain. In gratitude but to the great horror of Catholics, the Pope awarded Bismarck the Supreme Order of Christ, the highest order of chivalry to be granted by the Holy See. Bismarck was the only Protestant ever to receive this award. After further negotiations between Prussia and the Vatican, the Prussian parliament passed 2 additional laws amending some of the Kulturkampf laws. 1886 May 21: The First Peace Law amended some of the regulations in the education standards and civic registry law of 11 May 1873 and state exams for clerics (waiver in Second Mitigation Law of 31 May 1882) were totally abolished. Episcopal-theological academies and seminaries, as well as theological studies at these institutions, were readmitted. Students were allowed to be quartered in Catholic boarding houses (Konvikts). The state acknowledged papal disciplinary powers and abolished The Royal Court of Justice for Ecclesiastical Affairs 1887 April 26: The Second Peace Law readmitted all orders except the Jesuits to Prussia On 23 May 1887, the Pope declared "The struggle which damaged the church and was of no good to the state is now over". The Mitigation and Peace Laws restored the inner autonomy of the Catholic church while leaving key regulations and the laws concerning separation of church and state in place (civic marriage, civic registry, religious disaffiliation, government school supervision, civic registry of clerics, ban of Jesuits, pulpit law, state supervision of church assets, constitutional amendments and the Catholic section in the Ministry of Culture was not reintroduced). The respective opposing parties in the Reichstag harshly criticized the concessions made by the Vatican and the Prussian government. Windthorst and the Centre Party were dismayed at being sidelined and not being consulted about the concessions the pope made, e. g. about the ban on Jesuits or the civil registry of clerics. None of the party's major demands were met. Instead, the pope even sided with Bismarck on non-religious issues and pressured the Centre Party to support Bismarck or at least abstain, e. g. in the matter of the hotly debated Septennat 1887 (7-year military budget). Many Liberals, especially Falk, objected to the concessions Bismarck made to the Church. The growth of the Centre Party has been considered a major setback for Bismarck although never publicly conceded. Yet, in spite of strong Catholic representation in the Reichstag, the political power and influence of the Church in the public sphere and its political power was greatly reduced. Although Germany and the Vatican were officially at peace after 1878, religious conflicts and tensions continued. At the turn of the century, Pope Pius X announced the encyclical Pascendi dominici gregis, mounting new attacks on historical criticism of biblical texts and any accommodation of Catholicism to modern philosophy, sociology or literature. As of 1910, clerics had to take an oath against all forms of modernism, a requirement later extended to teachers of Catholic religion at schools and professors of Catholic theology resulting in intense political and public debates and new conflicts with the state. Effects and impact The abolition of the Catholic section of the Prussian Ministry of ecclesiastical and educational affairs deprived Catholics of their voice at the highest level. The system of strict government supervision of schools was applied only in Catholic areas; the Protestant schools were left alone. The school politics also alienated Protestant conservatives and churchmen. The British ambassador Odo Russell reported to London in October 1872 how Bismarck's plans were backfiring by strengthening the ultramontane (pro-papal) position inside German Catholicism: The German Bishops who were politically powerless in Germany and theologically in opposition to the Pope in Rome – have now become powerful political leaders in Germany and enthusiastic defenders of the now infallible Faith of Rome, united, disciplined, and thirsting for martyrdom, thanks to Bismarck's uncalled for antiliberal declaration of War on the freedom they had hitherto peacefully enjoyed. Nearly all German bishops, clergy and laymen rejected the legality of the new laws and were defiantly facing the increasingly heavy penalties, trials and imprisonments. As of 1878, only three of eight Prussian dioceses still had bishops, some 1,125 of 4,600 parishes were vacant, and nearly 1,800 priests ended up in jail or in exile, nearly half the monks and nuns had left Prussia, a third of the monasteries and convents were closed. Between 1872 and 1878, numerous Catholic newspapers were confiscated, Catholic associations and assemblies were dissolved, and Catholic civil servants were dismissed merely on the pretence of having Ultramontane sympathies. Thousands of laypeople were imprisoned for assisting priests to evade the punitive new laws. The general ideological enthusiasm among the liberals for the Kulturkampf was in contrast to Bismarck's pragmatic attitude towards the measures and growing disquiet from the Conservatives. Apart from the outspoken criticism of the Kulturkampf Laws by the Catholic Church and the Centre Party, there were also a number of Liberals and Protestants who voiced concern at least at the so-called "Kampfgesetze" (battle laws). "Unease concerning the effects of his programme continued to spread among all but the most bigoted priest-haters and the most doctrinaire liberals". Such noted critics outside the Catholic camp were Friedrich Heinrich Geffcken, Emil Albert Friedberg or Julius von Kirchmann. Although they were proponents of state superiority, they regarded some of the laws as either ineffective or as interference in internal church affairs and not consistent with liberal values. Geffcken wrote that "with the intention to emancipate the laity from the hierarchy, the main body of the Catholics was brought in phalanx into the hands of leaders from which it was to be wrested. But the state cannot fight at length against a third of the population, it has no means to break such a passive resistance supported and organized by religious fanaticism. If a statesman desists from the correctness of a measure it only matters that he has the power to enforce it." Even Bismarck – who initially saw a variety of tactical political advantages in these measures, e. g. for his suppressive policies against the Polish population – took pains to distance himself from the rigors of their enforcement." The Kulturkampf law considered the harshest and with no equivalent in Europe was the Expatriation Law. Passed by a liberal majority in parliament, it stipulated banishment as a punishment that all civilized peoples considered the harshest beyond the death penalty. As to the Centre Party, these measures did not have the effect that Bismarck had in mind. In the state elections of November 1873, it grew from 50 to 90 seats and in the Reichstag elections from 63 to 91. The number of Catholic periodicals also increased; in 1873 there were about 120. The Kulturkampf gave secularists and socialists an opportunity to attack all religions, an outcome that distressed the Protestant leaders and especially Bismarck himself, who was a devout pietistic Protestant. In the face of systematic defiance, the Bismarck government increased the penalties and its attacks, and were challenged in 1875 when a papal encyclical declared that the entire ecclesiastical legislation of Prussia was invalid, and threatened to excommunicate any Catholic who obeyed. There was no violence, but the Catholics mobilized their support, set up numerous civic organizations, raised money to pay fines and rallied behind their church and the Center Party. To Bismarck's surprise, the Conservative Party especially the Junkers from his own landowning class in East Prussia sided with the Catholics. They were Protestants and did not like the Pope, but they had much in common with the Center Party. The Conservatives controlled their local schools and did not want bureaucrats from Berlin to take them over. They were hostile to the liberals, being fearful of free trade that would put them in competition with the United States and other grain exporters, and disliking their secular views. In the Prussian legislature, they sided with the Center Party on the school issue. Bismarck was livid, and he resigned the premiership of Prussia (while remaining Chancellor of the German Empire), telling an ally, "in domestic affairs I have lost the ground that is for me acceptable through the unpatriotic treason of the Conservative Party in the Catholic question." Indeed, many of Bismarck's conservative friends were in opposition. So too was Kaiser William I, who was King of Prussia; he was strongly opposed to the civil marriage component of the Kulturkampf. The Kulturkampf made Catholics more resolute; they responded not with violence but with votes, and as the newly formed Center Party became a major force in the Imperial Parliament, it gained support from non-Catholic minorities who felt threatened by Bismarck's centralization of power. In the long run, the most significant result was the mobilization of the Catholic voters through the Center Party, and their insistence on protecting their church. Historian Margaret Anderson says: The effort was perceived, and not only by its opponents, as aiming at nothing less than the forcible assimilation of the Catholic Church and its adherents to the values and norms of the empire's Protestant majority....[it led] Catholics – young and old, male and female, cleric and lay, big men and small – to cleave to their priests and defy the legislation. After the Center party had doubled its popular vote in the elections of 1874, it became the second largest party in the national parliament, and remained a powerful force for the next 60 years. It became difficult for Bismarck to form a government without their support. From the decades-long experience in battling against the Kulturkampf, the Catholics of Germany, says Professor Margaret Anderson, learned democracy. She states that the clergy: Acquired a pragmatic, but nonetheless real, commitment to democratic elections, parliamentary procedures, and party politics – commitments in which they schooled their flock, by their practice as much as by their preaching." Anti-Polish aspect of Kulturkampf Studies that analyze the nationalist aspect of Kulturkampf point out its anti-Polish character and Bismarck's attempt to Germanize Polish provinces in the German Empire. The Poles had already suffered from discrimination and numerous oppressive measures in Germany long before unification. These measures were intensified after the German Empire was formed and Bismarck was known to be particularly hostile towards the Poles. Christopher Clark argues that Prussian policy changed radically in the 1870s in the face of highly visible Polish support for France in the Franco-Prussian war. Polish demonstrations made clear the Polish nationalist feeling, and calls were also made for Polish recruits to desert from the Prussian Army – though these went unheeded. Bismarck was outraged, telling the Prussian cabinet in 1871: From the Russian border to the Adriatic Sea we are confronted with the combined propaganda of Slavs, ultramontanes, and reactionaries, and it is necessary openly to defend our national interests and our language against such hostile actions. Therefore, in the Province of Posen the Kulturkampf took on a much more nationalistic character than in other parts of Germany. Not an adamant supporter of the Liberals' general Kulturkampf goals, Bismarck did recognize the potential in some of them for subduing Polish national aspirations and readily made use of it. While the Liberals main objective was the separation of state and church as essential for a democratic and liberal society, Bismarck saw its use in separating the Polish population from the only supporter and guardian of its national identity. Prussian authorities imprisoned 185 priests and forced hundreds of others into exile. Among the imprisoned was the Primate of Poland Archbishop Mieczysław Ledóchowski. A large part of the remaining Catholic priests had to continue their service in hiding from the authorities. Although most of the 185 imprisoned were finally set free by the end of the decade, those who were released emigrated. The anti-Polish aspects of Kulturkampf remained in place in Polish provinces of the German Empire until the First World War. Kulturkampf in Austria The Kulturkampf in Austria has roots dating back to the 18th century. Emperor Joseph II launched a religious policy (later called "Josephinism") that advocated the supremacy of the state in religious matters. This resulted in far-reaching state control over the Catholic Church, including the reorganization of dioceses, the regulation of the number of masses, the transfer of many schools into government hands, state-controlled seminaries, and the limitation of the number of clerics and dissolving numerous monasteries. Protests of Pope Pius VI, and even his visit to Vienna in 1782, were to no avail. In the concordat of 1855, which was the culmination of Catholic influence in Austria, many of the Catholic Church's previous rights that were taken away under Joseph II were restored (marriage, partial control of censorship, elementary and secondary education, full control of the clergy and religious funds). In 1868 and 1869, after sanctioning from the December constitution, Emperor Francis Joseph's newly appointed cabinet undid parts of the concordat with several liberal reforms. These reforms are referred to as the May Laws. After strong protests from the Catholic Church, the laws of 25 May 1868 and 14 May 1869 restored civil marriage, passed primary and secondary education into government hands, installed interconfessional schools, and regulated interconfessional relations (for example, mixed marriages and children's rights to choose their faith). In a secret consistory, Pope Pius IX condemned the constitution of 1867 and the May Laws as "leges abominabiles". In a pastoral letter dated 7 September 1868, bishop Franz-Josef Rudigier called for resistance to these May Laws. However, the letter was confiscated, and Rudigier had to appear before court on 5 June 1869. This event led to the first-ever public demonstrations by the Catholic population. On 12 July 1869, the bishop was sentenced to a jail term of two weeks, but he was later pardoned by the emperor. The May Laws provoked a serious conflict between state and church. After the promulgation of papal infallibility in 1870, Austria abrogated the concordat of 1855 and abolished it entirely in 1874. In May 1874, the Religious Act was officially recognized. "Kulturkampf" in contemporary usage United States In the late 19th century, cultural wars arose over issues of prohibition and education in the United States. The Bennett Law was a highly controversial state law passed in Wisconsin in 1889 that required the use of English to teach major subjects in all public and private elementary and high schools. Because Wisconsin German Catholics and Lutherans each operated large numbers of parochial schools where German was used in the classroom, it was bitterly resented by German-American (and some Norwegian) communities. Although the law was ultimately repealed, there were significant political repercussions, with the Republicans losing the governorship and the legislature, and the election of Democrats to the Senate and House of Representatives. In the United States, the term "culture war(s)" refers to conflict in the late 20th and early 21st centuries between religious social conservatives and secular social liberals. This theme of "culture war" was the basis of Patrick Buchanan's keynote speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention. By 2004, the term was in common use in the United States by both liberals and conservatives. Throughout the 1980s, there were battles in Congress and the media regarding federal support for the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment for the Humanities that amounted to a war over high culture between neoconservatives and paleoconservatives. Justice Antonin Scalia referenced the term in the Supreme Court case Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620 (1996), saying "the Court has mistaken a Kulturkampf for a fit of spite". The case concerned an amendment to the Colorado state constitution that prohibited any subdepartment from acting to protect individuals on the basis of sexual orientation. Scalia believed that the amendment was a valid move on the part of citizens who sought "recourse to a more general and hence more difficult level of political decision making than others". The majority disagreed, holding that the amendment violated the Equal Protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Israel The term, translated to Hebrew as Milhemet Tarbut (מלחמת תרבות) is also frequently used, with similar connotations, in the political debates of Israel—having been introduced by Jews who fled Nazi Germany in the 1930s. See also Febronianism Gallicanism Josephinism Culture war Kirchenkampf Holy See – Germany relations Away from Rome! The First School War in Belgium (1879–84) The Jules Ferry Laws in France Freedom of religion Pope Pius IX and Germany References Further reading Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. Windthorst: A Political Biography (1981), the leader of the Catholic Center Party Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. Practicing democracy: Elections and political culture in Imperial Germany (Princeton University Press, 2000) Atkin, Nicholas, and Frank Tallett. Priests, Prelates and People: A History of European Catholicism since 1750 (Oxford UP, 2003). Bennette, Rebecca Ayako. Fighting for the Soul of Germany: The Catholic Struggle for Inclusion After Unification (Harvard University Press; 2012) 368 pages; examines Catholics' promotion of an alternative national identity after 1871. Blackbourn, David. Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Oxford, 1993) Clark, Christopher and Wolfram Kaiser, eds. Culture Wars: Secular-Catholic Conflict in Nineteenth Century Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2003); Covers 10 countries; online review Gross, Michael B. The War against Catholicism: Liberalism and the Anti-Catholic Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Germany (2005) . Hope, Nicholas, "Prussian Protestantism," in Philip G. Dwyer, ed. Modern Prussian History: 1830–1947 (2001) pp. 188–208 Lamberti, Marjorie. "Religious conflicts and German national identity in Prussia, 1866–1914," in Philip G. Dwyer, ed. Modern Prussian History: 1830–1947 (2001) pp. 169–187 Ross, Ronald J. The failure of Bismarck's Kulturkampf: Catholicism and state power in imperial Germany, 1871–1887, (Washington, D.C., 1998) Ross, Ronald J. "Enforcing the Kulturkampf in the Bismarckian state and the limits of coercion in imperial Germany." Journal of Modern History (1984): 456-482. in JSTOR Ross, Ronald J. "The Kulturkampf: Restrictions and Controls on the Practice of Religion in Bismarck's Germany." in Richard Helmstadter, ed. Freedom and Religion in the Nineteenth Century (1997) pp: 172-195. Trzeciakowski, Lech. The Kulturkampf in Prussian Poland (East European Monographs, 1990) 223 pp Weir, Todd. Secularism and Religion in Nineteenth-Century Germany: The Rise of the Fourth Confession, Cambridge University Press, 2014, , 9781139867900 Zeender, John. "Ludwig Windthorst, 1812-1891" History (1992) 77#250 pp 237–54, the leader of the Catholic Center Party Historiography Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. "Confessions of a Fellow Traveler," Catholic Historical Review (2013) 99#4 pp 623–648. Heilbronner, Oded. "From Ghetto to Ghetto: The Place of German Catholic Society in Recent Historiography" Journal of Modern History (2000) 72#2 pp. 453–495. in JSTOR External links , detailed article by Martin Spahn, written in 1910. "Bismarck's Failure: the Kulturkampf" long description Founding Manifesto of the Protestant League (1887); Statistics on Membership (1887–1913) (English translation) a German anti-Catholic propaganda organization that became active after the Kulturkampf Bismarck's Domestic Policies 1871–1890 Kulturkampf in the context of Bismarck's entire domestic policies, by a head of history at Catholic University School in Dublin Kulturkampf Now and Then 13-paged essay in pdf by a Professor of the United States Air Force Academy Ludwig Windthorst Speaks in the Prussian Parliament (1873) speech of Ludwig Windthorst following its analysis Bismarck on the purpose of the Kulturkampf Speech in the Prussian House of Lords, 10 March 1873 Kulturkampf: Bibliography by LitDok East-Central Europe Herder-Institut (Marburg) 19th-century Catholicism Jesuit history in Europe History of Catholicism in Germany History of Catholicism in Italy Anti-Catholicism in Germany Politics of the German Empire Religion and politics 1870s in Germany German words and phrases Otto von Bismarck 1870s in Christianity 1870s in Prussia Sonderbundskrieg 19th century in Switzerland

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20Chaunac

De Chaunac

De Chaunac is a French-American hybrid wine grape variety used to make red wines. It was developed by Albert Seibel c. 1860. It is also known as Seibel 9549 and is a cross of Seibel 5163 and possibly Seibel 793. The grape was named after Adhemar de Chaunac, a pioneer in the Ontario wine industry. De Chaunac is known to be early ripening, have a very vigorous growth habit and good resistance to powdery mildew and downy mildew. It is grown in varying amounts for wine production across the northeastern side of North America, especially in the winegrowing regions of New York, Pennsylvania, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, and other northeastern winegrowing areas. References Red wine grape varieties Seibel grapes Canadian wine

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart%20Menzies

Stewart Menzies

Major General Sir Stewart Graham Menzies, (; 30 January 1890 – 29 May 1968) was Chief of MI6, the British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), from 1939 to 1952, during and after the Second World War. Early life, family Stewart Graham Menzies was born in England in 1890 into a wealthy family as the second son of John Graham Menzies and Susannah West Wilson, daughter of ship-owner Arthur Wilson of Tranby Croft. His grandfather, Graham Menzies, was a whisky distiller who helped establish a cartel and made huge profits. His parents became friends of King Edward VII. Menzies was a nephew of Robert Stewart Menzies. But Menzies' father was dissolute, never established a worthwhile career, and wasted his share of the family fortune; he died of tuberculosis in 1911 in his early 50s, leaving only a minimal estate. Menzies was educated at Eton College, becoming president of the student society Pop, and left in 1909. He excelled in sports, hunting and cross-country running. He won prizes for his studies of languages, and was considered an all-around excellent student. Early military career Life Guards From Eton he joined the Grenadier Guards as a Second Lieutenant. After a year with this regiment, he transferred to the Second Life Guards. He was promoted to Lieutenant and appointed Adjutant by 1913. First World War action During the First World War Menzies served in Belgium. He was wounded at Zandvoorde in October 1914, and fought gallantly in the First Battle of Ypres in November 1914. Menzies was promoted to captain on 14 November, and received the DSO in person from King George V on 2 December. Menzies' regiment was decimated during fighting in 1915, suffering very heavy casualties in the Second Battle of Ypres. Menzies was seriously injured in a gas attack in 1915, and was honourably discharged from active combat service. Intelligence service He then joined the counterintelligence section of Field Marshal Douglas Haig, the British commander. In late 1917, he reported to high British leadership that Haig's intelligence chief Brigadier John Charteris was fudging intelligence estimates, which soon led to Charteris' removal. This whistle-blowing was apparently done very discreetly. Menzies was promoted to brevet major before the end of the war. MI6 Following the end of the war, Menzies entered MI6 (also known as SIS). He was a member of the British delegation to the 1919 Versailles Peace Conference. Soon after the war, Menzies was promoted to lieutenant-colonel of the Imperial General Staff, General Staff Officer, first grade. Within MI6, he became assistant director for special intelligence. Admiral Hugh Sinclair became director-general of MI6 in 1924, and he made Menzies his deputy by 1929, with Menzies being promoted to full colonel soon afterwards. In 1924, Menzies was allegedly involved—alongside Sidney Reilly and Desmond Morton—in the forging of The Zinoviev Letter. This forgery is considered to have been instrumental in the Conservative Party's victory in the United Kingdom general election of 1924, which ended the country's first Labour government. Chief of MI6 In 1939, when Admiral Sinclair died, Menzies was appointed Chief of Secret Intelligence Service (the SIS). He expanded wartime intelligence and counterintelligence departments and supervised codebreaking efforts at Bletchley Park. Second World War When the Second World War began, SIS expanded greatly. Menzies insisted on wartime control of codebreaking, and this gave him immense power and influence, which he used judiciously. By distributing the Ultra material collected by the Government Code & Cypher School, MI6 became an important branch of the government for the first time. Extensive breaches of Nazi Enigma signals gave Menzies and his team enormous insight into Adolf Hitler's strategy, and this was kept a closely-held secret, not only during the war, but until as late as 1974. (Frederick Winterbotham's 1974 book The Ultra Secret lifted the cloak of secrecy at last.) The Nazis had suspicions, but believed Enigma to be unbreakable, and never knew during the war that the Allies were reading a high proportion of their wireless traffic. Menzies kept Prime Minister Winston Churchill supplied daily with important Ultra decrypts, and the two worked together to ensure that financial resources were devoted toward research and upgrading technology at Bletchley Park, to keep pace with Nazi coding refinements, as well as directing talented workers to the massive effort, which employed nearly 10,000 workers by 1945. Bletchley's efforts were decisive in the battle against Nazi submarine warfare, which was severely threatening trans-Atlantic shipping, particularly in the first half of 1943. Britain, which was cut off from Europe after mid-1940, was almost completely dependent on North American supplies for survival. The access to Ultra was also vitally important in the battle for Normandy, leading up to D-Day in June 1944, and afterward. Menzies has been suspected as being involved with the assassination, on 24 December 1942, of François Darlan, the Vichy military commander who defected to the allies in Algeria. British historian David Reynolds noted in his book, In Command of History, that Menzies—who rarely left London during the war—was in Algiers around the period he was killed, making SOE (Special Operations Executive) involvement seem likely. Menzies, who was promoted to major-general in January 1944, also supported efforts to contact anti-Nazi resistance, including Wilhelm Canaris, the anti-Nazi head of Abwehr, in Germany. Prime Minister Winston Churchill was kept informed of these efforts throughout the war, and information from and about the Nazi resistance was exploited tactically. Menzies coordinated his operations with Special Operations Executive (SOE) (although he reputedly considered them "amateurs"), British Security Coordination (BSC), Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and the Free French Forces. He was awarded the Order of the Yugoslav Crown. After the Second World War After the war, Menzies reorganised the SIS for the Cold War. He absorbed most of SOE. He was sometimes at odds with the Labour governments. He also had to weather a scandal inside SIS after revelations that SIS officer Kim Philby was a Soviet spy. Nonetheless, Menzies deserved some of the blame for Soviet agents having penetrated MI6, according to Anthony Cave Brown in his book C: The Secret Life of Sir Stewart Graham Menzies, Spymaster to Winston Churchill. Menzies was already the head of the service when Kim Philby joined in 1941. Cave Brown insists that Menzies's primary criteria were whether the applicants were upper-class former officers and recommended by another government department, or else were known to him personally. In his New York Times review of Brown's book, novelist Ken Follett makes this conclusion: "Mr Philby outwitted Menzies because Mr Philby was intelligent and professional and cool, where Menzies was an amiable upper-class sportsman who was out of his depth. And British intelligence, except for the code breakers, was like Menzies—amateur, anti-intellectual and wholly outclassed." After 43 continuous years of service in the British Army, Menzies retired to Bridges Court in Luckington in rural Wiltshire at 62 in mid-1952. Menzies was certainly adept at bureaucratic intrigue, a virtual necessity in his position, but his efforts as Chief had a major role in winning the Second World War, as evidenced by his nearly 1,500 meetings with Churchill during the war. Marriages His first marriage was in 1918 to Lady Avice Ela Muriel Sackville, younger daughter of Gilbert Sackville, 8th Earl De La Warr and Lady Muriel Agnes Brassey, daughter of Thomas Brassey, 1st Earl Brassey. They were divorced in 1931. His second wife Pamela Thetis Garton (née Beckett) (d. 13 March 1951) was the fourth daughter of the Honourable Rupert Evelyn Beckett by his wife Muriel Helen Florence Paget, daughter of Lord Berkeley Charles Sydney Paget, himself a younger son of the 2nd Marquess of Anglesey. Menzies and Garton married on 13 December 1932. Garton was an invalid for many years, suffering from clinical depression and anorexia nervosa. She had Menzies' only child, a daughter, Fiona, in 1934. His third marriage was in 1952 (as her fourth husband) to Audrey Clara Lilian Latham (b. 1899), formerly wife of Sir Henry Birkin, 2nd Bt., Lord Edward Hay, and Niall Chaplin, and daughter of Sir Thomas Paul Latham, 1st Bt. Stewart and Audrey were both over age 50 at the time of their marriage, each had separate estates (his in Wiltshire, west of London, hers in Essex, east of London), and they for the most part lived separately, but they met in London for dinner each Wednesday. Anthony Cave Brown also reported that Menzies had a long-standing affair with one of his secretaries, which he ended upon retirement (and presumably remarriage) in 1952; the secretary apparently tried to kill herself at that time. Menzies died on 29 May 1968. Fictional depictions Stewart Menzies is a character in the 2014 film The Imitation Game and is portrayed by Mark Strong. Notes References Anthony Cave Brown, Bodyguard of Lies, 1975. Anthony Cave Brown, "C": The Secret Servant: The Life of Sir Stewart Menzies, Spymaster to Winston Churchill (Macmillan Publishing Co., 1987) Ken Follett, "The Oldest Boy of British Intelligence", The New York Times, 27 December 1987. Three page review of Brown's biography and Mahl's book. Thomas E. Mahl, Desperate Deception: British Covert Operations in the United States, 1939–44, (Brassey's Inc., 1999) . 1890 births 1968 deaths British Army generals British Army personnel of World War I British Army personnel of World War II British Life Guards officers Cold War MI6 chiefs Cold War spies Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath People educated at Eton College Bletchley Park people Recipients of the Military Cross Recipients of the Order of the Yugoslav Crown Military personnel from London World War II spies for the United Kingdom Grenadier Guards officers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chindits

Chindits

The Chindits, known officially as the Long Range Penetration Groups, were special operations units of the British and Indian armies which saw action in 1943–1944 during the Burma Campaign of World War II. British Army Brigadier Orde Charles Wingate formed the Chindits for raiding operations against the Imperial Japanese Army, especially long-range penetration: attacking Japanese troops, facilities and lines of communication deep behind Japanese lines. Their operations featured prolonged marches through extremely difficult terrain, undertaken by underfed troops often weakened by diseases such as malaria and dysentery. Controversy persists over the extremely high casualty-rate and the debatable military value of the achievements of the Chindits. Background & formation During the East African Campaign of 1940–41, Wingate – under General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East Command – had begun to explore guerilla tactics, when he created and commanded a unit known as Gideon Force, composed of regular troops from Sudan and Ethiopia, as well as Ethiopean partisans. Gideon Force disrupted Italian supply lines and collected intelligence. In 1942, after the disbandment of Gideon Force, Wavell – who had since been appointed Commander-in-Chief of the India Command – requested the services of Wingate in Burma. It was intended that he would raise irregular forces to operate behind the Japanese lines, in a manner similar to Gideon Force. Wingate arrived in Burma in March 1942 and for two months, as Japanese forces advanced rapidly, toured the country developing his theories of long-range penetration, during the two months preceding the Japanese conquest of Burma. After returning to Delhi, he presented his proposals to Wavell. The name Chindits is a corrupted form of the Burmese mythical beast Chinthé or Chinthay, statues of which guarded Buddhist temples. Organisation and training The first Chindit unit, the 77th Indian Infantry Brigade, was gradually formed in the area around Jhansi in the summer of 1942. Wingate took charge of the training of the troops in the jungles of central India during the rainy season. Half of the Chindits were British: the 13th Battalion, the King's Liverpool Regiment (nominally a second-line battalion, which contained a large number of older men) and men from the former Bush Warfare School in Burma, who were formed into 142 Commando Company. The other portion of the force consisted of the 3rd Battalion, the 2nd Gurkha Rifles (a battalion that had only just been raised) and the 2nd Battalion, the Burma Rifles (a composite unit formed from several depleted battalions of Burmese troops that had retreated into India in 1942). Wingate trained this force as long-range penetration units that were to be supplied by stores parachuted or dropped from transport aircraft and were to use close air support as a substitute for heavy artillery. They would penetrate the jungle on foot, essentially relying on surprise through mobility to target enemy lines of communication (a tactic that the Japanese had previously used in 1942 to great effect against British forces in Singapore and Burma). The standard brigade and battalion structures were abandoned. The force was instead formed into eight columns, each of which was organised as: an infantry rifle company (with nine Bren light machine guns and three 2-inch mortars); a support group with the heavy weapons (four Boys anti-tank rifles, two medium Vickers machine guns and two light anti-aircraft guns); a reconnaissance platoon from the Burma Rifles; and a sabotage group from 142 Commando Company. Small detachments from the Royal Air Force (equipped with radios to call in air support), Royal Corps of Signals and Royal Army Medical Corps were attached to the column headquarters. The heavy weapons, radios, reserve ammunition, and rations and other stores were carried on mules, which would also provide an emergency source of food once their loads had been depleted. With 57 mule handlers, each British column numbered 306 men (the Gurkha columns were slightly stronger, with 369 men). Each man carried more than of equipment, which was proportionally more than the mules carrying the support weapons and other stores. This included a personal weapon, such as the SMLE rifle or Sten Gun, ammunition, grenades, a machete or Gurkha kukri knife, seven days' rations, groundsheet, change of uniform and other assorted items. Much of this load was carried in an Everest carrier, which was essentially a metal rucksack frame without a pack. Shortly before the first operation, one column was broken up to bring the remaining seven up to full strength. Two or more columns were commanded by a group headquarters, which in turn was commanded by the brigade headquarters. Operation Longcloth The original intent had been to use the Chindits as a part of a larger offensive. When this offensive was cancelled, Wingate convinced General Wavell to send the Chindits into Burma anyway. Accordingly, on 8 February 1943, Operation Longcloth commenced and 3,000 Chindits, Wingate with them, began their march into Burma. The Chindits crossed the Chindwin River on 13 February and faced the first Japanese troops two days later. Two columns marched to the south and received their air supply drops in broad daylight to create an impression that they were the main attack. They even had a man impersonating a British general along with them. The RAF mounted air attacks on Japanese targets to support the deception. These columns were to swing east at the beginning of March and attack the main north-south railway in areas south of the main force. One column successfully carried out demolitions along the railway, but the other column was ambushed. Half of the ambushed column returned to India. Five other columns proceeded eastward. Two, those of Michael Calvert and Bernard Fergusson, proceeded towards the main north-south railway in Burma. On 4 March, Calvert's column reached the valley and demolished the railway in 70 places. Fergusson arrived two days later to do the same. Despite these successes, however, the railway was only temporarily disabled, and resumed operation shortly afterwards. On many occasions, the Chindits could not take their wounded with them; some were left behind in villages. Wingate had, in fact, issued specific orders to leave behind all wounded, but these orders were not strictly followed. Since there were often no established paths in the jungle along their routes, many times they had to clear their own with machetes and kukris (and on one occasion, a commandeered elephant). Supply was delivered by air using three Hudsons and three Dakotas of 31 Squadron operating out of Agartala in eastern Bengal. Once in Burma, Wingate repeatedly changed his plans, sometimes without informing all the column commanders. The majority of two of the columns marched back to India after being ambushed by the Japanese in separate actions. After the railway attacks, Wingate decided to cross his force over the Irrawaddy River. However, the area on the other side of the river turned out to be inhospitable to operations. Water was difficult to obtain and the combination of rivers with a good system of roads in the area allowed the Japanese to force the Chindits into a progressively smaller "box". In late March, Wingate made the decision to withdraw the majority of the force, but sent orders to one of the columns to continue eastward. The operations had reached the range limit of air supply and prospects for new successful operations were low, given the Japanese pressure. The columns were generally left to make their own way back to India. On the journey back, the most difficult actions involved crossing back over the Irrawaddy River. The Japanese had observers and patrols all along the river bank and could quickly concentrate once an attempt at a crossing was detected. Gradually, all the columns broke up into small groups. Wingate's headquarters returned to India on its own ahead of most of the columns. Through the spring and even into the autumn of 1943, individual groups of men from the Chindits made their way back to India. The army did what they could for the men. In one case, an aeroplane was landed in an open area and wounded men were evacuated by air. Part of one column made it to China. Another body of men escaped into the far north of Burma. Others were captured or died. By the end of April, after a three-month mission, the majority of the surviving Chindits had crossed the Chindwin river, having marched between 750–1,000 miles. Of the 3,000 men that had begun the operation, a third (818 men) had been killed, taken prisoner or died of disease, and of the 2,182 men who returned, about 600 were too debilitated from their wounds or disease to return to active service. Of the remaining men, Wingate practically hand picked those few he would retain, while the rest were put back under the normal army command structure as part of their original battalions. Interlude Although British Army officers in India criticised the effectiveness of the Chindits (Japanese railway communications had been out of commission for less than a week), their effect on the morale of the Allied troops in India was refreshing, and they were given plenty of publicity. Wingate wrote an operations report on returning to India, which was controversial for many reasons, including attacks on officers under his command. The report had a tendency to excuse any mistakes made by its author (Wingate), while making vicious attacks on other officers, often based on limited information. Eventually, through his political allies in London, a copy of the report was given to Winston Churchill, who was impressed and took Wingate with him to the Quebec Conference. His concepts for long-range penetration operations behind Japanese lines received official backing at high level, and he obtained substantial US support for his force. The US Army also began its own plans for the group that later became Merrill's Marauders. As the members of the first expedition were making their way back to India, a second long range penetration unit, 111th Indian Infantry Brigade was being formed. Popularly known as The Leopards, the brigade was raised by General Wavell without the knowledge of Wingate, who was still in Burma and who was known to have a strong dislike for the Indian Army, its diverse troop formations, and its British officers in particular. Wavell personally selected the commander of 111th Brigade, Brigadier Joe Lentaigne. Wavell intended to use two Chindit brigades alternately during 1944. While one brigade was operating behind Japanese lines for two to three months at a time, the other would be resting in India, while training for and planning the next operation. However, Wingate returned from Quebec with authority to implement far more ambitious plans for the second expedition, which required that the force be greatly expanded to a strength of six brigades. Wingate refused to use Indian Army formations in this force, because he maintained that their training in long-range penetration techniques would take longer and their maintenance by air would be difficult due to the varied dietary requirements of different Gurkha and Indian castes and religions, although he had little choice but to accept 111th Brigade, and two Gurkha battalions in 77th brigade. Since large numbers of trained British infantry were required, three brigades (the 14th, 16th and 23rd) were added to the Chindits by breaking up the experienced British 70th Infantry Division, much against the wishes of Lieutenant General William Slim and other commanders, who wished to use the division in a conventional role. A sixth brigade was added to the force by taking a brigade (the 3rd (West African) Infantry Brigade) from the British 81st (West Africa) Division. At Quebec, Wingate had also succeeded in obtaining a "private" air force for the Chindits, the 1st Air Commando Group, mainly consisting of USAAF aircraft. The Chindits were greatly encouraged by having aircraft on which they could call immediately for supply drops, casualty evacuation and air support. Other welcome American aid was the "K" Ration pack which, although it provided insufficient calories for prolonged active operations, was far better than the equivalent British or Indian ration pack. The forces for the second Chindit operation were called Special Force, officially 3rd Indian Infantry Division, or Long Range Penetration Groups, but the nickname, the Chindits, had already stuck. The new Chindit force commenced training in Gwalior. Men were trained in crossing rivers, demolitions and bivouacking. Calvert and Fergusson, both newly promoted to Brigadier, took command of two of the brigades, and were responsible for much of the training program and the development of tactical planning. Wingate himself was absent for much of the training period, first being out of the country to attend the Quebec Conference and then struck ill with typhoid from drinking bad water in North Africa on his return. Plans The plans for the second Chindit operation went through many revisions. The methods of the new Long Range Penetration force in 1944 differed from those of 1943. Wingate had decided on a strategy of creating fortified bases behind the Japanese lines, which would then send out raiding columns over short distances. This change was in part forced on him by strengthened Japanese patrols along the Burmese frontier, making a repeat of the successful infiltration in 1943 unlikely. In an imaginative move prompted by Colonel Philip Cochran's assurance that he could transport both troops and supplies by glider, Wingate arranged for the bulk of the force to enter Burma by air, greatly accelerating the force's ability to reach its target objectives. Advance units would land in gliders in preselected open fields in Burma, and prepare them for large-scale landings by transport aircraft. The lavish air support provided by Colonels Cochran and Alison of the 1st Air Commando Group proved critical to the success of the operation. Wingate also had plans for a general uprising of the Kachin population of Northern Burma. He fought over these plans with the leadership of Force 136 (an organisation set up to liaise with resistance forces in Japanese-occupied countries), which was concerned that a premature uprising of the Kachins without a permanent British military presence would lead to their slaughter by the Japanese at the end of operations. Force 136 also had their own plans for a rising to be coordinated with the arrival of the regular army in Burma. Wingate was eventually convinced to scale back his original plans. Further complicating relations between the organisations were orders issued by Wingate to the commander of Dah Force (a British-led force of Kachin irregulars attached to the Chindits) not to coordinate operations with Force 136 for security reasons. During the last months of 1943, planning was conducted to carry out the strategy for India as originally determined at the Quebec Conference. In November, the overall plan for the dry season campaign of 1944 determined by South East Asia Command focused on the use of the Chindits in the reconquest of northern Burma. These plans were approved by the Combined Chiefs of Staff at the Cairo Conference and although other offensives in Burma were scaled back or cancelled, Stilwell's Northern Front offensive with the Chindits' participation survived the cuts. The uncertainty of the plans nevertheless meant that the plans and contingency plans for the use of the Chindits repeatedly changed up to the very start of operations. The Chindits were assigned the task of helping the forces of Joseph Stilwell push the Ledo Road through northern Burma to link up with the Burma Road and re-establish an overland supply route to China, by mounting a long range penetration operation behind the Japanese opposing his forces on the Northern Front. It had originally been intended that the IV Corps would attack on the Central Front and cross the Chindwin to tie up Japanese forces which could otherwise be used to aid the Northern Front. As the Japanese launched their own attack on the Central Front, this advance did not meet its objectives, but it still meant that most Japanese forces were engaged on the Central Front and were not available to reinforce the Japanese 18th Division on the Northern Front. The Japanese offensive on the Central Front resulted in further proposals and refinements of the plans for the Chindits. On 4 February 1944, Lieutenant General Slim, commander of the British Fourteenth Army, and USAAF General George E. Stratemeyer, commander of Eastern Air Command, issued a joint directive to General Wingate and Cols. Cochran and Alison of the 1st Air Commando Group, to march and fly into Indaw and from there under the command of the Fourteenth Army carry out the objectives of: (i) Helping the advance of Stilwell's Ledo force on Myitkyina by cutting the communications of the Japanese 18th Division, harassing its rear, and preventing its reinforcement.(ii) Creating a favourable situation for the Yunnan Chinese forces to cross the Salween and enter Burma.(iii) Inflicting the greatest possible damage and confusion on the enemy in North Burma. Operation Thursday On 5 February 1944, Fergusson's 16th Brigade left Ledo for Burma. They avoided Japanese forces by traversing exceptionally difficult terrain. The rest of the Brigades were brought in by air to create fortified bases with airstrips. Three landing zones, codenamed Piccadilly, Broadway and Chowringhee, were selected. Calvert's 77th Brigade prepared to fly by Hadrian glider into Piccadilly on the night of 5 March. A last-minute aerial reconnaissance revealed Piccadilly to be covered with logs, making landing impossible. In some accounts of the incident, Wingate insisted that the operation had been betrayed and that the other landing zones would be ambushed. To proceed would be "murder". Slim accepted the responsibility of ordering a willing Calvert to proceed with the operation, using Broadway instead. While Piccadilly had already been used to evacuate casualties during the first Chindit operation in 1943, Broadway had to be selected from the results of aerial reconnaissance. It turned out to be a poor landing ground and there were many casualties in crash landings, but Calvert's men were just able to make the strip fit to take transport aircraft the next day. Chindit gliders also landed on Chowringhee the next day, without opposition. It was later revealed that the logs on Piccadilly had been placed there to dry by Burmese teak loggers. The real problem was the failure to maintain continuous observation of the landing zones (e.g. by high-flying Spitfire photo-reconnaissance aircraft) before the forces were deployed. Over the next week, 600 sorties by Dakota transport aircraft transferred 9,000 men to the landing zones. Chowringhee was abandoned once the fly-in was completed, but Broadway was held with a garrison which included field artillery, anti-aircraft guns and even a detachment of six Mk.VIII Spitfires of No.81 Squadron RAF from 12 March to 17 March. On 17 March they were attacked during take-off by Japanese Ki-43 'Oscars'. S/L William 'Babe' Whitamore and F/O Alan M Peart managed to get airborne, with both shooting down one 'Oscar' each. Whitamore was shot down and killed but Peart survived for over half an hour, holding off over 20 enemy fighters. The remaining Spitfires were destroyed on the ground for the loss of another pilot, F/Lt Coulter. Peart flew back to Kangla the same day in his damaged Spitfire (FL-E JF818) and reported the action. The detachment was duly ended by AFC Stanley Vincent, the CO of No. 221 Group. Fergusson's brigade set up another base named Aberdeen north of Indaw, into which 14th Brigade was flown. Calvert's brigade established yet another, named White City at Mawlu, astride the main railway and road leading to the Japanese northern front. 111 Brigade set up ambushes and roadblocks south of Indaw (although part of the brigade which landed at Chowringhee was delayed in crossing the Irrawaddy River), before moving west to Pinlebu. Ferocious jungle fighting ensued around Broadway and White City. At times, British and Japanese troops were in close combat, bayonets and kukris against katanas. On 27 March, after days of aircraft attack, the Japanese attacked Broadway for several nights before the attack was repulsed with flown-in artillery and the aid of locally recruited Kachin irregulars. However, a setback occurred when Fergusson's brigade tried to capture Indaw on 24 March. The original intention had been to seize the town and its airfields on 15 March but Fergusson had to report that this was impossible. Wingate appeared ready to change the brigade's mission but on 20 March, he reinstated Indaw as the target. The brigade was already exhausted from its long march, and there was no time to properly reconnoitre the objective. The units were dismayed to find that the Japanese controlled the only water sources. Fergusson expected that 14th Brigade would cooperate in the attack, but they moved west instead. Japanese reinforcements had also moved into Indaw, which was a major road and rail centre. Fergusson's battalions, attacking separately, were each repulsed. Calvert later commented "They had attacked as clutching fingers from all sides, and not as a fist". After this, most of the tired 16th Brigade were flown out. Change of command On 24 March, Wingate flew to Imphal to confer with air force commanders. On the return journey, the USAAF B-25 bomber in which he was flying is believed to have flown into a thunderstorm and crashed in the jungle-covered mountains. All aboard were killed. Slim, the commander of the British Fourteenth Army which had loose operational control over Special Force, selected Brigadier Lentaigne to be Wingate's replacement after conferring with Brigadier Derek Tulloch, Wingate's Chief of Staff. Lentaigne was judged to be the most balanced and experienced commander in the force; he had been an instructor at the Staff College at Quetta, had led a Gurkha battalion with distinction during the gruelling retreat from Burma in 1942 and had commanded a Chindit brigade in the field (albeit for only a few weeks, but none of the other brigade commanders had more experience). As an officer of Gurkha troops, he had a similar outlook and background to Slim. The other Chindit brigade commanders were unknown quantities, mostly without staff qualifications, some of whom had never even commanded a battalion-sized unit in combat before 1944, and Wingate's staff officers lacked the necessary combat experience. The force's second-in-command, Major General George William Symes, was bypassed by Slim and formally protested and asked to be relieved. In selecting Lentaigne, Slim did not take into account the tensions between those Chindit commanders and staff who were closely associated with Wingate, and Lentaigne, who had a classical "line" officer's background and had been critical of Wingate's methods and techniques. The move north Several major changes were made at the highest level. Much of the air support was diverted to the critical battles of Imphal and Kohima, where troops were cut off and could only be resupplied by air. 23rd Brigade, yet to fly in, was also despatched to Kohima. Those Chindits already operating in Burma were formally subordinated to General Joseph Stilwell, who ordered the Chindits to abandon their dispersed operations around Indaw, and concentrate on interdicting the supply lines to the Japanese forces opposing his Northern Combat Area Command. In April, Lentaigne ordered the main body of 111 Brigade west of the Irrawaddy, now commanded by John Masters, to move north and build a new stronghold, codenamed Blackpool, which would block the railway and main road at Hopin, south of Mogaung. Calvert was ordered to abandon White City and Broadway and move north to support Masters. Calvert was opposed to this, as his brigade had successfully held these two strongholds for months. Stilwell also feared that abandoning White City would allow Japanese reinforcements to move north. However, Lentaigne insisted that the Chindit brigades were too far apart to support each other, and that the airstrips at White City and Broadway would be unusable during the monsoon. Masters's force established Blackpool on 8 May and was almost immediately engaged in fierce fighting. Whereas White City had been deep in the Japanese rear, its defenders had had plenty of time to prepare their defences and its attackers had been a mixed bag of detachments from several formations, Blackpool was close to the Japanese northern front, and was immediately attacked by Japanese troops with heavy artillery support. As Calvert and Stilwell had feared, abandoning White City had allowed the Japanese 53rd Division to move north from Indaw. A heavy attack against Blackpool was repulsed on 17 May, but a second attack on 24 May captured vital positions inside the defences. Because the monsoon had broken and heavy rain made movement in the jungle very difficult, neither Calvert nor Brodie's 14th Brigade could help Masters. Finally, Masters had to abandon Blackpool on 25 May, because the men were exhausted after 17 days of continual combat. Nineteen Allied soldiers, who were so badly injured as to be beyond hope of recovery and could not be moved, were shot by the medical orderlies and hidden in heavy stands of bamboo. Final operations On 17 May, Slim had formally handed control of the Chindits to Stilwell. Stilwell insisted that the Chindits capture several well-defended Japanese positions. The Chindits had no support from tanks or artillery and this led to heavier casualties than before. According to David Rooney, the Chindits were misused under Stillwell's command and suffered heavy casualties undertaking roles that they were not trained or equipped for. Over the period from 6 June to 27 June, Calvert's 77th Brigade took Mogaung and suffered 800 casualties – 50% of the brigade's men involved in the operation. Fearing that they would then be ordered to join the siege of Myitkyina, Calvert handed Mogaung over to Force X, shut down his radios and retreated to Kamaing, where Stilwell had his headquarters. A court-martial was likely until Stilwell and Calvert met in person, and Stilwell finally appreciated the conditions under which the Chindits had been operating. 111 Brigade, after resting, was ordered to capture a hill south west of Mogaung, known as Point 2171. It did so, but was now utterly exhausted. Most of the men were suffering from malaria, dysentery and malnutrition. On 8 July, at the insistence of the Supreme Commander, Admiral Louis Mountbatten, doctors examined the brigade. Of the 2,200 men present from four and a half battalions, only 119 were declared fit. The brigade was evacuated, although Masters sarcastically kept the fit men, "111 Company", in the field until 1 August. The portion of 111 Brigade east of the Irrawaddy were known as Morris Force, after its commander, Lieutenant-Colonel J.R. "Jumbo" Morris. They had spent several months harassing Japanese traffic from Bhamo to Myitkyina. They had then attempted to complete the encirclement of Myitkyina. Stilwell was angered that they were unable to do so, but Slim pointed out that Stilwell's Chinese troops (numbering 5,500) had also failed in that task. By 14 July, Morris Force was down to three platoons. A week later, they only had 25 men fit for duty. Morris Force was evacuated about the same time as 77th Brigade. 14th Brigade and 3rd West African Brigade remained in action, assisting the newly arrived British 36th Infantry Division in its advance down the "Railway Valley" south of Mogaung. Finally, they were relieved and withdrawn, starting on 17 August. The last Chindit left Burma on 27 August 1944. Kohima 23rd Brigade, which had been diverted from the main Chindit campaign, nevertheless acted as a long range penetration unit behind the Japanese fighting at Kohima. From April to June 1944, they marched long distances through the Naga hills, mostly in monsoon weather which made movement very difficult. They contributed in large measure to the starvation of the Japanese at Kohima, the decisive factor in that battle. Although not engaged in major battles, they accounted for large numbers of Japanese stragglers and foragers, suffering 158 battle casualties themselves. Disbanded The Chindits had suffered heavy casualties: 1,396 killed and 2,434 wounded. Over half had to be confined to hospital and prescribed a special nutritional diet whilst hospitalised. As bad as the casualty figures may seem, those suffered by the force in 1943 were proportionally much higher. The healthy men were sent to training camps to await new operations. However, when the army command evaluated the men and equipment required to return the Chindits to operational status, it was decided to transform the force into an Airborne Division in India. Beyond direct replacements, it was known that the British element of the Chindits would be decimated in 1945 by the need to repatriate personnel who had served more than four years overseas. During the early months of 1945, several of the brigade headquarters and many of the veterans of the Chindit operations were reformed into the 14th and 77th Infantry Brigades and merged into the 44th Airborne Division (India), while the force headquarters and signals units formed the core of the Indian XXXIV Corps. The Chindits were finally disbanded in February 1945. London memorial There is a memorial to Orde Wingate and the Chindits on the north side of the Victoria Embankment next to the Ministry of Defence headquarters in London. The memorial was unveiled on 16 October 1990 by the Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. The front of the monument is in memory of the Chindits and also mentions the four men of the Chindits awarded the Victoria Cross: Major Frank Gerald Blaker, Captain Michael Allmand and Lieutenant George Albert Cairns and Rifleman Tulbahadur Pun. The battalions that took part are listed on the sides of the monument. Non-infantry units are mentioned by their parent formations only. No distinction is made between those units that took part in 1943 versus those of 1944. The rear of the monument is exclusively dedicated to Orde Wingate and also mentions his contributions to the state of Israel. The memorial is a 4 metres (13 ft) high Portland stone pillar mounted on three steps, on which is a statue by Frank Forster of the chinthe, after which the Chindits are named. Military legacy Military historians disagree on the Chindits' military significance. The debate is part of the ongoing one of whether the deployment of special forces are a net asset to a campaign or whether the investment in time, materiel and men that such operations demand outweigh the advantages gained. For example, it is questioned whether the interdiction of Japanese supply lines during Operation Thursday by the Chindits contributed more to Stilwell's advance than if the resources committed to the operation had been used to provide Stilwell with another regular division to fight alongside his X Force. The views of the majority of the post-war British military establishment were made succinctly by Slim (commander of the Fourteenth Army), when he wrote "... the Chindits, gave a splendid example of courage and hardihood. Yet I came firmly to the conclusion that such formations, trained, equipped and mentally adjusted for one kind of operation were wasteful. They did not give, militarily, a worth-while return for the resources in men, materiel and time that they absorbed. ... [Special forces] were usually formed by attracting the best men ... The result of these methods was undoubtedly to lower the quality of the rest of the Army". He makes several other arguments against special forces, about the danger of ordinary battalions thinking that some tasks could only be performed by special forces, and that special forces can only stay in the field for relatively short periods compared to regular battalions. He sums up that "Anything, whatever the short cuts to victory it may promise, which thus weakens the Army spirit is dangerous". To underline his point he suggests that "This cult of special forces is as sensible as to form a Royal Corps of Tree Climbers and say that no soldier, who does not wear its green hat with a bunch of oak leaves stuck in it should be expected to climb a tree". He does acknowledge the need for small units to stir up trouble in the enemy's rear area but does not make it clear if he is talking about V Force or the actions of Force 136. Others, like Sir Robert Thompson, himself an ex-Chindit, have asserted that the idea behind the Chindits was a sound one, but that they were just badly handled and used in operations for which they were not properly equipped or trained, for example in static defence. A third view is that, despite the relatively insignificant losses that the Chindits were able to inflict, their propaganda value in 1943, at a time when the Army was on the defensive, was a morale boost to the people of India and Britain, and helping to dispel the image of Japanese invincibility. It has been hard to reach a consensus on any of these issues due to the partisan nature of the discussions surrounding Wingate himself. It has also been argued that the Chindits contributed to the overall success of the Allied armies in Burma through the innovations in air supply techniques and organisation that their operations required. The Allied air forces were later to use these tactics to supply increasingly large forces that were cut off by the enemy, or were operating independently of road or rail lines of communication. Conversely, it has been argued that the apparent success of the Chindits led some Japanese commanders to believe that they could employ their own incursion tactics on a much larger scale, and that when they came to implement such tactics during the Chindwin offensive of early 1944, lacking the necessary air support that had enabled the Allies to be successful, the result was disastrous and ultimately led to defeat at both Kohima and Imphal, and later on the plains of Burma in 1945. Three of the Brigade commanders on Operation Thursday (two of whom had also served in the first Chindit expedition) subsequently wrote autobiographies, which contained their comments on the Chindits' concept and practice of operations. Bernard Fergusson, originally an enthusiastic supporter of Wingate, later came to feel that Wingate lacked both consistency and flexibility in his plans, which contributed to Fergusson's long, pointless march from Ledo and his defeat at Indaw. John Masters, who was a close friend and supporter of Lentaigne, felt that the Chindits' mobility was sacrificed in holding fixed defensive positions or attacking strong Japanese positions, without the necessary support. In criticism of the whole Chindit concept, he pointed out that the Chindit force had the infantry strength of two and a half line divisions, but, without supporting arms, it had the fighting strength of less than one. Michael Calvert, who was closest to Wingate, remained an absolute unquestioning defender of Wingate and his methods. The British Army's 77th Brigade, raised in 2015 to engage in upstream prevention for the army, was named in tribute to the Chindits. See also Denis Edward Arnold MC Roland Degg Order of Battle of the Chindits Notes References Autobiography by Wingate's Chief of Staff Further reading External links Material on Wingate's Burma Campaign (histories, personal accounts, biographies) Royal Engineers Museum Engineers with the Chindits The Chindits Office of the US Surgeon General: Office of Medical History: Book 4, With Wingate's Chindits index G. V. Faulkner, MD, MC. Medical Report on Operations, 77th Indian Infantry Brigade Chindit Special Force Burma 1944 index Chindit: Special Force, Burma 1944 Groups of World War II Military units and formations of Burma in World War II Military units and formations established in 1942 Military units and formations of India in World War II Military units and formations of the British Empire in World War II Military units and formations disestablished in 1945

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tichborne%20case

Tichborne case

The Tichborne case was a legal cause célèbre that captivated Victorian England in the 1860s and 1870s. It concerned the claims by a man sometimes referred to as Thomas Castro or as Arthur Orton, but usually termed "the Claimant", to be the missing heir to the Tichborne baronetcy. He failed to convince the courts, was convicted of perjury and served a long prison sentence. Roger Tichborne, heir to the family's title and fortunes, was presumed to have died in a shipwreck in 1854 at age 25. His mother clung to a belief that he might have survived, and after hearing rumours that he had made his way to Australia, she advertised extensively in Australian newspapers, offering a reward for information. In 1866, a Wagga Wagga butcher known as Thomas Castro came forward claiming to be Roger Tichborne. Although his manners and bearing were unrefined, he gathered support and travelled to England. He was instantly accepted by Lady Tichborne as her son, although other family members were dismissive and sought to expose him as an impostor. During protracted enquiries before the case went to court in 1871, details emerged suggesting that the Claimant might be Arthur Orton, a butcher's son from Wapping in London, who had gone to sea as a boy and had last been heard of in Australia. After a civil court had rejected the Claimant's case, he was charged with perjury; while awaiting trial he campaigned throughout the country to gain popular support. In 1874, a criminal court jury decided that he was not Roger Tichborne and declared him to be Arthur Orton. Before passing a sentence of 14 years, the judge condemned the behaviour of the Claimant's counsel, Edward Kenealy, who was subsequently disbarred because of his conduct. After the trial, Kenealy instigated a popular radical reform movement, the Magna Charta Association, which championed the Claimant's cause for some years. Kenealy was elected to Parliament in 1875 as a radical independent but was not an effective parliamentarian. The movement was in decline when the Claimant was released in 1884, and he had no dealings with it. In 1895, he confessed to being Orton, only to recant almost immediately. He lived generally in poverty for the rest of his life and was destitute at the time of his death in 1898. Although most commentators have accepted the court's view that the Claimant was Orton, some analysts believe that an element of doubt remains as to his true identity and that, conceivably, he was Roger Tichborne. Sir Roger Tichborne Tichborne family history The Tichbornes, of Tichborne Park near Alresford in Hampshire, were an old English Catholic family who had been prominent in the area since before the Norman Conquest. After the Reformation in the 16th century, although one of their number was hanged, drawn and quartered for complicity in the Babington Plot to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I, the family in general remained loyal to the Crown, and in 1621 Benjamin Tichborne was created a baronet for services to King James I. In 1803 the seventh baronet, Sir Henry Tichborne, was captured by the French in Verdun during the Napoleonic Wars and detained as a civil prisoner for some years. With him in captivity were his fourth son, James, and a nobly born Englishman, Henry Seymour of Knoyle. Despite his confinement, Seymour managed to conduct an affair with the daughter of the Duc de Bourbon, as a result of which a daughter, Henriette Felicité, was born in about 1807. Years later, when Henriette had passed her 20th birthday and remained unmarried, Seymour thought his former companion James Tichborne might make a suitable husband—although James was close to his own age and was physically unprepossessing. The couple were married in August 1827; on 5 January 1829 Henriette gave birth to a son, Roger Charles Doughty Tichborne. Sir Henry had been succeeded in 1821 by his eldest son, Henry Joseph, who fathered seven daughters but no male heir. As baronetcies are inherited only by males, when Henry Joseph died in 1845 the immediate heir was his younger brother Edward, who had assumed the surname of Doughty as a condition of a legacy. Edward's only son died in childhood, so James Tichborne became next in line to the baronetcy, and after him, Roger. As the family's fortunes had been greatly augmented by the Doughty bequest, this was a considerable material prospect. After Roger's birth, James and Henriette had three more children: two daughters who died in infancy and a second son, Alfred, born in 1839. The marriage was unhappy, and the couple spent much time apart, he in England, she in Paris with Roger. As a consequence of his upbringing, Roger spoke mainly French, and his English was heavily accented. In 1845 James decided that Roger should complete his education in England and placed him in the Jesuit boarding school Stonyhurst College, where he remained until 1848. In 1849 he sat the British army entrance examinations and then took a commission in the 6th Dragoon Guards, in which he served for three years, mainly in Ireland. When on leave, Roger often stayed with his uncle Edward at Tichborne Park and became attracted to his cousin Katherine Doughty, four years his junior. Sir Edward and his wife, though they were fond of their nephew, did not consider marriage between first cousins desirable. At one point the young couple were forbidden to meet, though they continued to do so clandestinely. Feeling harassed and frustrated, Roger hoped to escape from the situation through a spell of overseas military duty; when it became clear that the regiment would remain in the British Isles, he resigned his commission. On 1 March 1853 he left for a private tour of South America on board La Pauline, bound for Valparaíso in Chile. Travels and disappearance On 19 June 1853 La Pauline reached Valparaíso, where letters informed Roger that his father had succeeded to the baronetcy, Sir Edward having died in May. In all, Roger spent 10 months in South America, accompanied in the first stages by a family servant, John Moore. In the course of his inland travels he may have visited the small town of Melipilla, which lies on the route between Valparaíso and Santiago. Moore, who had fallen ill, was paid off in Santiago, while Roger travelled to Peru, where he took a long hunting trip. By the end of 1853 he was back in Valparaíso, and early in the new year he began a crossing of the Andes. At the end of January, he reached Buenos Aires, where he wrote to his aunt, Lady Doughty, indicating that he was heading for Brazil, then Jamaica and finally Mexico. The last positive sightings of Roger were in Rio de Janeiro, in April 1854, awaiting a sea passage to Jamaica. Although he lacked a passport, he secured a berth on a ship, the Bella, which sailed for Jamaica on 20 April. On 24 April 1854 a capsized ship's boat bearing the name Bella was discovered off the Brazilian coast, together with some wreckage but no personnel, and the ship's loss with all hands was assumed. The Tichborne family were told in June that Roger must be presumed lost, though they retained a faint hope, fed by rumours, that another ship had picked up survivors and taken them to Australia. Sir James Tichborne died in June 1862, at which point, if he was alive, Roger became the 11th baronet. As he was by then presumed dead, the title passed to his younger brother Alfred, whose financial recklessness rapidly brought about his near-bankruptcy. Tichborne Park was vacated and leased to tenants. Encouraged by a clairvoyant's assurance that her elder son was alive and well, in February 1863 Roger's mother Henriette, now Lady Tichborne, began placing regular newspaper advertisements in The Times offering a reward for information about Roger Tichborne and the fate of the Bella. None of these produced results; however, in May 1865 Lady Tichborne saw an advertisement placed by Arthur Cubitt of Sydney, Australia, on behalf of his "Missing Friends Agency". She wrote to him, and he agreed to place a series of notices in Australian newspapers. These gave details of the Bella's last voyage and described Roger Tichborne as "of a delicate constitution, rather tall, with very light brown hair and blue eyes". A "most liberal reward" would be given "for any information that may definitely point out his fate". Claimant appears In Australia In October 1865 Cubitt informed Lady Tichborne that William Gibbes, a lawyer from Wagga Wagga, had identified Roger Tichborne in the person of a bankrupt local butcher using the name Thomas Castro. During his bankruptcy examination Castro had mentioned an entitlement to property in England. He had also talked of experiencing a shipwreck and was smoking a briar pipe which carried the initials "R.C.T." When challenged by Gibbes to reveal his true name, Castro had initially been reticent but eventually agreed that he was indeed the missing Roger Tichborne; henceforth he became generally known as the Claimant. Cubitt offered to accompany the supposed lost son back to England and wrote to Lady Tichborne requesting funds. Meanwhile, Gibbes asked the Claimant to make out a will and to write to his mother. The will incorrectly gave Lady Tichborne's name as "Hannah Frances", and disposed of numerous nonexistent parcels of supposed Tichborne property. In the letter to his mother, the Claimant's references to his former life were vague and equivocal but were enough to convince Lady Tichborne that he was her elder son. Her willingness to accept the Claimant may have been influenced by the death of her younger son, Alfred, in February. In June 1866 the Claimant moved to Sydney, where he was able to raise money from banks on the basis of a statutory declaration that he was Roger Tichborne. The statement was later found to contain many errors, although the birthdate and parentage details were given correctly. It included a brief account of how he had arrived in Australia: he and others from the sinking Bella, he said, had been picked up by the Osprey, bound for Melbourne. On arrival he had taken the name Thomas Castro from an acquaintance from Melipilla and had wandered for some years before settling in Wagga Wagga. He had married a pregnant housemaid, Mary Ann Bryant, and taken her child, a daughter, as his own; a further daughter had been born in March 1866. While in Sydney the Claimant encountered two former servants of the Tichborne family. One was a gardener, Michael Guilfoyle, who at first acknowledged the identity of Roger Tichborne but later changed his mind when asked to provide money to facilitate the return to England. The second, Andrew Bogle, was a former slave at the Duke of Buckingham and Chandos's plantation in Jamaica who had thereafter worked for Sir Edward for many years before retiring. The elderly Bogle did not immediately recognise the Claimant, whose weight contrasted sharply with Roger's remembered slender build; however, Bogle quickly accepted that the Claimant was Roger, and remained convinced until the end of his life. On 2 September 1866 the Claimant, having received funds from England, sailed from Sydney on board the Rakaia with his wife and children in first class, and a small retinue including Bogle and his youngest son Henry George in second class. Good living in Sydney had raised his weight on departure to , and during the long voyage he added another . After a journey involving several changes of ship, the party arrived at Tilbury on 25 December 1866. Recognition in France After depositing his family in a London hotel, the Claimant called at Lady Tichborne's address and was told she was in Paris. He then went to Wapping in East London, where he enquired after a local family named Orton. Finding that they had left the area, he identified himself to a neighbour as a friend of Arthur Orton, who, he said, was now one of the wealthiest men in Australia. The significance of the Wapping visit would become apparent only later. On 29 December the Claimant visited Alresford and stayed at the Swan Hotel, where the landlord detected a resemblance to the Tichbornes. The Claimant confided that he was the missing Sir Roger but asked that this be kept secret. He also sought information concerning the Tichborne family. Back in London, the Claimant employed a solicitor, John Holmes, who agreed to go with him to Paris to meet Lady Tichborne. This meeting took place on 11 January at the Hôtel de Lille. As soon as she saw his face, Lady Tichborne accepted him. At Holmes's behest she lodged with the British Embassy a signed declaration formally testifying that the Claimant was her son. She was unmoved when Father Châtillon, Roger's childhood tutor, declared the Claimant an impostor, and she allowed Holmes to inform The Times in London that she had recognised Roger. She settled an income of £1,000 a year on him, and accompanied him to England to declare her support before the more sceptical members of the Tichborne family. Laying the groundwork, 1867–71 Support and opposition The Claimant quickly acquired significant supporters; the Tichborne family's solicitor Edward Hopkins accepted him, as did J.P. Lipscomb, the family's doctor. Lipscomb, after a detailed medical examination, reported that the Claimant possessed a distinctive genital malformation. It would later be suggested that Roger Tichborne had this same defect, but this could not be established beyond speculation and hearsay. Many people were impressed by the Claimant's seeming ability to recall small details of Roger Tichborne's early life, such as the fly fishing tackle he had used. Several soldiers who had served with Roger in the Dragoons, including his former batman Thomas Carter, recognised the Claimant as Roger. Other notable supporters included Lord Rivers, a landowner and sportsman, and Guildford Onslow, the Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for Guildford who became one of the Claimant's staunchest advocates. Rohan MacWilliam, in his account of the case, calls this wide degree of recognition remarkable, particularly given the Claimant's increasing physical differences from the slim Roger. By mid-June 1867 the Claimant's weight had reached almost and would increase even more in the ensuing years. Despite Lady Tichborne's insistence that the Claimant was her son, the rest of the Tichbornes and their related families were almost unanimous in declaring him a fraud. They recognised Alfred Tichborne's infant son, Henry Alfred, as the 12th baronet. Lady Doughty, Sir Edward's widow, had initially accepted the evidence from Australia but changed her mind soon after the Claimant's arrival in England. Lady Tichborne's brother Henry Seymour denounced the Claimant as false when he found that the latter neither spoke nor understood French (Roger's first language as a child) and lacked any trace of a French accent. The Claimant was unable to identify several family members and complained about attempts to catch him out by presenting him with impostors. Vincent Gosford, a former Tichborne Park steward, was unimpressed by the Claimant, who, when asked to name the contents of a sealed package that Roger left with Gosford before his departure in 1853, said he could not remember. The family believed that the Claimant had acquired from Bogle and other sources information that enabled him to demonstrate some knowledge of the family's affairs, including, for example, the locations of certain pictures in Tichborne Park. Apart from Lady Tichborne, a distant cousin, Anthony John Wright Biddulph, was the only relation who accepted the Claimant as genuine; however, as long as Lady Tichborne was alive and maintaining her support, the Claimant's position remained strong. On 31 July 1867 the Claimant underwent a judicial examination at the Chancery Division of the Royal Courts of Justice. He testified that after his arrival in Melbourne in July 1854 he had worked for William Foster at a cattle station in Gippsland under the name of Thomas Castro. While there, he had met Arthur Orton, a fellow Englishman. After leaving Foster's employment the Claimant had subsequently wandered the country, sometimes with Orton, working in various capacities before setting up as a butcher in Wagga Wagga in 1865. On the basis of this information, the Tichborne family sent an agent, John Mackenzie, to Australia to make further enquiries. Mackenzie located Foster's widow, who produced the old station records. These showed no reference to "Thomas Castro", although the employment of an "Arthur Orton" was recorded. Foster's widow also identified a photograph of the Claimant as Arthur Orton, thus providing the first direct evidence that the Claimant might in fact be Orton. In Wagga Wagga one local resident recalled the butcher Castro saying that he had learned his trade in Wapping. When this information reached London, enquiries were made in Wapping by a private detective, ex-police inspector Jack Whicher, and the Claimant's visit in December 1866 was revealed. Arthur Orton Arthur Orton, a butcher's son born on 20 March 1834 in Wapping, had gone to sea as a boy and had been in Chile in the early 1850s. Sometime in 1852 he arrived in Hobart, Tasmania, in the transport ship Middleton and later moved to mainland Australia. His employment by Foster at Gippsland terminated around 1857 with a dispute over wages. Thereafter he disappears; if he was not Castro, there is no further direct evidence of Orton's existence, although strenuous efforts were made to find him. The Claimant hinted that some of his activities with Orton were of a criminal nature and that to confound the authorities they had sometimes exchanged names. Most of Orton's family failed to recognise the Claimant as their long-lost kinsman, although it was later revealed that he had paid them money. However, a former sweetheart of Orton's, Mary Ann Loder, did identify the Claimant as Orton. Financial problems Lady Tichborne died on 12 March 1868, thus depriving the Claimant of his principal advocate and his main source of income. He outraged the family by insisting on taking the position of chief mourner at her funeral mass. His lost income was rapidly replaced by a fund, set up by supporters, that provided a house near Alresford and an income of £1,400 (£145,278 in 2016) a year. In September 1868, together with his legal team, the Claimant went to South America to meet face-to-face with potential witnesses in Melipilla who might confirm his identity. He disembarked at Buenos Aires, ostensibly to travel to Valparaíso overland and there rejoin his advisers who were continuing by sea. After waiting two months in Buenos Aires he caught a ship home. His explanations for this sudden retreat—poor health and the dangers from brigands—did not convince his backers, many of whom withdrew their support; Holmes resigned as his solicitor. Furthermore, on their return his advisers reported that no one in Melipilla had heard of "Tichborne", although they remembered a young English sailor called "Arturo". The Claimant was now bankrupt. In 1870 his new legal advisers launched a novel fundraising scheme: Tichborne Bonds, an issue of 1,000 debentures of £100 face value, the holders of which would be repaid with interest when the Claimant obtained his inheritance. About £40,000 was raised, though the bonds quickly traded at a considerable discount and were soon being exchanged for derisory sums. The scheme allowed the Claimant to continue to meet his living and legal expenses for a while. After a delay while the Franco-Prussian War and its aftermath prevented key witnesses from leaving Paris, the civil case that the Claimant hoped would confirm his identity finally came to court in May 1871. Civil case: Tichborne v. Lushington, 1871–72 The case was listed in the Court of Common Pleas as Tichborne v. Lushington, in the form of an action for the ejectment of Colonel Lushington, the tenant of Tichborne Park. The real purpose, however, was to establish the Claimant's identity as Sir Roger Tichborne and his rights to the family's estates; failure on his part would expose him as an impostor. In addition to Tichborne Park's , the estates included manors, lands and farms in Hampshire, and considerable properties in London and elsewhere, which altogether produced an annual income of over £20,000, equivalent to several millions in 21st-century terms. Evidence and cross-examination The hearing, which took place within the Palace of Westminster, began on 11 May 1871 before Sir William Bovill, who was Chief Justice of the Common Pleas. The Claimant's legal team was led by William Ballantine and Harding Giffard, both highly experienced advocates. Opposing them, acting on instructions from the bulk of the Tichborne family, were John Duke Coleridge, the Solicitor General (he was promoted to Attorney-General during the hearing), and Henry Hawkins, a future High Court judge who was then at the height of his powers as a cross-examiner. In his opening speech, Ballantine made much of Roger Tichborne's unhappy childhood, his overbearing father, his poor education and his frequently unwise choices of companions. The Claimant's experiences in an open boat following the wreck of the Bella had, said Ballantine, impaired his memories of his earlier years, which explained his uncertain recall. Attempts to identify his client as Arthur Orton were, Ballantine argued, the concoctions of "irresponsible" private investigators acting for the Tichborne family. The first witnesses for the Claimant included former officers and men from Roger Tichborne's regiment, all of whom declared their belief that he was genuine. Among servants and former servants of the Tichborne family called by Ballantine was John Moore, Roger's valet in South America. He testified that the Claimant had remembered many small details of their months together, including clothing worn and the name of a pet dog the pair had adopted. Roger's cousin Anthony Biddulph explained that he had accepted the Claimant only after spending much time in his company. On 30 May Ballantine called the Claimant to the stand. During his examination-in-chief, the Claimant answered questions on Arthur Orton, whom he described as "a large-boned man with sharp features and a lengthy face slightly marked with smallpox". He had lost sight of Orton between 1862 and 1865, but they had met again in Wagga Wagga, where the Claimant had discussed his inheritance. Under cross-examination the Claimant was evasive when pressed for further details of his relationship with Orton, saying that he did not wish to incriminate himself. After questioning him on his visit to Wapping, Hawkins asked him directly: "Are you Arthur Orton?" to which he replied "I am not". The Claimant displayed considerable ignorance when questioned about his time at Stonyhurst. He could not identify Virgil, confused Latin with Greek, and did not understand what chemistry was. He caused a sensation when he declared that he had seduced Katherine Doughty and that the sealed package given to Gosford, the contents of which he earlier claimed not to recall, contained instructions to be followed in the event of her pregnancy. Rohan McWilliam, in his chronicle of the affair, comments that from that point on the Tichborne family were fighting not only for their estates but for Katherine Doughty's honour. Collapse of case On 7 July the court adjourned for four months. When it resumed, Ballantine called more witnesses, including Bogle and Francis Baigent, a close family friend. Hawkins contended that Bogle and Baigent were feeding the Claimant with information, but in cross-examination he could not dent their belief that the Claimant was genuine. In January 1872 Coleridge began the case for the defence with a speech during which he categorised the Claimant as comparable with "the great impostors of history". He intended to prove that the Claimant was Arthur Orton. He had over 200 witnesses lined up, but it transpired that few were required. Lord Bellew, who had known Roger Tichborne at Stonyhurst, testified that Roger had distinctive body tattoos which the Claimant did not possess. On 4 March the jury notified the judge that they had heard enough and were ready to reject the Claimant's suit. Having ascertained that this decision was based on the evidence as a whole and not solely on the missing tattoos, Bovill ordered the Claimant's arrest on charges of perjury and committed him to Newgate Prison. Appeal to the public, 1872–73 From his cell in Newgate, the Claimant vowed to resume the fight as soon as he was acquitted. On 25 March 1872 he published in the Evening Standard an "Appeal to the Public", requesting financial help to meet his legal and living costs: "I appeal to every British soul who is inspired by a love of justice and fair play, and is willing to defend the weak against the strong". The Claimant had gained considerable popular support during the civil trial; his fight was perceived by many as symbolising the problems faced by the working class when seeking justice in the courts. In the wake of his appeal, support committees were formed throughout the country. When he was bailed early in April, on sureties provided by Lord Rivers and Guildford Onslow, a large crowd cheered him as he left the Old Bailey. At a public meeting in Alresford on 14 May, Onslow reported that subscriptions to the defence fund were already pouring in and that invitations to visit and speak had been received from many towns. As the Claimant addressed meetings up and down the country, journalists following the campaign often commented on his pronounced cockney accent, suggestive of East London origins. The campaign drew in some high-level supporters, among whom was George Hammond Whalley, a controversial anti-Catholic who was MP for Peterborough. He and Onslow were sometimes incautious in their speeches; after a meeting in St James's Hall, London, on 11 December 1872, each made specific charges against the Attorney General and the Government of trying to pervert the course of justice. They were fined £100 each for contempt of court. With few exceptions, the mainstream press was hostile to the Claimant's campaign. To counteract this, his supporters launched two short-lived newspapers, the Tichborne Gazette in May 1872 and the Tichborne News and Anti-Oppression Journal in June. The former was wholly devoted to the Claimant's cause and ran until Onslow's and Whalley's contempt convictions in December 1872. The Tichborne News, which concerned itself with a broader range of perceived injustices, closed after four months. Criminal case: Regina v. Castro, 1873–74 Judges and counsel The criminal case, to be heard in the Queen's Bench, was listed as Regina v. Castro, the name Castro being the last uncontested alias of the Claimant. Because of its expected length, the case was scheduled as a "trial at bar", a device that allowed a panel rather than one judge to hear it. The president of the panel was Sir Alexander Cockburn, the Lord Chief Justice. His decision to hear this case was controversial, since during the civil case he had publicly denounced the Claimant as a perjurer and a slanderer. Cockburn's co-judges were Sir John Mellor and Sir Robert Lush, experienced Queen's Bench justices. The prosecution team was largely that which had opposed the Claimant in the civil case, minus Coleridge. Hawkins led the team, his main assistants being Charles Bowen and James Mathew. The Claimant's team was significantly weaker; he would not re-engage Ballantine and his other civil case lawyers declined to act for him again. Others refused the case, possibly because they knew they would have to present evidence concerning the seduction of Katherine Doughty. The Claimant's backers eventually engaged Edward Kenealy, an Irish lawyer of acknowledged gifts but known eccentricity. Kenealy had previously featured in several prominent defences, including those of the poisoner William Palmer and the leaders of the 1867 Fenian Rising. He was assisted by undistinguished juniors: Patrick MacMahon, an Irish MP who was frequently absent, and the young and inexperienced Cooper Wyld. Kenealy's task was made more difficult when several of his upper-class witnesses refused to appear, perhaps afraid of the ridicule they anticipated from the Crown's lawyers. Other important witnesses from the civil case, including Moore, Baigent and Lipscombe, would not give evidence at the criminal trial. Trial The trial, one of the lengthiest cases heard in an English court, began on 21 April 1873 and lasted until 28 February 1874, occupying 188 court days. The tone was dominated by Kenealy's confrontational style; his personal attacks extended not only to witnesses but to the Bench and led to frequent clashes with Cockburn. Under the legal rules that then applied to criminal cases, the Claimant, though present in court, was not allowed to testify. Away from the court he revelled in his celebrity status; the American writer Mark Twain, who was then in London, attended an event at which the Claimant was present and "thought him a rather fine and stately figure". Twain observed that the company were "educated men, men moving in good society.... It was 'Sir Roger', always 'Sir Roger' on all hands, no one withheld the title". Altogether, Hawkins called 215 witnesses, including numbers from France, Melipilla, Australia and Wapping, who testified either that the Claimant was not Roger Tichborne or that he was Arthur Orton. A handwriting expert swore that the Claimant's writing resembled Orton's but not Roger Tichborne's. The entire story of rescue by the Osprey was, Hawkins asserted, a fraud. A ship of that name had arrived in Melbourne in July 1854 but did not correspond to the Claimant's description. Furthermore, the Claimant had provided the wrong name for Ospreys captain, and the names he gave for two of Ospreys crew were found to belong to members of the crew of the Middleton, the ship which had landed Orton at Hobart. No mention of a rescue had been found in Ospreys log or in the Melbourne harbourmaster's records. Giving evidence on the contents of the sealed packet, Gosford revealed that it contained information regarding the disposition of certain properties, but nothing relating to Katherine Doughty's seduction or pregnancy. Kenealy's defence was that the Claimant was victim of a conspiracy which encompassed the Catholic Church, the government and the legal establishment. He frequently sought to demolish witnesses' character, as with Lord Bellew, whose reputation he destroyed by revealing details of the peer's adultery. Kenealy's own witnesses included Bogle and Biddulph, who remained steadfast, but more sensational testimony came from a sailor called Jean Luie, who claimed that he had been on the Osprey during the rescue mission. Luie identified the Claimant as "Mr Rogers", one of six survivors picked up and taken to Melbourne. On investigation Luie was found to be an impostor, a former prisoner who had been in England at the time of the Bellas sinking. He was convicted of perjury and sentenced to seven years' imprisonment. Summing-up, verdict and sentence After closing addresses from Kenealy and Hawkins, Cockburn began summing-up on 29 January 1874. His speech was prefaced by a severe denunciation of Kenealy's conduct, "the longest, severest and best merited rebuke ever administered from the Bench to a member of the bar" according to the trial's chronicler John Morse. The tone of the summing-up was partisan, frequently drawing the jury's attention to the Claimant's "gross and astonishing ignorance" of things he would certainly know if he were Roger Tichborne. Cockburn rejected the Claimant's version of the sealed package contents and all imputations against Katherine Doughty's honour.Morse, pp. 226–27 Of Cockburn's peroration, Morse remarked that "never was a more resolute determination manifested [by a judge] to control the result". While much of the press applauded Cockburn's forthrightness, his summing-up was also criticised as "a Niagara of condemnation" rather than an impartial review. The jury retired at noon on Saturday 28 February, and returned to the court within 30 minutes. Their verdict declared that the Claimant was not Roger Tichborne, that he had not seduced Katherine Doughty, and that he was indeed Arthur Orton. He was thus convicted of perjury. The jury added a condemnation of Kenealy's conduct during the trial. After the judges refused his request to address the court, the Claimant was sentenced to two consecutive terms of seven years' imprisonment. Kenealy's behaviour ended his legal career; he was expelled from the Oxford circuit mess and from Gray's Inn, so that he could no longer practise. On 2 December 1874 the Lord Chancellor revoked Kenealy's patent as a Queen's Counsel. Aftermath Popular movement The court's verdict swelled the popular tide in favour of the Claimant. He and Kenealy were hailed as heroes, the latter as a martyr who had sacrificed his legal career. George Bernard Shaw, writing much later, highlighted the paradox whereby the Claimant was perceived simultaneously as a legitimate baronet and as a working-class man denied his legal rights by a ruling elite.McWilliam 2007, p. 113 In April 1874 Kenealy launched a political organisation, the "Magna Charta Association", with a broad agenda that reflected some of the Chartist demands of the 1830s and 1840s. In February 1875 Kenealy fought a parliamentary by-election for Stoke-upon-Trent as "The People's Candidate", and won with a resounding majority. However, he failed to persuade the House of Commons to establish a royal commission into the Tichborne trial, his proposal securing only his own vote and the support of two non-voting tellers, against 433 opposed. Thereafter, within parliament Kenealy became a generally derided figure, and most of his campaigning was conducted elsewhere. In the years of the Tichborne movement's popularity a considerable market was created for souvenirs in the form of medallions, china figurines, teacloths and other memorabilia. However, by 1880 interest in the case had declined, and in the General Election of that year Kenealy was heavily defeated. He died of heart failure a few days after the election. The Magna Charta Association continued for several more years, with dwindling support; The Englishman, the newspaper founded by Kenealy during the trial, closed down in May 1886, and there is no evidence of the Association's continuing activities after that date. Claimant's release and final years The Claimant was released on licence on 11 October 1884 after serving 10 years. He was much slimmer; a letter to Onslow dated May 1875 reports a loss of . Throughout his imprisonment he had maintained that he was Roger Tichborne, but on release he disappointed supporters by showing no interest in the Magna Charta Association, instead signing a contract to tour with music halls and circuses. The British public's interest in him had largely waned; in 1886 he went to New York but failed to inspire any enthusiasm there and ended up working as a bartender. He returned in 1887 to England, where, although not officially divorced from Mary Ann Bryant, he married a music hall singer, Lily Enever. In 1895, for a fee of a few hundred pounds, he confessed in The People newspaper that he was, after all, Arthur Orton. With the proceeds he opened a small tobacconist's shop in Islington; however, he quickly retracted the confession and insisted again that he was Roger Tichborne. His shop failed, as did other business attempts, and he died destitute, of heart disease, on 1 April 1898. His funeral caused a brief revival of interest; around 5,000 people attended Paddington cemetery for the burial in an unmarked pauper's grave. In what McWilliam calls "an act of extraordinary generosity" the Tichborne family allowed a card bearing the name "Sir Roger Charles Doughty Tichborne" to be placed on the coffin before its interment. The name "Tichborne" was registered in the cemetery's records. Appraisal Commentators have generally accepted the trial jury's verdict that the Claimant was Arthur Orton. However, McWilliam cites the monumental study by Douglas Woodruff (1957), in which the author posits that the Claimant could just possibly have been Roger Tichborne. Woodruff's principal argument is the sheer improbability that anyone could conceive such an imposture from scratch, at such a distance, and then implement it: "[I]t was carrying effrontery beyond the bounds of sanity if Arthur Orton embarked with a wife and retinue and crossed the world, knowing that they would all be destitute if he did not succeed in convincing a woman he had never met and knew nothing about first-hand, that he was her son". In 1876, while the Claimant was serving his prison sentence, interest was briefly raised by the claims of William Cresswell, an inmate of a Sydney lunatic asylum, that he was Arthur Orton. There was circumstantial evidence that indicated some connection with Orton, and the Claimant's supporters campaigned to have Cresswell brought to England. Nothing came of this, although the question of Cresswell's possible identity remained a matter of dispute for years.Annear, pp. 300–01 In 1884 a Sydney court found the matter undecided, and ruled that the status quo should be maintained; Cresswell stayed in the asylum. Shortly before his death in 1904 he was visited by the contemporaneous Lady Tichborne, who found no physical resemblance to any member of the Tichborne family. Attempts have been made to reconcile some of the troubling uncertainties and contradictions within the case. To explain the degree of facial resemblance (which even Cockburn accepted) of the Claimant to the Tichborne family, Onslow suggested in The Englishman that Orton's mother, a woman named Mary Kent, was an illegitimate daughter of Sir Henry Tichborne, Roger Tichborne's grandfather. An alternative story has Mary Kent being seduced by James Tichborne, making Orton and Roger half-brothers. Other versions have Orton and Roger as companions in crime in Australia, with Orton killing Roger and assuming his identity. The Claimant's daughter by Mary Ann Bryant, Teresa Mary Agnes, maintained that her father confessed to her that he had killed Arthur Orton and thus could not disclose details of his Australian years. There is no direct evidence for any of these theories. Teresa continued to proclaim her identity as a Tichborne daughter, and in 1924 was imprisoned for making threats and demands for money to the family. Woodruff submits that the legal verdicts, although fair given the evidence before the courts, have not fully resolved the "great doubt" that Cockburn admitted hung over the case. Woodruff wrote in 1957: "Probably for ever, now, its key long since lost... a mystery remains". A 1998 article in The Catholic Herald suggested that DNA profiling might resolve the mystery. The enigma has launched numerous retellings of the story in book and film, including the short story "Tom Castro, the Implausible Imposter" from Jorge Luis Borges's Universal History of Infamy, and David Yates's 1998 film The Tichborne Claimant. Thus, Woodruff concludes, "the man who lost himself still walks in history, with no other name than that which the common voice of his day accorded him: the Claimant". See also Bhawal case, dealing with a famous case of suspected impersonation in British India. "The Principal and the Pauper", an episode of The Simpsons inspired by the Tichborne case. ReferencesNotesCitationsBibliography''' Gilbert, Michael, The Claimant, the Tichborne Case Revisited, (Constable and Company, London, 1959), by the well-known British mystery writer. (First published in 1897 by The American Publishing Company, Hartford, Connecticut.) Borges, Jorge Luis (1935). A Universal History of Infamy''. Buenos Aires: Editorial Tor. External links The Tichborne case: a Victorian melodrama. Online at Discover Collections, State Library of New South Wales, Australia 19th-century hoaxes Court of Common Pleas (England) cases Court of King's Bench (England) cases History of Hampshire Hoaxes in the United Kingdom Impostors Mysteries Stonyhurst College Wagga Wagga

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/108%20Mile%20Ranch

108 Mile Ranch

108 Mile Ranch is a residential community of 700 homes situated in the South Cariboo region of British Columbia located in a historic area of ranches and lakes. Historically, en route to the great Cariboo Gold Rush, a few of the travellers settled here. A feature of the 108 community is its green belt lands. Comprising more than these community parklands include 108 and Sepa Lakes, Walker Valley and many small patches scattered around the ranch. 108 Mile Ranch is about north of 100 Mile House, just off Highway 97. South Cariboo Regional Airport is the regional facility for the South Cariboo. Located on Highway 97, The 108 Heritage Site is a tourist attraction with its growing number of restored buildings, including the largest log barn in Canada. Transportation Airports South Cariboo Regional Airport or 108 Mile Ranch Airport (IATA: ZMH, ICAO: CZML) is a registered aerodrome located northwest of the city. It is the regional aerodrome for the South Cariboo Regional District, with capabilities of handling commercial passenger service, MEDEVAC, flight training, and corporate traffic. References External links 108 Mile Ranch Community Association 108 Mile Ranch Heritage Site Buckaroos in BC: the Story of Ranching in British Columbia Virtual exhibit on the history of ranching in British Columbia. Unincorporated settlements in British Columbia Geography of the Cariboo Populated places in the Cariboo Regional District Ranches in British Columbia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20Tigers

Flying Tigers

The First American Volunteer Group (AVG) of the Republic of China Air Force, nicknamed the Flying Tigers, was formed to help oppose the Japanese invasion of China. Operating in 1941–1942, it was composed of pilots from the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC), Navy (USN), and Marine Corps (USMC), and was commanded by Claire Lee Chennault. Their Curtis P-40B Warhawk aircraft, marked with Chinese colors, flew under American control. Recruited under President Franklin Roosevelt's authority before Pearl Harbor, their mission was to bomb Japan and defend the Republic of China, but many delays meant the AVG first flew in combat after the US and Japan declared war. The group consisted of three fighter squadrons of around 30 aircraft each that trained in Burma before the American entry into World War II to defend Republic of China against Japanese forces. The AVG were officially members of the Republic of China Air Force. The group had contracts with salaries ranging from $250 a month for a mechanic to $750 for a squadron commander, roughly three times what they had been making in the U.S. forces. While it accepted some civilian volunteers for its headquarters and ground crew, the AVG recruited most of its staff from the U.S. military. The Flying Tigers began to arrive in China in April 1941. The group first saw combat on 20 December 1941, 12 days after Pearl Harbor (local time). It demonstrated innovative tactical victories when the news in the U.S. was filled with little more than stories of defeat at the hands of the Japanese forces, and achieved such notable success during the lowest period of the war for both the U.S. and the Allied Forces, as to give hope to America that it might eventually defeat Japan. AVG pilots earned official credit and received combat bonuses for destroying 296 enemy aircraft, while losing only 14 pilots in combat. The combat records of the AVG still exist and researchers have found them credible. On 4 July 1942 the AVG was disbanded and replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces, which was later absorbed into the U.S. Fourteenth Air Force with General Chennault as commander. The 23rd FG went on to achieve similar combat success, while retaining the nose art on the left-over P-40s. Origin The American Volunteer Group was largely the creation of Claire L. Chennault, a retired U.S. Army Air Corps officer who had worked in China since August 1937, first as military aviation advisor to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in the early months of the Sino-Japanese War, then as director of a Chinese Air Force flight school centered in Kunming. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union supplied fighter and bomber squadrons to China, but these units were mostly withdrawn by the summer of 1940. Chiang then asked for American combat aircraft and pilots, sending Chennault to Washington as an adviser to China's ambassador and Chiang's brother-in-law, T. V. Soong. Chennault spent the winter of 1940–1941 in Washington, supervising the purchase of 100 Curtiss P-40 fighters and the recruiting of 100 pilots and some 200 ground crew and administrative personnel that would constitute the 1st AVG. He also laid the groundwork for a follow-on bomber group and a second fighter group, though these would be aborted after the Pearl Harbor attack. Original American volunteer group Of the pilots, 60 came from the Navy and Marine Corps and 40 from the Army Air Corps. (One army pilot was refused a passport because he had earlier flown as a mercenary in Spain, so only 99 actually sailed for Asia. Ten more army flight instructors were hired as check pilots for Chinese cadets, and several of these would ultimately join the AVG's combat squadrons.) The volunteers were discharged from the armed services, to be employed for "training and instruction" by a private military contractor, the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO), which paid them $600 a month for pilot officers, $675 a month for flight leaders, $750 for squadron leaders (no pilot was recruited at this level), and about $250 for skilled ground crewmen. Some pilots were also orally promised a bounty of $500 for each enemy aircraft shot down, and this was later confirmed by Madame Chiang Kai-shek. The first batch, some 300 men, departed San Francisco on 10 July 1941 and arrived in Rangoon, Burma on 28 July, via the Dutch ship Jaegersfontaine, operated by Java-Pacific Lijn. The second batch, some 30 pilots, departed on 24 September 1941 and arrived on 12 November 1941 via the Dutch ship Boschfontein. These volunteers used civilian passports in these trips. After arriving in Rangoon, they were initially based at a British airfield in Toungoo for training while their aircraft were assembled and test flown by CAMCO personnel at Mingaladon Airport outside Rangoon. Chennault set up a schoolhouse that was made necessary because many pilots had "lied about their flying experience, claiming pursuit experience when they had flown only bombers and sometimes much less powerful aeroplanes." They called Chennault "the Old Man" due to his much older age and leathery exterior obtained from years flying open cockpit pursuit aircraft in the Army Air Corps. Most believed that he had flown as a fighter pilot in China, although stories that he was a combat ace are probably apocryphal. Of the 300 original members of the CAMCO personnel, 9 were Chinese-Americans recruited from America's Chinatowns. All 9 were trained at Allison Engineworks in Indianapolis, Indiana: all were P-40 mechanics. Upon arrival in Kunming, 2 other Chinese-Americans were hired, a Ford Motor truck specialist and a doctor. Total original Chinese-Americans were 11. Prior to 4 July 1942, 3 of the P-40 mechanics resigned. The official AVG roster lists the original 8. The AVG was created by an executive order of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. He did not speak English, however, and Chennault never learned to speak Chinese. As a result, all communications between the two men were routed through Soong Mei-ling, "Madame Chiang" as she was known to Americans, and she was designated the group's "honorary commander." Chennault fighter doctrine Chennault preached a radically different approach to air combat based on his study of Japanese tactics and equipment, his observation of the tactics used by Soviet pilots in China, and his judgment of the strengths and weaknesses of his own aircraft and pilots. The actual average strength of the AVG was never more than 62 combat-ready pilots and fighters. Chennault faced serious obstacles since many AVG pilots were inexperienced and a few quit at the first opportunity. However, he made a virtue out of these disadvantages, shifting unsuitable pilots to staff jobs and always ensuring that he had a squadron or two in reserve. (The AVG had no ranks, so no division between officers and enlisted soldiers existed.) Chennault and the Flying Tigers benefited from the country's warning network, called "the best air-raid warning system in existence": When Japanese aircraft attacked, Chennault's doctrine called for pilots to take on enemy aircraft in teams from an altitude advantage, since their aircraft were not as maneuverable or as numerous as the Japanese fighters they would encounter. He prohibited his pilots from entering into a turning fight with the nimble Japanese fighters, telling them to execute a diving or slashing attack and to dive away to set up for another attack. This "dive-and-zoom" technique was contrary to what the men had learned in U.S. service as well as what the Royal Air Force (RAF) pilots in Burma had been taught; it had been used successfully, however, by Soviet units serving with the Chinese Air Force. Curtiss P-40 AVG fighter aircraft came from a Curtiss assembly line which had just started producing Tomahawk IIB models for the Royal Air Force in North Africa. The Tomahawk IIB was similar to the U.S. Army's P-40C, but there is some evidence that Curtiss actually used leftover components when building the fighters intended for China, making them closer to the older P-40B/Tomahawk IIA specification - for instance the AVG aircraft had fuel tanks with external self-sealing coatings, rather than the more effective internal membranes as fitted to the P-40C/Tomahawk IIB, and the aircraft built for China lacked the later Tomahawk's fittings to carry a drop tank and the addition of an armour plate in front of the pilot. The fighters were purchased without "government-furnished equipment" such as reflector gunsights, radios and wing guns; the lack of these items caused continual difficulties for the AVG in Burma and China. The 100 P-40 aircraft were crated and sent to Burma on third country freighters during spring 1941. At Rangoon, they were unloaded, assembled and test flown by personnel of Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO) before being delivered to the AVG training unit at Toungoo. One crate was dropped into the water and a wing assembly was ruined by salt water immersion, so CAMCO was able to deliver only 99 Tomahawks before war broke out. (Many of those were destroyed in training accidents.) The 100th fuselage was trucked to a CAMCO plant in Loiwing, China, and later made whole with parts from damaged aircraft. Shortages in equipment, with spare parts almost impossible to obtain in Burma (along with the slow introduction of replacement fighter aircraft), were continual impediments, although the AVG did receive 50 replacement P-40E fighters from USAAF stocks toward the end of its combat tour. AVG fighter aircraft were painted with a large shark face on the front of the aircraft. This was done after pilots saw a photograph of a P-40 of No. 112 Squadron RAF in North Africa, which in turn had adopted the shark face from German pilots of the Luftwaffe's ZG 76 heavy fighter wing, flying Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters in Crete. (The AVG nose-art is variously credited to Charles Bond and Erik Shilling.) About the same time, the AVG was dubbed "The Flying Tigers" by its Washington support group, called China Defense Supplies. The P-40's good qualities included pilot armor, self-sealing fuel tanks, sturdy construction, heavy armament, and a higher diving speed than most Japanese aircraft – qualities that could be used to advantage in accordance with Chennault's combat tactics. Chennault created an early warning network of spotters that would give his fighters time to take off and climb to a superior altitude where this tactic could be executed. Combat history The port of Rangoon in Burma and the Burma Road leading from there to China were of crucial importance. Eastern China was under Japanese occupation, so all military supplies for China arrived via the Burma route. By November 1941, when the pilots were trained and most of the P-40s had arrived in Asia, the Flying Tigers were divided into three squadrons: 1st Squadron ("Adam & Eves"); 2nd Squadron ("Panda Bears") and 3rd Squadron ("Hell's Angels"). They were assigned to opposite ends of the Burma Road to protect this vital line of communications. Two squadrons were based at Kunming in China, and a third at Mingaladon Airport near Rangoon. When the United States officially entered the war, the AVG had 82 pilots and 79 aircraft, although not all were combat-ready. Tiger Erik Shilling, part of the third squadron commented:. "This was the beginning of the greatest adventure I would ever hope to experience. It wasn't until years later that I fully realized the magnitude and significance of this first step, to be a lifelong adventure in the mystic Far East." The AVG's first combat mission was on 20 December 1941, when aircraft of the 1st and 2nd squadrons intercepted 10 unescorted Kawasaki Ki-48 "Lily" bombers of the 21st Hikōtai attacking Kunming. The bombers jettisoned their loads before reaching Kunming. Three of the Japanese bombers were shot down near Kunming and a fourth was damaged so severely that it crashed before returning to its airfield at Hanoi. Later, Chinese intelligence intercepted Japanese communications indicating that only 1 out of the 10 bombers ultimately returned to base. Furthermore, the Japanese discontinued their raids on Kunming while the AVG was based there. One P-40 crash-landed; it was salvaged for parts. This mission was one of the earliest American aerial victories in the Pacific War. Defense of Rangoon The first squadron had flown up to Kunming to defend the terminus of the Burma Road and saw some combat action on 20 December 1941 while defending Rangoon from Japanese bombers, taking down four of them and disrupting their attack on the Burma Road. At this time, the focus of Japan's offensive efforts in the AVG's coverage area was southern Burma. The 3rd Squadron – 18 aircraft strong – defended Rangoon from 23 to 25 December. On 23 December, Mitsubishi Ki-21 "Sally" heavy bombers of the 60th, 62nd and 98th Sentai, along with single-engined Mitsubishi Ki-30 "Ann" attack bombers of the 31st Sentai, sortied against Rangoon. They were escorted by Nakajima Ki-27 "Nate" fighters of 77th Sentai. The Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (JAAF) formation was intercepted by the AVG and RAF Brewster Buffalos of 67 Squadron. Eight Ki-21s were shot down for the loss of three AVG P-40s. The 60th Sentai was particularly hard hit – it lost five out of the 15 bombers it had dispatched. Nevertheless, Rangoon and Mingaladon airfield were successfully bombed, with the city suffering more than 1,000 dead. Two Buffalos and two P-40s were destroyed on the ground, and one P-40 crashed when it attempted to land on a bomb-damaged runway. On 25 December, the JAAF returned, reinforced by Ki-21s of 12th Sentai and Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusas (Oscars) of the 64th Sentai (Colonel Tateo Katō's Flying Squadron). A total of 63 bombers escorted by 25 fighters were committed. These were intercepted by 14 P-40s of the AVG's 3rd Squadron and 15 Buffalos of 67 Squadron. In the two encounters, 35 Japanese bombers and fighters were shot down. The Allies lost two pilots and five P-40s. Mingaladon airfield was once again damaged, and eight Buffalos were destroyed on the ground. After its losses in the 23–25 December battles, the 3rd Squadron was relieved by the 2nd Squadron "Panda Bears", which carried out a series of raids on JAAF airbases in Thailand. The Japanese had moved aircraft to Malaya to finish off Singapore, and its remaining aircraft in the area (the 77th, 31st and 62nd Sentai) launched fighter sweeps and counter raids on the Allied airfield at Mingaladon. On 12 January, the Japanese launched their Burma Campaign. Significantly outnumbered, the AVG was gradually reduced through attrition, but often exacted a disproportionate toll of their attackers. On 24 January, six Ki-21s of the 14th Sentai escorted by Ki-27s attacked Mingaladon. All the Ki-21s were shot down by the AVG and RAF defenders. On 28 January, a fighter sweep of 37 Ki-27s was engaged by 16 AVG P-40s and two RAF fighters. Three "Nates" were shot down for the loss of two P-40s. The next day, another sweep of 20 Ki-27s of the 70th Sentai was met by 10 Allied fighters (eight P-40s and two Hawker Hurricanes). Four were shot down for the loss of no Allied aircraft. Despite these minor victories and Chennault's reinforcement of the "Panda Bears" with pilots from the "Adam and Eves", by mid-February, only 10 P-40s were still operational at Mingaladon. Commonwealth troops retreated before the Japanese onslaught, and the AVG was pressed into the ground attack role to support them. One unfortunate result of these missions was a prolonged air attack on a suspected Japanese column on 21 February that turned out to consist of Commonwealth troops. More than 100 Allied lives were lost in this friendly fire incident. On 27 February, after hearing that the RAF was retreating and pulling out its radar equipment, the AVG withdrew to bases in northern Burma. By 24 January, the Flying Tigers had destroyed 73 Japanese aircraft while losing only five themselves – a notable performance, considering the AVG was outnumbered and faced experienced and fully trained Japanese pilots. The main disadvantage of JAAF fighter pilots of this period was the near-obsolescence of their predominant fighter type in the theater, the Ki-27. Though more maneuverable than the P-40, its armament and performance was inferior. Lightly constructed and armed, it could not withstand frontal attacks nor could it out-dive Allied fighters such as the P-40; if it attempted to, it often came apart in the air. In fact, its cruising speed was less than that of the Ki-21 bombers it was intended to escort. Retreat into China After Rangoon was lost to the Japanese at the end of February, the AVG relocated to Magwe, a small British airfield more than 300 miles north of Rangoon. Chennault started moving elements of the now reconstituted 3rd Squadron to Magwe as reinforcement to his worn down 1st and 2nd squadrons. Aircraft attrition became so high that at this point, individual squadron distinctions became meaningless, and all three squadrons had elements based there, along with a number of RAF aircraft. In total, the Allies had 38 aircraft, including eight P-40s and 15 Hawker Hurricanes. Opposing them were 271 Japanese aircraft, including 115 fighters. Although the AVG and the RAF scored some successes against the JAAF, Magwe was continuously bombed, including a very heavy raid on 21 March by 151 bombers and fighters. On 23 March with only four aircraft left, the AVG was forced to relocate to Loiwing, just across the Chinese border. The Tigers crossed into China on a rickety suspension bridge over a deep gorge. A few months later, they came back to destroy the bridge so no Japanese soldiers could come across that way into China. Reinforced by new P-40E "Kittyhawks" and by repaired aircraft from the AVG's excellent maintenance group, 12 P-40s were based at Loiwing on 8 April. Despite the long retreats, their losses and incessant air combat, the AVG still retained their abilities. That day, 12 Oscars from the 64th Sentai raided the base. In the ensuing series of dogfights, four Ki-43s were downed in exchange for one P-40E destroyed on the ground. During this period, Chinese and American commanders pressured Chennault to order his pilots to undertake so-called "morale missions". These were overflights and ground attacks intended to raise the morale of hard-pressed Chinese soldiers by showing they were getting air support. The AVG's pilots seethed with resentment at these dangerous missions (which some considered useless), a feeling which culminated in the so-called "Pilot's Revolt" of mid-April. Chennault suppressed the "revolt" and ordered the ground attack missions to continue. But despite their efforts, the Allied situation in Burma continued to deteriorate. On 29 April the AVG was ordered to evacuate Loiwing and relocate to Baoshan in China. Like the AVG's other bases, Baoshan was repeatedly bombed by the Japanese Army Air Force. Still, the AVG scored against their JAAF tormentors, bringing down four "Nates" of the 11th Sentai on 5 May and two "Anns". By 4 May, the successful Japanese Burma offensive was winding down, except for mopping up actions. One of these was an attempt by a regiment of the Japanese 56th Division to drive for Kunming, an effort that was stopped by the Chinese army operating with strong air support from the AVG. On 7 May the Japanese Army began building a pontoon bridge across the upper Salween River, which would allow them to move troops and supplies into China and drive towards Kunming. To stem this tide, 2nd Squadron Leader David Lee "Tex" Hill led a flight of four new P-40Es bombing and strafing into the mile deep Salween River Gorge. During the next four days, the AVG pilots flew continuous missions into the gorge, effectively neutralizing the Japanese forces. This prevented a Japanese advance on Kunming and Chungking; the Japanese never advanced farther than the west bank of the upper Salween. Claire Chennault later wrote of these critical missions, "The American Volunteer Group had staved off China's collapse on the Salween." Despite being on the defensive thereafter, the AVG continued to harass the JAAF with raids on their Vietnamese bases. With the Burma campaign over, Chennault redeployed his squadrons to provide air protection for China. The Doolittle Raid had prompted the Japanese to launch an offensive to seize AVG air bases that could be used for attacks on the Japanese homeland. By 1 June, personnel that would form the nucleus of the new USAAF 23rd Fighter Group (the AVG's replacement) were beginning to trickle into the theater. Some of the last missions the AVG flew were defending Guilin against raids by JAAF Nates, Lilys, and new Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu ("Nick") heavy fighters. The AVG's last combat was over Hengyang on the day it was disbanded, 4 July 1942. In this final action, the AVG shot down four Ki-27s with no AVG losses. Assessment of the AVG The AVG lacked many resources. Despite its location in areas with malaria and cholera, it had only "four doctors, three nurses and a bottle of iodine." Pilots found the food disgusting, and the slow mail from home and lack of women hurt morale. A squadron had 45 maintenance personnel compared to the normal more than 100, and only one base could perform major repairs. Nonetheless, the AVG was officially credited with 297 enemy aircraft destroyed, including 229 in the air. Fourteen AVG pilots were killed in action, captured, or disappeared on combat missions. Two died of wounds sustained in bombing raids, and six were killed in accidents during the Flying Tigers' existence as a combat force. The AVG's kill ratio was superior to that of contemporary Allied air groups in Malaya, the Philippines, and elsewhere in the Pacific theater. The AVG's success is all the more remarkable since they were outnumbered by Japanese fighters in almost all their engagements. The AVG's P-40s were superior to the JAAF's Ki-27s, but the group's kill ratio against modern Ki-43s was still in its favor. In Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 1941–1942, Daniel Ford attributes the AVG's success to morale and group esprit de corps. He notes that its pilots were "triple volunteers" who had volunteered for service with the U.S. military, the AVG, and brutal fighting in Burma. The result was a corps of experienced and skilled volunteer pilots who wanted to fight. During their service with the Nationalist Chinese air force, 33 AVG pilots and three ground crew received the Order of the Cloud and Banner, and many AVG pilots received the Chinese Air Force Medal. Each AVG ace and double ace was awarded the Five Star or Ten Star Wing Medal. Members of the AVG The military chaplain of the AVG described the background of the volunteers in his memoir, "Most men were escaping from frustrations or disappointments, as perhaps I was. They hoped an unknown future in unknown places would somehow give them a second chance. One of the oldest was a tough former sergeant major about forty-three, irreconcilably divorced. One of the youngest was a boy of nineteen who had enlisted in the army, then got right out again for this junket; he was longing for adventures with lots of shooting, perhaps because he was small for his age. A majority came from the South and West, and Texans were the largest group from any state." Gregory "Pappy" Boyington broke his contract with the AVG in the spring of 1942 and returned to active duty with the U.S. Marine Corps. He went on to command the "Black Sheep" Squadron and was one of two AVG veterans (the other being James H. Howard of the USAAF) to be awarded the Medal of Honor. David Lee "Tex" Hill later commanded the USAAF 23rd Fighter Group. Charles Older earned a law degree postwar, became a California Superior Court judge, and presided at the murder trial of Charles Manson. Kenneth Jernstedt was a long-time Oregon legislator and mayor of his home town of Hood River. Robert William Prescott, founder of the first scheduled cargo airline in America, named the Flying Tiger Line. Allen Bert Christman, who bailed out at Rangoon, was strafed and killed while parachuting to the ground in January 1942, had earlier scripted and drawn the Scorchy Smith and Sandman comic strips. Harry R Bolster had one air-to-air victory with the 2nd Squadron AVG. He returned to the US Army Air Force and was killed flying an experimental Fisher XP-75A at Eglin Field, Florida, October 10, 1944. Journalist Joseph Alsop served as Chennault's "staff secretary" while the AVG trained at Rangoon; he was interned at Hong Kong on Christmas Day, 1941. Nurse Rebecca Chan Chung served under Lieutenant Colonel Dr. Fred P. Manget in Kunming, China. She was recruited by Colonel Dr. Thomas Gentry. Aces Nineteen pilots were credited by the AVG with five or more air-to-air victories: Robert Neale: 13 victories Ed Rector: 10.5 victories David Lee "Tex" Hill: 18.25 victories George Burgard: 10 victories Robert Little: 10 victories Charles Older: 10 victories Robert T. Smith: 8.9 victories William McGarry: 8 victories Roger Pryor: 8 victories Charles Bond: 7 victories Frank Lawlor: 7 victories John V. "Scarsdale Jack" Newkirk: 7 victories Gregory "Pappy" Boyington: 6 victories Robert Hedman: 6 victories C. Joseph Rosbert: 6 victories J. Richard Rossi: 6.25 victories Robert Prescott: 5.5 victories Percy Bartelt: 5 victories William Bartling: 5 victories John Garrity: 5 victories Edmund Overend: 5 victories Robert Sandell: 5 victories Robert H. Smith: 5 victories Legacy Transition to the USAAF The success of the AVG led to negotiations in spring 1942 to induct it into the USAAF. Chennault was reinstated as a colonel and immediately promoted to brigadier general commanding U.S. Army air units in China (initially designated China Air Task Force and later the 14th Air Force), while continuing to command the AVG by virtue of his position in the Chinese Air Force. On 4 July 1942, the AVG was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group. Most AVG pilots refused to remain with the unit as a result of the strong arm tactics by the USAAF general sent to negotiate with them. However, five pilots accepted commissions in China including "Tex" Hill, one of Chennault's most loyal devotees, with others remaining for a two-week transition period. (U.S. airmen and the press continued to use the "Flying Tiger" name to refer to USAAF units in China to the end of the war, and the name continues to be applied to certain air force and army aviation squadrons.) Most AVG pilots became transport pilots in China, went back to America into civilian jobs, or rejoined the military services and fought elsewhere in the war. One of the pilots drawn to the success of the AVG was Robert Lee Scott, Jr. who was flying supplies into Kunming over the Hump from India. He convinced Chennault to loan him a P-40 which he flew to protect the supply route; his aggressiveness led to Chennault's recruiting him as commander of the 23rd Fighter Group. Scott brought recognition to his exploits and those of the Flying Tigers with his 1943 bestselling autobiography God is My Co-Pilot that was then made by Warner Bros. into a popular film in 1945. Tributes and memorials There are several museum displays in the United States honoring the Flying Tigers. The National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio, has an extensive display dedicated to the AVG, including an A-2 jacket worn by an AVG pilot in China, a banner presented to the AAF by the Chinese government, and a P-40E. The National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida also has a Flying Tiger display. The Chennault Aviation Museum in Monroe, Louisiana, has an extensive collection of Flying Tigers and AVG memorabilia. The AVG monument in the National Museum of the United States Air Force Memorial Garden features a marble sculpture of a pagoda crowned with a brass model of a P-40; the monument stands nearly 14 feet tall. The Palm Springs Air Museum has a display of memorabilia inside a mockup of AVG ground facilities, with a P-40N painted in AVG markings. Finally, a memorial to the AVG and 14th AF is located at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, depicting a P-40 in AVG markings with a bronze plaque describing the unit's history and Vandenberg's role as headquarters for the 14th AF. There are also several memorials to the AVG in Asia. In Chiang Mai, Thailand, a marble obelisk was dedicated on 11 November 2003, inscribed to Chennault; to Jack Newkirk, who was killed in North Thailand on 24 March 1942; and to Charles Mott and William McGarry, who were shot down and captured in Thailand. In Taiwan, Madame Chiang Kai-Shek requested a statue of Chennault in the New Park of Taipei to commemorate this wartime friend after his death (the statue has since been relocated to Hualian AFB). A Flying Tigers Memorial is located in the village of Zhijiang, Hunan Province, China and there is a museum dedicated exclusively to the Flying Tigers. The building is a steel and marble structure, with wide sweeping steps leading up to a platform with columns holding up the memorial's sweeping roof; on its back wall, etched in black marble, are the names of all members of the AVG, 75th Fighter Squadron, and 14th Air Force who died in China. In 2005, the city of Kunming held a ceremony memorializing the history of the Flying Tigers in China, and on 20 December 2012, the Flying Tigers Museum opened in Kunming. The date is the 71st anniversary of the first combat from Kunming of the Flying Tigers. The Memorial Cemetery to Anti-Japanese Aviator Martyrs in Nanjing, China features a wall listing the names of Flying Tiger pilots and other pilots who defended China in World War II, and has several unmarked graves for such American pilots. The largest private museum in China, Chengdu Jianchuan Museum, devotes a wing in its military section to the history of the Flying Tigers, including a tribute wall featuring a thousand porcelain photos of members of the Flying Tigers as well as many historical artifacts from the era. In March 2015, the Flying Tiger Heritage Park was opened in Guilin in collaboration with the Flying Tiger Historical Organization. The park is built on the site of Yangtang Airfield and includes a museum, aircraft shelters, and relics of a command post located in a cave. Monroe legacy General Chennault retired to Monroe, Louisiana. The University of Louisiana at Monroe changed its mascots to the "Warhawks" in his honor, and a micro-brewery named the Flying Tiger opened in downtown Monroe. Flying Tigers wrecks The wreckage of a P-40 with CAF serial number P-8115 is on display in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The aircraft is believed to be that flown by William "Mac" McGarry when he was hit by anti-aircraft fire while flying top cover over Chiang Mai on 24 March 1942. The aircraft crashed into the rain forest in northern Thailand. McGarry was captured and interrogated, and spent most of the war in a Thai prison. Toward the end of the war the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) arranged for the Free Thai Movement to spirit him out of the prison to a PBY Catalina in the Gulf of Thailand. The wreck of his P-40 was discovered in 1991, and consists of the P-40's Allison engine, Hamilton Standard propeller and parts of the airframe. Today the wreckage is displayed at the Tango Squadron Wing 41 Museum in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The wreck of another AVG P-40 is believed to be in Lake Dianchi (Lake Kunming). The fighter is believed to be a P-40E piloted by John Blackburn when it crashed into the lake on a gunnery training flight on 28 April 1942, killing the pilot. His body was recovered from the aircraft, which was submerged in 20 feet of water. In 1997 a U.S.-Chinese group called the Sino-American Aviation Heritage Foundation was formed to locate the aircraft and possibly raise and restore it. In March 1998, they contacted the China Expedition Association about conducting the recovery operation. Over 300 aircraft are believed to have crashed into Lake Dianchi (including a second AVG P-40) so locating the aircraft proved difficult. In 2003, an aircraft believed to be Blackburn's was found embedded in nine feet of bottom silt. An effort was made in September 2005 to raise the aircraft, but the recovery was plagued with difficulties and it remains deep under the lake bottom. Since the aircraft was complete and relatively undamaged when John Blackburn's body was removed from it in 1942, it is hoped that the aircraft will be in good condition and capable of being restored, possibly to flying condition. Recognition by the United States Just before their 50th reunion in 1992, the AVG veterans were retroactively recognized as members of the U.S. military services during the seven months the group was in combat against the Japanese. The AVG was then awarded a Presidential Unit Citation for "professionalism, dedication to duty, and extraordinary heroism." In 1996, the U.S. Air Force awarded the pilots the Distinguished Flying Cross and the ground crew were all awarded the Bronze Star Medal. Popular culture A number of feature films have referenced the AVG directly or indirectly, the most famous being Flying Tigers, a 1942 black-and-white film from Republic, starring John Wayne and John Carroll as fighter pilots. Other wartime films with an AVG angle included The Sky's the Limit (1943, starring Fred Astaire as a Flying Tiger ace on leave); Hers to Hold (1943, with Joseph Cotten); God is My Co-Pilot, (1945, with Dennis Morgan as Robert Lee Scott, Raymond Massey as Chennault, and John Ridgely as Tex Hill); and China's Little Devils (1945). The two lead characters of the television series Tales of the Gold Monkey, Jake Cutter and Corky, were formerly members of the Flying Tigers, the former a pilot and the latter a mechanic. Several episodes featured flashbacks or characters from their time with the AVG. Similarly, the Flying Tigers have been the focus of several novels, including Tonya, by Pappy Boyington; Remains, by Daniel Ford; Spies in the Garden, by Bob Bergin, Tiger Ten by William D. Blankenship, Wings of a Flying Tiger and Will of a Tiger, both written by Dr. Iris Yang. Tiger, Lion, Hawk, a novel for younger readers, was written by Earle Rice Jr. The Star Wars reference book The Essential Guide to Warfare features an X-wing starfighter squadron named the "Lightspeed Panthers". Co-author Paul R. Urquhart confirmed in the book's endnotes that the squadron was intended to be a direct reference to the Flying Tigers. Flying Tigers: Shadows Over China, a 2017 video game developed and published by Ace Maddox, is based on the Flying Tigers. The Air Force Falcons football team saluted the Chinese military and the United States Navy and Marine Corps by wearing special Flying Tigers uniforms, including sharktooth designs on the helmets, for two games during the 2016 college football season. The team first wore the uniform for its 10 September game against Georgia State, and again for the Arizona Bowl against South Alabama. In the movie Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow the "Sky Captain" Joe Sullivan mentioned that he flew with the Flying Tigers. See also About China in WWII Air Warfare of WWII from the Sino-Japanese War perspective Arthur Chin, America's first ace in World War II Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–45) Soviet Volunteer Group Chinese Expeditionary Force (Burma) China Burma India Theater India China Division, who flew supplies to China over the eastern Himalayas ("The Hump") Similar or related American units 23rd Fighter Group, a USAF group descended from Flying Tigers Eagle Squadrons, American volunteers in the RAF during World War II Lafayette Escadrille, American volunteers in the French Air Service during World War I Kościuszko Squadron, American volunteers fighting for Poland in the Polish-Soviet War (1919–1921). Yankee Squadron, American volunteers fighting in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) on the Republican side. References Citations Sources Ayling, Keith. Old Leatherface of the Flying Tigers: The Story of General Chennault. New York: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1945. Baisden, Chuck. Flying Tiger to Air Commando. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 1999. . Bishop, Lewis S. and Shiela Bishop-Irwin. Escape From Hell: An AVG Flying Tiger's Journey. New York: Tiger Eye Press, 2005. . Bond, Maj. Gen. Charles and Terry Anderson. A Flying Tiger's Diary. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1993. . Boyington, "Pappy" (Col. Gregory Boyington, USMC, Ret.).Baa Baa Black Sheep. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1958. Byrd, Martha. Chennault: Giving Wings to the Tiger. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2003. . Chennault, Anna. Chennault and the Flying Tigers. New York: Paul S. Eriksson, 1963. Chennault, Claire Lee. Way of a Fighter. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1949. Clements, Terrill. American Volunteer Group Colours and Markings. London: Osprey Publishing, 2001. . Dumas, Jim. Longburst and the Flying Tigers. Tollhouse, California: Scrub Jay Press (www.Scrubjay.net), 2004. . Ford, Daniel. Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 1941–1942. Washington, D.C.: HarperCollins-Smithsonian Books, 2007. . Frillmann, Paul and Graham Peck. China: The Remembered Life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1968. Greenlaw, Olga S. The Lady and the Tigers. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1943. Hill, David Lee and Regan Schaupp. Tex Hill: Flying Tiger. Spartanburg, South Carolina: Honoribus Press, 2003. . Hotz, Robert B. et al. With General Chennault: The Story of the Flying Tigers. New York: Coward-McCann, 1943. Howard, James H. Roar of the Tiger: From Flying Tigers to Mustangs, A Fighter Ace's Memoir. New York: Crown, 1991. . Koskodian, Kenneth. K. No Greater Ally: The Untold Story of Poland's Forces in World War II. New York: Osprey Publishing, 2009. . Lee, Keith, 'a Chinese in the AVG' – Self-published – Losonsky, Frank S. Flying Tiger: A Crew Chief's Story: The War Diary of an AVG Crew Chief. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2000. . Meredith, Kenneth T. Tiger Tenacity: Courage and Determination Forged the Don Rodewald Story. Lake City, Colorado: Golden Stone Press, 2000. . Neumann, Gerhard. Herman the German. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1984. . Newkirk, John J. The Old Man and the Harley: A Last Ride Through Our Fathers' America. Nashville, Tennessee: Thoman Nelson, 2008. . Olynyk, Frank J. AVG & USAAF (China-Burma-India Theater) Credits for Destruction of Enemy Aircraft in Air to Air Combat, World War 2. Aurora, Ohio: Privately published, 1986. Samson, Jack. Chennault. New York: Doubleday, 1987. . Schramm, Leo J. Leo The Tiger. Charleston, South Carolina: BookSurge Publishing, 2007. . Schultz, Duane. The Maverick War: Chennault and the Flying Tigers. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987. . Scott, Robert Lee, Jr. Flying Tiger: Chennault of China. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood-Heinemann Publishing, 1973. . Shilling, Erik. Destiny: A Flying Tigers Rendezvous With Fate. Pomona, California: Ben-Wal Printing, 1993. . Smith, Robert M. With Chennault in China: A Flying Tiger's Diary. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 1997. . Smith, R[obert] T. Tale of a Tiger. Van Nuys, California: Tiger Originals, 1986. . Whelan, Russell. The Flying Tigers: The Story of the American Volunteer Group.New York: Viking Press, 1942. External links AVG Flying Tigers Assn. Sino-American Aviation Heritage Foundation Annals of the Flying Tigers Flying Tigers Heritage Park "Flying Tigers In Burma", 30 March 1942 Life magazine article, including numerous photographs "Wings Over China: The Story of the Flying Tigers" documentary posted by MaxMediaAsia AVG colour schemes and markings Air units and formations of World War II Expatriate units and formations Mercenary units and formations Republic of China Air Force Groups of the United States Army Air Forces China–United States military relations Military history of China during World War II Military units and formations established in 1941 Military units and formations disestablished in 1942 Articles containing video clips

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryanair

Ryanair

Ryanair is an Irish ultra low-cost carrier founded in 1984. It is headquartered in Swords, Dublin, Republic of Ireland and has its primary operational bases at Dublin and London Stansted airports. It forms the largest part of the Ryanair Holdings family of airlines and has Ryanair UK, Buzz, Lauda, and Malta Air as sister airlines. In 2016, Ryanair was the largest European budget airline by scheduled passengers flown, and it carried more international passengers than any other airline. Ryanair Group operates more than 400 Boeing 737-800 aircraft, with a single 737-700 used as a charter aircraft, as a backup, and for pilot training. The airline has been characterized by its rapid expansion, a result of the deregulation of the aviation industry in Europe in 1997 and the success of its low-cost business model. Ryanair's route network serves 40 countries in Europe, North Africa (Morocco), and the Middle East (Israel, Jordan and Turkey). The company has often been criticised for its poor working conditions, heavy use of extra charges, bad customer service, and tendency to intentionally generate controversy in order to gain free publicity. History Since its establishment in 1984, Ryanair has grown from a small airline, flying the short journey from Waterford to London Gatwick, into Europe's largest carrier. There have been over 19,000 people working for the company, most employed and contracted by agencies to fly on Ryanair aircraft. The airline went public in 1997, and the money raised was used to expand the airline into a pan-European carrier. Revenues have risen from €231 million in 1998 to €1,843 million in 2003 and to €3,013 million in 2010. Similarly, net profits have increased from €48 million to €339 million over the same period. Early years Ryanair was founded in 1984 as "Danren Enterprises" by Christopher Ryan, Liam Lonergan (owner of Irish travel agent Club Travel), and Irish businessman Tony Ryan, founder of Guinness Peat Aviation. The airline was shortly renamed "Ryanair". It began operations in 1985 flying a 15-seat Embraer Bandeirante turboprop aircraft between Waterford and Gatwick Airport. In 1986, the company added a second route–flying Dublin to Luton, thus directly competing with the Aer Lingus/British Airways duopoly for the first time. Under partial EEC deregulation, airlines could begin new international intra-EEC services, as long as one of the two governments gave approval (the so-called "double-disapproval" regime). The Irish government at the time refused its approval to protect Aer Lingus, but Britain—under Margaret Thatcher's deregulating Conservative government—approved the service. With two routes and two aircraft, the fledgling airline carried 82,000 passengers in one year. In 1986, the directors of Ryanair took an 85% stake in London European Airways. From 1987, this provided a connection with the Luton Ryanair service onward to Amsterdam and Brussels. In 1988, London European operated as Ryanair Europe and later began to operate charter services. That same year, Michael O'Leary joined the company as chief financial officer. In 1989, a Short Sandringham was operated with Ryanair sponsorship titles but never flew revenue-generating services for the airline. Due to decreasing profits, the company restructured in 1990, copying the low fares model of Southwest Airlines, after O'Leary visited the company. 1992–2009 In 1992, the European Union's deregulation of the air industry in Europe gave carriers from one EU country the right to operate scheduled services between other EU states and represented a major opportunity for Ryanair. After a successful flotation on the Dublin and the NASDAQ stock exchanges, the airline launched services to Stockholm, Sandefjord Airport, Torp (110 km south of Oslo), Beauvais–Tillé and Charleroi near Brussels. In 1998, flush with new capital, the airline placed a massive US$2 billion order for 45 new Boeing 737-800 series aircraft. The airline launched its website in 2000, with online booking initially said to be a small and unimportant part of the software supporting the site. Increasingly the online booking contributed to the aim of cutting flight prices by selling directly to passengers and excluding the costs imposed by travel agents. Within a year, the website was handling three-quarters of all bookings. Ryanair launched a new base of operation in Charleroi Airport in 2001. Later that year, the airline ordered 155 new 737-800 aircraft from Boeing at what was believed to be a substantial discount, to be delivered over eight years from 2002 to 2010. Approximately 100 of these aircraft had been delivered by the end of 2005, although there were slight delays in late 2005 caused by production disruptions arising from a Boeing machinists' strike. In April 2003, Ryanair acquired its ailing competitor Buzz from KLM. During 2004, Michael O'Leary warned of a "bloodbath" during the winter from which only two or three low-cost airlines would emerge, the expectation being that these would be Ryanair and EasyJet. A loss of €3.3 million in the second quarter of 2004 was the airline's first recorded loss for 15 years but the airline became profitable soon after. The enlargement of the European Union on 1 May 2004 opened the way to more new routes for Ryanair. The rapid addition of new routes and new bases has enabled growth in passenger numbers and made Ryanair among the largest carriers on European routes. In August 2005, the airline claimed to have carried 20% more passengers within Europe than British Airways. For the six months ending on 30 September 2006 passenger traffic grew by more than a fifth to 22.1 million passengers and revenues rose by a third to €1.256 billion. On 13 February 2006, Britain's Channel 4 broadcast a documentary as part of its Dispatches series, "Ryanair caught napping". The documentary criticised Ryanair's training policies, security procedures and aircraft hygiene, and highlighted poor staff morale. Ryanair denied the allegations and claimed that promotional materials, in particular a photograph of a stewardess sleeping, had been faked by Dispatches. On 5 October 2006, Ryanair launched a €1.48 billion (£1 billion; $1.9 billion) bid to buy fellow Irish carrier Aer Lingus. On 2 October 2006, Aer Lingus rejected Ryanair's takeover bid, saying it was contradictory. In August 2006, the company started charging passengers to check-in at the airport, therefore reversing its policy of paying for online check-in. It says that by cutting airport check-in, it reduces overhead costs. Ryanair's CEO, Michael O'Leary, stated in April 2007 that Ryanair planned to launch a new long-haul airline around 2009. The new airline would be separate from Ryanair and operate under different branding. It would offer both low costs with fares starting at €10.00 and a business class service which would be much more expensive, intended to rival airlines like Virgin Atlantic. The new airline would operate from Ryanair's existing bases in Europe to approximately six new bases in the United States. The new American bases will not be main bases such as New York's JFK airport, but smaller airports located outside major cities. Since the Boeing 787 was sold out of production until at least 2012, and the Airbus A350 XWB will not enter service until 2014, this has contributed a delay to the airline's launch. It is said that the name of the new airline will be RyanAtlantic and it will sell tickets through the Ryanair website under an alliance agreement. In February 2010, O'Leary said the launch would be delayed until 2014, at the earliest, because of the shortage of suitable, cheap aircraft. In October 2008, Ryanair withdrew operations from a base in Europe for the first time when it closed its base in Valencia, Spain. Ryanair estimated the closure cost 750 jobs. On 1 December 2008, Ryanair launched a second takeover bid of Aer Lingus, offering an all-cash offer of €748 million (£619 mil; US$950 million). The offer was a 28% premium on the value of Aer Lingus stock, during the preceding 30 days. Ryanair said, "Aer Lingus, as a small, stand-alone, regional airline, has been marginalised and bypassed, as most other EU flag carriers consolidate." The two airlines would operate separately. Ryanair stated it would double the Aer Lingus short-haul fleet from 33 to 66 and create 1,000 new jobs. The Aer Lingus board rejected the offer and advised its shareholders to take no action. On 22 January 2009, Ryanair walked away from the Aer Lingus takeover bid after it was rejected by the Irish government on the grounds it undervalued the airline and would harm competition. However, Ryanair retained a stake in Aer Lingus; in October 2010, competition regulators in the UK opened an inquiry, due to concerns that Ryanair's stake may lead to a reduction in competition. In 2009, Ryanair announced that it was in talks with Boeing and Airbus about an order that could include up to 200 aircraft. Even though Ryanair had dealt with Boeing aircraft up to that point, Michael O'Leary said he would buy Airbus aircraft if it offered a better deal. Airbus Chief Commercial Officer John Leahy denied in February 2009 that any negotiations were taking place. On 21 February 2009, Ryanair confirmed it was planning to close all check-in desks by the start of 2010. Michael O'Leary, Ryanair's chief executive, said passengers would be able to leave their luggage at a bag drop, but everything else would be done online. This became reality in October 2009. In June 2009, Ryanair reported its first annual loss, with a loss posted of €169 million for the financial year ending 31 March. In November 2009, Ryanair announced that negotiations with Boeing had proceeded poorly and that Ryanair was thinking of stopping the negotiations, then put at 200 aircraft for delivery between 2013 and 2016, and simply returning cash to shareholders. Boeing's competitor Airbus was mentioned again as an alternative vendor for Ryanair, but both Michael O'Leary and Airbus CCO John Leahy dismissed this. In December 2009, Ryanair confirmed that negotiations with Boeing had indeed failed. Plans were to take all 112 aircraft already on order at that point, with the last deliveries occurring in 2012, for a total fleet of over 300. Ryanair confirmed that an agreement had been met on price, but it had failed to agree on conditions, as Ryanair had wanted to carry forward certain conditions from its previous contract. 2010s In April 2010, after a week of flight disruption in Europe caused by the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland, Ryanair decided to end refusals to comply with EU regulations which stated it was obliged to reimburse stranded passengers. In a company statement released on 22 April 2010, Ryanair described the regulations as 'unfair'. On 29 April 2010, Ryanair cancelled all of its routes from Budapest Liszt Ferenc Airport after talks with the airport's management on reducing fees failed. As the airport is the only one serving Budapest, there is no lower-cost airport nearby. In June 2010, Ryanair called for the Irish government to scrap its tourist tax, implying it was destroying tourism in Ireland. In August 2010, Ryanair held a press conference in Plovdiv and announced its first ever Bulgarian destination connecting Plovdiv with London Stansted. The service was planned to start in November 2010 with two flights weekly. In late 2010, Ryanair began withdrawing all routes from its smallest base, Belfast City, and Shannon due to increased airport fees. In the last three months of 2010, Ryanair made a loss of €10.3 million, compared with a loss of €10.9 million in the same period the previous year. More than 3,000 flights were cancelled in the quarter. Ryanair blamed the losses on strikes and flight cancellations due to severe weather. In March 2011, Ryanair opened a new maintenance hangar at Glasgow Prestwick International Airport, making it Ryanair's biggest fleet maintenance base. In June 2011, Ryanair and COMAC signed an agreement to co-operate on the development of the C-919, a Boeing 737 competitor. Ryanair cut capacity by grounding 80 aircraft between November 2011 and April 2012 due to the high cost of fuel and continuing weak economic conditions. On 19 June 2012, Ryanair Chief Executive Michael O'Leary announced his intention to make an all-cash offer for Aer Lingus. The bid was blocked by the European Commission in 2017, which had also blocked an earlier bid. According to research in October 2013 Ryanair was the cheapest low-cost airline in Europe in basic price (excluding fees) but was the fourth cheapest when fees were included. On 25 October 2013, Ryanair announced what it described as a series of "customer service improvements", to take place over the next six months. These included lower fees for reprinting boarding passes, free changes of minor errors on bookings within 24 hours, and a free second small carry on bag. Ryanair said it was making the changes as a result of customer feedback. On 27 January 2014, Ryanair moved into a new €20m, 100,000 sq ft Dublin head office in Airside Business Park, having outgrown its previous office within Dublin Airport. The building was officially opened on Thursday 3 April 2014 by Taoiseach Enda Kenny, Minister for Finance Michael Noonan and the Lord Mayor of Dublin Oisin Quinn. On 8 September 2014, Ryanair agreed to purchase up to 200 Boeing 737 MAX 8s (100 confirmed and 100 options) for over $22 billion. The airline confirmed plans to open an operating base at Milan Malpensa Airport from December 2015, initially with one aircraft. On 9 March 2016, Ryanair launched a corporate jet charter service, offering a Boeing 737-700 for corporate or group hire. In November 2016, Ryanair launched a new package holiday service named Ryanair Holidays. The new service offers flights, accommodation, and transfer packages. The service was launched in Ireland, the United Kingdom and Germany, with other markets to follow. Ryanair partnered with Spain-based tour operator, Logitravel, and accommodation provider, World2Meet, to create Ryanair Holidays. In April 2017, Ryanair started issuing tickets for connecting flights, meaning if a connection is missed, the customer will be rebooked at no extra cost and compensated according to the EU Flight Compensation Regulation. To begin with, such tickets were only sold for flights with connections at Rome-Fiumicino airport. In 2017, the company announced plans to add 50 new aircraft to its fleet every year for the next five years, aiming to reach 160 million passengers by the early 2020s, up from 120 million passengers. Abandoning the single-airline strategy For over a decade, Ryanair had only operated with its Irish Air Operator's Certificate and solely under the Ryanair brand. However, starting in 2018 the airline began introducing additional brands and operating on multiple certificates in different countries. In 2017, Ryanair announced that it would launch an independent Polish subsidiary in 2018, operating charter flights from Poland to Mediterranean destinations. Aside from turning away from the company's policy of only operating on a single Air Operator's Certificate, the step also meant that Ryanair would be launching charter flights after having focused only on scheduled operations before. The subsidiary was branded Ryanair Sun and received its Polish Air Operator's Certificate in April 2018 and subsequently launched Initially, it had only one former Ryanair Boeing 737-800 and complemented its operation with wet-leased aircraft from its mother company. In late 2018, Ryanair Sun was expanded by transferring all Polish-based Ryanair aircraft to it. The decision was made in the wake of staff costs and unions. As a consequence, Ryanair Sun mainly operated scheduled flights on behalf of its mother company using Ryanair's FR flight numbers. Also in 2018, Ryanair expanded its portfolio with Austrian-based Laudamotion, later renamed to "Lauda". Laudamotion was the successor of Niki, which had folded as a consequence of the Air Berlin demise. The company was founded by Niki Lauda. Initially, Ryanair purchased a 25-percent share in Laudamotion with the intention to increase the share to 75 percent pending government approval. The deal was announced in March 2018 ahead of the carrier's launch in June 2018. After increasing its share to 75 percent, Ryanair fully acquired the Austrian airline in December 2018. On 28 September 2018, pilots, cabin crew and other staff called for a strike due to the transition from workers being employed on Irish contracts and subject to Irish legislation to their own countries' labour laws, along with an issue in their pay. Due to the lobbying of the crew and walk-outs of pilots, the airline had to cancel 250 flights, which affected around 40,000 passengers. On 9 June 2019, Ryanair announced (together with the Government of Malta), that it would establish a new airline called Malta Air, which will consist of an initial fleet of ten aircraft and assume the 61 flights currently operated by Ryanair from the island. The fleet was registered in Malta while a new repair and maintenance hangar was also set up. Ryanair transferred all its existing Maltese operations to the new airline and its fleet was expected to increase from the six Boeing 737-800 aircraft currently allocated to the Malta market to ten (all to be in Malta Air colours) by mid-2020. 2020s The carrier's CEO made comments at the A4E Aviation Summit in Brussels on 3 March 2020. Michael O'Leary said that he expected people to get 'bored' of the COVID-19 pandemic and saw a recovery by summer 2020. That changed, with Ryanair announcing in a statement that it expected demand to return to 2019 levels by the summer of 2022. The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on Ryanair. While the CEO, Michael O'Leary, remains adamant that state aid is not an option, the carrier has announced a number of changes to its operations. This includes the loss of 3000 jobs, announced on 1 May 2020, which will affect mainly pilots and cabin crew. This comes as the airline announced it would suspend the majority of its operations until June 2020. In July 2020, Ryanair's CEO, Michael O'Leary announced that the company had made a net loss of €185 million in the period April–June 2020. In comparison, in the same period last year, the firm made a net profit of €243 million. In September 2020, the airline threatened to leave Ireland due to COVID-19 restrictions. Despite their original plan, to fly 60% of the previous year's schedule, in October 2020, the company decided to reduce the number of flights between the period of November 2020–March 2021 to 40%. According to O'Leary, this was a result of "government mismanagement of EU air travel" as the quarantine travel measures were loosened. By the end of December 2020, the airline reported an 83% drop in annual passengers, from 2019. Due to the persisting COVID-19 pandemic, Ryanair is expecting losses of between €800m and €850m in their financial year of 2021. Only 27.5 million passengers flew compared to 148.6 million passengers in the previous financial year. The full financial report was released on 17 May 2021. The company reported a record annual loss of $989 million. Corporate affairs Business trends The key trends for the Ryanair Group over recent years are (as at year ending 31 March): Head office The head office of Ryanair has been in the Airside Business Park in Swords, County Dublin, Ireland since 2014. David Daly, a developer, had built the facility prior to Ryanair's 2012 purchase. The building has of space, and the airline paid €11 million to occupy the building. According to John Mulligan of the Irish Independent, it was thought that Ryanair would refurbish the building for another €9 million. Previously, since 2004, the head office had been on the property of Dublin Airport, in proximity to the Aer Lingus head office. Darley Investments built the facility in 1992. Ryanair later purchased Darley and had a 30-year lease of the head office facility from the Department of Transport of Ireland. For twelve years, the company paid no rent even though it was supposed to pay €244,000 per year. After twelve years and prior to 2008, it paid less than half of the €244,000. Criticism Employment relations Refusal to recognise unions In the early years, when Ryanair had a total of 450 employees who each had shares in the company, there was an agreement that staff would not join a labor union on the basis that they would have an influence on how the company was run. The treatment of employees has changed considerably since then and new employees no longer get shares in the company. Whilst Ryanair announced in December 2017 that it would recognise pilots' unions, the company still refuses to recognise or negotiate with any union for cabin crew. In 2011, a former Ryanair captain was awarded financial compensation by an employment tribunal in London after being fired for handing out a union form to a cabin crew member while on duty. In 2012, the Ryanair Pilot Group (RPG) was formed, but to date has not been successful in its aim to represent the pilots flying for Ryanair as a collective bargaining unit. Thousands of flights cancellations on 15 September 2017 triggered pilots to mobilise, and on 15 December, in Italy, Ireland and Portugal, O‘Leary recognized unions for the first time, blaming their good timing; he anticipated an uptick in labor costs in 2018, not altering its model. Ryanair discussed union recognition in response to threatened strikes over the Christmas period. Employment conditions Ryanair faced criticism for allegedly forcing pilots to pay tens of thousands of euros for training, then establish limited companies in Ireland to have the pilots work for Ryanair through an agency, as well as forcing ground staff in Spain to open bank accounts in Gibraltar in which to receive their wages. In May 2014, Ryanair's office in Marseille was raided by French police investigating complaints that the company was failing to follow French employment law. Ryanair protested about the raid. In May 2015, the Mayor of Copenhagen announced a boycott of Ryanair. This came in the wake of protests from Danish unions regarding employment conditions. After a court trial confirmed the unions' right to strike, Ryanair moved its bases out of Denmark. On 10 August 2018, pilots of Ryanair in Germany, Sweden, Ireland, Belgium and the Netherlands walked out for 24 hours, leaving 400 flights cancelled. It is considered to be one of the biggest strikes over pay issues. On 26 September 2018, Ryanair was forced to cancel 150 flights scheduled for that day, accounting for roughly 6% of its total flights, due to strikes in Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal, Italy, and Germany. The British Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) urged the company to compensate the 2,400 affected passengers under EU Regulation 261, but Ryanair stated that it would refuse to accept any claims for compensation. In December 2018, the Civil Aviation Authority announced that it would be taking legal action against Ryanair over its refusal to compensate thousands of UK-based customers. Ancillary revenue and in-flight service Twenty percent of Ryanair's revenue is generated from ancillary revenue; that is, income from sources other than ticket fares. In 2009, ancillary revenue was at €598 million, compared to a total revenue of €2,942 million. Ryanair has been described by the consumer magazine Holiday Which? as being the worst offender for charging for optional extras. As part of the low-cost business model, the airline charges fees, which can be related to alternative services such as using airport check-in facilities instead of the online service fee and paying by credit card. It also charges for extra services like checked-in luggage and it offers food and drinks for purchase as part of a buy on board programme. In 2009, Ryanair abolished airport check-in and replaced it with a fast bag drop for those passengers checking in bags. The option of checking in at the airport for €10 has been discontinued, and all passengers are required to check-in online and print their own boarding pass. Passengers arriving at the airport without a pre-printed online check-in will have to pay €55/£45 for their boarding pass to be re-issued, whilst customers unable to check-in luggage online are asked to pay a fee which varies depending on where they are traveling to at the airport (as of June 2012). Ryanair faced criticism over the ambiguous nature of these changes. No-frills New Ryanair aircraft have been delivered with non-reclining seats, no seat-back pockets, safety cards stuck on the back of the seats, and life jackets stowed overhead rather than under the seat. This allows the airline to save on aircraft costs and enables faster cleaning and security checks during the short turnaround times. Ryanair reportedly wanted to order its aircraft without window shades, but the new aircraft do have them, as it is required by the regulations of the Irish Aviation Authority. Other proposed measures to reduce frills further have included eliminating two toilets to add six more seats, redesigning the aircraft to allow standing passengers travelling in "vertical seats", charging passengers for using the toilet, charging extra for overweight passengers, and asking passengers to carry their checked-in luggage to the aircraft. While CEO Michael O'Leary initially claimed that charging passengers for toilets was "going to happen", he stated days later that it was "technically impossible and legally difficult" but "[made] for interesting and very cheap PR". Customer service Ryanair has been criticised for many aspects of its customer service. The Economist wrote that Ryanair's "cavalier treatment of passengers" had given Ryanair "a deserved reputation for nastiness" and that the airline "has become a byword for appalling customer service ... and jeering rudeness towards anyone or anything that gets in its way". In January 2019, a survey conducted by Which? found that the airline was the UK's least-liked short-haul airline, for the sixth year running. Ryanair responded by saying that passenger numbers had risen 80% in the previous six years and this was a more accurate reflection of the airline's popularity than an "unrepresentative survey of just 8,000 people." In August 2019, Ryanair came bottom in an annual Which? survey rating the customer services of 100 popular UK brands. In 2002, the High Court in Dublin awarded Jane O'Keefe €67,500 damages and her costs after Ryanair reneged on a free travel prize she was awarded for being the airline's 1 millionth passenger. The airline has come under heavy criticism for its poor treatment of disabled passengers. In 2002, it refused to provide wheelchairs for disabled passengers at London Stansted Airport, greatly angering disabled rights groups. The airline argued that this provision was the responsibility of the airport authority, stating that wheelchairs were provided by 80 of the 84 Ryanair destination airports, at that time. A court ruling in 2004 judged that the responsibility should be shared by the airline and the airport owners; Ryanair responded by adding a surcharge of £0.50 to all its flight prices. In July 2012, a 69-year-old woman, Frances Duff, who has a colostomy, was refused permission to bring her medical kit on board, despite having a letter from her doctor explaining the need for her to carry this with her, and was asked by Ryanair boarding staff to lift up her shirt in front of fellow passengers, to prove that she had a colostomy bag. Duff had previously attempted to contact Ryanair on three occasions to inquire about its policy regarding travellers' colostomy bags, but each time no one had answered the phone after half an hour. On 4 April 2011, Ryanair began adding a surcharge of €2 to its flights to cover the costs arising from compliance with EC Regulation 261/2004, which requires it to pay for meals and accommodation for passengers on delayed and cancelled flights. Ryanair did not offer customers the possibility of contacting it by email or webform, only through a premium rate phone line, by fax or by post; however, it does now have a web form contact option. An early day motion in the British Parliament put forward in 2006 criticised Ryanair for this reason and called on the company to provide customers with a means to contact the company by email. Ryanair offers a basic rate telephone number for post-booking enquiries in the United Kingdom, which chose to omit the exemption for passenger transport services when enacting Article 21 of Directive 2011/83/EU on Consumer Rights under Regulation 41 of the Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Payments) Regulations 2013. Improved customer service and attracting families On 17 June 2014, Ryanair announced a new campaign to re-invent itself as a more family-friendly airline. Speaking at the company's 2014 AGM, chief executive Michael O'Leary said that the airline needed to "stop unnecessarily pissing people off". Ryanair said up to 20% of its 81 million customers were travelling as families, and it wanted to raise that figure. Kenny Jacobs, Ryanair's chief marketing officer, said: "Families are a big deal for us. It's a group of customers that we want to get closer to". As another step, the company launched LiveChat on its website to improve the quality of service and experience provided by the company. This change in their approach had an almost immediate positive effect on company's finances. Flight cancellations September and October 2017 Ryanair was subject to widespread criticism after it announced that it would be cancelling between 40 and 50 flights per day (about 2% of total daily flights) during September and October 2017. Flights were cancelled with very little notice, sometimes only hours before departure. Ryanair said that the cancellations aimed "to improve its system-wide punctuality" which had dropped significantly in the first two weeks of September, which the airline attributed to "ATC capacity delays and strikes, weather disruptions and the impact of increased holiday allocations to pilots and cabin crew". In subsequent statements, Ryanair acknowledged that it had "messed up" holiday schedules for pilots, including a change to the calendar year for how vacations were calculated. In late December, a survey rated Ryanair and Vueling equally the worst in the world for customer service among short-haul carriers in the Which? survey. Ryanair responded, "[t]his survey of 9,000 Which? members is unrepresentative and worthless, during a year when Ryanair is the world’s largest international airline (129m customers) and is also the world’s fastest-growing airline (up to 9m customers in 2017). We have apologised for the deeply regretted flight cancellations and winter schedule changes, and the disruption they caused to less than 1% of our customers". Publicity CO2 emissions In 2018, Ryanair became the first airline and the only non-coal-power plant to be among the 10 companies with the highest amount of CO2 emissions in the EU. That year, Ryanair had an emission equivalent of 9.9 megatonnes of CO2 . Emissions had risen by 49% over the course of five years. Environmentalists criticized the airline harshly and saw it as a sign for the lack of taxation of aviation. In 2020, Ryanair was criticised for releasing misleading advertisements through their claim they were "Europe's… Lowest Emissions Airline", using figures from an airline efficiency rating dating back to 2011. Controversial advertising Ryanair's advertising and the antics of Michael O'Leary, such as deliberately courting controversy to generate free publicity for the airline, have led to a number of complaints to the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) and occasionally court action being taken against the airline. An example of this was the live BBC News interview on 27 February 2009 when Michael O'Leary, observing that it was "a quiet news day", commented that Ryanair was considering charging passengers £1 to use the toilet on its flights. The story subsequently made headlines in the media for several days and drew attention to Ryanair's announcement that it was removing check-in desks from airports and replacing them with online check-in. Eight days later O'Leary eventually admitted that it was a publicity stunt saying "It is not likely to happen, but it makes for interesting and very cheap PR". The concept of Ryanair charging for even this most essential of customer services was foreseen by the spoof news website "The Mardale Times" some five months previously, in its article "Ryanair announce new 'Pay-Per-Poo' service". Ryanair often uses advertising to make direct comparisons and attack its competitors. One of its advertisements used a picture of the Manneken Pis, a famous Belgian statue of a urinating child, with the words: "Pissed off with Sabena's high fares? Low fares have arrived in Belgium." Sabena sued and the court ruled that the advertisements were misleading and offensive. Ryanair was ordered to discontinue the advertisements immediately or face fines. Ryanair was also obliged to publish an apology and publish the court decision on its website. Ryanair used the apologies for further advertising, primarily for further price comparisons. Another provocative ad campaign headlined "Expensive BAstards!" compared Ryanair with British Airways. As with Sabena, British Airways disagreed with the accompanying price comparisons and brought legal action against Ryanair. However, in this case, the High Court sided with Ryanair and threw BA's case out ordering the BA to make a payment towards Ryanair's court costs. The judge ruled "The complaint amounts to this: that Ryanair exaggerated in suggesting BA is five times more expensive because BA is only three times more expensive." In 2007, Ryanair used an advertisement for its new Belfast route which showed Sinn Féin's Martin McGuinness (Northern Ireland deputy First Minister and a former senior commander of the IRA) standing alongside party president Gerry Adams with a speech bubble which said "Ryanair fares are so low even the British Army flew home". Ulster Unionists reacted angrily to the advertisement, while the Advertising Standards Authority said it did not believe the ad would cause widespread offence. An advertisement depicting a model dressed as a schoolgirl was accompanied by the words "Hottest back to school fares". Ryanair ran the advertisement in two Scottish and one UK-wide newspaper. After receiving 13 complaints, the advertisement was widely reported by national newspapers. The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) instructed the airline to withdraw the advertisement in the United Kingdom, saying that it "appeared to link teenage girls with sexually provocative behaviour and was irresponsible and likely to cause serious or widespread offence". Ryanair said that it would "not be withdrawing this ad" and would "not provide the ASA with any of the undertakings they seek", on the basis that it found it absurd that "a picture of a fully clothed model is now claimed to cause 'serious or widespread offence', when many of the UK's leading daily newspapers regularly run pictures of topless or partially dressed females without causing any serious or widespread offence". In late 2020, the airline faced criticism over its "jab and go" advert. Misleading advertising Although it usually does not serve the primary airports of major European cities, Ryanair has been criticised for placing the names of famous cities on distant secondary airports that were not built for tourist traffic and lacked transit links to the main city. Examples include "Paris Beauvais" ( north-northwest of Paris), "Brussels South" ( to the south of Brussels), "Milan Bergamo" ( from Milan), "Frankfurt Hahn" ( from Frankfurt and actually closer to the cities of Koblenz and Mainz), "Düsseldorf Weeze" ( from Düsseldorf), "Glasgow Prestwick" ( from Glasgow), "Stockholm Skavsta" ( from Stockholm) and "Barcelona Reus" ( from Barcelona). Frommers has dubbed Ryanair the "ultimate bait-and-switch airline" for this deceptive practice. Ryanair was ordered by the ASA to stop claiming that its flights from London to Brussels were faster than the rail connection Eurostar, on the grounds that the claim was misleading, due to required travel times to the airports mentioned. Ryanair stood by its claims, noting that the flight time is shorter than the train trip and that travel time is also required to reach Eurostar's stations. In April 2008, Ryanair faced a probe by the UK Office of Fair Trading, after a string of complaints about its adverts. It was found to have breached advertising rules seven times in two years. ASA's director general Christopher Graham commented that formal referrals to the OFT were rare, the last occurring in 2005. He added that the ASA "would prefer to work with advertisers within the self-regulatory system rather than call in a statutory body, but Ryanair's approach has left us with no option". Ryanair countered with the claim that the ASA had "demonstrated a repeated lack of independence, impartiality and fairness". In July 2009, Ryanair took a number of steps to "increase the clarity and transparency of its website and other advertising" after reaching an agreement with the OFT. The airline's website now includes a statement that "fares don't include optional fees/charges" and they now include a table of fees to make fare comparisons easier. In July 2010, Ryanair once again found itself in controversy regarding alleged misleading advertising. Ryanair circulated advertisements in two newspapers offering £10 one-way fares to European destinations. Following a complaint from rival carrier EasyJet, the ASA ruled the offer was "likely to mislead". Ryanair made no comment on the claim but did hit back at EasyJet, claiming it cared about details in this regard but did not itself publicise its on-time statistics. EasyJet denied this. In April 2011, Ryanair advertised 'a place in the sun destinations' but the advert was banned when it was found that some of the destinations experienced sunshine for as little as three hours per day and temperatures between . In 2016, Ryanair stated that websites such as Opodo and CheapOair and their partners engaged in screenscraping and false advertising, and attempted to prevent them from showing Ryanair data. In February 2020 the Advertising Standards Authority told Ryanair to provide adequate evidence to support environmental claims after the ASA banned adverts that claimed Ryanair was the lowest emissions airline in Europe for being misleading. Ryanair had claimed in the adverts that they had "the lowest carbon emissions of any major airline" and it was a "low CO2 emissions airline" based on Europes top 27 airlines. The ASA queried some figures and the definition of a "major airline" for the purposes of assessing . Complainants said the adverts were misleading and could not be substantiated. In response to the ASA Ryanair cited data from Eurocontrol and airline efficiency rankings from Brighter Plant. However the ASA said that Ryanair had used an efficiency ranking from 2011 which was "of little value as substantiation for a comparison made in 2019". The ASA said that customers would interpret the adverts as saying that flying with Ryanair would mean they contributed fewer CO2 emissions to the earth atmosphere, which could not be proven. The ASA said that the adverts "ads must not appear again in their current forms" as claims in them could not be substantiated. Criticism of surcharges In February 2011, a Ryanair passenger, Miro Garcia, brought a claim against Ryanair for unfair surcharges, claiming that the €40 (£30) surcharge on passengers who failed to print out a boarding card prior to arrival at the airport was unfair. Judge Barbara Cordoba, sitting in the Commercial Court in Barcelona, held that, under international air travel conventions, Ryanair can neither demand passengers turn up at the airport with their boarding pass, nor charge them €40 (£30) if they do not, and that the fines were abusive because aviation law obliges airlines to issue boarding passes. Judge Cordoba stated that: "I declare abusive and, therefore, null, the clause in the contract by which Ryanair obliges the passenger to take a boarding pass to the airport... the customary practice over the years has been that the obligation to provide the boarding pass has always fallen on the airline". The judge ordered a refund for Mr. Garcia and said the fact the company was a low-cost carrier did "not allow it to alter its basic contractual obligations". Ryanair appealed the decision and the Appeals Court in Spain overturned the ruling in November 2011, holding that the surcharge is in compliance with international law. In December 2011, Ryanair announced that it would fight against the UK Treasury's plan to ban what Which? magazine called "rip-off" charges made when customers paid by credit card. EU legislation has already been drafted against surcharges for methods of payment. Fuel incidents On 26 July 2012 three Ryanair aircraft inbound to Madrid–Barajas Airport diverted to Valencia Airport due to severe thunderstorms in the Madrid area. All three aircraft declared an emergency (Mayday) when the calculated usable fuel on landing at Valencia Airport was less than final reserve (30 minutes of flight) after having been held in the air for 50 to 69 minutes. The Irish Aviation Authority investigated the incidents and came to a number of conclusions, including: "The aircraft in all three cases departed for Madrid with fuel in excess of Flight Plan requirements"; "The Crew diverted to Valencia with fuel in excess of the minimum diversion fuel depicted on the Flight Plan"; "Diverting with fuel close to minimum diversion fuel in the circumstances presented on the evening in question was likely to present challenges for the crew. Initial holding was to the Southwest of Madrid which increased the diversion time to the alternate"; "The Crew declared an Emergency in accordance with EU-OPS when the calculated usable fuel for landing at Valencia was less than final reserve"; "The Met conditions in Madrid were more significant than anticipated by the Crew when reviewing the Met Forecast. Consequently, the additional fuel carried was influenced by the forecast"; "Operations into a busy airport such as Madrid in Thunderstorm conditions with the associated traffic levels can add significant delays to all traffic"; "Air Traffic Control in Valencia was under significant pressure with the number of diversions arriving in their airspace." The Irish Aviation Authority made a number of recommendations, including that Ryanair should "review [its] fuel policy and consider issuing guidance to Crew with respect to fuel when operating into busy airports with mixed aircraft operators and types particularly in poor weather conditions when diversions are likely." The IAA also recommended that the Spanish Aviation Safety and Security Agency "review delays into Madrid to consider if additional fuel should be recommended or required to be carried in normal operations particularly where the southerly Runways are in operation." Among the causes of the incident, the Civil Aviation Accident and Incident Investigation Commission concluded that "the company's fuel savings policy, though it complies with the minimum legal requirements, tends to minimise the amount of fuel with which its aircraft operate and leaves none for contingencies below the legal minimums. This contributed to the amount of fuel used being improperly planned and to the amount of fuel onboard dropping below the required final fuel reserve." In an interview with the Dutch investigative journalism programme KRO Reporter, four anonymous Ryanair pilots claimed they were being pressured to carry as little fuel as possible on board to cut costs. Ryanair and its CEO Michael O'Leary denied the allegations and sued KRO. On 16 April 2014, the Dutch Court decided that KRO had provided sufficient evidence in two television episodes of Mayday, Mayday broadcast in 2012 and 2013 to back the claims in respect of Ryanair's fuel policy and "fear culture". It also found that Ryanair had been given a right of reply in response to the claims. The broadcast of the programmes was found to be in the public interest. Ryanair was ordered to pay the legal costs of the case. Handling of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic Starting in late March 2020, in response to necessary flight cancellations due to travel restrictions set by governments due to COVID-19, Ryanair was forced to cancel flights. This resulted in many of their staff being placed on furlough, with pay being cut by up to 50% for some employees placed on the Irish Temporary Wage Subsidy Scheme (TWSS). Travellers with flights cancelled are being offered vouchers or an alternative flight date. Ryanair has said they will not be issuing cash refunds until after the COVID-19 crisis is over, which has angered many customers having to wait months for a refund covered under EU regulations. The handling of refunds from Ryanair has caused a surge in complaints to the Commission for Aviation Regulation (CAR), with customers claiming that they have been refused a refund for the flight cancellation. Many organisations have taken a stance against the aviation industry via actions or declarations in the press. The Italian civil aviation authority ENAC has threatened a ban of Ryanair due to alleged violation of local COVID-19 regulations. The Ryanair chief executive Michael O’Leary said its planes would not fly if the airline was required to leave its middle seats empty to comply with in-flight social distancing rules. He said blocking the space between seats was "idiotic" and would have no beneficial effect. Competitors Ryanair has several low-cost competitors. In 2004, approximately 60 new low-cost airlines were formed. Although traditionally a full-service airline, Aer Lingus moved to a low-fares strategy from 2002, leading to a much more intense competition with Ryanair on Irish routes. Ryanair is a member of Airlines for Europe, having formerly been a member of the defunct European Low Fares Airline Association. Airlines that attempt to compete directly with Ryanair are treated competitively, with Ryanair being accused by some of reducing fares to significantly undercut its competitors. In response to MyTravelLite, which started to compete with Ryanair on the Birmingham to Dublin route in 2003, Ryanair set up competing flights on some of MyTravelLite's routes until it pulled out. Go was another airline that attempted to offer services from Ryanair's base at Dublin to Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland. A fierce battle ensued, which ended with Go withdrawing its service from Dublin. In September 2004, Ryanair's biggest competitor, EasyJet, announced routes to the Republic of Ireland for the first time, beginning with the Cork to London Gatwick route. Until then, EasyJet had never competed directly with Ryanair on its home ground. EasyJet later withdrew its Gatwick-Cork, Gatwick-Shannon, Gatwick-Knock and Luton-Shannon routes. In 2012, Ryanair also responded to the decision of another low-cost carrier, Wizz Air that planned to move its flight operations from Warsaw Chopin Airport in Poland to the new low-cost Warsaw Modlin Airport in Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki. Ryanair had previously operated the route to Dublin from Warsaw but withdrew, claiming that the fees at Warsaw's main airport were too high. When Wizz Air began operations from Modlin Airport, Ryanair began several new routes from the same airport, most of which were identical to routes offered by Wizz Air. In 2008, Ryanair asked the Irish high court to investigate why it had been refused permission to fly from Knock to Dublin. This route was won by CityJet, which was unable to operate the service. The runner up, Aer Arann, was then allowed to start flights, a move Ryanair criticises on the basis of not initiating an additional tender process was unlawful. DFDS Seaways cited competition from low-cost air services, especially Ryanair, which now flies to Edinburgh Airport and London Stansted Airport from Gothenburg Landvetter Airport, as the reason for scrapping the Newcastle–Gothenburg ferry service in October 2006. It was the only dedicated passenger ferry service between Sweden and the United Kingdom and had been running under various operators since the 19th century. Destinations Ryanair's largest base is at London-Stansted with 150 aircraft based there, followed by its home base at Dublin Airport. Ryanair operates from 84 bases connecting 35 countries across Europe and North Africa, some of which only base a single aircraft. Several non-base airports serve more flights and/or destinations than certain base airports. Ryanair traditionally prefers to fly to smaller or secondary airports usually outside major cities to help the company benefit from lower landing fees and quick turn-around times to reduce costs. Ryanair has even referred to Bratislava Airport in Slovakia as "Bratislava Vienna", despite Vienna being away and across a national border. In some cases, secondary airports are not distant from the city they serve, and can in fact can be closer than the city's major airport; this is the case at Rome Ciampino Airport. Ryanair does still serve a number of major airports, including Amsterdam, Athens, Barcelona El Prat, Brussels Zaventem, Budapest, Copenhagen, Dublin, Frankfurt, Lisbon, London-Gatwick, Madrid Barajas, Marseille, Oslo-Gardermoen and Rome-Fiumicino. Some of these cities do not have a viable secondary airport that Ryanair could use as an alternative. In more recent months/years, Ryanair has grown more at primary airports as it looks to attract more business passengers. For summer 2014, the airline opened bases in Athens, Lisbon and the primary airports of Brussels and Rome for the first time. Ryanair flies in a point to point model rather than the more traditional airline hub and spoke model where the passengers have to change aircraft in transit at a major airport, usually being able to reach more destinations this way. In April 2017 Ryanair added more indirect flights to its portfolio, starting with a new transfer hub in Rome-Fiumicino airport (FCO). Ryanair has 50 European bases. Despite it being an Irish airline, and having a significant presence there, it also has a significant presence in France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain, the United Kingdom as well as many other European countries. Currently, its biggest country market is Italy, with fourteen bases and nine non-base airports. Ryanair's largest competitor is EasyJet which has a far greater focus on larger or primary airports such as Amsterdam and Paris-Charles de Gaulle, heavily targeting business passengers. Ryanair also serves sun and beach destinations with bases in the Canary Islands, Cyprus, the Greek Islands and Malta among others. In August 2014, the airline unveiled ambitious plans to establish a major hub in Israel to service a broad range of European routes. In December 2014 Ryanair announced plans to open its 72nd base in 2015 in the Azores. In February 2018, due to the Scottish Government not abolishing or reducing Air Passenger Duty (APD), Ryanair announced that it would cut many flights out of Glasgow Airport resulting in the airline closing its base there. The only routes out of Glasgow by the end of October were Dublin, Kraków and Wroclaw, with the rest being suspended permanently. This resulted in the loss of 300 members of airport staff. In April 2019, the airline reinstated four of its routes; to Alicante, Brussels, Málaga and Warsaw. Choosing destinations When Ryanair negotiates with airport operators, it demands very low landing and handling fees, as well as financial assistance with marketing and promotional campaigns. In subsequent contract renewal negotiations, the airline has been reported to play airports against each other, threatening to withdraw services and deploy the aircraft elsewhere, if the airport does not make further concessions. According to Michael O'Leary's biography, A Life in Full Flight, Ryanair's growing popularity and also growing bargaining power, with both airports and aircraft manufacturers, has resulted in the airline being less concerned about a market research/demographics approach to route selection to one based more on experimentation. This means it is more likely to fly its aircraft between the lowest cost airports in anticipation that its presence alone on that route will be sufficient to create a demand which previously may not have existed, either in whole or in part. In April 2006, a failure to reach agreement on a new commercial contract resulted in Ryanair announcing that it would withdraw service on the Dublin–Cardiff route at short notice. The airport management rebutted Ryanair's assertion that airport charges were unreasonably high, claiming that the Cardiff charges were already below Ryanair's average and claimed that Ryanair had recently adopted the same negotiating approach with Cork Airport and London Stansted Airport. In 2009, Ryanair was reported to have adopted 'harsh' negotiating with Shannon Airport, threatening to close 75% of its operations there from April 2010. Ryanair was forced to give up its Rome Ciampino–Alghero route, after the route was allocated to Air One, as a public service obligation (PSO) route. The European Commission is investigating the actions of the Italian Government in assigning PSO routes and thus restricting competition. In 2016 Ryanair withdrew over half of its flights from Rygge airport in Norway, after which the airport decided to close down totally, as they were privately owned and would make a loss on the low traffic volume. In some cases (an increasing number as years pass), Ryanair has decided to use large airports where they are not dominant, and to pay the normal fees there. Examples include Barcelona, Oslo, Copenhagen and Manchester, which the carrier increased flights from in 2021. Fleet Current group fleet , the Ryanair Group fleet consists of the following aircraft: Former fleet Ryanair has operated the following types of aircraft in the past: Fleet development Following the 2019 grounding of all 737 MAX aircraft, Ryanair initially reaffirmed its confidence in the aircraft and indicated that it would be ready to place a new order once it had returned to service; it would seek a reduced price in lieu of cash compensation. In July that year, it warned that some of its bases would be subject to short-term closures in 2020, due to the shortfall in MAX deliveries, and pointed out that the MAX 200 version it has ordered will require separate certification expected to take a further two months after the MAX returns to service. In the same month, O'Leary expressed concerns and frustration with the certification delays and revealed that, in parallel with discussions with Boeing regarding a potential order for new aircraft to be delivered from 2023, he was also talking to Airbus which was offering very aggressive pricing. As of March 2018, the average age of the Ryanair fleet was around 6.5 years, roughly 2 years older than some of the competition. When Boeing builds an aircraft for Ryanair, it is allocated the customer code AS, which appears in its aircraft designation as an infix, such as 737-8AS. Ryanair's fleet reached 200 aircraft for the first time on 5 September 2009. All aircraft in the Ryanair fleet have been retrofitted with performance enhancing winglets and the more recent deliveries have them fitted as standard. The company also owns three Learjet 45 business jets, based at London Stansted Airport and Bergamo Airport but registered in the Isle of Man, which are mainly used for the quick transportation of maintenance personnel and small aircraft parts around the network. On 13 March 2013, Ryanair signed an order for 175 new Boeing 737-800s. In the press conference announcing the order, Michael O'Leary said Ryanair was still evaluating the possibility of the Boeing 737 MAX, and stated its huge order in March was for the Boeing 737 Next Generation rather than the 737 MAX as it needed aircraft before the 737 MAX would enter service. On 30 April 2014, Ryanair confirmed that it had ordered five more aircraft to add to its fleet, four of them to be delivered in 2015 and the last one to be delivered in February 2016, to bring the number of aircraft on order to 180. In Summer 2014, Ryanair contracted AirExplore to operate some of their summer flights between London Stansted and Dublin airport. Ryanair also showed interest in other aircraft, including the Comac C919, when it signed a design agreement with Comac in 2011 to help produce a rival jet to Boeing's offerings. At the Paris Airshow in 2013, Michael O'Leary stated that Comac could build a larger version of the C919 aircraft that would hold up to 200 passengers. On 8 September 2014, Ryanair made a commitment to order 100 new Boeing 737 MAX 8s (plus options for an additional 100) for delivery from 2019. On 1 December 2014, the airline finalised its order for up to 200 Boeing 737 MAX 200s, a version of the 737 MAX 8 for low-cost airlines, named after the fact that they can carry 200 passengers. The order includes 100 firm, and 100 purchase rights. This makes Ryanair the launch customer of the Boeing 737 MAX 200. After delays due to the grounding of the 737 MAX, the first 737 MAX 8-200 was finally delivered to Ryanair on 16 June 2021. Twelve deliveries were expected for the summer 2021 season (6 for Ryanair and 6 for Malta Air) and a further 50 by summer 2022. On 23 June 2021, it was reported that Ryanair would start a passenger flight connection between London and Tampere on 2 November of the same year. In July 2021, it was announced that Ryanair had already handed back all of its leased B737s, which were replaced by incoming B737 MAX 8-200 aircraft. The carrier expects to sell more of its older aircraft in the future. Accidents and incidents On 10 November 2008, Ryanair Flight 4102, from Frankfurt–Hahn Airport, suffered undercarriage damage in an emergency landing at Rome–Ciampino Airport, after experiencing bird strikes, which damaged both engines on approach. There were six crew members and 166 passengers on board. Two crew members and eight passengers were taken to hospital with minor injuries. The port undercarriage of the Boeing 737-800 collapsed, leaving the aircraft stranded on the runway and closing the airport for over 35 hours. As well as damage to the engines and undercarriage, the rear fuselage was also damaged by contact with the runway. The aircraft involved was damaged beyond repair and was scrapped. The final report of the accident, investigated by ANSV (National Flight Safety Agency) was released on 20 December 2018, more than 10 years after the accident and only in Italian. An English translation was provided by Aviation Accident Database. On 23 May 2021, Ryanair Flight 4978 (Athens-Vilnius) carrying 6 crew and 126 passengers was diverted to Minsk National Airport after a false bomb threat was made whilst the aircraft was south of Vilnius and west of Minsk, but still in Belarusian airspace. According to the airline, its pilots were notified by Belarusian authorities of "a potential security threat on board" and told to land the plane in Minsk. In Minsk, Belarusian journalist and opposition activist Raman Pratasevich and his girlfriend were removed from the plane and arrested. Despite the fact that the plane was closer to Vilnius, Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko, according to his press service, personally ordered the flight to be redirected to Minsk and sent Belarusian Air Force MiG-29 fighter aircraft to escort it. Belarusian opposition leader Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya called for an ICAO investigation of the incident. See also List of airlines List of companies of Ireland List of low-cost airlines Ryanair UK Notes References Further reading External links Airlines established in 1984 Airlines for Europe Airlines of the Republic of Ireland Companies based in Swords, Dublin Companies listed on Euronext Amsterdam Companies listed on Euronext Dublin Companies listed on the Nasdaq European Low Fares Airline Association Irish brands Irish companies established in 1984 Low-cost carriers

262879

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief%20Buffalo%20Child%20Long%20Lance

Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance

Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance (born Sylvester Clark Long; December 1, 1890 – March 20, 1932) was an African-American journalist, writer and film actor who, for a time, became internationally prominent as a spokesman for Native American causes. He published an autobiography, purportedly based on his experience as the son of a Blackfoot chief. He was the first presumed Native American admitted to the Explorers Club in New York City. In reality a non-Native, he had claimed to be of mixed Cherokee, white and black heritage, at a time when Southern society imposed strict binary divisions of heritage in a racially-segregated society. After his tribal claims were found to be false, he was dropped by these same social circles to which he had gained entry. Early life and education Long had ambitions that were larger than what he saw of his future in Winston, where his father Joseph S. Long was a janitor in the school system. In that segregated society, African Americans had limited opportunities. Long first left North Carolina to portray Indian characters in a "Wild West Show". During this time he continued to build upon his (later proven to be fraudulent) stories of being Cherokee. In 1909, Long claimed to be half Cherokee when he applied to the Carlisle Indian Industrial School and was accepted. He also lied about his age to gain admission. He graduated in 1912 at the top of his class, which included prominent Native Americans such as Jim Thorpe and Robert Geronimo, a son of the famous Apache warrior. Long entered the St. John's and Manlius Military academies in Manlius, New York with a full musical scholarship, based on his performance at the Carlisle School. Career Long went to Canada as an acting sergeant in 1919, requesting discharge at Calgary, Alberta. He worked as a journalist for the Calgary Herald. Canada had de facto segregation and a climate in which the government had discouraged black immigration from the US. During this time in both Canada and the US it was common for those of African heritage to instead make false claims of Cherokee or Blackfoot. "It is not surprising that in such a climate...Long Lance felt that he was safer, and that he could go further, by disavowing any connection, cultural or racial, to blackness." Long presented himself as a Cherokee from Oklahoma and claimed he was a West Point graduate with the Croix de Guerre earned in World War I. For the next three years as a reporter, he covered Indian issues. He criticized government treatment of Indians and openly criticized Canada's Indian Act, especially their attempts at re-education and prohibiting the practice of tribal rituals. To a friend, Long justified his decision to assume a Blackfoot Indian identity by saying it would help him be a more effective advocate, that he had not lived with his own people since he was sixteen, and now knew more about the Indians of Western Canada. In 1924, Long Lance became a press representative for the Canadian Pacific Railway. Through these years, Long also entered the civic life of the city, by joining the local Elks Lodge and the militia, and coaching football for the Calgary Canucks. Due to Jim Crow laws, these activities would not have been possible had he honestly presented himself as a black man. He was a successful writer, publishing articles in national magazines, reaching a wide and diverse audience through Macleans and Cosmopolitan. By the time he wrote his autobiography in Alberta in 1927, Long claimed to be a full-blooded Blackfoot Indian. Autobiography and fame Cosmopolitan Book Company commissioned Long's autobiography as a boy's adventure book on Indians. It published Long Lance in 1928, to quick success. In it, Long claimed to have been born a Blackfoot, son of a chief, in Montana's Sweetgrass Hills. He also said that he had been wounded eight times in the Great War and been promoted to the rank of captain. The popular success of his book and the international press made him a major celebrity. The book became an international bestseller and was praised by literary critics and anthropologists. Long had already been writing and lecturing on the life of Plains Indians. His celebrity gave him more venues and caused him to be taken up as part of the New York party life. More significantly, he was then admitted to the prominent Explorers' Club in New York. The Explorers' Club believed they were admitting their "first Indian". He received an average price of $100 for his speeches, a good price in those years. He endorsed a sport shoe for the B.F. Goodrich Company. A film magazine, Screenland, said, "Long Lance, one of the few real one-hundred-percent Americans, has had New York right in his pocket." Imposture revealed In 1929, Long entered the film world, starring as the lead protagonist of the 1930 silent film The Silent Enemy, a drama focusing on a famine and power struggle in a post-classical Ojibwe tribe. The film employed over 200 indigenous persons, including actors Chief Yellow Robe, Cheeka, Chief Awakanush, and Molly Spotted Elk, and strived to be an accurate representation of Native American history. Chief Yellow Robe, the central actor who portrayed the Chief and who likely served as a cultural advisor of the film, became suspicious of Long and alerted the studio legal advisor. Long could not explain his heritage to their satisfaction, and rumors began to circulate. An investigation revealed that his father had not been a Blackfoot chief, but a school janitor in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Some neighbors from his home town testified that they thought his background may have included African ancestry, which meant by southern racial standards, he was black. Although the studio did not publicize its investigation, the accusations led many of his socialite acquaintances to abandon Long. Author Irvin S. Cobb, a native of Kentucky active in New York, is reported to have lamented, "We're so ashamed! We entertained a nigger!" In his Being and Becoming Indian: Biographical Studies of North American Frontiers, late 20th century historian James A. Clifton called Long "a sham" who "assumed the identity of an Indian", "an adopted ethnic identity pure and simple." In her book Real Indians: Identity and the Survival of Native Americans (2003), Eva Marie Garroutte uses the controversy over Long's identity to introduce questions surrounding contested Indian identity and authenticity in United States culture. Death After the controversy surrounding his identity, California socialite Anita Baldwin took Long as a bodyguard on her trip to Europe. Because of his behavior, Baldwin abandoned him in New York. For a time, he fell in love with dancer Elisabeth Clapp but refused to marry her. In 1931, he returned to Baldwin. In 1932, Long was found dead in Baldwin's home in Los Angeles, California from a gunshot. His death was ruled a suicide. Long left his assets to St. Paul's Indian Residential School in Southern Alberta. Most of his papers were willed to his friend, Canon S.H. Middleton. They were acquired, along with the Middleton papers, by J. Zeiffle, a dealer who sold the papers to the Glenbow Museum in Calgary, Alberta, Canada in 1968. See also Anatole Broyard Grey Owl Iron Eyes Cody Red Thunder Cloud References Further reading Donald B. Smith, Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance: The Glorious Impersonator, Red Deer Press, 1999 (Cover has photo of Long) Laura Browder, " 'One Hundred Percent American': How a Slave, a Janitor, and a Former Klansmen Escaped Racial Categories by Becoming Indians", in Beyond the Binary: Reconstructing Cultural Identity in a Multicultural Context, ed. Timothy B. Powell, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press (1999) Nancy Cook, "The Only Real Indians are Western Ones: Authenticity, Regionalism and Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance, or Sylvester Long" (2004) Nancy Cook, "The Scandal of Race: Authenticity, The Silent Enemy and the Problem of Long Lance", in Headline Hollywood: A Century of Film Scandal, ed. Adrienne L. McLean and DAvid A. Cook, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2001 Melinda Micco, "Tribal Re-Creations: Buffalo Child Long Lance and Black Seminole Narratives", in Re-placing America: Conversations and Contestations, ed. Ruth Hsu, Cynthia Franklin, and Suzanne Kosanke, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i and the East-West Center, 2000 External links "Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance fonds", Archives, Glenbow Museum, Calgary, Alberta Watch Long Lance, a National Film Board of Canada documentary 1890 births 1932 deaths African-American people Multiracial affairs in the United States African-American history Impostors Literary forgeries Canadian military personnel of World War I Carlisle Indian Industrial School alumni Suicides by firearm in California Canadian male journalists Canadian memoirists Canadian people of African-American descent American emigrants to Canada History of Black people in Canada Manlius Pebble Hill School alumni 20th-century memoirists 1932 suicides

262880

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley%20Clifford%20Weyman

Stanley Clifford Weyman

Stanley Clifford Weyman (November 25, 1890 – August 27, 1960), was an American multiple impostor who impersonated public officials, including the United States Secretary of State and various military officers. Weyman was born as Stephen Jacob Weinberg on November 25, 1890 in Brooklyn, New York. His parents could not afford college tuition. He worked mainly in nondescript jobs but on occasion pretended to become somebody higher on the social ladder. In 1910, Weyman's first imposture was as U.S. consul representative to Morocco. He dined in the finest restaurants in New York City, but was eventually arrested for fraud. Next Weyman took on roles as a military attaché from Serbia and a U.S. Navy lieutenant, with each identity using the other as a reference. He was soon caught. Weyman was released the second time in 1915. He then became Lieutenant Commander Ethan Allen Weinberg, Consul General for Romania. He inspected the USS Wyoming and invited everyone to dinner at the Astor Hotel. The advance publicity alerted the Bureau of Investigation and federal agents arrested him at the party. He was heard to complain that they should have waited until dessert. He got a year in jail. In 1917, he took on the mantle of Royal St. Cyr, a lieutenant in the British Army Air Corps. He was arrested when he was on an inspection tour of the Brooklyn Armory after a suspicious military tailor alerted the police. Weyman was paroled in 1920. Shortly afterwards he forged credentials to become a company doctor in Lima, Peru. There he threw lavish parties until his credit ran out and he was arrested. In 1921 he noticed Princess Fatima of Afghanistan, who was visiting the United States and was trying to get official recognition. The U.S. State Department mainly ignored her. Weyman visited her as a State Department Naval Liaison Officer, apologized for the oversight and promised to arrange an appointment with the President. He managed to convince the princess to give him 10,000 dollars for "presents" to State Department officials. He used the money for a private railway carriage to Washington, D.C., and an opulent hotel room in the Willard Hotel for the princess and her entourage. Weyman proceeded to visit the State Department, dropped names of prominent senators and succeeded in getting appointments for the princess, first with Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes, and, on July 26, 1921, with President Warren G. Harding. Weyman's minor mistakes in protocol aroused some suspicion, but after the press published pictures showing him alongside dignitaries he was indicted for impersonating a naval officer and sentenced to two years in jail. On another occasion the Evening Graphic hired Weyman to get an interview with the visiting Queen Marie of Romania. He gained admittance as the Secretary of State and the paper got its interview. In 1926 Weyman appeared at Rudolph Valentino's funeral and attached himself to Valentino's grieving lover Pola Negri as a personal physician. He issued regular press releases on her condition and established a faith-healing clinic in Valentino's house. Pola Negri did not condemn him after he was exposed. During World War II Weyman was sentenced to seven years in prison for offering advice to draft dodgers on how to feign various medical conditions. In 1948 Weyman made up credentials to become a journalist at the United Nations in Lake Success, New York. He got acquainted with the delegates Warren Austin and Andrei Gromyko. His comeuppance came when the Thai delegation invited him to become their press officer with full diplomatic accreditation. Weyman contacted the State Department and asked whether it would affect his U.S. citizenship, thus drawing attention to himself. In 1954 Weyman tried to get a home improvement loan of 5,000 dollars for a house that did not exist. He failed to convince the judge that he was insane. In August 1960, Weyman was fatally shot when he tried to stop a robbery at a hotel in New York City where he was working as a night porter. The investigating detective said: "I've known about the man's past record for years. He did a lot of things in the course of his life, but what he did this time was brave." References St. Clair McKelway – The Big Little Man from Brooklyn (Houghton Mifflin 1969) Sarah Burton – Impostors (Penguin Books 2000, pages 36–43) External links Memory Palace podcast episode about Weyman American murder victims 1880 births 1960 deaths Impostors People murdered in New York (state) Deaths by firearm in New York City

262883

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seyval%20blanc

Seyval blanc

Seyval blanc (or Seyve-Villard hybrid number 5276) is a hybrid wine grape variety used to make white wines. Its vines ripen early, are productive and are suited to fairly cool climates. Seyval blanc is grown mainly in England, the United States east coast (specifically the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York, regions in Ohio and Virginia), in the Pacific Northwest (Oregon), as well as to a lesser extent in Canada. Seyval blanc was created either by Bertille Seyve, or his son-in-law Villard, as a cross of Seibel 5656 and Rayon d'Or (Seibel 4986), and was used to create the hybrid grape St. Pepin. Seyve and Villard used the same Rayon d'Or x Seibel 5656 crossing to produce the red wine grape Seyval noir. Since it contains some non-vinifera genes, it is outlawed by the EU authorities for quality wine production, which was an issue of conflict with the English wine industry. Wine styles Seyval blanc has a characteristic citrus element in the aroma and taste, as well as a minerality that may be compared to white Burgundy. It is often oaked and subjected to a stage of malolactic fermentation. Synonyms Seyval blanc is known under the synonyms Seival, Seyval, Seyve Villard 5-276, Seyve Villard 5276, and SV 5276. References White wine grape varieties Hybrid grape varieties

262885

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Seibel

Albert Seibel

Albert Seibel (1844–1936) was a French physician and viticulturist who made hybrid crosses of European wine grapes (Vitis vinifera) with native North American grapes. His crosses are known as Seibel grapes. Biography Seibel was born in Aubenas in the Ardeche in 1844. In 1895, he founded a school to teach grafting methods. He died in 1936. Breeding programme In the 1860s the Phylloxera plague cut European wine production by more than two-thirds. As the pest originated in the New World, crossing American stock with European Vitis vinifera varieties was one of the promising attempts to contain the disaster. The vines produced by this hybridization did not necessarily produce better wines, but did produce vine stock that could better survive Phylloxera attacks. Seibel and his company produced over 16,000 new hybrids, with nearly 500 varieties that were then grown commercially. He often used as a female parent the hybrid Jaeger 70, a cross between Vitis lincecumii and Vitis rupestris produced by Hermann Jaeger. Some of the most famous Seibel grapes are Aurore (Seibel 5279), Chancellor (Seibel 7053), Chelois (Seibel 10878), De Chaunac (Seibel 9549). His grapes were widely planted in France and Brazil. However, other than in countries such as Canada and the United States, Seibel grapes have fallen from favour in recent years due partly to restrictions in European law. See also List of wine personalities References External links Seibel, Albert Definition in the Wine Dictionary at Epicurious.com accessed 4 October 2007; Further reading This article is based in part on material from the German Wikipedia. Paul, Harry W. (2002) Science, Vine and Wine in Modern France Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 103–104, 1844 births 1936 deaths French viticulturists People from Aubenas

262886

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erding%20%28district%29

Erding (district)

Erding (, ) is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the districts of Landshut, Mühldorf, Ebersberg, Munich and Freising. History The region is one of the oldest parts of Bavaria. Erding was located on the way between two important centres of power in the Wittelsbach state, Munich and Landshut. About 1230 a castle was built on the river Sempt in order to secure the road. This castle grew to become the town of Erding. The district of Erding was founded in 1946. Slight modifications took place in the administrative reform of 1971, when some villages from neighbouring districts were awarded to Erding. Geography The district covers agriculturally used areas northeast of Munich. Several affluents of the Isar River cross the district from south to north, among them the Sempt. In the northwest there is the Erdinger Moos, which was once a large fen. A substantial part of this swampy area was drained in order to build the new airport of Munich, which was opened to the public in 1992. Coat of arms The coat of arms displays: the white and blue lozengy pattern of Bavaria the horse from the arms of the county of Haag Towns and municipalities References External links Official website (German) Districts of Bavaria

262889

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vignoles%20%28grape%29

Vignoles (grape)

Vignoles is a complex hybrid wine grape variety that was developed by J.F. Ravat originally named Ravat 51. According to Ravat, "Ravat 51" was the result of a cross made in 1930 using the complex hybrid wine grape Seibel 6905 (also known as Le Subereux) and a clone of Pinot Noir known as Pinot de corton. Originally named "Vignoles" by the Finger Lakes Wine Growers Association in 1970, genetic testing has recently proved that Vignoles does not share any major genetic markers in common with Seibel 6905 or Pinot Noir. Thus, Vignoles is unrelated to the "Ravat 51" grapevine that was imported into the US in 1949 and the parentage of Vignoles is currently unknown. Viticulturally, Vignoles is described as moderately vigorous with moderate yields, late season bud break, an upright and open growth habit, small very compact bunches that are highly susceptible to Botrytis bunch rot, an average of 105 days from bloom to harvest, high sugar with high acid at maturity, average overall disease resistance, and moderate winter hardiness (). Enologically, Vignoles is often prized for its ability to produce balanced and fruity late-harvest style sweet white wines, including ice wine, although Vignoles is also used to produce fruity dry and off-dry white wines as well. In the United States, Vignoles is most commonly grown in New York state's Finger Lakes region, and in the Midwest including Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa and Kentucky. References White wine grape varieties Hybrid grape varieties American wine

262890

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seibel%20grapes

Seibel grapes

Seibel grapes are a group of wine grape varieties which originated with the work of Albert Seibel crossing European grape with American grape species to increase disease resistance. They were planted widely in France during the 1950s but have seen decline in recent years because French wine law prohibits hybrid grapes in appellation wine. The grapes are still commonly used as blending grapes in table wine and mass commercial wines. New Zealand, England, and Canada also have plantings of Seibel grapes. Almost all of Albert Seibel’s hybrid grapes were descended from only four parent grapes: two European grapes (Vitis vinifera), Aramon and Alicante Bouchet; one wild American grape, Jaeger 70 (Vitis rupestris x Vitis lincecumii); and one rootstock, AxR1, which was created by crossing Aramon with a wild American V. rupestris. Although Seibel bred tens of thousands of grapes, he did so almost entirely by crossing and re-crossing his original varieties, all of which were descended from the original four vines, so the basic gene pool of his collection remained largely unchanged. Almost all later grapevine hybridizers, such as Bertille Seyve and his father-in-law Victor Villard, would simply breed one or two of Albert Seibel’s grapes together and name their creations after themselves, e.g., Seyve-Villard 5276 (“Seyval Blanc”). List of some Seibel grapes and their common names Seibel 1 (a Munson and unknown Vitis vinifera crossing) Seibel 29 (a Munson and unknown Vitis vinifera crossing) Seibel 30 Seibel 99 Seibel 405 Seibel 452 (a crossing of Alicante Ganzin and Seibel 1) Seibel 788 (a Sicilien and Clairette Dorée Ganzin) crossing) Seibel 793 Seibel 867 (a crossing of Noah and Vivarais) Seibel 880 Seibel 1000 Rosette Seibel 1020 Flot rouge Seibel 2003 Vivarais Seibel 2007 Aramon du Gard Seibel 2510 Cinsaut Seibel Seibel 2524 Seibel 2653 Flot d'Or Seibel 2679 (a crossing of Triumph and Alicante Terras 20) Seibel 2859 Le Bienvenu Seibel 3015 (a crossing of Bayard x Afus Ali (de)) Seibel 4199 Seibel 4461 Seibel 4595 Seibel 4643 Roi des Noirs Seibel 4646 Le Pourpre Seibel 4986 Rayon d'Or (a crossing of Aramon du Gard and Seibel 405) Seibel 5001 Florental (a crossing of Seibel 2510 and Seibel 867) Seibel 5163 Seibel 5279 Aurore (a crossing of Seibel 788 & Seibel 29) Seibel 5351 (a crossing of Seibel 880 and Seibel 2679) Seibel 5409 Gloire de Seibel (a crossing of Seibel 867 and Seibel 452) Seibel 5410 Seibel 5455 Plantet Seibel 5474 (a crossing of Seibel 405 and Seibel 867) Seibel 5487 Le Redessan Seibel 5575 Le Rubis Seibel 5656 (a crossing of Seibel 4595 and Seibel 4199) Seibel 5898 Rougeon (a crossing of Jaeger 70 and Seibel 3015) Seibel 6150 (a crossing of Seibel 405 and Flot rouge) Seibel 6268 (a crossing of Seibel 4614 and Seibel 3011) Seibel 6468 (a crossing of Seibel 4614 and Seibel 3011) Seibel 6905 Le Subéreux Seibel 7042 (a crossing of Seibel 5351 and Seibel 6268) Seibel 7053 Chancellor Seibel 8216 (a crossing of Seibel 5410 & 5001) Seibel 8357 Colobel Seibel 8665 Seibel 8724 Seibel 8745 Seinoir Seibel 9110 Verdelet Seibel 9549 De Chaunac Seibel 10173 Ambror Seibel 11803 Rubilande Seibel 10878 Chelois Seibel 13053 Cascade (a crossing of Seibel 7042 and Gloire de Seibel) Seibel 14514 Dattier précoce de Seibel Seibel 14596 Bellandais References See also French Wine Vineyard Hybrid grapes

262891

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Mosaic

Alexander Mosaic

The Alexander Mosaic is a Roman floor mosaic originally from the House of the Faun in Pompeii (an alleged imitation of a Philoxenus of Eretria or Apelles' painting, 4th century BC) that dates from . It is typically dated in the second half of the century between 120 and 100 B.C. It depicts a battle between the armies of Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia and measures . This work of art is a combination of different artistic traditions such as Italic, Hellenistic, and Roman. The mosaic is considered “Roman” based on the broader context of its time and location in relation to the later Roman Republic. The original is preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. The mosaic is believed to be a copy of an early 3rd-century BC Hellenistic painting. Subject Battle The mosaic illustrates a battle in which Alexander charges the Persian king Darius. The battle scene comprises over 50 men. Alexander defeated him at the Battle of Issus and again two years later at the Battle of Gaugamela. The work is traditionally believed to show the Battle of Issus. The Alexander Mosaic is believed to be a copy of a Hellenistic Greek painting made during the 4th century BC. The style of the mosaic is distinctly Greek in that it depicts close up portraits of the main heroes of the battle. Typically within Greek battle scenes the heroes are difficult to define within the commotion. It is a commonly accepted belief of the Alexander mosaic that one must use the Greek original to interpret the meaning of the Roman copy. The debate among scholars over the significance of the Roman copy is that it cannot and should not be interpreted in the same cultural and historical context as the Greek original. Some believe that in doing so, it takes away both context and achievement from Roman artists. The mosaic is held to be a copy either of a painting by Aristides of Thebes, or of a lost late 4th-century BC fresco by the painter Philoxenus of Eretria. The latter is mentioned by Pliny the Elder (XXXV, 110) as a commission for the Macedonian king Cassander. Alexander and Darius Description and analysis The mosaic features many figures in a very large space. The two most distinguished and recognizable figures are Alexander the Great and King Darius III of Persia. Alexander is depicted in a profile view facing the left side of the mosaic. He is posed in action with his spear or javelin in his right arm being warded off by the hand of an enemy cavalryman gripping it on the shaft below its sharp head as his mount tumbles to the ground. Alexander features a Roman nose and a stoic look in combat. Alexander wears a breastplate with the head of Medusa, a famous Gorgon. This can be seen as a reference to the gorgon's magical head. The head of Medusa's power to turn people to stone was used as a protection in Greek mythology. One other interpretation of the head of the Medusa is its use as a reference to divine birth. Both of these theories contribute to the power presented in the mosaic of Alexander the Great. Alexander rides his horse Bucephalus. He is shown with a lot of curly soft-textured hair. His hair is typical of Greek royal portraiture that was established in the 4th century BC. Alexander's gaze is trained on the Persian King Darius. Note that Alexander does not wear a battle helmet in the mosaic so that he could be recognized as the great conqueror. After Alexander the Great was declared king of Asia around 330 BC, he adopted a new royal court style. His costume was rethought and redesigned with a new royal insignia and an emphasis on decadence. Scholars believe Alexander had a specific notion of what it was to be a king in Asia and to be the Great King, therefore he required his dress to be magnificent to command his new conquered people. Alexander intended to replace Darius as king of Persia with a highly expanded autocracy while commanding respect and authority. Darius can be recognized as the other large figure in the mosaic. Darius and his charioteer takes up a large portion of the mosaic in the right half of the depiction. There are various precarious elements surrounding him. In the background Darius’ charioteer whips the horses to flee from the battle scene. There is visible fear and anxiety in the Persian king's face, seen especially in his furrowed brows and deep frown. Darius is positioned holding a bow in his left hand while his right arm is outstretched towards Alexander. Directly in front of the king's chariot is a soldier holding the reins to his horse. The horse is a large figure that draws much attention because of its backward facing positioning. The horse's hindquarters are facing the audience with a raised tail. This may be seen as a reference to the Persian defeat and weak leadership displayed. Or, more simply, a reference to Darius being "a horse's ass," a turn of phrase that may have been around since ancient days. Other features Darius's brother Oxyathres is also portrayed, sacrificing himself to save the King. Radical foreshortening – as in the central horse, seen from behind – and the use of shading to convey a sense of mass and volume enhance the naturalistic effect of the scene. Repeated diagonal spears, clashing metal, and the crowding of men and horses evoke the din of battle. At the same time, action is arrested by dramatic details such as the fallen horse and the Persian soldier in the foreground who watches his own death throes reflected in a shield. History of the mosaic Production The mosaic is made of about one and a half million tiny colored tiles called tesserae, arranged in gradual curves called opus vermiculatum, (also known as "worm work," because they seem to replicate the slow motion of a crawling worm). The color scale of Roman mosaics are extremely rich in gradation. The process of gathering materials for mosaics was a complex undertaking since the color scale was based solely on the pieces of marble that could be found in nature. The mosaic is an unusually detailed work for a private residence and was likely commissioned by a wealthy person or family. The fact that this scene was made to be viewed in the house of a Roman civilian reveals that Alexander the Great was more than just a heroic image to the Romans. Because Roman leaders followed after Alexander's image, Roman civilians also aspired to emulate the power he represented. Since the mosaic was arranged on the floor where the patron could receive guests, it was the first decorative object a visitor would see upon entering that room. Contextualizing both Greek and Roman versions There is limited evidence in existence today to contextualize many, if not most, rediscovered Roman artworks. The Alexander Mosaic depicts a rich subject narrative of two historical figures engaged in a defining battle. This imagery was most likely placed in the House of the Faun to incorporate and evoke the power of Alexander the Great into Roman canonical depictions. This mosaic is fully capable of communicating a broader message due to its find date and location site, conveying a rich Greek and Roman historical context and background, particularly through its commemoration of a decisive Greek victory over the Persians. There are many specific and intricate details in the Alexander Mosaic. These details can be used as clues to contextualize the scene and to learn more about this historical event. The limitations with this body of knowledge are that these details do not provide full contextualization for the significance of this battle scene inside an ancient Italian home. Modern history The Alexander Mosaic was preserved due to the volcanic ash that collected over the mosaic during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in the city of Pompeii in 79 AD. This Roman artwork was found inlaid into the ground of the House of the Faun in between two open peristyles. The mosaic was used to decorate the exedra which is an open room or area that contains seating that is used for conversing. The House of the Faun was a large estate comprising one whole block in Pompeii; this is an area of about 3,000 square meters. As a significant artwork and piece of history, the scene of the Mosaic remained in the social and cultural sphere. The mosaic was rediscovered in 1831 in Pompeii, Italy, and was later transported to Naples in September 1843. The Alexander Mosaic is now displayed on a wall and preserved in Naples. Until recently it has been on display at the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, although currently its site is covered with a facsimile banner and it appears to have been removed for restoration or display elsewhere. In 1956, the Alexander Mosaic was featured on 1,000 Greek drachma banknotes. Modern copy In 2003, the International Center for the Study and Teaching of Mosaic (CISIM) in Ravenna, Italy, proposed creating a copy of the mosaic. After CISIM received approval for the project, the mosaic master Severo Bignami and his eight-person team took a large photograph of the mosaic, made a tracing of the image with a dark marker and created a negative impression of it. The team composed the mosaic in sections in 44 clay frames, trying to preserve the pieces of the mosaic in the exact positions they are in the original mosaic. They had to keep the plates wet at all times. Then they pressed a tissue on the clay to create an image of the outlines of the mosaic in the clay. The team recreated the mosaic with about 2 million pieces of various marble types. When they had placed all the pieces, they covered the result with a layer of glue and gauze and pulled it out of the clay. They placed each section on synthetic concrete and then united the sections with the compound of glasswool and plastic. The project took 22 months and cost the equivalent of $216,000. The copy was installed in the House of the Faun in 2005. Gallery References External links Reconstructed and completed Alexander mosaic. 1831 archaeological discoveries Mosaics Ancient art on Alexander the Great Hellenistic art Collections of the National Archaeological Museum, Naples War art Ancient Greek military art Archaeological discoveries in Italy Roman mosaics Cultural depictions of Medusa Darius III

262893

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicante%20Bouschet

Alicante Bouschet

Alicante Bouschet or Alicante Henri Bouschet is a wine grape variety that has been widely cultivated since 1866. It is a cross of Petit Bouschet (itself a cross of the very old variety Teinturier du Cher and Aramon) and Grenache. Alicante is a teinturier, a grape with red flesh. It is one of the few teinturier grapes that belong to the Vitis vinifera species. Its deep colour makes it useful for blending with light red wine. It was planted heavily during Prohibition in California for export to the East Coast. Its thick skin made it resistant to rot during the transportation process. The intense red color was also helpful for stretching the wine during prohibition, as it could be diluted without detracting from the appearance. At the turn of the 21st century, Alicante Bouschet was the 12th most planted red wine grape in France with sizable plantings in the Languedoc, Provence and Cognac regions. In 1958, Alicante Bouschet covered 24,168 hectares (mainly across southern France); by 2011, plantings represented less than 4,000 hectares. This scenario is largely reversed in other regions of Europe, and in southern Portugal, where its wines are highly prized and frequently outscore traditional autochthonous varieties. History and breeding The grape was first cultivated in France in 1866 by Henri Bouschet as a cross of Petit Bouschet and Grenache. The Petit Bouschet grape was created by his father Louis Bouschet. The result was to produce a grape with deep color and of higher quality than the Teinturier du Cher. Several varieties of Alicante Bouschet were produced of varying quality. The grape's high yields and easy maintenance encouraged its popularity among French wine growers, especially in the years following the Phylloxera epidemic. By the end of the 19th century there were Alicante Bouschet plantings in Bordeaux, Burgundy, Loire Valley and Alentejo, Portugal The grape was widely popular in the United States during the years of Prohibition. Grape growers in California's Central Valley found that its pulp was so fleshy and juicy that fermentable juice could be retrieved even after the third pressing. In contrast, wines made from grapes like Chardonnay and Merlot typically only include the juice from the free run (before pressing) and first or second pressing. The grape's thick skin also meant that it could survive the long railway transportation from California to New York City's Pennsylvania Station which had auction rooms where the grapes were sold. The superior transportability of this variety was significant because of a ruling by the Internal Revenue Service on July 25, 1920, in connection with original wording in the Volstead Act, which allowed up to 200 gallons of home-made wine per year, per household, for consumption in the home only. In 1928, one single auction lot of 225 carloads of grapes were purchased by a single buyer. The amount of grapes was enough to make more than of wine. Wine regions In France, the grape was historically a blending partner with Aramon but in recent times has been made more into its own varietal. However, planting of new vines has steadily declined. In some areas of France the grape is now extinct. According to international wine guru and Master of Wine, Jancis Robinson, Alicante Bouschet is thought to have found its true home in Portugal's Alentejo where it was first planted at Herdade do Mouchão in the late 1800s. Widely planted across the Alentejo wine region today (having grown exponentially in popularity from the late 1990s) it is frequently expensive, surpassing the quality and personality of other noble varieties. These top-end wines are prized for their 'size', dense colour and phenolic content. In Chile the grape is blended with Cabernet Sauvignon and to make concentrated varietal wines. In California the grape was popular among home winemakers during Prohibition and still grown today in Napa, Sonoma, Madera, and Calaveras counties. Other areas with notable Alicante Bouschet plantings include Algeria, Israel and parts of central and southern Italy. In Spain Alicante Bouschet is called garnacha tintorera or negral and it is the fifth most planted red grape variety in with 22,572 ha (55,776 acres) grown in 2015. Viticulture and wine Recognized by many today as a noble red variety (particularly in southern Iberia), Alicante Bouschet is known for its deep dark color, more than 15 times the color of Aramon and twice the darkness of the Grand Noir de la Calmette. Under specific conditions, the grape can produce high yields of up to 80 hl/ha. It buds and ripens early-to-mid season to produce wines high in alcohol, particularly where jamminess is valued and extended 'hang-time' is practiced. The wines tend to be short on primary aromas and can lack character and complexity when young. Alicante Bouschet performs best under specific conditions and where tertiary aromas are allowed to predominate through ageing. The grape vine is thought to be prone to grape diseases like anthracnose, downy mildew and occasionally bunch rots in rare instances where bunches are tight at harvest. Alicante Bouschet leaves turn a beautiful purple hue in late autumn. Synonyms Alicante Bouschet is also known under the synonyms Alicant de Pays, Alicante, Alicante Bouchet, Alicante Bouschet 2, Alicante Extra Fertile, Alicante Femminello, Alicante H. Boushet, Alicante Henri Bouschet, Alicante Nero, Alicante Noir, Alicante Tinto, Alicantina, Alikant Buse, Alikant Buse Bojadiser, Alikant Bushe, Alikant Bushe Ekstrafertil, Alikant Bushe Nr. 2, Alikant Genri Bushe, Alikante Henri Bouschet, Aragonais, Aragones, Arrenaou, Baga, Bakir Uezuemue, Barvarica, Blasco, Bojadiserka, Carignan Jaune, Cupper Grape, Dalmatinka, Garnacha, Garnacha Tintorera, Lhadoner, Kambuša, Moraton, Mouraton, Murviedro, Negral, Pe de Perdiz, Pe de Pombo, Petit Bouschet, Redondal, Rivesaltes, Rivos Altos, Roussillon, Rouvaillard, Sumo Tinto, Tinta Fina, Tinta Francesa, Tinto, Tinto Nero, Tinto Velasco, Tintorera, Tintorera de Liria, Tintorera de Longares, Tinturao, and Uva di Spagna. Crosses Alibernet - crossing of Alicante Bouschet x Cabernet Sauvignon was bred in 1950 in the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute for Wine and Vines in Odessa. It is planted in Slovakia, Hungary and the Czech Republic. Lusitano - Alicante Bouschet is thought to be a parent of this rare Portuguese grape having been crossed with Castelão (aka Periquita) "Roger's Red" — Prized for its scarlet-crimson fall leaf color, this naturally occurring hybrid of Vitus californica and Vitus vinfera "Alicante Bouschet" was discovered in Sonoma County, California, in 1983 by Roger Raiche. It is widely propagated and sold in nurseries. Genetic testing at the University of California, Davis, confirmed its hybrid status, not a natural variant of the native California grape. See also List of Portuguese grape varieties References External links Appellation America Alicante Bouschet An amateur grower's view Red wine grape varieties

262899

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20eider

Common eider

The common eider (pronounced ) (Somateria mollissima), also called St. Cuthbert's duck or Cuddy's duck, is a large ( in body length) sea-duck that is distributed over the northern coasts of Europe, North America and eastern Siberia. It breeds in Arctic and some northern temperate regions, but winters somewhat farther south in temperate zones, when it can form large flocks on coastal waters. It can fly at speeds up to . The eider's nest is built close to the sea and is lined with eiderdown, plucked from the female's breast. This soft and warm lining has long been harvested for filling pillows and quilts, but in more recent years has been largely replaced by down from domestic farm-geese and synthetic alternatives. Although eiderdown pillows or quilts are now a rarity, eiderdown harvesting continues and is sustainable, as it can be done after the ducklings leave the nest with no harm to the birds. Taxonomy The common eider was formally named by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He placed it with all the other ducks in the genus Anas and coined the binomial name Anas mollissima. It is now placed with two other species in the genus Somateria that was introduced in 1819 by the English zoologist William Leach. The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek : sōma "body" (stem somat-) and : erion "wool". The specific mollissimus is Latin meaning "very soft". Both parts of the name refer to its down feathers. Six subspecies are recognised: S. m. v-nigrum Bonaparte & Gray, GR, 1855 – breeds in northeast Asia and Alaska; winters in the Bering Sea and the Aleutian Islands S. m. borealis (Brehm, CL, 1824) – breeds in northeast Canada, Greenland and Iceland; winters in the north Atlantic S. m. sedentaria Snyder, 1941 – breeds in Hudson Bay and James Bay (Canada) S. m. dresseri Sharpe, 1871 – breeds in southeast Canada and northeast USA; winters around northwest Atlantic coasts S. m. faeroeensis Brehm, CL, 1831 – Faroe Islands S. m. mollissima (Linnaeus, 1758) – breeds in northwest Eurasia; winters in northwest and central Europe Description The common eider is both the largest of the four eider species and the largest duck found in Europe, and is exceeded in North America only by smatterings of the Muscovy duck, which only reaches North America in a wild state in southernmost Texas (and arguably south Florida where feral but non-native populations reside). It measures in length, weighs and spans across the wings. The average weight of 22 males in the North Atlantic was while 32 females weighed an average of . It is characterized by its bulky shape and large, wedge-shaped bill. The male is unmistakable, with its black and white plumage and green nape. The female is a brown bird, but can still be readily distinguished from all ducks, except other eider species, on the basis of size and head shape. The drake's display call is a strange almost human-like "ah-ooo," while the hen utters hoarse quacks. The species is often readily approachable. Drakes of the European, eastern North American and Asia/western North American races can be distinguished by minor differences in plumage and bill colour. Some authorities place the subspecies v-nigra as a separate species. This species dives for crustaceans and molluscs, with mussels being a favoured food. The eider will eat mussels by swallowing them whole; the shells are then crushed in their gizzard and excreted. When eating a crab, the eider will remove all of its claws and legs, and then eat the body in a similar fashion. It is abundant, with populations of about 1.5–2 million birds in both North America and Europe, and also large but unknown numbers in eastern Siberia (HBW). A particularly famous colony of eiders lives on the Farne Islands in Northumberland, England. These birds were the subject of one of the first ever bird protection laws, established by Saint Cuthbert in the year 676. About 1,000 pairs still nest there every year. Because St. Cuthbert is the patron saint of Northumberland, it was natural that the eider should be chosen as the county's emblem bird; the birds are still often called Cuddy's ducks in the area, "Cuddy" being the familiar form of "Cuthbert". In Canada's Hudson Bay, important eider die-offs were observed in the 1990s by local populations due to quickly changing ice flow patterns. The Canadian Wildlife Service has spent several years gathering up-to-date information on their populations, and preliminary results seem to show a population recovery. The common eider is the object of the 2011 documentary People of a Feather, which studies the historical relationship between the Sanikiluaq community and eiders, as well as various aspects of their ecology. The common eider is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Social behaviour Eiders are colonial breeders. They nest on coastal islands in colonies ranging in size of less than 100 to upwards of 15,000 individuals. Female eiders frequently exhibit a high degree of natal philopatry, where they return to breed on the same island where they were hatched. This can lead to a high degree of relatedness between individuals nesting on the same island, as well as the development of kin-based female social structures. This relatedness has likely played a role in the evolution of co-operative breeding behaviours amongst eiders. Examples of these behaviours include laying eggs in the nests of related individuals and crèching, where female eiders team up and share the work of rearing ducklings. Gallery References External links Common Eider Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Massachusetts Breeding Bird Atlas – Common Eider Eider Duck Hunting information and pictures. YouTube video of Eider eating a crab Feathers of Common Eider (Somateria molissima) common eider Holarctic birds common eider common eider Articles containing video clips

262901

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eider%20%28disambiguation%29

Eider (disambiguation)

Eider are large seaducks in the genus Somateria, including: Common eider (Somateria mollissima) Spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) King eider (Somateria spectabilis) Eider may also refer to: Steller's eider (Polysticta stelleri) of the duck subfamily Merginae Eider (river), in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany Eider (Amt Kirchspielslandgemeinde), a collective municipality in Dithmarschen, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany Eider (brand), Korean company Surnames Max Eider (born Peter Millson), a guitarist and songwriter Rabbi Shimon Eider, a rabbi Forenames Eider Arévalo (born 1993), Colombian racewalker Eider Torres, (born 1983), baseball player from Venezuela Fictional characters Eider Duck, a Disney character who is Donald Duck's paternal uncle Sir Eider McDuck, a Disney character who is an ancestor of Scrooge McDuck and Donald Duck Aunt Eider, a Disney character who is the aunt of both Scrooge McDuck and John D. Rockerduck Ships , a motor schooner in commission in the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries from 1919 to 1940, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service from 1940 to 1949, and U.S. Geological Survey from 1949 to 1954 See also Eder (disambiguation)

262902

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20Friesen

Patrick Friesen

Patrick Frank Friesen (born 5 July 1946) is a Canadian author born in a Mennonite family in Steinbach, Manitoba. He is known primarily for his poetry and stage plays beginning in 1970. Friesen studied at the University of Manitoba and lived in Winnipeg for thirty years. As a child growing in Steinbach, he was friends with Shingoose, who later became a well-known musician. In addition to poetry, Friesen has also written songs and collaborated with dancers, choreographers, composers and musicians. His Mennonite upbringing still influences his writing in work such as “The Shunning,” which is about the persecution of a Mennonite farmer questioning his religion. Friesen won the McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award at the Manitoba Book Awards for his work on “Blasphemer’s Wheel," and was runner up in Milton Acorn’s People’s Poetry Awards. In 1997, his work, “A Broken Bowl,” was short listed for the Governor General's Award for English-language poetry. Friesen collaborated with Per Brask on the translation from Danish of Ulrikka S. Gernes' Frayed Opus for Strings & Wind Instruments, which has been shortlisted for the 2016 Griffin Poetry Prize. Friesen lives in Victoria, BC, and is a teacher of creative writing at the University of Victoria. Bibliography The Lands I Am – 1976 Bluebottle – 1978 The Shunning – 1980 Unearthly Horses – 1985 Flicker and Hawk – 1987 You Don't Get to Be a Saint – 1992 Blashphemer's Wheel: Selected and New Poems – 1994 A Broken Bowl – 1997 (nominated for a Governor General's Award) St. Mary at Main – 1998 Carrying the Shadow – 1999 (nominated for the Dorothy Livesay Poetry Prize) The Breath You Take from the Lord – 2002 (nominated for the Dorothy Livesay Poetry Prize)\ Bordello Poems – 2004 Interim: Essays and Mediations – 2005 Earth's Crude Gravities – 2007 jumping in the asylum - 2011 a dark boat - 2012 a short history of crazy bone - 2015 songen - 2018 Outlasting the Weather: Selected and New Poems - 2020 Audio Blue Door – 1997 (with Marilyn Lerner) Small Rooms – 2003 (with Marilyn Lerner) Calling the Dog Home – 2005 (with Marilyn Lerner) Anthologies An Anthology of Prairie Poetry – 1981 (Draft) Ride Off Any Horizon – 1983 Visions and Reality – 1985 Pieces of the Jigsaw: A Multicultural Anthology for Young Readers – 1986Why I am a Mennonite – 1988Section Lines: A Manitoba Anthology – 1986A Labour of Love – 1989A/long Prairie Lines: An Anthology of Long Prairie Poems – 1989Liars and Rascals, anthology of Mennonite short stories – 1989Prairie Fire: New Mennonite Writing – 1989Mennonite/s Writing in Canada – 1990The Perfect Piece, Monologues from Canadian Plays – 1990Inscriptions, A Prairie Poetry Anthology – 1992Let the Earth Take Note, First Anthology of the National Milton Acorn Festival from 1987 to 1991 – 1994Poetry and Knowing, essays – 1995Our Fathers, Poetry and Prose, by daughters and sons from the prairies – 1995Instant Applause, Volume II, Thirty Very Short Complete Plays – 1996Passeport: La Poésie Moderne de Langue Anglaise au Canada – 1998Following the Plough: Recovering the Rural – 2000New Life in Dark Seas: Brick Books 25 – 2000Mocambo Nights: Poetry From the Mocambo Reading Series – 2001The New Long Line Anthology, 2nd Edition – 200115 Canadian Poets x 3 – 2001Why I Sing the Blues' – 2001 Instant Applause: Twenty-nine Very Short Complete Plays – 2004 Other works and collaborations The Shunning, the Play, staged in 1985 by Prairie Theatre Exchange in Winnipeg, in 1992 by Theatre & Co. in Kitchener, in 1992 by Trinity Theatre in Livonia, Michigan, in 1993 by MAUS Theatre in B.C., and in 1995 by Two Planks and a Passion in Nova Scotia. Amanda, a short drama on CBC Radio Manitoba, 1986. Anna, a dance/words collaboration with choreographer Stephanie Ballard, with guest artist Margie Gillis, performed in 1987 at the Gas Station Theatre in Winnipeg. Noah, a multi-disciplinary collaboration, presented as a working piece in 1987 at Main Access Gallery, Winnipeg. Singer, a docu-drama on Richard Manuel for CBC Radio Manitoba, 1989 (with Big Dave McLean). The Shunning, a one-hour radio adaptation for CBC Radio Canada, 1990 (producer: John Juliani). Second Birth, a short drama for CBC Radio Canada, 1991. Handful of Rain, a multi-disciplinary collaboration with Dance Collective, and various artists, performed at Gas Station Theatre, Winnipeg, April 1991. The Raft, an original play, performed January 1992 at Prairie Theatre Exchange in Winnipeg, in February 1995 by Theatre & Co. in Kitchener. The Raft, adapted for CBC Radio Canada, by Nancy Trites Botkin (producer: Kathleen Flaherty), 1997. Friday, 6:32 p.m., an original short play written for the Short Shots series, staged by the Manitoba Association of Playwrights, 1993. Old Woman and the Bones, collaboration with composer Michael Matthews, the musical group Thira, and Primus Theatre, staged at the New Music Festival in Winnipeg in February 1993. Madrugada (a longer version of Old Woman and the Bones), performed by Groundswell and Primus Theatre at the Franco-Manitoban Cultural Centre in Winnipeg, April 1995. The Shunning, adapted, choreographed and performed by Motus O dance theatre at the Tarragon Theatre, Toronto, 13–17 Sept. 1995. Broken Bowl (a segment from A Broken Bowl), created, performed with jazz pianist Marilyn Lerner, Sunstone Coffee, Winnipeg, 17 July 1996, at The Glass Slipper, Vancouver, 3 Oct 1996, four performances at the Atlantic Jazz Festival, Halifax, July 1997, and recorded by CBC Radio Manitoba, and called Blue Door (Producer: Andrea Ratuski), 1996. Voice, a radio documentary (featuring Big Dave McLean and Tracey Dahl), by CBC Radio Manitoba (Producer: Andrea Ratuski), 1996. Film Esther Warkov: A Spy in the House; producer – 1983. Don Proch: The Spirit of Assessippi; writer/producer/director – 1985. Patrick Lane; director/producer – 1985. A Ritual of Horses: The Art of Michael Olito; director – 1987. Rising to Dance, a documentary on senior students at the Royal Winnipeg Ballet; director – 1990. Together As One: A Dance Collaboration; writer/director/producer – 1991. References External links Patrick Friesen fonds (R11734) at Library and Archives Canada 1946 births Living people Canadian Mennonites Mennonite writers 20th-century Canadian poets Canadian male poets 21st-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian male writers 21st-century Canadian male writers Writers from Steinbach, Manitoba

262904

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor%20%28grape%29

Chancellor (grape)

Chancellor is a hybrid wine grape variety produced by Albert Seibel c. 1860. It is also known as Seibel 7053 and is a cross of Seibel 5163 and Seibel 880. The grape produces a fruity red wine. It is susceptible to both downy and powdery mildew. Synonyms Chancellor is also known under the synonyms or breeding codes S 70-53, S-7053, Seibel 70-53, and Seibel 7053. References Red wine grape varieties Seibel grapes

262905

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20McCord

James McCord

James or Jim McCord may refer to: James Bennett McCord (1870–1950), American medical missionary, physician, and founder of McCord Zulu Hospital James W. McCord Jr. (1924–2017), American CIA officer and Watergate scandal figure James I. McCord (1919–1990), Canadian-born president of Princeton Theological Seminary Jim Nance McCord (1879–1968), American journalist and governor of Tennessee Jim McCord (American football) (1932–2009), American football coach

262906

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20format

Open format

An open format is a file format for storing digital data, defined by a published specification usually maintained by a standards organization, and which can be used and implemented by anyone. For example, an open format can be implemented by both proprietary and free and open-source software, using the typical software licenses used by each. In contrast to open formats, closed formats are considered trade secrets. Open formats are also called free file formats if they are not encumbered by any copyrights, patents, trademarks or other restrictions (for example, if they are in the public domain) so that anyone may use the format at no monetary cost for any desired purpose. However, the actual image used by an open format may still be copyrighted or trademarked. Depending on the definition, the specification of an open format may require a fee to access or, very rarely, contain other restrictions. The range of meanings is similar to that of the term open standard. Specific definitions Sun Microsystems Sun Microsystems defined the criteria for open formats as follows: The format is based on an underlying open standard The format is developed through a publicly visible, community driven process The format is affirmed and maintained by a vendor-independent standards organization The format is fully documented and publicly available The format does not contain proprietary extensions UK government In 2012 the UK Government created the policy Open Standards Principles, stating that the Open Standards Principles apply to every aspect of government IT and that Government technology must remain open to everyone. They have seven principles for selecting open standards for use in government, following these principals many open formats were adopted, notably Open Document Format (ODF). The seven principles for selecting open standards for use in the UK government are: Open standards must meet user needs Open standards must give suppliers equal access to government contracts Open standards must support flexibility and change Open standards must support sustainable cost Select open standards using well-informed decisions Select open standards using fair and transparent processes Specify and implement open standards using fair and transparent processes US government Within the framework of Open Government Initiative, the federal government of the United States adopted the Open Government Directive, according to which: "An open format is one that is platform independent, machine readable, and made available to the public without restrictions that would impede the re-use of that information". State of Minnesota The State of Minnesota defines the criteria for open, XML-based file formats as follows: The format is interoperable among diverse internal and external platforms and applications The format is fully published and available royalty-free The format is implemented by multiple vendors The format is controlled by an open industry organization with a well-defined inclusive process for evolution of the standard Commonwealth of Massachusetts The Commonwealth of Massachusetts "defines open formats as specifications for data file formats that are based on an underlying open standard, developed by an open community, affirmed and maintained by a standards body and are fully documented and publicly available." The Enterprise Technical Reference Model (ETRM) classifies four formats as "Open Formats": OASIS Open Document Format For Office Applications (OpenDocument) v. 1.1 Ecma-376 Office Open XML Formats (Open XML) Hypertext Document Format v. 4.01 Plain Text Format The Linux Information Project According to The Linux Information Project, the term open format should refer to "any format that is published for anyone to read and study but which may or may not be encumbered by patents, copyrights or other restrictions on use" – as opposed to a free format which is not encumbered by any copyrights, patents, trademarks or other restrictions. Examples of open formats Open formats (in the royalty-free and free access sense) include: PNG — a raster image format standardized by ISO/IEC FLAC — lossless audio codec WebM — a video/audio container format HTML — is the main markup language for creating web pages and other information that can be displayed in a web browser. gzip — for compression CSS — style sheet format usually used with (X)HTML, standardized by W3C The following formats are open (royalty-free with a one-time fee on the standard): PDF: old versions are free in both senses, but since PDF 1.8 the standards require a fee; Office Open XML: the ECMA version is free to access, but the newer ISO versions require a fee; OpenDocument: As adopted by the UK Government in 2012 to meet their open standards principles, for Government technology to remain open to everyone. C language: royalty-free, but ISO standard requires a fee (drafts available for free); See also Embrace, extend, and extinguish Free protocol Free software List of open-source codecs Open educational resources Open source Open system Open content Network effect Vendor lock-in References External links OpenFormats Practical Advice for using Free Formats from Ubuntu Community Documentation Study on the: Economic impact of open source software on innovation and the competitiveness of the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) sector in the EU, 2006 EU report in favor of adopting open source software Free File Format Definition Definition of Free Cultural Works Computer file formats

262907

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladan%20and%20Laleh%20Bijani

Ladan and Laleh Bijani

Ladan and Laleh Bijani (Persian: ; 17 January 1974 – 8 July 2003) were Iranian conjoined twin sisters. They were joined at the head and died soon after their complicated surgical separation. Coincidentally, the twins were born a century to the day after the deaths of Chang and Eng Bunker, also conjoined twins, famously known as the "original" Siamese twins. Biography They were born in Firuzabad, a city in southwest Iran, to Dadollah Bijani and Maryam Safari, members of a farming family from the nearby Lohrasb village. The Bijani sisters were lost in a hospital in 1979 after the doctors responsible for them had to suddenly leave for the United States during the revolution in Iran. The Bijanis' parents did not find the sisters again until several years later in the city of Karaj near Tehran, where Alireza Safaian had adopted them. While in his custody, Safaian attempted to protect them by ostracizing them from the world as best as he could. In 1996, after years of searching, the girls' biological parents finally tracked them down and made contact. Now in their early twenties, the twins lived on their own in an apartment while attending law school. Ladan wanted to be a lawyer, while Laleh wished to become a journalist; in the end, they settled on Ladan's choice. They studied law for four years at Tehran University. Most other personal decisions also had to meet each other's approval. For these and other reasons, they had wanted to be separated since they were children. Laleh hoped that she could then move to Tehran, the capital city of Iran, to study journalism, while Ladan wanted to continue with graduate studies in law and then move to Shiraz. In addition, the sisters had different hobbies. While Laleh liked to, among other things, play computer games, Ladan preferred computer programming. Ladan also described Laleh as more introverted and herself quite talkative. Separation In 1996, they travelled to Germany, trying to convince doctors there to separate them; the German doctors however declined to operate, saying that the risk of separation surgery would be too high for both of them. In November 2002, after meeting Keith Goh, the Bijani sisters travelled to Singapore to undergo the controversial operation. Even though they were warned by the doctors that the surgery to separate them would still be very risky, the sisters were very determined. Their decision to proceed with the operation led to considerable international media interest. After eight months in Singapore, doing extensive psychiatric and legal evaluations, they underwent surgery on 6 July 2003, under the care of a large team of international specialists at Raffles Hospital, composed of 28 surgeons and more than 100 support staff working in shifts. A specially-designed chair was required that allowed the operation to be performed with both sisters in a sitting position. The attempt to separate the twins turned out to be very difficult, because their brains not only shared a major vein (the superior sagittal sinus), but had fused together. In addition, an undetected major vein hidden from the scans was discovered during the operation. The separation was achieved on 8 July 2003, but it was announced then that the twins were in critical condition, both having lost a large volume of blood due to complications of the operation. The separation stage of the surgery was completed at 13:30, but there was significant blood loss during the blood vessel repairing process, and Ladan died at around 14:30 on the operating table; her sister Laleh died 19 minutes later. Their deaths were announced by the chairman of Raffles Hospital, Loo Choon Yong. Burials The sisters were buried in accordance to Shiite Muslim traditions in separate tombs, side by side, in Lohrasb. The sisters willed their property to blind and orphaned children. A documentary about the operation was broadcast soon after. Later, people named 17 January as Hope's day. References External links "Surgeons' sorrow at death of twins" - BBC News article, July 8, 2003, containing an account by Dr. Loo of the operation. Last retrieved November 15, 2006. "Till Death Do Us Part", from Wired, by Joshua Davis. October 2003. Last retrieved November 15, 2006. 1974 births 2003 deaths Conjoined twins Deaths from bleeding Iranian Shia Muslims People from Firuzabad, Fars People from Tehran Twin people from Iran University of Tehran alumni Deaths in Singapore

262915

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luo%20Gan

Luo Gan

Luo Gan (; born July 18, 1935) is a retired Chinese politician. Between 2002 and 2007, Luo was one of China's top leaders, serving as a member of the nine-man Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, and as the Secretary of Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission (Zhengfawei), which became one of China's most powerful political offices, and well-funded bureaucracies, during Luo's term. In his Zhengfawei role, Luo held oversight for many law-enforcement institutions, including the police, public security officers, armed police, labor camps, prisons, and the judicial system. Luo retired from politics in 2007. Early career Luo Gan was born in Jinan, Shandong province. In 1953, he began studying engineering at the Beijing Steel and Iron Institute. A year later, he was selected as part of a Chinese contingent to go study at Karl Marx University in Leipzig, East Germany where he studied German language. He interned at the Leipzig steel and metalworks plant. He then continued studying machine works at Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg. Luo joined the Communist Party of China in 1960, while still in Germany. It was said that Luo had stellar grades and won the Agricola prize for academic achievement while studying in Germany. Upon returning to China, Luo continued to work in the steel industry, first being sent to the First Ministry of Machine-Building, a state-run department in charge of machines, telecommunications, and shipbuilding. There he worked as a technician and project leader in its mechanics department. As a technical specialist, Luo, like many others in his field, were displaced from their posts during much of the Cultural Revolution, and sent to perform manual labour at a May 7 Cadre School. In 1970, Luo returned to work in Henan province, working for a government machine-building project in Luohe, then transferred to Zhengzhou. Rise to power In October 1978, as part of a nationwide reshuffle following the demise of the Gang of Four, former First Machine-Building minister Duan Junyi took on the post of party chief of central Henan Province. While in Henan, Duan was eager to promote his former associates, including Luo Gan. In 1980, Luo was made head of the provincial science and technology commission, and also a leader in the provincial trade office. A year later, Luo was made Vice Governor of Henan. In 1983, Luo was sent to Beijing and became deputy chairman of the All-China Federation of Trade Unions, the state-sponsored trade union group. As a major leader of the ACFTU, Luo was in charge of the day-to-day management of the organization. As a result of his tenure in the union, Luo was made Minister of Labour in March 1988. In December 1988, Luo took over duties of the Secretary-General of the State Council as a result of the illness of his predecessor Chen Junsheng. During his term as a minister, Luo had developed a close relationship with Li Peng came to be considered one of Li's protégés. Luo was appointed a State Councilor, a position with equivalent rank but slightly lesser responsibility compared as a Vice-Premier, in 1993. He served in the position until 2003. In September 1997 at the 15th Party Congress, Luo advanced further, being named a Secretary of the Central Secretariat, the Secretary of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission (Zhengfawei), and a member of the 15th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party, joining the inner sanctum of party leaders. Luo oversaw a diverse portfolio with jurisdiction over law enforcement and internal security, as well as "comprehensive social management", a nebulous new phrase that essentially meant asserting control and preventing organized protests and social disturbances; as part of his responsibilities, he was tasked by Jiang Zemin to head the 610 Office, an extrajudicial organ established to suppress the spiritual group Falun Gong. As a result of his role, Luo faced heavy criticism from Falun Gong adherents. Standing Committee Luo entered the Politburo Standing Committee in 2002, at the 16th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party at the age of 67. The Standing Committee was expanded from seven members to nine in 2002, some say as a result of then-Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin attempting to stack the body with his supporters. Luo, then branded by overseas media as an associate of Li Peng, became a major beneficiary of this increase in membership. That he held a seat on the nation's highest ruling council, coupled with the relative weakness of the new party General Secretary Hu Jintao, as well as the general focus placed by the Communist Party on internal security and combating dissent to party authority, vastly increased the power of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission. Regarded as the "security chief" of the country, Luo implemented the "strike hard" campaign against extremism in Xinjiang and against organised crime, increasing the harshness of sentences; some suggest that this policy led to increased executions; it was said that Luo had personally directed the suppression of "illegal organisations" such as the Falun Gong movement and protests such as that at the Pubugou Dam protest in 2004. Luo's term as the chief of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission was also characterized by proponents of the Weiquan movement as having further solidified party control over legal and judicial affairs, and thus impeding progress on human rights and legal freedoms. During his tenure, Luo was seen to have warned party officials to rein in judicial independence and but also pay heed to the international implications of legal activities in China, while also expanding "rule by law". Luo retired from the Politburo Standing Committee at the age of 72, after the 17th Party Congress in October 2007. By 2007, rules related to mandated retirement age have been largely entrenched within the Communist Party hierarchy. Luo, as the oldest member of the Standing Committee by that time, naturally must retire. His Zhengfawei portfolio was then inherited by Zhou Yongkang, a former oil baron who went on to oversee an even greater expansion of powers of the portfolio. Zhou was eventually convicted on corruption charges and sentenced to prison in 2015. Luo largely disappeared from the public eye following his retirement in 2007. In 2015, the Chinese authorities published Luo Gan on Law and Politics Work in China (), a compilation of Luo's thoughts on law enforcement work during his tenure. Luo also made a public appearance at the 2015 China Victory Day Parade. On December 17th 2009, Argentinian Federal Judge Octavio Araoz de Lamadrid issued a national and international Interpol warrant for the detention of Luo Gan, along with Jiang Zemin. The warrant was issued with basis on the investigation of 17 testimonies of Falun Gong practitioners victims of persecution, along with reports by Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and the UN detailed in case Nº 17885/2005. References External links Luo Gan biography @ China Vitae, online database of China VIPs 1935 births Living people Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Chinese Communist Party politicians from Shandong Politicians from Jinan People's Republic of China politicians from Shandong Members of the 16th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Members of the 15th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party State councillors of China

262917

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%20Changchun

Li Changchun

Li Changchun (born February 1, 1944) is a retired Chinese politician and a former senior leader of the Communist Party of China. He served on the Politburo Standing Committee, the Communist Party's top leadership council, and as the top official in charge of propaganda, between 2002 and 2012. He also served as Chairman of the CPC Central Guidance Commission for Building Spiritual Civilization, de facto head of propaganda and media relations. Li had a widely varying political career spanning three provinces, first as Governor of Liaoning, then Party Secretary of Henan, and then Party Secretary of Guangdong, before being promoted to the national leadership in 2002. He retired in 2012. Biography Early life and career Li Changchun was born in February 1944 in modern-day Dalian, Liaoning, then administered by the Empire of Japan as "Dairen", Kwantung Leased Territory. He joined the Communist Party of China in 1965 and graduated with a degree in electrical engineering from the Harbin Institute of Technology in 1966. In 1983, at age 39, he became the youngest mayor and Party secretary of a major city, of Shenyang, the capital of Liaoning. In 1982, he was also made an alternate member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China at the age of 38, the youngest member of the body at the time. In 1987, he became governor of Liaoning province, a post he kept until 1990. As governor, mainland China's first expressway was built in the province, linking the cities of Shenyang and Dalian. In addition, Li pushed for the reform of state-owned enterprises, aiming to decrease state involvement in their operations. After General Secretary Zhao Ziyang was purged from the party leadership in 1989 during the fallout from the Tiananmen Square protests that same year, Li was initially also thought to have been removed from the leadership because he was a supporter of Zhao. Li's appearance on state television weeks later showed that this was not the case. In 1990, Li was transferred from his job in Liaoning province to central Henan province. In his memoirs, Li recounted that he was ill-prepared for his new assignment and felt homesick. The central authorities had not given him much prior notice about his transfer, and did not inform him why he was being moved or facilitate an orderly transition process. Li, as a result, was somewhat critical of the party's transfer process but nonetheless duly accepted his new assignment. He had succeeded then-Henan governor Cheng Weigao, who had been transferred to Hebei province as part of a three-province 'leader swap' orchestrated by the party's leaders. Henan, a populous agricultural province without a strong industrial base, presented Li with significant challenges, and Li had experienced unease settling into his new home. Two years later, in 1992, Li was promoted to party chief of Henan. It would be Li's first job as "first-in-charge" of a province. Being accustomed to serving in government administration, Li's tenure in Henan was his first taste of being in charge of party affairs. Li said that initially being the top leader in the province made him uncomfortable as he had to shoulder all responsibility, especially at a time when other regions were developing economically at a pace much faster than that of Henan. Overall, his tenure in Henan was seen as mediocre. Rural incomes remained stagnant during his term, and his government was also criticized for its role in the Plasma Economy, where farmers were encouraged to donate blood through unsafe practices, triggering China's largest outbreak of HIV/AIDS. Guangdong Li was promoted to the Politburo of the Communist Party of China in 1997, largely due to having secured the patronage of the paramount leader and Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin. In his memoirs, Li said that he was surprised at having been appointed to the Politburo. In 1998, Jiang dispatched Li to serve as Guangdong Party Secretary. It was said that Jiang wanted to use Li as a counterbalance to the entrenched local political establishment composed mostly of people native to the province. In Guangdong, Li cracked down on corruption to "put the house in order." In the wake of the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997-98, Li set up a special task force to evaluate what to do with non-performing loans owed by two of the province's largest financial companies. He appointed former central bank deputy governor Wang Qishan to oversee the task force. Li shook up the local banking sector and closed a plethora of local credit unions and agencies. He also increased access to the legal aid system for the poor in the province. His tenure in Guangdong was seen as largely successful, having averted the brunt of the Asian Financial Crisis and also bringing Guangdong back to the political control of the central leadership under Jiang Zemin. Li's tenure in Guangdong made him one of Jiang's favourites and as such Jiang was preparing to groom him for succession for the premiership upon incumbent Premier Zhu Rongji's scheduled retirement in 2003. However, Zhu had been favouring Wen Jiabao for the Premier office, and criticized Li over his handling of an "export rebate fraud" scandal in the coastal city of Shantou in 2000, which took place during Li's term as Guangdong party chief. Li's intention to promote Huang Liman, a female friend of Jiang's who was considered incompetent, to the party chief position in the coastal city of Shenzhen became a sticking point for Jiang's political opponents. Politburo Standing Committee As expected, Li was named a member of the Politburo Standing Committee after Jiang's departure as General Secretary of the Communist Party in 2002. By then, Li was seen by political observers as firmly belonging to Jiang's camp. He was considered one of Jiang's major 'patronage appointments' to the top ruling council along with other staunch Jiang loyalists such as Jia Qinglin and Huang Ju. Li was ranked eighth in the party hierarchy out of the nine members of the new PSC, given the portfolio of supervising the Party organs that dealt with propaganda and ideology while taking on no other official party or state titles. Li was the first propaganda chief to preside over the growth of the internet in China, and as a result was largely seen as having been the forerunner in developing the internet censorship regime that became increasingly extensive over the course of his tenure. In October 2007, at the 17th Party Congress, it was announced that Li, then aged 63 (below the unofficial age of retirement for PSC members, 67), would serve another term as propaganda chief. In addition, Li was elevated from eight position in the protocol sequence to fifth, in front of Hu Jintao's putative successor Xi Jinping. There were high hopes among some in media circles that Li would signal a more liberal change from the strictures of former propaganda chief Ding Guangen. Li had made a major speech advocating that media stay "close to the public" and to real events, "instead of mechanically following Party directives." In addition, Li was also seen as a leading reformer due to his legacy in Guangdong, where he was not afraid to take on entrenched interests and introduce further market economic reforms. The hopes were short-lived however, though, after the Central Propaganda Department began closing newspapers, firing journalists, and would not allow foreign companies to produce content for TV stations in China. Many editors were punished and Li Changchun "started sounding and acting like another Ding Guangen." Li retired from PSC in 2012, which Liu Yunshan succeed his position as the propaganda chief. Propaganda work In his position as China's propaganda chief from 2002 to 2012, Li was said to have contributed heavily to China's censorship campaign and frequently ordered media to downplay or not report on certain events. In 2006, he told the members of the All-China Journalists Association to "closely encircle the overall work of the party and state". Li approved the construction of the National Museum in 2006 after a series of disputes and delays about the building of the museum. He was the guest of honor at the opening of the National Center for the Performing Arts. Li has put his support behind a number of creative projects that might otherwise have been censored by the government. He supported Zen Shaolin, a music, dance and martial arts show intended to increase tourism that opened in 2007 in Henan, despite the producers' concerns that a celebration of religion and sacred music would be opposed by the government. Li allowed a 2009 movie Nanking! Nanking! by Lu Chuan to continue running in theaters in the face of strong pressure from nationalists who objected to the sympathetic characterization in the film of a Japanese soldier. The film was one of ten chosen to help commemorate 60th anniversary of the People's Republic of China. In May 2009, American diplomats reported in a cable later leaked by WikiLeaks that Li was a driving force behind China's renewed pressure against Google to comply with Chinese censorship laws. Li was reportedly unhappy that Chinese Google search results for his and his children's names contained results critical of them. He subsequently ordered major Chinese firms to cease doing business with Google, and one source with connections to political elite claimed Li had directed a subsequent cyberattack against Google in retaliation. Personal life Li is married to Zhang Shurong (), his college sweetheart. Zhang was an engineer. References External links Li Changchun biography, China Vitae biography of Li Changchun People Daily |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- 1944 births Living people Chinese Communist Party politicians from Liaoning Mayors of Shenyang Politicians from Dalian Governors of Liaoning Governors of Henan Political office-holders in Guangdong Harbin Institute of Technology alumni Members of the 17th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Members of the 16th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Members of the 15th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party