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Sacco and Vanzetti

Nicola Sacco (; April 22, 1891 – August 23, 1927) and Bartolomeo Vanzetti (; June 11, 1888 – August 23, 1927) were Italian immigrant anarchists who were controversially accused of murdering a guard and a paymaster during the April 15, 1920, armed robbery of the Slater and Morrill Shoe Company in Braintree, Massachusetts, United States. Seven years later, they were executed in the electric chair at Charlestown State Prison. After a few hours' deliberation on July 14, 1921, the jury convicted Sacco and Vanzetti of first-degree murder and they were sentenced to death by the trial judge. Anti-Italianism, anti-immigrant, and anti-Anarchist bias were suspected as having heavily influenced the verdict. A series of appeals followed, funded largely by the private Sacco and Vanzetti Defense Committee. The appeals were based on recanted testimony, conflicting ballistics evidence, a prejudicial pretrial statement by the jury foreman, and a confession by an alleged participant in the robbery. All appeals were denied by trial judge Webster Thayer and also later denied by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. By 1926, the case had drawn worldwide attention. As details of the trial and the men's suspected innocence became known, Sacco and Vanzetti became the center of one of the largest causes célèbres in modern history. In 1927, protests on their behalf were held in every major city in North America and Europe, as well as in Tokyo, Sydney, Melbourne, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Dubai, Montevideo, Johannesburg, and Auckland. Celebrated writers, artists, and academics pleaded for their pardon or for a new trial. Harvard law professor and future Supreme Court justice Felix Frankfurter argued for their innocence in a widely read Atlantic Monthly article that was later published in book form. Even the Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini recognized their innocence and attempted to pressure American authorities to have them released. The two were scheduled to die in April 1927, accelerating the outcry. Responding to a massive influx of telegrams urging their pardon, Massachusetts governor Alvan T. Fuller appointed a three-man commission to investigate the case. After weeks of secret deliberation that included interviews with the judge, lawyers, and several witnesses, the commission upheld the verdict. Sacco and Vanzetti were executed in the electric chair just after midnight on August 23, 1927. Investigations in the aftermath of the executions continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The publication of the men's letters, containing eloquent professions of innocence, intensified belief in their wrongful execution. Additional ballistics tests and incriminating statements by the men's acquaintances have clouded the case. On August 23, 1977—the 50th anniversary of the executions—Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis issued a proclamation that Sacco and Vanzetti had been unfairly tried and convicted and that "any disgrace should be forever removed from their names". Background Sacco was a shoemaker and a night watchman, born April 22, 1891, in Torremaggiore, Province of Foggia, Apulia region (in Italian: Puglia), Italy, who migrated to the United States at the age of seventeen. Before immigrating, according to a letter he sent while imprisoned, Sacco worked on his father's vineyard, often sleeping out in the field at night to prevent animals from destroying the crops. Vanzetti was a fishmonger born June 11, 1888, in Villafalletto, Province of Cuneo, Piedmont region. Both left Italy for the US in 1908, although they did not meet until a 1917 strike. The men were believed to be followers of Luigi Galleani, an Italian anarchist who advocated revolutionary violence, including bombing and assassination. Galleani published Cronaca Sovversiva (Subversive Chronicle), a periodical that advocated violent revolution, and a bomb-making manual called La Salute è in voi! (Health is in you!). At the time, Italian anarchists – in particular the Galleanist group – ranked at the top of the United States government's list of dangerous enemies. Since 1914, the Galleanists had been identified as suspects in several violent bombings and assassination attempts, including an attempted mass poisoning. Publication of Cronaca Sovversiva was suppressed in July 1918, and the government deported Galleani and eight of his closest associates on June 24, 1919. Other Galleanists remained active for three years, 60 of whom waged an intermittent campaign of violence against US politicians, judges, and other federal and local officials, especially those who had supported deportation of alien radicals. Among the dozen or more violent acts was the bombing of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer's home on June 2, 1919. In that incident, Carlo Valdinocci, a former editor of Cronaca Sovversiva, related to Sacco and Vanzetti, was killed when the bomb intended for Palmer exploded in the editor's hands. Radical pamphlets entitled "Plain Words" signed "The Anarchist Fighters" were found at the scene of this and several other midnight bombings that night. Several Galleanist associates were suspected or interrogated about their roles in the bombing incidents. Two days before Sacco and Vanzetti were arrested, a Galleanist named Andrea Salsedo fell to his death from the US Justice Department's Bureau of Investigation (BOI) offices on the 14th floor of 15 Park Row in New York City. Salsedo had worked in the Canzani Printshop in Brooklyn, to where federal agents traced the "Plain Words" leaflet. Roberto Elia, a fellow New York printer and admitted anarchist, was later deposed in the inquiry, and testified that Salsedo had committed suicide for fear of betraying the others. He portrayed himself as the 'strong' one who had resisted the police. According to anarchist writer Carlo Tresca, Elia changed his story later, stating that Federal agents had thrown Salsedo out the window. Robbery The Slater-Morrill Shoe Company factory was located on Pearl Street in Braintree, Massachusetts. On April 15, 1920, two men were robbed and killed while transporting the company's payroll in two large steel boxes to the main factory. One of them, Alessandro Berardelli—a security guard—was shot four times as he reached for his hip-holstered .38-caliber, Harrington & Richardson revolver; his gun was not recovered from the scene. The other man, Frederick Parmenter—a paymaster who was unarmed—was shot twice: once in the chest and a second time, fatally, in the back as he attempted to flee. The robbers seized the payroll boxes and escaped in a stolen dark blue Buick that sped up and was carrying several other men. As the car was being driven away by Michael Codispoti, the robbers fired wildly at company workers nearby. A coroner's report and subsequent ballistic investigation revealed that six bullets removed from the murdered men's bodies were of .32 automatic (ACP) caliber. Five of these .32-caliber bullets were all fired from a single semi-automatic pistol, a .32-caliber Savage Model 1907, which used a particularly narrow-grooved barrel rifling with a right-hand twist. Two of the bullets were recovered from Berardelli's body. Four .32 automatic brass shell casings were found at the murder scene, manufactured by one of three firms: Peters, Winchester, or Remington. The Winchester cartridge case was of a relatively obsolete cartridge loading, which had been discontinued from production some years earlier. Two days after the robbery, police located the robbers' Buick; several 12-gauge shotgun shells were found on the ground nearby. Arrests and indictment An earlier attempted robbery of another shoe factory occurred on December 24, 1919, in Bridgewater, Massachusetts, by people identified as Italian who used a car that was seen escaping to Cochesett in West Bridgewater. Police speculated that Italian anarchists perpetrated the robberies to finance their activities. Bridgewater police chief Michael E. Stewart suspected that known Italian anarchist Ferruccio Coacci was involved. Stewart discovered that Mario Buda (aka 'Mike' Boda) lived with Coacci. On April 16—one day after the Braintree-robbery murders—the Federal Immigration Service (FIS) called Chief Stewart to discuss Galleanist and anarchist Coacci, whom Stewart had arrested on their behalf two years earlier. Coacci was slated for deportation on April 15, 1920, the day of the Braintree holdup, but telephoned with the excuse that his wife was ill. The FIS asked Stewart to investigate Coacci's excuse for failing to report for deportation on April 15. On April 16, officers discovered Coacci at home and determined that he had given a false alibi for not showing up for deportation. They offered him another week, but Coacci declined and left for Italy on April 18, 1920 with his family along with his possessions. When Chief Stewart later arrived at the Coacci home, only Buda was living there, and when questioned, he said that Coacci owned a .32 Savage automatic pistol, which he kept in the kitchen.<ref name="Avrich, Paul 1991 pp. 201-202">Avrich, Paul, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background, (1991), pp. 201–202</ref> A search of the kitchen did not locate the gun, but Stewart found (in a kitchen drawer) a manufacturer's technical diagram for a Model 1907 of the exact type of .32 caliber pistol used to shoot Parmenter and Berardelli.Young, William, and Kaiser, David E., Postmortem: New Evidence in the Case of Sacco and Vanzetti, University of Massachusetts Press, (1985), p. 23 Stewart asked Buda if he owned a gun, and the man produced a .32-caliber Spanish-made automatic pistol. Buda told police that he owned a 1914 Overland automobile, which was being repaired. The car was delivered for repairs four days after the Braintree crimes, but it was old and apparently had not been run for five months. Tire tracks were seen near the abandoned Buick getaway car, and Chief Stewart surmised that two cars had been used in the getaway, and that Buda's car might have been the second car. The garage proprietor who was repairing Buda's vehicle was instructed to call the police if anyone came to pick up the car. When Stewart discovered that Coacci had worked for both shoe factories that had been robbed, he returned with the Bridgewater police. Mario Buda was not home, but on May 5, 1920, he arrived at the garage with three other men, later identified as Sacco, Vanzetti, and Riccardo Orciani. The four men knew each other well; Buda would later refer to Sacco and Vanzetti as "the best friends I had in America". Police were alerted, but the men left. Buda, who had vanished by then, did not resurface until 1928 back in Italy. Sacco and Vanzetti boarded a streetcar, but were tracked down and soon arrested. When searched by police, both denied owning any guns, but were found to be holding loaded pistols. Sacco was found to have an Italian passport, anarchist literature, a loaded .32 Colt Model 1903 automatic pistol, and twenty-three .32 Automatic cartridges in his possession; several of those bullet cases were of the same obsolescent type as the empty Winchester .32 casing found at the crime scene, and others were manufactured by the firms of Peters and Remington, much like other casings found at the scene. Vanzetti had four 12-gauge shotgun shells and a five-shot nickel-plated .38-caliber Harrington & Richardson revolver similar to the .38 carried by Berardelli, the slain Braintree guard, whose weapon was not found at the scene of the crime. When they were questioned, the pair denied any connection to anarchists. Orciani was arrested May 6, but gave the alibi that he had been at work on the day of both crimes. Sacco had been at work on the day of the Bridgewater crimes but said that he had the day off on April 15—the day of the Braintree crimes— and was charged with those murders. The self-employed Vanzetti had no such alibis and was charged for the attempted robbery and attempted murder in Bridgewater and the robbery and murder in the Braintree crimes. Sacco and Vanzetti were charged with the crime of murder on May 5, 1920, and indicted four months later on September 14. Following Sacco and Vanzetti's indictment for murder for the Braintree robbery, Galleanists and anarchists in the United States and abroad began a campaign of violent retaliation. Two days later on September 16, 1920, Mario Buda allegedly orchestrated the Wall Street bombing, where a time-delay dynamite bomb packed with heavy iron sash-weights in a horse-drawn cart exploded, killing 38 people and wounding 134.Avrich (1991), Sacco and Vanzetti pp. 205, 213, 227 In 1921, a booby trap bomb mailed to the American ambassador in Paris exploded, wounding his valet. For the next six years, bombs exploded at other American embassies all over the world. Trials Bridgewater crimes trial Rather than accept court-appointed counsel, Vanzetti chose to be represented by John P. Vahey, a former foundry superintendent and future state court judge who had been practicing law since 1905, most notably with his brother James H. Vahey and his law partner Charles Hiller Innes. James Graham, who was recommended by supporters, also served as defense counsel.Ehrmann, 73–4 Frederick G. Katzmann, the Norfolk and Plymouth County District Attorney, prosecuted the case. The presiding judge was Webster Thayer, who was already assigned to the court before this case was scheduled. A few weeks earlier he had given a speech to new American citizens decrying Bolshevism and anarchism's threat to American institutions. He supported the suppression of functionally violent radical speech, and incitement to commit violent acts.Ehrmann, 460Russell, Resolved, 111 He was known to dislike foreigners but was considered to be a fair judge. The trial began on June 22, 1920. The prosecution presented several witnesses who put Vanzetti at the scene of crime. Their descriptions varied, especially with respect to the shape and length of Vanzetti's mustache. Physical evidence included a shotgun shell retrieved at the scene of the crime and several shells found on Vanzetti when he was arrested. The defense produced 16 witnesses, all Italians from Plymouth, who testified that at the time of the attempted robbery they had bought eels from Vanzetti for Eastertide, in accordance with their traditions. Such details reinforced the difference between the Italians and the jurors. Some testified in imperfect English, others through an interpreter, whose inability to speak the same dialect of Italian as the witnesses hampered his effectiveness. On cross examination, the prosecution found it easy to make the witnesses appear confused about dates. A boy who testified admitted to rehearsing his testimony. "You learned it just like a piece at school?" the prosecutor asked. "Sure", he replied. The defense tried to rebut the eyewitnesses with testimony that Vanzetti always wore his mustache in a distinctive long style, but the prosecution rebutted this. The defense case went badly and Vanzetti did not testify in his own defense. During the trial, he said that his lawyers had opposed putting him on the stand. That same year, defense attorney Vahey told the governor that Vanzetti had refused his advice to testify. Decades later, a lawyer who assisted Vahey in the defense said that the defense attorneys left the choice to Vanzetti, but warned him that it would be difficult to prevent the prosecution from using cross examination to challenge the credibility of his character based on his political beliefs. He said that Vanzetti chose not to testify after consulting with Sacco. Herbert B. Ehrmann, who later joined the defense team, wrote many years later that the dangers of putting Vanzetti on the stand were very real. Another legal analysis of the case faulted the defense for not offering more to the jury by letting Vanzetti testify, concluding that by his remaining silent it "left the jury to decide between the eyewitnesses and the alibi witness without his aid. In these circumstances a verdict of not guilty would have been very unusual". That analysis claimed that "no one could say that the case was closely tried or vigorously fought for the defendant". Vanzetti complained during his sentencing on April 9, 1927, for the Braintree crimes, that Vahey "sold me for thirty golden money like Judas sold Jesus Christ." He accused Vahey of having conspired with the prosecutor "to agitate still more the passion of the juror, the prejudice of the juror" towards "people of our principles, against the foreigner, against slackers."Amerika-Institut: Last Statements (1927), Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti ; accessed June 22, 2010. On July 1, 1920, the jury deliberated for five hours and returned guilty verdicts on both counts, armed robbery and first-degree murder. Before sentencing, Judge Thayer learned that during deliberations, the jury had tampered with the shotgun shells found on Vanzetti at the time of his arrest to determine if the shot they contained was of sufficient size to kill a man.Joughin, pg. 56 Since that prejudiced the jury's verdict on the murder charge, Thayer declared that part a mistrial. On August 16, 1920, he sentenced Vanzetti on the charge of armed robbery to a term of 12 to 15 years in prison, the maximum sentence allowed. An assessment of Thayer's conduct of the trial said "his stupid rulings as to the admissibility of conversations are about equally divided" between the two sides and thus provided no evidence of partiality. Sacco and Vanzetti both denounced Thayer. Vanzetti wrote, "I will try to see Thayer death before his pronunciation of our sentence" and asked fellow anarchists for "revenge, revenge in our names and the names of our living and dead." In 1927, advocates for Sacco and Vanzetti charged that this case was brought first because a conviction for the Bridgewater crimes would help convict him for the Braintree crimes, where evidence against him was weak. The prosecution countered that the timing was driven by the schedules of different courts that handled the cases. The defense raised only minor objections in an appeal that was not accepted. A few years later, Vahey joined Katzmann's law firm. Braintree crimes trial Sacco and Vanzetti went on trial for their lives in Dedham, Massachusetts, May 21, 1921, at Dedham, Norfolk County for the Braintree robbery and murders. Webster Thayer again presided; he had asked to be assigned to the trial. Katzmann again prosecuted for the State. Vanzetti was represented by brothers Jeremiah and Thomas McAnraney. Sacco was represented by Fred H. Moore and William J. Callahan. The choice of Moore, a former attorney for the Industrial Workers of the World, proved a key mistake for the defense. A notorious radical from California, Moore quickly enraged Judge Thayer with his courtroom demeanor, often doffing his jacket and once, his shoes. Reporters covering the case were amazed to hear Judge Thayer, during a lunch recess, proclaim, "I'll show them that no long-haired anarchist from California can run this court!" and later, "You wait till I give my charge to the jury. I'll show them." Throughout the trial, Moore and Thayer clashed repeatedly over procedure and decorum. Authorities anticipated a possible bomb attack and had the Dedham courtroom outfitted with heavy, sliding steel doors and cast-iron shutters that were painted to appear wooden. Each day during the trial, the courthouse was placed under heavy police security, and Sacco and Vanzetti were escorted to and from the courtroom by armed guards. The Commonwealth relied on evidence that Sacco was absent from his work in a shoe factory on the day of the murders; that the defendants were in the neighborhood of the Braintree robbery-murder scene on the morning when it occurred, being identified as having been there seen separately and also together; that the Buick getaway car was also in the neighborhood and that Vanzetti was near and in it; that Sacco was seen near the scene of the murders before they occurred and also was seen to shoot Berardelli after Berardelli fell and that that shot caused his death; that used shell casings were left at the scene of the murders, some of which could have been found to have been discharged from a .32 pistol afterwards found on Sacco; that a cap was found at the scene of the murders, which witnesses identified as resembling one formerly worn by Sacco; and that both men were members of anarchist cells that espoused violence, including assassination. Among the more important witnesses called by the prosecution was salesman Carlos E. Goodridge, who stated that as the getaway car raced within twenty-five feet of him, one of the car's occupants, whom he identified as being Sacco, pointed a gun in his direction. Both defendants offered alibis that were backed by several witnesses. Vanzetti testified that he had been selling fish at the time of the Braintree robbery. Sacco testified that he had been in Boston applying for a passport at the Italian consulate. He stated he had lunched in Boston's North End with several friends, each of whom testified on his behalf. Prior to the trial, Sacco's lawyer, Fred Moore, went to great lengths to contact the consulate employee whom Sacco said he had talked with on the afternoon of the crime. Once contacted in Italy, the clerk said he remembered Sacco because of the unusually large passport photo he presented. The clerk also remembered the date, April 15, 1920, but he refused to return to the United States to testify (a trip requiring two ship voyages), citing his ill health. Instead he executed a sworn deposition that was read aloud in court and quickly dismissed. Much of the trial focused on material evidence, notably bullets, guns, and the cap. Prosecution witnesses testified that Bullet III, the .32-caliber bullet that had fatally wounded Berardelli, was from a discontinued Winchester .32 Auto cartridge loading so obsolete that the only bullets similar to it that anyone could locate to make comparisons were those found in the cartridges in Sacco's pockets. Prosecutor Frederick Katzmann decided to participate in a forensic bullet examination using bullets test-fired from Sacco's .32 Colt Automatic after the defense arranged for such tests. Sacco, saying he had nothing to hide, had allowed his gun to be test-fired, with experts for both sides present, during the trial's second week. The prosecution matched bullets fired through the gun to those taken from one of the slain men. In court, District Attorney Katzmann called two forensic gun expert witnesses, Capt. Charles Van Amburgh of Springfield Armory and Capt. William Proctor of the Massachusetts State Police, who testified that they believed that of the four bullets recovered from Berardelli's body, Bullet III – the fatal bullet – exhibited rifling marks consistent with those found on bullets fired from Sacco's .32 Colt Automatic pistol. In rebuttal, two defense forensic gun experts testified that Bullet III did not match any of the test bullets from Sacco's Colt. Capt. Proctor would later sign an affidavit stating that he could not positively identify Sacco's .32 Colt as the only pistol that could have fired Bullet III. This meant that Bullet III could have been fired from any of the 300,000 .32 Colt Automatic pistols then in circulation.Neville, John F., Twentieth-century Cause Cèlébre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920–1927, Greenwood Publishing Group, (2004), p. 52 (Note: Accents are incorrect in the original title.) All witnesses to the shooting testified that they saw one gunman shoot Berardelli four times, yet the defense never questioned how only one of four bullets found in the deceased guard was identified as being fired from Sacco's Colt. Vanzetti was being tried under Massachusetts' felony-murder rule, and the prosecution sought to implicate him in the Braintree robbery by the testimony of several witnesses: one testified that he was in the getaway car, and others who stated they saw Vanzetti in the vicinity of the Braintree factory around the time of the robbery. No direct evidence tied Vanzetti's .38 nickel-plated Harrington & Richardson five-shot revolver to the crime scene, except for the fact that it was identical in type and appearance to one owned by the slain guard Berardelli, which was missing from the crime scene. All six bullets recovered from the victims were .32 caliber, fired from at least two different automatic pistols. The prosecution claimed Vanzetti's .38 revolver had originally belonged to the slain Berardelli, and that it had been taken from his body during the robbery. No one testified to seeing anyone take the gun, but Berardelli had an empty holster and no gun on him when he was found. Additionally, witnesses to the payroll shooting had described Berardelli as reaching for his gun on his hip when he was cut down by pistol fire from the robbers. District Attorney Katzmann pointed out that Vanzetti had lied at the time of his arrest, when making statements about the .38 revolver found in his possession. He claimed that the revolver was his own, and that he carried it for self-protection, yet he incorrectly described it to police as a six-shot revolver instead of a five-shot. Vanzetti also told police that he had purchased only one box of cartridges for the gun, all of the same make, yet his revolver was loaded with five .38 cartridges of varying brands. At the time of his arrest, Vanzetti also claimed that he had bought the gun at a store (but could not remember which one), and that it cost $18 or $19 (three times its actual market value). He lied about where he had obtained the .38 cartridges found in the revolver. The prosecution traced the history of Berardelli's .38 Harrington & Richardson (H&R) revolver. Berardelli's wife testified that she and her husband dropped off the gun for repair at the Iver Johnson Co. of Boston a few weeks before the murder. According to the foreman of the Iver Johnson repair shop, Berardelli's revolver was given a repair tag with the number of 94765, and this number was recorded in the repair logbook with the statement "H. & R. revolver, .38-calibre, new hammer, repairing, half an hour". However, the shop books did not record the gun's serial number, and the caliber was apparently incorrectly labeled as .32 instead of .38-caliber.Watson, Bruce, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Men, The Murders, and the Judgment of Mankind, p. 126: Upon questioning by the prosecution, witnesses testified that the shop's incorrect labeling of Berardelli's revolver as a .32 instead of a .38 was a common mistake, as there were few outward visible differences between the .32 and 38-caliber Harrington & Richardson five-shot revolvers. The shop foreman testified that a new spring and hammer were put into Berardelli's Harrington & Richardson revolver. The gun was claimed and the half-hour repair paid for, though the date and identity of the claimant were not recorded. After examining Vanzetti's .38 revolver, the foreman testified that Vanzetti's gun had a new replacement hammer in keeping with the repair performed on Berardelli's revolver. The foreman explained that the shop was always kept busy repairing 20 to 30 revolvers per day, which made it very hard to remember individual guns or keep reliable records of when they were picked up by their owners. But, he said that unclaimed guns were sold by Iver Johnson at the end of each year, and the shop had no record of an unclaimed gun sale of Berardelli's revolver. To reinforce the conclusion that Berardelli had reclaimed his revolver from the repair shop, the prosecution called a witness who testified that he had seen Berardelli in possession of a .38 nickel-plated revolver the Saturday night before the Braintree robbery. After hearing testimony from the repair shop employee that "the repair shop had no record of Berardelli picking up the gun, the gun was not in the shop nor had it been sold", the defense put Vanzetti on the stand where he testified that "he had actually bought the gun several months earlier from fellow anarchist Luigi Falzini for five dollars" – in contradiction to what he had told police upon his arrest. This was corroborated by Luigi Falzini (Falsini), a friend of Vanzetti's and a fellow Galleanist, who stated that, after buying the .38 revolver from one Riccardo Orciani, he sold it to Vanzetti. The defense also called two expert witnesses, a Mr. Burns and a Mr. Fitzgerald, who each testified that no new spring and hammer had ever been installed in the revolver found in Vanzetti's possession. The District Attorney's final piece of material evidence was a flop-eared cap claimed to have been Sacco's. Sacco tried the cap on in court and, according to two newspaper sketch artists who ran cartoons the next day, it was too small, sitting high on his head. But Katzmann insisted the cap fitted Sacco and, noting a hole in the back where Sacco had hung the cap on a nail each day, continued to refer to it as his, and in denying later appeals, Judge Thayer often cited the cap as material evidence. During the 1927 Lowell Commission investigation, however, Braintree's Police Chief admitted that he had torn the cap open upon finding it at the crime scene a full day after the murders. Doubting the cap was Sacco's, the chief told the commission it could not have lain in the street "for thirty hours with the State Police, the local police, and two or three thousand people there." Controversy clouded the prosecution witnesses who identified Sacco as having been at the scene of the crime. One, a bookkeeper named Mary Splaine, precisely described Sacco as the man she saw firing from the getaway car. From Felix Frankfurter's account from the Atlantic Monthly article: Viewing the scene from a distance of from sixty to eighty feet, she saw a man previously unknown to her in a car traveling at the rate of from fifteen to eighteen miles per hour, and she saw him only for a distance of about thirty feet—that is to say, for from one and a half to three seconds. Yet cross examination revealed that Splaine was unable to identify Sacco at the inquest but had recall of great details of Sacco's appearance over a year later. While a few others singled out Sacco or Vanzetti as the men they had seen at the scene of the crime, far more witnesses, both prosecution and defense, could not identify them. The defendants' radical politics may have played a role in the verdict. Judge Thayer, though a sworn enemy of anarchists, warned the defense against bringing anarchism into the trial. Yet defense attorney Fred Moore felt he had to call both Sacco and Vanzetti as witnesses to let them explain why they were fully armed when arrested. Both men testified that they had been rounding up radical literature when apprehended, and that they had feared another government deportation raid. Yet both hurt their case with rambling discourses on radical politics that the prosecution mocked. The prosecution also brought out that both men had fled the draft by going to Mexico in 1917. On July 21, 1921, the jury deliberated for three hours, broke for dinner, and then returned the guilty verdicts. Supporters later insisted that Sacco and Vanzetti had been convicted for their anarchist views, yet every juror insisted that anarchism had played no part in their decision to convict the two men. At that time, a first-degree murder conviction in Massachusetts was punishable by death. Sacco and Vanzetti were bound for the electric chair unless the defense could find new evidence. The verdicts and the likelihood of death sentences immediately roused international opinion. Demonstrations were held in 60 Italian cities and a flood of mail was sent to the American embassy in Paris. Demonstrations followed in a number of Latin American cities. Anatole France, veteran of the campaign for Alfred Dreyfus and recipient of the 1921 Nobel Prize for Literature, wrote an "Appeal to the American People": "The death of Sacco and Vanzetti will make martyrs of them and cover you with shame. You are a great people. You ought to be a just people." Defense committee In 1921, most of the nation had not yet heard of Sacco and Vanzetti. Brief mention of the conviction appeared on page three of the New York Times. Defense attorney Moore radicalized and politicized the process by discussing Sacco and Vanzetti's anarchist beliefs, attempting to suggest that they were prosecuted primarily for their political beliefs and the trial was part of a government plan to stop the anarchist movement in the United States. His efforts helped stir up support but was so costly that he was eventually dismissed from the defense team. The Sacco-Vanzetti Defense Committee was formed on May 9, 1920, immediately following the arrests, by a group of fellow anarchists, headed by Vanzetti's 23-year-old friend Aldino Felicani. Over the next seven years, it raised $300,000. Defense attorney Fred Moore drew on its funds for his investigations. Differences arose when Moore tried to determine who had committed the Braintree crimes over objections from anarchists that he was doing the government's work. After the Committee hired William G. Thompson to manage the legal defense, he objected to its propaganda efforts. A Defense Committee publicist wrote an article about the first trial that was published in The New Republic. In the winter of 1920–1921, the Defense Committee sent stories to labor union publications every week. It produced pamphlets with titles like Fangs at Labor's Throat, sometimes printing thousands of copies. It sent speakers to Italian communities in factory towns and mining camps. The Committee eventually added staff from outside the anarchist movement, notably Mary Donovan, who had experience as a labor leader and Sinn Féin organizer. In 1927, she and Felicani together recruited Gardner Jackson, a Boston Globe reporter from a wealthy family, to manage publicity and serve as a mediator between the Committee's anarchists and the growing number of supporters with more liberal political views, who included socialites, lawyers, and intellectuals. Jackson bridged the gap between the radicals and the social elite so well that Sacco thanked him a few weeks before his execution: We are one heart, but unfortunately we represent two different class. ... But, whenever the heart of one of the upper class join with the exploited workers for the struggle of the right in the human feeling is the feel of an spontaneous attraction and brotherly love to one another. The noted American author John Dos Passos joined the committee and wrote its 127-page official review of the case: Facing the Chair: Story of Americanization of Two Foreignborn Workmen. Dos Passos concluded it "barely possible" that Sacco might have committed murder as part of a class war, but that the soft-hearted Vanzetti was clearly innocent. "Nobody in his right mind who was planning such a crime would take a man like that along," Dos Passos wrote of Vanzetti. After the executions, the Committee continued its work, helping to gather material that eventually appeared as The Letters of Sacco and Vanzetti. Motions for a new trial Multiple separate motions for a new trial were denied by Judge Thayer. One motion, the so-called Hamilton-Proctor motion, involved the forensic ballistic evidence presented by the expert witnesses for the prosecution and defense. The prosecution's firearms expert, Charles Van Amburgh, had re-examined the evidence in preparation for the motion. By 1923, bullet-comparison technology had improved somewhat, and Van Amburgh submitted photos of the bullets fired from Sacco's .32 Colt in support of the argument that they matched the bullet that killed Berardelli. In response, the controversialPeople v. Stielow, 160 N.Y.S. 555 (1916) self-proclaimed "firearms expert" for the defense, Albert H. Hamilton, conducted an in-court demonstration involving two brand new Colt .32-caliber automatic pistols belonging to Hamilton, along with Sacco's .32 Colt of the same make and caliber. In front of Judge Thayer and the lawyers for both sides, Hamilton disassembled all three pistols and placed the major component parts – barrel, barrel bushing, recoil spring, frame, slide, and magazine – into three piles on the table before him.Fisher, Jim, Firearms Identification in the Sacco-Vanzetti Case , retrieved October 11, 2011 He explained the functions of each part and began to demonstrate how each was interchangeable, in the process intermingling the parts of all three pistols. Judge Thayer stopped Hamilton and demanded that he reassemble Sacco's pistol with its proper parts. Other motions focused on the jury foreman and a prosecution ballistics expert. In 1923, the defense filed an affidavit from a friend of the jury foreman, who swore that prior to the trial, the jury foreman had allegedly said of Sacco and Vanzetti, "Damn them, they ought to hang them anyway!" That same year, the defense read to the court an affidavit by Captain William Proctor (who had died shortly after conclusion of the trial) in which Proctor stated that he could not say that Bullet III was fired by Sacco's .32 Colt pistol. At the conclusion of the appeal hearings, Thayer denied all motions for a new trial on October 1, 1924. Several months later, in February 1924, Judge Thayer asked one of the firearms experts for the prosecution, Capt. Charles Van Amburgh, to reinspect Sacco's Colt and determine its condition. With District Attorney Katzmann present, Van Amburgh took the gun from the clerk and started to take it apart. Van Amburgh quickly noticed that the barrel to Sacco's gun was brand new, being still covered in the manufacturer's protective rust preventative. Judge Thayer began private hearings to determine who had tampered with the evidence by switching the barrel on Sacco's gun. During three weeks of hearings, Albert Hamilton and Captain Van Amburgh squared off, challenging each other's authority. Testimony suggested that Sacco's gun had been treated with little care, and frequently disassembled for inspection. New defense attorney William Thompson insisted that no one on his side could have switched the barrels "unless they wanted to run their necks into a noose." Albert Hamilton swore he had only taken the gun apart while being watched by Judge Thayer. Judge Thayer made no finding as to who had switched the .32 Colt barrels, but ordered the rusty barrel returned to Sacco's Colt. After the hearing concluded, unannounced to Judge Thayer, Captain Van Amburgh took both Sacco's and Vanzetti's guns, along with the bullets and shells involved in the crime to his home where he kept them until a Boston Globe exposé revealed the misappropriation in 1960. Meanwhile, Van Amburgh bolstered his own credentials by writing an article on the case for True Detective Mysteries. The 1935 article charged that prior to the discovery of the gun barrel switch, Albert Hamilton had tried to walk out of the courtroom with Sacco's gun but was stopped by Judge Thayer. Although several historians of the case, including Francis Russell, have reported this story as factual, nowhere in transcripts of the private hearing on the gun barrel switch was this incident ever mentioned. The same year the True Detective article was published, a study of ballistics in the case concluded, "what might have been almost indubitable evidence was in fact rendered more than useless by the bungling of the experts." Appeal to the Supreme Judicial Court The defense appealed Thayer's denial of their motions to the Supreme Judicial Court (SJC), the highest level of the state's judicial system. Both sides presented arguments to its five judges on January 11–13, 1926. The SJC returned a unanimous ruling on May 12, 1926, upholding Judge Thayer's decisions.Watson, 260–1 The Court did not have the authority to review the trial record as a whole or to judge the fairness of the case. Instead, the judges considered only whether Thayer had abused his discretion in the course of the trial. Thayer later claimed that the SJC had "approved" the verdicts, which advocates for the defendants protested as a misinterpretation of the Court's ruling, which only found "no error" in his individual rulings. Medeiros confession In November 1925, Celestino Medeiros, an ex-convict awaiting trial for murder, confessed to committing the Braintree crimes. He absolved Sacco and Vanzetti of participation. In May, once the SJC had denied their appeal and Medeiros was convicted, the defense investigated the details of Medeiros' story. Police interviews led them to the Morelli gang based in Providence, Rhode Island. They developed an alternative theory of the crime based on the gang's history of shoe-factory robberies, connections to a car like that used in Braintree, and other details. Gang leader Joe Morelli bore a striking resemblance to Sacco.Ehrmann develops the theory at length. He consistently spells the name Medeiros without explanation. Ehrmann, 404–31, and passim The defense filed a motion for a new trial based on the Medeiros confession on May 26, 1926. In support of their motion they included 64 affidavits. The prosecution countered with 26 affidavits. When Thayer heard arguments from September 13 to 17, 1926, the defense, along with their Medeiros-Morelli theory of the crime, charged that the U.S. Justice Department was aiding the prosecution by withholding information obtained in its own investigation of the case. Attorney William Thompson made an explicitly political attack: "A government which has come to value its own secrets more than it does the lives of its citizens has become a tyranny, whether you call it a republic, a monarchy, or anything else!" Judge Thayer denied this motion for a new trial on October 23, 1926. After arguing against the credibility of Medeiros, he addressed the defense claims against the federal government, saying the defense was suffering from "a new type of disease, ... a belief in the existence of something which in fact and truth has no such existence."Watson, 280–1 Three days later, the Boston Herald responded to Thayer's decision by reversing its longstanding position and calling for a new trial. Its editorial, "We Submit", earned its author a Pulitzer Prize.William David Sloan and Laird B. Anderson, eds., Pulitzer Prize Editorials: America's Best Writing, 1917–2003 (Wiley-Blackwell, 2007), 3rd edition, 33–6. Reprinted in Topp, Sacco and Vanzetti Case, 158–60; Frankfurter, Case of Sacco and Vanzetti, 115–8. Available online: Google Books. No other newspapers followed suit. Second appeal to the Supreme Judicial Court The defense promptly appealed again to the Supreme Judicial Court and presented their arguments on January 27 and 28, 1927. While the appeal was under consideration, Harvard law professor and future Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter published an article in the Atlantic Monthly arguing for a retrial. He noted that the SJC had already taken a very narrow view of its authority when considering the first appeal, and called upon the court to review the entire record of the case. He called their attention to Thayer's lengthy statement that accompanied his denial of the Medeiros appeal, describing it as "a farrago of misquotations, misrepresentations, suppressions, and mutilations," "honeycombed with demonstrable errors." At the same time, Major Calvin Goddard was a ballistics expert who had helped pioneer the use of the comparison microscope in forensic ballistic research. He offered to conduct an independent examination of the gun and bullet forensic evidence by using techniques that he had developed for use with the comparison microscope. Goddard first offered to conduct a new forensic examination for the defense, which rejected it, and then to the prosecution, which accepted his offer. Using the comparison microscope, Goddard compared Bullet III and a .32 Auto shell casing found at the Braintree shooting with that of several .32 Auto test cartridges fired from Sacco's .32 Colt automatic pistol. Goddard concluded that not only did Bullet III match the rifling marks found on the barrel of Sacco's .32 Colt pistol, but that scratches made by the firing pin of Sacco's .32 Colt on the primers of spent shell casings test-fired from Sacco's Colt matched those found on the primer of a spent shell casing recovered at the Braintree murder scene. More sophisticated comparative examinations in 1935, 1961, and 1983 each reconfirmed the opinion that the bullet the prosecution said killed Berardelli and one of the cartridge cases introduced into evidence were fired in Sacco's .32 Colt automatic. However, in his book on new evidence in the Sacco and Vanzetti case, historian David E. Kaiser wrote that Bullet III and its shell casing, as presented, had been substituted by the prosecution and were not genuinely from the scene. The Supreme Judicial Court denied the Medeiros appeal on April 5, 1927. Summarizing the decision, The New York Times said that the SJC had determined that "the judge had a right to rule as he did" but that the SJC "did not deny the validity of the new evidence." The SJC also said: "It is not imperative that a new trial be granted even though evidence is newly discovered and, if presented to a jury, would justify a different verdict." Protests and advocacy In 1924, referring to his denial of motions for a new trial, Judge Thayer confronted a Massachusetts lawyer: "Did you see what I did with those anarchistic bastards the other day?" the judge said. "I guess that will hold them for a while! Let them go and see now what they can get out of the Supreme Court!" The outburst remained a secret until 1927 when its release fueled the arguments of Sacco and Vanzetti's defenders. The New York World attacked Thayer as "an agitated little man looking for publicity and utterly impervious to the ethical standards one has the right to expect of a man presiding in a capital case." Many socialists and intellectuals campaigned for a retrial without success. John Dos Passos came to Boston to cover the case as a journalist, stayed to author a pamphlet called Facing the Chair, and was arrested in a demonstration on August 10, 1927, along with writer Dorothy Parker, trade union organizer and Socialist Party leader Powers Hapgood and activist Catharine Sargent Huntington. After being arrested while picketing the State House, the poet Edna St. Vincent Millay pleaded her case to the governor in person and then wrote an appeal: "I cry to you with a million voices: answer our doubt ... There is need in Massachusetts of a great man tonight." Others who wrote to Fuller or signed petitions included Albert Einstein, George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells. The president of the American Federation of Labor cited "the long period of time intervening between the commission of the crime and the final decision of the Court" as well as "the mental and physical anguish which Sacco and Vanzetti must have undergone during the past seven years" in a telegram to the governor. Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, the target of two anarchist assassination attempts, quietly made inquiries through diplomatic channels and was prepared to ask Governor Fuller to commute the sentences if it appeared his request would be granted.Tropp, 171, Mussolini's telegram to the Italian consul in Boston, July 23, 1927. In 1926, a bomb presumed to be the work of anarchists destroyed the house of Samuel Johnson, the brother of Simon Johnson and garage owner that called police the night of Sacco and Vanzetti's arrest. In August 1927, the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) called for a three-day nationwide walkout to protest the pending executions. The most notable response came in the Walsenburg coal district of Colorado, where 1,132 out of 1,167 miners participated in the walkout. It led to the Colorado coal strike of 1927. Defendants in prison For their part, Sacco and Vanzetti seemed to alternate between moods of defiance, vengeance, resignation, and despair. The June 1926 issue of Protesta Umana, published by their Defense Committee, carried an article signed by Sacco and Vanzetti that appealed for retaliation by their colleagues. In the article, Vanzetti wrote, "I will try to see Thayer death before his pronunciation of our sentence," and asked fellow anarchists for "revenge, revenge in our names and the names of our living and dead." The article concluded by urging readers to recall La Salute è in voi! Galleani's bomb-making manual. Both wrote dozens of letters asserting their innocence, insisting they had been framed because they were anarchists. Their conduct in prison consistently impressed guards and wardens. In 1927, the Dedham jail chaplain wrote to the head of an investigatory commission that he had seen no evidence of guilt or remorse on Sacco's part. Vanzetti impressed fellow prisoners at Charlestown State Prison as a bookish intellectual, incapable of committing any violent crime. Novelist John Dos Passos, who visited both men in jail, observed of Vanzetti, "nobody in his right mind who was planning such a crime would take a man like that along." Vanzetti developed his command of English to such a degree that journalist Murray Kempton later described him as "the greatest writer of English in our century to learn his craft, do his work, and die all in the space of seven years." While in the Norfolk County Jail, Sacco's seven-year-old son, Dante, would sometimes stand on the sidewalk outside the jail and play catch with his father by throwing a ball over the wall. Sentencing On April 9, 1927, Judge Thayer heard final statements from Sacco and Vanzetti. In a lengthy speech Vanzetti said:Ehrmann provides the full record on the court's one-hour sentencing session, 450-8 I would not wish to a dog or to a snake, to the most low and misfortunate creature of the earth, I would not wish to any of them what I have had to suffer for things that I am not guilty of. But my conviction is that I have suffered for things that I am guilty of. I am suffering because I am a radical and indeed I am a radical; I have suffered because I am an Italian and indeed I am an Italian ... if you could execute me two times, and if I could be reborn two other times, I would live again to do what I have done already. Thayer declared that the responsibility for the conviction rested solely with the jury's determination of guilt. "The Court has absolutely nothing to do with that question." He sentenced each of them to "suffer the punishment of death by the passage of a current of electricity through your body" during the week beginning July 10. He twice postponed the execution date while the governor considered requests for clemency. On May 10, a package bomb addressed to Governor Fuller was intercepted in the Boston post office. Clemency appeal and the Governor's Advisory Committee In response to public protests that greeted the sentencing, Massachusetts Governor Alvan T. Fuller faced last-minute appeals to grant clemency to Sacco and Vanzetti. On June 1, 1927, he appointed an Advisory Committee of three: President Abbott Lawrence Lowell of Harvard, President Samuel Wesley Stratton of MIT, and Probate Judge Robert Grant. They were presented with the task of reviewing the trial to determine whether it had been fair. Lowell's appointment was generally well received, for though he had controversy in his past, he had also at times demonstrated an independent streak. The defense attorneys considered resigning when they determined that the Committee was biased against the defendants, but some of the defendants' most prominent supporters, including Harvard Law Professor Felix Frankfurter and Judge Julian W. Mack of the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, persuaded them to stay because Lowell "was not entirely hopeless." One of the defense attorneys, though ultimately very critical of the Committee's work, thought the Committee members were not really capable of the task the Governor set for them: No member of the Committee had the essential sophistication that comes with experience in the trial of criminal cases. ... The high positions in the community held by the members of the Committee obscured the fact that they were not really qualified to perform the difficult task assigned to them. He also thought that the Committee, particularly Lowell, imagined it could use its fresh and more powerful analytical abilities to outperform the efforts of those who had worked on the case for years, even finding evidence of guilt that professional prosecutors had discarded. Grant was another establishment figure, a probate court judge from 1893 to 1923 and an Overseer of Harvard University from 1896 to 1921, and the author of a dozen popular novels. Some criticized Grant's appointment to the Committee, with one defense lawyer saying he "had a black-tie class concept of life around him," but Harold Laski in a conversation at the time found him "moderate." Others cited evidence of xenophobia in some of his novels, references to "riff-raff" and a variety of racial slurs. His biographer allows that he was "not a good choice," not a legal scholar, and handicapped by age. Stratton, the one member who was not a "Boston Brahmin," maintained the lowest public profile of the three and hardly spoke during its hearings. In their earlier appeals, the defense was limited to the trial record. The Governor's Committee, however, was not a judicial proceeding, so Judge Thayer's comments outside the courtroom could be used to demonstrate his bias. Once Thayer told reporters that "No long-haired anarchist from California can run this court!" According to the affidavits of eyewitnesses, Thayer also lectured members of his clubs, calling Sacco and Vanzetti "Bolsheviki!" and saying he would "get them good and proper". During the Dedham trial's first week, Thayer said to reporters: "Did you ever see a case in which so many leaflets and circulars have been spread ... saying people couldn't get a fair trial in Massachusetts? You wait till I give my charge to the jury, I'll show them!" In 1924, Thayer confronted a Massachusetts lawyer at Dartmouth, his alma mater, and said: "Did you see what I did with those anarchistic bastards the other day. I guess that will hold them for a while. ... Let them go to the Supreme Court now and see what they can get out of them." The Committee knew that, following the verdict, Boston Globe reporter Frank Sibley, who had covered the trial, wrote a protest to the Massachusetts attorney general condemning Thayer's blatant bias. Thayer's behavior both inside the courtroom and outside of it had become a public issue, with the New York World attacking Thayer as "an agitated little man looking for publicity and utterly impervious to the ethical standards one has the right to expect of a man presiding in a capital case." On July 12–13, 1927, following testimony by the defense firearms expert Albert H. Hamilton before the Committee, the Assistant District Attorney for Massachusetts, Dudley P. Ranney, took the opportunity to cross-examine Hamilton. He submitted affidavits questioning Hamilton's credentials as well as his performance during the New York trial of Charles Stielow, in which Hamilton's testimony linking rifling marks to a bullet used to kill the victim nearly sent an innocent man to the electric chair.Newby, Richard, Kill Now, Talk Forever: Debating Sacco and Vanzetti, AuthorHouse Publishers, (2006), p. 594 The Committee also heard from Braintree's police chief who told them he had found the cap on Pearl Street, allegedly dropped by Sacco during the crime, a full 24-hours after the getaway car had fled the scene. The chief doubted the cap belonged to Sacco and called the whole trial a contest "to see who could tell the biggest lies." After two weeks of hearing witnesses and reviewing evidence, the Committee determined that the trial had been fair and a new trial was not warranted. They assessed the charges against Thayer as well. Their criticism, using words provided by Judge Grant, was direct: "He ought not to have talked about the case off the bench, and doing so was a grave breach of judicial decorum." But they also found some of the charges about his statements unbelievable or exaggerated, and they determined that anything he might have said had no impact on the trial. The panel's reading of the trial transcript convinced them that Thayer "tried to be scrupulously fair." The Committee also reported that the trial jurors were almost unanimous in praising Thayer's conduct of the trial. A defense attorney later noted ruefully that the release of the Committee's report "abruptly stilled the burgeoning doubts among the leaders of opinion in New England." Supporters of the convicted men denounced the Committee. Harold Laski told Holmes that the Committee's work showed that Lowell's "loyalty to his class ... transcended his ideas of logic and justice." Defense attorneys William G. Thompson and Herbert B. Ehrmann stepped down from the case in August 1927 and were replaced by Arthur D. Hill. Execution and funeral The executions were scheduled for midnight between August 22 and 23, 1927. On August 15, a bomb exploded at the home of one of the Dedham jurors. On Sunday, August 21, more than 20,000 protesters assembled on Boston Common. Sacco and Vanzetti awaited execution in their cells at Charlestown State Prison, and both men refused a priest several times on their last day, as they were atheists. Their attorney William Thompson asked Vanzetti to make a statement opposing violent retaliation for his death and they discussed forgiving one's enemies. Thompson also asked Vanzetti to swear to his and Sacco's innocence one last time, and Vanzetti did. Celestino Medeiros, whose execution had been delayed in case his testimony was required at another trial of Sacco and Vanzetti, was executed first. Sacco was next and walked quietly to the electric chair, then shouted "Farewell, mother."Watson, 345-6 Vanzetti, in his final moments, shook hands with guards and thanked them for their kind treatment, read a statement proclaiming his innocence, and finally said, "I wish to forgive some people for what they are now doing to me."Watson, 346 Following the executions, death masks were made of the men. Violent demonstrations swept through many cities the next day, including Geneva, London, Paris, Amsterdam, and Tokyo. In South America wildcat strikes closed factories. Three died in Germany, and protesters in Johannesburg burned an American flag outside the American embassy. It has been alleged that some of these activities were organized by the Communist Party. At Langone Funeral Home in Boston's North End, more than 10,000 mourners viewed Sacco and Vanzetti in open caskets over two days. At the funeral parlor, a wreath over the caskets announced In attesa l'ora della vendetta (Awaiting the hour of vengeance). On Sunday, August 28, a two-hour funeral procession bearing huge floral tributes moved through the city. Thousands of marchers took part in the procession, and over 200,000 came out to watch. Police blocked the route, which passed the State House, and at one point mourners and the police clashed. The hearses reached Forest Hills Cemetery where, after a brief eulogy, the bodies were cremated. The Boston Globe called it "one of the most tremendous funerals of modern times." Will H. Hays, head of the motion picture industry's umbrella organization, ordered all film of the funeral procession destroyed. Sacco's ashes were sent to Torremaggiore, the town of his birth, where they are interred at the base of a monument erected in 1998. Vanzetti's ashes were buried with his mother in Villafalletto.Watson, 350, 371–2 Continuing protests and analyses Italian anarchist Severino Di Giovanni, one of the most vocal supporters of Sacco and Vanzetti in Argentina, bombed the American embassy in Buenos Aires a few hours after the two men were sentenced to death. A few days after the executions, Sacco's widow thanked Di Giovanni by letter for his support and added that the director of the tobacco firm Combinados had offered to produce a cigarette brand named "Sacco & Vanzetti". On November 26, 1927, Di Giovanni and others bombed a Combinados tobacco shop. On December 24, 1927, Di Giovanni blew up the headquarters of The National City Bank of New York and of the Bank of Boston in Buenos Aires in apparent protest of the execution. In December 1928, Di Giovanni and others failed in an attempt to bomb the train in which President-elect Herbert Hoover was traveling during his visit to Argentina. Three months later, bombs exploded in the New York City Subway, in a Philadelphia church, and at the home of the mayor of Baltimore. The house of one of the jurors in the Dedham trial was bombed, throwing him and his family from their beds. On May 18, 1928, a bomb destroyed the front porch of the home of executioner Robert Elliott. As late as 1932, Judge Thayer's home was wrecked and his wife and housekeeper were injured in a bomb blast. Afterward, Thayer lived permanently at his club in Boston, guarded 24 hours a day until his death on April 18, 1933. In October 1927, H. G. Wells wrote an essay that discussed the case at length. He called it "a case like the Dreyfus case, by which the soul of a people is tested and displayed." He felt that Americans failed to understand what about the case roused European opinion: The guilt or innocence of these two Italians is not the issue that has excited the opinion of the world. Possibly they were actual murderers, and still more possibly they knew more than they would admit about the crime. ... Europe is not "retrying" Sacco and Vanzetti or anything of the sort. It is saying what it thinks of Judge Thayer. Executing political opponents as political opponents after the fashion of Mussolini and Moscow we can understand, or bandits as bandits; but this business of trying and executing murderers as Reds, or Reds as murderers, seems to be a new and very frightening line for the courts of a State in the most powerful and civilized Union on earth to pursue. He used the case to complain that Americans were too sensitive to foreign criticism: "One can scarcely let a sentence that is not highly flattering glance across the Atlantic without some American blowing up." In 1928, Upton Sinclair published his novel Boston, an indictment of the American judicial system. He explored Vanzetti's life and writings, as its focus, and mixed fictional characters with historical participants in the trials. Though his portrait of Vanzetti was entirely sympathetic, Sinclair disappointed advocates for the defense by failing to absolve Sacco and Vanzetti of the crimes, however much he argued that their trial had been unjust. Years later, he explained: "Some of the things I told displeased the fanatical believers; but having portrayed the aristocrats as they were, I had to do the same thing for the anarchists."Leon Harris, Upton Sinclair, American Rebel (NY: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1975), 243–51 While doing research for the book, Sinclair was told confidentially by Sacco and Vanzetti's former lawyer Fred H. Moore that the two were guilty and that he (Moore) had supplied them with fake alibis; Sinclair was inclined to believe that that was, indeed, the case, and later referred to this as an "ethical problem", but he did not include the information about the conversation with Moore in his book. When the letters Sacco and Vanzetti wrote appeared in print in 1928, journalist Walter Lippmann commented: "If Sacco and Vanzetti were professional bandits, then historians and biographers who attempt to deduce character from personal documents might as well shut up shop. By every test that I know of for judging character, these are the letters of innocent men." On January 3, 1929, as Gov. Fuller left the inauguration of his successor, he found a copy of the Letters thrust at him by someone in the crowd. He knocked it to the ground "with an exclamation of contempt." Intellectual and literary supporters of Sacco and Vanzetti continued to speak out. In 1936, on the day when Harvard celebrated its 300th anniversary, 28 Harvard alumni issued a statement attacking the University's retired President Lowell for his role on the Governor's Advisory Committee in 1927. They included Heywood Broun, Malcolm Cowley, Granville Hicks, and John Dos Passos. Massachusetts judicial reform Following the SJC's assertion that it could not order a new trial even if there was new evidence that "would justify a different verdict," a movement for "drastic reform" quickly took shape in Boston's legal community. In December 1927, four months after the executions, the Massachusetts Judicial Council cited the Sacco and Vanzetti case as evidence of "serious defects in our methods of administering justice." It proposed a series of changes designed to appeal to both sides of the political divide, including restrictions on the number and timing of appeals. Its principal proposal addressed the SJC's right to review. It argued that a judge would benefit from a full review of a trial, and that no one man should bear the burden in a capital case. A review could defend a judge whose decisions were challenged and make it less likely that a governor would be drawn into a case. It asked for the SJC to have right to order a new trial "upon any ground if the interests of justice appear to inquire it." Governor Fuller endorsed the proposal in his January 1928 annual message. The Judicial Council repeated its recommendations in 1937 and 1938. Finally, in 1939, the language it had proposed was adopted. Since that time, the SJC has been required to review all death penalty cases, to consider the entire case record, and to affirm or overturn the verdict on the law and on the evidence or "for any other reason that justice may require" (Mass. General Laws, 1939 ch. 341)Caspar Willard Weinberger, "Review of Joughin and Morgan, Legacy of Sacco and Vanzetti", in Stanford Law Review, v. 1 (1949), 573–8 Historical viewpoints Many historians, especially legal historians, have concluded the Sacco and Vanzetti prosecution, trial, and aftermath constituted a blatant disregard for political civil liberties, and especially criticize Thayer's decision to deny a retrial. John W. Johnson has said that the authorities and jurors were influenced by strong anti-Italian prejudice and the prejudice against immigrants widely held at the time, especially in New England. Against charges of racism and racial prejudice, Paul Avrich and Brenda and James Lutz point out that both men were known anarchist members of a militant organization, members of which had been conducting a violent campaign of bombing and attempted assassinations, acts condemned by most Americans of all backgrounds.Lutz, Brenda J., and Lutz, James M., Terrorism in America, New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, (2007), pp. 78–83 Though in general anarchist groups did not finance their militant activities through bank robberies, a fact noted by the investigators of the Bureau of Investigation, this was not true of the Galleanist group. Mario Buda readily told an interviewer: "Andavamo a prenderli dove c'erano" ("We used to go and get it [money] where it was") – meaning factories and banks. The guard Berardelli was also Italian. Johnson and Avrich suggest that the government prosecuted Sacco and Vanzetti for the robbery-murders as a convenient means to put a stop to their militant activities as Galleanists, whose bombing campaign at the time posed a lethal threat, both to the government and to many Americans.Avrich (1996), Sacco and Vanzetti, p. 211 Faced with a secretive underground group whose members resisted interrogation and believed in their cause, Federal and local officials using conventional law enforcement tactics had been repeatedly stymied in their efforts to identify all members of the group or to collect enough evidence for a prosecution. Most historians believe that Sacco and Vanzetti were involved at some level in the Galleanist bombing campaign, although their precise roles have not been determined.Avrich (1996), Sacco and Vanzetti, pp. 197–205 In 1955, Charles Poggi, a longtime anarchist and American citizen, traveled to Savignano in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy to visit old comrades, including the Galleanists' principal bombmaker, Mario "Mike" Buda. While discussing the Braintree robbery, Buda told Poggi, "Sacco c'era" (Sacco was there). Poggi added that he "had a strong feeling that Buda himself was one of the robbers, though I didn't ask him and he didn't say." Whether Buda and Ferruccio Coacci, whose shared rental house contained the manufacturer's diagram of a .32 Savage automatic pistol (matching the .32 Savage pistol believed to have been used to shoot both Berardelli and Parmenter), had also participated in the Braintree robbery and murders would remain a matter of speculation. Later evidence and investigations In 1941, anarchist leader Carlo Tresca, a member of the Sacco and Vanzetti Defense Committee, told Max Eastman, "Sacco was guilty but Vanzetti was innocent", although it is clear from his statement that Tresca equated guilt only with the act of pulling the trigger, i.e., Vanzetti was not the principal triggerman in Tresca's view, but was an accomplice to Sacco. This conception of innocence is in sharp contrast to the legal one. Both The Nation and The New Republic refused to publish Tresca's revelation, which Eastman said occurred after he pressed Tresca for the truth about the two men's involvement in the shooting. The story finally appeared in National Review in October 1961. Others who had known Tresca confirmed that he had made similar statements to them, but Tresca's daughter insisted her father never hinted at Sacco's guilt. Others attributed Tresca's revelations to his disagreements with the Galleanists. Labor organizer Anthony Ramuglia, an anarchist in the 1920s, said in 1952 that a Boston anarchist group had asked him to be a false alibi witness for Sacco. After agreeing, he had remembered that he had been in jail on the day in question, so he could not testify. Both Sacco and Vanzetti had previously fled to Mexico, changing their names in order to evade draft registration, a fact the prosecutor in their murder trial used to demonstrate their lack of patriotism and which they were not allowed to rebut. Sacco and Vanzetti's supporters would later argue that the men fled the country to avoid persecution and conscription; their critics said they left to escape detection and arrest for militant and seditious activities in the United States. However, a 1953 Italian history of anarchism written by anonymous colleagues revealed a different motivation: Several dozen Italian anarchists left the United States for Mexico. Some have suggested they did so because of cowardice. Nothing could be more false. The idea to go to Mexico arose in the minds of several comrades who were alarmed by the idea that, remaining in the United States, they would be forcibly restrained from leaving for Europe, where the revolution that had burst out in Russia that February promised to spread all over the continent. In October 1961, ballistic tests were run with improved technology on Sacco's Colt semi-automatic pistol. The results confirmed that the bullet that killed Berardelli in 1920 was fired from Sacco's pistol. The Thayer court's habit of mistakenly referring to Sacco's .32 Colt pistol as well as any other automatic pistol as a "revolver" (a common custom of the day) has sometimes mystified later-generation researchers attempting to follow the forensic evidence trail. In 1987, Charlie Whipple, a former Boston Globe editorial page editor, revealed a conversation that he had with Sergeant Edward J. Seibolt in 1937. According to Whipple, Seibolt said that "we switched the murder weapon in that case", but indicated that he would deny this if Whipple ever printed it.Thomas, Jack, "A Story of Trickery Told Much Too Late," Boston Globe, January 7, 1988 However, at the time of the Sacco and Vanzetti trial, Seibolt was only a patrolman, and did not work in the Boston Police ballistics department; Seibolt died in 1961 without corroborating Whipple's story. In 1935, Captain Charles Van Amburgh, a key ballistics witness for the prosecution, wrote a six-part article on the case for a pulp detective magazine. Van Amburgh described a scene in which Thayer caught defense ballistics expert Hamilton trying to leave the courtroom with Sacco's gun. However, Thayer said nothing about such a move during the hearing on the gun barrel switch and refused to blame either side. Following the private hearing on the gun barrel switch, Van Amburgh kept Sacco's gun in his house, where it remained until the Boston Globe did an exposé in 1960. In 1973, a former mobster published a confession by Frank "Butsy" Morelli, Joe's brother. "We whacked them out, we killed those guys in the robbery," Butsy Morelli told Vincent Teresa. "These two greaseballs Sacco and Vanzetti took it on the chin." Before his death in June 1982, Giovanni Gambera, a member of the four-person team of anarchist leaders who met shortly after the arrest of Sacco and Vanzetti to plan their defense, told his son that "everyone [in the anarchist inner circle] knew that Sacco was guilty and that Vanzetti was innocent as far as the actual participation in killing." Months before he died, the distinguished jurist Charles E. Wyzanski, Jr., who had presided for 45 years on the U.S. District Court in Massachusetts, wrote to Russell stating, "I myself am persuaded by your writings that Sacco was guilty." The judge's assessment was significant, because he was one of Felix Frankfurter's "Hot Dogs", and Justice Frankfurter had advocated his appointment to the federal bench. The Los Angeles Times published an article on December 24, 2005, "Sinclair Letter Turns Out to Be Another Exposé", which references a newly discovered letter from Upton Sinclair to attorney John Beardsley in which Sinclair, a socialist writer famous for his muckraking novels, revealed a conversation with Fred Moore, attorney for Sacco and Vanzetti. In that conversation, in response to Sinclair's request for the truth, Moore stated that both Sacco and Vanzetti were in fact guilty, and that Moore had fabricated their alibis in an attempt to avoid a guilty verdict. The Los Angeles Times interprets subsequent letters as indicating that, to avoid loss of sales to his radical readership, particularly abroad, and due to fears for his own safety, Sinclair didn't change the premise of his novel in that respect. However, Sinclair also expressed in those letters doubts as to whether Moore deserved to be trusted in the first place, and he did not actually assert the innocence of the two in the novel, focusing instead on the argument that the trial they got was not fair. Dukakis proclamation In 1977, as the 50th anniversary of the executions approached, Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis asked the Office of the Governor's Legal Counsel to report on "whether there are substantial grounds for believing–at least in the light of the legal standards of today–that Sacco and Vanzetti were unfairly convicted and executed" and to recommend appropriate action. The resulting "Report to the Governor in the Matter of Sacco and Vanzetti" detailed grounds for doubting that the trial was conducted fairly in the first instance, and argued as well that such doubts were only reinforced by "later-discovered or later-disclosed evidence." The report questioned prejudicial cross-examination that the trial judge allowed, the judge's hostility, the fragmentary nature of the evidence, and eyewitness testimony that came to light after the trial. It found the judge's charge to the jury troubling for the way it emphasized the defendants' behavior at the time of their arrest and highlighted certain physical evidence that was later called into question. The report also dismissed the argument that the trial had been subject to judicial review, noting that "the system for reviewing murder cases at the time ... failed to provide the safeguards now present." Based on recommendations of the Office of Legal Counsel, Dukakis declared August 23, 1977, the 50th anniversary of their execution, as Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti Memorial Day. His proclamation, issued in English and Italian, stated that Sacco and Vanzetti had been unfairly tried and convicted and that "any disgrace should be forever removed from their names." He did not pardon them, because that would imply they were guilty. Neither did he assert their innocence. A resolution to censure Dukakis failed in the Massachusetts Senate by a vote of 23 to 12. Dukakis later expressed regret only for not reaching out to the families of the victims of the crime. Later tributes A memorial committee tried to present a plaster cast executed in 1937 by Gutzon Borglum, the sculptor of Mount Rushmore, to Massachusetts governors and Boston mayors in 1937, 1947, and 1957 without success. On August 23, 1997, on the 70th anniversary of the Sacco and Vanzetti executions, Boston's first Italian-American Mayor, Thomas Menino, and the Italian-American Governor of Massachusetts, Paul Cellucci, unveiled the work at the Boston Public Library, where it remains on display. The city's acceptance of this piece of artwork is not intended to reopen debate about the guilt or innocence of Sacco and Vanzetti," Menino said. "It is intended to remind us of the dangers of miscarried justice, and the right we all have to a fair trial.The event occasioned a renewed debate about the fairness of the trial in the editorial pages of the Boston Herald. A mosaic mural portraying the trial of Sacco and Vanzetti is installed on the main campus of Syracuse University. In Braintree, Massachusetts on the corner of French Avenue and Pearl Street, a memorial marks the site of the murders. The memorial has two exhibits. The first is a weatherproof poster that discusses the crime and the subsequent trial. The second exhibit is a metal plaque that memorializes the victims of the crime. The "Sacco and Vanzetti Centuria" was an American anarchist military unit in the Durruti Column that fought in the Spanish Civil War. Many sites in the former USSR are named after "Sacco and Vanzetti": for example, a beer production facility in Moscow, a kolkhoz in Donetsk region, Ukraine; and a street and an apartment complex in Yekaterinburg.; 'Sacco and Vanzetti' was also a popular brand of Russian pencil from 1930–2007. Numerous towns in Italy have streets named after Sacco and Vanzetti, including Via Sacco-Vanzetti in Torremaggiore, Sacco's home town; and Villafalletto, Vanzetti's. In 2017, as part of an Eagle Scout project, a plaque was placed outside of Norfolk Superior Court commemorating the trial. References in popular culture Plays James Thurber and Elliot Nugent's 1940 play The Male Animal turns on a college professor's insistence on reading Vanzetti's statement at sentencing to his English composition class. It was adapted as a film the next year, starring Henry Fonda and Olivia de Havilland. In 1992, Argentinian playwright Mauricio Kartun premiered Sacco y Vanzetti: dramaturgia sumario de documentos sobre el caso, under the direction of Jaime Kogan In 1999, People's Light & Theatre Company in Malvern, Pennsylvania premiered Louis Lippa's play, Sacco and Vanzetti: A Vaudeville. Directed by co-founder Ken Marini, it featured long-time company members Tom Teti and Stephen Novelli. It subsequently received productions at City Theatre of Pittsburgh; the Marin Theatre Company, San Francisco; and the Gorilla Theatre of Tampa Bay. In 2000, the play Voices on the Wind by Eric Paul Erickson centers around the final hours of the lives of Sacco and Vanzetti. Former Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis recorded an audio clip of his public statement on the 50th anniversary for the production. In 2001, Anton Coppola premiered his opera Sacco and Vanzetti. In 2014, Joseph Silovsky wrote and performed in an Off-Broadway play about Sacco and Vanzetti, Send for the Million Men. Films and television Sacco-Vanzetti Story was presented on television in 1960. The two-part drama starred Martin Balsam as Sacco and Steven Hill as Vanzetti. In 1965, the BBC produced The Good Shoemaker and the Poor Fish Peddler, a TV movie about the case. Sacco e Vanzetti, a 1971 film by Italian director Giuliano Montaldo covers the case, and stars Riccardo Cucciolla and Gian Maria Volonté as Sacco and Vanzetti respectively. Joan Baez performed the song "Here's To You" (music by Ennio Morricone, lyrics by Baez) for the film. This same song was later used in the 2014 video game Metal Gear Solid V: Ground Zeroes. Popeye Doyle uses the names to insult two French police officers tailing him in French Connection II. The 2006 documentary Sacco and Vanzetti was directed by Peter Miller. Produced by Peter Miller and Editor Amy Linton, the film presents interviews with researchers and historians of the lives of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, and their trial. It also presents forensic evidence that refutes that used by the prosecution during the trial. Prison letters written by the defendants are read by voice actors with Tony Shalhoub as Sacco and John Turturro as Vanzetti. Interviewees include Howard Zinn, Studs Terkel, and Arlo Guthrie. The Sopranos episode The Legend of Tennessee Moltisanti briefly mentions their names while the Soprano family is eating dinner, discussing famous Italian-Americans. Music In 1932, composer Ruth Crawford Seeger wrote the song "Sacco, Vanzetti" on commission from the Society of Contemporary Music in Philadelphia. In 1963, Pulitzer Prize-winning American composer Roger Reynolds set selections of Vanzetti's letters to music in the chamber work Portrait of Vanzetti for narrator, mixed ensemble, and electronics. When he died in 1964, American composer Marc Blitzstein was working on an opera about Sacco and Vanzetti, which Leonard Lehrman completed. In 1971, Georges Moustaki adapted the Ennio Morricone/Joan Baez song "Here's to you" under the new title of "Marche de Sacco et Vanzetti" for his album Il y avait un jardin (There was a garden).Le site officiel de Georges Moustaki: http://www.creatweb.com/moustaki/ In 1976, the German folk group Manderley included the song "Sacco's Brief" (Sacco's Letter) on their album Fliegt, Gedanken, fliegt. American singer Woody Guthrie recorded a series of songs known as the Ballads of Sacco & Vanzetti. The music video for the song "No Shelter" by American rap metal band Rage Against the Machine, shows the executions of both Sacco & Vanzetti and the Scottsboro Boys, both being historical examples of unfair trials. American folk singer Charles King wrote the song "Two Good Arms" about Sacco & Vanzetti in 1977 on the fiftieth anniversary of their death. The song has been performed by Holly Near and Ronnie Gilbert. On his 1972 album FM & AM, George Carlin made reference to a new musical supergroup named Crosby, Stills, Nash, Young, Merrill, Lynch, Pierce, Sacco & Vanzetti. On his first EP Dice, published in 2020 the Italian rapper MrThony/theGuz included a track dedicated to the story of the wrongful conviction of Bartolomeo Vanzetti Written works, paintings Upton Sinclair's 1928 book Boston is a fictional interpretation of the affair. H. G. Wells's 1928 book Mr. Blettsworthy on Rampole Island refers to the case and the main character's reaction to it. In the early 1930s, Ben Shahn produced a series of works related to the case, notably The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti, owned by the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City. A similar 60-by-12-foot mural by Shahn, executed in marble and enamel, is installed on the east wall of Huntington Beard Crouse Hall at Syracuse University. In F. Scott Fitzgerald's short story, "Six of One..." (1932), one of the characters is said to have been "arrested in the Sacco-Vanzetti demonstrations". The chapter 'Holding the Fort: The Night Sacco and Vanzetti Died' of Frank Moorhouse's 1993 novel Grand Days depicts the violent demonstrations in Geneva following the execution. In 1935, Maxwell Anderson's award-winning drama Winterset presented the story of a man who attempts to clear the name of his Italian immigrant father who has been executed for robbery and murder. It was adapted as a feature film a year later. In 1936, the third novel in John Dos Passos' U.S.A. trilogy, The Big Money, Mary French works on the Sacco and Vanzetti Defense Committee and is arrested protesting their imminent executions. James T. Farrell's 1946 novel Bernard Clare uses the anti-Italian sentiment provoked by coverage of the case and the crowd scene in New York City's Union Square awaiting news of the executions as critical plot elements. Mark Binelli presented the two as a Laurel-and-Hardy-like comedy team in the 2006 novel Sacco and Vanzetti Must Die! The trial is discussed in detail in Kurt Vonnegut's 1979 novel Jailbird, in which Vonnegut suggests that the case - especially Medeiros' confession - is a modern day parallel to the crucifixion of Jesus. Rick Geary wrote a 2011 graphic novel titled The Lives of Sacco & Vanzetti as part of his Treasury of XXth Century Murder series. In the novel Vita Nostra by Marina and Sergey Dyachenko, (Maryna and Serhiy Dyachenko) the Institute for Special Technologies is on Sacco and Vanzetti street. In the novel Paradies Amerika by a German author Egon Erwin Kisch, Sacco and Vanzetti are mentioned as victims of a "barbaric judicial murder". Poetry John Dos Passos wrote the poem "They Are Dead Now," about the executions of Sacco and Vanzetti. In his poem "America", Allen Ginsberg presents a catalog of slogans that includes the line: "Sacco and Vanzetti must not die". Carl Sandburg described the execution of Sacco and Vanzetti in his poem "Legal Midnight Hour". Edna St. Vincent Millay wrote a poem after the executions titled "Justice Denied In Massachusetts". William Carlos Williams wrote a poem entitled "Impromptu: The Suckers" in response to the trial. The Welsh poet Alun Lewis, who died in WW2, wrote a poem in the form of a dramatic monologue titled "Sacco Writes to his Son". See also Edward Holton James Citations Works cited Further reading Paul Avrich, Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996. Paul Avrich, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991. Eli Bortman, Sacco & Vanzetti. Boston: Commonwealth Editions, 2005. Robert D'Attilio, "La Salute è in Voi: the Anarchist Dimension" in Sacco-Vanzetti: Developments and Reconsiderations – 1979, Conference Proceedings (Boston: Trustees of the Public Library of the City of Boston, 1982) Luigi Botta, "Sacco e Vanzetti: giustiziata la verità" (prefazione di Pietro Nenni), Edizioni Gribaudo, CavallermagRobert D'Attilio, "La Salute è in Voi: the Anarchist Dimension" in Sacco-Vanzetti: Developments and Reconsiderationsgiore, 1978 Luigi Botta, "La marcia del dolore - I funerali di Sacco e Vanzetti - Una storia del Novecento", introduzione di Giovanni Vanzetti, contributi di Robert D'Attilio e Jerry Kaplan, contiene DVD del funerale, Nova Delphi Libri, Roma, 2017, Luigi Botta, "Sacco & Vanzetti (Cronologia - Strumenti di ricerca)", Edizioni Cristoforo Beggiami, Savigliano, 2017 Luigi Botta, "1927-2017 Sacco e Vanzetti", Istituto Storico della Resistenza, Cuneo, 2017 Luigi Botta, "Le carte di Vanzetti", Nino Aragno Editore, Torino, 2019, Herbert B. Ehrmann, The Case That Will Not Die: Commonwealth vs. Sacco and Vanzetti, Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1969. Howard Fast, The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti, A New England Legend. New York: Blue Heron Press, 1953. David Felix, Protest: Sacco-Vanzetti and the Intellectuals, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1965. Roberta Strauss Feuerlicht, Justice Crucified, The Story of Sacco and Vanzetti, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1977 Felix Frankfurter, "The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti," Atlantic Monthly, March 1927. —Reprinted in book form as The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1927. James Grossman, "The Sacco-Vanzetti Case Reconsidered", in Commentary, January 1962 Brian Harris, "Injustice." Sutton Publishing. 2006. Brian Jackson, The Black Flag: A Look Back at the Strange Case of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981 G. Louis Joughin and Edmund M. Morgan, The Legacy of Sacco and Vanzetti. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1948. Joseph B. Kadane and David A. Schum, A Probabilistic Analysis of the Sacco and Vanzetti Evidence, Wiley Series in Probability & Mathematical Statistics, 1996 Murray Kempton, Part of our Time: Some Monuments and Ruins of the Thirties. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1955. Eugene Lyons The Life and Death of Sacco and Vanzetti. New York: International Publishers, 1927. Eugene Lyons, Assignment in Utopia. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1937. Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruling denying new trial at Case citation 255 Mass. 369, decided May 12, 1926 Robert Montgomery, Sacco-Vanzetti: The Murder and the Myth. New York: Devin-Adair, 1960. Michael Musmanno, After Twelve Years. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1939. John Neville, Twentieth-Century Cause Cèlébre : Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920–1927. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004. Richard Newby, Kill Now, Talk Forever: Debating Sacco and Vanzetti. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2002. Katherine Anne Porter, The Never-Ending Wrong, Boston: Little, Brown, 1977. Report to the Governor in the matter of Sacco and Vanzetti, Boston: Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1977. Francis Russell, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Case Resolved. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. Francis Russell, Tragedy in Dedham: The Story of the Sacco-Vanzetti Case. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962. Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, The Letters of Sacco and Vanzetti. New York: Octagon Books, 1928. Nicola Sacco, The Sacco-Vanzetti Case. New York: Russell & Russell, 1931. Sacco-Vanzetti: Developments and Reconsiderations – 1979, Conference Proceedings, Boston: Trustees of the Public Library of the City of Boston, 1979. The Sacco-Vanzetti Case: Transcript of the Record of the Trial of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti in the Courts of Massachusetts, 6 vols., NY: Henry Holt & Co., 1928–9 Upton Sinclair, Boston: A Documentary Novel of the Sacco-Vanzetti Case, Cambridge: R. Bentley, 1978 James E. Starrs, "Once More Unto the Breech: The Firearms Evidence in the Sacco and Vanzetti Case Revisited," in Journal of Forensic Sciences (1986), pp. 630–654, 1050–1078. Susan Tejada, In Search of Sacco & Vanzetti: Double Lives, Troubled Times, & the Massachusetts Murder Case that Shook the World, Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2012. Moshik Temkin, The Sacco-Vanzetti Affair: America on Trial. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009. Lorenzo Tibaldo, Sotto un cielo stellato. Vita e morte di Nicola Sacco e Bartolomeo Vanzetti, Turin: Claudiana, 2008. Michael M. Topp, The Sacco and Vanzetti Case: A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005. Bruce Watson, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Men, the Murders, and the Judgment of Mankind. New York: Viking Press, 2007. Robert P. Weeks, Commonwealth vs. Sacco and Vanzetti. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1958. William Young and David E. Kaiser, Postmortem: New Evidence in the Case of Sacco and Vanzetti'', Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1985. External links The Sacco-Vanzetti case at the Kate Sharpley Library Sacco and Vanzetti Documentary The Sacco-Vanzetti Case: An Account, "Famous American Trials." – Overview of case by Professor Douglas O. Linder, UMKC School of Law Carol Vanderveer, "American Writers and the Sacco-Vanzetti Case", 2001 The Sacco and Vanzetti Commemoration Society Sacco-Vanzetti Case Records, 1920–1928 at the Harvard Law School Library, Historical & Special Collections Sacco-Vanzetti Trial newspaper clippings, April-November 1927 at the Harvard Law School Library, Historical & Special Collections Sacco and Vanzetti collections, Robert D. Farber University Archives & Special Collections Department, Brandeis University, Boston, Massachusetts — 4 separate archives: (1) Francis Russell collection 1921-1965, (2) Gardner Jackson Collection 1896-1965, (3) Mrs. Walter Frank Collection, 1927-1963, (4) Tom O'Connor Collection 1920-1965 Citizens National Committee for Sacco-Vanzetti/Sacco-Vanzetti National League, Robert D. Farber University Archives & Special Collections Department, Brandeis University, Boston, Massachusetts 1927 deaths 1927 in law 1927 in the United States 20th-century American trials 20th century in Boston 20th-century executions by Massachusetts 20th-century executions of American people American trade unionists of Italian descent Anarcho-communists Anti-communism in the United States Anti-Italian sentiment Criminal duos Executed anarchists Executed Italian people Galleanisti History of Braintree, Massachusetts History of Dedham, Massachusetts Italian anarchists Italian anti-capitalists Italian atheists Italian emigrants to the United States Italian people executed abroad Italian-American history People convicted of murder by Massachusetts People executed by Massachusetts by electric chair People executed for murder Political repression in the United States Trials of political people Wrongful executions Trials in Massachusetts

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang%20and%20Eng%20Bunker

Chang and Eng Bunker

Chang Bunker and Eng Bunker (May 11, 1811 – January 17, 1874) were Siamese-American conjoined twin brothers whose fame propelled the expression "Siamese twins" to become synonymous for conjoined twins in general. They were widely exhibited as curiosities and were "two of the nineteenth century's most studied human beings". The brothers were born with Chinese ancestry in Siam (now known as Thailand) and were brought to the United States in 1829. Physicians inspected them as they became known to American and European audiences in "freak shows". Newspapers and the public were initially sympathetic to them, and within three years they left the control of their managers, who they thought were cheating them, and toured on their own. In early exhibitions, they appeared exotic and displayed their athleticism; they later held conversations in English in a more dignified parlor setting. In 1839, after a decade of financial success, the twins quit touring and settled near Mount Airy, North Carolina. They became American citizens, bought slaves, married local sisters, and fathered 21 children, several of whom accompanied them when they resumed touring. Chang's and Eng's respective families lived in separate houses, where the twins took alternating three-day stays. After the Civil War, they lost part of their wealth and their slaves. Eng died hours after Chang at the age of 62. An autopsy revealed that their livers were fused in the ligament connecting their sternums. The novelist Darin Strauss writes, "their conjoined history was a confusion of legend, sideshow hyperbole, and editorial invention even while they lived." Many works have fictionalized the Bunkers' lives, often to symbolize cooperation or discord, notably in representing the Union and Confederacy during the Civil War. (1811–1829) Chang and Eng were born in 1811 in Siam (modern-day Thailand). Their mother reportedly said their birth was no more difficult than that of their other several siblings'. Their exact date of birth and details of their early lives are unclear. The earliest report on the twins assigns the birth month of May 1811. Their birth village is called Meklong (today's Samut Songkhram); a statue in the town commemorates the twins' birthplace. Their father, Ti-eye, was a fisherman of Chinese descent. He died when the twins were young, possibly in a smallpox epidemic that ran through the area in 1819. Their mother, Nok, raised ducks with her children's help. Their mother's ethnic origin is unclear. Varying accounts suggest that she was Siamese, Chinese, part-Chinese and part-Siamese, or part-Chinese and part-Malay. Chang and Eng were raised with Theravada Buddhism. Despite being joined at the sternum, they were lively youths, running and playing with other children. Their mother raised them like her other children, in a "matter-of-fact" way without special attention on their being conjoined. The "discovery" of the brothers is credited to the Scottish merchant Robert Hunter. Hunter was a trusted trade associate of the Siamese government who traveled with considerable freedom. In 1824, Hunter reportedly first met the twins while he was on a fishing boat in the Menam River and the twins were swimming at dusk. He mistook them for a "strange animal", but after meeting them he saw economic opportunity in bringing them to the West. He would later tell a story that the king of Siam had ordered the brothers' deaths and had originally forbidden him to transport them out of the country. Regardless of the story's veracity, it took five years for Hunter to bring them away. Hunter and American sea captain Abel Coffin departed to the United States with the twins in summer 1829. A contract Hunter and Coffin signed with the brothers stipulated that their tour would last for five years, though a rumor later circulated that Chang and Eng's mother had sold them into slavery, a charge that greatly upset the twins. Christian missionaries contacted their mother in 1845, four years before she died. She had believed that her conjoined sons were dead, having not seen them for 15 years, but was informed that they were alive and recently married. (1829–1839) Chang and Eng were 17 years old when they traveled to the United States with Hunter, Coffin, a crew of 18 men, and a Siamese translator. They arrived in Boston on August 16, 1829, and the next day the Boston Patriot confirmed Coffin and Hunter's ambitions: the twins "will probably be exhibited to the public". They were soon inspected by physicians, many of whom employed physiognomy and phrenology and judged them to be Chinese. Their arrival was excitedly reported in newspapers with varying degrees of racial stereotypes and falsehoods. After leaving the United States they toured major cities in the British Isles, and by the time they returned to New York in March 1831, the twins had gained some skill in English reading, writing, and speaking. Newspapers reported that they had earned great profits, and their promotional materials began to describe their customers as dignified—though their act of exhibition could seem crude—to help bring more moneyed visitors. When touring in cities, the twins stayed at a hotel for several days (sometimes more than a week) and charged audiences to attend their "freak show". In small towns, their manager would send flyers ahead of their arrival, and they would remain at a lodge or inn for just one or two nights. Their first manager, James W. Hale, introduced them as the "Siamese Youths", a name they preferred to "boys". The usual admission price was 25 cents, , and pamphlets and drawings featuring the brothers were usually also for sale. In early performances, the twins performed physical feats, running and doing somersaults. An emphasis was placed on their exoticness: they wore pigtails and dressed in "Oriental" clothing. Their performances occasionally featured swimming, playing checkers, and doing parlor tricks. Conflicts on tour In summer 1831, Hale took the twins on a retreat in Lynnfield, Massachusetts. While hunting game, they thought they were being taunted and harassed by over a dozen local men who had approached them, going on to strike a man named Elbridge Gerry with the butt of their gun. Gerry retaliated, throwing a heavy stone at one twin's head, drawing blood. The twins then fired at Gerry, though the gun was blank. The men ran off. The following day, one of the men pressed charges, alleging that the twins were at fault. A special court was convened, and the brothers were arrested for disturbing the peace and paid bond for good behavior. The Salem Mercury portrayed the twins as the victims of the Lynnfield incident; other papers followed suit. Two weeks after the event, Gerry published a letter titled "To the Public", saying that the twins had provoked the violence. Hale was angered that the twins had gotten into a situation in which their public image could be slandered. He resigned as their manager in September 1831 and was replaced by a friend, Charles Harris. Hale counseled Harris; for example, he could avoid paying a Virginia exhibition tax through careful marketing: he was to call the twins' tour a "business", not a "show". In the public eye, Abel Coffin, the man who first brought them to the United States, continued to serve as a father figure to the twins. The twins were soon involved in another conflict, during a performance in Alabama. A surgeon in attendance asked to conduct a close examination of the ligature connecting the twins. They refused, having not permitted close inspections for more than two years. Rising in anger, the doctor said, "You are all a set of impostors and pickpockets", and disorder erupted as guests threw objects across the room. The twins fled and later, because they probably were the first ones to disturb the peace, paid a good-behavior bond as ordered by a magistrate. Relations between the twins and the Coffins strained beginning in January 1831 when Abel's wife, Susan Coffin, upset the twins by refusing their requests. Chang and Eng then started asking Harris to send letters pleading their cases. In one instance, Mrs. Coffin refused the twins an additional $3 per week to feed their horse, a refusal the twins compared to clipping a bird's wings and saying, "Now you may fly if you wish". Harris first maintained a distinction between his and the twins' point of view but eventually wrote using their voice and had them sign their names, "Chang Eng". Abel Coffin left for Asia in late 1831 and planned to return to America by January 1832. After January passed, the twins' relations with Mrs. Coffin broke down completely, the twins regularly asking when Abel Coffin would return. They hoped to be free from commitment to the Coffins on their 21st birthday (in May 1832), as Abel had once promised. They also worried that, should he never return, they would remain in permanent limbo between contract and freedom. They began also to think that Mrs. Coffin was "deceitful and greedy" as they learned of the Coffins' management practices. For instance, Mrs. Coffin had encouraged them to perform when they were sick. During one trip, the Coffins had paid full fare for themselves but booked the twins into steerage, listing them as servants, and lied then to them when they were questioned. And the twins learned that Mrs. Coffin was willing to pay a higher wage only for a certain attendant, not the one whom the twins preferred. They jointly came to believe that Mrs. Coffin "had misled me". Independent travel Abel Coffin, upon returning to Massachusetts in July 1832, discovered that Chang and Eng were missing. Coffin accused Hale of "exciting his subjects to rebellion" (Hale had done no such thing), and after a chase he finally tracked down the brothers in Bath, New York. Hale later said Coffin told him he had met the twins "whoring, gaming, and drinking" and "gave Chang Eng 'the damndest thrashing they ever had in their lives'". On the twins' desertion, Coffin simply wrote to his wife as follows: "We have had much talk; they seem to feel themselves quite free from me." The twins themselves did not immediately announce that they were in business on their own, nor did they much alter their public persona. Nonetheless, they were now exclusively referred to by their stage name—the "Siamese twins"—and they did change some parts of their performance, such as by wearing more American clothes, speaking English with the audience, and presenting themselves no longer as "boys" but men. They also answered audience questions sitting in a formal, parlor setting and hunted game in their free time. What had once essentially been their indentured servitude had changed to freedom; they were in command of their act and hired their own staff. Chang and Eng did not perform on their sightseeing trip across Western Europe in 1835–36 visiting Paris, Antwerp, The Hague, Amsterdam, and other cities. In 1836, Hale published a pamphlet about them titled A Few Particulars concerning Chang-Eng, the United Siamese Brothers, Published under Their Own Direction. Positioning the twins as upper-class, saying that in Siam, Chinese were elites, it reported, among other particulars, that a representative of President Jackson had visited the twins' mother. (1839–1874) Traphill The final setting for the Chang and Eng's on-and-off 1829–1839 tour was held in Jefferson, North Carolina, on July 3 and 4, 1839. According to a family friend, their move to Wilkes County, in the northwest of the state, allowed them to "engage in chasing stag and catching trout ... to enjoy the recreation which they had desired to find far away from the hurrying crowds." In October 1839, they purchased for $300, , near the rural community of Traphill, in mountainous northeast Wilkes County. The tract runs along Little Sandy Creek, near the Roaring River. They soon became well acquainted with members of elite Wilkes society, including James Calloway and Robert C. Martin, both physicians; Abner Carmichael, the county sheriff; and James W. Gwyn Jr., the county's superior court clerk. Charles Harris, their former manager, relocated with them, and he became the Traphill postmaster. The month they bought the land, the twins (as well as Irish-born Harris) became naturalized citizens. Gwyn administered their oath of allegiance; despite a federal law from 1790 restricting naturalization to "free white persons", citizenship was a matter generally governed by local attitudes. A home on Chang and Eng's Traphill land was constructed in 1840. The brothers would buy foodstuffs from Wilkes slaveholders and trade dry goods with their neighbors. They also bought slaves and hired several women as housekeepers; the twins' first slave was named "Aunt" Grace Gates. Prosperous from touring, they displayed their wealth through elegant house decorations; by the early 1840s, their property was the third-most valuable in the county at $1,000, . Settled, they planned to stop exhibiting for good, content to live in Traphill. The Whig Party newspaper Carolina Watchman of Salisbury called them "genuine Whigs", and the Boston Transcript reported that they were "happy as lords". In 1840, a profile of the twins in the Tennessee Mirror made clear the twins' intentions to marry. Many newspapers regularly joked about this, discouraging their marriage not just with objections over the twins' deformity but also because of their race. Nevertheless, on April 13, 1843, Baptist preacher Colby Sparks officiated the weddings between Eng and Sarah Yates, and between Chang and Adelaide Yates. Though national (mainly Northern) newspapers generally condemned the marriages, there was probably little local reaction except purported vandalism of Sarah and Adelaide's parents' house the night before the wedding. The Bunkers would prominently feature their marriages when they went back on tour later in life. By the late 1840s, the twins spoke English fluently, had voted, and had filed criminal charges against several white people. They had also adopted the English-language surname Bunker, in honor of a woman whom they met in New York and admired. Continued newspaper coverage, as visitors flocked to their Traphill home, established their place as national celebrities; and they felt themselves to be Americans. The Bunkers carved a unique place in Americans' perception of race—they were considered nonwhite but were afforded many of the privileges of White people, being fairly wealthy Southern slaveholders with property rights. Mount Airy On March 1, 1845, the Bunkers bought a plot of in Surry County. They had a home built—at first just for part-time use—about south of Mount Airy, along Stewart's Creek. The twins amassed wealth during the late 1840s and 1850s and lived in luxury as plantation owners. In 1850, it was estimated that they had invested $10,000 in property in North Carolina, . Meanwhile, they had a merchant in New York who managed another $60,000 for importing, , and they lived off the interest. For about a decade they split their time between Mount Airy and Traphill because their families had grown large; by 1847 Adelaide had delivered four children; Sarah, three. They would maintain the Traphill residence through 1853; later their time was divided solely between two homes located around Mount Airy. Then for the next decades, the twins would alternate which house they used, three days at a time; the twin who owned the current house could elect to do whatever he wanted while his brother complied and kept silent. In 1850, ten of their 18 slaves were under the age of seven, some being owned only to be sold later for profit, and others growing up to work the fields. The Bunker plantations produced wheat, rye, corn, oats, and potatoes, and they raised cows, sheep, and pigs. Unlike families that owned many North Carolina farms, the Bunkers did not grow tobacco, which may suggest that their plantation was run primarily to feed the Bunker family and its slaves, not for commercial purposes. The press characterized the Bunkers' treatment of slaves as particularly harsh, though the twins decried accusations of cruelty and said that their wives supervised the slaves and raised money for their education. Though the Bunkers were generally part of the region's aristocracy, some of their practices set them apart. They were occasionally seen performing manual labor; their method of chopping wood was particularly effective: they would wield an axe with all four hands, for more force, or would rapidly alternate turns swinging. They continued recreational hunting, and they took up fishing, drinking, and several sports. Return to touring Partial retirement ended up not suiting the Bunkers, and they sought to resume touring for what they called financial reasons: they said they needed to earn more money to support their then-seven children. They traveled to New York City in 1849 with daughters Katherine and Josephine, both aged five, but the brief tour petered out owing to poor management, and they returned to North Carolina. Advertisements had described them as "The Living Siamese Twins Chang-Eng and Their Children". They conducted a successful year-long tour in 1853, again bringing two children (Christopher and Katherine). They again justified the tour by saying their motivation was to raise money to support their (by this point, 11) children's education. On this tour, viewings were like levees and were not elaborate, as the twins and their children usually sat, spoke, and mingled with the audience. Chang and Eng wore American suits and spoke in English about their marriages and families, and they also showed off their wit and political knowledge. They appeared educated and polite, according to biographer Joseph Andrew Orser, and "might have appeared as a distinguished southern family on display except for the fact that no family of distinction would exhibit itself to the public." In early October 1860 they signed with famed showman P. T. Barnum for a month and exhibited in Barnum's American Museum, in New York City. Alongside Zip the Pinhead, they performed for several distinguished guests, including the Prince of Wales; in 1868, they would briefly tour with Zip in the British Isles. Contrary to popular belief, Barnum did not create the Bunkers' careers; in fact, they were competitors in the entertainment business and the twins had already become world-famous from their own tours. They departed New York City on November 12, 1860, and took steamships and crossed Panama by train to arrive in San Francisco on December 6. Californians at the time were in the midst of figuring out how to deal with a recent influx of Chinese immigrants, and the arrival of the Bunkers (as well as two of Eng's sons, Patrick and Montgomery) was put in the spotlight. As usual, Chang and Eng were favorably received by audiences with whom they spoke, though reports of their performances in California took various perspectives on their race and nationality. Newspapers called them "yellow" but also the "greatest of living curiosities" who had "made much noise in the world, and are certainly worth seeing". They left California on February 11, 1861, by which time seven states had seceded from the United States, sparking the American Civil War. The Bunkers likely returned to their Mount Airy homes by April—after gunfire had begun in South Carolina, but before North Carolina seceded on May 20. Civil War metaphor Throughout the Civil War, the twins' conjoined state served in several metaphors. In July 1860, the Louisville Journal chided divisions in the Democratic Party by making the twins out to represent rival factions within the party, split on the extent to which slavery should be federally protected. The Bunker brothers were long-time supporters of the Whig Party, however, and a neighbor wrote to The Fayetteville Observer that they "are not now and never have been Democrats [and] they say they never expect to be Democrats". This neighbor also said that in the 1860 presidential election both twins supported the Tennessean John Bell of the Constitutional Union Party, a candidate popular in northwestern North Carolina whose platform included both support of slavery and of preservation of the union. More prominently, many newspapers fictitiously wrote that Chang and Eng were at odds with each other on the issue of secession, personifying fears of sectional violence. The New-York Tribune ran a colorful allegory that claimed to be an account of a dispute between the twins while they were at Barnum's American Museum. It says that Chang, the quarrelsome one, wants the ligament connecting them to be painted black (signifying the key issue of slavery) but that Eng does not. Chang says that his "union" with Eng is to be "dissolved", while a "Dr. Lincoln" reasons that a separation surgery would be "dangerous for both parties"". According to Orser, "The united brothers had become symbols the American union and the promise it offered to its citizens." Orser adds that reports of conflict between the Bunkers did have some grain of truth: the brothers had legally divided their property, land and slaves, and they had created separate wills, formalizing the divided way they had lived since marriage. Final years By the time the Civil War ended in 1865, the twins' finances had taken a hit (they had lent money that was repaid in worthless Confederate currency) and their slaves were emancipated, so they decided to resume touring. Northern audiences at this point were not so receptive to the twins—for they had been Confederate slaveholders—so during tours they sympathetically presented themselves as old men, with many children, who only reluctantly supported their state over country and who each had a son hurt in the war, one injured and one captured (serving in the Confederate States Army). Newspapers disparagingly wrote that the twins had lost "a considerable number of slaves of about the same color of themselves" and claimed that the twins were taking advantage of their audience. Chang and Eng made a trip to Britain in 1868–69, seeing physicians and chatting in exhibition; their last visit there had been over 30 years before. Chang's daughter Nannie, who had never before been far from home, and Eng's daughter Kate, both in their 20s, came on the trip, from North Carolina to Baltimore and New York, then across the Atlantic to Liverpool and into rural Scotland, later going to Manchester. In 1870, Chang, Eng, and two sons went to Germany and Russia; they wanted to further explore Europe, but returned home to avoid the developing Franco-Prussian War. On the ship back home, Chang's right side (toward Eng) became paralyzed after he suffered a stroke, and they effectively retired, as Eng cared for Chang. The Bunker estate in 1870 was worth $30,000 in total, —two-thirds belonging to Chang. Family Sarah Yates Bunker was born on December 18, 1822, the fourth child and second daughter of David and Nancy Yates. Sometimes called "Mrs. Eng", she was seen as the simpler sister and, uneducated, lived frugally and was a capable chef. She was also described as the "more portly, fair one". Adelaide Yates Bunker, or "Mrs. Chang", was born on October 11, 1823. Taller and thinner than her older sister, she was said to have "excelled in personal beauty" and to have possessed a more refined taste. It was said that both Chang and Eng favored Sarah; according to a contemporary newspaper, however, "To any but an oriental taste, [Adelaide] was much the prettiest, being, in fact, a handsome and showy brunette." Both sisters outlived their husbands; Sarah died at age 69 on April 29, 1892. Adelaide died at age 93 on May 21, 1917. Chang's and Eng's first children were born within six days of each other: Sarah gave birth to Katherine Marcellus on February 10, 1844; Adelaide, to Josephine Virginia on February 16. One set of cousins was born eight days apart: Chang's son Christopher and Eng's daughter Julia. Altogether, Chang and Adelaide had ten children and Eng and Sarah had eleven; in total, there were twelve daughters and nine sons; two children were deaf, two died from burns before the age of three and none were born as twins. The twins occasionally attended church with their wives. Their children were for some time formally educated, and generally they were seen favorably; a profile of Chang and Eng said the children represented "a credit to their parents and the community in which they live". , descendants of Chang and Eng's 21 children number about 1,500. Much of the extended family still lives in western North Carolina, and the family has hosted annual get-togethers since the 1980s, usually on the last Saturday of June. Chang's descendants include grandson Caleb V. Haynes, an Air Force major general, and his son Vance Haynes, an archaeologist; great-granddaughter Alex Sink, former Chief Financial Officer of Florida and the Democratic nominee for Governor of Florida in 2010; and great-great-granddaughter Caroline Shaw, a composer and the 2013 Pulitzer Prize for Music recipient. Eng's descendants include grandson George F. Ashby, president of the Union Pacific Railroad in the 1940s. The Bunker pedigree contains 11 sets of twins, none conjoined; the first set of twins, Eng's great-grandsons, were also named Chang and Eng. Medical condition and deaths At birth, Chang and Eng were healthy xiphopagus twins connected at the sternum by a flexible circular band of flesh and cartilage, about long with a maximum circumference of . Their livers were connected through the band, and only at the middle of the ligament did they share sensation. Most physicians who met the twins recommended against surgery for separation, as with medical technology at the time it would have been a fatal procedure. Contemporary medical literature strongly suggests that the twins could have been easily separated today. Their autopsy was performed by surgeon William Pancoast of Philadelphia's Jefferson Medical College. While Eng enjoyed good health toward the end of his life, most of Chang's right side became paralyzed in 1870 after his stroke, and eventually his right leg needed to be kept in a sling. From then on, Chang—becoming a heavy drinker—remained in poor health. Chang contracted bronchitis in January 1874, and the family physician recommended that he stay indoors and warm. On January 15, the Bunkers traveled through cold weather to Eng's house. Chang seemed to have recovered somewhat by the next day but at night was unable to breathe comfortably. On Chang's urging the brothers slept sitting upright on a chair, in front of a fireplace. Eng was healthy physically yet weary from spending the past week with a seriously ill Chang, so he asked to move to their bed after hours of drifting in and out of sleep. Early in the morning of January 17, one of Eng's sons checked on the sleeping twins. "Uncle Chang is dead," the boy reportedly said to Eng, who responded, "Then I am going!" The family doctor was quickly sent for but Eng soon died, reportedly just over two hours after his brother's death. The Bunkers had the longest known lifespan (62 years) of any conjoined twins in history until 2012, when their record was surpassed by Ronnie and Donnie Galyon (1951–2020). Eng was remembered as a caring supporter of his brother, especially during their final years, when Chang developed severe illnesses. After their deaths, their good friend Jesse Franklin Graves recalled, "[Eng's] kindness was received with the warmest appreciation by Chang, whose disposition was very different from the morose, ill nature so falsely ascribed to him [by the press]." Autopsy The New York Herald ran a front-page story about the Bunkers' deaths, which attracted public demand for an autopsy as well as the attention of William Pancoast, who successfully petitioned for the opportunity to study the twins. It was rumored that Pancoast and other physicians had offered money to Chang and Eng's widows to inspect the twins, but more likely the doctors pressured the sisters into giving up the bodies by framing this donation as their "duty to science and humanity". The bodies were preserved for two weeks by the cold weather, and then an express train delivered them to the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, where the autopsy was performed and where preliminary findings were presented on February 18 while the autopsy was in progress. The twins' final autopsy report said that Chang had most likely died of a cerebral blood clot; the cause of Eng's death was left unclear. Pancoast and colleague Harrison Allen attributed it to shock—that is, Eng "died of fright" upon seeing his dead brother—based on the fact that Eng's bladder had distended with urine and his right testicle had retracted. Others who worked on the autopsy suggested alternate theories, most prominently that Eng had died of blood loss as his circulatory system pumped blood through the connecting band into his dead brother's body and received no blood in return. "In the end," wrote academic Cynthia Wu in 2012, "that Eng died of fright prevails not only in the medical record but also in the popular-cultural imagination." Legacy The Bunker brothers coined the term "Siamese twins", and their fame made it a synonym for conjoined twins in colloquial use, even referring to those before the Bunkers' lifetime, though modern researchers see the term as outmoded, preferring "conjoined twins". The phrase "like the Siamese twins" (or variations) had been used as early as October 1829 to describe other conjoined pairs, but decades later the use of the standalone "Siamese twins" became widespread. Chang and Eng have often been referred to retrospectively as the "original Siamese twins". Before the Bunkers' bodies were returned to North Carolina for burial (in 1917 they were moved to the cemetery at White Plains Baptist Church outside Mount Airy), doctors took photographs of the connecting tissue and hired sculptor John Casani to make a plaster cast of the twins. The Bunkers' fused livers are preserved in fluid and displayed in a clear jar along with the death cast in Philadelphia's Mütter Museum as a permanent exhibition. A basement room of the Andy Griffith Museum contains an exhibit on the twins. The Circus World Museum houses life-size figures of the twins. The Southern Historical Collection of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill keeps the Bunkers' personal papers. In fiction Many anonymous promotional pamphlets were printed depicting the Bunkers in artwork and literature, comprising early fiction pieces on the "Siamese twins"; the twins were used more metaphorically in later works. Edward Bulwer-Lytton's satirical poem The Siamese Twins was published while they toured Britain. Mentioning them in his novels The Confidence-Man and Billy Budd, Herman Melville also alludes to the Bunkers in Moby-Dick. The anti-socialist political cartoonist Thomas Nast in 1874 drew "The American Twins", in which a worker ("Labor") wears an apron next to a businessman ("Capital") with a sack of money who are joined at the chests with a band labeled "The Real Union". Before the United States entered World War II, Dr. Seuss used a "Siamese Beard" in his 1941 cartoon "The Great U.S. Sideshow" to attach a man with an America First shirt to Nazi Germany. Mark Twain referenced conjoined twins in several ways, such as by wearing a pink sash connecting him to another man onstage at a New Year's Eve party; in "Personal Habits of the Siamese Twins" (1869), republished as "The Siamese Twins" in his 1875 collection Sketches New and Old, Twain provides an account of the Bunkers' lives, including both true and outlandish anecdotes. This satirical work, with Twain's typical deadpan humor, jokes about, among other things, the twins' different attitudes and their romantic pursuit of the same woman. The musical Chang & Eng, directed by Ekachai Uekrongtham, has themes of open-mindedness and interdependence, and it opened in Singapore in 1997. Chang & Eng (2000), the debut novel of Darin Strauss, is a fictionalized account of the Bunker brothers' lives based on some historical context. Chang is the narrator in God's Fool (2002), Mark Slouka's first novel, and he has a hindsight letting him know the importance of future events. The play I Dream of Chang and Eng by playwright Philip Kan Gotanda, a "reimagining" of the twins' lives that departs somewhat from truthfulness, was workshopped and performed at UC Berkeley in 2011. Chang and Eng (played by Danial Son and Yusaku Komori) are featured in the musical biopic The Greatest Showman (2017) about the early years of the Barnum & Bailey Circus. In the 1988 movie Dead Ringers, directed by David Cronenberg, the twin brothers (both portrayed by Jeremy Irons) grow identification with the Siamese twins Chang and Eng, and the story of their sad death is evocated. In 2012 a Tamil feature film named Maatraan starring Suriya, Kajal Agarwal with inspiration of this conjoined twins documentary, was done by the director K.V.Anand with the plot on conjoined twins. See also List of conjoined twins Notes and references Explanatory notes References Bibliography Further reading External links The Chang and Eng Bunker Project at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Bunkers Digital Collection at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (View digitized collection) Chang and Eng Bunker Papers at the Southern Historical Collection Chang and Eng Exhibit (photographs with commentary) at the City University of New York 1811 births 1874 deaths Conjoined twins American people of Chinese descent American slave owners Burials in North Carolina Naturalized citizens of the United States People from Mount Airy, North Carolina Chang and Eng Bunker People from Wilkes County, North Carolina Sideshow performers Thai emigrants to the United States Chang and Eng Bunker Twin people from the United States Sibling duos Chang and Eng Bunker

263271

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calamari%20%28disambiguation%29

Calamari (disambiguation)

Calamari is squid as food. Calamari or Kalamari may also refer to: The Mon Calamari (fictional race), fictional amphibious humanoids in Star Wars Vinicius Calamari, Brazilian footballer Kalamari (band), Slovene musical group Calamari people, a pre-Columbian indigenous ethnic group of the area that is now Cartagena, Colombia See also Calamar (disambiguation)

263274

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manakin

Manakin

The manakins are a family, Pipridae, of small suboscine passerine birds. The group contains some 54 species distributed through the American tropics. The name is from Middle Dutch mannekijn "little man" (also the source of the different bird name mannikin). Description They range in size from and in weight from . The genus thy the Tyranneutes comprise the smallest manakins, the genus Antilophia are believed to be the largest (since the genus Schiffornis are no longer considered manakins). They are compact stubby birds with short tails, broad and rounded wings, and big heads. The bill is short and has a wide gap. Females and first-year males have dull green plumage; most species are sexually dichromatic in their plumage, the males being mostly black with striking colours in patches, and in some species having long, decorative tail or crown feathers or erectile throat feathers. In some species, males from two to four years old have a distinctive subadult plumage. The syrinx or "voicebox" is distinctive in manakins, setting them apart from the related families Cotingidae and Tyrannidae. Furthermore, it is so acutely variable within the group that genera and even species may be identified by the syrinx alone, unlike birds of most oscine families. The sounds made are whistles, trills, and buzzes. Distribution and habitat Manakins occur from southern Mexico to northern Argentina, Paraguay, and southern Brazil, and on Trinidad and Tobago as well. They are highly arboreal and are almost exclusively forest and woodland birds. Most species live in humid tropical lowlands, with a few in dry forests, river forests, and the subtropical Andes. Some highland species have altitudinal migrations. Behaviour and ecology {{Cladogram |caption=Phylogeny based on a study of the suboscines by Michael Harvey and colleagues published in 2020. The genera Chiroxiphia and Neopelma were found to be paraphyletic. |align=right |cladogram={{Cladex| style=font-size:80%;line-height:75%;width:320px; |1={{clade |1= |2={{clade |1= |2={{clade |1=Xenopipo – 2 species |2={{clade |1=Chloropipo – 2 species |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=Cryptopipo – green manakin |2=Lepidothrix – 8 species }} |2= }} }} }} }} }} }} }} Feeding Manakins feed in the understorey on small fruit (but often remarkably large for the size of the bird) including berries, and to a lesser degree, insects. Since they take fruit in flight as other species "hawk" for insects, they are believed to have evolved from insect-eating birds. Females have big territories from which they do not necessarily exclude other birds of their species, instead feeding somewhat socially. Males spend much of their time together at courtship sites. Manakins sometimes join mixed feeding flocks. Reproduction Many manakin species have spectacular lekking courtship rituals, which are especially elaborate in the genera Pipra and Chiroxiphia. The members of the genera Machaeropterus and Manacus have heavily modified wing feathers, which they use to make buzzing and snapping sounds. Building of the nest (an open cup, generally low in vegetation), the incubation for 18 to 21 days, and care of the young for 13 to 15 days are undertaken by the female alone, since most manakins do not form stable pairs. (The helmeted manakin does form pairs, but the male's contribution is limited to defending the territory.) The normal clutch is two eggs, which are buff or dull white, marked with brown. Lekking polygyny seems to have been a characteristic of the family's original ancestor, and the associated sexual selection led to an adaptive radiation in which relationships may be traced by similarities in displays. An evolutionary explanation connecting lekking to fruit-eating has been proposed. Species list The family Pipridae was introduced (as Pipraria) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. The members of the genus Schiffornis were previously placed in this family, but are now placed in Tityridae. References Further reading External links "Jungle Dancers", Nature article about manakin behaviour, from the PBS website "High-speed videos of two manakin clades (Pipridae: Aves)", from the Journal of Experimental Biology website Videos of Machaeropterus deliciosus making a "tick-tick-ting" sound through wing motion, from the Science'' website Manakin videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection "Manakins and the Plant Family Melastomataceae", from the Ecology Online Sweden website Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics Taxa named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque

263276

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mooring

Mooring

A mooring is any permanent structure to which a vessel may be secured. Examples include quays, wharfs, jetties, piers, anchor buoys, and mooring buoys. A ship is secured to a mooring to forestall free movement of the ship on the water. An anchor mooring fixes a vessel's position relative to a point on the bottom of a waterway without connecting the vessel to shore. As a verb, mooring refers to the act of attaching a vessel to a mooring. The term likely stems from the Dutch verb meren (to moor), used in English since the end of the 15th century. Permanent anchor mooring These moorings are used instead of temporary anchors because they have considerably more holding power, for example because of lesser damage to the marine environment, and are convenient. Where there is a row of moorings they are termed a tier. They are also occasionally used to hold floating docks in place. There are several kinds of moorings: Swing moorings Swing moorings also known as simple or single-point moorings, are the simplest and most common kind of mooring. A swing mooring consists of a single anchor at the bottom of a waterway with a rode (a rope, cable, or chain) running to a float on the surface. The float allows a vessel to find the rode and connect to the anchor. These anchors are known as swing moorings because a vessel attached to this kind of mooring swings in a circle when the direction of wind or tide changes. For a small boat (e.g. 22' / 6.7 m sailing yacht), this might consist of a heavy weight on the seabed, a 12 mm or 14 mm rising chain attached to the "anchor", and a bridle made from 20 mm nylon rope, steel cable, or a 16 mm combination steel wire material. The heavy weight (anchor) should be a dense material. Old rail wagon wheels are used in some places (e.g. Clontarf, Dublin, Ireland) for this purpose. In some harbours (e.g. Dun Laoghaire, Ireland), very heavy chain (e.g. old ship anchor chain) may be placed in a grid pattern on the sea bed to ensure orderly positioning of moorings. Ropes (particularly for marker buoys and messenger lines) should be "non floating" to reduce likelihood of a boat's propeller being fouled by one. Pile moorings Pile moorings are poles driven into the bottom of the waterway with their tops above the water. Vessels then tie mooring lines to two or four piles to fix their position between those piles. Pile moorings are common in New Zealand but rare elsewhere. While many mooring buoys are privately owned, some are available for public use. For example, on the Great Barrier Reef off the Australian coast, a vast number of public moorings are set out in popular areas where boats can moor. This is to avoid the massive damage that would be caused by many vessels anchoring. There are four basic types of permanent anchors used in moorings: Dead weights are the simplest type of anchor. They are generally made as a large concrete block with a rode attached which resists movement with sheer weight; and, to a small degree, by settling into the substrate. In New Zealand old railway wheels are sometimes used. The advantages are that they are simple and cheap. A dead weight mooring that drags in a storm still holds well in its new position. Such moorings are better suited to rocky bottoms where other mooring systems do not hold well. The disadvantages are that they are heavy, bulky, and awkward. Mushroom anchors are the most common anchors and work best for softer seabeds such as mud, sand, or silt. They are shaped like an upside-down mushroom which can be easily buried in mud or silt. The advantage is that it has up to ten times the holding-power-to-weight ratio compared to a dead weight mooring; disadvantages include high cost, limited success on rocky or pebbly substrates, and the long time it takes to reach full holding capacity. Pyramid anchors are pyramid-shaped anchors, also known as Dor-Mor anchors. They work in the upside-down position with the apex pointing down at the bottom such that when they are deployed, the weight of wider base pushes the pyramid down digging into the floor. As the anchors are encountered with lateral pulls, the side edges or corners of the pyramids will dig deeper under the floor, making them more stable. Screw-in moorings are a modern method. The anchor in a screw-in mooring is a shaft with wide blades spiraling around it so that it can be screwed into the substrate. The advantages include high holding-power-to-weight ratio and small size (and thus relative cheapness). The disadvantage is that a diver is usually needed to install, inspect, and maintain these moorings. Multiple anchor mooring systems use two or more (often three) light weight temporary-style anchors set in an equilateral arrangement and all chained to a common center from which a conventional rode extends to a mooring buoy. The advantages are minimized mass, ease of deployment, high holding-power-to-weight ratio, and availability of temporary-style anchors. Mooring to a shore fixture A vessel can be made fast to any variety of shore fixtures from trees and rocks to specially constructed areas such as piers and quays. The word pier is used in the following explanation in a generic sense. Mooring is often accomplished using thick ropes called mooring lines or hawsers. The lines are fixed to deck fittings on the vessel at one end and to fittings such as bollards, rings, and cleats on the other end. Mooring requires cooperation between people on a pier and on a vessel. Heavy mooring lines are often passed from larger vessels to people on a mooring by smaller, weighted heaving lines. Once a mooring line is attached to a bollard, it is pulled tight. Large ships generally tighten their mooring lines using heavy machinery called mooring winches or capstans. The heaviest cargo ships may require more than a dozen mooring lines. Small vessels can generally be moored by four to six mooring lines. Mooring lines are usually made from manila rope or a synthetic material such as nylon. Nylon is easy to work with and lasts for years, but it is highly elastic. This elasticity has advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage is that during an event, such as a high wind or the close passing of another ship, stress can be spread across several lines. However, should a highly stressed nylon line break, it may part catastrophically, causing snapback, which can fatally injure bystanders. The effect of snapback is analogous to stretching a rubber band to its breaking point between your hands and then suffering a stinging blow from its suddenly flexing broken ends. Such a blow from a heavy mooring line carries much more force and can inflict severe injuries or even sever limbs. Mooring lines made from materials such as Dyneema and Kevlar have much less elasticity and are therefore much safer to use. However, such lines do not float on water and they do tend to sink. In addition, they are relatively more expensive than other sorts of line. Some ships use wire rope for one or more of their mooring lines. Wire rope is hard to handle and maintain. There is also risk associated with using wire rope on a ship's stern in the vicinity of its propeller. Mooring lines and hawsers may also be made by combining wire rope and synthetic line. Such lines are more elastic and easier to handle than wire rope, but they are not as elastic as pure synthetic line. Special safety precautions must be followed when constructing a combination mooring line. The two-headed mooring bitts is a fitting often-used in mooring. The rope is hauled over the bitt, pulling the vessel toward the bitt. In the second step, the rope is tied to the bitt, as shown. This tie can be put and released very quickly. In quiet conditions, such as on a lake, one person can moor a 260-tonne ship in just a few minutes. Quick release mooring hooks provide an alternative method of securing the rope to the quay: such a system "greatly reduces the need for port staff to handle heavy mooring ropes … means staff have to spend less time on exposed areas of the dock, and [reduces] the risk of back injuries from heavy lifting". The Oil Companies International Marine Forum recommend the use of such hooks in oil and gas terminals. The basic rode system is a line, cable, or chain several times longer than the depth of the water running from the anchor to the mooring buoy, the longer the rode is the shallower the angle of force on the anchor (it has more scope). A shallower scope means more of the force is pulling horizontally so that ploughing into the substrate adds holding power but also increases the swinging circle of each mooring, so lowering the density of any given mooring field. By adding weight to the bottom of the rode, such as the use of a length of heavy chain, the angle of force can be dropped further. Unfortunately, this scrapes up the substrate in a circular area around the anchor. A buoy can be added along the lower portion of rode to hold it off the bottom and avoid this issue. Other types Non-line mooring ("hands-free") is used where pier time is highly valuable, and includes suction cups or magnets. It can also be used between ships. Mediterranean mooring Mediterranean mooring, also known as "med mooring" or "Tahitian mooring", is a technique for mooring a vessel to pier. In a Mediterranean mooring the vessel sets a temporary anchor off the pier and then approaches the pier at a perpendicular angle. The vessel then runs two lines to the pier. Alternatively, simple moorings may be placed off the pier and vessels may tie to these instead of setting a temporary anchor. The advantage of Mediterranean mooring is that many more vessels can be connected to a fixed length of pier as they occupy only their width of pier rather than their length. The disadvantages of Mediterranean mooring are that it is more likely to result in collisions and that it is not practical in deep water or in regions with large tides. Travelling/running mooring A mooring used to secure a small boat (capable of being beached) at sea so that it is accessible at all tides. Making a Travelling Mooring involves (1) the sinking of a heavy weight to which a block (pulley wheel) is attached at a place where the sea is sufficiently deep at low tide, (2) fitting a block / pulley wheel to a rock or secure point above the high tide mark, and (3) running a heavy rope with marker buoy between these blocks. Mooring involves (a) beaching the boat, (b) drawing in the mooring point on the line (where the marker buoy is located), (c) attaching to the mooring line to the boat, and (d) then pulling the boat out and away from the beach so that it can be accessed at all tides. Canal mooring A mooring used to secure a Narrowboat (capable of traversing narrow UK canals and narrow locks) overnight, during off boat excursions or prolonged queuing for canal lock access. Water height with minimal exceptions, remain constant (not-tidal); there is water height variance in close proximity to locks. Types of canal moorings: Mooring pin (boat operator supplied) driven into the ground between the edge of the canal and the Towpath with a mooring-line rope to the boat. Mooring hook (boat operator supplied) placed on the (permanent) canal-side rail with either (boat operator supplied) rope or chain-and-rope to the boat. Mooring ring (permanent) affixed between the edge of the canal and the tow path, with (boat operator supplied) rope to the boat. Mooring bollard (permanent) affixed canal-side on lock-approaches for the short-term mooring of advancing boats and lock-side to assist in ascent and descent. Mooring line materials Regular mooring lines Sisal Hemp Steel wire Polyethylene Polypropylene Polyester (e.g., used for deepsea mooring of offshore platforms) Nylon Chain High-performance mooring lines HMPE (floating) Aramid (heat resistant) (including Kevlar) See also References External links IACS Unified Requirement A: Mooring and Anchoring Find moorings "Docking The World's Great Liners" Popular Mechanics, May 1930, article on docking large ships in the first half of the 20th century ShipServ Pages Mooring Ropes Video on Canal Mooring Anchor Chain and Mooring Fittings Boats Nautical terminology

263278

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mboub%C3%A8ne

Mboubène

Mboubène is a town in the lower delta of the Senegal River, near the mouth of the Marigot de Djeuss. The town is located on the main highway to the Maka-Diama Dam at a distance of from the coastal city of Saint-Louis, Senegal. On French and Dutch maps, the name of the town has been spelled variously, including "MBoulene" and "Emboulan." It was called "Biffeche-Ville" during the period of the 1960s through the 1980s when it was inhabited by resettled members of the Sèrèer ethnic group. (The Sèrèers moved away to the nearby town of Savoigne.) Today, Mboubène consists of two parts: Al Madinatoul Islamiah Mboubène Peulh inhabited by Fula people, and Mboubène Naar primarily inhabited by Moors. There is a Koranic school and general store at the former, and a royal residence at the latter. The chief economic activities are animal husbandry and gardening. Nearby agricultural fields suffer from yearly flooding and salinity. Mboubène-Peulh is governed by an appointed Chef de Village. References and notes Populated places in Senegal

263285

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Stein

Ben Stein

Benjamin Jeremy Stein (born November 25, 1944) is an American writer, lawyer, actor, comedian, and commentator on political and economic issues. He began his career as a speechwriter for U.S. presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford before entering the entertainment field as an actor, comedian, and game show host. He is best known on screen as the economics teacher in Ferris Bueller's Day Off, as the host of Win Ben Stein's Money, and as Dr. Arthur Neuman in The Mask and Son of the Mask. Stein co-wrote and starred in the 2008 propaganda film Expelled, which portrays the pseudoscience of intelligent design creationism as if it were a scientifically valid alternative to Darwinian evolution and alleges a scientific conspiracy against those promoting intelligent design in laboratories and classrooms. Stein is the son of economist and writer Herbert Stein, who worked at the White House under President Nixon. As a character actor he is well known for his droning, monotonous delivery. In comedy, he is known for his deadpan delivery. Stein has made many provocative and polemic comments over the years, such as claiming that President Barack Obama was "the most racist president there has ever been in America". Early life Stein was born in Washington, D.C., the son of Mildred (née Fishman), a homemaker, and Herbert Stein, a writer, economist, and presidential adviser. He is Jewish and grew up in the Woodside Forest neighborhood of Silver Spring, Maryland. Stein graduated from Montgomery Blair High School in 1962 along with classmate journalist Carl Bernstein (class of 1960); actress Goldie Hawn (class of 1963) was one year behind. Actor Sylvester Stallone was a schoolmate at Montgomery Hills Junior High School. He went on to major in economics at Columbia University's Columbia College, where he was a member of Alpha Delta Phi and the Philolexian Society. After graduating with honors from Columbia in 1966, Stein went to Yale Law School, graduating as valedictorian in June 1970. Career Legal and academic career He was first a poverty lawyer in New Haven, Connecticut, and Washington, D.C. before becoming a trial lawyer for the Federal Trade Commission. Stein's first teaching stint was as an adjunct professor, teaching about the political and social content of mass culture at American University in Washington, D.C. He subsequently taught classes at the University of California, Santa Cruz on political and civil rights under the United States Constitution. At Pepperdine University Stein taught libel law and United States securities law and its ethical aspects. He was a professor of law at Pepperdine University Law School from about 1990 to 1997. Writing career Stein writes a regular column in the conservative media outlets The American Spectator and Newsmax. He has also written for numerous publications, including The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times, New York Magazine, Penthouse, Los Angeles Magazine, and Barron's Magazine. He wrote a regular biweekly column for Yahoo! Finance online, with his last article dated August 7, 2009. His bestselling books (with investment advisor Phil DeMuth) include Yes, You Can Retire Comfortably; Can America Survive?; and Yes, You Can Time the Market. In 2009, he published a collection of essays, The Real Stars. Stein was fired from his position as a Sunday Business columnist at The New York Times in August 2009 owing to a policy prohibiting writers from making product endorsements or advertising. Stein had recently become an advertising spokesman for credit information company Freescore.com and, according to a Times statement, had assumed there would be no conflict provided that he did not discuss credit scoring in general or FreeScore.com itself in his column. However, the publication felt that it would be inappropriate for him to write for them while he was involved in advertising and terminated his contract. Writing in The Spectator, Stein states his belief that the real reasons for his firing were budget cuts at the Times, his criticism of Obama, and pressure from those critical of Expelled, who "bamboozled some of the high pooh-bahs at the Times into thinking there was a conflict of interest". Political career Stein began his political career as a speechwriter and lawyer for President Richard Nixon, and later for President Gerald Ford. On May 3, 1976, Time magazine speculated on the possibility of Stein having actually been Deep Throat. Stein responded over the years not only by denying he was Deep Throat but by going further and accusing journalist Bob Woodward of falsifying the famous secret source. In the May 14–21, 1998, edition of the Philadelphia City Paper, Stein is quoted as saying, "Oh, I don't think there was a Deep Throat. That was a fake. I think there were several different sources and some they just made up." After Mark Felt's identity as Deep Throat was revealed, Stein stated that Nixon would have prevented the rise to power of the Khmer Rouge if he had not been forced to resign. For his actions leading to that resignation, Stein said: In 2005, Stein said in the American Spectator:Can anyone even remember now what Nixon did that was so terrible? He ended the war in Vietnam, brought home the POWs, ended the war in the Mideast, opened relations with China, started the first nuclear weapons reduction treaty, saved Eretz Israel's life, started the Environmental Protection Agency. Does anyone remember what he did that was bad? Oh, now I remember. He lied. He was a politician who lied. How remarkable. He lied to protect his subordinates who were covering up a ridiculous burglary that no one to this date has any clue about its purpose. He lied so he could stay in office and keep his agenda of peace going. That was his crime. He was a peacemaker and he wanted to make a world where there was a generation of peace. And he succeeded. That is his legacy. He was a peacemaker. He was a lying, conniving, covering up peacemaker. He was not a lying, conniving drug addict like JFK, a lying, conniving war starter like LBJ, a lying, conniving seducer like Clinton—a lying, conniving peacemaker. Career in the media Stein acted as the monotonous economics teacher in the 1986 movie Ferris Bueller's Day Off. In one scene, he lectures on the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930 and the then-current debate over supply-side economics. Stein played similarly bland and unemotional characters. He had a recurring role in the TV series The Wonder Years (as science teacher Mr. Cantwell, who would narrate 16mm films in monotone) and played himself in Dave. He appeared in several television advertisements, such as for Clear Eyes eye drops throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Godfather's Pizza in 1987, a bland science teacher in 1990 for Sprinkled Chips Ahoy! cookies, and in 2013 for small business accounting service firm 1-800Accountant. From 1997 to 2003, Stein hosted the Comedy Central game show Win Ben Stein's Money along with co-host Jimmy Kimmel (replaced by Nancy Pimental and later by Sal Iacono). True to its name, the money that contestants won on the show was subtracted from the $5,000 pay that Stein earned per episode (in addition to his salary). The show won five Daytime Emmy Awards before ending its run in 2003. In 1999, Stein also hosted the Comedy Central talk show Turn Ben Stein On. One of the mainstays of the show was Stein's dog, Puppy Wuppy, who had free run of the set. In 2001, Stein appeared on a celebrity episode of The Weakest Link entitled "TV Hosts Edition" alongside other television hosts and was voted off in round 6 despite being that round's Strongest Link. Anne Robinson's quip was that while he "might win Ben's money; you're NOT taking ours!". Other movies and television shows in which Stein has appeared include Charles in Charge; Seinfeld; Full House; Casper; Casper: A Spirited Beginning; Casper Meets Wendy; The Mask and its sequel, Son of the Mask as well as the television show, The Mask: Animated Series; Earthworm Jim; Star Search; MacGyver; Tales from the Crypt; Richie Rich; Game Show Moments Gone Bananas; Cavuto on Business; The O'Reilly Factor; CBS News Sunday Morning; Planes, Trains and Automobiles; Family Guy;the 1998-2004 version of Hollywood Squares; the Michael Berger-hosted version of Match Game; The Fairly OddParents; Duckman; Married... with Children; The Emperor's New School; My Girl 2; Ghostbusters II; and the intelligent design documentary Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed. In addition, Stein's voice roles include The Pixies, magical creatures on the animated series The Fairly OddParents; Mr. Purutu on the animated series The Emperor's New School; Professor Wisenstein in Bruno the Kid; the birthday party clown, Mr. Giggles, on The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius; a bingo caller on Rugrats; and Pip on Animaniacs. Futterman in Freakazoid. Stein also voiced a psychiatrist, again named after himself, in the USA TV series Duckman; he once appeared in the sitcom Married... with Children as a receptionist in the animal afterlife. He also made a cameo appearance in the comic book Young Justice, as Ali Ben Styn. Another cameo appearance was as Rabbi Goldberg in the Family Guy episodes "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein" and "Family Goy". Stein also voiced the character Sam Schmaltz in the 1996 computer adventure game Toonstruck. In addition, Stein has written for the television industry, including outlines for the TV movie Murder in Mississippi and for the lengthy ABC miniseries Amerika. He has also contributed to the creation of the talk show parody series Fernwood 2 Night. Stein hosted a show on VH1 called America's Most Smartest Model. The show aimed to find the smartest among 14 models through a series of challenges. On May 14, 2006, during an appearance on the Fox News program Your World with Neil Cavuto, Stein called for a tax increase of 3.5% for wealthy Americans, to be earmarked for soldiers and military initiatives. Stein wrote an editorial for The New York Times critical of those who would rather make money in the world of finance than fight terrorism. On December 28, 2009, Stein appeared on CNN's Larry King Live with Ron Paul to discuss the attempted bombing of an American plane on Christmas Day 2009. Stein said that Paul's stance that the United States were "occupiers" in Iraq and Afghanistan "is the same anti-Semitic argument we've heard over and over again." The comment started a shouting match between the two men. Stein issued an apology on December 30, 2009. Stein's political and economics commentary has appeared on CNBC's The Kudlow Report and CNN. Commentary in the lead-up to and during the Great Recession In the period preceding the late-2000s recession, Stein made frequent and vehement claims that the economy was not in recession, and that the issues in the housing market would not affect the broader economy. On March 18, 2007, in a column for the online version of CBS News Sunday Morning, Stein proclaimed at the beginning of the subprime mortgage crisis that the foreclosure problem would "blow over and the people who buy now, in due time, will be glad they did," the economy was "still very strong," and the "smart money" was "now trying to buy—not sell—as much distressed merchandise" in mortgages as possible. In an August 12, 2007 column in The New York Times, titled "Chicken Little's Brethren, on the Trading Floor", Stein, while acknowledging "I don't know where the bottom is on subprime. I don't know how bad the problems are at Bear (Bear Stearns)" claimed that "subprime losses are wildly out of all proportion to the likely damage to the economy from the subprime problems," and "(t)his economy is extremely strong. Profits are superb. The world economy is exploding with growth. To be sure, terrible problems lurk in the future: a slow-motion dollar crisis, huge Medicare deficits and energy shortages. But for now, the sell-off seems extreme, not to say nutty. Some smart, brave people will make a fortune buying in these days, and then we'll all wonder what the scare was about." On August 18, 2007, on Fox News Channel's Cavuto on Business, Stein appeared with other financial experts dismissing worries of a coming credit crunch. Thirteen months later, in the Global Financial Crisis of September 2008, global stock markets crashed, Lehman Brothers went bankrupt, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac were taken over by the US government, AIG was bailed out by the Federal Reserve, Merrill Lynch was sold to Bank of America Corporation, and Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs confirmed that they would become traditional bank holding companies. In a Yahoo! Finance article written on October 17, 2008, Stein explained that his understanding of debt obligations based on real estate loans was less than the "staggeringly large" amount of obligations that were created through trading in derivatives of those, and so why it wasn't as similar to collapse of junk bond empire in early 1990s as he thought it would be: "Where I missed the boat was not realizing how large were the CDS [credit default swaps] based on the junk mortgage bonds." Business commentator Henry Blodget wrote a piece for Business Insider in January 2008 entitled "Ben Stein is an Idiot", stating that Stein's criticism of those with bearish views and positions on the market was either "delusional" or a deliberate and "shrewd" attempt to create false controversy and drive up web traffic. Personal life Stein is married to entertainment lawyer Alexandra Denman. They were married in 1968, but later divorced in 1974. Eventually, they reconciled, and in 1977, they were married again. Stein lives with Denman in Beverly Hills and Malibu, California. He also has a summer home in Sandpoint, Idaho, and an apartment in the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., which he inherited from his parents. In 2014, performance artist Tanya Ma claimed that a financial arrangement between her and Stein had turned inappropriate. Stein said of the incident that he only expected "hugging and kissing" and that he often gets "mad crushes" on women that "last about ten minutes." Political views and advocacy Abortion Stein is an opponent of the legalization of abortion and was given a Pro-Life Award in 2003 by the National Right to Life Educational Trust Fund. Larry Craig scandal In 2007, Stein chastised the police and the GOP leadership for their response to the Larry Craig scandal. Stein said that Craig's sexuality should not be an issue: "A party that believes in individual rights should be rallying to his defense, not making him walk the plank." Tax code Stein has criticized the United States Internal Revenue Code for being too lenient on the wealthy. He has repeated the observation made by Warren Buffett, one of the richest individuals in the world (who pays mostly capital gains tax), that Buffett pays a lower overall tax rate than his secretaries (who pay income taxes and payroll taxes). Stein has advocated increasing taxation on the wealthy. Stein objected to Obama's proposal in 2010 not to extend tax cuts for the highest earning taxpayers in the midst of the recession, saying that There is no known economic theory under which raising my taxes in the midst of a severe recession will help the economy recover. It isn't part of any well known monetarist or Keynesian theory. So if it does no good to raise our taxes, I assume we are being punished. But for what? I don't own slaves. I employ a lot of people full- and part-time and they are all happy with their pay. When charity calls, I almost always write out a check...Maybe when the economy recovers, raising my taxes makes sense, but for now, it's just punishment. In 2012, Stein stated that due to the tremendous amount of national debt, he agreed with Obama's proposal to increase taxes on the wealthy and that ultimately everyone's taxes should be raised to avoid defaulting on the debt. Dominique Strauss-Kahn When the head of the International Monetary Fund, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, was arrested for sexual assault and attempted rape in 2011, Stein published an editorial in The American Spectator in which he closely scrutinized Strauss-Kahn's accuser and cited Strauss-Kahn's education, wealth, and position as reasons to believe he was unlikely to have committed the crime. Stein's editorial was criticized by a number of media outlets. Jon Stewart dedicated an entire segment on The Daily Show to his response. All charges against Dominique Strauss-Kahn were formally dismissed by a judge on 23 August 2011. Ferguson shooting In response to the death of Michael Brown, Stein made the following comment: Evolution Stein has denounced the scientific theory of evolution, which he and other intelligent design advocates call "Darwinism", declaring it to be "a painful, bloody chapter in the history of ideologies", "the most compelling argument yet for Imperialism", and the inspiration for the Holocaust. Stein does not say belief in evolution alone leads to genocide, but that scientific materialism is a necessary component. He co-wrote and stars in Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, a film that aims to persuade viewers that evolution was instrumental to the rise of the eugenics movement, Nazi Germany, and the Holocaust, and portrays advocates of intelligent design as victims of intellectual discrimination by the scientific community, which has rejected intelligent design as creationist pseudoscience. In the trailer for the film, Stein said that his aim was to expose "people out there who want to keep science in a little box where it can’t possibly touch God." Many critics point out that Stein selectively used and edited quotes by Charles Darwin to make his case in Expelled, also noting that scenes shot at Pepperdine University, in which Stein gives a speech to an auditorium full of students, in fact used a large number of extras, hired to respond favorably to Stein's speech, to fill the room. The media response to the film has been largely unfavorable. It received an 11% meta-score from Rotten Tomatoes. Multiple reviews, including those of USA Today and Scientific American, have described the film as propaganda. In a Trinity Broadcasting Network interview with Paul Crouch, Jr. regarding the movie, Stein claimed that "[religion] leads you to a very glorious place, and science leads you to killing people."" The Anti-Defamation League issued a statement condemning the film's misuse of the Holocaust and its imagery, "Using the Holocaust in order to tarnish those who promote the theory of evolution is outrageous and trivializes the complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry". At the University of Vermont, Stein was invited to receive an honorary degree and be the commencement speaker for the graduating class of 2009. University President Dan Fogel received complaints about Stein's planned appearance, due to Stein's views on evolution. Stein declined his commencement invitation. At the private, Christian Liberty University 2009 graduation, Stein was awarded an honorary degree and, according to the university, "spoke extensively about his work on Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed". Foreign policy Stein is a staunch supporter of Israel. On Larry King Live in 2009, in a heated exchange with then-Congressman Ron Paul, he referred to Paul as anti-semitic for referring to the U.S. as "occupiers" in the Arabian peninsula. Political endorsements Stein endorsed John McCain for president in 2008, calling him "an impressive guy". That year, he also stated that he would vote for Ralph Nader. In January 2012, Stein appeared in political advertisements sponsored by Associated Industries of Florida supporting legislation that would create three resort casinos in South Florida. He claimed in late 2014 that President Barack Obama was the most racist president in American history, saying Obama "made everything about race". In 2016, Stein reprised the famous attendance scene from Ferris Bueller in a campaign ad for Iowa Senator Chuck Grassley. In it, Stein intoned the last name of Grassley's opponent (Patty Judge) to silence, while facts about her missed votes and absences from state board meetings were listed. Stein then calls out "Grassley," which gets a response; Stein mutters, "He's always here." Stein initially supported Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, but retracted his support in October 2016, writing, "But it's time for Donald Trump to go back to Trump Tower. Time for Mike Pence to move to the top of the ticket." However, Stein went on to vote for Trump. Bibliography Stein's book titles to date (7 fiction, 21 nonfiction) include: Filmography and television appearances References External links Ben Stein's official website Ben Stein on Politicking with Larry King 1944 births Living people 20th-century American comedians 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American comedians 21st-century American male writers Activists from California American game show hosts American male comedians American male film actors American male television actors American male voice actors American political writers American anti-abortion activists The American Spectator people Speechwriters for presidents of the United States American University faculty and staff American Zionists Columbia College (New York) alumni Comedians from California Connecticut lawyers Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game Show Host winners Intelligent design advocates Jewish American attorneys Jewish American male actors Jewish American writers Jewish American comedians Jewish creationists Jewish male comedians Male actors from Beverly Hills, California Male actors from Washington, D.C. Neoconservatism People from Sandpoint, Idaho People from Silver Spring, Maryland University of California, Santa Cruz faculty Lawyers from Washington, D.C. Writers from California Writers from Washington, D.C. Yale Law School alumni 20th-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American non-fiction writers American male non-fiction writers Jewish American male comedians 21st-century American Jews

263286

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antbird

Antbird

The antbirds are a large passerine bird family, Thamnophilidae, found across subtropical and tropical Central and South America, from Mexico to Argentina. There are more than 230 species, known variously as antshrikes, antwrens, antvireos, fire-eyes, bare-eyes and bushbirds. They are related to the antthrushes and antpittas (family Formicariidae), the tapaculos, the gnateaters and the ovenbirds. Despite some species' common names, this family is not closely related to the wrens, vireos or shrikes. Antbirds are generally small birds with rounded wings and strong legs. They have mostly sombre grey, white, brown and rufous plumage, which is sexually dimorphic in pattern and colouring. Some species communicate warnings to rivals by exposing white feather patches on their backs or shoulders. Most have heavy bills, which in many species are hooked at the tip. Most species live in forests, although a few are found in other habitats. Insects and other arthropods form the most important part of their diet, although small vertebrates are occasionally taken. Most species feed in the understory and midstory of the forest, although a few feed in the canopy and a few on the ground. Many join mixed-species feeding flocks, and a few species are core members. To various degrees, around eighteen species specialise in following swarms of army ants to eat the small invertebrates flushed by the ants, and many others may feed in this way opportunistically. Antbirds are monogamous, mate for life, and defend territories. They usually lay two eggs in a nest that is either suspended from branches or supported on a branch, stump, or mound on the ground. Both parents share the tasks of incubation and of brooding and feeding the nestlings. After fledging, each parent cares exclusively for one chick. Thirty-eight species are threatened with extinction as a result of human activities. Antbirds are not targeted by either hunters or the pet trade. The principal threat is habitat loss, which causes habitat fragmentation and increased nest predation in habitat fragments. Systematics The antbird family Thamnophilidae used to be considered a subfamily, Thamnophilinae, within a larger family Formicariidae that included antthrushes and antpittas. Formerly, that larger family was known as the "antbird family" and the Thamnophilinae were "typical antbirds". In this article, "antbird" and "antbird family" refer to the family Thamnophilidae. Thamnophilidae was removed from Formicariidae, leaving behind the antthrushes and antpittas, due to recognition of differences in the structure of the breastbone (sternum) and syrinx, and Sibley and Ahlquist's examination of DNA–DNA hybridization. The Thamnophilidae antbirds are members of the infraorder Tyrannides (or tracheophone suboscines), one of two infraorders in the suborder Tyranni. The Thamnophilidae are now thought to occupy a fairly basal position within the infraorder, i. e. with regard to their relatives the antthrushes and antpittas, tapaculos, gnateaters, and also the ovenbirds. The sister group of the Thamnophilidae is thought to be the gnateaters. The ovenbirds, tapaculos, antthrushes and antpittas are thought to represent a different radiation of that early split. The antbird family contains over 230 species, variously called antwrens, antvireos, antbirds and antshrikes. The names refer to the relative sizes of the birds (increasing in the order given, though with exceptions) rather than any particular resemblance to the true wrens, vireos or shrikes. In addition, members of the genus Phlegopsis are known as bare-eyes, Pyriglena as fire-eyes and Neoctantes and Clytoctantes as bushbirds. Although the systematics of the Thamnophilidae is based on studies from the mid-19th century, when fewer than half the present species were known, comparison of the myoglobin intron 2, GAPDH intron 11 and the mtDNA cytochrome b DNA sequences has largely confirmed it. There are two major clades – most antshrikes and other larger, strong-billed species as well as Herpsilochmus, versus the classical antwrens and other more slender, longer-billed species – and the monophyly of most genera was confirmed. The Thamnophilidae contains several large or very large genera and numerous small or monotypic ones. Several, which are difficult to assign, seem to form a third, hitherto unrecognised clade independently derived from ancestral antbirds. The results also confirmed suspicions of previous researchers that some species, most notably in Myrmotherula and Myrmeciza, need to be assigned to other genera. Still, due to the difficulties of sampling from such a large number of often poorly known species, the assignment of some genera is still awaiting confirmation. Morphology The antbirds are a group of small to medium-sized passerines that range in size from the large giant antshrike, which measures 45 cm (18 in) and weighs 150  g (5.29  oz), to the tiny 8-cm (3 in) pygmy antwren, which weighs 7  g (0.25 oz). In general terms, "antshrikes" are relatively large-bodied birds, "antvireos" are medium-sized and chunky, while "antwrens" include most smaller species; "antbird" genera can vary greatly in size. Members of this family have short rounded wings that provide good manoeuvrability when flying in dense undergrowth. The legs are large and strong, particularly in species that are obligate ant-followers. These species are well adapted to gripping vertical stems and saplings, which are more common than horizontal branches in the undergrowth, and thus the ability to grip them is an advantage for birds following swarms of army ants. The claws of these antbirds are longer than those of species that do not follow ants, and the soles of some species have projections that are tough and gripping when the foot is clenched. Tarsus length in antbirds is related to foraging strategy. Longer tarsi typically occur in genera such as the Thamnophilus antshrikes that forage by perch-gleaning (sitting and leaning forward to snatch insects from the branch), whereas shorter tarsi typically occur in those that catch prey on the wing, such as the Thamnomanes antshrikes. Most antbirds have proportionately large, heavy bills. Several genera of antshrike have a strongly hooked tip to the bill, and all antbirds have a notch or 'tooth' at the tip of the bill which helps in holding and crushing insect prey. The two genera of bushbirds have upturned chisel-like bills. The plumage of antbirds is soft and not brightly coloured, although it is occasionally striking. The colour palette of most species is blackish shades, whitish shades, rufous, chestnut and brown. Plumages can be uniform in colour or patterned with barring or spots. Sexual dimorphism – differences in plumage colour and pattern between males and females – is common in the family. Overall the pattern within the family is for the males to have combinations of grey, black or white plumage and the females having buff, rufous and brown colours. For example, the male dot-winged antwren is primarily blackish, whereas the female has rust-coloured underparts. In some genera, such as Myrmotherula, species are better distinguished by female plumage than by male. Many species of antbirds have a contrasting 'patch' of white (sometimes other colours) feathers on the back (known as interscapular patches), shoulder or underwing. This is usually concealed by the darker feathers on the back but when the bird is excited or alarmed these feathers can be raised to flash the white patch. dot-winged antwrens puff out white back patches, whereas in bluish-slate antshrikes and white-flanked antwrens the white patch is on the shoulder. Voice The songs and calls of antbirds are generally composed of repeated simple uncomplicated notes. The family is one of the suboscines (suborder Tyranni) which have simpler syrinxes ("voiceboxes") than other songbirds. Nevertheless, their songs are distinctive and species-specific, allowing field identification by ear. Antbirds rely on their calls for communication, as is typical of birds in dark forests. Most species have at least two types of call, the loudsong and the softsong. The functions of many calls have been deduced from their context; for example some loudsongs have a territorial purpose and are given when birds meet at the edges of their territories, or during the morning rounds of the territory. Pairs in neighbouring territories judge the proximity of rivals by the degradation of the song caused by interference by the environment. In bouts of territorial defence the male will face off with the other male and the female with her counterpart. Loudsong duets are also potentially related to the maintenance of pair bonds. The functions of softsongs are more complex, and possibly related to pair-bond maintenance. In addition to these two main calls a range of other sounds are made; these include scolding in mobbing of predators. The calls of antbirds are also used interspecifically. Some species of antbirds and even other birds will actively seek out ant-swarms using the calls of some species of ant-followers as clues. Distribution and habitat The distribution of the antbirds is entirely Neotropical, with the vast majority of the species being found in the tropics. A few species reach southern Mexico and northern Argentina. Some species, such as the barred antshrike, have a continental distribution that spans most of the South and Middle American distribution of the family; others, such as the ash-throated antwren, have a tiny distribution. Antbirds are mostly birds of humid lowland rainforests. Few species are found at higher elevations, with less than 10% of species having ranges above 2000  m (6500 ft) and almost none with ranges above 3000  m (10000 ft). The highest species diversity is found in the Amazon basin, with up to 45 species being found in single locations in sites across Brazil, Colombia, Bolivia and Peru. The number of species drops dramatically towards the further reaches of the family's range; there are only seven species in Mexico, for example. Areas of lower thamnophilid diversity may contain localised endemics, however. The Yapacana antbird, for example, is restricted to the stunted woodlands that grow in areas of nutrient-poor white-sand soil (the so-called Amazonian caatinga) in Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia. Some species are predominantly associated with microhabitats within a greater ecosystem; for example, the bamboo antshrike is predominantly found in bamboo patches. Genetic comparison of the whole genomes of higher and lower-humidity antbirds have shown some differences in genes linked to water balance and temperature regulation. More significantly, antbirds differ in the regions of the genome that regulate gene activity, suggesting that differences for antbirds are a result less of the genes themselves than of how they are deployed. Behaviour Antbirds are diurnal: they feed, breed and defend territories during the day. Many of the family are, however, reluctant to enter areas of direct sunlight where it breaks through the forest canopy. Antbirds will engage in anting, a behaviour in which ants (or other arthropods) are rubbed on the feathers before being discarded or eaten. While this has conventionally been considered a way to remove and control feather parasites, it has been suggested that for antbirds it may simply be a way to deal with the distasteful substances in prey items. Feeding The main component of the diet of all antbirds is arthropods. These are mostly insects, including grasshoppers and crickets, cockroaches, praying mantises, stick insects and the larvae of butterflies and moths. In addition antbirds often take spiders, scorpions and centipedes. They swallow smaller prey items quickly, whereas they often beat larger items against branches in order to remove wings and spines. Larger species can kill and consume frogs and lizards as well, but generally these do not form an important part of the diet of this family. Other food items may also be eaten, including fruit, eggs and slugs. The family uses a number of techniques to obtain prey. The majority of antbirds are arboreal, with most of those feeding in the understory, many in the middle story and some in the canopy. A few species feed in the leaf litter; for example, the wing-banded antbird forages in areas of dense leaf-litter. It does not use its feet to scratch the leaf litter, as do some other birds; instead it uses its long bill to turn over leaves rapidly (never picking them up). The antbirds that forage arboreally show a number of techniques and specialisations. Some species perch-glean, perching on a branch watching for prey and snatching it by reaching forward, where others sally from a perch and snatch prey on the wing. In both cases birds will hop through the foliage or undergrowth and pause, scanning for prey, before pouncing or moving on. The time paused varies, although smaller species tend to be more active and pause for shorter times. Mixed-species feeding flocks Many species participate in mixed-species feeding flocks, forming a large percentage of the participating species within their range. Some of these are core or "nuclear species". These nuclear species share territories with other nuclear species but exclude conspecifics (members of the same species) and are found in almost all flocks; these are joined by "attendant species". Loud and distinctive calls and conspicuous plumage are important attributes of nuclear species as they promote cohesion in the flock. The composition of these flocks varies geographically; in Amazonia species of Thamnomanes antshrike are the leading nuclear species; elsewhere other species, such as the dot-winged antwrens and checker-throated stipplethroats, fill this role. Other species of antwren and antbird join them along with woodcreepers, ant-tanagers, foliage-gleaners and greenlets. The benefits of the mixed flock are thought to be related to predation, since many eyes are better for spotting predatory hawks and falcons. Comparisons between multi-species feeding flocks in different parts of the world found that instances of flocking were positively correlated with predation risk by raptors. For example, where Thamnomanes antshrikes lead the group they give loud warning calls in the presence of predators. These calls are understood and reacted to by all the other species in the flock. The advantage to the Thamnomanes antshrikes is in allowing the rest of the flock, which are typically gleaners, to act as beaters, flushing prey while foraging which the antshrikes can obtain by sallying. Similar roles are filled in other flocks by other antbird species or other bird families, for example the shrike-tanagers. Within the feeding flocks competition is reduced by microniche partitioning; where dot-winged antwrens, checker-throated stipplethroats and white-flanked antwrens feed in flocks together, the dot-wings feed in the densest vines, the white-flank in less dense vegetation, and the checker-throats in the same density as the latter but in dead foliage only. Ant followers Swarms of army ants are an important resource used by some species of antbird, and the one from which the family's common name is derived. Many species of tropical ant form large raiding swarms, but the swarms are often nocturnal or raid underground. While birds visit these swarms when they occur, the species most commonly attended by birds is the Neotropical species Eciton burchellii, which is both diurnal and surface-raiding. It was once thought that attending birds were actually eating the ants, but numerous studies in various parts of Eciton burchellii's range has shown that the ants act as beaters, flushing insects, other arthropods and small vertebrates into the waiting flocks of "ant followers". The improvement in foraging efficiency can be dramatic; a study of spotted antbirds found that they made attempts at prey every 111.8 seconds away from ants, but at swarms they made attempts every 32.3 seconds. While many species of antbirds (and other families) may opportunistically feed at army ant swarms, 18 species of antbird are obligate ant-followers, obtaining most of their diet from swarms. With only three exceptions, these species never regularly forage away from ant swarms. A further four species regularly attend swarms but are as often seen away from them. Obligate ant-followers visit the nesting bivouacs of army ants in the morning to check for raiding activities; other species do not. These species tend to arrive at swarms first, and their calls are used by other species to locate swarming ants. Because army ants are unpredictable in their movements, it is impractical for obligate ant-followers to maintain a territory that always contains swarms to feed around. Antbirds have evolved a more complicated system than the strict territoriality of most other birds. They generally (details vary among species) maintain breeding territories but travel outside those territories in order to feed at swarms. Several pairs of the same species may attend a swarm, with the dominant pair at the swarm being the pair which holds the territory that the swarm is in. In addition to competition within species, competition among species exists, and larger species are dominant. In its range, the ocellated antbird is the largest of the obligate ant-following antbirds and is dominant over other members of the family, although it is subordinate to various species from other families (including certain woodcreepers, motmots and the rufous-vented ground cuckoo). At a swarm, the dominant species occupies positions above the central front of the swarm, which yields the largest amount of prey. Smaller, less dominant species locate themselves further away from the centre, or higher above the location of the dominant species, where prey is less plentiful. Breeding Antbirds are monogamous, in almost all cases forming pair bonds that last the life of the pair. Studies of the dusky antbird and the white-bellied antbird did not find "infidelity". In the white-plumed antbird divorces between pairs are common, but, as far as known, this species is exceptional. In most species the pair defends a classic territory, although the nesting territories of ant followers are slightly different (see feeding above). Territories vary in size from as small as 0.5 ha for the Manu antbird, to 1500  m (5000 ft) in diameter for the ocellated antbird. Ocellated antbirds have an unusual social system where the breeding pair forms the nucleus of a group or clan that includes their male offspring and their mates. These clans, which can number up to eight birds, work together to defend territories against rivals. Pair bonds are formed with courtship feeding, where the male presents food items to the female. In spotted antbirds males may actually feed females sufficiently for the female to cease feeding herself, although she will resume feeding once copulation has occurred. Mutual grooming also plays a role in courtship in some species. The nesting and breeding biology of antbirds have not been well studied. Even in relatively well-known species the breeding behaviour can be poorly known; for example the nest of the ocellated antbird was first described in 2004. Nests are constructed by both parents, although the male undertakes more of the work in some species. Antbird nests are cups of vegetation such as twigs, dead leaves and plant fibre, and they follow two basic patterns: either suspended or supported. Suspended cups, which may hang from forks in branches, or between two branches, are the more common style of nest. Supported nests rest upon branches, amongst vines, in hollows, and sometimes on mounds of vegetation on the ground. Each species nests at the level where it forages, so a midstory species would build its nest in the midstory. Closely related species nest in the same ways. For example, antvireos in the genus Dysithamnus are all suspension nesters. Almost all antbirds lay two eggs. A few species of antshrike lay three eggs, and a smaller number of antbirds lay one egg, but this is unusual. Small clutch sizes are typical of tropical birds compared to more temperate species of the same size, possibly due to nest predation, although this is disputed. Both parents participate in incubation, although only the female incubates at night. The length of time taken for chicks to hatch is 14–16 days in most species, although some, such as the dusky antbird, can take as long as 20 days. The altricial chicks are born naked and blind. Both parents brood the young until they are able to thermoregulate, although, as with incubation, only the female broods at night. In common with many songbirds, the parents take faecal sacs for disposal away from the nest. Both parents feed the chicks, often bringing large prey items. When the chicks reach fledging age, after 8–15 days, attending parents call their chicks. As each chick leaves the nest it is cared for exclusively from then on by the parent that was present then. After the first chick fledges and leaves with a parent the remaining parent may increase the supply of food to speed up the process of fledging. After fledging, chicks spend the first few days well hidden as the parents bring them food. Chicks of some species may not become independent of the parents for as long as four months in some antwrens, but two months is more typical for the rest of the family. Ecology Antbirds are common components of the avifauna of some parts of the Neotropics and are thought to be important in some ecological processes. They are preyed upon by birds of prey, and their tendency to join flocks is thought to provide protection against such predation. The greater round-eared bat preys on some antbird species, such as the white-bibbed antbird and the scaled antbird; the latter is the bat's preferred prey. Nests, including incubating adults, chicks and eggs, are vulnerable to predators, particularly snakes but also nocturnal mammals. Nesting success is low for many species, particularly in areas of fragmented habitat. It was once suggested that the relationship between the obligate and regular ant-followers and the army ants, particularly Eciton burchellii, was mutualistic, with the ants benefiting by having the birds chase prey back down towards them. However, experiments where ant followers were excluded have shown that the foraging success of the army ants was 30% lower when the birds were present, suggesting that the birds' relationship was in fact parasitic. This has resulted in a number of behaviours by the ants in order to reduce kleptoparasitism, including hiding of secured prey in the leaf litter and caching of food on trails. It has been suggested that the depressive effect of this parasitism slows the development of E. burchellii swarms and in turn benefits other ant species which are preyed upon by army ants. The ant-following antbirds are themselves followed by three species of butterfly in the family Ithomiinae which feed on their droppings. Bird droppings are usually an unpredictable resource in a rainforest, but the regular behaviour of ant followers makes the exploitation of this resource possible. Status and conservation As of April 2008, 38 species are considered by the IUCN to be near threatened or worse and therefore at risk of extinction. Antbirds are neither targeted by the pet trade nor large enough to be hunted; the principal cause of the decline in antbird species is habitat loss. The destruction or modification of forests has several effects on different species of antbirds. The fragmentation of forests into smaller patches affects species that are averse to crossing gaps as small as roads. If these species become locally extinct in a fragment, this reluctance to cross unforested barriers makes their re-establishment unlikely. Smaller forest fragments are unable to sustain mixed-species feeding flocks, leading to local extinctions. Another risk faced by antbirds in fragmented habitat is increased nest predation. An unplanned experiment in fragmentation occurred on Barro Colorado Island, a former hill in Panama that became an isolated island during the flooding caused by the creation of the Panama Canal. Numerous species of antbird formerly resident in the area were extirpated, in no small part due to increased levels of nest predation on the island. While the species lost from Barro Colorado are not globally threatened, they illustrate the vulnerability of species in fragmented habitats and help explain the declines of some species. The majority of threatened species have very small natural ranges. Some are also extremely poorly known; for example the Rio de Janeiro antwren is known only from a single specimen collected in 1982, although there have been unconfirmed reports since 1994 and it is currently listed as critically endangered. Additionally, new species are discovered at regular intervals; the Caatinga antwren was described in 2000, the acre antshrike in 2004, the sincorá antwren in 2007, and the description of a relative of the Paraná antwren discovered in 2005 in the outskirts of São Paulo is being prepared. While not yet scientifically described, conservation efforts have already been necessary, as the site of discovery was set out to be flooded to form a reservoir. Consequently, 72 individuals were captured and transferred to another locality. References See also List of antbird genera List of antbird species External links Antbird videos and photos on the Internet Bird Collection Xeno-Canto: Antbird sounds Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics Tyranni Taxa named by William John Swainson

263287

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20teams%20and%20cyclists%20in%20the%202003%20Tour%20de%20France

List of teams and cyclists in the 2003 Tour de France

The 2003 Tour de France was the 90th edition and centenary of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris on 5 July with a prologue individual time trial and finished on the Champs-Élysées, back in Paris, on 27 July. The Tour started with 22 teams of 9 cyclists each. Teams Qualified teams Invited teams Cyclists By starting number By team "DNF" indicates that a rider did not finish the race. By nationality The 198 riders that are competing in the 2003 Tour de France originated from 26 different countries. References External links Teams 2003 2003 Cycling-related lists

263289

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fennoman%20movement

Fennoman movement

The Fennoman movement or Fennomania was a Finnish nationalist movement in the 19th-century Grand Duchy of Finland, built on the work of the fennophile interests of the 18th and early-19th centuries. History After the Crimean War, Fennomans founded the Finnish Party and intensified the language strife, yearning to raise the Finnish language and Finnic culture from peasant status to the position of a national language and a national culture. The opposition, the Svecomans, tried to defend the status of Swedish and the ties to the Germanic world. Although the notion of Fennomans was not as common after the generation of Juho Kusti Paasikivi (born 1870), their ideas have dominated the Finns' understanding of their nation. The mother tongue of many of the first generation of Fennomans, like Johan Vilhelm Snellman, was Swedish. Some of the originally Swedish-speaking Fennomans learned Finnish, and made a point of using it inside and outside the home. Several Fennomans were from Finnish or bilingual homes. Some originally had Swedish surnames, common in Finland at that time. Most of the Fennomans also Finnicized their family names, particularly from the end of the 19th century. In the last years of the 19th century, and in the first years of the 20th, the Fennoman movement split into two political parties: the Old Finnish Party and the Young Finnish Party. Motto The Fennoman motto attributed to Adolf Ivar Arwidsson was actually coined by Johan Vilhelm Snellman: "Svenskar äro vi icke, ryssar vilja vi icke bli, låt oss alltså vara finnar." "We are not Swedes, We do not want to be Russians, So let's be Finns." Prominent Fennomans Daniel Juslenius Fredrik Cygnaeus Yrjö Sakari Yrjö-Koskinen, formerly Georg Zacharias Forsman Alexandra Gripenberg Lauri Kivekäs, formerly Stenbäck Johannes Linnankoski Agathon Meurman Hjalmar Mellin Julius Krohn Juho Kusti Paasikivi, formerly Johan Gustav Hellsten Eemil Nestor Setälä Johan Vilhelm Snellman Eero Järnefelt Otto Donner Heikki Renvall Toivo Kuula See also History of Finland Turanism References External links The Association of Finnish Culture and Identity Grand Duchy of Finland Finnish nationalism Nationalist movements in Europe

263295

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder%20at%20Midnight%20%28radio%20series%29

Murder at Midnight (radio series)

Murder at Midnight was an old-time radio show featuring macabre tales of suspense, often with a supernatural twist. It was produced in New York and was syndicated beginning in 1946. The show's writers included Robert Newman, Joseph Ruscoll, Max Ehrlich and William Norwood, and it was directed by Anton M. Leder. The host was Raymond Morgan, who delivered the memorable lines of introduction over Charles Paul's effective organ theme: "Midnight, the witching hour when the night is darkest, our fears the strongest, and our strength at its lowest ebb. Midnight, when the graves gape open and death strikes." A total of 50 episodes were produced. Ten shows were syndicated and rerun on Mutual in 1950. References External links Murder At Midnight at archive.org Copyright registration for Murder at Midnight showing 50 episodes American radio dramas 1940s American radio programs

263300

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark%20Fantasy%20%28series%29

Dark Fantasy (series)

Dark Fantasy was an American radio supernatural thriller anthology series. It had a short run of 31 episodes, debuting on November 14, 1941, and ending on June 19, 1942. Its writer was Scott Bishop, also known for his work on The Mysterious Traveler. It originated from station WKY in Oklahoma City and was heard Friday nights on NBC stations. The stories found a nationwide audience almost immediately. Episodes External links Shedding Light on Dark Fantasy, Pt. 1 Shedding Light on Dark Fantasy, Pt. 2 The Definitive: Dark Fantasy article and log American radio dramas Fantasy radio programs Horror fiction radio programmes Horror fiction 1940s American radio programs NBC radio programs

263302

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales%20of%20Fatima

Tales of Fatima

Tales of Fatima was an old-time radio show from 1949 starring Basil Rathbone, who had by that time become famous for his long run portraying the world's most famous sleuth in The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. In Tales of Fatima, Rathbone portrayed himself in adventurous situations played for broad comedy, quite a departure for the actor from the stalwart Holmes. References to the sponsor, Fatima Cigarettes, were embedded in the storylines, and Rathbone also delivered the commercials. In further tie-ins, Rathbone also endorsed the product for a series of magazine ads. The series aired Saturday evenings at 9:30pm on CBS in 1949 from January 8 to October 1, ending after 39 episodes. In the supporting cast, Francis DeSales played Lieutenant Farrell. Agnes Young played Lavender. Michael Fitzmaurice was the program's announcer. Harry Ingram directed, and Jack Miller was the series' music supervisor. Only 3 shows in the series have survived: "A Much Expected Murder", episode 20 from May 21, 1949 "Time to Kill", episode 21 from May 28, 1949 "Portrait of Fear", September 17, 1949 External links Jerry Haendiges Vintage Radio Logs: Tales of Fatima American radio dramas 1940s American radio programs CBS Radio programs

263306

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Choderlos%20de%20Laclos

Pierre Choderlos de Laclos

Pierre Ambroise François Choderlos de Laclos (; 18 October 1741 – 5 September 1803) was a French novelist, official, Freemason and army general, best known for writing the epistolary novel Les Liaisons dangereuses (Dangerous Liaisons) (1782). A unique case in French literature, he was for a long time considered to be as scandalous a writer as the Marquis de Sade or Restif de La Bretonne. He was a military officer with no illusions about human relations, and an amateur writer; however, his initial plan was to "write a work which departed from the ordinary, which made a noise, and which would remain on earth after his death"; from this point of view he mostly attained his goals with the fame of his masterwork Les Liaisons dangereuses. It is one of the masterpieces of novelistic literature of the 18th century, which explores the amorous intrigues of the aristocracy. It has inspired many critical and analytic commentaries, plays and films. Biography Born in Amiens into a bourgeois family, in 1760 Laclos began studies at the École royale d'artillerie de La Fère, ancestor of the École Polytechnique. As a young lieutenant he briefly served in a garrison at La Rochelle until the end of the Seven Years' War (1763). Postings to Strasbourg (1765–1769), Grenoble (1769–1775) and Besançon (1775–1776) followed. In 1763 Laclos became a Freemason in "L'Union" military lodge in Toul. Despite a promotion to the rank of captain (1771), Laclos grew increasingly bored with his artillery garrison duties and with the company of soldiers; he began to devote his free time to writing. His first works, several light poems, appeared in the Almanach des Muses. Later he wrote the libretto for an opéra comique, Ernestine, inspired by a novel by Marie Jeanne Riccoboni. The music was composed by the Chevalier de Saint Georges. Its premiere on 19 July 1777, in the presence of Queen Marie Antoinette, proved a failure. In the same year he established a new artillery school in Valence, which would include Napoleon Bonaparte among its students in the mid 1780s. On his return to Besançon in 1778 Laclos was promoted second captain of the Engineers. In this period he wrote several works which showed his great admiration of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). In 1776 Laclos requested and received affiliation with the "Henri IV" lodge in Paris. There he helped Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans leading the Grand Orient of France. In 1777, in front of the Grand Orient's dignitaries, he delivered a speech in which he urged for the initiation of women into Freemasonry. In 1779 he was sent to Île-d'Aix (in present-day Charente-Maritime) to assist Marc René, marquis de Montalembert in the construction of fortifications there against the British. However, he spent most of his time writing his new epistolary novel, Les Liaisons dangereuses, as well as a Letter to Madame de Montalembert. When he asked for and received six months of vacation, he spent the time in Paris, writing. Durand Neveu published Les Liaisons Dangereuses in four volumes on 23 March 1782; it became a widespread success (1,000 copies sold in a month, an exceptional result for the time). Laclos was immediately ordered to return to his garrison in Brittany; in 1783 he was sent to La Rochelle to collaborate in the construction of the new arsenal. Here he met Marie-Soulange Duperré, whom he would marry on 3 May 1786, and remain with for the rest of his life. The following year, he began a project of numbering the streets of Paris. In 1788, Laclos left the army, entering the service of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, for whom, after the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, he carried forward with intense diplomatic activity. Captured by Republican ideals, he left the Duke to obtain a place as commissar in the Ministry of War. His reorganization has been credited as having a role in the French Revolutionary Army's victory in the Battle of Valmy (20 September 1792). Later, after the desertion (April 1793) of general Charles François Dumouriez, he was however arrested as an Orleaniste, being freed after the Thermidorian Reaction of 27 July 1794. He thenceforth spent some time in ballistic studies, which led him to the invention of the modern artillery shell. In 1795 he requested of the Committee of Public Safety reintegration in the army, a request which the Committee ignored. His attempts to obtain a diplomatic position and to found a bank also proved unsuccessful. Eventually, Laclos met the young general and recently appointed (November 1799) First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, and joined his party. On 16 January 1800 he was reinstated in the Army as Brigadier General in the Army of the Rhine; he took part in the Battle of Biberach (9 May 1800). Made commander-in-chief of Reserve Artillery in Italy (1803), Laclos died shortly afterward in the former convent of St. Francis of Assisi at Taranto, probably of dysentery and malaria. He was buried in the fort still bearing his name (Forte de Laclos) in the Isola di San Paolo near the city, built under his direction. Following the restoration of the House of Bourbon in southern Italy in 1815, his burial tomb was destroyed; it is believed that his bones were tossed into the sea. Bibliography Novels Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782) Poems Poésies fugitives (1783) Plays Ernestine (1777, opéra comique) Non-fiction Des Femmes et de leur éducation (1783) Folies philosophiques par un homme retiré du monde (1784) Instructions aux assemblées de bailliage (1789) Journal des amis de la Constitution (1790–1791) De la guerre et de la paix (1795) Continuation des causes secrètes de la révolution du neuf thermidor (1795) References Sources Further reading The Dangerous Memoir of Citizen Sade (2000) by A. C. H. Smith (A biographical novel, an account of the period of the Terror in the French Revolution, told by two writers who were incarcerated together and loathed each other: Laclos and the Marquis de Sade.) External links 1741 births 1803 deaths Deaths from dysentery First French Empire French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars French military personnel of the Napoleonic Wars French generals French letter writers French military writers 18th-century French novelists Infectious disease deaths in Apulia Military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars People from Amiens French Freemasons French male novelists Deaths from malaria 18th-century letter writers

263310

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsted%20Keynes

Horsted Keynes

Horsted Keynes is a village and civil parish in the Mid Sussex District of West Sussex, England. The village is about north east of Haywards Heath, in the Weald. The civil parish is largely rural, covering , and has a population of 1,586 (2011 census) (increased from 1,507 in 2001). The Prime Meridian passes about 1 mile to the east of the village of Horsted Keynes. Origin and history Guillaume de Cahaignes, a French knight who participated in the Norman conquest of England, and lord of what is now Cahagnes, was given Milton in Buckinghamshire and the Sussex village of Horstede (The Place of Horses in Old English). The latter became Horstede de Cahaignes and in time Horsted Keynes. The place name is first attested in the Domesday Book of 1086. The village has been formally twinned with the Normandy village of Cahagnes since 1971. The Horsted Cahagnes Society promotes social and cultural links, and organises annual exchange visits between the two places. On Saturday, 28 August 1624, Horsted Keynes hosted what is believed to be the earliest known organised cricket match in Sussex. Knowledge of it stems from the death thirteen days later of Jasper Vinall, on whom an inquest was held. He had suffered a head injury during the game when accidentally hit by a cricket bat. Two months before being assassinated, U.S. President John F. Kennedy slept in the parish when he stayed one Saturday night at Birch Grove, the home of the former Prime Minister Harold Macmillan. The American Secret Service closed the village that night, siting their communication hub in the Lounge Bar of The Crown Inn. This part of Sussex was known for its iron industry long before the industrial revolution and the coming of the railways. Little remains of this now, except for the hammer ponds and other traces of this activity dotted around the surrounding countryside, although iron working is remembered in many local place names. Amenities Horsted Keynes is centred on a village green with pubs, Post Office and village store. The Post Office was to be closed down for lack of use but was bought up by a group of villagers who invested in its continued use for the community. It now serves a large rural area. Like many other English villages Horsted Keynes is losing businesses that have been there for many years. After the closure of the main village store in 1992, and the more recent loss of the butcher, village hairdresser and photographer, the village garage closed down in June 2007. It was only 20 years ago that the village had two garages, but now it has none, leaving the nearest petrol retailer more than away. Planning permission was granted and the garage site has now been turned into residential accommodation. Churches The two principal churches are: the Anglican Parish Church dedicated to St Giles and the Roman Catholic church of St Stephen which is unoccupied and controlled from the nearest town, Haywards Heath. Railway station The railway station, three-quarters of a mile from the village, was on the line from East Grinstead to Lewes. It is now owned and operated by the Bluebell Railway, which is largely run by volunteers and operates using vintage steam trains. The station originally also had a connection with Haywards Heath, between 1883 and 1963. Notable people Robert Leighton (prelate) - buried here Harold Macmillan, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom – buried here, alongside his wife Dorothy Macmillan References External links HorstedKeynes.com - website for the village The Horsted Cahagnes Society English cricket in the 14th to 17th centuries Mid Sussex District Villages in West Sussex

263311

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaisons%20dangereuses%20%28disambiguation%29

Liaisons dangereuses (disambiguation)

Les Liaisons dangereuses is a French epistolary novel by Choderlos de Laclos. Les Liaisons dangereuses may also refer to: Les liaisons dangereuses (film), a 1959 film adapted by Claude Brulé and directed by Roger Vadim Les Liaisons Dangereuses 1960, the soundtrack by Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers with Barney Wilen for the above film Les Liaisons Dangereuses (play), a 1985 play adapted by Christopher Hampton Les Liaisons dangereuses (TV miniseries), a 2003 TV miniseries adapted by Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt Liaisons Dangereuses (band), a German electropunk band from the early 1980s and their eponymous 1981 album See also Dangerous Liaisons (disambiguation) he:יחסים מסוכנים

263313

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBIOS%20Frames

NetBIOS Frames

NetBIOS Frames (NBF) is a non-routable network- and transport-level data protocol most commonly used as one of the layers of Microsoft Windows networking in the 1990s. NBF or NetBIOS over IEEE 802.2 LLC is used by a number of network operating systems released in the 1990s, such as LAN Manager, LAN Server, Windows for Workgroups, Windows 95 and Windows NT. Other protocols, such as NBT (NetBIOS over TCP/IP), and NBX (NetBIOS-over-IPX/SPX) also implement the NetBIOS/NetBEUI services over other protocol suites. The NBF protocol is broadly, but incorrectly, referred to as NetBEUI. This originates from the confusion with NetBIOS Extended User Interface, an extension to the NetBIOS API that was originally developed in conjunction with the NBF protocol; both the protocol and the NetBEUI emulator were originally developed to allow NetBIOS programs to run over IBM's new Token Ring network. Microsoft caused this confusion by labelling its NBF protocol implementation NetBEUI. NBF is a protocol and the original NetBEUI was a NetBIOS application programming interface extension. Overview NBF protocol uses 802.2 type 1 mode to provide the NetBIOS/NetBEUI name service and datagram service, and 802.2 type 2 mode to provide the NetBIOS/NetBEUI session service (virtual circuit). NBF protocol makes wide use of broadcast messages, which accounts for its reputation as a chatty interface. While the protocol consumes few network resources in a very small network, broadcasts begin to adversely impact performance and speed when the number of hosts present in a network grows. Sytek developed NetBIOS for IBM for the PC-Network program and was used by Microsoft for MS-NET in 1985. In 1987, Microsoft and Novell utilized it for their network operating systems LAN Manager and NetWare. Because NBF protocol is unroutable it can only be used to communicate with devices in the same broadcast domain, but being bridgeable it can also be used to communicate with network segments connected to each other via bridges. This means that NBF is only well-suited for small to medium-sized networks, where it has such an advantage over TCP/IP that requires little configuration. The NetBIOS/NetBEUI services must be implemented atop other protocols, such as IPX and TCP/IP (see above) in order to be of use in an internetwork. Services NetBIOS/NetBEUI provides three distinct services: Name service for name registration and resolution Datagram distribution service for connectionless communication Session service for connection-oriented communication NBF protocol implements all of these services. Name service In order to start sessions or distribute datagrams, an application must register its NetBIOS/NetBEUI name using the name service. To do so, an "Add Name Query" or "Add Group Name Query" packet is broadcast on the network. If the NetBIOS/NetBEUI name is already in use, the name service, running on the host that owns the name, broadcasts a "Node Conflict" message on the network. In addition, to start a session or to send a datagram to a particular host rather than to broadcast the datagram, NBF protocol has to determine the MAC address of the host with a given NetBIOS/NetBEUI name; this is done by sending a "Name Query" packet, the response to which will have the MAC address of the host sending the response, i.e. the host with that name. Datagram distribution service Datagram mode is "connectionless". A datagram is sent with a "Datagram" packet if it is being sent to a particular NetBIOS/NetBEUI name, or a "Datagram Broadcast" packet if it is being sent to all NetBIOS/NetBEUI names on the network. Session service Session mode lets two computers establish a connection for a "conversation," allows larger messages to be handled, and provides error detection and recovery. Sessions are established by exchanging packets. The computer establishing the session sends a "Name Query" request, specifying that a session should be initialized. The computer with which the session is to be established will respond with a "Name Recognized" response indicating either that no session can be established (either because that computer is not listening for sessions being established to that name or because no resources are available to establish a session to that name) or that a session can be established (in which case the response will include a local session number to be used in subsequent packets). The computer that is starting the session will then send a "Session Initialize" request which will prompt a "Session Confirm" response. Data is transmitted during an established session by data packets. IEEE 802.2 handles flow control and retransmission of data packets. Because NetBIOS/NetBEUI allows packets to be sent that are larger than the largest packet that could be transmitted on a particular MAC layer, a NetBIOS/NetBEUI packet might have to be transmitted as a sequence of "Data First Middle" packets and a "Data Only Last" packet; packets that do not need to be segmented in that fashion will be sent as a single "Data Only Last" packet. An acknowledgment will be sent for all "Data Only Last" packets that are successfully received; this will also acknowledge all preceding "Data First Middle" packets. Sessions are closed by sending a "Session End" request. Availability NBF protocol – apart from DOS, OS/2 and Unix implementations – was officially supported by Microsoft on almost every version of Windows up to Windows 2000, but its use has decreased quickly since the development of NBT. Microsoft officially dropped support starting with Windows XP, but it is included on the Windows XP CD-ROM and can be installed manually. Windows Vista does not include NetBEUI (means NBF) support at all, but the Windows XP NetBEUI support drivers can be used. References External links LAN Technical Reference: 802.2 and NetBIOS APIs – includes NBF protocol specifications Comparison of Windows NT Network Protocols Windows communication and services Network protocols

263314

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20Link%20Control

Data Link Control

In the OSI networking model, Data Link Control (DLC) is the service provided by the data link layer. Network interface cards have a DLC address that identifies each card; for instance, Ethernet and other types of cards have a 48-bit MAC address built into the cards' firmware when they are manufactured. There is also a network protocol with the name Data Link Control. It is comparable to better-known protocols such as TCP/IP or AppleTalk. DLC is a transport protocol used by IBM SNA mainframe computers and peripherals and compatible equipment. In computer networking, it is typically used for communications between network-attached printers, computers and servers, for example by HP in their JetDirect print servers. While it was widely used up until the time of Windows 2000, versions from Windows XP onward do not include support for DLC. External links Generic DLC Environment Overview Microsoft DLC protocol in Windows 2000 Microsoft TechNet: The Data Link Control Interface, 30.3.2013 References OSI protocols

263315

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Whistler%20%28radio%20series%29

The Whistler (radio series)

The Whistler is an American radio mystery drama which ran from May 16, 1942, until September 22, 1955, on the west-coast regional CBS radio network. The show was also broadcast in Chicago and over Armed Forces Radio. On the west coast, it was sponsored by the Signal Oil Company: "That whistle is your signal for the Signal Oil program, The Whistler." There were also two short-lived attempts to form east-coast broadcast spurs: July 3 to September 25, 1946, sponsored by the Campbell Soup Company; and March 26, 1947, to September 29, 1948, sponsored by Household Finance. The program was also adapted into a film noir series by Columbia Pictures in 1944. Characters and story Each episode of The Whistler began with the sound of footsteps and a person whistling. (The Saint radio series with Vincent Price used a similar opening.) The haunting signature theme tune was composed by Wilbur Hatch and featured Dorothy Roberts whistling with an orchestra. A character known only as the Whistler was the host and narrator of the tales, which focused on crime and fate. He often commented directly upon the action in the manner of a Greek chorus, taunting the characters, guilty or innocent, from an omniscient perspective. The stories followed a formula in which a person's criminal acts were typically undone either by an overlooked but important detail or by the criminal's own stupidity. An ironic ending, often grim, was a key feature of each episode. But on rare occasions, such as "Christmas Bonus" broadcast on Christmas Day 1944, the plot's twist of fate caused the story to end happily for the protagonist. Bill Forman had the title role of the Whistler for the longest period of time. Others who portrayed the Whistler at various times were Gale Gordon (the banker on The Lucy Show), Joseph Kearns, Marvin Miller (announcer for The Whistler and The Bickersons and later the actor who portrayed Michael Anthony on TV's The Millionaire), Bill Johnstone (who had the title role on radio's The Shadow from 1938 to 1943) and Everett Clarke. Cast members included Betty Lou Gerson, Hans Conried, Joseph Kearns, Cathy Lewis, Elliott Lewis, Gerald Mohr, Lurene Tuttle and Jack Webb. Writer-producer J. Donald Wilson established the tone of the show during its first two years, and he was followed in 1944 by producer-director George Allen. Other directors included Sterling Tracy and Sherman Marks with final scripts by Joel Malone and Harold Swanton. Of the 692 episodes, over 200 no longer exist. In 1946, a local Chicago version of The Whistler with local actors aired Sundays on WBBM, sponsored by Meister Brau beer. Films and television Films The Whistler was adapted into a film noir series of eight films by Columbia Pictures. The "Voice of the Whistler" was provided by an uncredited Otto Forrest. In the first seven films, veteran actor Richard Dix played the main character in the story—a different character in each film. In the eighth film, made after Dix's retirement, Michael Duane played the main character. The Whistler – 1944, directed by William Castle The Mark of the Whistler – 1944, directed by William Castle The Power of the Whistler – 1945, directed by Lew Landers Voice of the Whistler – 1945, directed by William Castle Mysterious Intruder – 1946, directed by William Castle The Secret of the Whistler – 1946, directed by George Sherman The Thirteenth Hour – 1947, directed by William Clemens The Return of the Whistler – 1948, directed by D. Ross Lederman Television A syndicated TV version of The Whistler was produced and aired for a brief period in 1954. The Whistler was voiced by William Forman. Cultural references In the 1990 film The Two Jakes, set in Los Angeles in the late 1940s, the opening narrative of The Whistler can be heard on the car radio as private detective J.J. Gittes (played by Jack Nicholson) cruises the streets. See also Audio theatre The Mysterious Traveler Old-time radio References Bibliography Dunning, John. On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old Time Radio. Oxford University Press, 1998. . Nachman, Gerald. Raised on Radio. University of California Press, 2000. . Pitts, Michael R. Famous Movie Detectives II. Rowman & Littlefield, 1991. . Renzi, Thomas C. Cornell Woolrich: From Pulp Noir to Film Noir. McFarland Publishing, 2006. . Van Neste, Dan. " The Whistler: Stepping Into the Shadows – A Columbia Film Series". BearManor Media, 2011. . Wilt, David E. Hardboiled in Hollywood. Popular Press, 1991. . External links The Whistler at the OTR Network Library (79 radio episodes) The Whistler at the Internet Archive (450 radio episodes) 1940s American radio programs 1950s American radio programs American radio dramas Film noir Films directed by William Castle Film series introduced in 1944 1954 American television series debuts 1955 American television series endings 1950s American animated television series CBS Radio programs

263317

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrogram

Spectrogram

A spectrogram is a visual representation of the spectrum of frequencies of a signal as it varies with time. When applied to an audio signal, spectrograms are sometimes called sonographs, voiceprints, or voicegrams. When the data are represented in a 3D plot they may be called waterfall displays. Spectrograms are used extensively in the fields of music, linguistics, sonar, radar, speech processing, seismology, and others. Spectrograms of audio can be used to identify spoken words phonetically, and to analyse the various calls of animals. A spectrogram can be generated by an optical spectrometer, a bank of band-pass filters, by Fourier transform or by a wavelet transform (in which case it is also known as a scaleogram or scalogram). A spectrogram is usually depicted as a heat map, i.e., as an image with the intensity shown by varying the colour or brightness. Format A common format is a graph with two geometric dimensions: one axis represents time, and the other axis represents frequency; a third dimension indicating the amplitude of a particular frequency at a particular time is represented by the intensity or color of each point in the image. There are many variations of format: sometimes the vertical and horizontal axes are switched, so time runs up and down; sometimes as a waterfall plot where the amplitude is represented by height of a 3D surface instead of color or intensity. The frequency and amplitude axes can be either linear or logarithmic, depending on what the graph is being used for. Audio would usually be represented with a logarithmic amplitude axis (probably in decibels, or dB), and frequency would be linear to emphasize harmonic relationships, or logarithmic to emphasize musical, tonal relationships. Generation Spectrograms of light may be created directly using an optical spectrometer over time. Spectrograms may be created from a time-domain signal in one of two ways: approximated as a filterbank that results from a series of band-pass filters (this was the only way before the advent of modern digital signal processing), or calculated from the time signal using the Fourier transform. These two methods actually form two different time–frequency representations, but are equivalent under some conditions. The bandpass filters method usually uses analog processing to divide the input signal into frequency bands; the magnitude of each filter's output controls a transducer that records the spectrogram as an image on paper. Creating a spectrogram using the FFT is a digital process. Digitally sampled data, in the time domain, is broken up into chunks, which usually overlap, and Fourier transformed to calculate the magnitude of the frequency spectrum for each chunk. Each chunk then corresponds to a vertical line in the image; a measurement of magnitude versus frequency for a specific moment in time (the midpoint of the chunk). These spectrums or time plots are then "laid side by side" to form the image or a three-dimensional surface, or slightly overlapped in various ways, i.e. windowing. This process essentially corresponds to computing the squared magnitude of the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) of the signal — that is, for a window width , . Limitations and resynthesis From the formula above, it appears that a spectrogram contains no information about the exact, or even approximate, phase of the signal that it represents. For this reason, it is not possible to reverse the process and generate a copy of the original signal from a spectrogram, though in situations where the exact initial phase is unimportant it may be possible to generate a useful approximation of the original signal. The Analysis & Resynthesis Sound Spectrograph is an example of a computer program that attempts to do this. The Pattern Playback was an early speech synthesizer, designed at Haskins Laboratories in the late 1940s, that converted pictures of the acoustic patterns of speech (spectrograms) back into sound. In fact, there is some phase information in the spectrogram, but it appears in another form, as time delay (or group delay) which is the dual of the instantaneous frequency. The size and shape of the analysis window can be varied. A smaller (shorter) window will produce more accurate results in timing, at the expense of precision of frequency representation. A larger (longer) window will provide a more precise frequency representation, at the expense of precision in timing representation. This is an instance of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, that the product of the precision in two conjugate variables is greater than or equal to a constant (B*T>=1 in the usual notation). Applications Early analog spectrograms were applied to a wide range of areas including the study of bird calls (such as that of the great tit), with current research continuing using modern digital equipment and applied to all animal sounds. Contemporary use of the digital spectrogram is especially useful for studying frequency modulation (FM) in animal calls. Specifically, the distinguishing characteristics of FM chirps, broadband clicks, and social harmonizing are most easily visualized with the spectrogram. Spectrograms are useful in assisting in overcoming speech deficits and in speech training for the portion of the population that is profoundly deaf The studies of phonetics and speech synthesis are often facilitated through the use of spectrograms. In deep learning-based speech synthesis, spectrogram (or spectrogram in mel scale) is first predicted by a seq2seq model, then the spectrogram is fed to a neural vocoder to derive the synthesized raw waveform. By reversing the process of producing a spectrogram, it is possible to create a signal whose spectrogram is an arbitrary image. This technique can be used to hide a picture in a piece of audio and has been employed by several electronic music artists. See also steganography. Some modern music is created using spectrograms as an intermediate medium; changing the intensity of different frequencies over time, or even creating new ones, by drawing them and then inverse transforming. See Audio timescale-pitch modification and Phase vocoder. Spectrograms can be used to analyze the results of passing a test signal through a signal processor such as a filter in order to check its performance. High definition spectrograms are used in the development of RF and microwave systems Spectrograms are now used to display scattering parameters measured with vector network analyzers The US Geological Survey and the IRIS Consortium provide near real-time spectrogram displays for monitoring seismic stations Spectrograms can be used with recurrent neural networks for speech recognition. See also Acoustic signature Chromagram Fourier analysis for computing periodicity in evenly spaced data Generalized spectrogram Least-squares spectral analysis for computing periodicity in unevenly spaced data List of unexplained sounds Reassignment method Spectral music Spectrometer Strobe tuner Waveform References External links See an online spectrogram of speech or other sounds captured by your computer's microphone. Generating a tone sequence whose spectrogram matches an arbitrary text, online Further information on creating a signal whose spectrogram is an arbitrary image Article describing the development of a software spectrogram History of spectrograms & development of instrumentation How to identify the words in a spectrogram from a linguistic professor's Monthly Mystery Spectrogram publication. Sonogram Visible Speech GPL Licensed freeware for the Spectrogram generation of Signal Files. Acoustic measurement Signal processing Time–frequency analysis

263319

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnateater

Gnateater

The gnateaters are a bird family, Conopophagidae, consisting of ten small passerine species in two genera, which occur in South and Central America. The family was formerly restricted to the gnateater genus Conopophaga; analysis of mtDNA cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequences (Rice 2005a,b) indicates that the "antpittas" of the genus Pittasoma also belong in this family. The association between this genus and Conopophaga is also supported by traits in their natural history, morphology, and vocalizations (Rice, 2005a). The members of this family are very closely related to the antbirds and less closely to the antpittas and tapaculos. Due to their remote and dim habitat, gnateaters are a little-studied and poorly known family of birds, though they are often sought after by birdwatchers. Description They are round, short-tailed, and long-legged birds, about 12–19 cm (5–7½ inches) in length, with Pittasoma being larger than Conopophaga. They are quite upright when standing. All species are sexually dimorphic, although the extent of this varies greatly. Most Conopophaga species have a white tuft behind the eye. Distribution and habitat Gnateaters are birds of the forest understory, bamboo stands, and the forest floor. The members of the genus Conopophaga are found in the Amazon and Orinoco basins, east and central Andean slopes, Atlantic Forest, and nearby regions, while the members of the genus Pittasoma are found in the Chocó, and Panama and Costa Rica. Some species live in impenetrable thickets; others live in more open forest. Most are entirely restricted to humid habitats, but several species extend into drier regions in eastern Brazil. While the members of the genus Conopophaga always are found near the forest floor, seldom rising more than 1.5 m above the ground, they also seldom travel or spend much time on the ground (though they do feed there; see diet). The members of the genus Pittasoma are more commonly seen hopping around on the ground. Behaviour and ecology Gnateaters are insectivorous as the group name implies. The members of the genus Conopophaga feed mostly using two methods; one is to perch above the forest floor until prey is spotted, then lunge down to the ground to snatch it; having landed on the ground to snatch a prey item it will not remain on the forest floor for more than a couple of seconds. The second method used is to glean insects directly from the foliage, trunks, and branches of low vegetation. Typical prey items include spiders, caterpillars, insect larvae, grasshoppers and beetles; individuals of some species have also been observed eating fruit and in one case a frog. Very little information is available on the diet of the two Pittasoma, but they are presumably also insectivorous, and have been recorded following army ants swarms. Species list Family Conopophagidae: References Rice, Nathan H. (2005a): Phylogenetic relationships of antpitta genera (Passeriformes: Formicariidae). Auk 122(2): 673–683. [English with Spanish abstract] DOI:10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0673:PROAGP]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext Rice, Nathan H. (2005b): Further Evidence for Paraphyly of the Formicariidae (Passeriformes). Condor 107(4): 910–915. [English with Spanish abstract] PDF fulltext Whitney, B.M. (2003) Family Conopophagidae (Gnateaters) pp 732–748 in del Hoyo J., Elliott A. & Christie D.A. (2003) Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 8. Broadbills to Tapaculos Lynx Edicions, Barcelona External links Internet Bird Collection.com: Gnateater videos, photos and sounds Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics Tyranni Taxa named by Philip Sclater Taxa named by Osbert Salvin

263321

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concave%20function

Concave function

In mathematics, a concave function is the negative of a convex function. A concave function is also synonymously called concave downwards, concave down, convex upwards, convex cap, or upper convex. Definition A real-valued function on an interval (or, more generally, a convex set in vector space) is said to be concave if, for any and in the interval and for any , A function is called strictly concave if for any and . For a function , this second definition merely states that for every strictly between and , the point on the graph of is above the straight line joining the points and . A function is quasiconcave if the upper contour sets of the function are convex sets. Properties Functions of a single variable A differentiable function is (strictly) concave on an interval if and only if its derivative function is (strictly) monotonically decreasing on that interval, that is, a concave function has a non-increasing (decreasing) slope. Points where concavity changes (between concave and convex) are inflection points. If is twice-differentiable, then is concave if and only if is non-positive (or, informally, if the "acceleration" is non-positive). If its second derivative is negative then it is strictly concave, but the converse is not true, as shown by . If is concave and differentiable, then it is bounded above by its first-order Taylor approximation: A Lebesgue measurable function on an interval is concave if and only if it is midpoint concave, that is, for any and in If a function is concave, and , then is subadditive on . Proof: Since is concave and , letting we have For : Functions of n variables A function is concave over a convex set if and only if the function is a convex function over the set. The sum of two concave functions is itself concave and so is the pointwise minimum of two concave functions, i.e. the set of concave functions on a given domain form a semifield. Near a local maximum in the interior of the domain of a function, the function must be concave; as a partial converse, if the derivative of a strictly concave function is zero at some point, then that point is a local maximum. Any local maximum of a concave function is also a global maximum. A strictly concave function will have at most one global maximum. Examples The functions and are concave on their domains, as their second derivatives and are always negative. The logarithm function is concave on its domain , as its derivative is a strictly decreasing function. Any affine function is both concave and convex, but neither strictly-concave nor strictly-convex. The sine function is concave on the interval . The function , where is the determinant of a nonnegative-definite matrix B, is concave. Applications Rays bending in the computation of radiowave attenuation in the atmosphere involve concave functions. In expected utility theory for choice under uncertainty, cardinal utility functions of risk averse decision makers are concave. In microeconomic theory, production functions are usually assumed to be concave over some or all of their domains, resulting in diminishing returns to input factors. See also Concave polygon Jensen's inequality Logarithmically concave function Quasiconcave function Concavification References Further References Types of functions Convex analysis

263323

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve%20sketching

Curve sketching

In geometry, curve sketching (or curve tracing) are techniques for producing a rough idea of overall shape of a plane curve given its equation, without computing the large numbers of points required for a detailed plot. It is an application of the theory of curves to find their main features. Basic techniques The following are usually easy to carry out and give important clues as to the shape of a curve: Determine the x and y intercepts of the curve. The x intercepts are found by setting y equal to 0 in the equation of the curve and solving for x. Similarly, the y intercepts are found by setting x equal to 0 in the equation of the curve and solving for y. Determine the symmetry of the curve. If the exponent of x is always even in the equation of the curve then the y-axis is an axis of symmetry for the curve. Similarly, if the exponent of y is always even in the equation of the curve then the x-axis is an axis of symmetry for the curve. If the sum of the degrees of x and y in each term is always even or always odd, then the curve is symmetric about the origin and the origin is called a center of the curve. Determine any bounds on the values of x and y. If the curve passes through the origin then determine the tangent lines there. For algebraic curves, this can be done by removing all but the terms of lowest order from the equation and solving. Similarly, removing all but the terms of highest order from the equation and solving gives the points where the curve meets the line at infinity. Determine the asymptotes of the curve. Also determine from which side the curve approaches the asymptotes and where the asymptotes intersect the curve. Equate first and second derivatives to 0 to find the stationary points and inflection points respectively. If the equation of the curve cannot be solved explicitly for x or y, finding these derivatives requires implicit differentiation. Newton's diagram Newton's diagram (also known as Newton's parallelogram, after Isaac Newton) is a technique for determining the shape of an algebraic curve close to and far away from the origin. It consists of plotting (α, β) for each term Axαyβ in the equation of the curve. The resulting diagram is then analyzed to produce information about the curve. Specifically, draw a diagonal line connecting two points on the diagram so that every other point is either on or to the right and above it. There is at least one such line if the curve passes through the origin. Let the equation of the line be qα+pβ=r. Suppose the curve is approximated by y=Cxp/q near the origin. Then the term Axαyβ is approximately Dxα+βp/q. The exponent is r/q when (α, β) is on the line and higher when it is above and to the right. Therefore, the significant terms near the origin under this assumption are only those lying on the line and the others may be ignored; it produces a simple approximate equation for the curve. There may be several such diagonal lines, each corresponding to one or more branches of the curve, and the approximate equations of the branches may be found by applying this method to each line in turn. For example, the folium of Descartes is defined by the equation . Then Newton's diagram has points at (3, 0), (1, 1), and (0, 3). Two diagonal lines may be drawn as described above, 2α+β=3 and α+2β=3. These produce as approximate equations for the horizontal and vertical branches of the curve where they cross at the origin. The analytical triangle De Gua extended Newton's diagram to form a technique called the analytical triangle (or de Gua's triangle). The points (α, β) are plotted as with Newton's diagram method but the line α+β=n, where n is the degree of the curve, is added to form a triangle which contains the diagram. This method considers all lines which bound the smallest convex polygon which contains the plotted points (see convex hull). Applications Streamline tracing in fluid dynamics See also Curve Locus Algebraic curve Parent function Numerical continuation Marching cubes Boundary tracing Triangle strip References External links Curves

263324

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Crosstie

Operation Crosstie

Operation Crosstie was a series of 48 nuclear tests conducted by the United States in 1967–1968 at the Nevada Test Site. These tests followed the Operation Latchkey series and preceded the Operation Bowline series. Gasbuggy The blast designated Gasbuggy involved an underground detonation, intended to stimulate production of natural gas by cracking the rock in the underground formation of its deposit. The test proceeded as expected, but not only did the production not increase as much as expected, but the customers also refused to buy gas contaminated with traces of radioisotopes. Buggy Buggy was a Plowshare test designed to excavate a channel. It was a simultaneous detonation of 5 devices, placed apart and below the surface that resulted in a channel wide, 900 feet long, and deep . Or 65 feet deep and 254 feet wide, according to declassified U.S. film. The USSR conducted a similar salvo-test to investigate the use of nuclear explosions in the construction of the Pechora–Kama Canal project. On March 23, 1971, three simultaneously detonated 15 kiloton underground nuclear charges were exploded in the Taiga test. Faultless The Faultless test was a calibration test conducted in a mine cavity 3,200 feet beneath the Hot Creek Valley near Tonopah, Nevada, with a yield of around 1 megaton. This test was conducted to see if the land was fit for testing a 5 megaton thermonuclear warhead for the Spartan missile. The test failed because of the large degree of faulting that resulted in the area around the test. It was decided that the land was unfit for multi-megaton nuclear tests, so a similar calibration test was conducted at Amchitka Island, Alaska, in the fall of 1969 during Operation Mandrel. The 8 foot diameter steel pipe that was used to place the bomb remains at the test site. The top of the pipe was originally flush with the surface; however, the ground sunk by nine feet following the explosion. A plaque is mounted on the exposed pipe to commemorate the event. Table of detonations The United States's Crosstie nuclear test series was a group of 48 nuclear tests conducted in 1967-1968. These tests followed the Operation Latchkey series and preceded the Operation Bowline series. References Explosions in 1967 Explosions in 1968 Crosstie 1967 in military history 1968 in military history 1967 in Nevada 1968 in Nevada 1967 in the environment 1968 in the environment

263325

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suddenly%20Susan

Suddenly Susan

Suddenly Susan is an American television sitcom that aired on NBC from September 19, 1996, to December 26, 2000. The series was created by Clyde Phillips and starred Brooke Shields in her first regular series. Shields played Susan Keane, a glamorous San Francisco magazine writer who begins to adjust to being single, and who learns to be independent-minded after having been taken care of all her life. The series was developed by Gary Dontzig and Steven Peterman, who also served as executive producers during the first three seasons, and was produced by Warner Bros. Television. Synopsis Susan Keane (Brooke Shields) has always been taken care of by someone else. She worked as a copy editor at The Gate, a fictional San Francisco magazine. On her wedding day, she realizes that she and her wealthy, vain fiancé, Kip, are not meant for each other and that there is more to life than just being known as the "s" in "The Kip Richmonds." She abruptly leaves him at the altar. Now, she's suddenly just Susan. Susan's parents, played by guest stars Swoosie Kurtz and Ray Baker, were less than ecstatic about their daughter deciding to end her engagement to Kip, though her grandmother and confidant, Nana (Barbara Barrie) stands as a pillar of support for Susan. The day after the wedding, Susan goes to her boss, Jack Richmond (Judd Nelson), the rebellious brother of Susan's former fiancé, Kip, begging for her job back. Instead, Jack assigns Susan to write a regular column about being suddenly single. Susan's coworkers include photographer Luis Rivera (Nestor Carbonell), boyish rock music reporter Todd Stities (David Strickland), restaurant critic Vicki Groener (Kathy Griffin), and, in later episodes, investigative reporter and Susan's old enemy Maddy Piper (Andréa Bendewald). In the show's final season, The Gate is taken over by Ian Maxtone-Graham (Eric Idle) and overhauled into a men's magazine that's run out of an old warehouse in Chinatown. Along with this, Ian brings his own team of workers, including executive assistant and U.S. Navy veteran Miranda Charles (Sherri Shepherd), sports writer Nate Knaborski (Currie Graham), and freelance photographer Oliver Browne (Rob Estes). Susan is faced with a new set of problems and has to prove herself all over again. Besides the task of putting together a magazine and focusing on the lead character's life, Suddenly Susan also focuses on the private lives of many employees in the show. Cast Brooke Shields as Susan Keane Nestor Carbonell as Luis Rivera (Susan's co-worker) Kathy Griffin as Vicki Groener (Susan's co-worker) Barbara Barrie as Helen 'Nana' Keane (Susan's grandmother) Judd Nelson as Jack Richmond (Susan's boss) David Strickland as Todd Stities (Susan's co-worker) Andrea Bendewald as Maddy Piper (Susan's co-worker) Sherri Shepherd as Miranda Charles Eric Idle as Ian Maxtone-Graham Episodes Season 1 (1996–97) Season 2 (1997–98) Season 3 (1998–99) Season 4 (1999–2000) Original pilot In the show's original pilot, written by Billy Van Zandt and Jane Milmore and based on a dramatic script by Clyde Phillips, Susan worked at a publishing house editing children's books. After breaking up with her live-in boyfriend Ted (Brian McNamara), Susan finds herself "single" for the first time in years. Concurrently, Susan faces even greater challenges at work when her boss, Eric (Philip Casnoff), assigns her the task of working as an editor with Charlotte (Elizabeth Ashley), a hugely successful and highly opinionated romance novelist. Always on hand to provide support is Susan's grandmother, Nana (Nancy Marchand), her co-workers, acerbic best friend Marcy (Maggie Wheeler) and Neil (David Krumholtz), who has a crush on Susan. When the series was picked up, Brian McNamara's "Ted" character did not return, though McNamara did later play the part of Cooper Elliot, who took Susan to Italy at the end of season one. Other changes between the pilot and the series were Barbara Barrie replacing Nancy Marchand in the role of Nana, while Swoosie Kurtz and Ray Baker replaced Kurt Fuller and Caroline McWilliams as Susan's parents, Bill and Liz. In the series, though the setting switches from a publishing house to a magazine, the main office set retained most of its features from the pilot; the most noticeable difference was that the elevator was to the right. While the pilot's storyline featuring Elizabeth Ashley as one of the publishing house's clients was not used in the series, a cardboard cut out of Ashley that was featured in the pilot appears throughout the first three seasons of the show – it can be seen briefly behind Susan's desk, near the filing cabinets along the back wall. The actual location for the exterior shots of the office was the Newhall Building at 260 California Street in San Francisco. Death of David Strickland David Strickland committed suicide in a Las Vegas hotel room on March 22, 1999. Strickland's death was later incorporated into the show's third-season finale, which killed off his character, Todd Stities. Todd has gone missing, and throughout the episode, Susan desperately tries to find him. As the episode progresses, Susan learns about a number of good deeds that Todd had done around his neighborhood that she never knew about. Out-of-character interviews with the supporting cast also appear throughout the episode, with each actor sharing their personal experiences they had with Strickland before his death. As the episode comes to an end, Todd's favorite song, "Praise You" by Fatboy Slim, plays outside in the street as Susan and her co-workers sit in a circle praying for Todd's well-being. At last, the phone in the middle of the room rings, but the camera cuts away before the news of Todd's fate can be revealed. The episode ends with an archive video footage of Strickland and its titles: "The Gods of comedy looked down upon you and smiled". Fourth season and cancellation At the beginning of the fourth and final season, Judd Nelson and Andrea Bendewald left the show; series developers and executive producers Steven Peterman and Gary Dontzig also left the series, and the show replaced almost its entire writing staff (with the exception of new co-showrunner Maria Semple, who joined the series the previous season). The Gate was transformed into a men's magazine by its new owner, Ian Maxtone-Graham (Eric Idle), and relocated from its trendy uptown offices overlooking the bay to a dingy former warehouse in Chinatown. In tow, Ian brought his own team of workers, including executive assistant and U.S. Navy veteran Miranda Charles (Sherri Shepherd), sports writer Nate Knaborski (Currie Graham), and freelance photographer Oliver Browne (Rob Estes). Faced with new challenges, Susan suddenly had to prove herself all over again. Airing between Seinfeld and ER during its first season, Suddenly Susan was initially a ratings success, attracting almost 25 million viewers per episode, despite mostly unfavorable critical reviews. When the show was moved to Monday nights at 8:00 p.m. (against the Top 30 hit Cosby) in the second season, the show experienced a large ratings fall, sliding from #3 to #71 in one year, bringing in less than 11 million viewers. The ratings failed to bounce back, and in its final season, the show barely ranked in the top 100, prompting NBC to pull it from the schedule in January. It returned briefly in June, but at the end of the month was pulled from prime-time lineup with five episodes left unaired. One episode, The Gay Parade, remained unaired by NBC (but was eventually shown on Lifetime a few years ago); the final quartet of shows (including the two-part series finale) were burned off from 2:00 to 4:00 am (EST) on December 26, 2000, where they aired during the NBC All Night block. Reception On Rotten Tomatoes, season 1 has an approval rating of 55% based on reviews from 11 critics. The website's critical consensus was: "Comedic inspiration doesn't spark Suddenly for this Susan, hampered by derivative gags that undermine Brooke Shields' energetic performance." Caryn James of the New York Times wrote: "Like its lead character, Suddenly Susan has no identity of its own. The beauty of the magic time slot is that it gives Suddenly Susan, with its engaging star and flexible format, a well-deserved chance to grow." Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave it a grade C and called it: "A wearyingly self-conscious updating of The Mary Tyler Moore Show: nice girl trying to make it in the competitive workplace of a big town." Ratings history Twenty-three episodes were produced for season four, but episode 18, "The Gay Parade" was never broadcast. End of the series' original broadcast run. Last four episodes were aired six months later. References External links 1990s American sitcoms 2000s American sitcoms 1990s American workplace comedy television series 2000s American workplace comedy television series 1996 American television series debuts 2000 American television series endings English-language television shows NBC original programming Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios Television shows about writers Television shows set in San Francisco

263327

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charadriidae

Charadriidae

The bird family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels, and lapwings, about 64 to 66 species in all. Taxonomy The family Charadriidae was introduced (as Charadriadæ) by the English zoologist William Elford Leach in a guide to the contents of the British Museum published in 1820. Most members of the family are known as plovers, lapwings or dotterels. These were rather vague terms which were not applied with any great consistency in the past. In general, larger species have often been called lapwings, smaller species plovers or dotterels and there are in fact two clear taxonomic sub-groups: most lapwings belong to the subfamily Vanellinae, most plovers and dotterels to Charadriinae. The trend in recent years has been to rationalise the common names of the Charadriidae. For example, the large and very common Australian bird traditionally known as the ‘spur-winged plover’, is now the masked lapwing; the former ‘sociable plover’ is now the sociable lapwing. Description They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings, but most species of lapwing may have more rounded wings. Their bill are usually straight (except for the wrybill) and short, their toes are short, hind toe could be reduced or absent, depending on species. Most Charadriidae also have relatively short tails, with the exception of the killdeer. In most genera, the sexes are similar, very little sexual dimorphism occurs between sexes. They range in size from the collared plover, at 26 grams and , to the masked lapwing, at and . Distribution and habitat They are distributed through open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water, although there are some exceptions: the inland dotterel, for example, prefers stony ground in the deserts of central and western Australia, and the killdeer is often found in grasslands in North America. Behaviour and ecology They hunt by sight, rather than by feel as longer-billed waders like snipe do. Foods eaten include aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates such as insects, worms, molluscs and crustaceans depending on habitat, and are usually obtained by a run-and-pause technique, rather than the steady probing of some other wader groups. They also feed on plant material. Breeding Vast majority of Charadriidae have a socially monogamous mating system. Some, such as Northern lapwings, are polygynyous, others, such as mountain plovers have a rapid multiple-clutch system that can be accompanied by sequential polyandry. In Eurasian dotterels, females compete for males and males provide all parental care. While breeding, they defend their territories with highly visible aerial displays. Charadridae lay two to four eggs into the nest, which is usually a shallow scrape in the open ground, and incubate the clutch for 21–30 days. In species where both parents incubate the eggs, females and males vary in the way they share their incubation duties, both within and between species. In some pairs, parents exchange on the nest in the morning and in the evening so that their incubation rhythm follows 24-hour day, in others females and males exchange up to 20 times a day. Charadriidae are protective over their eggs and offspring. The parents protect their young by uttering an alarm call, performing distraction display and they may even attack the predator or intruder. The chicks are precocial; their parents do not feed them. References External links Charadriidae videos on the Internet Bird Collection Incubating Charadriidae videos in Incubating shorebirds Charadriidae sounds on xeno-canto.org Bird families

263328

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps

Princeps

Princeps (plural: principes) is a Latin word meaning "first in time or order; the first, foremost, chief, the most eminent, distinguished, or noble; the first man, first person". As a title, princeps originated in the Roman Republic wherein the leading member of the Senate was designated princeps senatus. It is primarily associated with the Roman emperors as an unofficial title first adopted by Augustus (reigned 27 BC – AD 14) in 23 BC. Its use in this context continued until the reign of Diocletian (r. 284 – 305 AD) at the end of the third century. He preferred the title of dominus, meaning "lord" or "master". As a result, the Roman Empire from Augustus to Diocletian is termed the "principate" (principatus) and from Diocletian onwards as the "dominate" (dominatus). Other historians define the reign of Augustus to Severus Alexander (r. 222 – 235) as the Principate, and the period afterwards as the "Autocracy". The medieval title "Prince" is a derivative of princeps. Roman military See Principes (legionary heavy infantry soldier) centurio(n) in command of a unit or administrative office. Princeps ordinarius vexillationis: centurion in command of a vexillatio (detachment). Princeps peregrinorum ("commander of the foreigners"): centurion in charge of troops in the castra peregrina (military base at Rome for personnel seconded from the provincial armies) Princeps prior: Centurion commanding a manipulus (unit of two centuries) of principes (legionary heavy infantry). Princeps posterior: deputy to the Princeps prior Princeps praetorii : centurion attached to headquarters. Princeps was also used as the second part of various other military titles, such as Decurio princeps, Signifer princeps (among the standard-bearers). See also Principalis (as in Optio principalis): NCO. Roman administration Princeps is also the (official) short version of Princeps officii, the chief of an officium (the office staff of a Roman dignitary). Princeps civitatis ("First Citizen") was an official title of a Roman Emperor, as the title determining the leader in Ancient Rome at the beginning of the Roman Empire. It created the principate Roman imperial system. This usage of "princeps" derived from the position of Princeps senatus, the "first among equals" of the Senate. The princeps senatus (plural principes senatus) was the first member by precedence of the Roman Senate, and his opinion would usually be asked first in senatorial debates. It was first given as a special title to Caesar Augustus in 27 BC, who saw that use of the titles rex (king) or dictator would create resentment amongst senators and other influential men, who had earlier demonstrated their disapproval by supporting the assassination of Julius Caesar. While Augustus had political and military supremacy, he needed the assistance of his fellow Romans to manage the Empire. In his Res Gestae, Augustus claims auctoritas for the princeps (himself). Various official titles were associated with the Roman Emperor. These titles included imperator, Augustus, Caesar, and later dominus (lord) and basileus (the Greek word for "sovereign"). The word Emperor is derived from the Roman title "imperator", which was a very high, but not exclusive, military title until Augustus began to use it as his praenomen. The Emperor Diocletian (284–305), the father of the Tetrarchy, was the first to stop referring to himself as "princeps" altogether, calling himself "dominus" (lord, master), thus dropping the pretense that emperor was not truly a monarchical office. The period when the emperors that called themselves princeps ruled—from Augustus to Diocletian—is called "the Principate", Diocletian's rule began "the Dominate" period. Ancient Rome knew another kind of "princely" principes too, like "princeps iuventutis" ("the first amongst the young"), which in the early empire was frequently bestowed on eligible successors to the emperor, especially from his family. It was first given to Augustus' maternal grandsons Gaius and Lucius. Nobiliary legacy "Princeps" is the root and Latin rendering of modern words as the English title and generic term prince (see that article, also for various equivalents in other languages), as the Byzantine version of Roman law was the basis for the legal terminology developed in feudal (and later absolutist) Europe. Non-Roman meaning Princeps has been used in various scientific names, including the following: Princeps, a former genus of swallowtail butterflies now treated as a subgenus of Papilio Accipiter princeps, the New Britain goshawk Actenoides princeps, the scaly-breasted kingfisher Cattleya walkeriana var. princeps, a synonym for Cattleya walkeriana, an orchid species Emberiza flaviventris princeps, a subspecies of golden-breasted bunting found in Angola and Namibia Grallaria guatimalensis princeps, a subspecies of scaled antpitta found in Costa Rica and Panama Heterohyrax brucei princeps, a subspecies of yellow-spotted rock hyrax Melionyx princeps, the long-bearded melidectes Morphnarchus princeps, the barred hawk Triplofusus princeps, a tropical sea snail. Passerculus sandwichensis princeps, the Ipswich sparrow (a subspecies of Savannah sparrow) Ploceus princeps, the Príncipe weaver Psittacus timneh princeps, the Príncipe subspecies of Timneh parrot Fiction The Star Trek episode "Bread and Circuses" takes place on Magna Roma, an alternate Earth where the Roman Empire never fell. In this episode, the leader of Magna Roman society (Merikus, played by William Smithers) is referred to as First Citizen of his empire. In the Foundation series by Isaac Asimov, First Citizen is the title taken by the Mule and his successors in their position as leader of the Union of Worlds. Asimov had previously used the title "First Citizen of the State" for Korell's authoritarian ruler Commdor in the original Foundation novel. Princeps is the name of a dog that Brother Priad meets in the Warhammer 40,000 book Brothers of the Snake. Princeps is the title for the captain of a Titan, a massive humanoid war machine in the tabletop wargame Warhammer 40,000. In the book series Codex Alera by Jim Butcher, Princeps is the title given to the crown prince of the empire of Alera. It is also used in the title of the fifth book in the series, Princeps' Fury. In the Star Trek: Infinity's Prism book Seeds of Dissent by James Swallow, "Princeps" is the title for "Commander" Julian Bashir of the warship Defiance, which exists in an alternate universe from the more familiar 24th Century envisioned in the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. In the book The Three-Body Problem by Cixin Liu, "Princeps" is the title of the leader of the Trisolaran civilization. In the book The Magic Mountain by Thomas Mann, "Princeps Scholasticorum" is the title Settembrini uses to introduce Naphta. In the actual-play series Dimension 20: A Starstruck Oddysey by Dropout, Princeps Zortch is a non-binary member of Rubian V's royalty. See also Chief of the Name Head of State References Further reading Grant, Michael, The Twelve Caesars, Michael Grant Publications 1975, Ancient Roman government Ancient Roman titles Military ranks of ancient Rome Royal titles Noble titles Roman Senate Augustus

263329

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Bologna

University of Bologna

The University of Bologna (, UNIBO) is a research university in Bologna, Italy. Founded in 1088 by an organised guild of students (hence studiorum), it is the oldest university in continuous operation in the world, and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word universitas was coined at its foundation. It is commonly ranked in the first places of national, European and international rankings both as a whole and for individual subjects. Since its foundation, it has attracted numerous scholars, intellectuals and students from all over Italy and the world, establishing itself as one of the main international centers of learning. It was the first place of study to use the term universitas for the corporations of students and masters, which came to define the institution (especially its famous law school) located in Bologna. The university's emblem carries the motto Alma Mater Studiorum ("Nourishing mother of studies") and the date A.D. 1088, and it has about 86,500 students in its 11 schools. It has campuses in Cesena, Forlì, Ravenna and Rimini and a branch center abroad in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It also has a school of excellence named Collegio Superiore di Bologna. An associate publisher of the University of Bologna is the Bononia University Press. The University of Bologna saw the first woman to earn a university degree and teach at a university, Bettisia Gozzadini, and the first woman to earn both a doctorate in science and a salaried position as a university professor, Laura Bassi. History The date of the University of Bologna's founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088. The university was granted a charter (Authentica habita) by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in 1158, but in the 19th century, a committee of historians led by Giosuè Carducci traced the founding of the University back to 1088, which would make it the oldest continuously-operating university in the world. However, the development of the institution at Bologna into a university was a gradual process. Paul Grendler writes that “it is not likely that enough instruction and organization existed to merit the term university before the 1150s, and it might not have happened before the 1180s.” The university arose around mutual aid societies (known as universitates scholarium) of foreign students called "nations" (as they were grouped by nationality) for protection against city laws which imposed collective punishment on foreigners for the crimes and debts of their countrymen. These students then hired scholars from the city's pre-existing lay and ecclesiastical schools to teach them subjects such as liberal arts, notarial law, theology, and ars dictaminis (scrivenery). The lectures were given in informal schools called scholae. In time the various universitates scholarium decided to form a larger association, or Studium—thus, the university. The Studium grew to have a strong position of collective bargaining with the city, since by then it derived significant revenue through visiting foreign students, who would depart if they were not well treated. The foreign students in Bologna received greater rights, and collective punishment was ended. There was also collective bargaining with the scholars who served as professors at the university. By the initiation or threat of a student strike, the students could enforce their demands as to the content of courses and the pay professors would receive. University professors were hired, fired, and had their pay determined by an elected council of two representatives from every student "nation" which governed the institution, with the most important decisions requiring a majority vote from all the students to ratify. The professors could also be fined if they failed to finish classes on time, or complete course material by the end of the semester. A student committee, the "Denouncers of Professors", kept tabs on them and reported any misbehavior. Professors themselves were not powerless, however, forming collegia doctorum (professors’ committees) in each faculty, and securing the rights to set examination fees and degree requirements. Eventually, the city ended this arrangement, paying professors from tax revenues and making it a chartered public university. The university is historically notable for its teaching of canon and civil law; indeed, it was set up in large part with the aim of studying the Digest, a central text in Roman law, which had been rediscovered in Italy in 1070, and the university was central in the development of medieval Roman law. Until modern times, the only degree granted at that university was the doctorate. Bettisia Gozzadini earned a law degree in 1237, being one of the first women in history to obtain a university degree. She taught law from her own home for two years, and in 1239 she taught at the university, becoming the first woman in history to teach at a university. In 1477, when Pope Sixtus IV issued a papal bull, authorizing the creation of Uppsala University in Sweden, the bull specified that the new university would have the same freedoms and privileges as the University of Bologna - a highly desirable situation for the Swedish scholars. This included the right of Uppsala to establish the four traditional faculties of theology, law (Canon Law and Roman law), medicine, and philosophy, and to award the bachelor's, master's, licentiate, and doctoral degrees. Laura Bassi was born into a prosperous family of Bologna and was privately educated from the age of five. Bassi's education and intellect was noticed by Prospero Lorenzini Lambertini, who became the Archbishop of Bologna in 1731 (later Pope Benedict XIV). Lambertini became the official patron of Bassi. He arranged for a public debate between Bassi and four professors from the University of Bologna on 17 April 1732. In 1732, Bassi, aged twenty, publicly defended her forty-nine theses on Philosophica Studia at the Sala degli Anziani of the Palazzo Pubblico. The University of Bologna awarded her a doctorate degree on 12 May. She became the first woman to receive a doctorate in science, and the second woman in the world to earn a philosophy doctorate after Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678, fifty-four years prior. She was by then popularly known as Bolognese Minerva. On 29 October 1732, the Senate and the University of Bologna granted Bassi's candidature, and in December she was appointed professor of natural philosophy to teach physics. She became the first salaried woman lecturer in the world, thus beginning her academic career. She was also the first woman member of any scientific establishment, when she was elected to the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna in 1732. Bassi became the most important populariser of Newtonian mechanics in Italy. In 1971, the Graecist Benedetto Marzullo in company with Umberto Eco, Renato Barilli, Adelio Ferrero. instituted within the Faculty of Letters and Arts the DAMS (acronym of discipline delle arti, della musica e dello spettacolo, "Dicipline of Arts, Musics and Performance"). It was the first degree course of this type to be opened in Italy. Between December 26, 1982, and November 29, 1983, there occurred the DAMS murders (in Italian: Delitti del DAMS), dealing with four victims who were students or professors of the DAMS: Angelo Fabbri (a brilliant student of Umberto Eco), Liviana Rossi, the dancer Francesca Alinovi (who was stabbed for 47 times), and Leonarda Polvani. Organization Higher education processes are being harmonised across the European Community. Nowadays the university offers 101 different "Laurea" or "Laurea breve" first-level degrees (three years of courses), followed by 108 "Laurea specialistica" or "Laurea magistrale" second-level degrees (two years). However, 11 other courses have maintained preceding rules of "Laurea specialistica a ciclo unico" or "Laurea magistrale a ciclo unico", with only one cycle of study of five years, except for medicine and dentistry which requires six years of courses. After the "Laurea" one may attain 1st level Master (one-year diploma, similar to a Postgraduate diploma). After second-level degrees are attained, one may proceed to 2nd level Master, specialisation schools (residency), or doctorates of research (PhD). The 11 Schools (which replace the preexisting 23 faculties) are: School of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine School of Economics, Management and Statistics School of Engineering and Architecture School of Foreign Languages and Literature, Interpretation and Translation School of Law School of Arts, Humanities, and Cultural Heritage School of Medicine and Surgery School of Pharmacy, Biotechnologies and Sport Sciences School of Political Sciences School of Psychology and Education Sciences School of Sciences The university is structured in 33 departments (there were 66 until 2012), organized by homogeneous research domains that integrate activities related to one or more faculty. A new department of Latin history was added in 2015. The 33 departments are: Architecture - DA Cultural Heritage - DBC Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician" - CHIM Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari" - CHIMIND Arts - DARvipem Pharmacy and Biotechnology - FaBiT Classical Philology and Italian Studies - FICLIT Philosophy and Communication Studies - FILCOM Physics and Astronomy - DIFA Computer Science and Engineering - DISI Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering - DICAM Electrical, Electronic, and Information Engineering "Guglielmo Marconi" - DEI Industrial Engineering - DIN Interpreting and Translation - DIT Modern Languages, Literatures, and Cultures - LILEC Mathematics - MAT Experimental Medicine, Diagnostic Medicine and Specialty Medicine - DIMES Psychology - PSI Agricultural Sciences - DipSA Management - DiSA Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences - BiGeA Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences - DIBINEM Education Studies "Giovanni Maria Bertin" - EDU Agricultural and Food Sciences - DISTAL Economics - DSE Legal Studies - DSG Medical and Surgical Sciences - DIMEC Veterinary Medical Sciences - DIMEVET Department for Life Quality Studies - QUVI Political and Social Sciences - SPS Statistical Sciences "Paolo Fortunati" - STAT Sociology and Business Law - SDE History and Cultures - DiSCi Affiliates and other institutions Il Mulino In the early 1950s, some students of the University of Bologna were among the founders of the review "il Mulino". On 25 April 1951 the first issue of the review was published in Bologna. In a short time, "il Mulino" became one of the most interesting reference points in Italy for the political and cultural debate, and established important editorial relationships in Italy and abroad. Editorial activities evolved along with the review. In 1954, the il Mulino publishing house (Società editrice il Mulino) was founded, which today represents one of the most relevant Italian publishers. In addition to this were initiated research projects (focusing mostly on the educational institutions and the political system in Italy), that eventually led, in 1964, to the establishment of the Istituto Carlo Cattaneo. Collegio Superiore The Collegio Superiore is an excellence institution inside the University of Bologna, aimed at promoting students' merit through dedicated learning programmes. The institution was founded in 1998 as Collegio d'Eccellenza. Together with the Institute for Advanced Study it is part of the Institute for Higher Study. The Collegio Superiore offers an additional educational path to students enrolled in a degree programme at the University of Bologna, providing specialized courses as part of an interdisciplinary framework. All students of the Collegio Superiore are granted a full-ride scholarship and additional benefits such as the assistance of a personal tutor and free accommodation at the Residence for Higher Study. In order to remain members of the Collegio Superiore students are required to maintain high marks in both their degree programme and the additional courses. Beatrice Fraboni, professor of Physics of Matter, has been head of Collegio Superiore since 2019. Notable people Alumni Cardinal Alberto Bolognetti Pope Alexander VI Anna M. Borghi, Italian cognitive psychologist Augusto Righi, pioneer in the study of electromagnetism Carlo Goldoni, Italian playwright Carlo Rovelli, Italian theoretical physicist Carlo Severini Saint Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan Dante Alighieri, Italian poet, writer and philosopher Diego Della Valle, chairman of the Italian leather goods company Tod's Enzo Ferrari, Italian racing driver, engineer and entrepreneur Erasmus of Rotterdam Gabriele Paleotti Gasparo Tagliacozzi, pioneer of plastic and reconstructive surgery Giacomo Matteotti Giovanni Pascoli Pope Gregory XIII (Ugo Boncompagni); Pope Gregory XV Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inventor and radio pioneer Henry of Susa (Hostiensis); Pope Innocent IX Irnerius, founder of the School of Glossators Laura Bassi, the world's first woman to earn a university chair in a scientific field of studies Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian priest, biologist and physiologist Leon Battista Alberti; Luigi Galvani; Manuel Olivencia, lawyer and academic; Marcello Malpighi; Michelangelo Antonioni; Nicolaus Copernicus, formulator of the heliocentric universal model; Cardinal Paolo Burali d'Arezzo; Paracelsus, founder of the discipline of toxicology; Patrizio Bianchi, Minister of Public Education in the Draghi Cabinet Petrarch; Pico della Mirandola; Pier Paolo Pasolini; Pietro Mengoli; Archbishop Thomas Becket; Tommaso Perelli, Italian astronomer Torquato Tasso; Ulisse Aldrovandi; Umberto Eco, Italian semiotician, philosopher and writer Faculty and staff Notable former faculty include: 11th century Irnerius 12th century Bulgarus Gratian Martinus Gosia Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem William of Tyre 13th century Benvenutus Scotivoli Bettisia Gozzadini Guido Guinizelli Henry of Susa (Hostiensis) Paul, Dominican martyr Sylvester Gozzolini William of Saliceto 14th century Manuel Chrysoloras Giovanni de' Marignolli Francesco Petrarca (also known as Petrarch) Coluccio Salutati 15th century Leon Battista Alberti Nicolaus Copernicus Lippo Bartolomeo Dardi Yuriy Drohobych (also known as Georgius de Drohobycz) Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 16th century Ulisse Aldrovandi Giovanni Antonio Magini Camillo Baldi Girolamo Cardano Ignazio Danti Giovanni Della Casa Girolamo Maggi Virgilio Malvezzi Paracelsus 17th century Giovanni Cassini Niall Ó Glacáin Marcello Malpighi Pietro Mengoli 18th century Laura Bassi Luigi Galvani Maria Gaetana Agnesi Carlo Goldoni 19th century Augusto Righi Giacomo Ciamician Giosuè Carducci Giovanni Pascoli Pellegrino Rossi Francesco Selmi 20th century Umberto Eco Beppo Levi Guglielmo Marconi Pier Paolo Pasolini Romano Prodi 21st century Hamida Barmaki Özalp Babaoğlu Gabriella Campadelli-Fiume Pier Cesare Bori Augusto Barbera Gualtiero Calboli Ivano Dionigi Luciano Floridi Rankings and reputation The 2022 QS World University Rankings ranked the University of Bologna 166th in the world and 71st (first in Italy) with reference to academic reputation. In another measurement by the same company, it was positioned among the world's top 100 universities for graduate employability (84th). In the 2021 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, it claimed the 167th place globally. In the THE Impact Rankings of the same year, measuring the universities' commitment to sustainable development in compliance with the UN 2030 Agenda, Bologna took 1st place in Europe and 6th in the world. Nationally, in 2020 Bologna topped Italy's main ranking of large public universities (> 40,000 students) for the eleventh year in a row, produced by the Italian Center for Social Investment Studies. Points of interest Orto Botanico dell'Università di Bologna See also Bologna Bologna declaration Bologna process Coimbra Group (a network of leading European universities) Collegio Superiore di Bologna (school of excellence of the University of Bologna) List of Italian universities List of medieval universities Medieval university Palazzo Poggi Utrecht Network References External links University of Bologna Website (also has a Chinese version) Scholars and Literati at the University of Bologna (1088–1800), in Repertorium Eruditorum Totius Europae/RETE 1088 establishments in Europe 11th-century establishments in Italy Buildings and structures in Bologna Education in Bologna Bologna, University of Medical schools in Italy

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapaculo

Tapaculo

The tapaculos (pronounced /tæpəˈku:ləʊ/) are a family, Rhinocryptidae, of small suboscine passerine birds, found mainly in South America and with the highest diversity in the Andean regions. Three species (Chocó, Tacarcuna, and the silvery-fronted) are found in southern Central America. Description Tapaculos are small to medium-sized birds, with a total length ranging from 10–24 cm (4–9½ in). These are terrestrial species that fly only poorly on their short wings. They have strong legs, well-suited to their habitat of grassland or forest undergrowth. The tail is cocked and pointed towards the head, and the name tapaculo probably derives from Spanish for loincloth (literally "cover your behind" --because it ought to). Another possible explanation is that it originates from the Chilean name for the white-throated tapaculo, simply tapaculo, which is an onomatopoeic reference to its commonly heard song. While the majority of the family are small blackish or brown birds there are some larger and more colourful species. All tapaculos are skulking birds that frequently stay low in dense vegetation, even the larger, colorful species, and this renders them difficult to see. They are best located and – in the case of Scytalopus spp. – identified by their vocalisations. They feed on insects, seeds and other soft plant material with their pointed bills, and will scratch on the ground like a pheasant. Most species lay two or three white eggs in a covered location, whether it be a burrow, a hole in a tree, or a domed nest. Status and conservation Some species have highly localized distributions and, being poor fliers, they easily become isolated in small populations. BirdLife International currently (2007) consider one species vulnerable (Scytalopus panamensis), three species endangered (S. iraiensis, S. rodriguezi and S. robbinsi), and two species critically endangered (Eleoscytalopus psychopompus and Merulaxis stresemanni). The two critically endangered species are restricted to Atlantic forest of eastern Brazil, and were only recently rediscovered after several years without any records. Systematics The tapaculos were traditionally placed in a distinct family Rhinocryptidae; more recent research (Irestedt et al. 2002, Rice 2005a,b) indicates that according to analysis of mt and nDNA sequence data, the tapaculos might be better merged into the Formicariidae as tribe Rhinocryptini, as they are closer to the antthrushes than either is to the true antpittas. Alternatively, the latter might be raised to family status. In this case, it would be possible to maintain the tapaculos as a separate family too, but it would seem altogether more warranted to consider them a subfamily of the Formicariinae sensu stricto, which would be called Rhinocryptinae. Whether this latter approach, the placement as a tribe in a tapaculo-antthrush Formicariinae subfamily, or maintenance as a separate family is to be preferred depends on whether the true antpittas are closer to the tapaculos and true antbirds, or rather to the Pittasoma "gnatthrushes" and other gnateaters and the true antbirds. There are some, albeit very tentative, indications that the latter may indeed be the case, which would be reflected in the placement of the tapaculos as subfamily Rhinocryptinae, with the Formicariinae being restricted to the true antthrushes (Rice 2005a). Today, the tapaculos continue in the Rhinocryptidae until the systematics can be further defined. Apparently not all tapaculo genera would have to be moved to the formicariids (Irestedt et al. 2002). As the type genus Rhinocrypta certainly would, any distinct genera (such as the peculiar crescent-chests) would need a new family name. An alternative family name Pteroptochidae, has been used historically. Taxonomy of Scytalopus The species-limits within the genus Scytalopus is among the most complex matters in Neotropical ornithology. They are highly cryptic, and identification using visual features often is impossible. Vocal and biochemical data is typically needed to clarify the taxonomic status of the various populations. Several new species have been described in recent years (e.g. S. whitneyi and S. frankeae from Peru). The Brazilian taxa are similarly complex with several recently described species and considerable confusion surrounding the use of the scientific name Scytalopus speluncae. Additionally, still undescribed species are known to exist, while some species as currently defined actually may include several species (e.g. the southern population of the large-footed tapaculo may represent a yet undescribed species). The confusing situation is perhaps best illustrated by the fact that only ten species were recognized in this genus in 1970 (Krabbe & Schulenberg, 2003), while the figure now is more than four times as high. Species list For a complete list of the tapaculos recognized by the International Ornithological Congress, see the article "List of tapaculo species". Genera allied with antthrushes Genus Pteroptochos, the huet-huets Black-throated huet-huet, Pteroptochos tarnii Chestnut-throated huet-huet, Pteroptochos castaneus Moustached turca, Pteroptochos megapodius Genus Scytalopus (some 40-45 species) Genus Scelorchilus White-throated tapaculo, Scelorchilus albicollis Chucao tapaculo, Scelorchilus rubecula Genus Rhinocrypta Crested gallito, Rhinocrypta lanceolata Genus Liosceles Rusty-belted tapaculo, Liosceles thoracicus Placement unresolved Genus Psilorhamphus Spotted bamboowren, Psilorhamphus guttatus Genus Merulaxis, the bristlefronts Slaty bristlefront, Merulaxis ater Stresemann's bristlefront, Merulaxis stresemanni Genus Eleoscytalopus (formerly in Scytalopus) White-breasted tapaculo, Eleoscytalopus indigoticus Bahia tapaculo, Eleoscytalopus psychopompus Genus Eugralla Ochre-flanked tapaculo, Eugralla paradoxa Genus Myornis Ash-colored tapaculo, Myornis senilis Genus Acropternis Ocellated tapaculo, Acropternis orthonyx References Correa, Alejandro, Mpodozis, Jorge & Sallaberry, Michel. (2014): Chilean Rhinocryptidae (Avian):speciation. Impressum/Imprint OmniScriptum GmbH & CoKG. Verlag/publisher: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing. Printed in Germany. All right reserved Saarbrücken. . Correa, Alejandro (2009): Biological similarities between Chilean Tapaculos. Impressum/Imprint (nur für Deutschland/only for Germany) Publisher VDM Verlag.Printed in the USA. Printed in the UK. All right reserved Saarbrücken. . Irestedt, Martin; Fjeldså, Jon; Johansson, Ulf S. & Ericson, Per G.P. (2002): Systematic relationships and biogeography of the tracheophone suboscines (Aves: Passeriformes). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 23(3): 499–512. (HTML abstract) Krabbe, N, and Schulenberg, T. (2003). Family Rhinocryptidae (Tapaculos). pp. 748–787 in: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., and Christie, D. eds. (2003). Handbook of Birds of the World. Vol. 8. Broadbills to Tapaculos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Maurício, G, (2005). Taxonomy of the southern population in the Scytalopus speluncae group, with the description of a new species and remarks on the systematics and biogeography of the complex (Passeriformes: Rhinocryptidae). Ararajuba. 13(1): 7-28. Raposo, M., Stopiglia, R., Loskit, V., and Kirwin, G. (2006). The correct use of the name Scytalopus speluncae (Ménétriés, 1835), and the description of a new species of Brazilian tapaculo (Aves: Passeriformers: Rhinocryptidae). Zootaxa 1271: 37–56. Rice, Nathan H. (2005a): Phylogenetic relationships of antpitta genera (Passeriformes: Formicariidae). Auk 122(2): 673–683. [English with Spanish abstract] DOI:10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0673:PROAGP]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext Rice, Nathan H. (2005b): Further Evidence for Paraphyly of the Formicariidae (Passeriformes). Condor 107(4): 910–915. [English with Spanish abstract] PDF fulltext Status of the members of Rhinocryptidae BirdLife International (2007). Comitê Brasileiro de Registros Ornitológicos: List of Birds in Brazil Footnotes External links Tapaculo videos on the Internet Bird Collection Formicariidae Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics Taxa named by Alexander Wetmore

263343

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model

Model

A model is an informative representation of an object, person or system. The term originally denoted the plans of a building in late 16th-century English, and derived via French and Italian ultimately from Latin modulus, a measure. Models can be divided into physical models (e.g. a successful pupil as a role model for others in the school) and abstract models (e.g. mathematical expressions describing behavioural patterns). Abstract or conceptual models are central to philosophy of science, as almost every scientific theory effectively embeds some kind of model of the physical or human sphere. In commerce, "model" can refer to a specific design of a product as displayed in a catalogue or show room (e.g. Ford Model T), and by extension to the sold product itself. Types of models include: Physical model A physical model is a physical representation of an object, such as a miniature aeroplane representing a real aeroplane. Model (art), a person posing for an artist, e.g. a 15th-century criminal representing the biblical Judas in Leonardo da Vinci's painting The Last Supper Model (person), a person who serves as a template for others to copy, often in the context of advertising commercial products Model (product), a particular design of a product offered by its manufacturer Car model, a particular design of vehicle sold by a manufacturer Model organism (often shortened to model), a non-human species that is studied to understand biological phenomena present in other related organisms, e.g. a guinea pig starved of vitamin C to study scurvy, an experiment that would be immoral to conduct on a person Model (mimicry), a species that is mimicked by another species Conceptual model A conceptual model is a theoretical representation of a system, e.g. a set of equations attempting to describe the workings of the atmosphere for the purpose of weather forecasting. Conceptual model (computer science), a representation of entities and their relationships Mathematical model, a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language Economic model, a theoretical construct representing economic processes Statistical model, a mathematical model that usually specifies the relationship between one or more random variables and other non-random variables Model (CGI), a mathematical representation of any surface of an object in three dimensions via specialized software Model (logic), a set along with a collection of finitary operations, and relations that are defined on it, satisfying a given collection of axioms Model (MVC), the central component of the model–view–controller software design pattern Standard model (disambiguation) Medical model, a proposed "set of procedures in which all doctors are trained" Model act, a law drafted centrally to be disseminated and proposed for enactment in multiple independent legislatures References Broad-concept articles Simulation

263344

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%3A%201999

Space: 1999

Space: 1999 is a British science-fiction television programme that ran for two series from 1975 to 1977. In the opening episode, set in the year 1999, nuclear waste stored on the Moon's far side explodes, knocking the Moon out of orbit and sending it, as well as the 311 inhabitants of Moonbase Alpha, hurtling uncontrollably into space. Space: 1999 was the last production by the partnership of Gerry and Sylvia Anderson, who divorced in 1980, and was the most expensive series produced for British television up to that time. The first series was co-produced by ITC Entertainment and Italian broadcaster RAI, while the second series was produced solely by ITC. Storyline Two series of the programme were produced, each comprising 24 episodes. Production of the first series was from April 1973 to February 1975; production of the second series was from January 1976 to December 1976. The premise of Space: 1999 centres on the plight of the inhabitants of Moonbase Alpha, a scientific research centre on the Moon. Humanity had been storing its nuclear waste in vast disposal sites on the far side of the Moon, but when an unknown form of "magnetic radiation" is detected, the accumulated waste reaches critical mass and causes a massive thermonuclear explosion on 13 September 1999. The force of the blast propels the Moon like an enormous booster rocket, hurling it out of Earth orbit and into deep space at colossal speed, thus stranding the 311 personnel stationed on Alpha. The runaway Moon, in effect, becomes the "spacecraft" on which the protagonists travel, searching for a new home. Not long after leaving Earth's Solar System, the wandering Moon passes through a black hole and later through a couple of "space warps" which push it even further out into the universe. During their interstellar journey, the Alphans encounter an array of alien civilisations, dystopian societies, and mind-bending phenomena previously unseen by humanity. Several episodes of the first series hinted that the Moon's journey was influenced (and perhaps initiated) by a "mysterious unknown force", which was guiding the Alphans toward an ultimate destiny. The second series used simpler action-oriented plots. The first series of Space: 1999 used a "teaser" introduction, sometimes called a "hook" or "cold open". This was followed by a title sequence that managed to convey prestige for its two main stars, Landau and Bain (both billed as 'starring') and to give the audience some thirty-plus fast cut shots of the forthcoming episode. The second series eliminated this montage. The programme would then offer four ten-to-twelve minute long acts (allowing for commercial breaks in North America) and finished with a short (and, in the second series, often light-hearted) "epilogue" scene. Cast The headline stars of Space: 1999 were American actors Martin Landau and Barbara Bain, who were married to each other at the time, and had previously appeared together in Mission: Impossible. To appeal to the American television market and sell the series to one of the major U.S. networks, Landau and Bain were cast at the insistence of Lew Grade over the objections of Sylvia Anderson, who wanted British actors. Also appearing as regular cast members were the Canadian-based British actor Barry Morse (as Professor Victor Bergman in the first series) and Hungarian-born, US-raised Catherine Schell (as the alien Maya in the second season). Before moving into the role of Maya during the second series, Catherine Schell had guest-starred as a different character in the Year One episode "Guardian of Piri". The programme also brought Australian actor Nick Tate to public attention. Roy Dotrice appeared in the first episode as Commissioner Simmonds and at the end of the episode it appeared that he would be a regular character; by the second (transmitted) episode the character vanished, reappearing partway through the first season in the episode "Earthbound", his only other appearance on the show, in which it is implied that he dies from asphyxia inside an alien spacecraft. Over its two series, the programme featured guest appearances from Christopher Lee, Margaret Leighton, Roy Dotrice, Joan Collins, Jeremy Kemp, Peter Cushing, Judy Geeson, Julian Glover, Ian McShane, Leo McKern, Billie Whitelaw, Richard Johnson, Patrick Troughton, Peter Bowles, Sarah Douglas, David Prowse, Isla Blair, Stuart Damon, Peter Duncan and Brian Blessed. (Blair, Damon and Blessed each appeared in two episodes portraying different characters.) The English actor Nicholas Young (who portrayed John in the original version of The Tomorrow People) appeared in a Year Two episode, "The Bringers of Wonder". Several guest stars went on to appear in the Star Wars films, including Cushing, Glover, Lee, Blessed, Prowse, Michael Culver, Michael Sheard, Richard LeParmentier, Shane Rimmer, Angus MacInnes, Drewe Henley, Jack Klaff and Jack McKenzie. Main cast list Production Conception and development Space: 1999 was the last in a long line of science-fiction series that Gerry and Sylvia Anderson produced as a working partnership, beginning with Supercar in the early 1960s and including the marionette fantasy programmes Fireball XL5, Stingray, Thunderbirds, Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons, Joe 90 and The Secret Service, as well as the live-action drama UFO. Space: 1999 owes much of its visual design to pre-production work for the never-made second series of UFO, which would have been set primarily on the Moon and featured a more extensive Moonbase. Space: 1999 drew a great deal of visual inspiration and technical expertise from the Stanley Kubrick film 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). The programme's special effects director Brian Johnson had previously worked on both Thunderbirds (as Brian Johncock) and 2001. In 1972, Sir Lew Grade, head of ITC Entertainment, proposed financing a second series of the Century 21 production UFO to show-runners Gerry and Sylvia Anderson. Grade had one stipulation: the new series would be set primarily on the Moon within the environs of an expanded SHADO Moonbase; the ratings indicated the Moon-centric episodes had proved the most popular with audiences. The Andersons and their team would quickly revamp the production, flashing ahead nearly twenty years for UFO: 1999 with Commander Ed Straker and the forces of SHADO fighting their alien foes from a large new Moonbase facility. However, toward the end of its run, UFO experienced a drop in ratings in both the US and the UK; nervous ITC executives in both countries began to question the financial viability of the new series, and support for the project collapsed. In the meantime, production designer Keith Wilson and the art department had made considerable progress in envisioning the look and design of the new series. Their work was then shelved for the foreseeable future. Anderson would not let the project die; he approached Grade's number two in New York, Abe Mandell, with the proposal for taking the research and development done for UFO: 1999 and creating a new science fiction series. Mandell was amenable, but stated he did not want a series set featuring people "having tea in the Midlands" and forbade any Earth-bound settings. Anderson responded that in the series opener, he would "blow up the Earth". Mandell countered that this concept might be off-putting to viewers, to which Anderson replied he would "blow up the Moon". The Andersons reworked UFO: 1999 into a new premise: Commander Steven Maddox controlled the forces of WANDER, Earth's premier defence organisation, from Moon City, a twenty-mile wide installation on the Moon. Maddox would view all aspects of Earth defence from Central Control, a facility at the hub of the base and accessible only by Moon Hopper craft, which would require the correct pass-code to traverse Control's defensive laser barrier. The Commander would also have access to a personal computer called "Com-Com" (Commander's Computer), which would act as a personal advisor, having been programmed with the Commander's personality and moral sense. In the half-hour opening episode "Zero-G" penned by the Andersons, Earth's deep space probes have discovered an advanced extraterrestrial civilisation. Maddox is kidnapped for an interview with the aliens. Angered by humanity's innate hostility and WANDER's defensive posture, they travel to Earth with the intent of isolating mankind within the boundary of Earth's atmosphere. Having judged Maddox a noble example of mankind, they return him unharmed. They then use a beam to reduce the Moon's gravitational influence to zero, sending it careening out of orbit into deep space. The project continued forward. Group Three Productions, a partnership of the Andersons and production executive Reg Hill, was to produce the series; ITC Entertainment and Italian broadcaster RAI were to provide the funding. Grade, aiming for a US network sale, insisted the series have American leads and employ American writers and directors. George Bellak, a well-known American television writer, was brought on staff. As stated by series writers Christopher Penfold and Johnny Byrne, it was Bellak who created and polished the series' defining concepts. Bellak wrote a ninety-minute opening episode titled "The Void Ahead", which was a close forerunner of "Breakaway". Bellak also set up a writers' guide defining the three leads, the facilities of the Moonbase and potential storylines. At this point, the staff seemed to make creative changes that brought the series closer in concept and appearance to 2001: A Space Odyssey. Even the title Space: 1999 evoked comparison with Kubrick's film. (Before, the title of the new series had greatly varied: Space Journey: 1999, Journey in Space, Menace in Space and Space Invaders—the invaders of the last title being the Earthmen trapped on the runaway Moon.) For the lead characters of John Koenig and Helena Russell, Gerry Anderson approached the husband-and-wife acting team of Martin Landau and Barbara Bain. Landau and Bain were high-profile stars in America after three years in the popular CBS espionage series Mission: Impossible. Producer Sylvia Anderson let it be known that she would have preferred British lead actors; since Grade insisted on Americans, she would have chosen Robert Culp (star of the 1960s espionage series I Spy) and Katharine Ross (co-star of 1960s blockbuster movies The Graduate and Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid). Lee H. Katzin, a highly respected American television director with a speciality for pilot episodes, was selected to direct the opening segment and brought into the fold as a primary director for the remainder of the series. Special effects, design and music The show's vehicles, including the Eagle space shuttle and the Moon Buggy, were represented with a mixture of full-sized props, photographic blow-ups, and detailed scale models. Dozens of models for the various alien spaceships and the Mark IX Hawk from the "War Games" episode were built by model maker Martin Bower, often at several different sizes to account for the intended use. Rather than relying on the expensive and time-consuming blue screen process, as for Star Trek, Johnson's team often employed a technique that went back to the earliest days of visual effects: spacecraft and planets would be filmed against black backgrounds, with the camera being rewound for each successive element. As long as the various elements did not overlap, this produced convincing results. In technical terms, the advantage was that all of the elements were recorded on the original negative, as opposed to blue screen, which would have involved several generations of duplication. Another plus was that the camera's exposed negative contained completed effects thereby avoiding the costs of the blue screen "optical" technique. The disadvantage was that the number of possible angles was more limited. For instance, a spaceship could be seen approaching a planet from the side, but could not move in front of it without the elements overlapping. Special effects director Brian Johnson and most of his team went on to work on Ridley Scott's Alien, followed by The Empire Strikes Back. Space: 1999 used Pinewood Studios sound-stages L and M. Each studio measures 90' x 105' (27 m x 32 m), with a floor-to-grid measurement of 30 feet (9 m). For the first series, Stage L housed the "standing sets"; such as Main Mission, the Eagle interior, the travel tube, and a small section of corridor. Due to the limited studio space, other sets depicting Alpha interiors, such as Medical Centre, were assembled as needed. Stage M was the "swing stage" – used for planet exteriors, spaceship interiors, and whatever else was needed for a given episode. The unisex "Moon City" uniforms for the first series were created by Austrian fashion designer Rudi Gernreich, a personal friend of series star Barbara Bain. Other costumes were designed by Production Designer Keith Wilson, who was also responsible for set design. Wilson's innovative Moonbase set construction, using plastic foam-board panels, linked together Lego-like into whatever room configuration was required, made for a uniform and realistic appearance for the Alpha interiors (not to mention being relatively cheap and quickly assembled). For the second series, the Moonbase uniforms were updated and coloured decorative stitching and turtleneck collars were added, as were various badges and patches. Red, navy, or dark-green jackets also appeared, originally on just the senior staff, then on many of the male extras. The female characters tended to wear skirts and knee-high boots throughout the second series, rather than the flared trousers used in Year One. The costumes for Year Two were designed by Emma Porteous, who later designed the wardrobes for several James Bond films. The Moonbase interiors were also upgraded for the second year, with the existing stock of wall panels, doors, and computer panels (along with some bits from other Anderson productions) being assembled for the first time—on Stage L—into a standing complex of interconnected sets (the first series' sets had been assembled as needed and the size of the Main Mission/Command Office complex was prohibitive for the construction of a lasting series of rooms.) Vibrant colour was much more evident in this series' Moonbase sets. Gadgets and equipment with a futuristic appearance typical of contemporary science fiction were also more evident. For example, Helena no longer used a stethoscope, but a little beeping, all-purpose medical scanner similar to Dr McCoy's whistling medical "tricorder" on Star Trek. The opening credits for the first series featured a dramatic fanfare composed by long-time Anderson associate Barry Gray, whose scores for the series were his final compositions for an Anderson production. Gray scored five episodes—"Breakaway", "Matter of Life and Death", "Black Sun", "Another Time, Another Place", and "The Full Circle" — Vic Elmes provided a completely electronic score for "Ring Around the Moon", and Big Jim Sullivan performed a one-off sitar composition for "The Troubled Spirit". Library music, classical compositions, and score excerpts from earlier Anderson productions augmented the five Gray scores and gave the impression of an expansive musical repertoire. The second series was scored by jazz musician and composer Derek Wadsworth; American producer Fred Freiberger wanted a more "driving, searing" score for his new action-adventure format. Aside from the new theme music, which was more synthesised than the theme for Year One, Wadsworth also composed original music for the episodes "The Metamorph", "The Exiles", "One Moment of Humanity", "The Taybor", and "Space Warp". Much of this music was reused in other episodes. Other Anderson shows influenced the Space: 1999 spacecraft and elements. The cockpit of the Eagle has a slight resemblance to the cockpit of an earlier Anderson Supermarionation series, Fireball XL5. Thruster and engine sounds were similar to those previously used in Fireball XL5, Thunderbirds, and Captain Scarlet. Lighting effects for Moonbase Alpha were comparable to those from UFO, as well as the concept of the elevating spacecraft launch pad. After almost 30 years, the original Moonbase Alpha model reappeared in the public eye online when a site gained exclusive access to photomap the model and solicit its sale. Series One As the November 1973 start date approached, George Bellak fell out with Gerry Anderson over creative issues and left the production. Story consultant Christopher Penfold acted as head writer, bringing in American writer Edward di Lorenzo and Irish poet Johnny Byrne as script editors. Penfold reworked Bellak's opening episode into a one-hour draft first re-titled "Turning Point", then finalised as "Breakaway". One week before live action filming commenced, Visual Effects Supervisor Brian Johnson and his team began work on the visual effects sequences for the first episode at Bray Studios near Maidenhead, Berkshire on 5 November 1973. For the first six weeks, no usable footage resulted until the team discovered a dragging brake had affected film speed. Studio rehearsals commenced at Elstree Studios near Borehamwood, Hertfordshire on 12 November 1973. During filming of the first episode, it became apparent that the troubled Elstree was under the threat of imminent closure. One weekend, the company secretly relocated sets, props, costumes, etc., to Pinewood Studios at Iver Heath, Buckinghamshire, resulting in a union blacklisting of the production. Scheduled for ten days' filming, "Breakaway" overran an additional fifteen days. Lee Katzin was a perfectionist and demanded take after take of scenes; even coverage of reaction shots of the background extras required running a whole scene from beginning to end. His two-hour director's cut was assembled and sent to ITC New York for a viewing. Abe Mandell was horrified by the finished product. Anderson re-wrote several key scenes and, after three days of re-shoots, re-edited the pilot into a one-hour episode that appeased the fears of ITC. Katzin was not asked back to the programme after the filming of his second episode "Black Sun", which also ran over schedule. Scheduled for a twelve-month shoot, the twenty-four episodes took fifteen months to complete, with the production experiencing a number of difficulties. Britain's mandatory three-day work week in the early months of 1974 and the unplugging of the National Grid during the coal shortages due to industrial unrest of the early 1970s did not delay filming, for Pinewood had its own generators, but it affected film processing because the lab was an off-site contractor. Group Three's commitment to its financial partner, RAI, to include Italian actors in the cast also had to be addressed. Originally, two supporting roles were intended for Italian actors; with the casting of Nick Tate and Zienia Merton in those roles, a solution had to be worked out. Four of the later episodes produced ("The Troubled Spirit", "Space Brain", "Dragon's Domain" and "The Testament of Arkadia") featured Italian guest artists. The necessity to telex story outlines and scripts to New York for approval caused further production delays. The incessant re-writing this brought about eventually caused Christopher Penfold to resign during the shooting of "Space Brain", after completing his writing commitment with the script "Dragon's Domain". In a later interview, Johnny Byrne stated that "one episode they (New York) would ask us to speed things up, forcing us to cut out character development; then the next episode, they asked for more character moments, which would slow down the action; then they would complain there weren't enough pretty girls in another." Years later, Byrne and Penfold would agree that the process they worked under made "good scripts less than they had been" and forced them to waste time re-writing "bad scripts to make them acceptable". Byrne remained until the end of production; his last tasks were writing filler scenes for the desperately short "The Last Enemy" and a re-shoot for the troublesome "Space Brain". The scenes re-mounted for "The Last Enemy" concluded principal photography on 28 February 1975. Countries where the show was sold include France, Italy, Yugoslavia, Poland, Ethiopia, Nigeria, South Africa, Turkey, Iran, Greece, the Netherlands, Belgium, Portugal, Peru, Japan, Malaysia, Canada, Mexico, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan. One of the first previews of the series was in Australia on the Seven Network in July 1975, but the station later split the first series into two seasons. The second season was shown in 1979. Reception Response to the series varied; some critics praised it as a classic, citing the production values and multi-layered storytelling ("Space: 1999 is like Star Trek shot full of methedrine. It is the most flashy, gorgeous sci-fi trip ever to appear on TV..." and "Space: 1999 is a visually stunning, space-age morality play..."); others panned it for poor plotting and wooden acting, especially on the part of Barbara Bain ("the plots and characterisation on Space: 1999 have been primitive..." and "A disappointing collage of wooden characters, boring dialogue and incomprehensible plots..."). Isaac Asimov criticised the scientific accuracy of the series by pointing out that any explosion capable of knocking the Moon out of its orbit would actually blow it apart, and even if it did leave orbit it would take hundreds of thousands of years to reach the nearest star. He also noted that describing Moonbase Alpha as being on the "dark side" of the moon was an error as no part of the Moon is permanently dark. If the far side was meant rather than the dark side, Asimov points out, then the explosion would drive the Moon towards Earth, not away from it. He praised the programme for the accuracy of the representation of movement in the low gravity environment of the Moon, and for its realistic production design. Asimov's responses were based on the pilot episode only. Subsequent episodes (such as "The Black Sun", third in production order, and "Another Time, Another Place", sixth in production order) suggest the Moon reaches the stars by passing through wormholes and hyperspatial tunnels, a plot point made more overt in second-season episodes, notably "The Taybor" and "Space Warp". This issue is left somewhat enigmatic in the first season as episodes involving other planets invariably begin with the Moon having already reached a planet and in the first few episodes of this kind, such as "Matter of Life and Death" and "Missing Link", the episodes actually begin with the Alphans on their way back from a planet, an initial Eagle flight having taken place before the episode even begins. Gerry and Sylvia Anderson were surprised and disappointed that the public (and critics) never granted them the suspension of disbelief given to other science-fiction programmes. The characters seem aware of the apparent implausibility of their situation. In "Black Sun", Victor Bergman asserts the chances of their surviving the explosion which knocked them from orbit are "just about infinite." In "Matter of Life and Death", Koenig remarks "many things have happened since we broke away from our own solar system, unexplainable things." How they survived and are able to travel the Universe seems to be a central mystery to which the Alphans, and the audience, have no concrete answers. Speaking about the show in 2010, Bain reflected: "We had some very good science fiction people as advisors who knew what they were talking about. For instance, they knew that sound up there wouldn't travel, and it would just be quiet up there. But then we wouldn't have a series, so we couldn't do that. There were various considerations that had to be made, but they were based on what is, or what was, known at the time. For all I know now it's out of date. I don't really know." She added that some of the technology on Space: 1999 has come to pass: "We made up a scanning device for Dr Russell. Someone would simply be lying on the floor half dead, and I would [scan them] with this funny little thing that was a prop. I could read all his vital signs. They can pretty much do that [with a medical device] nowadays. There were times that we were playing with props that didn't read anything — I just had a bunch of dialogue to say after. We had the Commlock. All of those things were on the verge of happening anyway. Now we're way past it. When we made it, 1999 seemed so far away." Cancellation and revival Following the completion of the first series, the production team prepared for a second series to commence production in the autumn of 1975. Gerry Anderson had staff writer Johnny Byrne prepare a critical analysis of the first twenty-four episodes, assessing their strengths and weaknesses in order to mount a new and improved second year. Byrne then commenced writing scripts in an improved first-series format: "The Biological Soul", "The Face of Eden", and "Children of the Gods". He engaged British writer Donald James to develop his first-series format story "The Exiles". Director Ray Austin was again contracted as one of the main directors of the show and stayed with the show until leaving to direct in America. The largest stumbling block for the staff had been having all material vetted by ITC's New York office. ITC's compromise was to hire a high-profile American staff writer-producer. At this time, Sylvia Anderson left her role as producer when she and Gerry Anderson formally separated (and subsequently divorced). Fred Freiberger, whom Gerry Anderson had considered for the writing position, was then brought on board to help guide the series as a producer and acted as show-runner. Freiberger had produced the third and final season of Star Trek in 1968–1969 and eight episodes of the first season of The Wild Wild West (including one in which Martin Landau guest-starred) before being dismissed. Immediately after Space: 1999 he would go on to produce what would be the final season of The Six Million Dollar Man. His writing credits included Slattery's People, The Iron Horse, All in the Family, Petrocelli, and Starsky and Hutch. Though Anderson and Grade were satisfied with this choice, Abe Mandell had concerns about why he was unemployed and available at the time. Then ITC Entertainment President Sir Lew Grade abruptly cancelled the series' production in late 1975 when ratings in the United States had dropped during the later autumn months of the year. Grade had already been disappointed by the lack of an American network broadcast sale. Gerry Anderson and Fred Freiberger rallied and pitched the idea of a new series with the addition of an alien character to Moonbase Alpha, who would shake up the dynamic of interaction on the Moonbase and regain viewer interest in the United States. On the strength of Anderson and Freiberger's proposal of adding an alien character from the planet Psychon named Maya, Mandell approved a renewal of the series for a second year. In addition to the alien Maya character, to be played by Catherine Schell, numerous other changes were made for what was branded Year Two. The most visible change was the absence of Professor Bergman (Barry Morse). Morse's departure was due to a salary dispute, but he later claimed that he was glad to leave, and he had told Anderson: "I would rather play with grown-ups for a while." With Morse gone, the role of the boffin on Alpha was filled completely by Maya, whose people's science was far in advance of mankind's. Also, her character was conceived to be able to provide "outside observation of human behaviour" as had been provided by the character of Mr. Spock on Star Trek. Maya shared Spock's logical approach to problem-solving and advanced intelligence, but differed in that she was a charming, fully emotional person. Most importantly, however, her Psychon abilities as a metamorph with the power of "molecular transformation" allowed her to convert herself into any living thing for an hour at a time, were designed to add a certain "wow" factor to the newly revamped series. Maya had an impish sense of humour. When love-interest Tony Verdeschi offered her some of his home-brewed beer, Maya tried it, then turned herself into Mister Hyde. Schell had previously guest-starred as the Servant of the Guardian in the Year One episode "Guardian of Piri". In addition to the cosmetic changes, the characters were "warmed up." Koenig and Russell went from a barely noticeable courtship to a physically passionate, full-fledged romance, in which the devotion ran so deep that they offered to die for each other ("Brian the Brain"). In addition to Bergman, Year One supporting characters Paul Morrow (Prentis Hancock), David Kano (Clifton Jones) and Tanya Alexander (Suzanne Roquette) were also removed from the cast (Paul and Tanya's disappearance is explained in the Powys Media book The Forsaken by John Kenneth Muir). Dr. Bob Mathias (Anton Phillips) was present in the first two Year Two episodes, was mentioned in the third episode, and then also disappeared without a trace. His character was replaced by several recurring physicians. Alan Carter (Nick Tate) was to have been written out of the series, but he had become so popular with fans that he remained. Sandra Benes (Zienia Merton) remained with the series in an on-again off-again association, but the character only appeared in a fraction of the episodes, albeit more prominently in some than in many of those of the first series. Security Chief Tony Verdeschi also joined as a new character, played by Tony Anholt. Verdeschi, who assumed the base's second-in-command role, neither appeared, nor was ever mentioned, in Year One. However, Moonbase Alpha personnel treated Verdeschi as if he had been in their midst since "Breakaway". His character was designed to serve primarily as a secondary male action hero, and became a romantic interest for Maya. No on-screen explanations were offered for the cast changes. One scene in "The Metamorph" mentioning Bergman's death was scripted and filmed, but cut from the final edit. The Moonbase Alpha Technical Manual produced by Starlog magazine picks up this explanation, stating Bergman died due to a faulty spacesuit per the scripted scene. Likewise, it was mentioned in this publication that Morrow and Kano had died in an Eagle crash between seasons, and explained that Dr. Mathias, supposedly Alpha's psychiatrist (although he seems to be more Russell's assistant) was on sabbatical doing research. Fred Freiberger felt that these characters were one-dimensional and had no fan support; he told Nick Tate that the audience would not remember them and that, as far as he was concerned, they were just "somewhere else" on Alpha, lost in the crowd of three hundred other people. Freiberger failed to appreciate the value of the supporting characters to the show and its fans. Other changes included the main titles and theme music. Year One's opening montage of events from "Breakaway" and the episode about to unfold was dropped in favour of a special-effects sequence depicting the Moon being blown out of orbit into space. With Morse gone, Schell was featured in his place as a regular alongside Landau and Bain, and all three were depicted in action-oriented images as opposed to the mannequin-like stances Landau and Bain had assumed in the Year One main titles. New series composer Derek Wadsworth's new theme dropped Barry Gray's alternation between stately, orchestral passages and funky rhythmic ones in favour of a more consistently contemporary piece. Rudi Gernreich's minimalist costume was considerably modified from the original unisex design to include an optional skirt and leather boots for women and much more detail work on the tunic portion, including turtleneck collars, coloured stitching, patches and photo-ID badges. In addition, colourful jackets (generally red, blue or green) became part of most characters' ensembles. The expansive "Main Mission" set, with its balcony and windows revealing the lunar surface, was replaced by a more compact "Command Center" (they used the American spelling on the set), supposedly deep underground (again, this change was explained in the Year Two Writers' Bible and Technical Manual as necessary for security, but never explained onscreen). Medical Centre, Generator Section, Life Support and the Alphans' living quarters became smaller, while the interior of the Eagle command module was updated with additional buttons, flashing lights and television monitors, while the Eagle also lost a section of corridor (the galley/storage area) between the passenger module and the cockpit. (This was to accommodate its placement on Pinewood Soundstage "L", with the other standing Alpha sets; the Eagle was permanently affixed to the boarding tube/travel tube set and jammed between the travel-tube reception area and the Medical Centre.) The sombre mood created in Year One by the effective use of light and shadow in the filming of Moonbase Alpha interiors was abandoned in favour of a generally brighter cinematography, and even the lettering used in signage and costuming—most noticeable on spacesuits and Eagle Transporter doors—changed to a simpler, less futuristic style. Production Designer Keith Wilson stated in an interview in Destination: Moonbase Alpha that he was always being ordered by Producer Fred Freiberger to make sets smaller, taking away the expansive (and expensive) look of the first series' interiors. Freiberger was very budget-conscious and, despite press releases to the contrary, the production team was working with less money this series. If there had been a budget increase, the 'stagflation' economy of the 1970s would have cancelled it out. When interviewed, many of the actors state they were asked to accept less money, including Landau and Bain (who were the only ones with enough clout to be able to refuse). Freiberger emphasised action-adventure in Year Two stories to the exclusion of metaphysical themes explored in Year One. Of Year One, he commented, "They were doing the show as an English show, where there was no story, with the people standing around and talking. In the first show I did, I stressed action as well as character development, along with strong story content, to prove that 1999 could stand up to the American concept of what an action-adventure show should be." Since Year One was quite serious in tone, one of Freiberger's ways to accomplish this objective was to inject humour into Year Two stories whenever possible, but much of it seemed to the more vocal fans to be forced, especially at the conclusion of an episode, where the Alphans were seen as jovial and light-hearted despite whatever violent or tragic events might have previously befallen them. Freiberger had appropriated this approach from Star Trek; the endings of many of that show's episodes featured an upbeat discussion among the cast of the lessons learned during the episode and closing on a joke; this approach was copied for Space: 1999 with Koenig, Verdeschi, Russell, Carter and Maya enjoying a laugh in the Command Center. Given Landau's intensity and the brooding nature of the Koenig character, the approach did not fit the series. Members of the Space: 1999 cast were disenchanted with the scripts. Martin Landau: "They changed it because a bunch of American minds got into the act and they decided to do many things they felt were commercial. Fred Freiberger helped in some respects, but, overall, I don't think he helped the show, I think he brought a much more ordinary, mundane approach to the series." One particular episode ('All That Glisters', which dealt with the threat of an intelligent rock) was of such allegedly deficient quality that it sparked a confrontation between Freiberger and the cast. Landau disliked the story so strongly that he wrote the following notes on his copy of the script: "All the credibility we're building up is totally forsaken in this script."; "...Story is told poorly."; and "The character of Koenig takes a terrible beating in this script — We're all schmucks." Anholt revealed that, "the more the cast complained about a script's flaws, the more intractable and unyielding Freiberger became." Dissatisfaction on Landau's part about scripts was not new to Year Two, though. Sylvia Anderson remembered that he often voiced criticisms of scripts during production of the first series. Series Two With the last-minute renewal from Grade, the production team hit the ground running for Series Two. Johnny Byrne's script "The Biological Soul", involving the Alphans' encounter with the unstable Mentor of the planet Psychon and his biological computer Psyche, was rewritten to include the new character Maya and the rest of the format changes; the episode produced from this script was retitled "The Metamorph". Production began on 26 January 1976 and was scheduled to last a mere ten months for all episodes. To fulfil the scheduling requirement and cut production costs, Freiberger used the "double-up script" solution. During "double-up" instalments, two first-unit production teams would film two episodes simultaneously. Landau and some of the supporting cast would be given expanded roles and would film an episode on location or on sets constructed for that story in Pinewood's Soundstage "M", while Bain and the remaining supporting cast (also in expanded roles) would film their episode in the standing Alpha sets on Soundstage "L". Landau and Bain would then be given minor roles in the opposing episodes. This measure was used to complete eight stories as four pairs: "The Rules of Luton" and "The Mark of Archanon"; "The AB Chrysalis" and "Catacombs of the Moon"; "A Matter of Balance" and "Space Warp"; "Devil's Planet" and "Dorzak". A ninth episode, "The Beta Cloud", was intentionally scripted with only one day's worth of work for Landau and Bain to allow their planned holiday to the French Riviera not to delay the series' production; the four supporting cast members (Schell, Anholt, Tate and Merton) were the recipients of much greater than usual exposure. Relations between new producer Freiberger and the Year One veterans were strained. Landau complained about stories he felt were lightweight or absurd when compared to the previous year's efforts. He wrote on the cover of one script: "I'm not going out on a limb for this show because I'm not in accord with what you're [Freiberger] doing as a result ... etc. I don't think I even want to do the promos—I don't want to push the show any more as I have in the past. It's not my idea of what the show should be. It's embarrassing to me if I am not the star of it and in the way I feel it should be. This year should be more important to it, not less important to it ... I might as well work less hard in all of them." Johnny Byrne said that Freiberger was a good man and good producer, but not good for Space: 1999. He had gotten them a second year after the cancellation, but the changes he made did not benefit the show. Principal photography came to an end on 23 December 1976 with "The Dorcons". An article regarding a third series was printed in the trade papers: "Now entrenched in its successful second season boom, ITC is looking forward to a third season with more fantastic events and additions, although mum's the word at the studio. They will only say that Maya and Miss Schell will be kept in and that the budget may be raised again, but that's all until final preparations and an official announcement are made." Unmade Series Three The producers and studio intended to continue the show with a third season. This was to be shorter than the previous two, with 13 episodes, for budget reasons. Maya was considered to be a successful character, and the producers began grooming her for a spinoff show that would run concurrently with the third series of Space: 1999. Had this project gone ahead, Maya would have been absent from Space: 1999. The "Maya" series was also intended to run for 13 episodes a year. As filming on Year Two came to its conclusion, it became apparent that there would be no third season, and the series ended with the episode "The Dorcons". The Maya spin-off was also abandoned. Compilation films Following the series' cancellation, four feature-length films were compiled from various episodes for syndication and foreign theatrical release: Destination Moonbase Alpha (1978), Alien Attack (1979), Journey Through the Black Sun (1982), and Cosmic Princess (1982). Alien Attack, though the second of these films to be released, was an expansion of the show's pilot episode. Most contained new footage (Alien Attack, for example, included new scenes set on Earth, though not involving the TV cast). The background of the series was retconned, with the events now stated to having taken place in the year 2100 A.D. rather than 1999. A compilation film was also produced in Italy, titled "Spazio 1999" (the series's Italian-language title) to launch the series. It was released on 14 January 1975, a year before the series was broadcast in the country, and compiled scenes from the episodes "Breakaway", "Ring Around the Moon" and "Another Time, Another Place", accompanied by scores from noted soundtrack composer Ennio Morricone. Broadcast history United Kingdom The series premiered in September 1975, on the ITV network but was not broadcast nationally at the same time (this remained the case until a repeat airing on BBC Two in 1998). Most ITV regions (including Yorkshire, Grampian, Ulster, Scottish, Border, ATV, and Tyne Tees) premiered the series on Thursday, 4 September 1975 in a 7.00pm slot. London Weekend Television (LWT) and Anglia screened the first episode two days later on Saturday, 6 September at 5.50pm. The Granada region began showing the series on Friday, 26 September 1975, initially at 7.35pm before moving to 6.35pm a few weeks later. The HTV region did not begin showing the series until October 1975, again in an early Friday evening slot. However, within a few weeks, various stations had moved the series elsewhere in their schedules. The second series premiered on LWT in a non-prime-time slot on Saturday 4 September 1976 at 11.30am, with ATV following on just a few hours later at 5.40pm. Granada, Westward and Ulster started to screen the series in early 1977, Grampian, and Tyne Tees did not screen the series until later in the year. STV started to screen the series on 9 April 1978 on Sunday afternoons. HTV did not pick the series up until 1984 and then only showed nineteen out of the twenty-four episodes from Year Two (the last episodes were not screened in Wales until the series was repeated in the 1990s). Southern Television was the other ITV region known not to have broadcast series two. Even its successor broadcaster, Television South, failed to screen any series two episodes when Space: 1999 was reshown in other ITV regions between 1982 and 1985. United States In the United States, efforts to sell the series to one of the three networks for the 1974–75 or 1975–76 television seasons failed. The networks were uninterested in a project over which they had no creative control, being presented with the accomplished fact of twenty-four completed episodes. Abe Mandell of ITC had secured a handshake agreement with a network executive in 1974, but after the man's termination, all his projects were abandoned. Undaunted, Mandell created what he called his own Space: 1999 Network and sold the completed program into first-run syndication directly to local stations. Much of the publicity mentioned the then-staggering three million pound budget: as a part of the American promotion effort, a glossy magazine-sized brochure was produced, touting Space: 1999 as the Six-and-a-Half Million Dollar Series (an allusion to the then-popular American programme The Six Million Dollar Man) featuring American stars, American writers and American directors. In the months leading to the beginning of the fall (autumn) 1975 television season Landau and Bain participated in special preview screenings in select cities. Landau is said to have personally contacted editors of TV Guide magazine in some markets to secure coverage of Space: 1999 in its pages upon learning of ITC's somewhat poor promotional efforts. While most of the U.S. stations that aired Space: 1999 were independent (such as the Chicago station WGN-TV, Louisville station WDRB-TV, Los Angeles station KHJ-TV, and New York City's WPIX-TV), a handful were affiliated with the major networks (such as Charlotte, North Carolina's WSOC-TV, at the time a strong NBC affiliate, and Fresno's KFSN-TV, at the time a CBS affiliate) and sometimes pre-empted regular network programming to show episodes of the series. Most U.S. stations broadcast episodes in the weekday evening hour just before prime time or on weekends. ABC affiliate WCVB in Boston, as well as NBC affiliate KPRC in Houston both aired the first season in prime time, bumping the network shows to other time slots. Footage of a spacecraft flying over Moonbase Alpha from the Season 1 episode "The Last Enemy" was later reused to depict a future civilisation in the Wonder Woman episode "Time Bomb," first broadcast on 10 November 1978. In August 2018, Comet announced it would be airing both seasons of the original series beginning in September. Canada In Canada, CBC Television was the broadcaster of Space: 1999 from 1975 into the 1980s. The first season in 1975–76 was shown regionally on some CBC owned-and-operated stations, the airtime varying. With the start of the second season in September 1976, CBC Television upgraded Space: 1999 to full-network status, airing it Saturdays on all CBC owned-and-operated stations, with affiliated, privately owned stations also offering the show on Saturdays. Most of the country saw Space: 1999 at 5 p.m. on Saturdays, a notable exception being the Atlantic Provinces in which it was broadcast at 6 or 6:30 p.m. or – as was the case in the summers – sometime earlier in the afternoon to accommodate live sports coverage, the airing of which crossed into or totally over the usual Space: 1999 airtime. After the 1976–77 broadcast year (in which second-season episodes were run and rerun), the show's ratings were sufficiently high for CBC Television to give the first season a full-network airing – and with further repeats – from 1977 to 1978. The French-language CBC Television, Radio-Canada, showed Cosmos: 1999 several times (both seasons) between 1975 and 1980, first on Mondays (1975–1976), then on Saturdays (1976–1977), then on Mondays (1979), and finally on Wednesdays (1979–1980). The series fared admirably on CBC Television in Canada, airing in English in a family viewing period, late Saturday afternoons before hockey broadcasts, with a mostly un-disrupted run and rerun of all 24 episodes from September 1976 through September 1977. The French version was also broadcast, in early evening on Saturdays. Ratings were sufficient for a full additional year's transmission of Year One in the English CBC Saturday programming slot in 1977 and 1978. Episodes of both Year One and Year Two were repeated regionally in Canada in English and French through the early-to-mid-1980s. YTV Canada broadcast both seasons with reportedly good ratings from 1990 to 1992, in a late Saturday afternoon airtime closely matching that of the CBC English network in the 1970s. The full-network English CBC airing began with the series opener, "Breakaway", on 11 September 1976, then "The Metamorph", the Year Two opener, on 18 September. "The Exiles", "Journey to Where", "The Taybor", and "New Adam, New Eve" followed respectively in the subsequent weeks. Next were "The Mark of Archanon", "Brian the Brain", "The Rules of Luton", "The AB Chrysalis", "Catacombs of the Moon", and "Seed of Destruction". "Seed of Destruction" aired on 27 November, and then with December there came a month of repeats. And after a pre-emption for New Year's Day sports, new episodes resumed airing on 8 January 1977 with "A Matter of Balance", followed by "The Beta Cloud", "One Moment of Humanity", "The Lambda Factor", "All That Glisters", and "The Seance Spectre". The two-part episode, "The Bringers of Wonder", was shown on 19 and 26 February. And then "Dorzak", "The Immunity Syndrome", "Devil's Planet", and "The Dorcons" followed in March. "Space Warp" would not be shown until 21 May, after many weeks of repeats. By 10 September 1977, except for "The Exiles", all of the second-season episodes had been repeated. And thereafter, a 1977–1978 run of first-season episodes began with "War Games" on 17 September. Elsewhere It was shown in Italy as Spazio 1999; Argentina, Uruguay, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, francophone Canada, and France as Cosmos: 1999; Denmark as Månebase Alpha; Brazil and Portugal as Espaço: 1999; Germany as Mondbasis Alpha 1; Sweden as Månbas Alpha; Poland as Kosmos 1999 (1977–1979); Finland as Avaruusasema Alfa; Greece as Διάστημα 1999; Hungary as Alfa Holdbázis; Spain, Chile, Venezuela, and Colombia as Espacio: 1999; Mexico as Odisea 1999; Iran as 1999:فضا; Turkey as Uzay 1999, and South Africa as Alpha 1999 (1976, dubbed into Afrikaans). The series was also broadcast in the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand and Australia. In Finland the first season was originally aired by the commercial MTV (Mainostelevisio) channel in 1976, but it was withdrawn after couple of episodes on demand of the national programme board as the show was considered too brutal and horrifying. The same thing happened when MTV tried to air the second season in 1978. The complete show wasn't seen in Finland until 1996–1997 when a small local channel, TV-Tampere, aired it. Since then it aired on TVTV! in 2000 and 2001, and later on MTV3 Scifi in 2008. Fan and critic responses to the new series varied. Some missed the mystical plotlines, feature-film ambiance and the "British-ness" of the first series. Others said they enjoyed the new characters, down-to-earth characterisations and action. Comparisons with Star Trek were used by both camps to show how the series had been either saved or destroyed by the format change. Reviewing the show as a whole, science fiction historian John Clute described Space: 1999 as "visually splendid" but criticised what he regarded as the show's "mediocre acting" and "rotten scripts". Message from Moonbase Alpha Filmed on 29 August 1999, Message from Moonbase Alpha is a fan-produced mini-episode made with the co-operation and involvement of Space: 1999 script editor Johnny Byrne, who penned the script. Filmed inside a private house on a working replica of a small section of the Main Mission set and utilising the original prop of Koenig's Command Center desk and Sandra Benes's original Year Two Alpha uniform, the short film was first shown at the Space: 1999 Breakaway Convention in Los Angeles, California on 13 September 1999—the day the events in episode 1 of the series were supposed to take place. With the permission of (then) copyright owners Carlton Media International, the film includes brief clips from seven episodes to illustrate the deserted Moonbase Alpha and the Alphans' exodus to planet Terra Alpha. Previously unused footage shot for the Year Two title sequence and "The Last Enemy" was used to create a sequence showing the Moon being affected by a gravitational disturbance and thrown into an unknown solar system. Short excerpts from 12 other episodes appeared in a montage as Sandra Benes recalls her life on Alpha. The seven-minute film features Zienia Merton reprising her role as Sandra Benes delivering a final message to Earth as the only crew member left on Moonbase Alpha while a massive exodus to a habitable planet, Terra Alpha, takes place with the rest of the crew. The evacuation was also necessitated by the degradation and decay of Alpha's life support systems. This basically gave the series the conclusion that it never had in its initial run. Taking place twenty five years after the events of "Breakaway", Commander Koenig and Maya are mentioned during Sandra's message. It concludes with the termination of the message as Sandra closes down Alpha's operational systems and transmits the message- which turns out to be the mysterious signal received shortly before the events of "Breakaway". Modified versions of Message from Moonbase Alpha are available on DVD bonus discs in the U.S., Canada, France and Italy. The original version appears as a bonus feature on the Space: 1999/UFO – The Documentaries DVD produced by Fanderson. Revival attempts and audio dramas Around the same time Message from Moonbase Alpha was being filmed, Johnny Byrne and Christopher Penfold attempted to revive the franchise as a movie series, similar to the way Star Trek had been revived cinematically in the late 1970s. The first film would have picked up the story several years after the series ended, and would have featured a heavily redesigned Moonbase Alpha. Ultimately, the project failed. In February 2012, a new series, to be called Space: 2099, was announced as a reboot of the original series and was planned to be made by ITV Studios America in conjunction with HD Films. On 15 August 2018, Brian Johnson, special effects director for the original series, announced that the reboot was on track for production in the UK, pending "confirmation of the deal". Big Finish series On 12 August 2019, Anderson Entertainment announced that they would collaborate with Big Finish to create an audio drama reboot of Space: 1999 starring Mark Bonnar as John Koenig, Maria Teresa Creasey as Doctor Helena Russell, Timothy Bentinck as Commissioner Simmons and Clive Hayward as Victor Bergman. Jules de Jongh who previously portrayed Lieutenant Green in New Captain Scarlet portrays Petra Nordstorm. The first story "Breakaway", was adapted by Nicholas Briggs who previously reimagined The Prisoner and also acts as director. The story was released in September 2019. Big Finish revealed that an additional box set would follow, with the full cast to be announced. On 17 July 2020, Big Finish announced a boxset consisting of three stories. Mark Bonnar, Maria Teresa Creasey, Tim Bentinck, Clive Hayward, Glen McCready, Susan Hingley and Amaka Okafor reprise their roles with Anthony Howell, Chris Jarman and Nicholas Asbury joining. Home video releases United Kingdom In the early 1980s, and due to the booming home video rental market, the four compilation films were released on the VHS format. The series, in its original form, was released on home video in the 1990s, with each cassette (or "volume") featuring two episodes. In 2001, it was released on DVD in the UK by Carlton Media, both in single disc volumes (each volume contained four episodes) and also as two complete season boxed sets (titled as "Year One" and "Year Two") comprising six discs each. Each DVD also contained various extra features, including a variety of archive production material, memorabilia, and interviews with the cast and crew from the time the series was being made. In 2005, Network re-issued Year One in the UK as a Special Edition seven-DVD box set. For this release, to coincide with the series' 30th Anniversary, each episode was digitally restored by creating new 35 mm film elements (a new interpositive made from the original negative which is then used to make further copies). High Definition digital transfers were then made from the interpositives using a state-of-the-art Philips Spirit DataCine. This vastly improved the picture quality in comparison to the previous DVD releases. However, the restoration process has actually made some of the space scenes (that involve special effects and model work) less realistic due to increased brightness and contrast. This box set also included two booklets and a new set of extra features that were not on the Carlton DVD releases, including featurettes on "Concept & Creation" and "Special Effects & Design" (edited from an earlier "Fanderson" documentary made in 1996), textless and alternative opening and closing title sequences, a two-part Clapperboard special on Gerry Anderson from 1975, and also a brand new 70-minute documentary entitled "These Episodes" in which Anderson, Christopher Penfold, Johnny Byrne, Zienia Merton and David Lane reflect on the making of key episodes from the first series. Network released Year One on Blu-ray in the UK on 1 November 2010, and simultaneously re-released their Special Edition DVD box set of Year One with new cover artwork at the same time. The Blu-ray set includes all of the extras on the 2005 Network DVD release as well as some of the extras that were on the 2001 Carlton DVD release (including a Lyons Maid ice-lolly commercial, and an SFX segment from the British documentary series Horizon). It also includes several new extras including a "Memories of Space" featurette, a Sylvia Anderson interview (in which she frankly discusses the series and her thoughts about Landau and Bain), an expanded version of the "These Episodes" documentary from the DVD set, several PDF files containing scripts and annuals, an extensive set of photo galleries with hundreds of stills, and the first episode of Year Two, "The Metamorph", in digitally restored hi-definition. Network DVD began a similar restoration process for Year Two in 2007. However, progress was slow due to higher production costs in comparison to remastering Year One. (The audio for Year One had already been digitised prior to Network's restoration, but Year Two's had not). In late 2014, Network finally announced that Year Two would be released in 2015. As part of this announcement, Network released a limited edition (of 1999 copies) of a special preview disc of the two-part story "The Bringers of Wonder" on 8 December 2014. This release also contains a restored version of the feature length Destination: Moonbase Alpha film. The remastered Year Two was eventually released on Blu-ray and DVD in September 2015, to coincide with the series' 40th Anniversary. Again containing a wealth of extra features, the sets include galleries, vintage interviews, a blooper, behind the scenes footage, original source audio recordings, scripts and annuals PDF files, a stock footage archive, a textless opening title sequence, trailers and promos, "music only" options for all episodes, a stop-motion fan film from 1979, and a specially re-edited/rescored version of the episode "Seed of Destruction" as if it were made for Year One. United States The first releases on American home video were in the VHS in the mid-1980s and consisted of the theatrical compilation films (see above). A&E Home Video (under licence from Carlton International Media Limited) has released the entire series on DVD in Region 1. It was initially released in 8 sets with 6 episodes each in 2001 and 2002. On 24 September 2002, a 16-disc "Mega Set" box set featuring all 48 complete, uncut, original broadcast episodes of the series was released. On 31 July 2007, A&E released Space: 1999 – Complete Series, 30th Anniversary Edition. This is essentially the same as the 2002 "mega set" release (and does not use the 2005 hi-def remasters), but does includes a special bonus disc full of extra features. Year One was released on Blu-ray in the U.S. on 2 November 2010 by A&E Home Entertainment, with new High-Definition restored transfers and a newly remastered 5.1 DTS-HD MA surround sound re-mix. In July 2019 Shout Factory released both seasons of Space:1999 on Blu-ray using restored and remastered HD transfers and remastered 5.1 DTS-HD MA surround sound re-mix. Other media The series has been translated into other media. Originally, all the episodes had been adapted in novelisations, except for "Earthbound" and "The Taybor" (from Year Two). The authors of these works wrote a number of original stories and have since written new stories and novels which were published after 1999. As well, the original authors participated in the revised versions of their original novels. At the time of the series' original run, several comic book series were published and, in the US, a series of audio adaptations were recorded on record albums with the younger audience in mind. After 1999, many of these original comic book stories were revised and reprinted along with new stories. See the list above. Mattel created a line of Space: 1999 toys to tie into the TV series, including the Eagle 1 Spaceship. Released in 1976, the Eagle 1 is over 2.5-feet long and a foot wide. The Eagle 1 is made mostly of moulded plastic and has a number of parts and accessories. See also References Bibliography Further reading Keazor, Henry (2012). "A Stumble in the Dark: Contextualizing Gerry and Sylvia Anderson´s Space: 1999", in: Alexander C.T. Geppert (ed.), Imagining Outer Space. European Astroculture in the Twentieth Century, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke 2012, p. 189–207. External links Eagle Transporter – visual reference resource for Space: 1999 Eagle Transporter models and replicas 1970s British science fiction television series 1975 British television series debuts 1977 British television series endings British television series revived after cancellation Charlton Comics titles English-language television shows First-run syndicated television programs in the United States Space adventure television series Television series about extraterrestrial life Television series about the Moon Television series by ITC Entertainment Television series produced at Pinewood Studios Television series set in 1999 Television series set in the future Television series set on fictional planets Television shows adapted into comics

263345

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAD

RAD

RAD or Rad may refer to: People Robert Anthony Rad Dougall (born 1951), South African former racing driver Rad Hourani, Canadian fashion designer and artist Nickname of Leonardus Rad Kortenhorst (1886–1963), Dutch politician Radley Rad Martinez (born 1978), American retired mixed martial artist "Rad", nickname of Sydney Valpy Radley-Walters (1920–2015), Canadian Army officer, top western Allied tank ace of the Second World War Rad Radford, a ring name of American former professional wrestler Louis Mucciolo Jr. (1971–1998) Jahon Rad (born 2001), American soccer player, twin brother of Kaveh Rad Jovana Rad (born 1987), Serbian basketball player Kaveh Rad (born 2001), American soccer player, twin brother of Jahon Rad Taras Rad (born 1999), Ukrainian Paralympic cross-country skier and biathlete Arts and entertainment Rad (film), a 1986 release about a young BMX rider Rad (comics), a villain in AC Comics's "Femforce" Rad Spencer, protagonist of the Bionic Commando video game series Bradley "Rad" White, a character in the Transformers Unicron Trilogy, voiced by Kirby Morrow Rad (My-Otome), a fictional manga character Rad (video game), a roguelike video game Acronym RAD Game Tools, a video game development tools provider Radiation assessment detector, a scientific instrument on board the Curiosity rover Rapid application development, of software Rational Application Developer, an IBM IDE Reactive attachment disorder, an emotional disorder Reflex anal dilation, a controversial diagnostic technique Allegheny Regional Asset District, Pennsylvania, United States Reich Labour Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst; RAD), a major World War II German organization Relative abundance distribution, a measure of biodiversity Rental Assistance Demonstration, an American federal public housing program Researchers Alliance for Development, a World Bank multidisciplinary network of researchers Restriction site associated DNA markers, a genetic mapping technique Rezvani Automotive Designs, American performance car manufacturer Right axis deviation, a heart condition Royal Academy of Dance, UK Royal Association for Deaf people, British charity Rules for Archival Description, the Canadian archival descriptive standard Other uses Rad (unit), a unit of absorbed radiation dose, largely used in the United States Rád, a village in Pest county, Hungary Rad (village), in Trebišov District, Slovakia RAD Data Communications, a manufacturer of communications access solutions Rad Aviation, a defunct British microlight aircraft manufacturer Rad (journal), the oldest publication of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts Rad (rune) (ᚱ), a rune of the Anglo-Saxon fuþorc and continuation of the Elder Fuþark raido Radian, a unit of angle Radical of an integer, the mathematical operator, denoted rad(n) FK Rad, a Serbian football club Rite Aid, New York Stock Exchange stock symbol RAD Radley railway station, England; National Rail station code RAD .rad scene-description file format, for Radiance (software) Short for radiator, a heating device See also Gerhard von Rad (1901–1971), German Old Testament scholar, Lutheran theologian, exegete and professor rad. (disambiguation) Rads (disambiguation) Lists of people by nickname

263348

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola%20Furlong

Nicola Furlong

Nicola Furlong is a Canadian novelist who lives in Sidney, British Columbia. Works Teed Off! - 1996 A Hemorrhaging of Souls - 1998 The Nervous Nephew - 2000 The Angel's Secret - 2001 The Unsuitable Suitor - 2001 No Safe Arbor - 2001 References Canadian women novelists Living people 20th-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian novelists Writers from British Columbia Year of birth missing (living people) Place of birth missing (living people) 20th-century Canadian women writers 21st-century Canadian women writers

263349

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator

Imperator

The Latin word "imperator" derives from the stem of the verb , meaning 'to order, to command'. It was originally employed as a title roughly equivalent to commander under the Roman Republic. Later it became a part of the titulature of the Roman Emperors as part of their cognomen. The English word emperor derives from imperator via . The Roman emperors themselves generally based their authority on multiple titles and positions, rather than preferring any single title. Nevertheless, imperator was used relatively consistently as an element of a Roman ruler's title throughout the principate and the dominate. Imperatores in the ancient Roman Kingdom When Rome was ruled by kings, to be able to rule, the king had to be invested with the full regal authority and power. So, after the comitia curiata, held to elect the king, the king also had to be conferred the imperium. Imperatores in the Roman Republic In Roman Republican literature and epigraphy, an imperator was a magistrate with imperium. But also, mainly in the later Roman Republic and during the late Republican civil wars, imperator was the honorific title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commander imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. After being acclaimed imperator, the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, where he would relinquish the title as well as his imperium. Since a triumph was the goal of many politically ambitious Roman commanders, Roman Republican history is full of cases where legions were bribed to call their commander imperator. The title of imperator was given in 90 BC to Lucius Julius Caesar, in 84 BC to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, in 60 BC to Gaius Julius Caesar, relative of the previously mentioned Lucius Julius Caesar, in the 50s to Gaius Julius Caesar (in Gaul), in 45 BC again to Gaius Julius Caesar, in 43 BC to Decimus Junius Brutus, and in 41 BC to Lucius Antonius (younger brother and ally of the more famous Marcus Antonius). In 15 AD Germanicus was also imperator during the empire (see below) of his adoptive father Tiberius. Imperator as an imperial title After Augustus established the Roman Empire, the title imperator was generally restricted to the emperor, though in the early years of the empire it would occasionally be granted to a member of his family. As a permanent title, imperator was used as a praenomen by the Roman emperors and was taken on accession. After the reign of Tiberius, the act of being proclaimed imperator was transformed into the act of imperial accession. In fact, if a general was acclaimed by his troops as imperator, it would be tantamount to a declaration of rebellion against the ruling emperor. At first the term continued to be used in the Republican sense as a victory title but attached to the de facto monarch and head of state, rather than the actual military commander. The title followed the emperor's name along with the number of times he was acclaimed as such, for example IMP V ("imperator five times"). In time it became the title of the de facto monarch, pronounced upon (and synonymous with) their assumption. As a title imperator was generally translated into Greek as autokrator ("one who rules himself," also sometimes used as a translation for Roman dictators.) This was necessarily imprecise as it lost the nuances of Latin political thought contrasting imperium with other forms of public authority. Nevertheless, this title (along with sebastos for augustus) was used in Greek-language texts for Roman emperors from the establishment of the empire. In the east, the title continued to be used into the Byzantine period, though to a lesser, and much more ceremonial, extent. In most Byzantine writings, the Greek translation "Autokrator" is preferred, but "Imperator" makes an appearance in Constantine IV's mid 7th century mosaic in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, and on various 9th century lead seals. Post-Roman use After the Roman empire collapsed in the West in the 5th century, Latin continued to be used as the language of learning and diplomacy for some centuries. The Roman emperors of this period (referred to by modern historians as the Byzantine emperors) were referred to as imperatores in Latin texts, while the word basileus (king) was used in Greek. After 800, the imperator was used (in conjunction with augustus) as a formal Latin title in succession by the Carolingian and German Holy Roman Emperors until 1806 and by the Austrian Emperors until 1918. In medieval Spain, the title imperator was used under a variety of circumstances from the ninth century onwards, but its usage peaked, as a formal and practical title, between 1086 and 1157. It was primarily used by the Kings of León and Castile, but it also found currency in the Kingdom of Navarre and was employed by the Counts of Castile and at least one Duke of Galicia. It signalled at various points the king's equality with the Byzantine Emperor and Holy Roman Emperor, his rule by conquest or military superiority, his rule over several people groups ethnic or religious, and his claim to suzerainty over the other kings of the peninsula, both Christian and Muslim. Beginning in 1077 Alfonso instituted the use of the style ego Adefonsus imperator totius Hispaniae ("I, Alfonso, emperor of all Spain") and its use soon became regular. This title was used throughout the period 1079–81, which represents the peak of his imperial pretensions before his capture of the city of Toledo, ancient capital of the Visigoths. In 1080 he introduced the form ego Adefonsus Hispaniarum imperator ("I, Alfonso, emperor of the Spains"), which he used again in 1090. His most elaborate imperial title was ego Adefonsus imperator totius Castelle et Toleto necnon et Nazare seu Alave ("I, Alfonso, emperor of all Castile and of Toledo also and of Nájera, or Álava"). After the Ottoman Empire conquered both the Balkan peninsula (Rumeli in Turkish meaning "lands of Rome") and Constantinople, the Turkish ruler acclaimed himself Caesar of Rome (sultan-ı iklim-i Rûm). In the 15th century Bayezid II established diplomatic relations with some Christian European states, and sent a document to the King of Poland in which he used the titles Sultan Dei gratia Asie, Grecie etc. İmperator Maximus ("with help of God, emperor of Asia and Greece"). Like his predecessor, Selim I titled himself imperator in diplomatic correspondence (per la Divina favente clementia Grande Imperator di Constantinopoli, di Asia, Europa, Persia, Soria et Egipto et Arabia et de li mari etc.) due to his military successes. Imperatrix The term imperatrix seems not to have been used in Ancient Rome to indicate the consort of an imperator or later of an Emperor. In the early years of the Roman Empire there was no standard title or honorific for the Emperor's wife, even the "Augusta" honorific was rather exceptionally granted, and not exclusively to wives of living emperors. It is not clear when the feminine form of the Latin term imperator originated or was used for the first time. It usually indicates a reigning monarch, and is thus used in the Latin version of titles of modern reigning Empresses. Likewise, when Fortuna is qualified "imperatrix mundi" in the Carmina Burana there's no implication of any type of consort — the term describes (the Goddess or personified) Fortune "ruling the world". In Christian context, Imperatrix became a laudatory address to the Virgin Mary, in diverse forms at least since the Middle Ages — for example, she is sometimes called "Imperatrix angelorum" ("ruler of the angels"). Derivatives Imperator is the root of most Romance languages's word for emperor. It is the root of the English word "emperor", which entered the language via the French empereur, while related adjectives like "imperial" were imported into English directly from Latin. References Bibliography 489 p. 514 p. (Biblioteca virtual at http://ifc.dpz.es). Ancient Roman titles Military ranks of ancient Rome Military awards and decorations of ancient Rome Latin political words and phrases

263351

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union%20Banking%20Corporation

Union Banking Corporation

The Union Banking Corporation (UBC) was a banking corporation in the US. Founding member and one of its seven directors was Prescott Bush. The banks assets were seized by the United States government on October 20, 1942, during World War II under the U.S. Trading with the Enemy Act and Executive Order No. 9095. Seizure According to an October 5, 1942, report from the Office of Alien Property Custodian, Union Banking was owned by Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart N.V., a Dutch bank. The memo from August 18, 1941, states "My investigation produced no evidence as to the ownership of this Dutch bank." The Dutch bank was alleged to be affiliated with United Steel Works, a German company. Fritz Thyssen and his brother, Heinrich Thyssen-Bornemisza, had the Dutch bank and the steel firm as part of their business and financial empire according to the government agency. Fritz Thyssen resigned from the Council of State after November 9, 1938 Kristallnacht, was arrested in 1940, and spent the remainder of the war in a sanatorium and in concentration camps. The APC documents say "Whether any or all part of the funds held by Union Banking Corporation, or companies associated with it, belong to Fritz Thyssen could not be established in this investigation." The assets were held by the government for the duration of the war, then returned afterward; UBC dissolved in the 1950s. See also War seizures Nazi assets References Defunct banks of the United States Banks established in 1924 1924 establishments in New York (state) 1950s disestablishments in the United States Banks disestablished in the 1950s American companies established in 1924

263354

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Anholt

Tony Anholt

Anthony Anholt (19 January 1941 – 26 July 2002) was a British television actor, known for his role as Charles Frere in the BBC drama series Howards' Way (1985–90). In 1974 he was cast as Mark Colebrook, a crooked architect in Contact Breaker the 12th episode of the first series of the police drama, The Sweeney. Anholt appeared in an episode of Juliet Bravo in 1984 as Martin Lee. His other appearances include Gerry Anderson's Space: 1999 (1976–77) playing the role of Security Chief Tony Verdeschi in the second series, and The Protectors (1972–74) as Paul Buchet. His only credited film role was as an FBI agent in Fear Is the Key in 1972; he also made appearances in the 1984 miniseries The Last Days of Pompeii and as small time crook Abdul, in the Only Fools and Horses episode To Hull and Back. He died after a long illness caused by a brain tumour on 26th July, 2002. Biography Anholt was born in Singapore to an Anglo-Dutch family. They moved to Australia before the end of the Second World War, then to South Africa for a brief time, eventually settling in the United Kingdom, where Anholt was educated at Cranleigh School in south Surrey. His father had been taken prisoner by the Japanese, was forced to work on the Burma Railway, and died when his son was three. His mother remarried five years later. Anholt married and divorced twice. His first marriage was to Sheila Willet in 1964; they had a son, Christien, who is also an actor. Anholt and Willet divorced in 1986. His second marriage was to actress Tracey Childs, his co-star in Howards' Way. They married in 1990, and divorced eight years later. Anholt was originally a continuity announcer for the BBC World Service. His last filmed acting work was for Canadian television productions; he appeared in small roles in several episodes of Lexx and also guest-starred in his son Christien's series, Relic Hunter, Series 1, episode 19. Tony Anholt died in London of a brain tumour in 2002, aged 61. Filmography References External links 1941 births 2002 deaths People educated at Cranleigh School British male television actors British people of Dutch descent Deaths from brain tumor Deaths from cancer in England Neurological disease deaths in England

263356

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenbush

Greenbush

Greenbush or Green Bush may refer to: Places In Canada: Greenbush, Ontario In the United States: Greenbush (historic) Fort Crailo Greenbush, Georgia Greenbush, Kansas Greenbush, Maine Greenbush, Massachusetts Greenbush Line, a branch of the MBTA Commuter Rail system in Massachusetts Greenbush (MBTA station) Greenbush, Michigan Greenbush, Minnesota Greenbush, Brown County, Ohio Greenbush, Preble County, Ohio Greenbush, Virginia Greenbush, Wisconsin, a town Greenbush (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community Greenbush Branch, a stream in Georgia East Greenbush, New York North Greenbush, New York People Billy Green Bush (born 1935), sometimes credited as Billy Greenbush, an American actor Lindsay and Sidney Greenbush (born 1970), twins who played Carrie Ingalls on the Little House on the Prairie television series Clay Greenbush (born 1968), American actor Other uses Green Bush (2005 film), an Australian film directed by Warwick Thornton See also Greenbush Township (disambiguation) Green Bush Squirrel (Paraxerus poensis) "Green Bushes", an English folk song

263357

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20Steel%20Trust

German Steel Trust

The merger of four major firms into the German Steel Trust (Vereinigte Stahlwerke) in 1926 was modeled on the U.S. Steel corporation in the U.S. The goal was to move beyond the limitations of the old cartel system by incorporating advances simultaneously inside a single corporation. The new company emphasized rationalization of management structures and modernization of the technology; it employed a multi-divisional structure and used return on investment as its measure of success. it represented the "Americanization" of the German steel industry because its internal structure, management methods, use of technology, and emphasis on mass production replicated the Steel Trust developed a multi-divisional structure and aimed at return on investment as a measure of success. The chief difference was that consumer capitalism as an industrial strategy did not seem plausible to German steel industrialists. USA links Fritz Thyssen and Friedrich Flick are co-owners in GST (German Steel Trust or Vereinigte Stahlwerke AG), an arrangement made by Wall Street financier as Clarence Douglas Dillon through Dillon Read & Co. Thyssen and Flick both financed Hitler rise's in power. GST is connected to UBC (Union Banking Corporation) through Harriman Fifteen Corporation holding one-third of Consolidated Silesian Steel Corporation while Flick got two-thirds. WWII war machine As IG Farben, GST was the heart of Nazi war machine, like Congress investigation showed. Membership Fritz Thyssen Friedrich Flick Albert Voegler Otto Steinbrinck See also Union Banking Corporation Notes Steel companies of Germany

263362

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glennville

Glennville

Glennville may refer to: Glennville, California Glennville, Georgia Glennville, Pennsylvania, a place in Chester County See also Glenville (disambiguation) Glenvil, Nebraska Glenvil Township, Clay County, Nebraska

263363

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenville

Glenville

Glenville is the name of several places. In Canada: Glenville, Ontario Glenville, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia Glenville, Inverness County, Nova Scotia In Ireland: Glenville, County Cork In the United Kingdom Glenville, County Antrim (also known as Leamore), a townland in the civil parish of Layd, County Antrim, Northern Ireland In the United States of America: Glenville, Alabama Glenville (Eutaw, Alabama) a house on the National Register of Historic Places in Eutaw, Alabama Glenville, Arkansas, a place in Nevada County Glenville, California, former name of Glennville, California Glenville, Connecticut Glenville, Delaware Glenville, Minnesota Glenville, Mississippi, a community in Panola County Glenville, Schenectady County, New York Glenville, North Carolina Glenville, Pennsylvania Glenville, West Virginia Glenville, Cleveland, a neighborhood in Cleveland, Ohio Glenville Shootout, which took place there See also Glennville (disambiguation) Glenvil, Nebraska Glenvil Township, Clay County, Nebraska

263364

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurvirostridae

Recurvirostridae

The Recurvirostridae are a family of birds in the wader suborder Charadrii. It contains two distinct groups of birds, the avocets (one genus) and the stilts (two genera). Description Avocets and stilts range in length from and in weight from ; males are usually slightly bigger than females. All possess long, thin legs, necks, and bills. The bills of avocets are curved upwards, and are swept from side to side when the bird is feeding in the brackish or saline wetlands they prefer. The bills of stilts, in contrast, are straight. The front toes are webbed, partially in most stilts, and fully in avocets and the banded stilt, which swim more. The majority of species' plumage has contrasting areas of black and white, with some species having patches of buff or brown on the head or chest. The sexes are similar. Their vocalizations are usually yelps of one or two syllables. Distribution and habitat Avocets and stilts are a cosmopolitan family, being distributed on all the world's continents except Antarctica, and occurring on several oceanic islands. Several species are wide-ranging and a few are locally distributed. One species, the black stilt of New Zealand, is critically endangered due to habitat loss, introduced predators, and hybridisation with the pied stilt. Feeding These species feed on small aquatic animals such as mollusks, brine shrimp and other crustaceans, larval insects, segmented worms, tadpoles, and small fish. Breeding Stilts and avocets breed on open ground near water, often in loose colonies. They defend nesting territories vigorously with aggressive displays, and mob intruders and possible predators with a great deal of noise. They are monogamous, although the pair bonds are not maintained from season to season. Their eggs are light-coloured with dark markings, weighing . Three to four are laid in simple nests, and both parents share the incubation duties, which last 22 to 28 days. The banded stilt may breed only every few years, as it breeds on temporary lakes caused by rains in the deserts of Australia. The chicks are downy and precocial, leaving the nest within a day of hatching; they fledge in 28 to 35 days. In all species except the banded stilt, the chicks are cared for by the parents for several months, and they may move them to new areas and defend territories there. Banded stilts deviate from this by collecting their chicks in massive crèches numbering several hundred. Taxonomy The taxonomy of the stilts is particularly debated, with the genus Himantopus considered to have two to six species. References Pierce, R.J. (1996) "Family Recurvirostridae (Stilts and Avocets) P.p. 332-348 in del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors). (1996). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 3: Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Edicions. Bird families Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte

263368

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20Corps%20Air%20Station%20Yuma

Marine Corps Air Station Yuma

Marine Corps Air Station Yuma or MCAS Yuma is a United States Marine Corps air station. It is the home of multiple squadrons of AV-8B Harrier IIs and F-35B Lightning IIs of the 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing, Marine Aviation Weapons and Tactics Squadron 1 (MAWTS-1), Marine Operational Test and Evaluation Squadron 1 (VMX-1) and Marine Fighter Training Squadron 401 (VMFT-401), an air combat adversary squadron of the 4th Marine Aircraft Wing of the Marine Corps Reserve. It is a designated Superfund site due to a number of soil and groundwater contaminants, including asbestos. The station is from the city of Yuma, Arizona. A joint use civilian-military airport, MCAS Yuma shares airfield facilities with Yuma International Airport and occupies approximately , most of which is flat desert. History Air Force use In 1928, the federal government purchased near Yuma at the recommendation of Colonel Benjamin F. Fly. Temporary dirt runways were installed for usage by military and civilian planes. It was called Fly Field. The outbreak of World War II transformed the civilian airport into the Yuma Army Airfield. Construction of facilities began on 1 June 1942 and was activated on 15 December Yuma AAF was a single-engine flight training school, operated by the Army Air Forces Flying Training Command, West Coast Training Center, later Western Flying Training Command. Flying training began in January 1943. Its training unit was the 307th Single Engine Flying Training Group which operated AT-6 Texans, reporting to the 37th Flying Training Wing. The base operating unit was the 403d Army Air Force Base Unit. In 1944, the unit was upgraded to multi-engine flight training, operating B-26 Marauders. In addition to the flying training, a Flexible Gunnery School was established at the airfield in November 1943. Flight training was discontinued on 23 April 1945 and gunnery training on 31 May 1945. The base was closed on 1 November 1945. After the war, the airfield was turned over to the Department of the Interior as a headquarters for the Bureau of Land Reclamation. On 1 January 1954, Yuma County Airport was reactivated by the United States Air Force Air Defense Command (ADC) as a training facility. In the mid-1950s, ADC was equipped almost solely with rocket-firing F-86D Sabre and F-89C Scorpion interceptors, and Headquarters USAF decided they should have their own training base. Yuma Airport became the home of the 4750th Training Wing (Air Defense). The 4750th had two major components, the 4750th Training Group (Air Defense) and the 4750th Training Squadron. The group had two flying squadrons assigned – the 4750th TS equipped with six F-86D Sabres and six F-94C Scorpions: and the 4750th Tow Target Squadron equipped with twelve T-33As and eight B-45As used to tow targets for the live fire portion of the course. The first ADC squadron arrived at Yuma for the Rocketry Proficiency Program on 1 February 1954. ADC squadrons rotated through Yuma on a regular basis for a two-week proficiency program that included 'live-fire' exercises over the Williams AFB and Luke AFB gunnery ranges. The two-week course included a controller course, many hours in the F-86D simulator and at least one 'live fire' mission flown each day. The targets, usually towed behind B-45A tow ships, were 9'x45' target sleeves, with two radar reflectors attached for the interceptor fire control systems to lock onto. Most of the TDY personnel were quartered in tents near the flight line, at least until April 1954 when the first permanent barracks buildings were finished and air conditioned. By June, seven ADC units had rotated through the Yuma program. Also Headquarters USAF decided to add a separate air-to-air rocketry competition to the annual USAF gunnery meet that was held at Las Vegas Air Force Base (renamed Nellis Air Force Base in 1950). The Interceptor Phase of the competition would be held at Yuma between 20 June and 27 June 1954. The competition would take place each year, with the last occurring in 1956. Several changes occurred during the last half of 1954. On 24 August, Yuma County Airport was redesignated Yuma Air Force Base. On 1 September, the 4750th Training Wing became the 4750th Air Defense Wing (Weapons). The 4750th Group and squadrons were also redesignated. And on 8 January 1955, the 4750th Tow Target Squadron became the 17th TTS. Between July 1954 and the end of the year, ADC rotated eleven more squadrons through the Yuma program – nine in F-86Ds, and one each in F-94Cs and F-89Ds. On 1 January 1956, the 4750th Drone Squadron was established as part of the 4750th ADW (Weapons). They were equipped with the brand new Ryan Q-2A Firebee drone, which was launched from GB-26C Invader aircraft. Although the drones were in place by Spring, the first GB-26Cs did not arrive until June, and the first Firebee flight took place in July. The Q-2A Firebees were recovered by H-21 helicopters after landing on the desert floor. Yuma AFB was renamed on 13 October 1956 as Vincent Air Force Base, the installation was named for Brigadier General Clinton D. "Casey" Vincent, one of Major General Claire Chennault's top fighter leaders in the China-Burma Theater and the second youngest General Officer in U.S. Air Force history, receiving his star at the age of 29. Vincent was the subject of a TIME magazine article titled "Up Youth", which covered the meteoric promotions of the Army and Air Force. Vincent was also an inspiration for the main character in the comic strip Terry and the Pirates. Vincent died of a heart attack in 1955 at the age of 40 while serving as the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations, Air Defense Command (ADC) at Ent AFB, Colorado. In addition to the fighter units, Vincent AFB was used by Air Defense Command as a general surveillance radar station. The 864th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron began operations in 1956 using AN/MPS-7 and AN/MPS-14 radars, the site being designated as "SM-162". In addition to the main facility, Vincent AFB operated several AN/FPS-14 Gap Filler sites: Tacna, AZ (SM-162A): Corn Springs, CA (SM-162B): Stone Cabin, AZ (SM-162C): Palo Verde, CA (SM-162D): Vincent AFB was transferred to the Navy on 1 Jan 1959, and the tenant radar site was renamed Yuma Air Force Station. On 20 July 1962, the base designation was changed to Marine Corps Air Station. In this time frame, the Air Force began construction of a new Yuma AFS (RSM-162) about 13 miles south of Yuma. However, the replacement site was never completed, as, in March 1963, the Air Force ordered the 864th AC&W Squadron to inactivate. Operations ceased 1 August 1963. Marine Corps use The 4750th Air Defense Wing was inactivated at Vincent AFB on 15 June 1959 and control of the base was passed over to the United States Navy. Nine days later the base was turned over to the United States Marine Corps. The base was renamed Marine Corps Air Station Yuma (Vincent Field) on July 20, 1962. MCAS Yuma is currently the busiest air station in the Marine Corps, offering excellent year-round flying conditions and thousands of acres of open terrain for air-to-ground weapons ranges (including the Chocolate Mountain Aerial Gunnery Range and the Barry M. Goldwater Air Force Range- West), and associated restricted airspace for military flight operations. During the 1960s, 70s, and early 1980s, MCAS Yuma was home to VMFAT-101, the Marine Corps' Fleet Replacement Squadron (FRS) for the F-4 Phantom II, training U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Navy, and NATO/Allied flight crews and maintenance personnel in the F-4B, F-4J, F-4N, and F-4S. Following the transfer of VMFAT-101 to MCAS El Toro, California in the 1980s, MCAS Yuma became the principal Fleet Marine Force Pacific operating base for the AV-8B Harrier II, under the cognizance of Marine Aircraft Group 13 (MAG-13). Marine Aviation Weapons and Tactics Squadron 1 (MAWTS-1) is a major aviation command at MCAS Yuma, conducting training for all Marine Corps tactical aviation units, most notably the Weapons and Tactics Instructor (WTI) course. Marine Fighter Training Squadron 401 (VMFT-401) is a Marine Air Reserve squadron also based at MCAS Yuma, containing both active duty and Selected Marine Corps Reservists, providing aerial adversary/aggressor services and dissimilar air combat training (DACT) for all U.S. military services, and selected NATO, Allied, and Coalition partners. This base was also used in the late 1980s and early 1990s as the Marine Corps Airborne Training Center. MCAS Yuma is currently programmed to become the Marine Corps' initial operating base for the F-35B variant of the F-35 Lightning II Joint Strike Fighter (JSF), the first of which arrived on 16 November 2012. Based units Flying and notable non-flying units based at MCAS Yuma. United States Marine Corps Marine Corps Installations – West Headquarters and Headquarters Squadron – UC-12F Huron MCAS Yuma Search and Rescue – HH-1N Huey 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing Marine Aircraft Group 13 Marine Attack Squadron 214 (VMA-214) – AV-8B Harrier II Marine Attack Squadron 311 (VMA-311) – F-35C Lightning II Marine Aviation Logistics Squadron 13 (MALS-13) Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 122 (VMFA-122) – F-35B Lightning II Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 211 (VMFA-211) – F-35B Lightning II Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 225 (VMFA-225) – F-35B Lightning II Marine Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Squadron 1 (VMU-1) – RQ-21A Blackjack, MQ-9A Reaper Marine Wing Support Squadron 371 (MWSS-371) Marine Air Control Group 38 Marine Air Control Squadron 1 (MACS-1) 4th Marine Aircraft Wing Marine Aircraft Group 41 Marine Fighter Training Squadron 401 (VMFT-401) – F-5F/N Tiger II Commander, Operational Test and Evaluation Force Marine Operational Test and Evaluation Squadron 1 (VMX-1) – AH-1W Super Cobra, AH-1Z Viper, CQ-24A K-max, MV-22B Osprey, RQ-21A Blackjack and UH-1Y Huey Training and Education Command Marine Aviation Weapons and Tactics Squadron 1 (MAWTS-1) See also Yuma International Airport Arizona World War II Army Airfields List of United States Marine Corps installations List of USAF Aerospace Defense Command General Surveillance Radar Stations Notes References Larry Davis (1992), F-86 Sabre in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications Larry Davis & Marty Isham (1999), Yuma, Sabre Jet Classics, Volume 7 Number 3 Fall 1999 Additional bibliography Shaw, Frederick J. (2004), Locating Air Force Base Sites History’s Legacy, Air Force History and Museums Program, United States Air Force, Washington DC. Manning, Thomas A. (2005), History of Air Education and Training Command, 1942–2002. Office of History and Research, Headquarters, AETC, Randolph AFB, Texas Attribution External links MCAS Yuma, official website Desert Flightline, base newspaper Yuma Army Airfield in World War II Yuma International Airport USMC Air Station Yuma Overview & PCS Information (MarineCorpsUSA.org) 1942 establishments in Arizona Airports established in 1928 Airports established in 1942 active Buildings and structures in Yuma County, Arizona Military facilities in Arizona Airports in Yuma County, Arizona Military Superfund sites Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Arizona Superfund sites in Arizona Yuma County, Arizona 1928 establishments in Arizona Military installations established in 1928

263371

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenview

Glenview

Glenview as a place name may refer to: Australia Glenview, Queensland, a locality in the Sunshine Coast Region Republic of Ireland Glenview, Tallaght New Zealand Glenview, New Zealand, a suburb of Hamilton, New Zealand United States Glenview, California (disambiguation), several places Glenview, Cook County, Illinois Naval Air Station Glenview, an operational U.S. Naval Air Station from 1923 to 1995 Glenview, St. Clair County, Illinois Glenview, Kentucky Glenview (Stony Creek, Virginia), a historic house Glenview Historic District (Memphis, Tennessee), listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in Tennessee John Bond Trevor House in Yonkers, New York, listed on the NRHP and sometimes known as Glenview See also Glenview Historic District (disambiguation)

263373

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glareolidae

Glareolidae

Glareolidae is a family of birds in the wader suborder Charadrii. It contains two distinct groups, the pratincoles and the coursers. The atypical Egyptian plover (Pluvianus aegyptius), traditionally placed in this family, is now known to be only distantly related. The family contains 17 species in 4 genera. Description The feature that defines the family from the rest of the order is the bill, which is arched and has the nostrils at the base. The pratincoles have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails. They have a buoyant flight that allows them the unusual (for the order) hunting technique of taking their insect prey on the wing like swallows. The wings also allow for long migrations in some species. The coursers have long legs, which are used to run (giving the group its name). The wings are shorter and have a more sustained flight than that of the pratincoles. Distribution and habitat The pratincoles and coursers have an Old World distribution, occurring in southern Europe, Asia, Africa (including Madagascar), and Australia. The family is thought to have evolved in Africa, which is where the family achieves its greatest diversity, although fossils of the genus Glareola belonging to an extinct species Glareola neogena are known from the Middle Miocene of Europe, while of similar age is of the extinct Mioglareola gregaria also from European deposits. The older glareolid fossils are of the genus Paractiornis from the Lower Miocene of North America. The fossil genera and species are: Boutersemia belgica G. Mayr and R. Smith, 2001 Early Oligocene of Belgium Boutersemia parvula G. Mayr and R. Smith, 2001 Early Oligocene of Belgium Paractiornis perpusillus Wetmore, 1930 Early Miocene of Nebraska Mioglareola dolnicensis (Švec, 1980) Early Miocene of the Czech Republic Mioglareola gregaria Ballmann, 1979 Early Miocene of the Czech Republic and Middle Miocene of Germany Glareola neogena Ballmann, 1979 Middle Miocene of Germany "Gallinago" veterior Jánossy, 1979 Early Pliocene of Hungary The coursers are typically found in open and arid environments such as deserts and scrub. The three-banded courser and bronze-winged courser are exceptions, being found in woodland and usually away from open land. The subfamily is usually also associated with lowland areas, although the Burchell's courser is found in southern Africa's Afro-alpine areas. The pratincoles are associated with wetlands, rivers, estuaries and other inland waterways. As with the coursers there are exceptions, particularly the black-winged pratincole which breeds and feeds on open steppes. Some species of pratincole are long-distance migrants. Shorter migrations include those of the Madagascar pratincole, which migrates from its breeding grounds in Madagascar to East Africa; in contrast the black-winged pratincole migrates from the steppes of Eastern Europe and Central Asia to West and Southern Africa. The migration, which can measure in distance, is often undertaken as a single non-stop flight and is flown at high altitude. The coursers are not particularly migratory, although the cream-colored courser does migrate from the northern extremes of its range in the winter. The coursers are fairly nomadic, but do not undertake long distance migrations. Behaviour The coursers are crepuscular and nocturnal in their habits, and are generally inconspicuous, particularly the woodland species. They are not as social as the highly gregarious and noisy pratincoles, some species of which may also active at dawn and dusk. Diet and feeding Insects form the majority of the diet of the Glareolidae. The pratincoles forage mainly on the wing, but are able to take prey on the ground as well. They are opportunistic, and have been recorded attending herds of antelope to snatch insects flushed up by their movement, or even insects attracted to street lights. Swarming insects, such as locusts or termites, are particularly targeted. Coursers are exclusively terrestrial, and feed in a plover-like fashion, running, then stopping to scan for prey before moving on. Some species may dig for insects in soft soil with their bills. In addition to insects, coursers may also take molluscs and some seeds. References Bird families Taxa named by Christian Ludwig Brehm

263374

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen%20Rock

Glen Rock

Glen Rock or Glenrock may refer to: Geology Glen Rock (boulder) in Glen Rock, New Jersey Places Australia Glenrock, Queensland, a locality in the South Burnett Region, Queensland United States Glenrock, Nebraska, an unincorporated community in Nemaha County Glen Rock, New Jersey, a borough in Bergen County Glen Rock, Pennsylvania, a borough in York County Glen Rock, Virginia, a neighborhood in Norfolk County Glenrock, Wyoming, a town in Converse County Railway stations Glen Rock–Main Line station, on New Jersey Transit's Main Line Glen Rock–Boro Hall station, on New Jersey Transit's Bergen County Line

263376

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Junction

Grand Junction

Grand Junction may refer to: Places United States Grand Junction, Colorado Grand Junction Metropolitan Statistical Area, an alternate designation for Mesa County, Colorado Grand Junction, Iowa Grand Junction, Michigan Grand Junction, Tennessee United Kingdom Grand Junction Isle, a small island in the River Thames Transportation Rail Grand Junction, Birmingham, a railway junction in Birmingham, England Grand Junction Railroad and Depot Company, in the Boston, Massachusetts area Grand Junction Railroad Bridge, across the Charles River Grand Junction Railway, in England Grand Junction Railway (Ontario), in Canada Grand Junction station, a train station in Grand Junction, Colorado Other Grand Junction Canal, in England Grand Junction Regional Airport, in Mesa County, Colorado Grand Junction Road, through Adelaide, South Australia Other Grand Junction, an Australian country music band Grand Junction Daily Sentinel, a daily newspaper in western Colorado Grand Junction High School a public high school in Grand Junction, Colorado Grand Junction Junior College, a campus of Colorado Mesa University in Grand Junction, Colorado Grand Junction milkvetch, the common name for Astragalus linifolius, a species of flowering plant in the legume family Grand Junction Rockies, a Pioneer League baseball team Grand Junction Waterworks Company, a utility company supplying water to parts of London, England See also Grand union (disambiguation)

263380

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality%20and%20psychology

Homosexuality and psychology

The field of psychology has extensively studied homosexuality as a human sexual orientation. The American Psychiatric Association listed homosexuality in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) in 1952, but that classification came under scrutiny in research funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. That research and subsequent studies consistently failed to produce any empirical or scientific basis for regarding homosexuality as anything other than a natural and normal sexual orientation that is a healthy and positive expression of human sexuality. As a result of this scientific research, the American Psychiatric Association declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder in 1973. Upon a thorough review of the scientific data, the American Psychological Association followed in 1975 and also called on all mental health professionals to take the lead in "removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated" with homosexuality. In 1993, the National Association of Social Workers adopted the same position as the American Psychiatric Association and the American Psychological Association, in recognition of scientific evidence. The World Health Organization, which listed homosexuality in the ICD-9 in 1977, removed homosexuality from the ICD-10 which was endorsed by the 43rd World Health Assembly on 17 May 1990. The consensus of scientific research and clinical literature demonstrate that same-sex attractions, feelings, and behaviors are normal and positive variations of human sexuality. There is now a large body of scientific evidence that indicates that being gay, lesbian, or bisexual is compatible with normal mental health and social adjustment. Historical background The view of homosexuality as a psychological disorder has been seen in literature since research on homosexuality first began; however, psychology as a discipline has evolved over the years in its position on homosexuality. Current attitudes have their roots in religious, legal, and cultural underpinnings. Some Ancient Near Eastern communities, such as the Israelites, had strict codes forbidding homosexual activity, and this gave way to later usage of the same texts by the original missionaries of Christianity, who themselves descended from the tribes of Israel; Paul in particular is notable for his allusion to and reinforcement of such texts in his letters to nascent churches. Later, the Apostolic Fathers and their successors continued to speak against homosexual activity whenever they mentioned it in their (surviving) writings. In the early Middle Ages the Christian Church ignored homosexuality in secular society; however, by the end of the 12th century, hostility towards homosexuality began to emerge and spread through Europe's secular and religious institutions. There were official expressions condemning the "unnatural" nature of homosexual behavior in the works of Thomas Aquinas and others. Until the 19th century, homosexual activity was referred to as "unnatural, crimes against nature", sodomy or buggery and was punishable by law, sometimes by death. As people became more interested in discovering the causes of homosexuality, medicine and psychiatry began competing with the law and religion for jurisdiction. In the beginning of the 19th century, people began studying homosexuality scientifically. At this time, most theories regarded homosexuality as a disease, which had a great influence on how it was viewed culturally. There was a paradigm shift in the mid 20th century in psychiatric science in regards to theories of homosexuality. Psychiatrists began to believe homosexuality could be cured through therapy and freedom of self, and other theories about the genetic and hormonal origin of homosexuality were becoming accepted. There were variations of how homosexuality was viewed as pathological. Some early psychiatrists such as Sigmund Freud and Havelock Ellis adopted more tolerant stances on homosexuality. Freud and Ellis believed that homosexuality was not normal, but was "unavoidable" for some people. Alfred Kinsey's research and publications about homosexuality began the social and cultural shift away from viewing homosexuality as an abnormal condition. These shifting viewpoints in the psychological studies of homosexuality are evident in its placement in the first version of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM) in 1952, and subsequent change in 1973, in which the diagnosis of ego-dystonic homosexuality replaced the DSM-II category of "sexual orientation disturbance". However, it was not until 1987 in DSM-III-R that it was entirely dropped as a mental disorder. A 2016 survey of the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights found that many medical professionals in countries such as Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Poland, Romania and Slovakia believed that homosexuality is a disease and that such misconceptions continue to exist in professional materials. This goes against Council of Europe Recommendation 2010(5) which recommends that homosexuality not be treated as a disease. Freud and psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud's views on homosexuality were complex. In his attempts to understand the causes and development of homosexuality, he first explained bisexuality as an "original libido endowment", by which he meant that all humans are born bisexual. He believed that the libido has a homosexual portion and a heterosexual portion, and through the course of development one wins out over the other. Some other causes of homosexuality for which he advocated included an inverted Oedipus complex where individuals begin to identify with their mother and take themselves as a love object. This love of one's self is defined as narcissism, and Freud thought that people who were high in the trait of narcissism would be more likely to develop homosexuality because loving the same sex is like an extension of loving oneself. Freud believed treatment of homosexuality was not successful because the individual does not want to give up their homosexual identity because it brings them pleasure. He used psychoanalysis and hypnotic suggestion as treatments, but showed little success. It was through this that Freud arrived at the conclusion that homosexuality was "nothing to be ashamed of, no vice, no degradation, it cannot be classified as an illness, but a variation of sexual function". He further stated that psychoanalysts "should not promise to abolish homosexuality and make normal heterosexuality take its place", as he had concluded in his own practice that attempts to change homosexual orientations were likely to be unsuccessful. While Freud himself may have come to a more accepting view of homosexuality, his legacy in the field of psychoanalysis, especially in the United States viewed homosexuality as negative, abnormal and caused by family and developmental issues. It was these views that significantly impacted the rationale for putting homosexuality in the first and second publications of the American Psychiatric Association's DSM, conceptualizing it as a mental disorder and further stigmatizing homosexuality in society. Havelock Ellis Havelock Ellis (1859–1939) was working as a teacher in Australia, when he had a revelation that he wanted to dedicate his life to exploring the issue of sexuality. He returned to London in 1879 and enrolled in St. Thomas’s Hospital Medical School. He began to write, and in 1896 he co-authored Sexual Inversion with John Addington Symonds. The book was first published in German, and a year later it was translated into English. Their book explored homosexual relationships, and in a progressive approach for their time they refused to criminalize or pathologize the acts and emotions that were present in homosexual relationships. Ellis disagreed with Freud on a few points regarding homosexuality, especially regarding its development. He argued that homosexuals do not have a clear cut Oedipus complex but they do have strong feelings of inadequacy, born of fears of failure, and may also be afraid of relations with women. Ellis argued that the restrictions of society contributed to the development of same-sex love. He believed that homosexuality is not something people are born with, but that at some point humans are all sexually indiscriminate, and then narrow down and choose which sex acts to stick with. According to Ellis, some people choose to engage in homosexuality, while others will choose heterosexuality. He proposed that being “exclusively homosexual” is to be deviant because the person is a member of a minority and therefore statistically unusual, but that society should accept that deviations from the "normal" were harmless, and maybe even valuable. Ellis believed that psychological problems arose not from homosexual acts alone, but when someone "psychologically harms himself by fearfully limiting his own sex behavior". Ellis is often attributed with coining the term homosexuality but in reality he despised the word because it conflated Latin and Greek roots and instead used the term invert in his published works. Soon after Sexual Inversion was published in England, it was banned as lewd and scandalous. Ellis argued that homosexuality was a characteristic of a minority, and was not acquired or a vice and was not curable. He advocated changing the laws to leave those who chose to practice homosexuality at peace, because at the time it was a punishable crime. He believed societal reform could occur, but only after the public was educated. His book became a landmark in the understanding of homosexuality. Alfred Kinsey Alfred Charles Kinsey (1894–1956) was a sexologist who founded the Institute for Sex Research, which is now known as the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction. His explorations into different sexual practices originated from his study of the variations in mating practices among wasps. He developed the Kinsey Scale, which measures sexual orientation in ranges from 0 to 6 with 0 being exclusively heterosexual and 6 being exclusively homosexual. His findings indicated that there was great variability in sexual orientations. Kinsey published the books Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, which brought him a lot of fame and controversy. The prevailing approach to homosexuality at the time was to pathologize and attempt to change homosexuals. Kinsey's book demonstrated that homosexuality was more common than was assumed, suggesting that these behaviors are normal and part of a continuum of sexual behaviors. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual The social, medical, and legal approach to homosexuality ultimately led for its inclusion in the first and second publications of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM). This served to conceptualize homosexuality as a mental disorder and further stigmatize homosexuality in society. However, the evolution in scientific study and empirical data from Kinsey, Evelyn Hooker, and others confronted these beliefs, and by the 1970s psychiatrists and psychologists were radically altering their views on homosexuality. Tests such as the Rorschach, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) indicated that homosexual men and women were not distinguishable from heterosexual men and women in functioning. These studies failed to support the previous assumptions that family dynamics, trauma, and gender identity were factors in the development of sexual orientation. Many psychologists have differing opinions about same-sex relationships. Some think that it is not healthy at all, some support it, and some cannot support it because of their own personal religious beliefs. Due to lack of supporting data, as well as exponentially increasing pressure from gay rights advocates, the Board of Directors for the American Psychiatric Association voted to declassify homosexuality as a mental disorder from the DSM-II in 1973, but the DSM retained a diagnosis that could be used for distress due to one's sexual orientation until the DSM-5 (2013). Major areas of psychological research Major psychological research into homosexuality is divided into five categories: What causes some people to be attracted to their own sex? What causes discrimination against people with a homosexual orientation and how can this be influenced? Does having a homosexual orientation affect one's health status, psychological functioning or general well-being? What determines successful adaptation to rejecting social climates? Why is homosexuality central to the identity of some people, but peripheral to the identity of others? How do the children of homosexual people develop? Psychological research in these areas has always been important to counteracting prejudicial attitudes and actions, and to the gay and lesbian rights movement generally. Causes of homosexuality Although no single theory on the cause of sexual orientation has yet gained widespread support, scientists favor biologically-based theories. There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males. Discrimination Anti-gay attitudes and behaviors (sometimes called homophobia or heterosexism) have been objects of psychological research. Such research usually focuses on attitudes hostile to gay men, rather than attitudes hostile to lesbians. Anti-gay attitudes are often found in those who do not know gay people on a personal basis. There is also a high risk for anti-gay bias in psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. One study found that nearly half of its sample had been the victim of verbal or physical violence because of their sexual orientation, usually committed by men. Such victimization is related to higher levels of depression, anxiety, anger, and symptoms of post-traumatic stress. Through the 2015 U.S Transgender Survey, which was conducted by the National Center for Transgender Equality, transgender people of color were found to face disproportionate discrimination because of their overlapping identities. These forms of discrimination included violence, unreasonable unemployment, unfair policing, and unfair medical treatment. Research suggests that parents who respond negatively to their child's sexual orientation tended to have lower self-esteem and negative attitudes toward women, and that "negative feelings about homosexuality in parents decreased the longer they were aware of their child's homosexuality". In addition, while research has suggested that "families with a strong emphasis on traditional values – implying the importance of religion, an emphasis on marriage and having children – were less accepting of homosexuality than were low-tradition families", emerging research suggests that this may not be universal. For example, recent research published in APA's Psychology of Religion & Spirituality journal by Chana Etengoff and Colette Daiute suggests that religious family members can alternatively use religious values and texts in support of their sexual minority relative. For example, a Catholic mother of a gay man shared that she focuses on "the greatest commandment of all, which is, love". Similarly, a Methodist mother referenced Jesus in her discussion of loving her gay son, as she said, "I look at Jesus' message of love and forgiveness and that we're friends by the blood, that I don't feel that people are condemned by the actions they have done." These religious values were similarly expressed by a father who is a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints who shared the following during his discussion of the biblical prohibition against homosexuality: "Your goal, your reason for being, should be to accept and to love and to lift up ... those in need no matter who they are". Mental health issues Psychological research in this area includes examining mental health issues (including stress, depression, or addictive behavior) faced by gay and lesbian people as a result of the difficulties they experience because of their sexual orientation, physical appearance issues, eating disorders, or gender atypical behavior. Psychiatric disorders: in a Dutch study, gay men reported significantly higher rates of mood and anxiety disorders than straight men, and lesbians were significantly more likely to experience depression (but not other mood or anxiety disorders) than straight women. A research paper from the American Journal of Community Psychology states that individuals who face multiple forms of oppression tend to find their hardships more difficult to manage. In this study, it is noted that LGBTQ+ people who are disabled have reported struggling more with their oppressed statuses. Physical appearance and eating disorders: gay men tend to be more concerned about their physical appearance than straight men. Lesbian women are at a lower risk for eating disorders than heterosexual women. Gender atypical behavior: while this is not a disorder, gay men may face difficulties due to being more likely to display gender atypical behavior than heterosexual men. The difference is less pronounced between lesbians and straight women. Minority stress: stress caused from a sexual stigma, manifested as prejudice and discrimination, is a major source of stress for people with a homosexual orientation. Sexual-minority affirming groups and gay peer groups help counteract and buffer minority stress. Ego-dystonic sexual orientation: conflict between religious identity and sexual orientation can cause severe stress, causing some people to want to change their sexual orientation. Sexual orientation identity exploration can help individuals evaluate the reasons behind the desire to change and help them resolve the conflict between their religious and sexual identity, either through sexual orientation identity reconstruction or affirmation therapies. Ego-dystonic sexual orientation is a disorder where a person wishes their sexual orientation were different because of associated psychological and behavioral disorders. Sexual relationship disorder: people with a homosexual orientation in mixed-orientation marriages may struggle with the fear of the loss of their marriage. Sexual relationship disorder is a disorder where the gender identity or sexual orientation interferes with maintaining or forming of a relationship. Suicide The likelihood of suicide attempts is higher in both gay males and lesbians, as well as bisexual individuals of both sexes, when compared to their heterosexual counterparts. The trend of having a higher incident rate among females encompasses lesbians or bisexual females; when compared with homosexual or bisexual males, lesbians are more likely to attempt suicide. Studies dispute the exact difference in suicide rate compared to heterosexuals with a minimum of 0.8–1.1 times more likely for females and 1.5–2.5 times more likely for males. The higher figures reach 4.6 times more likely in females and 14.6 times more likely in males. Race and age play a factor in the increased risk. The highest ratios for males are attributed to young Caucasians. By the age of 25, their risk is more than halved; however, the risk for black gay males at that age steadily increases to 8.6 times more likely. Over a lifetime, the increased likelihoods are 5.7 times for white and 12.8 for black gay and bisexual males. Lesbian and bisexual females have the opposite trend, with fewer attempts during the teenager years compared to heterosexual females. Through a lifetime, the likelihood for Caucasian females is nearly triple that of their heterosexual counterparts; however, for black females there is minimal change (less than 0.1 to 0.3 difference), with heterosexual black females having a slightly higher risk throughout most of the age-based study. Gay and lesbian youth who attempt suicide are disproportionately subject to anti-gay attitudes, often have fewer skills for coping with discrimination, isolation, and loneliness, and were more likely to experience family rejection than those who do not attempt suicide. Another study found that gay and bisexual youth who attempted suicide had more feminine gender roles, adopted a non-heterosexual identity at a young age and were more likely than peers to report sexual abuse, drug abuse, and arrests for misconduct. One study found that same-sex sexual behavior, but not homosexual attraction or homosexual identity, was significantly predictive of suicide among Norwegian adolescents. Government policies have been found to mediate this relationship by legislating structural stigma. One study using cross-country data from 1991-2017 for 36 OECD countries established that same-sex marriage legalization is associated with a decline in youth suicide of 1.191 deaths per 100,000 youth, with the impact more pronounced for male youth relative to female youth. Another study of nationwide data from across the United States from January 1999 to December 2015 revealed that same-sex marriage is associated with a significant reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among children, with the effect being concentrated among children of a minority sexual orientation, resulting in about 134,000 fewer children attempting suicide each year in the United States. Sexual orientation identity development Coming out: many gay, lesbian and bisexual people go through a "coming out" experience at some point in their lives. Psychologists often say this process includes several stages "in which there is an awareness of being different from peers ('sensitization'), and in which people start to question their sexual identity ('identity confusion'). Subsequently, they start to explore practically the option of being gay, lesbian or bisexual and learn to deal with the stigma ('identity assumption'). In the final stage, they integrate their sexual desires into a positive understanding of self ('commitment')." However, the process is not always linear and it may differ for lesbians, gay men and bisexual individuals. Different degrees of coming out: one study found that gay men are more likely to be out to friends and siblings than to co-workers, parents, and more distant relatives. Coming out and well-being: same-sex couples who are openly gay are more satisfied in their relationships. For women who self-identify as lesbian, the more people know about her sexual orientation, the less anxiety, more positive affectivity, and greater self-esteem she has. Rejection of gay identity: various studies report that for some religious people, rejecting a gay identity appears to relieve the distress caused by conflicts between religious values and sexual orientation. After reviewing the research, Judith Glassgold, chair of the American Psychological Association sexuality task force, said some people are content in denying a gay identity and "there is no clear evidence of harm". Fluidity of sexual orientation Often, sexual orientation and sexual orientation identity are not distinguished, which can impact accurately assessing sexual identity and whether or not sexual orientation is able to change; sexual orientation identity can change throughout an individual's life, and may or may not align with biological sex, sexual behavior or actual sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is stable and unlikely to change for the vast majority of people, but some research indicates that some people may experience change in their sexual orientation, and this is more likely for women than for men. The American Psychological Association distinguishes between sexual orientation (an innate attraction) and sexual orientation identity (which may change at any point in a person's life). In a statement issued jointly with other major American medical organizations, the American Psychological Association states that "different people realize at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual". A 2007 report from the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health states that, "For some people, sexual orientation is continuous and fixed throughout their lives. For others, sexual orientation may be fluid and change over time". Lisa Diamond's study "Female bisexuality from adolescence to adulthood" suggests that there is "considerable fluidity in bisexual, unlabeled, and lesbian women's attractions, behaviors, and identities". Parenting LGBT parenting is the parenting of children by lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people, as either biological or non-biological parents. Gay men have options which include "foster care, variations of domestic and international adoption, diverse forms of surrogacy (whether "traditional" or gestational), and kinship arrangements, wherein they might coparent with a woman or women with whom they are intimately but not sexually involved". LGBT parents can also include single parents; to a lesser extent, the term sometimes refers to parents of LGBT children. In the 2000 U.S. Census, 33% of female same-sex couple households and 22% of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under eighteen living in their home. Some children do not know they have an LGBT parent; coming out issues vary and some parents may never come out to their children. Adoption by LGBT couples and LGBT parenting in general may be controversial in some countries. In January 2008, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that same-sex couples have the right to adopt a child. In the U.S., LGBT people can legally adopt, as individuals, in all fifty states. Although it is sometimes asserted in policy debates that heterosexual couples are inherently better parents than same-sex couples, or that the children of lesbian or gay parents fare worse than children raised by heterosexual parents, those assertions are not supported by scientific research literature. There is ample evidence to show that children raised by same-gender parents fare as well as those raised by heterosexual parents. Much research has documented the lack of correlation between parents' sexual orientation and any measure of a child's emotional, psychosocial, and behavioral adjustment. These data have demonstrated no risk to children as a result of growing up in a family with one or more gay parents. No research supports the widely held conviction that the gender of parents influences the well-being of the child. If gay, lesbian, or bisexual parents were inherently less capable than otherwise comparable heterosexual parents, their children would present more poorly regardless of the type of sample; this pattern has not been observed. Professor Judith Stacey of New York University, stated: “Rarely is there as much consensus in any area of social science as in the case of gay parenting, which is why the American Academy of Pediatrics and all of the major professional organizations with expertise in child welfare have issued reports and resolutions in support of gay and lesbian parental rights”. These organizations include the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Psychoanalytic Association, the National Association of Social Workers, the Child Welfare League of America, the North American Council on Adoptable Children, and Canadian Psychological Association (CPA). CPA is concerned that some persons and institutions are misinterpreting the findings of psychological research to support their positions, when their positions are more accurately based on other systems of belief or values. The vast majority of families in the United States today are not the "middle-class family with a bread-winning father and a stay-at-home mother, married to each other and raising their biological children" that has been viewed as the norm. Since the end of the 1980s, it has been well established that children and adolescents can adjust just as well in nontraditional settings as in traditional settings. Psychotherapy Most people with a homosexual orientation who seek psychotherapy do so for the same reasons as straight people (stress, relationship difficulties, difficulty adjusting to social or work situations, etc.); their sexual orientation may be of primary, incidental, or no importance to their issues and treatment. Regardless of the issue that psychotherapy is sought for, there is a high risk of anti-gay bias being directed at non-heterosexual clients. Relationship counseling Most relationship issues are shared equally among couples regardless of sexual orientation, but LGBT clients additionally have to deal with homophobia, heterosexism, and other societal oppressions. Individuals may also be at different stages in the coming out process. Often, same-sex couples do not have as many role models for successful relationships as opposite-sex couples. There may be issues with gender-role socialization that does not affect opposite-sex couples. A significant number of men and women experience conflict surrounding homosexual expression within a mixed-orientation marriage. Therapy may include helping the client feel more comfortable and accepting of same-sex feelings and to explore ways of incorporating same-sex and opposite-sex feelings into life patterns. Although a strong homosexual identity was associated with difficulties in marital satisfaction, viewing the same-sex activities as compulsive facilitated commitment to the marriage and to monogamy. Gay affirmative psychotherapy Gay affirmative psychotherapy is a form of psychotherapy for gay, lesbian, and bisexual clients which encourages them to accept their sexual orientation, and does not attempt to change their sexual orientation to heterosexual, or to eliminate or diminish their same-sex desires and behaviors. The American Psychological Association (APA) and the British Psychological Society offer guidelines and materials for gay affirmative psychotherapy. Practitioners of gay affirmative psychotherapy states that homosexuality or bisexuality is not a mental illness, and that embracing and affirming gay identity can be a key component to recovery from other mental illnesses or substance abuse. Some people may find neither gay affirmative therapy nor conversion therapy appropriate, however. Clients whose religious beliefs are inconsistent with homosexual behavior may require some other method of integrating their conflicting religious and sexual selves. Sexual orientation identity exploration The American Psychological Association recommends that if a client wants treatment to change his sexual orientation, the therapist should explore the reasons behind the desire, without favoring any particular outcome. The therapist should neither promote nor reject the idea of celibacy, but help the client come to their own decisions by evaluating the reasons behind the patient's goals. One example of sexual orientation identity exploration is sexual identity therapy. After exploration, a patient may proceed with sexual orientation identity reconstruction, which helps a patient reconstruct sexual orientation identity. Psychotherapy, support groups, and life events can influence identity development; similarly, self-awareness, self-conception, and identity may evolve during treatment. It can change sexual orientation identity (private and public identification, and group belonging), emotional adjustment (self-stigma and shame reduction), and personal beliefs, values and norms (change of religious and moral belief, behavior and motivation). Some therapies include "gender wholeness therapy". The American Psychiatric Association states in their official statement release on the matter: "The potential risks of 'reparative therapy' are great and include depression, anxiety, and self-destructive behavior, since therapist alignment with societal prejudices against homosexuality may reinforce self-hatred already experienced by the patient. Many patients who have undergone 'reparative therapy' relate that they were inaccurately told that homosexuals are lonely, unhappy individuals who never achieve acceptance or satisfaction. The possibility that the person might achieve happiness and satisfying interpersonal relationships as a gay man or lesbian are not presented, nor are alternative approaches to dealing with the effects of societal stigmatization discussed. APA recognizes that in the course of ongoing psychiatric treatment, there may be appropriate clinical indications for attempting to change sexual behaviors." The American Psychological Association aligns with this in a resolution: it "urges all mental health professionals to take the lead in removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated with homosexual orientation" and "Therefore be it further resolved that the American Psychological Association opposes portrayals of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth and adults as mentally ill due to their sexual orientation and supports the dissemination of accurate information about sexual orientation, and mental health, and appropriate interventions in order to counteract bias that is based in ignorance or unfounded beliefs about sexual orientation." The American Academy of Pediatrics advises lesbian, gay, gynandromorphophilic, and bisexual teenagers struggling with their sexuality: "You are normal. Homosexuality is not a mental disorder. All of the major medical organizations, including The American Psychiatric Association, The American Psychological Association, and the American Academy of Pediatrics agree that homosexuality is not an illness or disorder, but a form of sexual expression. No one knows what causes a person to be gay, bisexual, or straight. There probably are a number of factors. Some may be biological. Others may be psychological. The reasons can vary from one person to another. The fact is, you do not choose to be gay, bisexual, or straight." Developments in individual psychology In contemporary Adlerian thought, homosexuals are not considered within the problematic discourse of the "failures of life". Christopher Shelley, an Adlerian psychotherapist, published a volume of essays in 1998 that feature Freudian, (post)Jungian and Adlerian contributions that demonstrate affirmative shifts in the depth psychologies. These shifts show how depth psychology can be utilized to support rather than pathologize gay and lesbian psychotherapy clients. The Journal of Individual Psychology, the English language flagship publication of Adlerian psychology, released a volume in the summer of 2008 that reviews and corrects Adler's previously held beliefs on the homosexual community. See also Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrists Conversion therapy Ego-dystonic sexual orientation Homosexuality in DSM Minority stress Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine References External links American Academy of Pediatrics: "Sexual Orientation and Adolescents" British Psychological Society National Mental Health Association: "What Does Gay Mean? How to Talk with Kids about Sexual Orientation and Prejudice" Joint statements by professional bodies in the United Kingdom Conversion therapy: Consensus statement Memorandum on Conversion Therapy in the UK Homosexuality LGBT studies Same-sex sexuality Sexual orientation Sexual orientation and psychology Social problems in medicine

263381

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slappy

Slappy

Slappy is the second EP by American rock band Green Day. It was released in 1990 through Lookout! Records. Upon its release, several different colors of vinyl were available in limited quantities. Billie Joe Armstrong cited the extended play as the one on which Green Day began to find its sound. Liner notes Recorded in a few hours on April 20, 1990 at Art of Ears Studio with Andro Engineering and mixed April 23 in a few more hours. Produced by Andro and Green Day. Mastered by John Golden at K-Disc, Hollywood. Front cover photo by Al Sobrante, back Sean Hughes Layout and "Green Day Bitz" by Aaron Cometbus. Green Day's 39/Smooth L.P. and 1,000 Hours E.P. were also available on Lookout. Album information "Paper Lanterns" was a popular Green Day song and a live staple for many years and was brought back for the 2010 leg of the 21st Century Breakdown World Tour. "Why Do You Want Him?" was the first song Armstrong wrote, back when he was fourteen. He expressed in a 2010 interview that contrary to the common belief, the song is not about his stepfather. The title "409 in Your Coffeemaker" is taken from a prank Armstrong pulled on his teacher. The prank was that he put some Clorox cleaner in his teacher’s coffeemaker, and it was known as Formula 409, hence the name of the song. It was later re-recorded during the Dookie sessions, and was released as a B-Side on the "Basket Case" CD single in the United Kingdom. "Knowledge" was originally performed by Operation Ivy for their 1989 album Energy. Green Day still performs the song live, often inviting fans onstage to play the band members' instruments for them during the performance of the song. All four tracks from Slappy were included on the compilation album 1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours in 1991. Slappy remained in print until August 2005, when Green Day removed its catalog from Lookout! Records. Since March 24, 2009, Slappy (along with 1,000 Hours) has been back in print as a bonus to the vinyl reissue of the 39/Smooth album. However, a possible error may have been made as Slappy's artwork is now tinted pink instead of dark red. Track listing Personnel Billie Joe Armstrong — lead vocals, guitar Mike Dirnt — bass, backing vocals John Kiffmeyer — drums Aaron Cometbus — backing vocals, "teeth" on "Knowledge" Notes The dog on the cover of Slappy was known as Mickey. "Slappy" was a nickname given to him by Mike Dirnt's friend Jason Relva (the subject of Green Day's later song J.A.R.). "Why Do You Want Him?" was reportedly written by Armstrong when he was 14 years old and was the first song he wrote. "409 in Your Coffeemaker" was re-recorded for the group's third studio album Dookie in 1994. However, the band declined having it put on the record. The Dookie recording of the song can still be found in "unmixed" form on the U.K. "Basket Case" single. Armstrong has also stated that "409 in Your Coffeemaker" is his favorite song on Slappy. References 1990 EPs Green Day EPs Lookout! Records EPs Reprise Records EPs Albums produced by Andy Ernst

263385

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True%20Cross

True Cross

The True Cross is said to be the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. According to post-Nicene historians such as Socrates of Constantinople, Empress Helena travelled to the Holy Land in 326–328, founding churches and establishing relief agencies for the poor. Historians Gelasius of Caesarea (died 395) and Rufinus (344/45–411) claimed that she discovered the hiding place of three crosses that were believed to have been used at the crucifixion of Jesus and the two thieves, St. Dismas and Gestas, executed with him. To one cross was affixed the titulus bearing Jesus's name, but Helena was not sure until a miracle revealed that this was the True Cross. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. While the bulk of Roman Catholic and Orthodox believers recognize them as genuine pieces of the cross of Christ, their authenticity is disputed by other Christians, mainly Protestants. In 2016 a fragment held by Waterford cathedral was tested by Oxford University radiocarbon experts and found to date from the 11th century, a period during which forged relics were common. At the same time, many authentic second-class relics were produced by touching a new piece of wood to an older relic. This was and is still commonly done with many other relics. Over time in the Middle Ages, many second-class relics were taken to be the original articles they were consecrated with. The acceptance and belief of the True Cross tradition of the early Christian Church is generally restricted to the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Church of the East. The medieval legends that developed concerning the provenance of the True Cross differ between Catholic and Orthodox tradition. Provenance The Golden Legend In the Latin-speaking traditions of Western Europe, the story of the pre-Christian origins of the True Cross was well established by the 13th century when, in 1260, it was recorded by Jacopo de Voragine, Bishop of Genoa, in the Golden Legend. The Golden Legend contains several versions of the origin of the True Cross. In The Life of Adam, Voragine writes that the True Cross came from three trees which grew from three seeds from the "Tree of Mercy" which Seth collected and planted in the mouth of Adam's corpse. In another account contained in Of the invention of the Holy Cross, and first of this word invention, Voragine writes that the True Cross came from a tree that grew from part of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, or "the tree that Adam ate of", that Seth planted on Adam's grave where it "endured there unto the time of Solomon". Alternatively, it reached Solomon via Moses, whose rod it was, and David, who planted it at Jerusalem. It was felled by Solomon to be a beam in his Temple of Solomon, but not found suitable in the end. After many centuries, the tree was cut down and the wood used to build a bridge over which the Queen of Sheba passed, on her journey to meet King Solomon. So struck was she by the portent contained in the timber of the bridge that she fell on her knees and revered it. On her visit to Solomon, she told him that a piece of wood from the bridge would bring about the replacement of God's covenant with the Jewish people by a new order. Solomon, fearing the eventual destruction of his people, had the timber buried. After fourteen generations, the wood taken from the bridge was fashioned into the Cross used to crucify Jesus Christ. Voragine then goes on to describe its finding by Helena, mother of the Emperor Constantine. Acceptance of this tradition In the late Middle Ages and Early Renaissance, there was a wide general acceptance of the origin of the True Cross and its history preceding the crucifixion of Jesus, as recorded by Voragine. This general acceptance is confirmed by the numerous artworks that depict this subject, culminating in one of the most famous fresco cycles of the Renaissance, the Legend of the True Cross by Piero della Francesca, painted on the walls of the chancel of the Church of San Francesco in Arezzo between 1452 and 1466, in which he reproduces faithfully the traditional episodes of the story as recorded in The Golden Legend. Eastern Christianity According to the sacred tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church the True Cross was made from three different types of wood: cedar, pine and cypress. This is an allusion to : "The glory of Lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir tree, the pine tree, and the box [cypress] together to beautify the place of my sanctuary, and I will make the place of my feet glorious." The link between this verse and the crucifixion lies in the words "the place of my feet", which is interpreted as referring to the suppedāneum (foot rest) on which Jesus' feet were nailed (see Orthodox cross). (Compare with the Jewish concept of the Ark of the Covenant, or indeed the Jerusalem Temple, as being the resting place for God's foot-stool, and the prescribed Three Pilgrimage Festivals, in Hebrew aliya la-regel, lit. ascending to the foot). Tradition of Lot's triple tree There is a tradition that the three trees (cedar, pine and cypress – see above) from which the True Cross was constructed grew together in one spot. A traditional Orthodox icon depicts Lot, the nephew of Abraham, watering the trees. According to tradition, these trees were used to construct the Temple in Jerusalem ("to beautify the place of my sanctuary"). Later, during Herod's reconstruction of the Temple, the wood from these trees was removed from the Temple and discarded, eventually being used to construct the cross on which Jesus was crucified ("and I will make the place of my feet glorious"). Finding the True Cross Eusebius: no mention of the True Cross Eusebius of Caesarea (died 339) who, through his Life of Constantine, is the earliest and main historical source on the rediscovery of the Tomb of Jesus and the construction of the first church at the site, does not mention the finding of the True Cross. In his Life of Constantine, Eusebius describes how the site of the Holy Sepulchre, once a site of veneration for the early Christian Church in Jerusalem, had been covered over with earth and a temple of Venus had been built on top. Although Eusebius does not say as much, this would probably have been done as part of Hadrian's reconstruction of Jerusalem as a new pagan city, Aelia Capitolina, after 130, following the destruction of the formerly Jewish city at the end of the Jewish Revolt in the year 70, and in connection with Bar Kokhba's revolt of 132–135. Following his conversion to Christianity, Emperor Constantine ordered in about 325–326 that the site be uncovered and instructed Macarius, Bishop of Jerusalem, to build a church on the site. Eusebius' work contains details about the demolition of the pagan temple and the erection of the church, but doesn't mention anywhere the finding of the True Cross. According to Socrates Scholasticus Socrates Scholasticus (born c. 380), in his Ecclesiastical History, gives a full description of the discovery that was repeated later by Sozomen (c. 400 – c. 450 AD) and by Theodoret (c. 393 – c. 458/466). In it he describes how Helena Augusta, Constantine's aged mother, had the pagan temple destroyed and the Sepulchre uncovered, whereupon three crosses, the titulus, and the nails from Jesus's crucifixion were uncovered as well. In Socrates' version of the story, Macarius had the three crosses placed in turn on a deathly ill woman. This woman recovered at the touch of the third cross, which was taken as a sign that this was the cross of Christ, the new Christian symbol. Socrates also reports that, having also found the Holy Nails (the nails with which Christ had been fastened to the cross), Helena sent these to Constantinople, where they were incorporated into the emperor's helmet and the bridle of his horse. According to Sozomen Sozomen (died c. 450), in his Ecclesiastical History, gives essentially the same version as Socrates. He also adds that it was said (by whom he does not say) that the location of the Sepulchre was "disclosed by a Hebrew who dwelt in the East, and who derived his information from some documents which had come to him by paternal inheritance" (although Sozomen himself disputes this account) and that a dead person was also revived by the touch of the Cross. Later popular versions of this story state that the Jew who assisted Helena was named Jude or Judas, but later converted to Christianity and took the name Kyriakos. According to Theodoret Theodoret (died c. 457) in his Ecclesiastical History Chapter xvii gives what would become the standard version of the finding of the True Cross: With the Cross were also found the Holy Nails, which Helena took with her back to Constantinople. According to Theodoret, "She had part of the cross of our Saviour conveyed to the palace. The rest was enclosed in a covering of silver, and committed to the care of the bishop of the city, whom she exhorted to preserve it carefully, in order that it might be transmitted uninjured to posterity." Syriac tradition Another popular ancient version from the Syriac tradition replaced Helena with a fictitious first-century empress named Protonike, who is said to be the wife of emperor Claudius. This story, which originated in Edessa in the 430s, was transmitted in the so-called Doctrina Addai, which was believed to be written by Thaddeus of Edessa (Addai in Syriac texts), one of the seventy disciples. The narrative retrojected the Helena version to the first century. In the story, Protonike traveled to Jerusalem after she met Simon Peter in Rome. She was shown around the city by James, the brother of Jesus, until she discovered the cross after it healed her daughter of some illness. She then converted to Christianity and had a church built on Golgotha. Aside from the Syriac tradition, the Protonike version was also cited by Armenian sources. Religious commemoration within the Catholic Church According to the 1955 Roman Catholic Marian Missal, Helena went to Jerusalem to search for the True Cross and found it September 14, 320. In the eighth century, the feast of the Finding was transferred to May 3, and September 14 became the celebration of the "Exaltation of the Cross", the commemoration of a victory over the Persians by Heraclius, as a result of which the relic was returned to Jerusalem. Literature The quest to find the True Cross is central in Dan Whitfield's novel Eagle Ascending. A New York police detective travels the world trying to recover the True Cross from Neo-Nazis. The relics of the Cross in Jerusalem After Empress Helena The silver reliquary that was left at the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre in care of the bishop of Jerusalem was exhibited periodically to the faithful. In the 380s a nun named Egeria who was travelling on pilgrimage described the veneration of the True Cross at Jerusalem in a long letter, the Itinerarium Egeriae that she sent back to her community of women: Then a chair is placed for the bishop in Golgotha behind the [liturgical] Cross, which is now standing; the bishop duly takes his seat in the chair, and a table covered with a linen cloth is placed before him; the deacons stand round the table, and a silver-gilt casket is brought in which is the holy wood of the Cross. The casket is opened and [the wood] is taken out, and both the wood of the Cross and the title are placed upon the table. Now, when it has been put upon the table, the bishop, as he sits, holds the extremities of the sacred wood firmly in his hands, while the deacons who stand around guard it. It is guarded thus because the custom is that the people, both faithful and catechumens, come one by one and, bowing down at the table, kiss the sacred wood and pass through. And because, I know not when, some one is said to have bitten off and stolen a portion of the sacred wood, it is thus guarded by the deacons who stand around, lest any one approaching should venture to do so again. And as all the people pass by one by one, all bowing themselves, they touch the Cross and the title, first with their foreheads and then with their eyes; then they kiss the Cross and pass through, but none lays his hand upon it to touch it. When they have kissed the Cross and have passed through, a deacon stands holding the ring of Solomon and the horn from which the kings were anointed; they kiss the horn also and gaze at the ring... Before long, but perhaps not until after the visit of Egeria, it was possible also to venerate the crown of thorns, the pillar at which Christ was scourged, and the lance that pierced his side. During Persian–Byzantine war (614–30) In 614 the Sassanid Emperor Khosrau II ("Chosroes") removed the part of the cross held in Jerusalem as a trophy, after he captured the city. Thirteen years later, in 628, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius defeated Khosrau and regained the relic from Shahrbaraz. He placed the cross in Constantinople at first, and took it back to Jerusalem on 21 March 630. Some scholars disagree with this narrative, Professor Constantin Zuckerman going as far as to suggest that the True Cross was actually lost by the Persians, and that the wood contained in the allegedly still sealed reliquary brought to Jerusalem by Heraclius in 629 was a fake. In his analysis, the hoax was designed to serve the political purposes of both Heraclius and his former foe, recently turned ally and co-father-in-law, Persian general and soon-to-become king Shahrbaraz. Fatimids, Crusaders and loss of the Cross Around 1009, the year in which Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Christians in Jerusalem hid part of the cross and it remained hidden until the city was taken by the European soldiers of the First Crusade. Arnulf Malecorne, the first Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, had the Greek Orthodox priests who were in possession of the Cross tortured in order to reveal its location. The relic that Arnulf discovered was a small fragment of wood embedded in a golden cross, and it became the most sacred relic of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, with none of the controversy that had followed their discovery of the Holy Lance in Antioch. It was housed in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre under the protection of the Latin Patriarch, who marched with it ahead of the army before every battle. After King Baldwin I of Jerusalem presented King Sigurd I of Norway with a splinter of the True Cross following the Norwegian Crusade in 1110, the Cross was captured by Saladin during the Battle of Hattin in 1187, and while some Christian rulers, like Richard the Lionheart, Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos and Tamar, Queen of Georgia, sought to ransom it from Saladin, the cross was not returned. In 1219 the True Cross was offered to the Knights Templar by Al-Kamil in exchange for lifting the siege on Damietta. The cross was never delivered as Al-Kamil did not, in fact, have it. Subsequently the cross disappeared from historical records. The True Cross was last seen in the city of Damascus. Current relic Currently the Greek Orthodox church presents a small True Cross relic shown in the Greek Treasury at the foot of Golgotha, within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The Syriac Orthodox Church also has a small relic of the True Cross in St Mark Monastery, Jerusalem. The Armenian Apostolic Church also has a small shard from the True Cross. According to the Ethiopic book, metsehafa teffut, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has the whole true relic of the cross itself in Gishen myrrh mountain St. Mary church. Dispersal of relics An inscription of 359, found at Tixter, in the neighbourhood of Sétif in Mauretania (in today Algeria), was said to mention, in an enumeration of relics, a fragment of the True Cross, according to an entry in Roman Miscellanies, X, 441. Fragments of the Cross were broken up, and the pieces were widely distributed; in 348, in one of his Catecheses, Cyril of Jerusalem remarked that the "whole earth is full of the relics of the Cross of Christ," and in another, "The holy wood of the Cross bears witness, seen among us to this day, and from this place now almost filling the whole world, by means of those who in faith take portions from it." Egeria's account testifies to how highly these relics of the crucifixion were prized. Saint John Chrysostom relates that fragments of the True Cross were kept in golden reliquaries, "which men reverently wear upon their persons." Even two Latin inscriptions around 350 from today's Algeria testify to the keeping and admiration of small particles of the cross. Around the year 455, Juvenal Patriarch of Jerusalem sent to Pope Leo I a fragment of the "precious wood", according to the Letters of Pope Leo. A portion of the cross was taken to Rome in the seventh century by Pope Sergius I, who was of Byzantine origin. "In the small part is power of the whole cross", says an inscription in the Felix Basilica of Nola, built by bishop Paulinus at the beginning of 5th century. The cross particle was inserted in the altar. The Old English poem Dream of the Rood mentions the finding of the cross and the beginning of the tradition of the veneration of its relics. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle also talks of King Alfred receiving a fragment of the cross from Pope Marinus (see: Annal Alfred the Great, year 883). Although it is possible, the poem need not be referring to this specific relic or have this incident as the reason for its composition. However, there is a later source that speaks of a bequest made to the 'Holy Cross' at Shaftesbury Abbey in Dorset; Shaftesbury abbey was founded by King Alfred, supported with a large portion of state funds and given to the charge of his own daughter when he was alive – it is conceivable that if Alfred really received this relic, that he may have given it to the care of the nuns at Shaftesbury. Most of the very small relics of the True Cross in Europe came from Constantinople. The city was captured and sacked by the Fourth Crusade in 1204: "After the conquest of the city Constantinople inestimable wealth was found: incomparably precious jewels and also a part of the cross of the Lord, which Helena transferred from Jerusalem and [which] was decorated with gold and precious jewels. There it attained [the] highest admiration. It was carved up by the present bishops and was divided with other very precious relics among the knights; later, after their return to the homeland, it was donated to churches and monasteries." A knight Robert de Clari wrote: "Within this chapel were found many precious relics; for therein were found two pieces of the True Cross, as thick as a man's leg and a fathom in length." By the end of the Middle Ages so many churches claimed to possess a piece of the True Cross, that John Calvin is famously said to have remarked that there was enough wood in them to fill a ship: Conflicting with this is the finding of Charles Rohault de Fleury, who, in his Mémoire sur les instruments de la Passion of 1870 made a study of the relics in reference to the criticisms of Calvin and Erasmus. He drew up a catalogue of all known relics of the True Cross showing that, in spite of what various authors have claimed, the fragments of the Cross brought together again would not reach one-third that of a cross which has been supposed to have been in height, with transverse branch of wide, proportions not at all abnormal. He calculated: supposing the Cross to have been of pine-wood (based on his microscopic analysis of the fragments) and giving it a weight of about seventy-five kilogrammes, we find the original volume of the cross to be . The total known volume of known relics of the True Cross, according to his catalogue, amounts to approximately (more specifically 3,942,000 cubic millimetres), leaving a volume of , almost 98%, lost, destroyed, or from which is otherwise unaccounted. Four cross particles – of ten particles with surviving documentary provenances by Byzantine emperors – from European churches, i.e. Santa Croce in Rome, Caravaca de la Cruz, Notre Dame, Paris, Pisa Cathedral and Florence Cathedral, were microscopically examined. "The pieces came all together from olive." It is possible that many alleged pieces of the True Cross are forgeries, created by travelling merchants in the Middle Ages, during which period a thriving trade in manufactured relics existed. Gerasimos Smyrnakis notes that the largest surviving portion, of 870,760 cubic millimetres, is preserved in the Monastery of Koutloumousiou on Mount Athos, and also mentions the preserved relics in Rome (consisting of 537,587 cubic millimetres), in Brussels (516,090 cubic millimetres), in Venice (445,582 cubic millimetres), in Ghent (436,450 cubic millimetres) and in Paris (237,731 cubic millimetres). (For comparison, the collective volume of the largest of these sets of fragments would be equivalent to a cube of a little less than per side, while the smallest of these would have an equivalent cubic dimension of about per side. The volume figures given by Smyrnakis for these objects—six significant figures and to the cubic millimeter—are undoubtedly the result of multiplying slightly approximate numbers and should not be seen as implying scientific accuracy of the highest order in a book written over a century ago.) Santo Toribio de Liébana in Spain is also said to hold the largest of these pieces and is one of the most visited Roman Catholic pilgrimage sites. In Asia, the only place where the other part of the True Cross is located is in the Monasterio de Tarlac at San Jose, Tarlac, Philippines. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church also claims to have the right wing of the true cross buried in the monastery of Gishen Mariam. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has an annual religious holiday, called Meskel or Demera, commemorating the discovery of the True Cross by Queen Helena. Meskel occurs on 17 Meskerem in the Ethiopian calendar (September 27, Gregorian calendar, or September 28 in leap years). "Meskel" (or "Meskal" or "Mesqel"; there are various ways to transliterate from Ge'ez to Latin script) is Ge'ez for "cross". The festival is known as Feast of the exaltation of the holy cross in other Orthodox, Catholic or Protestant churches. The churches that follow the Gregorian calendar celebrate the feast on September 14. Veneration Saint John Chrysostom wrote homilies on the three crosses: The Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church, the Anglican Communion, and a number of Protestant denominations, celebrate the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross on September 14, the anniversary of the dedication of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In later centuries, these celebrations also included commemoration of the rescue of the True Cross from the Persians in 628. In the Galician usage, beginning about the seventh century, the Feast of the Cross was celebrated on May 3. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, when the Galician and Roman practices were combined, the September date, for which the Vatican adopted the official name "Triumph of the Cross" in 1963, was used to commemorate the rescue from the Persians and the May date was kept as the "Invention of the True Cross" to commemorate the finding. The September date is often referred to in the West as Holy Cross Day; the May date (See also Roodmas.) was dropped from the liturgical calendar of the Catholic Church in 1960 when the Roman Breviary was reformed by Pope John XXIII. The Orthodox still commemorate both events on September 14, one of the Twelve Great Feasts of the liturgical year, and the Procession of the Venerable Wood of the Cross on 1 August, the day on which the relics of the True Cross would be carried through the streets of Constantinople to bless the city. In addition to celebrations on fixed days, there are certain days of the variable cycle when the Cross is celebrated. The Catholic Church has a formal Adoration of the Cross during the services for Good Friday. In Eastern Orthodox churches everywhere, a replica of the cross is brought out in procession during Matins of Great and Holy Friday for the people to venerate. The Orthodox also celebrate an additional Veneration of the Cross on the third Sunday of Great Lent. Image gallery See also Holy Grail, motif from the Arthurian literature Holyrood (cross) Île de la Cité Relics associated with Jesus Arma Christi Holy Chalice, chalice used at the Last Supper Holy Lance Holy Sponge Shroud of Turin Titulus Crucis Santa Croce in Gerusalemme Stavelot Triptych Tree of Jesse References Citations Bibliography Herzog, Sadja. “Gossart, Italy, and the National Gallery's Saint Jerome Penitent.” Report and Studies in the History of Art, vol. 3, 1969, pp. 67–70, JSTOR, Accessed 29 Dec. 2020. Further reading Alan V. Murray, "Mighty against the enemies of Christ: the relic of the True Cross in the armies of the Kingdom of Jerusalem" in The Crusades and their sources: essays presented to B. Hamilton ed. J. France, W. G. Zajac (Aldershot, 1998) pp. 217–238. A. Frolow, La relique de la Vraie Croix: recherches sur le développement d'un culte. Paris, 1961. Jean-Luc Deuffic (ed.), Reliques et sainteté dans l'espace médiéval, Pecia 8/11, 2005 Massimo Olmi, Indagine sulla croce di Cristo, Torino 2015. Massimo Olmi, I segreti delle reliquie bibliche. Dall'Arca dell'Alleanza al calice dell'Ultima Cena, Xpublishing, Roma 2018. External links Jan Willem Drijvers, "Helena Augusta": the three legends that circulated about the finding of the Cross, the Helena legend, the Protonike legend and the Judas Kyriakos legend, with references to the contemporary sources Catholic Encyclopedia: "True Cross," a Catholic view OCA Synaxarion: Exaltation of the Cross, traditional Orthodox view Fernand Cabrol, "The true Cross": a Catholic view The Holy Cross in Jerusalem Relic of the True Cross in Wrocław, Poland Catholic Church in Jerusalem Christian folklore Christian relics Christian terminology Christianity in Jerusalem Crucifixion of Jesus Jesus and history Relics associated with Jesus

263390

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick%20McCabe

Nick McCabe

Nicholas John McCabe (born 14 July 1971) is an English musician best known as the lead guitarist of The Verve. Early life McCabe is the son of a bus driver father and a social worker mother and has two older brothers, Alan and Paul. When asked what it was that inspired him to become a guitarist, he answered: "That was me, I just got a guitar, and I could play a few things on it, and I liked messing with it, and I liked making my own things up." He attended Haydock High School, and later met Richard Ashcroft at Winstanley College. Ashcroft described McCabe's guitar playing as sounding like "a whole other universe"; the two briefly played in a band whilst at college. After leaving college, McCabe began a career as a quantity surveyor. He later recalled: "I hated it. I used to sit there all day scribbling in my pad thinking about guitar sounds." He gave this up to be part of The Verve along with Ashcroft, Simon Jones and Peter Salisbury. The Verve McCabe was generally an aloof member, being involved in relatively few interviews. Tensions and power struggles between McCabe and Ashcroft would later cause the band's dissolution. The first break-up happened in 1995 when Ashcroft left after the band's second album, A Northern Soul. Shortly thereafter Ashcroft reformed the band without McCabe, replacing him with Simon Tong. McCabe returned home to work on his own music and spend time with his daughter until Ashcroft asked him to return in 1997, for the band's third album, Urban Hymns. Despite the album's success, McCabe left in 1998, and although The Verve continued touring without him, the band later split for the second time in early 1999. In early 2007, McCabe made peace with Ashcroft, and the band reunited. A new album, Forth, was released in 2008. However, the band broke up again in 2009. Other projects Following The Verve's split in 1999, McCabe kept a relatively low profile. In 2001, he played on "Walking Home" for John Martyn's album, On the Cobbles. In 2002, he played on "Lost Broadcast" for Faultline's album Your Love Means Everything. In 2004, McCabe's remix of The Music's song "The People" appeared on their single "Freedom Fighters". In March 2009, following the death of Martyn, McCabe discussed Martyn's music and the experience of working with him in an interview with Mojo. In 2009 McCabe founded a new band called The Black Ships with Jones, drummer Mig Schillace, and electric violinist Davide Rossi. The Black Ships released their first EP, "Kurofune", in May 2011, and performed their debut gig at Kings College Student Union on 2 June 2011 before changing their name to Black Submarine in mid-2012. Musical style McCabe stands still whilst playing, with one reviewer in 1993 describing him as having "coaxed gorgeous, shimmering wodges of sound from his instrument while exuding all the enthusiasm of a man waiting for a bus." McCabe has cited artists such as Joy Division, John Martyn and Eddie Hazel as inspirations. He has also expressed his fondness of synthesizers and explained his 'psychedelic' sound as trying to make a guitar sound like a synthesizer by using effects pedals and valve amps. Producer Owen Morris referred to McCabe as "without a shadow of a doubt the most gifted musician I've ever worked with", but also claimed he was "a complete and utter nightmare" to work with, saying "He'll never play the same thing twice. Now you can ask Noel Gallagher to play the same guitar line a hundred times, and as long as there's a good reason for him doing it, he'll do it. But with Nick you've got no chance. But that's what he does, y'know?" Equipment Amps (partial): Mesa/Boogie Mark III combo Roland JC120 (daisy-chained to the boogie) Marshall solid state bass amp Effects (partial): Alesis QuadraVerb+ Roland RE-201 Space Echo BOSS OD-1 Ibanez FL9 Eventide H3000 Roland GP-8 DigiTech Whammy IV BOSS CS-3 Compression/Sustainer Guitars (partial): Gibson Les Paul Fender Stratocaster (1979) Gibson ES-335 Fender Jazzmaster (1959) 70's Fender Telecaster Deluxe Gibson Flying V Fender 12-String Mandolin Ovation acoustic Eastwood Ichiban Discography 1997– The Beta Band – Champion Versions E.P. (1997) Mellow – Instant Love E.P. (1999) O.S.T. for Iain Banks' "Complicity" (2000) Neotropic (project) – La Prochaine Fois/An Ambient Road Movie (2001) Faultline feat. Nick McCabe – Lost Broadcast (2002/2004, released on Your Love Means Everything) John Martyn feat. Nick McCabe – Walking Home (2004, released on On the Cobbles) Nick McCabe vs. The Music – The People (2004, released on The Freedom Fighters E.P.) The Nova Saints – Far Out (Nick McCabe Remix) (2007, released on The Draft EP) The Twilight Singers feat. Mark Lanegan and Nick McCabe – Be Invited (2011, released on Dynamite Steps) Intastella feat. Jah Wobble and Nick McCabe – Lemons (2011, released on The Rise and Fall of a Northern Dubstar) Lowline feat. Nick McCabe – Bury My Soul (2013, released on The Howler EP) Natalie Kocab and Michaela Poláková feat. Nick McCabe – on 8 songs (2017, Ellis Island) References External links McCabe interview by Ajay Sharma 1971 births Living people English rock guitarists English male guitarists People from St Helens, Merseyside The Verve members

263394

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brighton%20%28disambiguation%29

Brighton (disambiguation)

Brighton is a town in East Sussex and constituent part of the city of Brighton and Hove. Brighton may also refer to: Places United Kingdom Brighton, East Sussex, England Brighton, Cornwall, a hamlet in Cornwall, England Brightons, a village in Falkirk, Scotland Australia Brighton, Queensland, a suburb of Brisbane Brighton, South Australia, a coastal suburb of Adelaide North Brighton, South Australia, adjacent suburb of Adelaide South Brighton, South Australia, adjacent suburb of Adelaide City of Brighton (South Australia), a former local government area District Council of Brighton, a former local government area Electoral district of Brighton (South Australia), a former electoral district in South Australia Brighton, Tasmania, a suburb of Hobart Brighton Council, a local government area in Tasmania Electoral district of Brighton (Tasmania), a former electoral district in Tasmania Brighton, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne Brighton East, Victoria, adjacent suburb of Melbourne City of Brighton, Victoria, a former local government area Electoral district of Brighton, an electoral district in Victoria Brighton-Le-Sands, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney Canada Brighton Parish, New Brunswick Brighton, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island Brighton, Digby, Nova Scotia, a community in Digby County Brighton, Newfoundland and Labrador, a town Brighton, Ontario, a town Brighton, Shelburne, Nova Scotia, a community in Shelburne County New Zealand Brighton, New Zealand, Otago region, a town Trinidad and Tobago Brighton, Trinidad and Tobago, a Locality near La Brea, Trinidad and Tobago United States (Alphabetical by state) Brighton, Alabama, a city Brighton, Colorado, a home rule municipality Brighton Seminole Indian Reservation, Florida Brighton, Georgia, an unincorporated community Brighton, Illinois, a village Brighton Park, Chicago, Illinois, a neighbourhood Brighton, Indiana, an unincorporated community Brighton, Iowa, a city Brighton Plantation, Maine Brighton, Boston, a dissolved municipality and current neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts Brighton, Michigan, a suburb in metro Detroit Brighton, Missouri, an unincorporated community Brighton, Erie County, New York, an unincorporated area in the town of Tonawanda Brighton, Franklin County, New York, a town Brighton, Monroe County, New York, a town and census-designated place Brighton, Syracuse, New York, an official neighborhood of Syracuse Brighton Beach, New York, a neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York City, sometimes referred to merely as Brighton Brighton, Clark County, Ohio, an unincorporated community Brighton, Lorain County, Ohio, an unincorporated community Brighton, Oregon, an unincorporated community Brighton, Tennessee, a town Brighton Ski Resort, Utah Brighton, Utah, an unincorporated community Brighton, Vermont, a town Brighton, Seattle, Washington, a neighborhood Brighton (community), Kenosha County, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community Brighton, Kenosha County, Wisconsin, a town Brighton, Marathon County, Wisconsin, a town Brighton Township (disambiguation) Schools Brighton College, a boarding and day school established in 1845 in Brighton, England Brighton High School (disambiguation) University of Brighton, with five campuses in Brighton, Eastbourne and Hastings, England Sports Brighton & Hove Albion F.C., a football club who compete in the English premier league Brighton & Hove Albion W.F.C., a women's football club associated with the above Brighton Football Club (RFU), one of the oldest rugby clubs in England Brighton Football Club (Tasmania), an Australian rules football club Brighton Football Club, a former Australian rules football club based in the Melbourne suburb of Brighton Train lines BMT Brighton Line, a New York City subway line Brighton Main Line, a railway line between London and Brighton Vessels HMS Brighton, the name of three ships of the Royal Navy PS Brighton, a former Manly ferry on Sydney Harbour SS Brighton, the name of three ships of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway Other uses Brighton, a character in the video game Mario Party 6 Brighton Collectibles, a corporation that sells handbags, jewelry, shoes and more See also Brighten (U.S. band) Bright (disambiguation), for towns named Bright (ie "Bright town") Brighton High School (disambiguation) Brighton College (disambiguation) Brighton School (disambiguation) Brighton Beach (disambiguation) New Brighton (disambiguation)

263396

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Stirling

James Stirling

James Stirling may refer to: James Stirling (mathematician) (1692–1770), Scottish mathematician Sir James Stirling, 1st Baronet (c.1740–1805), Scottish banker and lord provost of Edinburgh Sir James Stirling (Royal Navy officer) (1791–1865), British admiral and Governor of Western Australia James Stirling (engineer, born 1799) (1799–1876), Scottish engineer James Hutchison Stirling (1820–1909), Scottish philosopher James Stirling (engineer, born 1835) (1835–1917), Scottish locomotive engineer Sir James Stirling (judge) (1836–1916), British jurist James Stirling (botanist) (1852–1909), Australian botanist and geologist James Stirling (1890s footballer) (fl. 1895–1896), Scottish footballer Jimmy Stirling (1925–2006), Scottish footballer Sir James Stirling (architect) (1926–1992), architect Sir James Stirling of Garden (born 1930), British Army officer, chartered surveyor and Lord Lieutenant of Stirling and Falkirk James Stirling (physicist) (1953–2018), British phyicist and Provost of Imperial College London See also James Sterling (disambiguation) Stirling (disambiguation)

263397

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Northern%20Soul

A Northern Soul

A Northern Soul is the second studio album by English alternative rock band The Verve. The album was released in the United Kingdom on 20 June 1995 on the Hut label and in the United States on 3 July 1995 on Vernon Yard Records. The title is a reference to Northern Soul, a popular soul movement in Britain during the 1970s. A Northern Soul was a moderate success upon release, charting at number 13 in the UK, and has since received critical acclaim, as well as being ranked high in readers polls in popular music publications. This is the final album to feature the band's original line-up until 2008's Forth. In 2013, NME ranked it at number 390 in its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Background Following their performance at Lollapalooza in 1994, The Verve returned to their Wigan-based practice room to begin writing and recording songs for their second studio album. Commenting on the effect that working in the "dark rehearsal room" had on the band's songwriting process, frontman Richard Ashcroft stated: Initially, the band tried to record the LP inside the rehearsal room itself, so that "they could record as they had been rehearsing", but, when this approach proved to be impossible, they relocated the recording sessions to rural Wales with producer Owen Morris. Tom Hiney, writing for The Guardian in September 1997, claimed that the band's experience of recording during this period was "intense and morose, but it produced an album that will still be listened to in 30 years' time." Recording After encountering difficulties during the recording of their debut album, the band decided to take a more focused approach to the recording of A Northern Soul, with bassist Simon Jones stating, "I was like, 'I'm not going through that again. We are writing these songs before we even step through the doors.'" Guitarist Nick McCabe took a positive view of the early stages of the recording sessions for the album, stating: "when we went in we had no preconceived notion of what it was going to sound like. We just went in and played...and that's when you know you're playing really well, when you don't have to think about it. There were three weeks during the making of that record which I'd have to say were the best I've ever had in my life." However, the sessions soon became infamous for several incidents, with vocalist Richard Ashcroft describing the experience as "insane in ways that only good music, bad drugs and mixed emotions can make." These incidents varied in nature, from Ashcroft disappearing for days to producer Owen Morris smashing a window after the recording of "History". Morris later recalled: "They did my head in, completely and utterly. There you go. That's life. It's a fantastic album at the end of the day, but it's not a process that I'd ever want to go through again". Music A Northern Soul was a change in style for the band, moving from the psychedelic rock of their earlier work to alternative rock. Guitar Magazine writer Dan Eccleston claimed "the band retreated to their Wigan rehearsal room and plugged in, tuned up and flipped out into that parallel universe wherein the Verve song resides. And the result is A Northern Soul – a record whose deep, dark funky rock makes their actually rather lovely '93 debut A Storm in Heaven sound almost limp. The Verve essence remains – swirling guitar arpeggios, grand rock themes, sprawling structures – but it's warmer, denser and more powerful in every way." The lyrics took on a more prominent and personal role, with Ashcroft explaining: "Each song is a northern soul going through different emotions. I hear this character all the way through the record; pretty pained, then elated, then arrogant. All facets of that personality are a northern soul. That's what I am." It has been claimed that many of the album's lyrics (particularly those of "History") were connected to Ashcroft's split with his girlfriend, with Ashcroft himself stating: "We were all working on the record and then I went off to London for about three months to sort some things out with my girlfriend at the time. Things didn't go so well, and I got really fucked up for about two of those months, both physically and mentally. When I got back, the strangest thing was that they were playing music that was precisely the way I was feeling and so the two just went together quite easily." In a retrospective review of the album, Nick Southall of Stylus wrote: "The songs, such as they are, are long and have little structure, the production is murky and raw and harrowing, the tempo is unchanging to the point of testing endurance. There is no joy or even solace to be found in this record, only unforgiving turmoil. It is a traumatic realisation of the hopelessness of human existence, a document of fractured mentalities, the sound of four young men old before their time, scarred by life, already dead once and now desperately striving to be alive for just a moment before it all fades. Songs in the key of pain. Modern, urban, tortured psychedelic soul [...] A wall of noise, a sea of anguish, a masterpiece. On a hillside somewhere in the distance a man screams his desolation at the sky and curses his birth, overcome with fear that this emptiness may be all he can ever know. This record is his scream." Critical reception The album was a moderate success upon its release, reaching No. 13 on the UK album chart. However, in later years the album saw more acclaim, with readers of Q Magazine voting it the 53rd greatest album ever in 1998, and NME ranking it as the 28th best album of all time in 2003 and the 13th best British album in 2006. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. In 2000 it was voted number 289 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums. In 2013, NME ranked it at number 390 in its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Track listing Richard Ashcroft dedicated track 5 to Oasis guitarist Noel Gallagher, who returned the honour by dedicating "Cast No Shadow" to "the genius of Richard Ashcroft" on (What's the Story) Morning Glory?. Personnel The Verve Richard Ashcroft – vocals; acoustic guitar on "On Your Own", "So It Goes", "History" and "Stormy Clouds"; percussion on "This Is Music", "So It Goes", "History" and "Life's an Ocean"; electric piano on "No Knock on My Door" Nick McCabe – electric guitar; piano on "On Your Own" and "Stormy Clouds"; 12-string guitar on "On Your Own"; acoustic guitar on "So It Goes" and "Stormy Clouds"; Hammond organ on "So It Goes"; Moog synthesizer on "Stormy Clouds" Simon Jones – bass; percussion on "A New Decade"; keyboards on "A Northern Soul"; 12-string acoustic guitar on "History" Peter Salisbury – drums; percussion on "A New Decade", "This Is Music", "So It Goes", "History" and "Life's an Ocean" Additional personnel Liam Gallagher – handclaps on "History" Will Malone - string arrangement on "History" Gavin Wright & The Longdon Session Orchestra - strings on "History" Technical personnel Owen Morris – producer; Hammond organ on "Brainstorm Interlude"; synthesised strings on "History", string arrangement on "History" Mark Lee – studio assistant Mastered by Jack Adams at The Townhouse Sleeve concept, design & art direction by Brian Cannon for microdot Photography by Michael Spencer Jones except: The Verve on the bus (Scarlet Page) and The Verve in the cafe (Mary Scanlon) References External links A Northern Soul at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed) The Verve albums 1995 albums Hut Records albums Virgin Records albums Albums produced by Owen Morris

263398

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pub%20song

Pub song

In English popular culture, the "traditional" pub songs typified by the Cockney "knees up" mostly come from the classics of the music hall, along with numbers from film, the stage and other forms of popular music. The tradition is continued in the UK by acts such as Chas & Dave and a Tribute to Chas and Dave called Gertcha, many of whose works are in a 'pub song' format. Typical songs include: "Any Old Iron" "Daddy Wouldn't Buy Me a Bow Wow" "Knees Up Mother Brown" "My Old Man's a Dustman" "Nellie Dean" "Underneath the Arches" "Where Did You Get That Hat?" See also List of public house topics Pub rock (Australia) Pub rock (United Kingdom) References Folk music genres Pubs Drinking songs

263399

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clopyralid

Clopyralid

Clopyralid (3,6-dichloro-2-pyridinecarboxylic acid) is a selective herbicide used for control of broadleaf weeds, especially thistles and clovers. Clopyralid is in the picolinic acid family of herbicides, which also includes aminopyralid, picloram, triclopyr, and several less common herbicides. For control of creeping thistle, Cirsium arvense, a noxious, perennial weed, clopyralid is one of the few effective herbicides available. It is particularly damaging to peas, tomatoes, and sunflowers, and can render potatoes, lettuce, and spinach inedible. It does not affect grasses (family Poaceae). Clopyralid is known for its ability to persist in dead plants and compost, and has accumulated to phytotoxic levels in finished compost in a few highly publicized cases. This first came to light in Washington, when during 2000 and 2001, residues of clopyralid were detected in commercial compost, and compost made at a municipal site damaged tomatoes and other garden plants planted in it. Word quickly spread to other local and state governments, and in 2002, DowAgro, the manufacturer of clopyralid, voluntarily deregistered it for use on domestic lawns in the US and it is banned in several US states, but it is found in consumer products in Europe such as Scotts Verdone Extra and Vitax Lawn Clear 2. Clopyralid is licensed for lawn use in France and under these names: Bayer Jardin: Désherbant jeune gazon and Scanner Sélectif gazon Vilmorin: désherbant Gazon LONPAR. Brand names of clopyralid in the US market include Stinger, Transline, Reclaim, Curtail, Confront, Clopyr AG, Lontrel, Millennium Ultra, Millenium Ultra Plus and Redeem. References Auxinic herbicides Chloropyridines Carboxylic acids

263401

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto%20Teodoro%20Moneta

Ernesto Teodoro Moneta

Ernesto Teodoro Moneta (September 20, 1833 in Milan, Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia – February 10, 1918) was an Italian journalist, nationalist, revolutionary soldier and later a pacifist and Nobel Peace Prize Laureate. He adopted the motto In varietate unitas! which later inspired Motto of the European Union. At age 15, Moneta participated in the "Five Days of Milan" (1848 uprising against Austrian rule). He later attended the military academy in Ivrea. In 1859 he joined Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand, and also fought in the ranks of the Italian army against the Austrians in 1866. Subsequently, he became an international peace activist, despite his strong Italian nationalism. Between 1867 and 1896 he was editor of the Milan democratic paper Il Secolo, published by Edoardo Sonzogno. In 1887 he founded the Lombard Association for Peace and Arbitration (Unione Lombarda per la Pace e l'Arbitrato), which called for disarmament and envisaged the creation of a League of Nations and Permanent Court of Arbitration. He won (with Louis Renault) the Nobel Peace Prize in 1907. In the last years of his life, however, Moneta's Italian nationalism reasserted itself and got the better of his pacifism. He expressed public support for both the Italian Conquest of Libya in 1912 and Italy's entry into the First World War in 1915. References including the Nobel Lecture, August 25, 1909 Peace and Law in the Italian Tradition Ernesto Teodoro Moneta Monograph at nobel-winners.com Nobel Lectures, Peace 1901-1925, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam. External links Società per la pace e la giustizia internazionale. Founded by Ernesto Teodoro Moneta 1833 births 1918 deaths Military personnel from Milan Journalists from Milan Nobel Peace Prize laureates Italian Nobel laureates Italian newspaper editors Italian male journalists

263405

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rar%C3%A1muri

Rarámuri

The Rarámuri or Tarahumara are a group of indigenous people of the Americas living in the state of Chihuahua in Mexico. They are renowned for their long-distance running ability. Originally inhabitants of much of Chihuahua, the Rarámuri retreated to the high sierras and canyons such as the Copper Canyon in the Sierra Madre Occidental on the arrival of Spanish colonizers in the 16th century. The area of the Sierra Madre Occidental which they now inhabit is often called the Sierra Tarahumara because of their presence. Estimates put the Rarámuri population in 2006 at between 50,000 and 70,000 people. Most still practise a traditional lifestyle, including inhabiting natural shelters (caves or cliff overhangs). Staple crops are corn and beans; however, many of the Rarámuri still practise transhumance, raising cattle, sheep, and goats. Almost all Rarámuri migrate from one place to another during the course of a year. The Rarámuri language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan family. Although it is in decline under pressure from Spanish, it is still widely spoken. In the Rarámuri language, the endonymic term rarámuri refers specifically to the men; women are referred to as mukí (individually), and as omugí or igómale (collectively). History The Rarámuri are believed to be descended from a people of the Mogollon culture. The Rarámuri repulsed and were never conquered by the Spanish conquistadors or fully converted by the Jesuit missionaries. When the Spanish arrived in the 1500s, they called this native people the "Tarahumara". By the early 17th century, the Spanish had established mines in Tarahumara territory and made some slave raids to obtain workers for the mines. Jesuit Juan Fonte established a mission, San Pablo Balleza, at the southern end of Tarahumara territory, expanding from missionary work with the Tepehuan to the south. The Tepehuan's violent resistance to Spanish incursion in the Tepehuan revolt of 1616 killed Fonte and seven other Jesuit missionaries, closing the mission for over a decade. The discovery of the mines of Parral, Chihuahua, in 1631 increased Spanish presence in Tarahumara lands, bringing more slave raids and Jesuit missionaries. Missions were established at Las Bocas, Huejotitlan, San Felipe and Satevo. In 1648, the Tarahumara waged war against the Spanish. They gathered at Fariagic and then destroyed the mission of San Francisco de Borja. Two of the leaders of this attack were captured by the Spanish and executed. Shortly afterward, the Spanish established Villa de Aguilar in the heart of the upper Tarahumara country. From then on, the Tarahumara split into two groups. Those in the lower missions continued to move into the general Catholic population and largely lost their tribal identity. Those in the upper areas went to war under the leadership of Tepóraca and others, driving the Jesuits and Spanish settlers from the area. The Jesuits returned in the 1670s and ultimately baptized thousands of Tarahumara, but these people have retained a separate identity. Tepóraca was executed by the Spanish in 1690. From 1696 to 1698, the Tarahumara again waged war against the Spanish, but were defeated. An important 1691 Jesuit report concerned the resistance of the Tarahumara to evangelization, Historia de la tercera rebelión tarahumara. By 1753, the Jesuits turned over the lower Tarahumara missions to secular priests, and in 1767 the Jesuits were expelled in Spanish territories. Most missions in Tarahumara country ceased to operate or were turned over to Franciscans. Despite devoted and enthusiastic efforts, the Franciscans could not match the Jesuits’ feats, and the missions declined. The Jesuits reestablished the missions in the early 20th century. Culture Athletic skills The Tarahumara word for themselves, Rarámuri, means "runners on foot" or "those who run fast" in their native tongue according to some early ethnographers like Norwegian Carl Lumholtz, though this interpretation has not been fully agreed upon. With widely dispersed settlements, these people developed a tradition of long-distance running up to in one session, over a period of two days through their homeland of rough canyon country, for inter-village communication, transportation, and hunting. The Tarahumara's use of huaraches, a traditional form of minimal footwear, when running has been the subject of scientific study, as well as journalistic discourse. In his book, Born to Run, author Christopher McDougall argues in favor of the endurance running hypothesis and the barefoot running movement based on his time with the Tarahumara people and their running in huaraches. The long-distance running tradition also has ceremonial and competitive aspects. Often, men kick wooden balls as they run in "foot throwing", rarajipari, competitions, and women use a stick and hoop. The foot throwing races are relays where the balls are kicked by the runners and relayed to the next runner while teammates run ahead to the next relay point. These races can last anywhere from a few hours to a couple of days without a break. The Tarahumara commonly hunt with bow and arrows, but are also known for their ability to run down deer and wild turkeys. Anthropologist Jonathan F. Cassel describes the Tarahumaras’ hunting abilities: "the Tarahumara literally run the birds to death in what is referred to as persistence hunting. Forced into a rapid series of takeoffs, without sufficient rest periods between, the heavy-bodied bird does not have the strength to fly or run away from the Tarahumara hunter." Religious beliefs The Rarámuri religion is a mélange of indigenous customs and Roman Catholicism. During the late 1600s and early 1700s, there was strong Jesuit mission activity, which was met by resistance. Later, when the Jesuit order was expelled, the Rarámuri were left free to interpret, modify, maintain or promulgate Catholic beliefs, symbols and practices with little outside intervention . While native religious elements have been maintained, there are Spanish Catholic ritual elements, demonstrating "a genuine integration with vital cultural interests". The beings of most importance are: God (Riosi), God's wife, who is the Christian Virgin Mary transformed, and the devil (Riablo). Riosi is thought to be the indigenous deity Onoruame ("Great Father"), and the Virgin Mary is Iyeruame ("Great Mother"). The indigenous counterparts of Father-Sun and Mother Moon overlap, respectively, with these concepts of God and God's wife. Another reported variation is that God has a wife who lives with him in heaven, along with their sons, the so-called sukristo (from Spanish Jesucristo) and their daughters, the Santi. These beings have a direct link with the physical world through Catholic iconography, crucifixes and saints’ medallions, respectively. Although Riablo aligns with the devil, the Rarámuri do not believe in a being that embodies Evil wholly. Instead it is tainted through its ties with the Chabochi (non-Rarámuri). The Devil is said to sometimes collaborate with God to arrange fitting punishments and can be appeased through sacrifices. In some cases, the Devil can be persuaded to act as a benevolent entity. Some Rarámuri religious practices have the sense of konema (i.e., feeding God), the sense of returning to God a little of the much that he has given is prevalent. Some Tarahumaras maintain a belief that the afterlife is a mirror image of the mortal world and that good deeds should be performed—not for spiritual reward—but for the improvement of life on earth. The Rarámuri share with other Uto-Aztecan tribes a veneration of peyote. Music Music and dance are highly integrated into Tarahumara social life. The classical pianist Romayne Wheeler writes that "Music sanctifies the moment in the life of all the Tarahumaras," and "All of our actions have musical meaning." During the end of the year cycle, the Tarahumaras play violins which are masterfully carved but not varnished. The tunes are known as matachín pieces and are danced by dancers lavishly dressed in colorful attire resembling North African garments and accompanied by rattles (sáuraka). During Lent they play three-holed flutes of river cane, together with drums. Food Staple crops of the Tarahumara are maize, beans, greens, squash, and tobacco. Chilli, potatoes, tomatoes, and sweet potatoes appear in Mexicanized regions. Corn is planted in February and March using oxen which are often loaned as not everyone owns one. Corn begins to flower in August; by November it is harvested and cooked or stored. Common corn dishes are pinole, tortillas, esquiate, atole, tamales, and boiled and roasted ears. Beans are one of the Tarahumaras’ essential protein-rich foods and are usually served fried after being boiled. Tamales and beans are a common food which the Tarahumara carry with them on travels. Wheat and fruits were introduced by missionaries and are a minor source of nutrition. The fruits grown by the Tarahumara include apples, apricots, figs, and oranges. The Tarahumaras also eat meat, but this constitutes less than 5% of their diet. Most of the meats that they consume are fish, chicken, and squirrels. On ceremonial occasions, domesticated animals such as cows, sheep, and goats are killed and eaten. The Tarahumara practice persistence hunting of deer and wild turkeys by following them at a steady pace for one or two days until the animal drops from exhaustion. According to William Connors, a dietary researcher, their traditional diet was found to be linked to their low incidence of diseases such as Type 2 Diabetes. However, the Tarahumaras' health is transitioning in regions where processed goods have begun to replace their traditional staples. Clothing Tesgüino, a fermented drink, and associated Tesgüinadas festivals Tesgüino is a fermented drink made year round from sprouted corn. Sometimes it is also made with still-green stalks, fruits of certain cactuses, shrubs, wheat, and trees when corn is sparse. The process begins by malting the corn and spreading it in a shallow basket covered with pine needles each day for four or five days. It is kept moist until the corn sprouts by which time the starch in the corn has been converted into smaller sugars. It is then mashed and boiled for eight hours. Varied herbs are ground up and mixed with water into a paste which is then fermented overnight by a fire. Then the paste is combined with the corn liquid and fermented for another three to four days. Partaking of the alcoholic beverage usually takes place soon after its preparation, as the tesgüino can spoil within 24 hours. Gatherings for celebrations, races, and religious ceremonies often take place with tesgüinadas, a Tarahumara-style beer festival. These gatherings take place all year around, but most happen in winter, and are the social events between the neighboring Tarahumara people. Tesgüinada events include rain fiestas, harvest ceremonies, curing fiestas, Guadalupe Fiesta, Holy Week, races, and Sunday gatherings. Some of these events take place during and after communal activates, for example when neighbors help one another's families with their fields or building large structures like granaries, houses, and corrals. The harvest and rain ceremonies take place during the farming months to ensure a good crop season. These events also require either a shaman, curandero, or chanter. The job of the shaman and curandero are purely religious, as the curandero is there to diagnose and to heal the sick of the community, and chanters lead the tesgüinadas in chants and rhythms to accompany the ceremonies. Tesgüinadas are an important aspect of Tarahumara culture as it is often the only time when men have intercourse with their wives. They act as a social lubricant, as Tarahumara are very shy and private. Anthropologist John Kennedy describes the institution of tesgüinada as an important social fabric to Tarahumara culture which he calls the "tesgüino network". He also states that "the average Tarahumara spends at least 100 days per year directly concerned with tesgüino and much of this time under its influence or aftereffects." The religious role of tesgüino is a very important aspect to tesgüinada. Before one can drink an olla of tesgüino they must dedicate it to Onorúame. During the curing ceremonies, the olla must rest in front of a cross until the ceremony is over. At age 14, a boy is allowed to drink tesgüino for the first time after a short sermon about his manly responsibilities. These rituals can sometimes last as long as 48 hours. Tesgüinadas are usually accompanied by dancing and the playing of fiddles, flutes, drums and guitars. Notable Rarámuri Daniel Ponce de León, former WBO world junior featherweight champion Arnulfo Quimare, ultra marathoner Isidro Baldenegro López, community leader and activist Edwin Bustillos, award-winning agricultural engineer Jacob Casillas, award-winning mechanical engineer Dr. Octavio Casillas, award-winning educator María Lorena Ramírez, ultra marathoner Carmelita Little Turtle, photographer Threats Environmental factors Logging has occurred since the end of the 1800s when the first loggers arrived. Later, liberalization of laws in the 1990s resulted in the exhaustion of resources. In 1995, it was declared that "after hundred years of logging, only two percent (300,000 acres) of these unique forests remains", leaving one of the most biologically diverse ecosystem in North America, containing hundreds of medicinal plant, oak and pine species in danger of extinction. The Mexican Commission of Solidarity and Defense of Human Rights produced a report in 2000 noting the lack of studies by the government on how lumber production affected the ecosystem. Similarly, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) boosted foreign investment which resulted in the privatization of communal land, and market-based mechanisms of environmental regulation. In January 2017, Isidro Baldenegro López (2005 recipient of the Goldman Environmental Prize) a community leader of the Tarahumara, was shot and killed in Mexico. Baldenegro spent much of his life defending the ancient forests of the Sierra Madre region from the devastating effects of logging. Drought has also been affecting the region for ten years and has worsened in recent years. During 2011, it was the driest year in Mexico on record, with just 12 inches of rain, compared to a historic average of 21 inches. The most severely hit area was the Sierra Madre region. Agricultural losses in Chihuahua are estimated at $25 million; 180,000 cattle have already died, as a result of the growing lack of precipitation in the region. Due to the lack of water, crops were destroyed and famine spread. Combined with freezing temperatures of a cold front, living conditions have become poor for the Rarámuri. Their dependence on the environment worsens the situation, as they lack employment opportunities to generate income in non-farming activities. Moreover, increased contact with the outside world might be damaging as it creates dependency. These indigenous people face extreme poverty, as reflected in the Mexican Human Development Index (HDI) which in the Sierra Madre is the lowest in the country: 49.1% below national average. Alberto Herrera, the Mexican director of Amnesty International stated that the indigenous people in his country have endured "permanent discrimination, exclusion and marginalization." Mining Mining dates to 950 AD with the Toltec and Mayan civilizations. Since the Spanish conquest, thousands of tons of mercury and lead have been released in the Mexican mining belt, which stretches from Oaxaca to Sonora in the northwest. The Sierra Madre part of this belt is one of the world's most prolific gold and silver mining districts. Georgius Agricola mentioned in 1556 that mining led to deforestation, the disappearance of wildlife and watershed contamination. Large areas were deforested to exploit metal deposits. Reforms in the 1990s allowed foreign ownership, and resulted in reopening of mines and increased mining. According to the Secretaría de Economía, 204 mining companies with direct foreign investment had 310 ongoing projects in Mexico in 2006. In 2010, Mexico's mining output reached high levels: 19% of the world's silver production was extracted here, and the mining belt was the world's most productive district as it was historically. The environmental impacts are dramatic, resulting in landscape change and the spread of heavy metals. Effect of drug violence Drug violence, cultivation and trade in this region has affected the lifestyle of the Rarámuri, given the proximity of the people and the Sierra Madre, one of the most productive drug growing regions on Earth. Logging is not only controlled by the Mexican government, but also practiced illegally by loggers and drug lords who use the forests to grow marijuana or opium or as space for their operations. Drug cartels usually have links with logging companies who launder money earned in the drug trade. Narco-trafficking weighs heavily on the Tarahumara, as the drug lords force the farmers to grow drugs instead of their own crops. Cartels have exploited the Tarahumaras' reputation as long-distance runners by forcing them into running illegal drugs into the United States. Forced displacement The conditions of violence that are lived urges the Raramuri population to flee from their place of origin, often intimidated by criminal groups. Tourism The remote terrain of the Sierra Madre has long served as a refuge of the Tarahumara. However, roads and tourism have expanded, bringing opportunities for some but problems for others. Ironically, the Rarámuri themselves seldom have sought this publicity. In the 1800s, attempts were made to build a railway. Currently, this line is used by the train Chihuahua Pacífico or El Chepe to transport tourists, lured by false representations of the area as pure and pristine, to sightseeing locales. It stops near many Tarahumara villages, attracting visitors expecting to see primitive natives (the legend of the Tarahumara). Along with new auto roads, railways built into the area have developed lumbering and tourism, which have accelerated the rate of modernization among the Rarámuri. See also Multiday races Raramuri Criollo cattle Ivan Ratkaj Tarahumara language References Bibliography Further reading Carl Sofus Lumholtz: Unknown Mexico: A Record of Five Years' Exploration Among the Tribes of the Western Sierra Madre; In the Tierra Caliente of Tepic and Jalisco; and Among the Tarascos of Michoacan, (New York: Scribner's and Sons, 1902) An early anthropological account from the 1890s of the peoples in the remote mountains of northwest Mexico, including the Tarahumara. Wendell C. Bennett and Robert M. Zingg: The Tarahumara: an Indian tribe of northern Mexico, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935) Provides the classic baseline ethnography of this group for the early 20th century. Jerome M. Levi: "Tarahumara (Rarámuri)", In: David Carrasco, editor-in-chief. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures, Vol. 3. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001: 183–185. A brief overview of Tarahumara culture and history. A detailed case study of Tarahumara ceremonial healing. William L. Merrill: Rarámuri Souls: Knowledge and Social Process in Northern Mexico, (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 1988) A comprehensive account of Rarámuri world view. Don Burgess. Photos by Don Burgess and Bob Schalkwijk: Could you live like a Tarahumara? Podrias vivir como un tarahumara?, (Taos, NM: Barranca Press, 2015. ) An introduction to the history and culture of the Tarahumara. Ivan Ratkaj: Izvješća iz Tarahumare (Reports from Tarahumara), (Zagreb: Artresor, 1998) A modern edition of the first detailed report about the Tarahumara, written by a Croatian missionary in the 17th century. Published in Croatian, German and Latin. Antonin Artaud: The Peyote Dance, (transl. Helen Weaver; Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Inc., 1976) An account of Artaud's visit to the Tarahumara in the mid-1930s and of his peyote experience. In another text, “La montaña de los signos” [“The Mountain of Signs”], Artaud said the Rarámuri were descended from the lost people of Atlantis, a fictional island described by Plato. Joseph Wampler: Mexico's 'Grand Canyon': The Region and the Story of the Tarahumara Indians and the F.C. Chihuahua al Pacifico, (Berkeley: Self-Published, 1978. ) An account of Wampler's travels on the Chihuahua al Pacifico railroad that winds along the Barranca Del Cobre through Tarahumara lands. Jeff Biggers: In the Sierra Madre, (University of Illinois Press, 2006) An account of Biggers's sojourn among the Tarahumara in the late 1990s. Cynthia Gorney: "A people apart", National Geographic Magazine November 2008 Fructuoso Irigoyen Rascón. Cerocahui, una Comunidad en la Tarahumara. 40 Años Después. Don Quixote Editions/AmazonKindle. 2011. Christopher McDougall: "The Men Who Live Forever", Men's Health Magazine April 2008 Christopher McDougall: Born to Run: A Hidden Tribe, Superathletes, and the Greatest Race the World Has Never Seen, (Knopf, 2009. ) Bennett, W. and Zingg, R. (1935) The Tarahumara. Univ. of Chicago Press. Reprinted by Rio Grande Press, 1976. Kennedy, J.G. (1978) Tarahumara of the Sierra Madre; Beer, Ecology and Social Organization, AHM Publishing Corp, Arlington Heights, Illinois. Republished, as The Tarahumara of the Sierra Madre: Survivors on the Canyon's Edge in 1996. Lumholtz, C. (1902) Unknown Mexico. 2 volumes. Scribner's Sons, New York. Republished in both English and Spanish. Pennington, C. (1963) The Tarahumar of Mexico, their environment and material culture. Univ. of Utah Press. Reprint by Editorial Agata, Guadalajara, 1996. Schalkwijk, Bob. (2014) Tarahumara. Mexico, DF: RED, Conaculta. 168 paginas. Español and English. Extensive collection of photographs by Bob Schalkwijk with an introduction by Ana Paula Pintado. External links Tarahumara Foundation- Organization that has worked with indigenous communities for twenty years, improving child nutrition, education, food security, water availability and conservation The Tarahumara Ultrarunners "The Men Who Live Forever" Men's Health article on the Tarahumara's athletic prowess Tarahumara Books: Books by, for and about the Ralámuli of Chihuahua, Mexico. Indigenous peoples of Aridoamerica Indigenous peoples in Mexico Chihuahua (state) Peoples of the Sierra Madre Occidental

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Gibson%20%28writer%29

Margaret Gibson (writer)

Margaret Gibson (June 4, 1948 – February 25, 2006) was a Canadian novelist and short story writer who lived in Toronto, Ontario. Early life Born and raised in the Toronto suburb of Scarborough, the middle child of Audrey and Dane Gibson, Margaret Gibson began writing in the early 1970s to document her struggle with mental illness. Initially diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, she learned only during her divorce from her first husband that she had been misdiagnosed and was in fact bipolar. Gibson was married in the early 1970s to Stuart Gilboord, with whom she had one son, Aaron. Following her divorce from Gilboord, Gibson moved in with her longtime friend, actor Craig Russell. Gibson and Gilboord's custody battle for Aaron was portrayed in the 1994 television film For the Love of Aaron, in which Gibson was portrayed by actress Meredith Baxter. Writing career Gibson published her debut short story collection, The Butterfly Ward, in 1976. The book included the story "Making It", based on her experiences living with Russell, which was later made into the feature film Outrageous! by director Richard Benner. Hollis McLaren played "Liza Conners", the fictionalized version of Gibson, in that film. Benner also produced a sequel, Too Outrageous!, ten years later. "Ada", another story in the collection, was the basis of a CBC Television movie directed by Claude Jutra for the drama anthology series For the Record. It was Jutra's first English-language film production. The Butterfly Ward was a winner of the City of Toronto Book Award in 1977, shared with Margaret Atwood's novel Lady Oracle. Gibson followed up with the short story collections Considering Her Condition (1978), Sweet Poison (1993) and The Fear Room and Other Stories (1996) before releasing her first and only novel, Opium Dreams, in 1997. Opium Dreams was a winner of the Books in Canada First Novel Award, and Gibson subsequently published her final short story collection, Desert Thirst, in 1998. Later years In later years Gibson lived with Juris Rasa, her second husband. She died in 2006 of breast cancer, aged 57. Works about Margaret Gibson Her friend Stephen Jon Postal and his wife Guia Dino Postal chronicled Gibson's teenage life in the novel, Of Margaret and Madness: A Novel Inspired By True Events (). In 2011, Vassar College's Powerhouse Theater produced David Solomon's play, Margaret and Craig, in workshop. The play was based on the writing of Craig Russell and Margaret Gibson. Bibliography The Butterfly Ward – 1976 Considering Her Condition – 1978 Sweet Poison – 1993 The Fear Room and Other Stories – 1996 Opium Dreams – 1997 Desert Thirst – 1998 References External links 1948 births 2006 deaths Canadian women novelists Canadian women short story writers Writers from Scarborough, Toronto Deaths from cancer in Ontario Deaths from breast cancer People with bipolar disorder 20th-century Canadian novelists 20th-century Canadian women writers 20th-century Canadian short story writers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Hakluyt

Richard Hakluyt

Richard Hakluyt (; 1553 – 23 November 1616) was an English writer. He is known for promoting the English colonisation of North America through his works, notably Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America (1582) and The Principall Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation (1589–1600). Hakluyt was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. Between 1583 and 1588 he was chaplain and secretary to Sir Edward Stafford, English ambassador at the French court. An ordained priest, Hakluyt held important positions at Bristol Cathedral and Westminster Abbey and was personal chaplain to Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, principal Secretary of State to Elizabeth I and James I. He was the chief promoter of a petition to James I for letters patent to colonise Virginia, which were granted to the London Company and Plymouth Company (referred to collectively as the Virginia Company) in 1606. The Hakluyt Society, which publishes scholarly editions of primary records of voyages and travels, was named after him in its 1846 formation. Family, early life and education Hakluyt's patrilineal ancestors were of Welsh extraction, rather than Dutch as is often suggested; they appear to have settled in Herefordshire in England around the 13th century, and, according to antiquary John Leland, took their surname from the "Forest of Cluid in Radnorland." Some of Hakluyt's ancestors established themselves at Yatton in Herefordshire, and must have ranked amongst the principal landowners of the county. A person named Hugo Hakelute, who may have been an ancestor or relative of Richard Hakluyt, was elected Member of Parliament for the borough of Yatton in 1304 or 1305, and between the 14th and 16th centuries five individuals surnamed "de Hackluit" or "Hackluit" were sheriffs of Herefordshire. A man named Walter Hakelut was knighted in the 34th year of Edward I (1305) and later killed at the Battle of Bannockburn, and in 1349 Thomas Hakeluyt was chancellor of the diocese of Hereford. Records also show that a Thomas Hakeluytt was in the wardship of Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547) and Edward VI (reigned 1547–1553). Richard Hakluyt, the second of four sons, was born in Eyton in Herefordshire in 1553. Hakluyt's father, also named Richard Hakluyt, was a member of the Worshipful Company of Skinners whose members dealt in skins and furs. He died in 1557 when his son was aged about five years, and his wife Margery followed soon after. Hakluyt's cousin, also named Richard Hakluyt, of the Middle Temple, became his guardian. While a Queen's Scholar at Westminster School, Hakluyt visited his guardian, whose conversation, illustrated by "certain bookes of cosmographie, an universall mappe, and the Bible," made Hakluyt resolve to "prosecute that knowledge, and kind of literature." Entering Christ Church, Oxford, in 1570 with financial support from the Skinners' Company, "his exercises of duty first performed," he set out to read all the printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could find. He took his Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) on 19 February 1574, and shortly after taking his Master of Arts (M.A.) on 27 June 1577, began giving public lectures in geography. He was the first to show "both the old imperfectly composed and the new lately reformed mappes, globes, spheares, and other instruments of this art." Hakluyt held on to his studentship at Christ Church between 1577 and 1586, although after 1583 he was no longer resident in Oxford. Hakluyt was ordained in 1578, the same year he began to receive a "pension" from the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers to study divinity. The pension would have lapsed in 1583, but William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, intervened to have it extended until 1586 to aid Hakluyt's geographical research. At the English Embassy in Paris Hakluyt's first publication was one that he wrote himself, Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America and the Ilands Adjacent unto the Same, Made First of all by our Englishmen and Afterwards by the Frenchmen and Britons (1582). Hakluyt's Voyages brought him to the notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and Sir Edward Stafford, Lord Howard's brother-in-law. At the age of 30, being acquainted with "the chiefest captaines at sea, the greatest merchants, and the best mariners of our nation," he was selected as chaplain and secretary to accompany Stafford, now English ambassador at the French court, to Paris in 1583. In accordance with the instructions of Secretary Francis Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting information of the Spanish and French movements, and "making diligent inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne discoveries in America." Although this was his only visit to Continental Europe in his life, he was angered to hear the limitations of the English in terms of travel being discussed in Paris. The first fruits of Hakluyt's labours in Paris were embodied in his important work entitled A Particuler Discourse Concerninge the Greate Necessitie and Manifolde Commodyties That Are Like to Growe to This Realme of Englande by the Westerne Discoueries Lately Attempted, Written in the Yere 1584, which Sir Walter Raleigh commissioned him to prepare. The manuscript, lost for almost 300 years, was published for the first time in 1877. Hakluyt revisited England in 1584, and laid a copy of the Discourse before Elizabeth I (to whom it had been dedicated) together with his analysis in Latin of Aristotle's Politicks. His objective was to recommend the enterprise of establishing English plantations in the unsettled [by Europeans] region of North America, and thus gain the Queen's support for Raleigh's expedition. In May 1585 when Hakluyt was in Paris with the English Embassy, the Queen granted to him the next prebendary at Bristol Cathedral that should become vacant, to which he was admitted in 1585 or 1586 and held with other preferments till his death. Hakluyt's other works during his time in Paris consisted mainly of translations and compilations, with his own dedications and prefaces. These latter writings, together with a few letters, are the only extant material out of which a biography of him can be framed. Hakluyt interested himself in the publication of the manuscript journal of René Goulaine de Laudonnière, L'histoire notable de la Floride située ès Indes Occidentales in Paris in 1586. The attention that the book excited in Paris encouraged Hakluyt to prepare an English translation and publish it in London under the title A Notable Historie Containing Foure Voyages Made by Certayne French Captaynes unto Florida (1587). The same year, his edition of Peter Martyr d'Anghiera's De Orbe Nouo Decades Octo saw the light at Paris. This work contains an exceedingly-rare copperplate map dedicated to Hakluyt and signed F.G. (supposed to be Francis Gualle); it is the first on which the name "Virginia" appears. Return to England In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Douglas Sheffield, Baroness Sheffield, after a residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 he published the first edition of his chief work, The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation, using eyewitness accounts as far as possible. In the preface to this he announced the intended publication of the first terrestrial globe made in England by Emery Molyneux. Between 1598 and 1600 appeared the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation in three volumes. In the dedication of the second volume (1599) to his patron, Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, Hakluyt strongly urged the minister as to the expediency of colonising Virginia. A few copies of this monumental work contain a map of great rarity, the first on the Mercator projection made in England according to the true principles laid down by Edward Wright. Hakluyt's great collection has been called "the Prose Epic of the modern English nation" by historian James Anthony Froude. On 20 April 1590 Hakluyt was instituted to the clergy house of Wetheringsett-cum-Brockford, Suffolk, by Lady Stafford, who was the Dowager Baroness Sheffield. He held this position until his death, and resided in Wetheringsett through the 1590s and frequently thereafter. In 1599, he became an adviser to the newly-founded East India Company, and in 1601 he edited a translation from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvão's The Discoveries of the World. Later life In the late 1590s Hakluyt became the client and personal chaplain of Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, Lord Burghley's son, who was to be Hakluyt's most fruitful patron. Hakluyt dedicated to Cecil the second (1599) and third volumes (1600) of the expanded edition of Principal Navigations and also his edition of Galvão's Discoveries (1601). Cecil, who was the principal Secretary of State to Elizabeth I and James I, rewarded him by installing him as prebendary of the Dean and Chapter of Westminster on 4 May 1602. In the following year, he was elected archdeacon of the Abbey. These religious occupations have occasioned reconsideration of the role played by spiritual concerns in Hakluyt's writings on exploration, settlement, and England's relations with its Catholic rivals. Hakluyt was married twice, once in or about 1594 and again in 1604. In the licence of Hakluyt's second marriage dated 30 March 1604, he is described as one of the chaplains of the Savoy Hospital; this position was also conferred on him by Cecil. His will refers to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of his death, and in another official document he is styled Doctor of Divinity (D.D.). Hakluyt was also a leading adventurer of the Charter of the Virginia Company of London as a director thereof in 1589. In 1605 he secured the prospective living of Jamestown, the intended capital of the intended colony of Virginia. When the colony was at last established in 1607, he supplied this benefice with its chaplain, Robert Hunt. In 1606 he appears as the chief promoter of the petition to James I for letters patent to colonise Virginia, which were granted on 10 April 1606. His last publication was a translation of Hernando de Soto's discoveries in Florida, entitled Virginia Richly Valued, by the Description of the Maine Land of Florida, Her Next Neighbour (1609). This work was intended to encourage the young colony of Virginia; Scottish historian William Robertson wrote of Hakluyt, "England is more indebted for its American possessions than to any man of that age." Hakluyt prepared an English translation of Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius' Mare Liberum (1609), a treatise that sought to demonstrate that the Dutch had the right to trade freely in the East Indies, contrary to Spanish and Portuguese claims of sovereignty over the seas, in the early 17th century. Helen Thornton has suggested that the translation was commissioned by Thomas Smythe who became treasurer of the Virginia Company in 1609 and was also Governor of the East India Company. In that year, Hakluyt was a consultant to the Company when it was renewing its charter. Grotius' arguments supported England's right to trade in the Indies. The translation may also have been part of the propaganda encouraging English people to settle in Virginia. In Mare Liberum, Grotius denied that the 1493 donation by Pope Alexander VI that had divided the oceans between Spain and Portugal entitled Spain to make territorial claims to North America. Instead, he stressed the importance of occupation, which was favourable to the English as they and not the Spanish had occupied Virginia. Grotius also argued that the seas should be freely navigable by all, which was useful since the England to Virginia route crossed seas which the Portuguese claimed. However, it is not clear why Hakluyt's translation was not published in his lifetime. George Bruner Parks has theorized that publication at that time would have been inconvenient to England because after England had successfully helped Holland and Spain to negotiate the Twelve Years' Truce during the Eighty Years' War, the work would have supported English claims for free seas against Spain, but not its claims for closed seas against Holland. Hakluyt's handwritten manuscript, MS Petyt 529, in Inner Temple Library in London was eventually published as The Free Sea for the first time in 2004. In 1591, Hakluyt inherited family property upon the death of his elder brother Thomas; a year later, upon the death of his youngest brother Edmund, he inherited additional property which derived from his uncle. In 1612 Hakluyt became a charter member of the North-west Passage Company. By the time of his death, he had amassed a small fortune out of his various emoluments and preferments, of which the last was the clergy house of Gedney, Lincolnshire, presented to him by his younger brother Oliver in 1612. Unfortunately, his wealth was squandered by his only son. Hakluyt died on 23 November 1616, probably in London, and was buried on 26 November in Westminster Abbey; by an error in the abbey register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. A number of his manuscripts, sufficient to form a fourth volume of his collections of 1598–1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who inserted them in an abridged form in his Pilgrimes (1625–1626). Others, consisting chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors, are preserved at the University of Oxford. Hakluyt is principally remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of North America by the English through his writings. These works were a fertile source of material for William Shakespeare and other authors. Hakluyt also encouraged the production of geographical and historical writings by others. It was at Hakluyt's suggestion that Robert Parke translated Juan González de Mendoza's The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China and the Situation Thereof (1588–1590), John Pory made his version of Leo Africanus's A Geographical Historie of Africa (1600), and P. Erondelle translated Marc Lescarbot's Nova Francia (1609). Legacy The Hakluyt Society was founded in 1846 for printing rare and unpublished accounts of voyages and travels, and continues to publish volumes each year. A 14-volume critical edition of Hakluyt's Principal Navigations is being prepared by the Hakluyt Edition Project for Oxford University Press under the general editorship of Daniel Carey, National University of Ireland, Galway, and Claire Jowitt, University of East Anglia. Westminster School named a house after him as recognition of achievement of an Old Westminster. Works Authored Quarto. Reprint: Reprints: Folio. Reprint: 2 vols. 3 vols.; folio. Reprints: 16 vols. Full-text of this edition available as follows: Volume 1; Volume 2 (Latin); Volume 3; Volume 4; Volume 5; Volume 6; Volume 7; Volume 8; Volume 9; Volume 10; Volume 11; Volume 12; Volume 13; Volume 14. 12 vols. Full-text of this edition available as follows: Volume 1; Volume 2; Volume 4; Volume 5; Volume 6; Volume 7; Volume 9; Volume 10; Volume 11; Volume 12 Edited and translated [] It seems likely that this work was not by Hakluyt: see "At the English Embassy in Paris" above. Quarto. Octavo. Quarto. Reprint: Quarto. See also Étienne Bellenger Notes References Jones, John Winter, "Introduction" of "Richard Hakluyt," § 13 in pt. IV ("The Literature of the Sea") of vol. IV of Further reading Books 2 vols. News reports External links Official website of the Hakluyt Society Works by Richard Hakluyt at Google Books 1550s births 1616 deaths 16th-century English Anglican priests 16th-century English writers 16th-century male writers 17th-century English Anglican priests 17th-century English writers 17th-century English male writers Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford Burials at Westminster Abbey Doctors of Divinity English political writers English travel writers English people of Welsh descent Fellows of Christ Church, Oxford People educated at Westminster School, London People from Hereford

263426

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hector%20Boece

Hector Boece

Hector Boece (; also spelled Boyce or Boise; 1465–1536), known in Latin as Hector Boecius or Boethius, was a Scottish philosopher and historian, and the first Principal of King's College in Aberdeen, a predecessor of the University of Aberdeen. Biography He was born in Dundee where he attended school and was educated at the nearby University of St Andrews. Later he left to study at the University of Paris where he met Erasmus, with whom he became close friends while they were both students at the austere Collège de Montaigu, to whose reforming Master, Jan Standonck, Boece later became Secretary. By 1497 he had become a professor of philosophy at Collège de Montaigu. In 1500, he was induced to leave Paris for Aberdeen by a generously financed offer to become the first principal of the newly established University of Aberdeen, created at the behest of James IV by William Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen under the authority of a Papal bull issued by Pope Alexander VI. From then onwards, he worked closely with Elphinstone, to set up the new university and by 1505, regular lectures were taking place at King's College. The university structure was modelled on those of Paris and of Orléans. As intended, Boece was installed as the first principal of the university and gave lectures on medicine and on divinity. At the end of 1534, Boece became Rector of Fyvie. He died in Aberdeen two years later at the age of 71. . Works Boece wrote and published two books, one of biography and one of history. In 1522 he published the Vitae Episcoporum Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium (Lives of the Bishops of Murthlack and Aberdeen) and in 1527 the Historia Gentis Scotorum (History of the Scottish People) to the accession of James III of Scotland. The former was the basis of a poem in Scots by Alexander Gardyne. Reception of the Historia The Historia is the work for which Boece is remembered, as the second scholarly history of the Scots to be written; its only real predecessor was the compendium of John Mair. It was written in a flowing and pleasing style, became popular, and led to ecclesiastical preferment and royal favour. By modern standards it is overly patriotic, and has many inaccuracies. The historical account of Macbeth of Scotland, in particular, flattered the antecedents of Boece's patron King James IV of Scotland, and greatly maligned the real Macbeth. The work was well received at the time, both in Europe and in Scotland, after its translation from Latin into French and then in 1536 from Latin into Scots by John Bellenden. There are some interesting glimpses in the Historia of contemporary Scotland, such as the statement that the Eurasian beaver, which was soon to become extinct in Scotland, was still common around Loch Ness. Continuations of the Historia and its influence Boece's Historia as published terminated its coverage of history at the year 1438. In the early 1530s the scholar Giovanni Ferrerio, engaged by Robert Reid of Kinloss Abbey, wrote a continuation of Boece's history, extending it another 50 years, to the end of the reign of James III. John Lesley in his De Origine, Moribus, et Rebus Gestis Scotorum, and Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie, provided further continuations. The metrical translation into Scots by William Stewart, not published until the nineteenth century, also provided some expansion. The chronicler Polydore Vergil made some use of Boece for his 1534 Historia Anglica. David Chalmers of Ormond in his Histoire abbregée (1572) wrote about the French, English and Scottish monarchies, relying on Boece for the Scottish account. The Historia was translated into English for Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The account in Holinshed's Chronicle was then used by William Shakespeare as the basis of his play Macbeth. George Buchanan made heavy use of Boece in his Rerum Scoticarum Historia (1582). Boece's sources Boece's claimed sources fell into three classes. The works of John Fordun (Chronica Gentis Scotorum) and Walter Bower (Scotichronicon) defined the tradition which he attempted to make seamless, filling the gaps in the chronicle, and applying the approach common to humanists of his period. The works of Tacitus had been rediscovered, in the 14th century, and contained material relevant to British history; and Boece was concerned to integrate it into the tradition. Finally there was a group of sources that remain debated: material from Elphinstone, and the authors Veremundus, Cornelius Hibernicus, and John Campbell. No written record of these works survives. Sharp criticism of the sourcing of Boece's history was voiced in the sixteenth century by Humphrey Lhuyd and John Twyne. In the eighteenth century the historical content of the earlier parts of it was effectively dismantled by Thomas Innes. Boece shared in the credulity of his age; the approach of Mair, who was writing in parallel at the same time, but with a different focus and with a more critical and less sweeping method, did not represent the current fashion. The charge of actually inventing his authorities, formerly brought against Boece, has been the subject of recent scholarship. One example of Boece being cleared of the charge of fabricating his work concerns the Battle of Luncarty, Luncarty, Clan Hay. He was suspected by the Scottish historian John Hill Burton of inventing that battle but, Walter Bower writing in his Scotichronicon around 1440, some 87 years before Boece first published his Scotorum Historia, refers to the battle briefly. The "John Campbell" is tentatively identified as Boece's contemporary John Campbell of Lundie (died 1562). "Veremundus", it is argued, may be a Richard Vairement of the 13th century. . See also Evonium List of legendary kings of Scotland Sleuth hound Notes Further reading External links John Bellenden's translation of Boece's History of Scotland, vol.1 (1821) Scotorum Historia (1575 version) in Latin and English Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium Episcoporum Vitae Attribution 1465 births 1536 deaths People educated at the High School of Dundee People from Dundee Principals of the University of Aberdeen Scots-language writers Scottish educators Scottish historians Scottish philosophers Scottish scholars and academics 16th-century Scottish writers 16th-century male writers 16th-century Scottish historians Alumni of the University of St Andrews University of Paris alumni Historians of Scotland People associated with the University of Aberdeen Writers from Dundee Scottish Roman Catholics 16th-century Latin-language writers Kingdom of Scotland expatriates in France

263437

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Armin

Robert Armin

Robert Armin (c. 1568 – 1615) was an English actor, and member of the Lord Chamberlain's Men. He became the leading comedy actor with the troupe associated with William Shakespeare following the departure of Will Kempe around 1600. Also a popular comic author, he wrote a comedy, The History of the Two Maids of More-clacke, as well as Foole upon Foole, A Nest of Ninnies (1608) and The Italian Taylor and his Boy. Armin changed the part of the clown or fool from the rustic servingman turned comedian to that of a high-comedy domestic wit. Early life "…the clown is wise because he plays the fool for money, while others have to pay for the same privilege." – Leslie Hotson in Shakespeare's Motley Armin was one of three children born to John Armyn II of King's Lynn, a successful tailor and friend to John Lonyson, a goldsmith also of King's Lynn. His brother, John Armyn III, was a merchant tailor in London. Armin did not take up his father's craft; instead, his father apprenticed him to Lonyson in the Goldsmiths' Company in 1581. Lonyson was the Master of Works at the Royal Mint in the Tower of London, a position of great responsibility. The arrangement moved Armin to a life and a social circle quite different from what he might have expected as a Norfolk tailor. Lonyson died in 1582, and the apprenticeship was transferred to another master. According to a tale preserved in Tarlton's Jests, Armin came to the attention of the Queen's famous jester Richard Tarlton. In the course of his duties, the story contends, Armin was sent to collect money from a lodger at Tarlton's inn. Frustrated by the man's refusal to pay, Armin wrote verses in chalk on the wall; Tarlton noticed and, approving their wit, wrote an answer in which he expressed a desire to take Armin as his apprentice. Though not corroborated, this anecdote is far from the least plausible in Tarlton's Jests. Influenced by Tarlton or not, Armin already had a literary reputation before he finished his apprenticeship in 1592. In 1590, his name is affixed to the preface of a religious tract, A Brief Resolution of the Right Religion. Two years later, both Thomas Nashe (in Strange News) and Gabriel Harvey (in Pierce's Supererogation) mention him as a writer of ballads; none of his work in this vein, however, is known to have survived. The Chandos company At some point in the 1590s, Armin joined a company of players patronised by William Brydges, 4th Baron Chandos. With this company, about which little is known, he is presumed to have travelled from the western Midlands to East Anglia. The nature of his work for the company may be estimated from his parts in The History of the Two Maids of More-clacke. The preface to the 1609 quarto indicates that he played Blue John, a clown in the vein of Tarlton and Kempe; he also seems to have doubled in the role of Tutch, a witty fool of the type he later played in London. The late quarto is associated with a revival by the King's Revels Children, a short-lived troupe of boy players led by Nathan Field, but it was almost certainly written around 1597. Little else is known precisely of Armin's time with Chandos's Men. A dedication to his patron's widow in 1604 suggests some personal acquaintance with the Brydges family; on the other hand, a reference in another work suggests he may have spent some time, like Kempe, as a solo performer. The pair of books Armin published around the turn of the century demonstrate a performer with an interest in his craft. Fool Upon Fool (1600, 1605; reissued in 1608 as A Nest of Ninnies), offers the wit of assorted natural fools, some of whom Armin knew personally. The same year he published Quips upon Questions, a collection of seemingly extemporaneous dialogues with his marotte, named by him Signor Truncheon. In this he demonstrates his style; instead of having a conversation with the audience, as Tarlton did, and entering into a battle of wits, he jests using multiple personas, improvised song, or by commenting on a person or event. Rather than exchanging words, he gave words freely. Armin reported in that work that on either Tuesday 25 December 1599, or Tuesday 1 January 1600, he would be travelling to Hackney to wait on his "right honourable good lord". This was possibly Baron Chandos, who may have been visiting Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche over the holidays, or more likely Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford who lived in Hackney. The first editions of these two books were credited to "Clonnico de Curtanio Snuffe"—that is, to the "Clown of the Curtain". The 1605 edition changes "Curtain" to "Mundo" (that is, Globe); only in 1608 was he credited by name, though the earlier title pages would have sufficed to identify him for Londoners. Another work of uncertain date (it was published in 1609) is The Italian Tailor and his Boy. A translation of a tale from Gianfrancesco Straparola, the subject matter may reflect his family background of tailors. He was a tailor's son, who paralleled in the Italian tailor's apprentice, and the ruby ring of the play's lore parallels the goldsmith apprentice. Sutcliffe argues that Armin wrote a pamphlet published in 1599, A Pil to Purge Melancholie, on the grounds that it was published by the same press, mentions a clown with Armin's nickname, and contains verbal echoes of Two Maids of More-clacke. Lord Chamberlain's Men The timing of Armin's joining the Chamberlain's Men is as mysterious as its occasion. That it was connected to Kempe's departure has been generally accepted; however, the reasons for that departure are not clear. One traditional view—that the company in general or Shakespeare specifically had begun to tire of Kempe's old-fashioned clowning—is still current, though the main evidence for this view consists of Kempe's departure and the type of comic roles Shakespeare wrote after 1600. Armin played on the Globe stage by August 1600; Wiles theorizes that he may have joined the Chamberlain's Men in 1599, but continued to perform solo pieces at the Curtain; however, he may also have played with the company at the Curtain, while Kempe was still a member. Armin is generally credited with all the "licensed fools" in the repertory of the Chamberlain's and King's Men: Touchstone in As You Like It, Feste in Twelfth Night, the Fool in King Lear, Lavatch in All's Well That Ends Well, and perhaps Thersites in Troilus and Cressida, the Porter in Macbeth, the Fool in Timon of Athens, and Autolycus in The Winter's Tale. Of these eight, Touchstone is the fool about which there is the most critical discussion. Harold Bloom describes him as "rancidly vicious," and writes that "this more intense rancidity works as a touchstone should, to prove the true gold of Rosalind's spirit". John Palmer disagrees and writes that "he must be either a true cynic or one that affects his cynicism to mask a fundamentally genial spirit". Obviously, as Palmer continues, a true cynic does not belong in Arden, so the clown "must be a thoroughly good fellow at heart". Touchstone affects the front of a malcontented cynic, thus serving as proof of Rosalind's quick wit. When she confronts both Jaques and Touchstone, she exposes their silliness and prevents the fools from making Arden out to be worse than it really is. Feste was almost certainly written for Armin, as he is a scholar, a singer, and a wit. Feste's purpose is to reveal the foolishness of those around him. Lear's fool differs from both Touchstone and Feste as well as from other clowns of his era. Touchstone and Feste are philosopher-fools; Lear's fool is the natural fool of whom Armin studied and wrote. Armin here had the opportunity to display his studies. The fool speaks the prophecy lines, which he tells—largely ignored—to Lear before disappearing from the play altogether. Lear's fool is hardly around for entertainment purposes; rather, he is present to forward the plot, remain loyal to the king, and perhaps to stall his madness. Although Armin typically played these intelligent clown roles, it has been suggested by a few scholars that he originated the role of Iago in Othello, on the grounds that Iago sings two drinking songs (most of the songs in Shakespeare's plays from 1600 to 1610 were sung by Armin's characters) and that this was the sole play between As You Like It and Timon of Athens that has no fool or clown for Armin to play. An alternative suggestion, however, is that Iago was originally acted by John Lowin, with Armin instead taking the smaller part of Othello's servant.<ref>{{Cite book|last=McMillin|first=Scott|title=The Elizabethan Theatre and "The Book of Sir Thomas More|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1987|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|pages=63}}</ref> In non-Shakespearean roles, he probably played Pasarello in John Marston's The Malcontent; indeed, Marston may have added the part for him when the play was produced by the King's Men. Armin appears in the cast list for Ben Jonson's The Alchemist; he may have played Drugger. He is also presumed to have been the clown in George Wilkins's The Miseries of Enforced Marriage. He is not named in the cast list for Jonson's Catiline (1611), and other evidence suggests that he retired in 1609 or 1610. The preface to the Two Maids quarto confides, "I would have again enacted John myself, but tempora mutantur in illis, and I cannot do as I would". He was buried in late 1615. In London, he resided in the parish of St Botolph's Aldgate; three of his children named in the parish register appear to have died before adulthood. Fellow King's Man Augustine Phillips bequeathed him twenty shillings as a "fellow"; John Davies of Hereford wrote Armin a complimentary epigram. His burial is recorded in the Registers of St Botolph's as 30 November 1615. A new fool Armin may have played a key role in the development of Shakespearian fools. "If any player breathed," Hotson tells us, "who could explore with Shakespeare the shadows and fitful flashes of the borderland of insanity, that player was Armin". Robert Armin explored every aspect of the clown, from the natural idiot to the philosopher-fool; from serving man to retained jester. In study, writing, and performance, Armin moved the fool from rustic zany to trained motley. His characters—those he wrote and those he acted—absurdly point out the absurdity of what is otherwise called normal. Instead of appealing to the identity of the English commoner by imitating them, he created a new fool, a high-comic jester for whom wisdom is wit and wit is wisdom. When Robert Armin replaced Kemp in the Chamberlain's Men, it was considered the "taming of the clown". Armin's new style of comedy brought into play the "world-wisely fool". This urged Shakespeare to create Feste in his Twelfth Night, who was a philosophical social insurgence. He had a place everywhere, but belonged nowhere. Ken Kesey, in an interview, summarizes Armin's ideas about the two kinds of fool: "That fool of Shakespeare's, the actor Robert Armin [a mistake for Will Kempe who is widely believed to have played Falstaff], became so popular that finally Shakespeare wrote him out of Henry IV. In a book called A Nest of Ninnies, Armin wrote about the difference between a fool artificial and a fool natural. And the way Armin defines the two is important: the character Jack Oates is a true fool natural. He never stops being a fool to save himself; he never tries to do anything but anger his master, Sir William. A fool artificial is always trying to please; he’s a lackey." Modern References The Shakespeare Stealer Robert Armin is a significant character in Gary Blackwood's historical fiction The Shakespeare Stealer. Tam Lin In the 1991 Pamela Dean novel Tam Lin, one of the major characters is Robert Armin (better known as Robin), a Classics and Theater student at a small college in the Midwestern U.S. during the early 1970s who has a surprisingly detailed knowledge of William Shakespeare's life and work. References Sources Bloom, Harold. Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human. New York: Riverhead Books, 1998. Brown, John Russell. The Oxford Illustrated History of Theatre. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Web. Faggen, Robert. Ken Kesey-The Art of Fiction. The Paris Review: Issue 130, Spring 1994. Felver, Charles S. "Robert Armin, Shakespeare's Fool: a Biographical Essay." Kent State University Bulletin 49(1) January 1961. Gray, Austin. "Robert Armine, the Foole." PMLA 42 (1927), 673–685. Hotson, Leslie. Shakespeare’s Motley. New York: Oxford University Press, 1952. Lippincott, H. F. "King Lear and the Fools of Armin." Shakespeare Quarterly 26 (1975), 243–253. Palmer, John. Comic Characters of Shakespeare. London: Macmillan and Co., Limited, 1953. Sutcliffe, Chris. Robert Armin: Apprentice Goldsmith. Notes and Queries (1994) 41(4): 503–504. Sutcliffe, Chris. The Canon of Robert Armin's Work: An Addition. Notes and Queries (1996) 43(2): 171–175. Wiles, David. Shakespeare's Clown. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Zall, P. M., ed. A Nest of Ninnies and Other English Jestbooks of the Seventeenth Century.'' Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1970. 1560s births 1615 deaths English male stage actors English clowns English male Shakespearean actors 17th-century English male actors 16th-century English male actors People associated with Shakespeare

263438

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belikin

Belikin

Belikin is the leading domestically produced beer brand in Belize. Belikin is brewed by the Belize Brewing Company, Ltd. which is owned by the Bowen family. The Belize Brewing Company was established in 1969, and began brewing Belikin Beer and Belikin Stout brand name in 1971. Its tagline is "The Beer of Belize". The name "Belikin" comes from the Maya language and means "Route to the East". This is a term which some have suggested is the origin of the name of "Belize" (although the most accepted derivation says the name comes from the Belize River, meaning "muddy"). The Belikin label features a drawing of a Pre-Columbian Maya temple-pyramid at Altun Ha. The most common Belikin is a light lager beer. Lighthouse Lager, Belikin Premium and a stout beer are also brewed and sold under the Belikin name. The brewery is based in Ladyville, Belize District. Products marketed by Belikin Belikin produces the following beers: Belikin Beer Belikin Stout Belikin Premium Guinness (local brewer and distributor) Lighthouse Lager References External links Belikin Official Website Belikin on RealBeer.com Belikin on the San Pedro Sun site Belizean cuisine Beer in Central America Beer brands Beer in the Caribbean Economy of Belize Belizean brands

263451

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gis%2C%20Iran

Gis, Iran

Gis (, also Romanized as Gīs; also known as Gīseh, Gīshū’īyeh-ye Bāla, Gīshū’īyeh-ye Pā’īn, and Kīsa) is a village in Dar Agah Rural District, in the Central District of Hajjiabad County, Hormozgan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 721, in 170 families. References Populated places in Hajjiabad County

263455

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand%20Hammer

Armand Hammer

Armand Hammer (May 21, 1898 – December 10, 1990) was an American business manager and owner, most closely associated with Occidental Petroleum, a company he ran from 1957 until his death. Called "Lenin's chosen capitalist", he was known as well for his art collection and his close ties to the Soviet Union. Hammer's business interests around the world and his "citizen diplomacy" helped him cultivate a wide network of friends and associates. Early life Hammer was born in New York City to Jewish parents who emigrated from what was then the Russian Empire: Rose (née Lipschitz) and Julius Hammer. His father came to the United States from Odessa in what was then the Russian Empire (now Ukraine) in 1875 and settled in the Bronx, where he ran a general medical practice and five drugstores. After the Russian Revolution, a part of the Socialist Labor Party of America (SLP) under Julius' leadership split off to become a founding element of the Communist Party USA which supported Vladimir Lenin and Bolshevism. As administrative head, commercial attaché, and financial advisor of the Ludwig Martens-led Russian Soviet Government Bureau, Julius Hammer was assigned to generate support for the Russian Soviet Government Bureau and funded the Soviet Russian Bureau by money laundering the proceeds from illegal sales of smuggled diamonds through his company Allied Drug while his Allied Drug partner, Abraham A. Heller, headed the Soviet Bureau's commercial department. Julius Hammer and Heller traveled extensively across the United States both to stop the embargo of Soviet Russia and to increase United States trade with Soviet Russia along with improving the image of Bolsheviks who were overwhelmingly despised by American socialists. During the United States embargo against Soviet Russia, Julius Hammer used his Allied Drug and Chemical as a front to smuggle items and materials between the United States and Soviet Russia through Riga. After the Lusk Committee supported police raid of the Soviet Russian Government Bureau on June 12, 1919, Ludwig Martens escaped and went underground often hiding at Hammer's home. On December 18, 1920 Martens was deported and returned to Soviet Russia in January 1921. Hammer originally said that his father had named him after a character, Armand Duval, in La Dame aux Camélias, a novel by Alexandre Dumas. According to other sources, it was later said that Hammer was named after the "arm and hammer" graphic symbol of the SLP, in which his father had a leadership role. Late in his life, Hammer confirmed that this was indeed the origin of his given name. Father's imprisonment Due to his socialist and communist activities, Hammer's father Julius had been put under federal surveillance. On July 5, 1919, federal agents witnessed Marie Oganesoff (the 33-year-old Russian wife of a former tsarist diplomat) enter Julius's medical office located in a wing of his Bronx home. Oganesoff, "who had accumulated a life-threatening history of miscarriages, abortions, and poor health, was pregnant and wanted to terminate her pregnancy." The surgical procedure took place in the midst of a great flu epidemic. Six days after the abortion Oganesoff died of pneumonia. Four weeks after her death a Bronx County grand jury indicted Julius Hammer for first-degree manslaughter. The following summer a criminal prosecutor convinced a jury that Julius Hammer had let his patient "die like a dog" and that the claims that she had actually died from complications due to influenza were mere attempts to cover up his crime. In 1920 a judge sentenced Julius Hammer to three and a half years in Sing Sing prison. While most historians (such as Beverly Gage and Nigel West ) state that Julius had performed the abortion, an opposing position has been put forward by author Edward Jay Epstein. Epstein in his book Dossier: The Secret History of Armand Hammer puts forward the claim that it was Armand Hammer, then a medical student, rather than his father who performed the abortion and his father Julius assumed the blame. Epstein's claims come from interview comments made by Bettye Murphy, who had been Armand's mistress. According to Murphy and Epstein's account the legal strategy was that Julius did not deny that an abortion had been performed, but insisted that it had been medically necessary and that a licensed doctor rather than a medical student would be more convincing in presenting that argument. Allied Drug After the Soviet Russian Government Bureau closed, Allied Drug's smuggling activities between the United States and Soviet Russia ceased, which caused Allied Drug to gain enormous debts from storing large amounts of unpaid items in warehouses in New York and Riga. In March 1921, Ludwig Martens sent a letter from Moscow through the Soviet mission in Tallinn to Julius Hammer, who was imprisoned at Sing Sing until 1924, granting his Allied Drug and Chemical concessions for trade with Soviet Russia and requested an Allied Drug representative to be present in Soviet Russia. When his father was imprisoned, Hammer and his brothers took Allied Drug, the family business, to new heights, reselling equipment they had bought at depressed prices at the end of World War I. According to Hammer, his first business success was in 1919, manufacturing and selling a ginger extract which legally contained high levels of alcohol. This was extremely popular during Prohibition, and the company had $1 million in sales that year. Family envoy in Soviet Union While Julius was imprisoned, he sent Armand Hammer, who could not speak any Russian, to the Soviet Union to look after the affairs of his company Allied Drug and Chemical. Hammer traveled back and forth from the Soviet Union for the next 10 years. In 1921, while waiting for his internship to begin at Bellevue Hospital, Hammer went to the Soviet Union for a trip that lasted until late 1930. Although his career in medicine was cut short, he relished being referred to as "Dr. Hammer." Hammer's intentions in the 1921 trip have been debated ever since. He has claimed that he originally intended to recoup $150,000 in debts for drugs shipped during the Allied intervention, but was soon moved by a capitalistic and philanthropic interest in selling wheat to the then-starving Russians. In his passport application, Hammer stated that he intended to visit only western Europe. J. Edgar Hoover in the Justice Department knew this was false, but Hammer was allowed to travel anyway. The twenty six year old Hoover, who was the Justice Department's expert on subversives, was tipped off that Armand Hammer was a courier for the COMINTERN and ensured that foreign intelligence agencies were notified of Armand Hammer's travels. A skeptical U.S. government watched him through this trip and for the rest of his life. Career After leaving medical school, Hammer extended earlier entrepreneurial ventures with a successful business importing many goods from and exporting pharmaceuticals to the newly formed Soviet Union, together with his younger brother Victor. The blockade of Soviet Russia had ended for most items in February 1921 and, on July 5, 1921 he departed New York on his first trip to Soviet Russia as Allied Drug's representative in Soviet Russia. Prior to his departure, he visited Charles Recht, Lenin's United States attorney that supported Soviet Russia's best interests in the United States and whose law office was in the same building that the former Soviet Russian Government Bureau had occupied, and Recht gave Hammer a package to deliver to Ludwig Martens in Moscow. During this first visit, Armand Hammer allowed the Chekists, the Soviet secret police who later became known as the KGB, to take control of Allied Drug and Chemical. During his time in Soviet Russia and later the Soviet Union, he perfected bribery and money laundering techniques which were exposed later in the 1960s and 1970s during which he tape-recorded his payoffs. After returning to the United States, Hammer stated that Lenin had granted him an asbestos concession for 25 years to mine asbestos from the Urals in Soviet Russia. According to Hammer, on his initial trip, he took $60,000 in medical supplies to aid in a typhus epidemic and made a deal with Lenin for furs, caviar and jewelry expropriated by the Soviet state in exchange for a million bushels (27,216 tons) shipment of surplus American wheat. He moved to the USSR in the 1920s to oversee these operations, especially his large business manufacturing and exporting pens and pencils. According to Alexander Barmine, who was assigned by the Central Committee to run the Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga company to compete with Hammer, the stationery concession to produce such items in the Soviet Union was actually granted to Julius Hammer. Barmine states the party spent five million gold rubles on stationery supplies made in factories controlled by Julius Hammer and other concessionaires, making them rich. Barmine further contends that the Soviets were eventually able to duplicate certain items such as typewriter parts and pens and end those concessions but were never able to match the quality of Hammer's pencils, so that concession became permanent. Armand Hammer remained in the Soviet Union until 1930. Back in the United States, Hammer was bequeathed a few Fabergé eggs by the Soviets in 1930-1933. The authenticity of the artifacts was questioned. According to Géza von Habsburg, Armand's brother Victor Hammer stated Stalin's trade commissar Anastas Mikoyan provided Fabergé hallmarking tools to Armand in order to sell fakes, and Victor stated a 1938 New York sale he ran with Armand, which grossed several million dollars, consisted of both authentic and inauthentic items (called Fauxbergé by Habsburg), with commissions going back to Mikoyan. In his 1983 book, Red Carpet, author Joseph Finder discusses Hammer's "extensive involvement with Russia." In Dossier: The Secret History of Armand Hammer, Edward Jay Epstein called Hammer "a virtual spy" for the Soviet Union. After returning to the U.S., Hammer entered into a diverse array of business, art, cultural, and humanitarian endeavors, including investing in various U.S. oil production efforts. He gained enormous wealth through his United Distillers of America, which was a 1933 established firm known as the A. Hammer Cooperage Corporation until 1946 when it changed its name to United Distillers of America Ltd. In early 1944, Hammer purchased American Distilling Co. and a former New Market, New Hampshire, rum distillery at which his American Distilling employee, Dr. Hanns G. Maister, began producing the first United States made potatoes-based spirit, which was a vodka, and also produced a blended whiskey that was retailed through the Cooperage's account with West Shore. After a B-25 crashed into the north face of the 79th floor of the Empire State Building on a foggy Saturday the 28th of July in 1945, Hammer purchased the damaged 78th floor, refurbished it, and made it the headquarters of his United Distillers of America. His oil investments were later parlayed into control of Occidental Petroleum (Oxy) which he obtained in 1956. Through his Occidental Petroleum and its stakes in Libya, Hammer was pivotal in breaking the tight grip that the major United States domestic producers had on the price of oil and, instead, gave OPEC control over oil prices. Arthur Andersen was Oxy's auditors. National Geographic described Occidental chairman Hammer as "a pioneer in the synfuels boom." Throughout his life he continued personal and business dealings with the Soviet Union, despite the Cold War. In later years he lobbied and traveled extensively at a great personal expense, working for peace between the United States and the Communist countries of the world, including ferrying physicians and supplies into the Soviet Union to help Chernobyl survivors. In his book The Prize, Daniel Yergin writes that Hammer "ended up as a go-between for five Soviet General Secretaries and seven U.S. Presidents." Détente Through Hammer's closeness to Yuri Andropov, Andropov assigned Mikhail Ilyich Bruk (; 1923 Moscow - 2009 Jurmala) also called Mike or Michael Brook or Brooke, who was an English-Russian translator, as Hammer's personal ambassador and expediter and was present as Hammer's translator at all meetings between Armand Hammer and Soviet leaders in the Soviet Union beginning in 1964. Bruk had been a technical translator at the first Pugwash conference called the Thinkers' Lodge held in July 1957. According to Armand Hammer, "Mike's KGB." In early 1969, Armand Hammer obtained control of Eaton's Tower International though which Hammer would have a controlling majority stake in Tower International in exchange for Hammer's Occidental Petroleum assuming the debts of Tower International and Eaton receiving 45% of any profits from Tower International's future projects. During détente in July 1972, Armand Hammer negotiated a twenty year agreement with Brezhnev of the Soviet Union that was signed by Hammer in April 1973 in which the Hammer controlled firms Occidental Petroleum and Tower International would export to the Soviet Union, and later Russia, phosphate, which Occidental mined in northern Florida, in return for the Soviet Union, and later Russia, exporting from Odessa through Hammer's firms natural gas that would be converted into ammonia, potash, and urea. This fertilizer deal was to continue until Hammer's 100th birthday in 1998. JaxPort at the Port of Jacksonville in Jacksonville, Florida, was the United States port through which this trade occurred. On 27 July 1978, the fertilizer deal began functioning in the Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union, with the opening of the port and the Odessa plants near the former location of Grigorievka () () at the seaport "Pivdenny" () (), which is the deepest port in Ukraine servicing vessels with drafts up to . Pivdenny is located at the Small Adzhalyk Estuary () or () west of the 1974 established Yuzhne (). The Port of Pivdenny was known as "Grigorievsky" () until 1978 and as the Port of Yuzhne from 1978 until 17 April 2019 when the port was renamed from the Russian word to the Ukrainian word for southern. After Nixon, as the first United States President to visit the Soviet Union, traveled to Moscow for a summit that ended on June 1, 1972, Hammer traveled to Moscow arriving July 14, 1972, and, with Sargent Shriver as his legal advisor, negotiated the first trade agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union following Nixon's summit. Six weeks prior to Nixon's departure, Hammer personally gave Maurice Stans, the finance chairman of Nixon's campaign fund, $46,000 in cash from a numbered bank account in Switzerland which Hammer used as his slush fund money. Later, in September 1972 Hammer gave Nixon's campaign fund an additional $54,000 from the same Swiss bank account amounting to a total of $100,000 that Hammer donated to Nixon's campaign fund. On July 18, 1972, Hammer returned to the United States through London and called Tim Babcock, Hammer's lobbyist for the Nixon administration, to have him arrange a meeting with Nixon through H. R. Haldeman, who was Nixon's chief of staff, in order to debrief the President about Hammer's trade deal which occurred on July 20, 1972. Illegal financial support of Nixon's Watergate fund Politically, Hammer was a strong supporter of the Republican Party. Hammer anonymously gave $46,000 to support Nixon before a 1971 law took effect on April 7, 1972, which banned political contributions both anonymous and through another person. Later, in September 1972, Armand Hammer made an additional three illegal contributions totaling $54,000 to Richard Nixon's Watergate fund through friends of former Montana Governor Tim Babcock, who was Hammer's vice president of Occidental Petroleum, after which both Hammer and Babcock plead guilty to charges involving illegal contributions. Hammer received probation and a $3,000 fine. In August 1989, George H. W. Bush pardoned Hammer for the illegal contributions to aid Nixon's re-election in 1972. Association with the Gore family A 2003 interview with Aleksey Mitrofanov () erroneously places the Hammer and Gore families close to each other in Europe. Occidental's coal interests were represented for many years by attorney and former U.S. Senator Al Gore, Sr., among others. Gore, who had a longtime close friendship with Hammer, became the head of the subsidiary Island Creek Coal Company, upon his election loss in the Senate in November 1970. Much of Occidental's coal and phosphate production was in Tennessee, the state Gore represented in the Senate, and Gore owned shares in the company. Former Vice President Al Gore, Jr. received much criticism from environmentalists, when the shares passed to the estate after the death of Gore, Sr., and Gore, Jr. was a son and the executor of the estate. Gore Jr. did not exercise control over the shares, which were eventually sold when the estate closed. Hammer was very fond of Gore, Jr. and, in 1984, under Hammer's guidance, Gore, Jr. sought Tennessee's Senate office previously held by Howard Baker. Hammer supposedly promised Gore, Sr. that he could make his son the president of the United States. It was under Hammer's encouragement and support that Gore Jr. sought the Democratic Party presidential nomination in 1988. Stake in Arm & Hammer In the 1980s Hammer owned a considerable amount of stock in Church & Dwight, the company that manufactures Arm & Hammer products; he also served on its board of directors. However, the Arm & Hammer company's brand name did not originate with Armand Hammer. It was in use 31 years before Hammer was born. While Hammer and Occidental said that the Church & Dwight investment was a coincidence, Hammer acknowledged previously trying to buy the Arm & Hammer brand as a result of often being asked about it. President's Cancer Panel In 1981, Hammer was appointed by President Ronald Reagan to serve on the three-member President's Cancer Panel and he later served as chairman of the panel from 1984 to 1989. As chairman of the panel, he announced a campaign to raise $1 billion a year to fight cancer. Personal life Hammer was the middle of three sons. He had close relationships, including in business, with his brothers, Harry and Victor Hammer, throughout their lives. He married three times, first in 1927, to a Russian actress, Olga Vadimovna Von Root, the daughter of a czarist general. In 1943, he was married to Angela Zevely. In 1956, he married the wealthy widow Frances Barrett, and they remained married until her death in 1989. He had only one child, a son named Julian Armand Hammer, by his first wife. Hammer's grandson is businessman Michael Armand Hammer; his great-grandson is actor Armie Hammer. Hammer died of bone marrow cancer in December 1990, aged 92 in Los Angeles, and was buried in Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery, across the street from his Occidental building on Wilshire Boulevard. Legacy Hammer purchased Knoedler, the oldest art gallery in America, in 1971. He was a collector of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings. His personal donation forms the core of the permanent collection of the UCLA Hammer Museum in Los Angeles, California. Together with his brother Victor, he was the owner of the "Hammer Galleries" in New York City. Hammer was a philanthropist, supporting causes related to education, medicine, and the arts. Among his legacies is the Armand Hammer United World College of the American West (now generally called the UWC-USA, part of the United World Colleges). Hammer hungered for a Nobel Peace Prize, and he was repeatedly nominated for one, including by Menachem Begin, but never won. In 1986, Forbes magazine estimated his net worth at $200 million. Hammer made a guest appearance on a 1988 episode of The Cosby Show (as the grandfather of a friend of Theo Huxtable's who was suffering from cancer), saying that a cure for cancer was imminent. Hammer was leading Occidental in 1988 when its oil rig, Piper Alpha exploded killing 167 men. The Cullen Report highlighted failings in many areas on the platform. Through his closeness to Prince Charles, he has been called a godfather to one of the Prince's children. Prince Charles intended to make Hammer Prince William's godfather but Princess Diana disliked the idea. In the 1980s, Hammer gave strong financial support to Prince Charles's projects of nearly 40 million pounds and free use of Hammer's Boeing 727. As of 2016, he has been the subject of six biographies: in 1975 (Considine, authorized biography), 1985 (Bryson, coffee table book), Weinberg 1989, Blumay 1992, Epstein 1996, and Alef 2009; and two autobiographies (1932 and a best seller in 1987). His art collection and his philanthropic projects were the subject of numerous publications. Awards In 1978, Hammer, as a non-citizen of the Soviet Union, received the Soviet Union's award the Order of Friendship of Peoples from Leonid Brezhnev because of his strong support of both the International Workers and Communist movement and the needs of the Soviet Union. By the time of his death, Hammer received other awards including the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1978), the U.S. National Medal of Arts (1987), France's Legion of Honor, Italy's Grand Order of Merit, Sweden's Royal Order of the Polar Star, Austria's Knight Commander's Cross, Pakistan's Hilal-i-Quaid-Azam Peace Award, Israel's Leadership Award, Venezuela's Order of Andrés Bello, Mexico's National Recognition Award, Bulgaria's Jubilee Medal, and Belgium's Order of the Crown. See also Cyrus Eaton List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States Publications Articles "On a Vast China Market." Journal of International Affairs, vol. 39, no. 2: China in Transition (Winter 1986): 19–25. . Books The Quest of the Romanoff Treasure. William Farquhar Payson (1932). 241 pages. Hammer. Los Angeles: Perigee Books, 1988. Co-authored by Neil Lyndon. Reviewed by Tom Gainor, VP of Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. “Hammer: Odyssey of an Entrepreneur”, The Region, August 1987. Further reading Biographical profiles Ingham, John N. Biographical Dictionary of American Business Leaders, Vol. 2: H–M. Greenwood Press (1983): 533–536. . Tycoons and Entrepreneurs. New York: Macmillan Library Reference USA (1998): 87–92. . Books Cosidine, Bob The Remarkable Life of Dr. Armand Hammer. New York: Harper & Row, 1975. . 287 pages. Bryson, John. The World of Armand Hammer. Abrams, 1985. . 255 pages. Weinberg, Steve. Armand Hammer: The Untold Story. Boston: Little, Brown, 1989. . 501 pages. Blumay, Carl. Dark Side of Power: The Real Armand Hammer. New York: Simon & Schuster (November 1992). . 494 pages. Epstein, Edward Jay. Dossier: The Secret History of Armand Hammer. New York: Random House (1996). . 418 pages. C-SPAN Booknotes interview with author Edward Jay Epstein (January 5, 1997). Catalogs Denver Art Museum. The Armand Hammer Collection: Four Centuries of Masterpieces. An exhibition catalog (February 18–April 9, 1978). Novels Triantafyllou, Soti. To Ergostassio ton Molivion [The Pencil Factory] (in Greek). Patakis (2000). Notes References Bibliography External links Interview with Epstein on occasion of the publication of "Dossier: The Secret History of Armand Hammer". C-SPAN Armand Hammer Collection at UCLA American chief executives of energy companies Jewish American art collectors People in the petroleum industry 1898 births 1990 deaths Museum founders Hammer Museum American people of Russian-Jewish descent Businesspeople from Los Angeles Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons alumni Deaths from bone cancer Deaths from multiple myeloma Deaths from cancer in California People from Bel Air, Los Angeles People from Manhattan Philanthropists from California Jewish American philanthropists Recipients of American presidential pardons United States National Medal of Arts recipients Recipients of the Order of the Crown (Belgium) Recipients of the Order of Friendship of Peoples American expatriates in the Soviet Union Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery 20th-century American businesspeople Philanthropists from New York (state) Recipients of the Four Freedoms Award Columbia College (New York) alumni American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent

263456

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Pedro%20Town

San Pedro Town

San Pedro is a town on the southern part of the island of Ambergris Caye in the Belize District of the nation of Belize, in Central America. According to the 2015 mid-year estimates, the town has a population of about 16,444. It is the second-largest town in the Belize District and largest in the Belize Rural South constituency. The once sleepy fishing village was granted the status of a town in 1984. San Pedro's inhabitants are known as San Pedranos and most of them originally came from Mexico. Most speak both Spanish and English fluently. Due to the influence of English-based Kriol, most San Pedranos can speak English, as well as an intermediate form between English and Spanish that is known as "Kitchen Spanish". It is said one is not a true San Pedrano if one doesn't know how to fish. The town is said to be the inspiration for the song "La Isla Bonita" (which begins with the line "last night I dreamt of San Pedro"), written by Madonna, Patrick Leonard and Bruce Gaitsch. History The refugees from the "Guerra de Castas" fled mainly south to the sanctuary of northern Belize where the British authorities gave them protection and encouraged them to settle. This was done in the hope that the refugees would eventually establish an agricultural settlement in Corozal and provide the lumber camps with an alternative source of foodstuffs now that the supplies through Bacalar in Mexico were no longer available. This migration was the principal factor in the settling of northern Belize. The population grew from less than 200 in 1846 to 4,500 inhabitants by 1857, to 8,000 in 1858, in the Corozal District alone. According to the official census in 1861, the population of the northern section of the country was almost twice that of Belize City and the surrounding areas. The first permanent settlers of San Pedro arrived between 1848 and 1849. These probably consisted of the relatives of fishermen who had previously built fishing camps on the cayes and moved their families over to the safety of the island when the Santa Cruz Maya revolted. There were at first only four families, which were shortly joined by others from the nearby area of Bacalar. The settlement soon grew to a village of about 30 houses and over 50 inhabitants. The settling of Ambergris Caye was typical of this general pattern. The refugees who came to live here had been farmers and fishers in Yucatán who continued these activities in San Pedro. On November 27, 1984, San Pedro was officially granted township status. The declaration ceremony was attended by Governor-General Elmira Minita Gordon, Area Representative Louis Sylvestre, and most of the residents of San Pedro. Gilberto Chico Gomez was the town's first mayor. Gallery Tourism Over the centuries, San Pedro has become one of the most popular tourist destinations with protected areas such as Hol Chan Marine Reserve, Shark Ray Alley, Bacalarchico, and many more. One of San Pedro's most prized possessions is the Belize Barrier Reef. The San Pedro Barrier Reef is the 'second-largest' in the world, the first being the Great Barrier Reef. It is home to a diverse number of species. One of the primary industries in the town is tourism, most notably scuba diving. So many visitors are divers that there are two hyperbaric decompression chambers on the island. Ambergris Museum is in the town. The north road is over 10 miles long and has greatly expanded resort and beach house development with better access than only watercraft. Carnaval festival Today San Pedro is known for festivals, one of the most famous being El Gran Carnaval de San Pedro. El Gran Carnaval de San Pedro goes back to the 1870s, a tradition that is centered around “Juan Carnaval”. A legend states “Juan was an island god, that had sex with over a thousand women from eight different countries and had many children." It is said that he was stabbed to death by his hurt and jealous wife — leaving behind nothing but a will that is traditionally read on Ash Wednesday. A stuffed doll-like idol of Juan Carnaval is burnt every year as a symbol of cleansing the community's sins. This tradition started out with the use of powder and has now expanded into water paint and the breaking of eggs. There are rules to this festival: The first day is restricted to children between pm and 7 pm from Ruby's Hotel beachfront to the cemetery area and the Barrier Reef Drive. They are not allowed to paint individuals who are not participating nor public signs, buildings, and the Comparsa participants. Lastly, they are not allowed to use rotten eggs, spray paint, or oil paints. Twin towns – sister cities San Pedro Town is twinned with: Wilmington, North Carolina, United States (2007) See also El Gran Carnaval de San Pedro References Populated places in Belize District Belize Rural South Tourist attractions in Belize

263460

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Bromwich

West Bromwich

West Bromwich ( ) is a market town in the borough of Sandwell, West Midlands, England. Historically part of Staffordshire, it is northwest of Birmingham. West Bromwich is part of the area known as the Black Country, in terms of geography, culture, and dialect. West Bromwich had a population of almost 78,000 in 2018. Initially a rural village, West Bromwich's growth corresponded with that of the Industrial Revolution, owing to the area's natural richness in ironstone and coal, as well as its proximity to canals and railway branches. It led to the town becoming a centre for coal mining, brick making, the iron industry, and metal trades such as nails, springs, and guns. The town's primary economy developed into engineering, manufacturing, and the automotive industry through the early 20th century. During the Second World War, West Bromwich experienced bombing from the German Luftwaffe. It also suffered heavily during recessions in the mid 1970s, early 1980s, and late 2000s. The town is known for its football club, West Bromwich Albion, who have played in the town since the club's formation in 1878. It is also home to parts of Sandwell Valley Country Park and Sandwell Valley RSPB nature reserve. History Origin and etymology West Bromwich was first mentioned as Bromwic ('broom village') in the Domesday Book of 1086. It is believed that it may have originally been part of the Handsworth parish. A Benedictine priory existed in West Bromwich from the 12th century around which the settlement of Broomwich Heath grew. In 1727, the town became a stop on the coaching road between London and Shrewsbury and the beginning of its growth dates from this time. The prefix 'West' serves to distinguish it from the village of Castle Bromwich, around to the east on the other side of Birmingham. Development In the 19th century, coal deposits were discovered, ensuring that the town grew rapidly as an industrial centre, with industries such as spring, gun and nail making developing. Well before the end of the 19th century, West Bromwich had established itself as a prominent area to match older neighbouring towns including Dudley and Walsall. In 1888, West Bromwich became a county borough, incorporating the village of Great Barr. It was expanded in 1966, acquiring most of the boroughs of Tipton and Wednesbury as well as a small section of Coseley urban district, before joining with the neighbouring county borough of Warley (which contained the towns of Rowley Regis, Oldbury and Smethwick) in 1974 to form the Metropolitan Borough of Sandwell. Charlemont Hall, built during the 1750s, stood on the west side of the present Charlemont Crescent, in the Charlemont and Grove Vale district of the town. Charlemont Hall was described c. 1800 as "a lofty neat-looking house of brick, faced with stone, with iron palisades etc. in front." An east wing was added in 1855. The last occupant was the widow of Thomas Jones, town clerk of Wednesbury 1897–1921. The house was demolished in 1948, and is now covered by a number of smaller detached homes. Much of the surrounding area was developed during the 1960s as the Charlemont Farm housing estate, which is a mix of private and council housing. The population of West Bromwich suffered heavily in the Cholera epidemic of 1831 which spread northwards into the town. A temporary board of health was set up and a hospital opened in the former Revivalist chapel in Spon Lane. The natural gradual slope of the land provided drainage within the soil, however, urbanisation made this increasingly difficult and drainage along the streets was described as inadequate. The West Bromwich Town Improvement Commissioners was established in 1854, and they tackled the drainage problem in the town. They appointed members to new titles and in the 1880s bought land in Friar Park for a sewerage farm. Under the Reform Act 1832, West Bromwich became part of the new southern division of Staffordshire, and under the Reform Act 1867 it was transferred to the parliamentary borough of Wednesbury. Under the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, the borough of West Bromwich became a parliamentary borough returning one member. In 1885, it was held by the Liberal Party but from 1886 to 1906 it was held by the Conservative Party before being held by the Liberal Party again until 1910 when the Conservative Party regained the area which they held until 1918 under the representation of Viscount Lewisham. In 1918, it was won by Labour who held it until 2019, when Nicola Richards was elected as MP. Prior to that the constituency was held by Labour except for the period between 1931 and 1935 when it held by the National Unionists. 20th century By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, many of the older houses built to house workers during the Industrial Revolution were becoming unfit for human habitation Sanitation was inadequate, decay was rife, and the homes were becoming a danger to the health and safety of their inhabitants. After the end of the war, the local council started building new homes to rehouse people from the rundown town centre. However, there are still many late 19th century and early 20th century buildings around the centre of West Bromwich. The first Council housing in West Bromwich was built in 1920 on the Tantany Estate to the north of the town centre. Within 20 years, several thousand council houses had been built by West Bromwich County Borough Council. The largest developments were mostly in the north of the town, including the Charlemont Farm Estate around Walsall Road, and the Friar Park Estate near the border with Wednesbury. The town suffered significant damage from air raids in World War II, with 58 civilian deaths, most in the raids of 19 November 1940 around Oak Road and Lombard Street to the west of the town centre. There were a few other less severe raids during the war on parts of West Bromwich including Stone Cross and Tantany, with no fatalities. This occurred on the same night as the Birmingham Blitz, which resulted in thousands of casualties, as well as the less severe raids on nearby Dudley and Tipton. The first major postwar council housing development was the Harvills Hawthorn Estate near Hill Top, which was completed in 1948. Mass immigration from the Commonwealth took place in West Bromwich during the 1950s and 1960s, with most of these hailing from the Indian subcontinent, although a significant number of Afro-Caribbean immigrants also settled in West Bromwich. The majority of these immigrants settled in the older parts of the town that were mostly made up of Victorian and Edwardian terraced houses. The local road network was also massively improved during the 1960s and 1970s. West Bromwich is at the extreme northern end of the M5 motorway, with junction 1 serving the town on the A41 road. Traffic passing through West Bromwich on the main route from Wolverhampton to Birmingham was soon diverted along the new dual carriageway, the Northern Loop Road (also known as The Expressway), after its opening in 1972, with another dual carriageway being built to link The Expressway with neighbouring Oldbury. West Bromwich County Borough was expanded in 1966 to include the bulk of Tipton and Wednesbury, while a small part of the south-eastern section of the town was absorbed into the new Warley County Borough which was centred on neighbouring Oldbury, Smethwick and Rowley Regis. The actual town boundaries of West Bromwich were also altered at this time, placing the Friar Park estate in Wednesbury, while the Hateley Heath area of Wednesbury was now within the borders of West Bromwich township. As with many other parts of the Midlands, West Bromwich was hit badly by the recessions of the mid-1970s and early 1980s, resulting in mass unemployment across the town, exceeding 20% in some districts. Queen's Square shopping centre opened in the town centre in 1971, providing shoppers with a 60-unit indoor shopping centre and an 850-space multi-storey car park. It cost £3million to build. The smaller King's Square shopping centre also opened in the town in 1971. On 8 December 2011, 40 years after the opening of Queen's Square, Sandwell Council announced that Queen's Square would be refurbished at a cost of £5million. By this stage, the centre was falling into disrepair and only 33 of the 61 available units were occupied. Once again, West Bromwich had been hit hard by another recession, with local unemployment running high again, as well as a high vacancy rate for commercial and industrial units. Many local towns, particularly Dudley, lost many of their major stores around the time that the Merry Hill Shopping Centre which was developed at Brierley Hill during the second half of the 1980s as businesses looked to take advantage of the Enterprise Zone incentives that the centre offered. West Bromwich's fortunes as a retail centre were affected by the Merry Hill development. This contributed to the closure of its Marks and Spencer store on 25 August 1990, along with the Dudley store, to be replaced by a new store at Merry Hill, with most of the staff at the new store being transferred from either West Bromwich or Dudley. British Home Stores also pulled out of the town around the same time, and a new store at Merry Hill which opened in November 1989 and also spelled the end of the Dudley store. The town lost another big retail name in 2005 when the Littlewoods store closed as part of the retailer's decision to switch wholly to online shopping; the unit has since been taken over by New Look. Retail developments around Oldbury, beginning with the SavaCentre hypermarket in 1980, have also affected trade in West Bromwich. The recession beginning in 2008 has pushed the town centre further into decline, a notable casualty being the Woolworths store which closed on 30 December 2008 as a result of the retailer going into liquidation; the building was not re-occupied until Home Bargains took it over in 2012. Several more factories have closed in more recent years as manufacturers look to countries where the labour is cheaper, but West Bromwich remains a relatively busy industrial area despite the decline of the last 35 years. West Bromwich's road links were further enhanced in 1995 on the completion of the Black Country Spine Road which also by-passes Wednesbury and the east of Bilston. The completion of this new road opened up several square miles of previously inaccessible land, and has allowed several major businesses to set up along the route. This has helped relieve some of the unemployment problems in West Bromwich, although most parts of the town still have the highest unemployment rates in the West Midlands. 21st century West Bromwich was among the many towns and cities in England affected by the widespread rioting in August 2011. On 9 August, shops closed their doors early to combat looting and vandalism; this was followed by widespread acts of vandalism and violence followed. Police closed the main roads leading into the town until the following morning. The town has enjoyed something of an economic revival since 11 July 2013, when the New Square shopping and entertainment complex opened in the town centre on land adjoining the existing Queen's Square shopping centre. Hundreds of jobs have been created and the town has attracted retailers including Next, JD Sports, Primark and Bank Fashion, as well as an Odeon cinema, several food and drink outlets, and a Tesco Extra superstore. The mixed success of West Bromwich Albion F.C. has also had a significant impact on the town's economy, particularly during the club's successful era of the 1960s and 1970s when it frequently competed in the top division of English football, won the FA Cup and qualified for European competitions on several occasions. Attendances were high during this era, but slumped during the 1980s when the club's on-the-field fortunes began to decline and culminated in relegation in 1986, at a time which the local economy had already suffered a sharp decline. Albion did not play in the top flight again until 2002, and remained a regular presence in the FA Premier League until 2018, during which time the club attracted a level of average attendance not seen since the late 1970s. The archives for West Bromwich Borough are held at Sandwell Community History and Archives Service. Governance The town is divided into two constituencies; West Bromwich East and West Bromwich West. West Bromwich East is served by Nicola Richards (Conservative Party) who was elected on 12 December 2019. West Bromwich West is served by Shaun Bailey (Conservative Party) who was elected on 12 December 2019. Previously Betty Boothroyd, had served as the constituency's MP and she was the first female Speaker of the House of Commons. Geography Below is a list of localities: Climate Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb". (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate). Features The town's football club is West Bromwich Albion. The club was founded in 1878 and in 1888 it became one of the 12 founder members of the Football League. It won the league championship in 1920 and has won the FA Cup five times, most recently in 1968, and won the League Cup in 1966. Albion were based in and around the centre of West Bromwich during their formative years, but moved further out of the town in 1900 when they switched to their current ground, The Hawthorns. All traces of the original structures are long gone; the present structures were added to the stadium in 1979, 1994 and most recently 2001. At an altitude of 551 feet, The Hawthorns is the highest football ground (above sea level) in the country. Engineering and chemicals are important to the town's economy, as it played a crucial part in the Industrial Revolution during the 19th century and still retains many manufacturing jobs to this day, despite a steady nationwide decline in this sector since the 1970s. Sandwell General Hospital (on the site of the former Hallam Hospital) is located near the town centre. It is currently part of the Sandwell and West Birmingham Hospitals NHS Trust, one of the largest NHS teaching trusts in the United Kingdom. William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth had his seat at Sandwell Hall. Legge was unusual as an aristocrat of this period by being a Methodist and attending the Wednesbury Methodist meetings, where fellow Methodists – many of them colliers and drovers – knew him as "Brother Earl". West Bromwich Town Hall, situated in the centre of the High Street, is a Grade II listed building. It was built between 1874 and 1875 in brick and stone to an Italian Gothic design, and its interior reflects the Victorian interest in Gothic and Medieval architecture. Its Grand Organ, built in 1862, is considered to be of historic importance for its musical and technical qualities. West Bromwich Manor House, Hall Green Road, was built by the de Marnham family in the late 13th century as the centre of their agricultural estate in West Bromwich only the Great Hall survives of the original complex of living quarters, agricultural barns, sheds and ponds. Successive occupants modernised and extended the Manor House until it was described in 1790 as "a large pile of irregular half-timbered buildings, black and white, and surrounded with numerous out-houses and lofty walls." The Manor House was saved from demolition in the 1950s by West Bromwich Corporation which carried out an extensive and sympathetic restoration of this nationally important building. The Oak House is an historic building in the Greets Green area. Its exact date of origin is uncertain, but in 1634 it was owned by the Turtons. John Wesley preached there twice in the late 1700s. Reuben Farley gave it to the town as a museum, with the formal opening on 25 July 1898. In 1949 it was protected as a Grade II* Listed Building. In August 2009, The Public arts centre designed by architect Will Alsop fully opened. By 2013, the venue was attracting nearly 400,000 visitors a year and was bringing leading national and international artists to the town. Originally beset by problems before opening, in May 2013, it was revealed that Sandwell Council were considering borrowing a substantial amount of money to repurpose the £70 million building and lease it to Sandwell College to provide a new sixth form centre to complement the recently opened Central Campus in the town. A large portion of the town centre was procured by Tesco for the development of a Tesco Extra store and shopping centre called New Square, West Bromwich which has been built on top of the old hospital. In the early 2000s the tenants of homes and businesses have slowly moved out of the site to make way for the development. Cronehills Primary School (staff and pupils) relocated to the newly built Eaton Valley Primary School, which opened in September 2009. The police station relocated to a brand new building the other site of the ring road. Major works started on the site during October 2011 and the development was completed by late spring 2013. Sandwell Valley contains Sandwell Valley Country Park and Sandwell Valley RSPB nature reserve. The 660 acre country park is located on the River Tame in the middle of the urban conurbation between Birmingham and West Bromwich. The RSPB nature reserve is adjacent, and attracts over 150 different bird species. There are also two farms on the site that are open to the public: Sandwell Park Farm and Forge Mill Farm. Religion West Bromwich is a culturally diverse area with many places of worship for several different religions. The Church of England provides the most places of worship across the geographically wider West Bromwich Deanery (taking in West Bromwich, Hill Top, Stone Cross, Carter's Green, Holy Trinity, All Saints, St Andrew's, St Francis, Friar Park and others) which contains nine Anglican churches. Other Christian denominations are present, including Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist, Methodist, Baptist, Elim Pentecostal, Assemblies of God and other independent churches. The deanery of West Bromwich is under the Anglican Diocese of Lichfield. West Bromwich has four mosques. With two on Dartmouth street, one serving the Bangladeshi sunni community and the other, the Pakistani sunni community. The reason for the separate mosques is due to historic differences in opinions between imams of the berelvi community (Pakistani) and other sunni denominations. The largest mosque in West Bromwich is the Madinatul Uloon Al-Islamiyah Madrasa on Moor street which accommodates all Muslim Sunni denominations and follows the Deobandi school of thought. The fourth mosque opened in 2016 and follows the Bangladeshi fultoli teachings. The Bangladeshi mosque on Dartmouth street (the Jami Masjid and Islamic Centre) is currently fundraising to rebuild a purpose built mosque to accommodate more worshippers. Currently, they have obtained the land they require for this rebuild but are lacking crucial funding required for the ambitious multi-million pound rebuild. The Jami Masjid and Islamic Centre was the first mosque in the area, of Bangladeshi origin. Madinatul Uloom Al-Islamiyah, located at Moor street is based at an abandoned church and was converted into a functioning mosque in 2001. The mosque also functions as a madrasa, meaning that it offers taught classes and hosts Islamic events including an annual jalsa (Islamic gathering). It currently (and since 2003) offers Islamic evening classes to hundreds of children and has plans in the future to offer higher education to adults who desire to pursue Islamic studies at a higher level. The premises consists of two large prayer halls and an assortment of classrooms. This mosque is regularly attended by mostly people of Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Arab ethnicity (in order of proportions of worshippers from each ethnicity) - but what sets this mosque apart from others in West Bromwich, is that it is used regularly by people of many ethnicities, unlike other mosques in West Bromwich which are primarily used by people of one ethnicity. There are also a large number of Sikhs in the area. There are many Gurudwaras. Sikhs have settled in the area since 1950, when the first influx of immigrants came. The oldest Gurdwara in West Bromwich is the Gurdwara Guru Har Rai Sahib Ji on High Street. Other Gurdwara's include Guru Nanak Gurdwara on Edward Street and Gurdwara Sachkhand Ishar Darbar on Vicarage Road. Hindus have had a formal place of worship in West Bromwich since the opening of the Shree Krishna Mandir in 1974, in a converted church once called Ebenezer Congregational Chapel, which had closed in 1971. It was damaged by fire on 8 December 1992, the same date that a Mandir in Birmingham and another in Coventry were damaged in arson attacks. It was believed to have been connected to religious violence in India that was spreading into communities in Britain. In 1875, being locked out of a packed Evangelist meeting in Birmingham caused John Blackham of Ebenezer Congregational Church to start the Pleasant Sunday Afternoon Movement. Transport For roads, the M5 motorway between the West Midlands and the West Country and its junction with the M6 motorway passes through the town, making West Bromwich at the hub of Britain's motorway network. Improvements were made at the A41 junction by West Bromwich town centre after a £25 million project grant was awarded to the area to cut congestion for commuters. The junction, which is where The Expressway meets All Saints Way (A4031), currently carries over 60,000 vehicles a day, and is close to Junction 1 of the M5 The project involved the creation of a dual carriageway underpass, beneath an improved roundabout. This work began in June 2010 and was completed in Autumn 2012. West Bromwich has its own bus station in the town centre, with connections to Birmingham, Wolverhampton and other major towns in the West Midlands region. West Bromwich railway station was opened by the Great Western Railway on its route between Birmingham Snow Hill and Wolverhampton Low Level on 14 November 1854. The trackbed of that line is now served by the West Midlands Metro light rail (tram) system with West Bromwich having seven tram stops: The Hawthorns, Kenrick Park, Trinity Way, West Bromwich Central, Lodge Road West Bromwich Town Hall, Dartmouth Street and Dudley Street Guns Village. The nearest main-line railway station is now Sandwell & Dudley railway station, approximately away in Oldbury town centre. Though services to Stourbridge Junction, Worcester Shrub Hill, Worcester Foregate Street, and Birmingham Snow Hill, Birmingham Moor Street call at The Hawthorns railway station. There was previously a railway station on Newton Road which was located a mile away from the town centre. It was on the Grand Junction Railway that ran from Birmingham New Street to Stafford via Wolverhampton High Level and Walsall. This station closed in 1945 although it moved two times between 1863 and 1902, only the line remains in use for the services from Walsall to Birmingham, Wolverhampton and Liverpool Lime Street. The nearest airport which is approximately away, is Birmingham Airport, which can be reached by tram to Birmingham New Street and train to Birmingham International. Carters Green, High Street and the beginning of Birmingham Road formed the original main route through West Bromwich as part of Thomas Telford's London to Holyhead route in the early 19th century. This later formed part of the A41 road which links London with Merseyside, taking in the midlands, Shropshire, Warwickshire, Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire and Hertfordshire on the way. However, the route through central West Bromwich was by-passed in 1973 on the completion of the Expressway, a two-mile (3 km) dual carriageway beginning at Carters Green and finishing at Junction 1 of the recently completed M5 motorway on Birmingham Road. The original A41 road through the centre of West Bromwich was downgraded to an unclassified route. Around this time, West Bromwich Ringway was opened, circulating the main shopping areas. The section of the Ringway near the new Tesco has since had traffic restrictions placed on it prohibiting use by private cars. Further revolution came to the local road network in 1995 with the completion of the Black Country Spine Road which stretches from Carters Green to Bilston via Wednesbury, forming another new section of the A41. West Bromwich has a large bus station managed by Transport for West Midlands and served by a large number of routes, both locally to places such as Oldbury, Smethwick and Stone Cross as well as regional bus routes to places such as Birmingham, Wolverhampton and Walsall. Stands are lettered a through to z. The main bus operators serving the bus station are National Express West Midlands and Diamond West Midlands. Education The largest educational provider in the town is the Central Campus of Sandwell College. This is housed in a £77 million building opened in February 2012. The college is capable of enrolling over 5,000 students each year across many curriculum areas. Central Sixth delivers the college's A-Level programme covering some thirty different subject areas. Facilities in the Central Campus include a Boeing 737 fuselage used for training air cabin crew and a dental surgery used to train dental nurses. Central Campus also offers a wide variety of apprenticeships and a small number of Higher Education programmes. The town is served by five secondary schools: George Salter Academy, Health Futures UTC, the Phoenix Collegiate, Q3 Academy Great Barr and Sandwell Academy. A new secondary school, West Bromwich Collegiate Academy, opened in September 2019. The town has 21 primary schools in total. Some of which are Lodge Primary School, St. John Bosco RC Primary School, Holy Trinity C of E Primary School, Ryders Green Primary School, All Saints' CofE Primary School, St Mary Magdalene, Hateley Heath and Eaton Valley. Sandwell Academy serves the whole of West Bromwich (along with the rest of Sandwell), Phoenix Collegiate Academy serves the area around Hateley Heath, Tantany, Charlemont and Grove Vale and Stone Cross, West Midlands. George Salter Academy serves the west of the town near the border with Tipton. Q3 Academy serves the north-eastern part of the town around Great Barr. The area was also served by Churchfields High School, approximately to the north of the town centre. Due to constant closure rumours, less and less pupils began enrolling to attend the school and it was closed in July 2001. The site has since been redeveloped for housing. Sport Football The town's sport scene is dominated by West Bromwich Albion, a football club who were founded in the town in 1878 by workers from George Salter's Spring Works in West Bromwich. They played at a number of sites near the town centre until they moved to their current home, The Hawthorns on Birmingham Road (on the borders of Smethwick and Handsworth) in 1900. West Brom were among the 12 founder members of the Football League in 1888 (the first professional football league in the world), along with their two fiercest local rivals, Aston Villa and Wolverhampton Wanderers. Albion have spent the majority of their existence in the top tier of English football. The club has won nine major trophies; five FA Cups (1888, 1892, 1931, 1954, 1968), one league title (1920), one Football League Cup (1966), and two Charity Shields (1920, 1954). The victory that came in 1968 was their most recent major trophy, when they won the FA Cup with a 1–0 win over Everton at Wembley Stadium. They enjoyed further success in the late 1970s and early 1980s, when they finished in the top five league positions three times in four seasons as well as reaching a UEFA Cup quarter-final. They currently play in the Premier League, the highest tier of English football, having been promoted from the Championship in July 2020. Notable former players of West Bromwich Albion include Ronnie Allen (who later had two spells as the club's manager), Bryan Robson (who was also later the club's manager), Laurie Cunningham (the first black player to play for the senior England national team, but died in 1989 at age 33), Tony Brown (the club's all-time leading goalscorer) and Jeff Astle (who scored the club's winning goal in the 1968 FA Cup Final and remained a cult figure among Albion fans). Cricket The local cricket team is West Bromwich Dartmouth Cricket Club, and is based in the town. The club was founded in 1834. It is a founder member of the Birmingham and District Cricket League, the oldest cricket league in the world. They play their home games at Sandwell Valley, opposite the Hawthorns. Notable people Francis Asbury – Methodist bishop Anne Aston – born Anne Lloyd, TV presenter and actress, lived in Old Meeting Street Al Atkins – founder member of Judas Priest. Still lives in West Bromwich John Bainbridge – author and countryside access campaigner, born in West Bromwich, raised in Great Barr Jana Bellin – chess grandmaster Alan Birch – footballer Paul Birch – footballer Gary Bull – footballer John Byrne – comic book artist Madeleine Carroll – actress Mike Collins – comic book artist, attended Churchfields High School Dr. Stewart Donaldson – author, positive psychologist, evaluation research scientist K.K. Downing – Judas Priest guitarist Reuben Farley – first Mayor of West Bromwich Clive Ford – footballer, born in Hateley Heath Peter Griffiths – Member of Parliament, born in West Bromwich Ian Hill – Judas Priest bassist Noel Johnson - Actor, original voice of Dick Barton, in radio series Cindy Kent – former singer with The Settlers, later a radio broadcaster Denise Lewis – heptathlete Steve Lynex – footballer Phil Lynott – Thin Lizzy singer and bassist, born in Hallam Hospital Matthew Marsden – actor Horace Notice - boxer Major Nichols – lightweight Racing bicycle manufacturer Phil Parkes – footballer Robert Plant – singer and frontman of Led Zeppelin, born in West Bromwich Dr Karl Shuker – zoologist, cryptozoologist and author Frank Skinner – comedian Larry Stephens – comedy scriptwriter, born in West Bromwich Miles Storey – footballer currently playing for Partick Thistle. Brian Walden – Member of Parliament, journalist and broadcaster Steve Webb – Member of Parliament, and Liberal Democrat Lee Woodley – boxer See also West Bromwich Building Society Charlemont and Grove Vale West Bromwich Mountaineering Club References Sources 'West Bromwich: Social life', A History of the County of Stafford: Volume 17: Offlow hundred (part) (1976), pp. 70–74. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=36169. Date accessed: 23 April 2008. External links Sandwell MBC West Bromwich Borough Archive Catalogue Towns in the West Midlands (county) Areas of Sandwell Unparished areas in the West Midlands (county)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borussia%20M%C3%B6nchengladbach

Borussia Mönchengladbach

Borussia Verein für Leibesübungen 1900 e. V. Mönchengladbach, commonly known as Borussia Mönchengladbach (), Mönchengladbach () or Gladbach (; abbreviated as Borussia MG, BMG), is a professional football club based in Mönchengladbach, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, that plays in the Bundesliga, the top flight of German football. The club has won five League titles, three DFB-Pokals, and two UEFA Europa League titles. Borussia Mönchengladbach were founded in 1900, with its name derived from a Latinized form of Prussia, which was a popular name for German clubs in the former Kingdom of Prussia. The team joined the Bundesliga in 1965, and saw the majority of its success in the 1970s, where, under the guidance of Hennes Weisweiler and then Udo Lattek, they captured five league championships with Die Fohlen (The Colts) team; a term coined as the squad were young with a fast, aggressive playing style. Mönchengladbach also won two UEFA Cup titles during this period and reached a European Cup final in 1977. Since 2004, Borussia Mönchengladbach have played at Borussia-Park, having previously played at the Bökelbergstadion since 1919. Based on membership, Borussia Mönchengladbach is the fifth largest club in Germany with over 75,000 members in 2016, and 93,000 members as of 2021. The club's main rivals are FC Köln, against whom they contest the Rheinland Derby. Their secondary rivals include Borussia Dortmund, Fortuna Düsseldorf, and Bayer Leverkusen. History 1899–1905: Formation In November 1899, a group of discontented members left their sports association, TC Germania Gladbach (referred to as "Teutonia Gladbach" in some sources). On 17 November 1899, thirteen of these young men formed a new club, this time specifically focussed on association football, in the Zum Jägerhof pub. They chose the word Borussia (Latin: "Prussia") as their association's new title, although this was not yet the club's official founding. Borussia was chosen because Mönchengladbach was located in the western provinces awarded to the Kingdom of Prussia as part of the 1815 Congress of Vienna. Other notable football clubs in western Germany that chose the name of Prussia as their title include Borussia Dortmund in 1909 and SC Preußen Münster in 1906.Borussia's early years were faced with the problems typical for association football teams in the German Empire: the sport, only recently imported from the UK in the 1880s, was not yet institutionally accepted, and as a result there were logistical shortages of football fields, goals, changing rooms, and player equipment. Borussia's players initially were stuck having to finance their own gear for what was at the time a considerable financial expenditure for working class people. Borussia was the second dedicated football club in the city of Mönchengladbach. FC Mönchengladbach, founded six years earlier in 1894, quickly became Borussia's first rival. Whereas FC Mönchengladbach was decently established, young Borussia found it difficult to guarantee regular access to training grounds and equipment. As a result, the team joined the Marianische Jünglings-Kongregation Mönchengladbach Eicken (German: "Marian Youth Congregation Mönchengladbach Eicken"), a fairly conservative Catholic sporting association. Within this larger organization, the footballers reformed into the Fussball Club Borussia 1900 on 1 August 1900, marking the club's official founding date. From within the congregation, Borussia was able to more effectively organize official games against various opposing teams. The team scored 2–1 victories over both Blitz Neuwerk and Germania Mönchengladbach and a 4–2 victory over Rheydt FC. As early as 1902, Borussia crossed international borders for the first time, losing 0–2 against Helmondia Helmond in the Netherlands before playing the Dutch team to a 1–1 draw at home. The appeal of both association football in general and Borussia in particular proved too socially scandalous for the conservative federation leadership to tolerate. The practice of football players wearing shorts instead of long trousers and the reality of football practice on Sundays hindering Church attendance created tension between Borussia and the Youth Congregation Eicken, and Borussia ultimately left the congregation on 24 May 1903. To continue successful football competitions and to ease the organization of games, the club had applied to join the Rheinisch-Westfälischer Spielverband (German: "Rhenish-Westphalian Sports Federation") on 16 February 1903, and was accepted on 23 February. Borussia continued playing local and regional opponents like Britannia Düsseldorf and BV Solingen. They also continued to travel to the nearby Netherlands, drawing Eindhoven VV 1–1. Still, the team at times struggled against mightier opponents. Borussia received a 0–11 thrashing at the hands of Borussia Cologne in October 1903 in the away fixture, before somewhat improving the performance by losing 1–4 at home in the return game.In 1904, Borussia competed with several other local teams in the third class of the second district of the Rhenish-Westphalian Sports Federation. After Borussia's only competitor for the title, BV Solingen, skipped the 1905 fixture in Mönchengladbach, Borussia won the title without having to face their opponent. On 8 January 1905, Borussia additionally scored a respectable 1–0 win over its city rival FC Mönchengladbach, albeit only against the third team, confirming an earlier 6–1 win over FC Mönchengladbach on 26 December 1904. After having won the district cup, Borussia competed for the third class federation cup against, among others, teams from Essen and Cologne, ultimately losing the title to Kölner FC 99. 1905–1914: Before World War I After some decent athletic success in the year 1905 (18 games, 12 wins, 1 draw, 5 losses), Borussia nonetheless faced frustration, as the playing grounds were judged insufficient for competition play. The team was subsequently excluded from major competitions until a more appropriate locale could be found. Ultimately, Borussia acquired a patch of land on Reyerhütterstraße in Mönchengladbach to enable organized play, at a time when the growing spread of football made it more and more of a hassle in terms of property damage and noise pollution. By achieving access to its own football grounds, Borussia thus evaded the growing number of police actions that were launched to call football enthusiasts to order. Regular play continued, after more than a year of absence, in the second class of the second district, against teams like FC Mönchengladbach II, FC Eintracht Mönchengladbach and various teams from Düsseldorf and Krefeld, among others. After a 2–0 against Rheydt and two victories over Düsseldorf teams (4–1 against Britannia Düsseldorf, 4–1 against Union Düsseldorf), the first home game was held in Reyerhütterstraße against Preußen Krefeld. Borussia won the game with two goals difference. At the end of the competition, Borussia was crowned district champions with eight wins in eight games (although Borussia had lost a 0–2 game against FC Mönchengladbach II that was subsequently annulled when FC Mönchengladbach II was disqualified from the competition), with 25 goals scored and only 8 conceded. But Borussia was skipped for promotion regardless; the club was once again assigned to the second class (now called B-Klasse) as result of a league reform. In 1907, Borussia left Reyerhütterstraße, where a new factory was under construction, and reached a deal with Gladbacher Turnverein 1848 to cooperatively run a ground near the Schweizerhaus, a famous gastronomy in the vicinity of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Halle [de]. Games at the new grounds go well, with a 5–1 win over Borussia Köln, which had inflicted a painful 0–11 loss on Borussia in 1903, as well as a 5–3 against Rheydt. The season as a whole was mediocre for Borussia, ending with five wins, four losses and a draw at 19 goals scored and 13 conceded in third place. Borussia was qualified for a promotion tournament to determine the team to be promoted to A class, but lost 0–6 to Viktoria Mönchengladbach. The 1908–09 season was better for Borussia. After a 0–2 loss at home against FC Eintracht Mönchengladbach, Borussia regained its footing, beating Viktoria Mönchengladbach 4–1 in an away game and drawing them 2–2 at home. On 13 January 1909, Borussia scored an overwhelming 13–1 victory over Spiel und Sport Essen. Losing no game but the opener against Eintracht, Gladbach easily came first in the league and was thus qualified from Group South to face the promotion candidates from Group North, FC Cleve 06. After a resounding 5–1 win at home, the enthusiasm was dampened by a 3–4 setback in the away fixture. In the tiebreaker game, Borussia won 4–1, at last gaining promotion to the first division. Going into the 1909–10 season, Borussia exchanged its previous black and white color scheme with blue and yellow vertical stripes. Gladbach started into the higher league with significant issues, bringing Rheydt SpV only to a 2–2 at home before struggling with a crushing defeat in the 0–9 away fixture. The team ended the season with five wins, five losses and two draws in fourth place, dodging relegation. The club's tenth anniversary had seen a record 143 registered members, up from 32 in 1906 and 75 in 1908. In the 1910–11 season, the league grew from seven to ten teams, adding opponents like Germania Hilden, FC Krefeld and Eintracht Mönchengladbach, bringing the game plan for Borussia to 18 games, not counting numerous friendly matches that brought the total number of games played to over 30, placing a significant strain on the amateur players. Aside from a noteworthy 11–2 victory over rivals Rheydt SV, the season was another mediocre performance for Borussia. The season forced Borussia to once again move the playing ground, after the Schweizerhaus grounds were deemed to dangerous in response to complaints by opposing teams. Borussia subsequently moved to grounds near the Catholic graveyard, and finished fourth in the league. The new grounds was known as Stadion am Rosengarten. The 1911–12 season was the first major success in the club's history. Borussia easily dominated the league with twelve wins, one draw and one loss, and thus earned qualification for promotion games towards Verbandsliga as northern district champions as well as the West German championship. Borussia defeated VfJuB Düren, the southern district champions, in a 4–2 game, before achieving a 5–0 blowout against VfB 1900 Gießen, the Hessian champions. Ultimately, Borussia lost the finals for the West German championship against Cologne BC 01, the precursor of Borussia's greatest all-time rival, 1. FC Köln, at a 2–4 scoreline. In a step down from the previous season's outstanding performance, Borussia proved to struggle in the 1912–13 season. While the team was not threatened by relegation at any point in the tournament, Borussia ended in the middle of the table without a serious claim towards the title, and was no serious threat in the West German championship either. Borussia ended the season in sixth place in the league, at eight wins, two draws and eight losses. In the last full season before World War I, the German footballing structure was again reformed in the 1913–14 season. The system of two federation leagues (German: Verbandsliga) of twenty clubs each was replaced with a system of four district leagues (German: Kreisliga) of ten clubs each. This left Borussia in the Rhenish Northern District (German: Rheinischer Nordkreis) along with teams from Aachen and Düsseldorf, as well as other teams from Mönchengladbach. In the preparation for the season, Borussia performed miserably, losing 1–3 to Viktoria Duisburg and 1–6 to Duisburg SV. Borussia nonetheless entered the season with the clear goal to earn the district championship. The team fell well short of that target, coming third in the league at five wins, five draws and four losses. The highlight of the season is a friendly match against an English professional team. Dulwich Hamlet F.C., which Borussia's amateur footballers lost 2–5 (initially having led 2–1 by the 80th minute before conceding four goals in the last ten minutes). 1914–1918: World War I In March 1914, the club purchased De Kull, a decommissioned gravel pit and the grounds on which the later Bökelbergstadion would be built. The First World War halted the progress of both the stadium and football in general, as many players volunteered or were drafted for military service. With rapidly changing player lineups, Borussia contested the war cup (German: Kriegspokal), beating Düren 7–0. In total, Borussia played 18 games in the 1914–15 season, in spite of the logistical difficulties caused by the war. In time for the 1915–16 season, it had become clear that the war, initially anticipated by all sides to conclude quickly, would last longer than expected. Regardless, Borussia was able to assemble a functional team for the season (reinforced regularly by players on vacation from frontline duty), and played games against Union Krefeld, Viktoria Rheydt, Konstantia Kaldenkirchen, VfB Krefeld, FC Mönchengladbach and Eintracht Mönchengladbach. After a shaky start including a 1–4 friendly game loss to Borussia Düsseldorf, Borussia found its footing in the league, and briefly rivalled Krefeld for the first place in January 1916. Ultimately, Borussia finished second in the league. By mid-1916, Borussia was forced to cease regular play due to the lack of regularly available players. By 4 November 1916, even the provisional club leadership had to cease operations, as too many of its members were called up for military service. Borussia suffered several losses due to war casualties: The club's chairman since 1912, Heinz Körstgens, was killed in action in 1915, as was Stephan Ditgens, Borussia player and uncle of Borussia's first ever German national team player, Heinz Ditgens. 1918–1933: During the Weimar Republic In the immediate aftermath of the military armistice of 11 November 1918, football clubs all over Germany began to gradually resume operations. Members of Borussia had informal meetings about the resumption of play even during the last months of the war, as early as mid-1918. The first recorded game of this phase was a 5–0 over Rheydt SV on 15 August 1918, followed by the turnaround in the form of a 2–7 thrashing at the hands of Rheydt SV in the return fixture a week later. The aftermath of the war interrupted the blossoming football of 1918–19, as only seven of Borussia's 14 planned games were held due to the occupation of the region by the Belgian Armed Forces. The decades-long struggle to find a usable locale to play continued, as De Kull was not yet ready to be used. By early 1919, the team returned to Schweizerhaus as a temporary measure. On 15 March 1919, FC Borussia merged with another local club, Turnverein Germania 1889, becoming 1889 VfTuR M.Gladbach. The club achieved its first major success in 1920, defeating Kölner BC 3–1 to win the 1920–1921 West German championship final. The union between Germania and Borussia only lasted a matter of two years; the club was thereafter known as Borussia VfL 1900 e.V. M.Gladbach. 1933–1945: Football under the Third Reich Following the rise of the Nazi Party to power in 1933, the German league system was reformed to consist of 16 Gauligen – Gladbach found themselves playing first in the Gauliga Niederrhein, and later in various Bezirksklassen (district leagues). Also while under the Third Reich, Mönchengladbach's first ever international player was capped; Heinz Ditgens playing in a 9–0 win over Luxembourg for Germany in the 1936 Olympic Games. 1945–1959: Rebuild after War Eventually, Mönchengladbach resumed play in June 1946, gaining successive promotions to the Landesliga Niederrhein (the regional second tier) in 1949 and the top flight, the Oberliga West, in 1950. Following many years of promotions and relegations, Borussia won their first Oberliga title in the 1958–59 season. 1959–1965: Promotion to the Bundesliga In August 1960, Borussia Mönchengladbach defeated 1. FC Köln in the West German Cup. Weeks later, the club won the DFB-Pokal, clinching their first national honours after defeating Karlsruher SC 3–2 in the final. Borussia therefore qualified for the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1960–61, where they were defeated 11–0 on aggregate by the Scottish club, Rangers. Rangers won 3–0 in Germany and 8–0 in Glasgow. The following year, the club took on the now-familiar name Borussia VfL Mönchengladbach after the city of München-Gladbach became Mönchengladbach. The 1961–62 season in the Oberliga ended again with Borussia in 13th place in the table. In 1962–63, the club hoped in vain to join the circle of DFB clubs which would start next year in the newly founded Bundesliga. Helmut Beyer, who remained in office for 30 years, took over the responsibility of president that season and Helmut Grashoff took over as second chairman. In July 1962, Borussia signed Fritz Langner, who had won the West German championship in 1959 with Westfalia Herne, as their new coach. To Langner's chagrin, the new leadership sold Albert Brüllsfor a record fee of 250,000 DM to FC Modena in Italy in order to rehabilitate the club financially. Helmut Grashoff, who collected the fee in Italian lira in cash in a suitcase, later said he had feared, after the money transfer, "being thought a bank robber". The proceeds from the transfer enabled Langner to rebuild the squad with the signing of players like Heinz Lowin, Heinz Crawatzo and Siegfried Burkhardt. That year, the A-Youth team won the West German championship with a squad that included future professional footballers, Jupp Heynckes and Herbert Laumen. Further honours would have to wait a decade. Borussia's results in the ten years leading up to the formation of the Bundesliga in 1963 were not strong enough to earn them admission into the ranks of the nation's new top flight professional league, and so the club played in the second tier, the Regionalliga West. In the next season, 1964–65, the club signed the youngsters, Jupp Heynckes and Bernd Rupp, and some of the youth team joined the professional squad. Their average age of 21.5 years was the lowest of all regional league teams. They earned the nickname "foals" due to their low average age as well as their carefree and successful play. Reporter Wilhelm August Hurtmanns coined the nickname in his articles in the Rheinische Post. He was taken with the style of Borussia and wrote that they would play like young foals. By April 1965, the team had won the Regionalliga West and thus secured the participation in the Bundesliga promotion round in Group 1. This saw the team play against the competitors of Wormatia Worms (Second in the Regionalliga Südwest), SSV Reutlingen (Second in the Regionalliga Süd) and Holstein Kiel (Champions in the Regionalliga Nord) in first and second matches. Of the six games Borussia won three (5–1 in Worms, 1–0 against Kiel and 7–0 against Reutlingen). The achievement of the first place made promotion to the Bundesliga safe. Together with Borussia Bayern Munich rose by winning Group 2. Mönchengladbach enjoyed its first taste of the Bundesliga in the 1965–66 season, earning promotion alongside future powerhouse Bayern Munich. The two clubs would go on to engage in a fierce struggle as they challenged each other for domestic supremacy throughout the 1970s. Bayern took first blood in the struggle for supremacy between the two: winning the Bundesliga championship in 1969. Mönchengladbach struck back immediately in the next season with a championship of their own and followed up with a second title in 1971, becoming the first Bundesliga club ever to successfully defend their title. 1965–1969: Early years in Bundesliga and struggles The commitment of Weisweiler as coach pointed the way for the sporting success of the club in the Bundesliga. The economic situation of the club did not allow to finance a team of stars. Weisweiler corresponded to the needs of the association with his attitude to promote the education and development of young talents. He pressed Players not in a fixed game system, but promoted individualism and gave them considerable freedom on the field. This resulted in a carefree and offensive style of playing, the hallmark of Fohlenelf. The club signed with Berti Vogts and Heinz Wittmann, both players whose names should be closely linked to the sporting successes of Borussia. The first Bundesliga match in the 1965–66 season took place away against Borussia Neunkirchen and ended 1–1, the first Bundesliga goal scorer was Gerhard Elfert. The first home game against SC Tasmania 1900 Berlin Borussia won 5–0. Weisweiler knew how to give the team tactical freedom and to promote the individual enthusiasm of the players. These freedoms cost the still immature team in the first Bundesliga season with a number of sometimes high defeats. The Borussia finished the first season in the Bundesliga on the 13th place in the table. In the following season 1966–67 showed the scoring power of the Mönchengladbacher team, which scored 70 goals. The striker Herbert Laumen scored 18, Bernd Rupp 16 and Jupp Heynckes scored 14 goals. Due to the good goal difference, the team was able to complete the season on the eighth place in the table. With an 11–0 home win over FC Schalke 04 on Matchday 18, the team celebrated the first highest ever victory in Bundesliga history. The successes had the side effect that the salaries of the players jumped up and thus good players were not easy to hold onto. Jupp Heynckes moved for the former record transfer fee of 275,000 DM to Hannover 96, Bernd Rupp moved to SV Werder Bremen, and Eintracht Braunschweig signed Gerhard Elfert. The club bought Peter Meyer and Peter Dietrich and thus compensated for the departure of seasoned players. With a 10–0 win on the twelfth match-day of the season 1967–68 over Borussia Neunkirchen, the team showed again their scoring power. The team reached in this and the next season third place in the table. The club signed in the season 1968–69 their future coach Horst Köppel, who had already had first experiences in the national team, and from hitherto unknown amateur VfL Schwerte the then long-time goalkeeper Wolfgang Kleff and Hartwig Bleidick, Gerd Zimmermann and Winfried Schäfer, who played ten seasons at Borussia. 1970–1980: Golden decade: Dominance in the league and successes in Europe The 1970s went down as the most successful in the club's history. Under coach Hennes Weisweiler, the young side displayed an offensive-minded philosophy and powerful play that attracted fans from all over Germany. Borussia won the championship five times, more than any other team in this time. At the same time a rivalry developed with FC Bayern Munich, with which Borussia together ascended in 1965 to the Bundesliga. After the club had twice finished in previous years third place in the table, coached Hennes Weisweiler in the 1969–70 season especially the defence. Deviating from the "foal" concept, Borussia bought for the first time experienced defensive players like Luggi Müller and Klaus-Dieter Sieloff. With Ulrik le Fevre the club signed their first Danish player, later followed by Henning Jensen and Allan Simonsen. This season saw the first Bundesliga victory over Bayern. After a 5–1 win over Alemannia Aachen on 31 October 1969, Borussia topped the Bundesliga for the first time. Today (as of December 2018) Borussia takes third place in the list of league leaders in the Bundesliga behind Bayern and Dortmund. With a home win against Hamburger SV on 30 April 1970, the 33rd Round of the season, Borussia were named as champions. On 16 September 1970 Herbert Laumen scored in the 6–0 win against EPA Larnaka the first goal for Borussia in a game of European club football. The first round of the following season 1970–71 saw the club having only one defeat. In the history of the Bundesliga unique is an incident in the home game of the 27th matchday against Werder Bremen, known as the post break from Bökelberg. In the game on 3 April 1971, after a penalty area scene in the 88th minute, the striker Herbert Laumen after a head clash together with the Bremen goalkeeper Günter Bernardinto overturned the left goal post. After unsuccessful attempts at repair and no replacement goal could be set up, the referee stopped the game at the score of 1:1. The DFB sports court in Frankfurt rated the game as a 2–0 win for Bremen. As a consequence, the DFB obliged the clubs to provide a replacement for both goals. The championship was decided only on the last match day as a head-to-head race with Bayern Munich. Nine weeks after the post-break game, on 5 June 1971, Borussia were the first side in the history of the Bundesliga to defend their championship title, with a victory at Eintracht Frankfurt. On 20 October 1971 in the European Cup, the champions took part in a can-throwing game in football history match against Inter Milan instead. Borussia won the match at Bökelbergstadion 7–1, but UEFA cancelled the game, as the Italian striker Roberto Boninsegna was hit by an empty coke can and received medical treatment. coaching legend Matt Busby described the game of the colts : After a 4–2 away defeat in Milan and a goalless draw in the replay at the Berlin Olympic Stadium, Borussia were eliminated from the Cup of the national champions. Die Fohlen were able to take some consolation in a 2–1 victory over 1. FC Köln in the Rheinland derby by a goal by Günter Netzer in 1973 to win their second DFB-Pokal. For Netzer this was the last game for Borussia: he left the club and moved to Real Madrid. In addition to the game-winning scene in the 93rd minute from Netzer there were numerous other highlights in the 30th cup final in history, that of the one best, playful highly interesting and exciting in the history of this competition in the annals entered and of which one could swarm only in highest tones ( Kicker ). The first international final match took place on 9 May 1973. Liverpool won the UEFA Cup first-leg 3–0 on the second try after the game was cancelled the day before due to rain. On 23 May 1973 Borussia Mönchengladbach won the second-leg 2–0, but Liverpool won the cup by aggregate victory. The following seasons were marked by the departure of well-known players, although the main Mönchengladbach striker remained. In the 1973–74 season Jupp Heynckes' 30 goals made him the top-scorer in the Bundesliga, the first Borussia Monchengladbach player to be so. In that first season following the departure of Günter Netzer, Borussia finished as runner-up to champions Bayern Munich by one point. With a total of 93 goals scored Borussia set a new club record. Borussia graduated in the following years 1972 to 1974, the championship in third and fifth place and vice-champion. In the 1974–75 season Borussia laid the foundation for a feat previously unheard of in the Bundesliga. On Matchday 17, the "foals" topped the league table and did not relinquish the league lead until winning the championship on 14 June 1975. The joy over the title was clouded by the departure of coach Hennes Weisweiler, who left the club after eleven years in the direction of FC Barcelona. The nearest international final with Mönchengladbach participation took place on 7 May 1975. The first leg of the UEFA Cup in Düsseldorf between Borussia and Twente Enschede ended goalless. The second leg on 21 May 1975 was won by the VfL 5: 1. With the highest away win in a UEFA Cup final, Borussia won their first international title. Udo Lattek, who came from the rival Bayern Munich, although he had already signed with Rot-Weiss Essen, took over the club in the 1975–76 season. In contrast to the departed Weisweiler, Lattek represented a rather safety-first philosophy. The team topped the Championship on the twelfth round of the season, with a victory over Werder Bremen and Eintracht Braunschweig, and retained that lead to the end of the season. On 3 March 1976, on Ash Wednesday, was the next sensational international appearance of Borussia. In the European Champions Cup, Borussia Mönchengladbach played against Real Madrid, where now Günter Netzer and Paul Breitner were under contract, 2: 2. In the second leg (17 March 1976), which ended 1–1, the referee Leonardus van der Kroft did not recognise two Mönchengladbach goals, in the 68th minute a goal by Henning Jensen and in the 83rd minute by Hans-Jürgen Wittkamp. Once a foul must have preceded the goal, once the referee decided on offside, although it had been not indicated by the linesman. The draw was enough for the Madrilenians to progress. The team stayed on the attack, and matched Bayern's achievement, with three consecutive titles from 1975 to 1977. On 12 June 1976 Mönchengladbach won a fourth league title. In the 1976–77 season Lattek went with an almost unchanged team at the start. As Wolfgang Kleff was injured, the club signed a new goalkeeper. In Wolfgang Kneib, who came from SV Wiesbaden, Lattek found a safe substitute. Borussia needed one point to defend the title on the final day. The match took place away against Bayern Munich, then sixth in the table, and ended 2:2 by an own goal in the 90th minute by Hans-Jürgen Wittkamp. Borussia made the hat-trick and won on 21 May 1977 for the third time in a row and for the fifth time overall the German championship title. The Dane Allan Simonsen received after this season the award as Europe's Footballer of the Year with the Ballon d'Or. The team narrowly missed a fourth championship title in a row in season 1977–78: Monchengladbach lost out to 1. FC Köln only by a worse goal difference. Borussia won against Borussia Dortmund 12–0 on the final day of the season, still the highest victory in the history of the Bundesliga. However, the Domstädter won their last game 5:0 at FC St. Pauli: they had a better goal difference by three goals and so won the championship. For the first time in the Bundesliga first and second were tied after the end of the season. Borussia would have been able to decide the championship in their favour had they won the match against 1. FC Cologne a few weeks earlier. However, the game ended in a draw, with Cologne player Heinz Flohe netting a vital 83rd-minute equaliser. Although Mönchengladbach lost the 1977 final of the European Cup to Liverpool in Rome(25 May 1977), they also made four appearances in the UEFA Cup with wins in 1975 and 1979 against losses in 1973 and 1980. The club's spectacular run had come to an end with eight trophies to their credit, and although they would continue to be competitive for many years, success would be much harder to come by. In the following season 1978–79 Udo Lattek managed Borussia for the last time. Many regulars left the club, such as the later vice-president Rainer Bonhof, or announced their career end, such as Jupp Heynckes and Berti Vogts. Lattek did not succeed in offsetting these departures with appropriate new signings. On Matchday 30, the team was in 15th place with a goal-difference of 38:47 goals: three wins from the last four games improved the finish to tenth place. It was the first season in a long time in which the club finished with a negative goal-difference. Borussia signed Jupp Heynckes to be assistant coach to Lattek this season. The second international title started on 9 May 1979. The first leg in the UEFA Cup against Red Star Belgrade ended in a draw. In the second leg on 23 May 1979 Borussia won 1–0 at home to win the UEFA Cup for the second time. After the departure of Lattek in the 1979–80 season, the club appointed Jupp Heynckes head coach. The season was marked by two new entries. The club signed Harald Nickel of Eintracht Braunschweig. With a transfer fee of 1.15 million DM this was the hitherto most expensive new purchase. From Herzogenaurach came Lothar Matthäus. Borussia finished the season in seventh place. On 7 May 1980 Borussia Mönchengladbach was again in a final for the UEFA Cup. At home, the team won against Eintracht Frankfurt 3–2. In the second leg on 21 May 1980 Eintracht Frankfurt won 1–0 against Borussia Mönchengladbach and secured the trophy due to the larger number of away goals scored. 1980–1996: Slow down In the 1980s, Borussia could no longer build on the titles of the past decade and fell behind of the former rival from Munich. Due to the lack of ticket revenue from the small Bökelbergstadion the club had to sell top performers again and again. Nevertheless, it was possible to settle frequently in the upper third of the Bundesliga and play in the championship fight. In the 1980–81 season many longtime players and performers left the club, including Karl Del'Haye who is considered the first player who was signed by FC Bayern Munich in hostile intent. Borussia committed with Wolfram Wuttke only to striking players. They replaced Wolfgang Kleff in goal to Uli Sude. The team reached this season's sixth place in the table. The sporting record did not improve in the following two seasons. With a seventh place in 1982 Borussia missed the participation in the international competitions. The following year, Uwe Kamps guarded the goal for the first time, and remained long-time goalkeeper for many years. In the 1983–84 season Borussia played for the title. With Bernd Krauss, Michael Frontzeck and Uli Borowka Borussia committed players who played for a long time successfully for the club. At the end they landed tied behind VfB Stuttgart and Hamburger SV in third place. It was the first time in the history of the Bundesliga that three clubs tied the table on the last matchday. In the same season, Mönchengladbach also lost the DFB-Pokal final to Bayern Munich on penalties, Lothar Matthäus and Norbert Ringels both missing from the spot after the game originally ended all square at 1–1. Matthäus subsequently joined Bayern Munich for a then-record fee of 2.25 million DM, leading some fans to question whether he had deliberately missed his penalty. In the 1984–85 season Borussia won 10–0 on Matchday 8 against Eintracht Braunschweig which is so far the last two-digit victory in Bundesliga history. In the semi-finals of the German Cup VfL met again at Bayern Munich. After no goals had been scored in the regular season in Munich's Olympiastadion, Søren Lerby converted a penalty kick against Borussia goalkeeper Ulrich Sude in the 101st minute. This remained the only goal of the evening, so that Borussia missed the entry into the final. The season 1985–86 brought no sporting highlights in the Bundesliga with the club finishing fourth. Borussia Mönchengladbach gave away a 5–1 win over Real Madrid on 27 November 1985 in Düsseldorf (11 December 1985) when the club lost 4–0 in Madrid and dropped out of the UEFA Cup. In the 1986–87 season was again a coach change. Jupp Heynckes announced his move to Bayern Munich. The club nominated Wolf Werner as the new coach. At the end of the season Borussia stood with the third place in the table for the last time in this decade at a UEFA Cup place. The Association of German Sports Journalists voted Uwe Rahn Player of the Year. Again Borussia reached the semi-finals of the DFB Cup. But also this time Borussia lost against the later DFB Cup winner Hamburger SV. On 22 April 1987, Borussia lost against the Scottish representative Dundee United after defeat at home in Bökelberg in the UEFA Cup semi-final. It was also the first defeat in a European Cup game on the Bökelberg. After the departure of Jupp Heynckes, the era of long-standing engagements of head coaches ended. In the first 23 years from 1964 to 1987 Borussia only had three instructors; Since the departure of Heynckes, Borussia had committed 16 new coaches until 2008, with the exception of interim solutions. It was Werner's release on 21 November 1989 that saw first premature dismissal of a coach at Borussia at all. Only three later coaches managed to succeed in Mönchengladbach for more than three years, Bernd Krauss (1992–1996), Hans Meyer (1999–2003) and Lucien Favre (2011–2015). In the next season Borussia signed Stefan Effenberg, a player who worked long and successfully for the club. Borussia finished the season in seventh place and thus missed the participation in international competitions. The early 1990s followed a significant downward trend. As a result of the sporting decline, the number of spectators at the Bökelberg was declining for the first time. Already in the season 1989–90 the club played against relegation. In the following years Borussia placed in the midfield of the league. In the 1991–92 season Borussia played again a good cup season. In the Cup semi-final goalkeeper Uwe Kamps held on penalties all four penalties of the players of Bayer 04 Leverkusen. Borussia reached the final. The final on 23 May 1992 saw the Mönchengladbachers lose against the club from second division Hannover 96 3:4 on penalties. In 1993, the club signed the players Heiko Herrlich and Patrik Andersson, and in 1994, Stefan Effenberg came back, who played for Borussia Mönchengladbach from 1987 to 1990. Under coach Bernd Krauss, they managed a renewed connection to the Bundesliga top end. In the 1994–95 season came the first trophy for Borussia since 1979, where they won the DFB-Pokal with a 3–0 victory over VfL Wolfsburg. Borussia would also win the Supercup against the German champions Borussia Dortmund a few months later. 1996–2010: Firm decline and new stadium The team's performance slipped significantly in the 1990s and Die Fohlen soon found themselves struggling in the lower half of the Bundesliga table. After the first round of the 1996–97 season, Borussia finished 17th place in the table. The club dismissed coach Krauss due to the sporting failure. At the end of the season, the Mönchengladbacher were in 11th place. None of the other four coaches to Krauss remained in office for more than a year. Under Friedel Rausch could Borussia only hold the bundesliga position after a dramatic season finale in 1998. Before the last matchday, the Borussia were three points behind a relegation zone. On the final day of the season succeeded a 2–0 away win at VfL Wolfsburg; Karlsruher SC lost to Hansa Rostock and went down due to the worse goal difference. In the international arena, the season was disappointing despite two victories in the first round of the UEFA Cup against Arsenal. Borussia lost in the second round of the first leg 2–4 against AS Monaco, the most recent victory Borussia reached with a 1–0 in Monaco, but were eliminated from the competition. In the season 1998–99 Borussia won 3–0 against FC Schalke 04 on Matchday 1 and was at the top of the table for the first time in 13 years. As a result, the team lost six matches and drew two draws, so they stood on the ninth day at the bottom of the table. On the tenth and eleventh round followed by a 2:8 defeat against Bayer 04 Leverkusen and a 1:7 at Vfl Wolfsburg two high defeats in a row. The team remained until the end of the season in 18th place. After a total of 21 lost games, the consequence was the first descent from the Bundesliga. As a consequence of the descent, several top performers, including goalkeeper Robert Enke, defender Patrik Andersson and midfielder Karlheinz Pflipsen and Sebastian Deisler all left the club. Finally, in 1999, Gladbach were relegated to 2. Bundesliga, where they would spend two seasons. Upon returning to the Bundesliga in 2001, Mönchengladbach remained uninspired as they continued to be mired in the bottom half of the league. The first season in the 2nd Bundesliga started the same way as the previous one ended. In the DFB Cup, the team were knocked out early after a lost penalty shootout against the regional league SC Verl. The second division season 1999–2000 ended the Borussia despite bad first round still on the fifth place in the table. Four points were missing for direct promotion. On 1 August 2000, Borussia Mönchengladbach celebrated the 100-year anniversary of the club. As part of the celebrations, next to coach Hennes Weisweiler the following players were elected by Borussia supporters in the so-called century Elf: As goalkeeper Wolfgang Kleff, in defence Berti Vogts, Hans-Günter Bruns, Wilfried Hannes and Patrik Andersson, in midfield Rainer Bonhof, Stefan Effenberg, Herbert Wimmer and Günter Netzer and in attack Jupp Heynckes and Allan Simonsen. Later, large-format posters with images of the players on the north and east sides were attached to the steel exterior of the stadium in Borussia Park. In the 2000–01 season, the team was able to celebrate as a runner-up in the Bundesliga 2 re-emergence in the Bundesliga and reached the semi-finals of the DFB Cup, but were knocked out as in the previous year against a Regionalligisten ( 1 FC Union Berlin ) on penalties. Borussia won first place in the national fair play ranking in 2002 in the draw for a place in the UEFA Cup, but the lot was not drawn. Also in the season 2003–04 Borussia missed participation in the UEFA Cup. On 17 March 2004, the Borussia were eliminated by a 0–1 defeat against the then second division Alemannia Aachen in the semi-finals of the DFB Cup. A victory against the Alemannia would have been enough, because the final opponent Werder Bremen was already qualified for the UEFA Champions League due to the table position. The season was under the motto Bye Bye Bökelberg, because on 22 May 2004, the last Bundesliga match took place in Bökelbergstadion. The Borussia defeated TSV 1860 Munich 3:1; the last goal on Bökelberg was headed by Arie van Lent. Uwe Kamps came on in the 82nd minute and came to his 457th match in the Bundesliga. In 2004, Mönchengladbach appointed Dick Advocaat, who had guided the Netherlands national team to the semi-finals of UEFA Euro 2004 and was a successful manager at Rangers, as their new coach. However, Advocaat was unable to turn the team's fortunes and resigned in April of the following year. Former Mönchengladbach player and German international Horst Köppel was appointed caretaker for the remaining five fixtures of the season. Köppel had managed the club's reserves since leaving Borussia Dortmund in June 2004. For the 2006–07 season, legendary Mönchengladbach player and coach Jupp Heynckes was appointed as team coach. Borussia had taken steps to improve their financial situation with the construction of a new state-of-the-art stadium called Borussia-Park with a permitted capacity of 59,771 spectators (limited to 54,067 for Bundesliga games and to 46,249 for international games). The club had long been hindered by playing in a much smaller and older facility (Bökelberg, capacity 34,500) and with the opening of the new stadium in 2004 can look forward to increased revenues through higher ticket sales and the ability to host lucrative international matches. On the 31st matchday of the 2006–07 season, Borussia Mönchengladbach were relegated from the Bundesliga after fellow relegation fighters Arminia Bielefeld upset Werder Bremen 3–2 while Mönchengladbach lost 1–0 at home to VfB Stuttgart. They were promoted back to the Bundesliga on the 32nd match-day of the 2007–08 season after winning the match against SV Wehen 3–0. 2010–2017: Revival For the 110th anniversary of the club, the club brought out a DVD on which the club's story is told in a 110-minute film. On 28 July 2010 it was premiered in a cinema in Mönchengladbach. In the DFB Cup 2010–11 for the first time after five years the round of 16 was reached. In the Bundesliga they succeeded after 16 years in getting the first victory against Bayer 04 Leverkusen, but at the end of the preliminary round, the club were in last place. Due to the seasonally poor athletic performance, a merger of leaders from the local economy founded the initiative Borussia, which accused the club management of mismanagement. According to the initiative, the old, encrusted structures should be dissolved in order to give Borussia a future. So the money should be invested in the sport rather than in the planned museum complex with attached hotel. At the 2011 Annual General Meeting, only 335 of the 4769 members present voted in favour of the initiative's goals. At the Bundesliga home game against 1. FSV Mainz 05, Marco Reus scored the 2500th Bundesliga goal in the 1445th game. Other Jubiläumstorschützen were Jupp Heynckes (500), Carsten Nielsen (1000), Uwe Rahn (1500) and Martin Dahlin (2000). The first newcomer in the winter break was the free transfer of striker Mike Hanke of Hannover 96. The defence was reinforced with Håvard Nordtveit and Martin Stranzl. On 13 February 2011 Michael Frontzeck was dismissed due to continued failure as a coach. Decisive were defeats against the direct relegation competitors VfB Stuttgart and FC St. Pauli. Lucien Favre was hired as the new head coach. After the team had been in the last place in the table until the 30th match day, they achieved three wins in a row and reached after a 1–1 draw at the last game day 16th place, which allowed one last chance to remain in the league. Borussia competed in two relegation matches against the second league team VfL Bochum and were able to prevent relegation with a 1–0 at home and a 1–1 draw in Bochum. Under Favre, who took over in January 2011, Borussia Mönchengladbach has in recent years shown ambitions to re-establish themselves in the top regions of the Bundesliga. In the 2010–11 season, after a disastrous first half of the season, Borussia Mönchengladbach managed to narrowly avoid relegation through the post-season relegation play-offs. The following season, 2011–12, followed this up with a strong season in which they were for much of the year in contention for the championship and eventually finished in fourth place. They missed out on qualification to the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League after losing 4–3 on aggregate to Ukrainian club Dynamo Kyiv in the playoff round. During the 2012–13 Bundesliga season, after losing some key players, notably Marco Reus who was voted player of the year in the Bundesliga in the previous season, Borussia Mönchengladbach still contended for the international places until the last match day, eventually finishing in eighth place. In the 2013–14 Bundesliga season, they had another very successful year, achieving an excellent third-place after the first half of the season and finishing the season in sixth place, entering them into the 2014–15 Europa League competition at the play-off stage. They finished the 2014–15 Bundesliga season in third place, saving the club a place for direct qualification to the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League group stage. The club found itself in a tough group together with Juventus, Manchester City and Sevilla and although they finished bottom of the group, they claimed a respectable points tally of five, claiming draws home and away against Juventus and defeating eventual Europa League winners Sevilla 4–2 at home. After a poor start to the 2015–16 Bundesliga season, including five defeats, Favre resigned and was replaced with André Schubert as interim coach. The club's fortunes immediately changed, as it won six-straight Bundesliga matches and eventually finishing the season in fourth position, earning qualification to the Champions League for a second successive season. In the 2016–17 season, Borussia drew a difficult group in the Champions League, but managed to finish in third place above Celtic and qualify for the UEFA Europa League knockout phase. However, after a promising start in the Bundesliga, the club experienced a poor run of form exacerbated by injuries, and had dropped to the 14th position by the winter break. As a result, André Schubert resigned and was replaced by ex-VfL Wolfsburg manager Dieter Hecking. Hecking began with three wins in four Bundesliga matches as Borussia rose to ninth place and also earned a place in the quarter-finals of the DFB-Pokal. 2017–present: Ascent to the top half of the table A new record transfer was made by the club for the season. For the German international and world champion Matthias Ginter, the club transferred 17 million euros plus bonus payments to Borussia Dortmund. In the ninth edition of the Telekom Cup, Borussia had as early as January of the same year again to be content with the fourth and last place after a defeat on penalties against Werder Bremen and against TSG 1899 Hoffenheim. The first round of the DFB Cup 2017–18 was able to make Borussia victorious. The VfL won the West duel against Rot-Weiss Essen 2–1. In the league prelude, the Fohlenelf kept by a goal of Nico Elvedi 1–0 in the Rheinland derby against 1. FC Köln the upper hand and "overwintered" after a final 3–1 home win against Hamburger SV to half-time as sixth with 28 points from eight wins, four draws and five defeats. In the DFB Cup Borussia were eliminated on 20 December 2017 in the last competitive game of the year after a 0–1 defeat in the second round against Bayer 04 Leverkusen in the Borussia-Park at home, after the "Werkself" had already on the 9th matchday of the Bundesliga at the same place won 5–1. The second round match failed; the decisive goal to 1–2 defeat at 1. FC Köln fell in the fifth minute of stoppage time. By contrast, the financial data in the 2017 financial year was more positive. Despite a lack of participation in international competitions, the association posted the second-best result in its history with a turnover of 179.3 million euros and a profit after tax of 6.56 million euros after the record year 2016. The 2017–18 season ended for Borussia after a 1–2 defeat at Hamburger SV left them in ninth place and thus missed, as in the previous year, the qualification for the European competitions. The game was also the last for Hamburg in the highest German league after 55 years of uninterrupted affiliation. In July 2018, the French striker Alassane Pléa from OGC Nice arrived for the record sum of 23 million euros. In the first round of the 2018–19 DFB-Pokal Mönchengladbach defeated BSC Hastedt 11–1. Thus, Borussia surpassed the previous record, which had been set by the club in an 8–0 victory in the away game at 1. FC Viersen in the first round of the 1977–78 DFB-Pokal. In the 2019–20 Bundesliga, Mönchengladbach started the season well, and was on top of the league in December 2019, after defeating Bayern Munich 2–1. However, a shaky run of results in the second half of the season meant they ultimately finished in fourth place, 17 points behind champions Bayern. Monchengladbach thus qualified for the UEFA Champions League and were drawn against Inter Milan, Real Madrid, and Shakhtar Donetsk. Borussia achieved their largest win in the Champions League with a 6–0 win over Shakhtar Donetsk, with Alassane Pléa scoring a hat-trick. They advanced to the knockout stage after finishing second place in Group B, but were ultimately knocked out in the round of 16 by Manchester City. Culture In addition to celebrity fans like Theo Zwanziger, Wolfgang Thierse, Sven Ottke, Kai Ebel, Mickie Krause, Matthias Opdenhövel, Peer Steinbrück and Hannelore Kraft, there are fan clubs in many countries, as far as California, South Africa and New Zealand. A known fan group of the club were "Steinwegs Mamm", who provided the drum in the 1960s for the team, and Ethem Özenrenler, known by his nickname "Manolo" who beat the drum in the northern curve of the Bökelberg Stadium for over 25 years since 1977. Friendships and rivalries Friendship with Politehnica Timisoara Friendship with FSV Mainz 05 After the DFB Cup match against the 1. FSV Mainz 05 on 25 October 1994, a 6–4 win for Mönchengladbach, a fan friendship developed between Mainz and Borussia, which is now maintained by only a few supporters. Friendship with Liverpool F.C. On the other hand, there is a long friendship with Liverpool, which comes from the time both teams regularly met in international games. Fans of Borussia travel to Liverpool at regular intervals to watch local Reds games. Conversely, followers from Liverpool still use a visit to Mönchengladbach to symbolise the mutual fan friendship of both clubs. The fans of Mönchengladbach collected 21,000 DM for the families of the 96 dead in the stadium disaster in Sheffield (1989) and presented it to Liverpool FC in 1991 in Mönchengladbach. For the 110th anniversary of the club on 1 August 2010, Liverpool FC were the opponents in a friendly match. The match in front of 51,515 spectators in the Borussia Park Mönchengladbach was won 1–0. Rivalry with FC Köln By contrast, there is a strong sporting rivalry between Mönchengladbach and the regional rival 1. FC Köln. Widely considered the most severe of Mönchengladbach's rivalries, the animosities between Mönchengladbach and Cologne had their spark in 1964, when Cologne manager Hennes Weisweiler switched allegiance in favour of Mönchengladbach. Weisweiler is a central figure in both clubs' mythologies; the mascot of Cologne is named Hennes in his honour, whereas Mönchengladbach venerates Weisweiler as the coach of its "team of the century". Mönchengladbach's stadium, Borussia-Park, is furthermore located at a road named Hennes-Weisweiler-Allee in Weisweiler's memory. This initial outrage on behalf of FC Köln supporters was soon met with a serious sporting rivalry: Although Cologne initially had had the athletic edge as a founding member of the Bundesliga and the league's first champion, Mönchengladbach quickly closed the gap. Between the seasons 1969–70 and 1977–78, Mönchengladbach won five championships, Cologne won one, and FC Bayern Munich secured the remaining three. The 77–78 season has become remembered in both club's collective memories: Although Mönchengladbach defeated Borussia Dortmund in the highest victory in Bundesliga history with a crushing 12–0, Cologne carried the championship with a 5–0 win over FC St. Pauli due to their slightly better goal difference (+45 versus +42 in Cologne's favour). To add insult to injury, Cologne was back under the leadership of Hennes Weisweiler, the personified point of contention between both clubs. Although neither club has been able to win a Bundesliga title since the 1977–78 season, the rivalry remains, with several incidents of violence between supporters of both clubs. Overall, Mönchengladbach has been more successful in matches between the two, winning 54 out of 105 duels, drawing 20 and losing 31. Notably, Mönchengladbach is more likely to win than FC Köln even in away matches (24–10–17 in Mönchengladbach's favour). The very first iteration of Borussia vs FC Köln was played on 1 January 1961 in front of a crowd of 11,000 in Oberliga West (1947–63). Cologne defeated Mönchengladbach 4–1. Other rivalries FC Bayern Munich: Both Mönchengladbach and Munich had not been starters in the Bundesliga – each won their right to a spot starting with the 1965–66 season. Munich finished 3rd, Mönchengladbach 13th. Both clubs rose to dominance between the 1969–70 and 1976–77 seasons, when five championships went to Mönchengladbach and three to Munich. However, with Mönchengladbach's decline in the 1980s and 1990s, Munich could firmly assert its dominance in both the Bundesliga and in the direct comparisons with Borussia: Out of 108 matches, Munich won exactly half, 54. Mönchengladbach won 24, only 4 of which were away games, and the two clubs drew 30. However, Mönchengladbach has remained a notable wildcard with the ability to inflict painful defeats on Munich, for example when Igor de Camargo scored the decisive goal in the 1–0 victory in the first ever game of goalkeeper Manuel Neuer and defender Jérôme Boateng at Munich on 7 August 2011. Gladbach was also able to escape Munich in 2015 with a 0–2 victory, one of the few victories over Bayern in their home stadium as well as being a rare domestic loss for then-Bayern manager, Pep Guardiola. On October 27, 2021 Gladbach beat Bayern 5-0 in a DFB Pokal (German Cup) match, the worst Bayern loss since 1978 in any competition. Borussia Dortmund: While not nearly as pronounced as Dortmund's rivalry against FC Schalke 04 or Mönchengladbach's own struggle against 1. FC Köln, Dortmund and Mönchengladbach still occasionally lock horns, mostly because of the naming similarity – both are the two Borussias of the Bundesliga. The song Es gibt nur eine Borussia ('there is only one Borussia') is popular among Mönchengladbach supporters when facing Dortmund squads. The duel between the two has been dubbed the Borussengipfel, the Borussia Summit, in the media. Songs The official club anthem is the song The Eleven of the Lower Rhine, which is sung before every home game. The song was recorded by the group BO, the band of the fan project. Next to them are the songs We are Borussia and The soul burns a permanent place in the fan scene. The anthem by Gerry & the Pacemakers, "You'll Never Walk Alone", which is sung by numerous clubs around Europe is frequently heard. The goal song (), which is heard after every home game, is the refrain of Scooter's "Maria (I Like It Loud)". It is accompanied by the sonorous announcement "Tor für die Borussia", by Rolf Göttel, who worked as honorary announcer of Borussia in Bökelbergstadion for decades. Mascot A first mascot was created by manager Helmut Grasshoff and was called Bumsi. The head was a Telstar- style ball with eyes and black, curly hair. The official mascot of the club since the season opener in 1998, is the foal Jünter, whose name refers to the Mönchengladbach native and longtime Borussia player Günter Netzer. Sponsors Kit manufacturers Players and staff Squad Out on loan Women's team Retired numbers 12 – the 12th man, dedicated to fans Coaching and backroom staff Staff for the 2019–20 season: History of head coaches UEFA club rankings Honours Borussia Mönchengladbach's five Bundesliga championships entitle the club to display two gold stars of the "Verdiente Meistervereine". Domestic Bundesliga: Winners: 1969–70, 1970–71, 1974–75, 1975–76, 1976–77 Runners-up: 1973–74, 1977–78 2. Bundesliga: Winners: 2007–08 DFB-Pokal: Winners: 1959–60, 1972–73, 1994–95 Runners-up: 1983–84, 1991–92 German Supercup: (Unofficial winners): 1977 European European Cup: Runners-up: 1976–77 UEFA Cup: Winners: 1974–75, 1978–79 Runners-up: 1972–73, 1979–80 International Intercontinental Cup: Runners-up: 1977 Youth German Under 17 Champions: Winners: 1981 Under 17 Bundesliga West Winners: 2009 Double 1974–75: League and UEFA Cup Records and statistics Only for Bundesliga Most appearances Top scorers Players' honours For a list of every Borussia Mönchengladbach player with 50 or more appearances, see List of Borussia Mönchengladbach players Players of the club achieved the following honours: Ballon d'Or 1977: Allan Simonsen Player of the Year – Germany 1971: Berti Vogts 1972: Günter Netzer 1973: Günter Netzer 1979: Berti Vogts 1987: Uwe Rahn 2012: Marco Reus Player of the Year – Australia 1996: Damian Mori Player of the Year – Austria 1986: Anton Polster 1997: Anton Polster Player of the Year – Belgium 2001: Wesley Sonck Player of the Year – Denmark 1994: Thomas Helveg Player of the Year – Sweden 1993: Martin Dahlin 1995: Patrik Andersson 2001: Patrik Andersson Player of the Year – United States 1997: Kasey Keller 1999: Kasey Keller 2005: Kasey Keller Bundesliga Top Scorers 1974 – 30 Goals – Jupp Heynckes (jointly with Gerd Müller (Bayern Munich)) 1975 – 29 Goals – Jupp Heynckes 1987 – 24 Goals – Uwe Rahn 1995 – 20 Goals – Heiko Herrlich (jointly with Mario Basler (Werder Bremen)) Goal of the Year 1971: Ulrik Le Fevre 1972: Günter Netzer 1973: Günter Netzer 1978: Rainer Bonhof 1979: Harald Nickel 2005: Kasper Bögelund 2006: Oliver Neuville Goal of the Season 2012–13: Juan Arango References Literature External links Borussia-Park the team's new stadium Tactics and Line-ups Moenchengladbach statistics FohlenKommando Torfabrik Fussballreport Football clubs in Germany Association football clubs established in 1900 Football clubs in North Rhine-Westphalia 1900 establishments in Germany UEFA Cup winning clubs

263469

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambergris%20Caye

Ambergris Caye

Ambergris Caye , pronounced (Spanish: Cayo Ambergris), is the largest island of Belize, located northeast of the country's mainland, in the Caribbean Sea. It is about long from north to south, and about wide. Where it has not been modified by humans, it is mostly a ring of white sand beach around mangrove swamp in the centre. Though administered as part of the Belize District, the closest point on the mainland is part of the Corozal District. A Maya community lived on the island in Pre-Columbian times and made distinctive polished red ceramics. San Pedro Town is the largest settlement and only town on Ambergris. There are also a number of small villages and resorts. Two resorts north of San Pedro played host to the first season of Fox's Temptation Island in 2000, aired in 2001. Tourism Tourism development of Ambergris Caye began in the early 1970s and grew considerably in the later years of the 20th century. The main attractions are the Belize Barrier Reef and its beaches. That barrier reef is the second largest in the world, after the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. The caye has a small airstrip serviced by Tropic Air and Maya Island Air, and can be reached by plane from Belize City as well as by numerous fast sea ferries. Ambergris Caye can also be reached by ferry from Chetumal in Mexico. Ambergris Caye is commonly referred to as the "Isla Bonita" (English translation: 'The Beautiful Island'), after Madonna's 1987 hit "La Isla Bonita" mentioned a place called San Pedro (although Madonna has said the song does not refer to any particular place.) Ambergris Caye is famous for the turquoise seascapes surrounding the island which matches the character and Caribbean charm of the destination. Because of the island's small size, the main form of powered transportation is by golf cart. San Pedro Day is celebrated annually on June 27. Gallery Secret Beach The majority of Ambergris Caye is reserved for national park/wildlife preserve limiting the availability of real estate. To the north of San Pedro Town is the destination of Belize Secret Beach, one of the more popular beach destinations in Belize. The Belize Secret Beach destination on Ambergris Caye is often called "San Pedro's worst kept secret", as the Secret Beach area has yet to see substantial development, but has become an increasingly popular destination for tourists and locals, allowing the area to boast a remote atmosphere but still offer more developed amenities. Secret Beach also features remote cenotes, sinkholes, and caves. References External links AmbergrisCaye.com—San Pedro is the only town on Ambergris Caye. Travel tips, large photo galleries, very active message board The San Pedro Sun newspaper—Local Ambergris Caye newspaper Belize District Belize Rural South Islands of Belize

263471

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%2C%202nd%20Earl%20of%20Lancaster

Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster

Thomas, Earl of Lancaster and Leicester (c. 1278 – 22 March 1322) was an English nobleman. A member of the House of Plantagenet, he was one of the leaders of the baronial opposition to his first cousin, King Edward II. Family Thomas was the eldest son of Edmund Crouchback and Blanche of Artois, Queen Dowager of Navarre and niece of King Louis IX of France. Crouchback was the son of King Henry III of England. His marriage to Alice de Lacy was not successful. They had no children together, while he fathered, illegitimately, two sons named John and Thomas. In 1317 Alice was abducted from her manor at Canford, Dorset, by Richard de St Martin, a knight in the service of John de Warenne, 7th Earl of Surrey. This incident caused a feud between Lancaster and Surrey; Lancaster seized two of Surrey's castles in retaliation. King Edward then intervened, and the two earls came to an uneasy truce. Thomas continued to hold the powerful earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury. This was due to the marriage contract the two families had agreed; upon the death of his father-in-law, Thomas would hold these earldoms in his own right, not, as would be expected, in right of his wife. Career On reaching full age he became hereditary sheriff of Lancashire, but spent most of the next ten years fighting for Edward I in Scotland, leaving the shrievalty in the care of deputies. He was present at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298 as part of Edward I's wing of the army. He served in the coronation of his cousin, King Edward II of England, on 25 February 1308, carrying Curtana, the sword of Edward the Confessor. At the beginning of the King's reign, Lancaster openly supported Edward, but as the conflict between the king and the nobles wore on, Lancaster's allegiances changed. He despised the royal favourite, Piers Gaveston, who mocked him as "the Fiddler", and swore revenge when Gaveston demanded that the King dismiss one of Lancaster's retainers. Lancaster was one of the Lords Ordainers who demanded the banishment of Gaveston and the establishment of a baronial oligarchy. His private army helped separate the King and Gaveston, and Lancaster was one of the "judges" who convicted Gaveston and saw him executed in 1312. After the disaster at Bannockburn in 1314, Edward submitted to Lancaster, who in effect became ruler of England. He attempted to govern for the next four years, but was unable to keep order or prevent the Scots from raiding and retaking territory in the North. In 1318 his popularity with the barons declined and he was persuaded "to accept a diminished authority." The new leadership, eventually headed by Hugh le Despenser, 1st Earl of Winchester, and his son Hugh the younger Despenser, proved no more popular with the Baronage, and in 1321 Lancaster was again at the head of a rebellion. This time he was defeated at the Battle of Boroughbridge on 16 March 1322, and taken prisoner. Lancaster was tried by a tribunal consisting of, among others, the two Despensers, Edmund FitzAlan, 9th Earl of Arundel, and King Edward. Lancaster was not allowed to speak in his own defence, nor was he allowed to have anyone to speak for him. He was convicted of treason and sentenced to death. Because of their kinship and Lancaster's royal blood, the King commuted the sentence to beheading, as opposed to being hanged, drawn and beheaded, and Lancaster was executed on 22 March 1322 near Pontefract Castle. Upon his death his titles and estates were forfeited, but in 1323 his younger brother Henry successfully petitioned to take possession of the Earldom of Leicester, and in 1326 or 1327 Parliament posthumously reversed Thomas's conviction, and Henry was further permitted to take possession of the Earldoms of Lancaster, Derby, Salisbury and Lincoln. Soon after Thomas's death, miracles were reported at his tomb at Pontefract, and he became venerated as a martyr and saint. In 1327 the Commons petitioned Edward III to ask for his canonisation, and popular veneration continued until the reformation. In 1942 it was reported by E. J. Rudsdale that some of Thomas's bones had been found in a box at Paskell's auctioneers in Colchester, Essex, having been removed from Pontefract Castle in 1885. Titles and lands From his father Thomas inherited the Earldoms of Lancaster, Leicester, and a Ferrers earldom of Derby. By his marriage to Alice de Lacy, Countess of Lincoln, daughter and heiress of Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln, he became Earl of Lincoln, Earl of Salisbury, 11th Baron of Halton and 7th Lord of Bowland upon the death of his father-in-law in 1311. Master of five earldoms, he was one of the wealthiest and most powerful men in England. Thomas was in possession of many key fortresses, including Clitheroe Castle, particularly in northern England. He was responsible for the extension of Pontefract Castle and in 1313 he began the construction of Dunstanburgh Castle, a massive fortress in Northumberland. Arms Inherited from his father, Thomas bore the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a label France of three points (that is to say azure three fleur-de-lys or, each). Genealogical table Thomas was exceptionally closely related to both the Capetian kings of France and the Plantagenet kings of England. His contemporaries commented that, "as each parent was of royal stock, he was clearly of nobler descent than the other earls". Footnotes References Further reading 1270s births 1322 deaths 13th-century English nobility 14th-century English nobility 2nd Earl of Leicester 2 English rebels Executed English people High Sheriffs of Lancashire Thomas Plantagenet Lord High Stewards People executed under the Plantagenets by decapitation People executed under the Plantagenets for treason against England Barons of Halton

263472

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SciPy

SciPy

SciPy (pronounced "sigh pie") is a free and open-source Python library used for scientific computing and technical computing. SciPy contains modules for optimization, linear algebra, integration, interpolation, special functions, FFT, signal and image processing, ODE solvers and other tasks common in science and engineering. SciPy is also a family of conferences for users and developers of these tools: SciPy (in the United States), EuroSciPy (in Europe) and SciPy.in (in India). Enthought originated the SciPy conference in the United States and continues to sponsor many of the international conferences as well as host the SciPy website. The SciPy library is currently distributed under the BSD license, and its development is sponsored and supported by an open community of developers. It is also supported by NumFOCUS, a community foundation for supporting reproducible and accessible science. Components The SciPy package is at the core of Python's scientific computing capabilities. Available sub-packages include: cluster: hierarchical clustering, vector quantization, K-means constants: physical constants and conversion factors fft: Discrete Fourier Transform algorithms fftpack: Legacy interface for Discrete Fourier Transforms integrate: numerical integration routines interpolate: interpolation tools io: data input and output linalg: linear algebra routines misc: miscellaneous utilities (e.g. example images) ndimage: various functions for multi-dimensional image processing ODR: orthogonal distance regression classes and algorithms optimize: optimization algorithms including linear programming signal: signal processing tools sparse: sparse matrices and related algorithms spatial: algorithms for spatial structures such as k-d trees, nearest neighbors, Convex hulls, etc. special: special functions stats: statistical functions weave: tool for writing C/C++ code as Python multiline strings (now deprecated in favor of Cython) Data structures The basic data structure used by SciPy is a multidimensional array provided by the NumPy module. NumPy provides some functions for linear algebra, Fourier transforms, and random number generation, but not with the generality of the equivalent functions in SciPy. NumPy can also be used as an efficient multidimensional container of data with arbitrary datatypes. This allows NumPy to seamlessly and speedily integrate with a wide variety of databases. Older versions of SciPy used Numeric as an array type, which is now deprecated in favor of the newer NumPy array code. History In the 1990s, Python was extended to include an array type for numerical computing called Numeric (This package was eventually replaced by Travis Oliphant who wrote NumPy in 2006 as a blending of Numeric and Numarray which had been started in 2001). As of 2000, there was a growing number of extension modules and increasing interest in creating a complete environment for scientific and technical computing. In 2001, Travis Oliphant, Eric Jones, and Pearu Peterson merged code they had written and called the resulting package SciPy. The newly created package provided a standard collection of common numerical operations on top of the Numeric array data structure. Shortly thereafter, Fernando Pérez released IPython, an enhanced interactive shell widely used in the technical computing community, and John Hunter released the first version of Matplotlib, the 2D plotting library for technical computing. Since then the SciPy environment has continued to grow with more packages and tools for technical computing. See also Comparison of numerical-analysis software List of numerical-analysis software Comparison of statistical packages SageMath Notes Further reading External links Cross-platform software Free science software Numerical analysis software for Linux Numerical analysis software for MacOS Numerical analysis software for Windows Numerical programming languages Python (programming language) scientific libraries Software using the BSD license

263475

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Reid

Peter Reid

Peter Reid (born 20 June 1956) is an English football manager, pundit and former player. A defensive midfielder in his playing days, Reid enjoyed a long and successful career. He built his reputation as one of England's brightest midfield talents of the time at Bolton Wanderers, before signing for Everton in 1982. It was there that he enjoyed the most fruitful spell of his career, as he helped the club win domestic and European honours, including the Football League twice. He was voted as the PFA Players' Player of the Year in 1985 and came fourth in the World Soccer Player of the Year award, behind Michel Platini, Preben Elkjær and Diego Maradona. He also received his first senior England call-up that year, and represented his country at the 1986 FIFA World Cup and 1988 UEFA European Championship. He won 13 caps in total. Reid joined Queens Park Rangers in 1989, but moved on to Manchester City a year later to begin his managerial career. He spent three years at Maine Road as player-manager, and guided them to two fifth-place finishes in the First Division, the first of which saw them finish above their city rivals Manchester United. He was persuaded to resume his playing career after leaving Manchester City, and briefly played for Southampton, Notts County and Bury before returning to management with Sunderland in 1995. He won promotion to the Premier League with the club on two occasions and achieved two seventh-place finishes in the top division. He combined his role at the Stadium of Light with the job as manager of the England U21 for a brief spell in 1999. His seven-year association with Sunderland ended in 2002 and he returned to management a year later, helping Leeds United avoid relegation from the Premier League. Reid left Elland Road the following season. He was appointed manager of Coventry City in 2004 but his tenure lasted less than a year. He then worked as a pundit for the BBC at the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and also worked for Sky Sports and ESPN before returning to management with Thailand in 2008. He won the T&T Cup with the country before returning to England as assistant manager to Tony Pulis at Stoke City, and helped them to an eleventh-place finish in the Premier League. He then managed Plymouth Argyle, taking over in June 2010, but was sacked after just over a year at the Devon club. Playing career Reid signed professional forms with Bolton Wanderers in 1974. He first won a medal when Bolton won the championship of the Football League Second Division in 1978, but he only enjoyed two seasons of First Division football before Bolton were relegated. He was transferred to Everton for a cut-price fee of £60,000 in 1982 only 12 months after a much larger fee had been mooted – a succession of injuries had cut the price. At club level his greatest achievement was as part of the Everton team that in 1984 won the FA Cup, in 1985 and 1987 the Football League championship and in 1985 the European Cup Winners' Cup. They nearly won a unique treble but lost 1–0 to Manchester United in the 1985 FA Cup final. In that game, Reid was recklessly challenged by Manchester United defender Kevin Moran who became the first player to be sent off in an FA Cup final. He was voted PFA Footballer of the Year in 1985, the same year that he collected a Football League title and European Cup Winner's Cup winner's medal. Reid's form was so good that year, he came 4th in the World Soccer player of the year award behind only Michel Platini, Preben Elkjaer and Diego Maradona. He made 167 appearances (eight as substitute) for Everton. In 2006, Reid was awarded with the 'Everton Giant' accolade. Reid won 13 caps for England. Given his chance by the injuries to other players, he became the linchpin of the England team in the 1986 FIFA World Cup in Mexico. In the England v Argentina quarter-final at that tournament Reid was one of the England players left behind by Diego Maradona as he burst from inside his own half to score his 'Goal of the Century' second goal. Reid signed for Queens Park Rangers on a free transfer in 1989 but only stayed for one season (1989–90) before signing for Manchester City, who were managed by former Everton manager Howard Kendall. Managerial career Manchester City Reid's managerial career began on 7 November 1990 at Manchester City, when he was appointed caretaker manager after the departure of Howard Kendall back to Everton. Reid was appointed player-manager on a permanent contract on 15 November. In 1990–91, Manchester City finished fifth (one place above neighbours Manchester United) and equalled this achievement the following season. In the first season of the Premier League (1992–93), City slipped into ninth place with an increasingly stale brand of 'long ball' football and Reid was sacked after a poor start to the following season. Reid bought Keith Curle and Terry Phelan for £2.5 million each. Colin Hendry was sold to be eventually replaced by Michel Vonk. Clive Allen was also sold in December 1991. Southampton Following his dismissal by Manchester City, in October 1993 Reid was persuaded by Ian Branfoot to resume his playing career with Southampton who were then in the middle of a crisis: the Saints fans were calling for Branfoot to be sacked with the club having lost eight of their first nine games. Reid brought a touch of guile and stability to the Saints side; despite playing only eight games he made a major contribution to the team's fortunes as Saints' season started to come together. He led them to some important victories, most specially over Newcastle United on 24 October 1993, a game in which Matthew Le Tissier scored two goals. His final game for Saints was a 3–1 victory over Chelsea on 28 December 1993. Branfoot was sacked a few days later (after a home defeat by Norwich City). Reid was touted as a possible replacement for Branfoot, but he stated that, as Branfoot had brought him to the club, it would only be fair that he left as well. Reid then had brief playing spells with Notts County and Bury before he retired from playing. Sunderland Reid made his return to management in March 1995 with Sunderland, who were battling relegation in the First Division. He kept the club up, and the following season they were crowned champions of the division and were promoted to the Premier League. In 1996, a group of Sunderland fans under the name Simply Red and White released a song called "Daydream Believer (Cheer Up Peter Reid)" to the melody of "Daydream Believer". The song peaked at number 41 in the UK Singles & Album Chart. The fans recorded the song due to the fact the manager often had a dour demeanour, whilst the team was doing well, and even won promotion at the end of the season. The team was relegated back to the First Division at the end of the 1996–97 season, after losing their last match of the campaign at Wimbledon. Sunderland missed automatic promotion by one place in 1997–98 but reached the Division One play-off final, facing Charlton Athletic at Wembley Stadium. Reid's side missed out on promotion after drawing 3-3 after 90 minutes, 4-4 after extra time and losing 7–6 in a penalty shoot-out in one of the most dramatic play-off finals to date. The following season Sunderland bounced back by winning the Division One title with a then record 105 League points total. They topped the First Division table from October until the end of the season and clinched promotion on 13 April 1999 with a 5–2 win over Bury. Throughout 1999–2000, Sunderland were competing for a place in European competition but in the end missed out after finishing in seventh place, one of the highest finishes ever achieved by a Premier League team in the season after promotion. Striker Kevin Phillips was the highest league scorer in England and Europe with 30 goals in the Premier League, and therefore won the European Golden Shoe that season; he is the last Englishman to win the accolade to date. Reid also had a brief spell as manager of the England under-21 team in this season. For a while in 2000–01, Sunderland were second in the league and it looked as though they would secure qualification for the UEFA Champions League, but their form dipped in the final stages of the season and again they finished seventh. Reid's team suffered a downturn in the 2001–02 season ending up one place above the relegation zone and with just 28 goals from 38 games – fewer than any other team in the division. In a bid to halt the decline, Reid paid a club record £6.75million for Norwegian striker Tore André Flo from Rangers but was unsuccessful. Reid was dismissed in October 2002 after nearly eight years as Sunderland manager. Leeds United Following his sacking from Sunderland, Reid was linked with the Republic of Ireland managerial position. He had even planned to apply for an Irish passport through his Drumcondra family connections. In March 2003 he was appointed caretaker manager of Leeds United after the dismissal of Terry Venables. The Elland Road club had been hit by £80 million debts after their £100 million outlay on new players in the space of five seasons had failed to land them a trophy. Reid looked to be the man to reverse the decline, especially after a 6–1 away win over Charlton Athletic and a 3–2 away win over Arsenal which ended the opposition's title hopes. After keeping Leeds up, he was awarded the job on a permanent basis. The club was still in a poor financial state, and Reid was forced to sell Harry Kewell and bring in cheaper signings from abroad as replacements. His new signings failed to gel and he was sacked in November 2003 after a 6–1 defeat against newly promoted Portsmouth. Although many of his signings left Leeds after the club was relegated, Kevin Blackwell, whom Reid had brought to Leeds as assistant manager, later went on to become manager in 2004. Coventry City Reid was appointed manager of First Division side Coventry City in May 2004 with the aim of getting the club promoted to the Premier League. His spell at Highfield Road lasted only eight months as he departed on 6 January 2005 with the club 20th in the Championship. Thailand national team After an absence from management of nearly four years Reid became manager of Thailand in September 2008, having been linked with the position earlier in the year. He signed a four-year contract with an aim of qualifying for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He admitted to not knowing much about Thai football, and referring to his players by squad numbers rather than their Thai names. Reid said "I was surprised by the players' ability and I'm learning things about football I'd never have learnt in the Premier League. It's great for my football education. This is pure football and I love it." Reid's first assignment as the new national coach of Thailand was to take part in the T&T Cup in Vietnam, a three-team round-robin tournament with hosts Vietnam and North Korea. Thailand beat North Korea in the first game of the tournament and then went on to draw with Vietnam to clinch the championship. On 9 September 2009, the Thailand Football Association (FAT) announced that Reid had left his position as manager; his contract was terminated by mutual consent after a year in charge. Stoke City After Reid left the Thailand job on 10 September 2009, Reid joined Stoke City as assistant manager to Tony Pulis. Reid spent the 2009–10 season at Stoke before leaving in June 2010 in order to return to management. Plymouth Argyle On 24 June 2010, Plymouth Argyle confirmed the appointment of Reid as manager. Reid endured an unexpectedly turbulent time with the Pilgrims who had just been relegated from the Football League Championship. The club was hit with two winding-up petitions from HMRC in November, and was forced to sell star players Bradley Wright-Phillips and Craig Noone in the January transfer window. Reid himself even auctioned off his FA Cup runners up medal and paid the club's heating bill at one point. Despite these efforts the club was docked 10 points for intention to enter administration in February 2011 and left Argyle bottom of League 1 with relegation seeming inevitable. The club's relegation to League 2 was confirmed on 2 May 2011 following a 3–1 defeat to Southampton, with the club finishing 23rd in League One. Reid was forced to sign an almost entirely new team over the summer of 2011, with 10 players making their debut on the opening day in a 1–1 draw with Shrewsbury Town. However the club were unable to build on the Shrewsbury result and lost their following 8 league games, all whilst the club was still stuck in financial turmoil. On 18 September, Peter Reid was sacked by acting chairman Peter Ridsdale with the club bottom of the Football League with just one point. Despite having a win rate of just 26% during his time at the club, Reid remains popular amongst Plymouth Argyle supporters because of his generosity and commitment during troubled times. Mumbai City FC On 4 September 2014, Reid was appointed manager of Mumbai City FC ahead of the inaugural Indian Super League season. Return to Bolton On 18 March 2016, it was announced that Reid had returned to his first club Bolton Wanderers in a coaching capacity to assist interim manager Jimmy Phillips. He left at the end of the season. Career statistics Club International Managerial statistics Honours As a player Bolton Wanderers Football League Second Division: 1977–78 Everton Football League First Division: 1984–85, 1986–87 FA Cup: 1983–84 FA Charity Shield: 1984, 1985, 1987 European Cup Winners' Cup: 1984–85 Individual PFA Players' Player of the Year: 1984–85 Greatest Everton XI: 2003 Everton Giants: 2006 As a manager Sunderland Football League First Division: 1995–96, 1998–99 Thailand VFF Cup: 2008, Runners-Up: 2008 AFF Suzuki Cup Individual LMA Manager of the Year: 1996 LMA Manager of the Month: December 2000 Premier League Manager of the Month: October 1999, December 2000 Football League First Division Manager of the Month: December 1997, March 1999 References External links Peter Reid England career stats at The Football Association Full Managerial Stats for Leeds United from WAFLL 1956 births Living people People from Huyton Footballers from Liverpool English footballers Association football midfielders Bolton Wanderers F.C. players Everton F.C. players Queens Park Rangers F.C. players Manchester City F.C. players Southampton F.C. players Notts County F.C. players Bury F.C. players English Football League players Premier League players England under-21 international footballers England international footballers 1986 FIFA World Cup players UEFA Euro 1988 players Association football player-managers English football managers Manchester City F.C. managers Sunderland A.F.C. managers England national under-21 football team managers Leeds United F.C. managers Coventry City F.C. managers Thailand national football team managers Stoke City F.C. non-playing staff Plymouth Argyle F.C. managers Mumbai City FC head coaches Bolton Wanderers F.C. non-playing staff English Football League managers Premier League managers Indian Super League head coaches English expatriate football managers English expatriate sportspeople in Thailand English expatriate sportspeople in India Expatriate football managers in Thailand Expatriate football managers in India Mumbai City FC managers FA Cup Final players

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livingston%2C%20West%20Lothian

Livingston, West Lothian

Livingston (, ) is the largest town in West Lothian, Scotland. Designated in 1962, it is the fourth post-war new town to be built in Scotland. Taking its name from a village of the same name incorporated into the new town, it was originally developed in the then-counties of Midlothian and West Lothian. It is situated approximately fifteen miles (25 km) west of Edinburgh and thirty miles (50 km) east of Glasgow, and is close to the towns of Broxburn to the north-east and Bathgate to the north-west. The town was built around a collection of small villages, Livingston Village, Bellsquarry, and Livingston Station (now part of Deans). The town has a number of residential areas. These include Craigshill, Howden, Ladywell, Knightsridge, Deans, Dedridge, Murieston, Almondvale, Eliburn, Kirkton, and Adambrae. There are several large industrial estates in Livingston, including Houston industrial estate, Brucefield Industrial Estate, Alba Business Park, and Kirkton Campus. The locality of Livingston as defined by the General Register Office for Scotland (GROS) includes Uphall Station and Pumpherston. The wider urban settlement, also as defined by the GROS, also includes Mid Calder and East Calder. Other neighbouring villages include: Kirknewton, Polbeth and West Calder. The 2001 UK Census reported that the town had a population of 50,826. The 2011 UK Census showed the population of Livingston had increased to 56,269. Livingston is the second-largest settlement in the Lothians after Edinburgh. History Before 1962 Livingston is first mentioned in an early 12th-century charter as Villa Levingi (Leving's town). In 1128 David I granted the newly founded Abbey of Holyrood control of the church at Livingston and its income in a charter that was witnessed by Turstani filii Levingi (Thurstan son of Leving). He built a fortified tower (Livingston Peel) which no longer survives. The settlement that grew up around it became known as Levingstoun, Layingston, and eventually fixed at Livingston. The Leving family controlled the area until dying out in 1512. From 1512 until 1671 the tower house was occupied by the Murrays of Elibank. In 1670, the Edinburgh botanic garden was founded by Dr. Robert Sibbald and Dr. Andrew Balfour using the plant collection from the Elibank private gardens of Sir Patrick Murray, 2nd Lord Elibank, following his death in September 1671. In the late 17th century, the Peel was demolished and replaced by a house called Livingston Place. The estate eventually passed from the Murray family to the Cunningham family and it was eventually acquired by the Earl of Rosebery in 1828 and demolished in 1840. The area of the former gardens and house is now a local garden and park, named Peel park. The formal layout and planting in the park reflect the historic gardens, and a new peel mound and moat was recreated to reflect the earlier history. The area around Livingston was historically an important shale oil area, and the world's first oil boom occurred in West Lothian. This was based on oil extracted from shale, and by 1870 over 3 million tons of shale were being mined each year in the area around Livingston. Output declined with the discovery of liquid oil reserves around the world in the early 1900s, but shale mining only finally ceased in 1962. The "bings" that characterise oil shale mining in West Lothian have largely been flattened. Two shale bings nearby are scheduled monuments – Five Sisters and Greendykes. By 1898, the main Livingston village was recorded as having several houses, a mill, a Church of Scotland church, a United Free church, a school, and a coaching inn. The oldest church, Livingston Old Kirk, in its current form, dates from 1732 and is an example of plain Presbetryrian architecture from the Georgian period. It stands on the site of a pre-Reformation church which appears to have stood on the site from . The nearby coaching inn was built in 1760 and the poet Robert Burns is said to have been a guest. The nearby Livingston Mill was also built around the same date, in 1770 although there is evidence that suggests there may have been a mill on the site since the 14th or 15th century. Around north of Livingston village, there was a railway station with a smaller settlement called Livingston Station which is now part of Deans. Livingston station was built as a settlement to serve the workforce and their families of the nearby Deans Oil Works, owned by the Pumpherston Oil Company. Livingston Station had six streets with homes, as well as a store, a small church and a works institute. The original Livingston railway station was operated by the Edinburgh and Bathgate Railway and opened on 12 November 1849. British Railways closed the station on 1 November 1948 following the ending of passenger services on the line. In the 1980s a site was chosen for a new railway station on the line to the east of the original station and Livingston North station opened on 24 March 1986, concurrent with the re-introduction of passenger services. The Livingston Village and Livingston Station settlements were both subsequently incorporated into Livingston new town in the 20th century. New Town Under the New Towns Act of 1946, Livingston was designated as a New Town on 16 April 1962 in order to ease overcrowding in Glasgow. Livingston was the fourth new town of five in Scotland; the others were East Kilbride, Glenrothes, Cumbernauld and Irvine. Three villages (Livingston Village and Livingston Station in the old parish of Livingston and Bellsquarry in the parish of Mid Calder) and numerous farmsteads were incorporated into the Livingston new town. Published in July 1962, the first edition of the Livingston plan designated new areas for housing for up to 100,000 people, as well as areas for new industry and offices, marked by new roads, pathways, and recreational spaces, under an survey led by Professors Donald Robertson and Sir Robert Matthew. Many of the initial houses were factory-built. A subsequent edition to the plan was published in 1966 with Livingston intended as the centre of a new population area of up to 250,000 persons in the Lothians. In order to build, manage, and promote Livingston, a quango organisation was formed, the Livingston Development Corporation (LDC). Sir David Lowe, a local large scale farmer and businessman, was appointed chairman. Following designation of the new town, the first large building begun was the Corporation's own offices in 1963. Residential construction began in 1962 with the first homes to be built as part of the new town being constructed in Deans (to house corporation employees and construction workers). The first major development of the new town took place in Craigshill, with the first people moving into the newly built housing areas in April 1966 at Broom Walk. The construction of the areas of Howden, Ladywell, and Knightsridge began in the late 1960s and this was followed in the 1970s by the creation of Dedrige and further development of Deans. Some of the first prominent buildings in the new town built in these decades included Riverside Primary School (the first primary school built in the new town in April 1966), the new town's first public house (the Tower in Craigshill built in 1968), Craigshill school (the first secondary school built in the new town in 1969), and the 'Centre' (Livingstons shopping centre) built in 1977. On 9 November 1979 the Livingston UFO Incident took place, when Robert Taylor, employed by the Livingston Development Corporation, is said to have encountered a UFO on Dechmont Law and the incident was subsequently investigated by Lothian and Borders Police. It is the only UFO incident that was part of a criminal investigation in the United Kingdom. In 1984 a new railway station was built for the town on the Shotts Line called Livingston South which was shortly followed by another station Livingston North on the redeveloped Edinburgh to Bathgate Line in 1986. These stations replaced the former Livingston and Newpark stations which had closed before the construction of the town. In 1995 Livingston gained its professional football team, Livingston F.C. which was essentially the relocation of Meadowbank Thistle F.C. from Edinburgh. The Livingston Development Corporation guided Livingston until its mandate expired on 22 March 1997 and the town was transferred to the West Lothian Council. The last major construction operation carried out by the LDC was the Almondvale Stadium. Housing development continues under West Lothian Council, through private developers such as Barratt Developments and Bellway, and under the management of housing associations such as the Almond Housing Association and the West Lothian Housing Partnership. In September 2021, the town submitted a bid for city status in the United Kingdom as part of the Platinum Jubilee Civic Honours Competition. Geography Livingston is the eighth-largest settlement and the third-largest town in Scotland. It is also the 171st largest settlement in the United Kingdom. It lies from Glasgow and from Edinburgh. The Livingston new town was planned so that the River Almond, the namesake of the Almondvale district, runs through the town centre. Outer Livingston districts include Wester Dechmont, Deans (including the Deans Industrial Estate), Kirkton, and Houston to the north, Craigshill to the east, Bellsquarry (including the Brucefield Industrial Estate) and Murieston to the south, and Adambrae and Kirkton Campus to the east of the town. Craigshill takes its name from the Scottish Gaelic word for the slopes of a hill. Inner central districts in the town include Almondvale, Livingston Village, Eliburn, Howden, Ladywell, Knightsridge, and Dedridge. Ladywell takes its name from a historic well that was dedicated to Mary and was said to have been used by medieval Scottish Kings as a site for a yearly Royal touching ceremony. The geology of Livingston is similar to that of West Lothian in general, characterised by former glacial history and composed of till. This includes areas of clay, sand, silt, and gravel, primarily along the Almond river valley environment. Parts of Livingston also have isolated areas of carboniferous sedimentary rocks (primarily in and around the Deans area of the town) which were worked and extracted for shale oil in the 19th and 20th centuries. The oldest rocks are classified as part of the Inverclyde Group (primarily located in the south-east of Livingston between Linhouse Water and Kirknewton). There are also several areas of underlying sandstone in Livingston which were used as local quarries, now since defunct, including Dedridge quarry, refilled and landscaped as a local park (Quarry Froggy Park). Bellsquarry originates from a former Burdiehouse limestone quarry and the surname of its owner, Mr Bell. The quarry was in operation by 1782 and continued until the early 20th century, when it was used as a rubbish dump before being tidied and covered. Until the development of the new town, except for localised industry in areas such as Deans, the area was primarily agricultural, with farming focused on the alluvial soils of the Almond river. The area is now primarily an urban area although as a new town, Livingston is characterised by large areas of forested paths, public parks and open spaces. Forested areas in Livingston include Livingston Old Wood () in Eliburn, the Wilderness in Adambrae (), Bellsquarry Wood (), Kirkton Woods (), Linhouse Glen, and Calder Woods (on the boundary with East Calder). Economy The area where Livingston now sits was historically dominated by oil shale mining, which is evident from the bings which still exist on much of the surrounding landscape. The designation of Livingston as a new town in the 1960s attracted new light industries to the area, with high technology and pharmaceutical companies moving into the town. Livingston formed a major hub in Scotland's Silicon Glen with factories constructed in purpose-build business parks at Houston Industrial Estate and Kirkton Campus. Like most other areas, this went into a slow decline from the late 1990s with companies including Motorola and NEC closing down their factories. Several multi-national companies still have factories in the town, including Wyman Gordon who manufacture aircraft components on the Houston Industrial Estate. Other companies on the Houston Industrial Estate include Mitsubishi Electric (who have an electric air conditioning factory which produces almost 150,000 air conditioning and heat pump units every year), Paterson Arran (a food manufacturer whose bakery, the Royal Burgh Bakery is located in Livingston), and DS Smith (who have a box production plant on the estate). From the 1970s, Kirkton Campus on the western edge of the town was developed as Scotland's first technology science park. Developed for private businesses by the LDC, it included 300 acres of landscaped offices and factory sites along the Killandean Burn and River Almond. While several factories have since closed, it is still home to several businesses, including Sky UK who is one of the largest private sector employers in Livingston with a range of offices and their biggest UK contact centre at Kirkton Campus. Other companies at Kirkton Campus include Merck (a pharmaceutical company), Gore W L & Associates (a clothes manufacturer), SCION Instruments (a chromatography and gas detector manufacturer), JPT Foodtech, and Palletways (a distribution service which owns a hub facility). Other large employers include Tesco (whose distribution centre for Scotland and Northern Ireland is located on the northern edge of the town), Schuch (whose head office and customer service centre is on the Deans Industrial Estate in Livingston), Shin-Etsu Europe (who have a manufacturing facility in Livingston that produces semiconductors), those in the retail sector in the shopping centres, supermarkets, and the health care sector such as NHS Scotland. The Witherby Publishing Group, established in 1740, is one of the oldest publishers in the United Kingdom and their offices and warehouse is located in Livingston at Navigation House. Valneva SE is a biotech company that has a manufacturing facility in Livingston which produces vaccines, including a vaccine against COVID-19. The Brucefield Industrial Estate is located west of Bellsquarry and includes companies such as Diet Chef (a food manufacturer), ScoMac (a catering equipment manufacturer), and Snag Tights (a textile manufacturer based in Livingston that exports to 90 countries). Alba Business Park is located in Livingston to the west of Adambrae and includes a technology innovation centre. Companies in the Alba Business Park include Glenmorangie, the whisky distillers, who have offices and a bottling facility that was opened in 2011. Quintiles IMS, a healthcare data provider, have a large office in the business park. The prosthetic company Össur (Touch Bionics) has a research and development facility in the park. Town centre Livingston town centre sits on the southern edge of the Almond Valley and provides shops and services for the surrounding area. It is bounded by a ring road to the east and has been purposely planned, distinguishing it from many other town centres. Howden Park is located immediately north of the town centre and adjoins Howden House, an 18th-century house which contains an arts centre and private housing. The south western edge of the town centre is dominated by retail parks. Livingston's town centre also contains a large number of offices. Private sector offices are also concentrated at the eastern and western edges of the town centre and along the Almondvale Boulevard. Other facilities in the town centre include: hotels, a swimming pool and local authority gym, and restaurants and pubs. Almondvale Football Stadium and West Lothian College are located at the north western edge of the town centre. The Livingston Civic Centre was completed in June 2009 and officially opened by then-First Minister Alex Salmond on 25 November 2009. The Civic Centre is located just north of The Centre on the bank of the River Almond. It was home to the divisional headquarters of Lothian and Borders Police until the creation of Police Scotland in 2013, as well as the sheriff and justice of the peace, West Lothian Council, the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, the Scottish Children's Reporter Administration, Lothian and Borders Fire and Rescue Service, and the West Lothian Community Health and Care Partnership. Shopping Livingston has three major shopping centres, three medium large retail parks, and clusters of small local stores located throughout the different areas. The largest shopping centres are 'The Centre' (formerly named the Almondvale Shopping Centre, comprising more than of retail space) and Livingston Designer Outlet (the largest outlet mall in Scotland, formerly called the McArthurGlen Designer Outlet Centre). The combined retail spaces of central Livingston form the largest indoor shopping location in Scotland and the 10th largest in the UK. The first phase of the Livingston's shopping centres was completed in 1977 to facilitate the needs of the local residents and workers at The Centre, known as the "Livingston Centre" at that point. The first major refurbishment was completed in 1988 by Land Securities. The centre was extended by in 1996/1997, creating phase 2 of the development, bringing the size of the centre to over . It has since been renamed "The Almondvale Centre". The Centre was completed in its current structure on 16 October 2008. The total development has around 155 shops and eating establishments. In early 1999, construction started on phase 3 of the development with the construction of McArthur Glen Designer Outlet Centre (reamed as the Livingston Designer Outlet in 2007). This opened in October 2000, with other work continuing into 2002. The Livingston Designer Outlet, contains a VUE multiplex cinema, a food court with many chain fast-food outlets, bars, restaurants, and cafés, as well as around 70 outlet shops. In the early 2000s, Asda constructed a new supercentre at the other end of the shopping centre in place of the old Woolco store (which had also been used as a Gateway hypermarket before Asda acquired the firm in late-1989). This Asda supercentre is the largest Asda store in Scotland. Until 2016, there was also a large B&Q in the south-west of the town centre, as well as a large Morrisons supermarket which remains open. The Homebase store closed in July 2010 and Argos moved to premises across the road. The former Homebase and Argos stores were converted into a large Sainsbury's supermarket that opened in December 2010. Also in the town centre are discount supermarkets such as Aldi and Lidl, the latter of which is located beside the Almondvale Stadium. Under the original Livingston plans, neighbourhood shopping centres were to be located at strategic points around the town and the first of these to be built was The Mall at Craigshill, which claimed to be one of the first covered shopping centres in Scotland. This was followed by the Carmondean Centre in Deans and groupings of shops in Ladywell and Murieston. Transport Road Livingston has excellent connections to the central Scotland road network: the M8 bounds Livingston in the north and the A71 in the south; The A899 dual carriageway spine road passes north south along Livingston's eastern edge and connects the two; The A89 runs east west on the north side of the M8. Buses Livingston has a central bus terminal with 7 stances located on Almondvale Avenue between the two shopping centres in the town centre. This provides regular services to surrounding towns and villages. First Scotland East and Lothian Country Buses are the main bus operator in Livingston. Other operators include E&M Horsburgh, Blue Bus, SD Travel, and Stagecoach. Livingston has buses to Edinburgh, Glasgow, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, Lanark, Fife, Falkirk, and most West Lothian towns and villages. Walking / cycling Livingston has an excellent 'core path network' which is shared use, and available to pedestrians and cyclists. It connects all of the main areas of the town with shopping and work areas. It is for the most part segregated from roads and uses an extensive network of under/over pass systems to keep pedestrians and cyclists away from motorised traffic. Rail Livingston has three railway stations; , and Uphall (on the eastern edge of Livingston). Livingston North is located adjacent to the Carmondean Shopping Centre between Eliburn and Deans and is on the North Clyde Line. The station opened on 24 March 1986, concurrent with the re-introduction of passenger services on the Edinburgh to Bathgate Line. On 12 December 2010, with the completion of the Airdrie-Bathgate Rail Link, Livingston North is now served by trains running to and . Livingston South is located at the Murieston Shops and is on the Shotts Line and has trains running between and via . It was opened by British Rail on 6 October 1984. Airports Livingston is west of Edinburgh Airport and east of Glasgow Airport, both of which have regular flights to British and international destinations. Media The local newspaper covering Livingston is the West Lothian Courier (published under the Daily Record). There was previously a Livingston Post newspaper which was stopped in the early 1990s. There was also a newspaper called West Lothian Herald & Post that served Livingston but that ceased to print in July 2011. Dedridge Grapevine is a voluntary community magazine, delivering several thousand copies to houses in and around Dedridge, founded and edited by Kathleen Ross-Hale since 1976. Konect is a free local magazine that serves the West Lothian area, including Livingston, with approximately 10,000 copies a month delivered in the Livingston area. Livingston previously had its own Radio Station called River FM that was broadcast from the Almondvale Stadium, from 1 September 2003 until 29 January 2007. Current local radio includes the local BBC station BBC Radio Scotland and local commercial radio including Capital Scotland and 97.3 Forth One. Livingston also has a hospital radio station called Radio Grapevine which broadcasts to St John's Hospital. Livingston is covered by the BBC Scotland and STV Central regions. Governance Local Livingston is the administrative centre of West Lothian Council. Within West Lothian, Livingston is covered by four multi-member wards each electing four councillors. They are Livingston North, Livingston South, East Livingston, and East Calder wards. Many of the responsibilities of West Lothian Council were previously the responsibility of the Livingston Development Corporation (LDC) until 1997 when the LDC was disbanded. Scottish Parliament Livingston is in the Almond Valley constituency for the Scottish Parliament, and the Member of the Scottish Parliament is Angela Constance of the Scottish National Party. Livingston is also covered by the Lothian electoral region which gives the area seven additional MSPs. House of Commons Livingston has its own constituency in the House of Commons; Livingston, and is represented by the Scottish National Party Member of Parliament (MP) Hannah Bardell. Livingston for the majority of its existence has returned Labour MPs since the town was founded in 1962. However, in the election of 2015, the constituency voted in Hannah Bardell of the SNP as their member for Parliament. It was for the 1983 general election that Livingston gained its own constituency at Westminster. The first MP elected for Livingston was Robin Cook who held the seat for six consecutive elections and held many government positions, most notably Foreign Secretary between 1997 and 2001. In 2005 Robin Cook suddenly died of a heart attack and a by-election was called and won by the Labour Jim Devine. Devine was deselected in 2009 after being caught up in the 2009 expenses scandal. European Parliament Before Brexit, Livingston was part of the Scotland European Parliament constituency. It was represented by six MEPs; the nearest ones to Livingston were Alyn Smith (SNP) and Struan Stevenson (Conservative) who were both based in Edinburgh and David Martin (Labour) who was based in Roslin. Livingston used to be part of the Lothians European Parliament constituency. Education and libraries Livingston has 18 nursery schools, 17 primary schools, and five special schools. There are four secondary schools in the town which are Inveralmond Community High School, The James Young High School, St. Margaret's RC Academy and Deans Community High School. West Lothian College offers higher and further education and its central campus is based in Livingston. The college has sports facilities, a library, a training restaurant for hospitality students (which was awarded Scottish Restaurant of the Year in 2015 and 2017), and a salon/spa. The college provides educational services to over 8,000 students a year and has 350 staff. Livingston has three public libraries which are Almondbank Library in Craigshill, Lanthorn Library in Dedridge, and Carmondean Library in Deans. A local history library which includes items on the history of Livingston is located in nearby Linlithgow. The Scotland Japanese School (スコットランド日本語補習授業校 Sukottorando Nihongo Hoshū Jugyō Kō), a weekend Japanese school, is held at St. Margaret's Academy in Livingston. It first opened in 1982 and moved to Livingston in April 2003. Health Livingston is part of the NHS Lothian region in NHS Scotland. Livingston previously had a psychiatric hospital with a general hospital in the Dechmont area of the town called Bangour Village Hospital. The hospital opened in 1904, and started closing in the 1990s. It closed completely in 2004 after the remaining services were transferred to St John's Hospital. Livingston has a large hospital called St John's Hospital in the Howden. The construction of the hospital began in 1981 and it opened in 1990. The hospital has its own Accident and Emergency and has 550 beds. St John's is a teaching hospital for the University of Edinburgh Medical School. Culture and recreation Arts Centre Howden Park Centre is the arts centre for the town which includes a 300-seat theatre providing arts performances, recitals, plays and other events. Museum The Museum of the Scottish Shale Oil Industry was created in 1990, to preserve the history of the shale industry in West Lothian and beyond. It is sited on a former mill at Millfield in Livingston and is attached to the Almond Valley Heritage Centre, a large farm and play area in Livingston. The Almond Valley Light Railway is a narrow gauge heritage railway running at the Almond Valley Heritage Trust site. Parks Livingston has several public parks, including Eliburn park, Almondvale park, Howden park, Peel park, Campbridge park (Murieston), Quarry park (Dedridge), and Bankton Mains park. Eliburn park (in the north-west of Livingston) is a 16.5 hectare site owned by West Lothian Council which features a reservoir (fed by the local Nell burn) with fishing access, sports facilities and a children's play area. Almondvale park, located in the centre of town, is an outdoor recreation area, with an adventure playpark, health walk/run and wildflower meadows. Bankton Mains park is a large park with a sports centre, bowling club, tennis and football pitches and play park. Youth activities Livingston has its own Air Training Corps squadron, 2535 (Livingston) Squadron (located in Craigshill) and Army Cadet Force unit (based at Dedridge). The town also has Cubs, Scouts, Boys' Brigade, Brownies, and Guides units, and other organisations such as LGBT Youth Scotland and the Youth Action Project (WLYAP), and Firefly Youth Theatre (formerly West Lothian Youth Theatre) also operate at Howden Park Centre. The youth action project involves a music session and many gigs and is widely attended by teenagers from the surrounding area. Livingston Skate Park The Livingston Skatepark opened in 1981, at a time when most commercial skateparks were closing, and was one of the most important facilities in Britain during a critical period in the development of skateboarding. It is an example of a free, unsupervised facility which achieved international status. The park was designed by Scottish architect Iain Urquhart and was the subject of a 2020 BBC Radio 3 documentary 'Curves and Concrete' which explored the impact the design had on other UK skateparks. Sports The town has a local cricket club, Livingston Cricket Club; a rugby union club, Livingston Rugby Football Club; a professional football club, Livingston F.C.; and a East of Scotland League club, Livingston United. Livingston is also home to; two competitive swimming clubs, the Livingston & District Dolphins and the Aquanauts of Livingston; Livingston Handball Club, Livingston and West Lothian Hockey Club, which has several men's and women's teams and provides junior coaching; West Lothian Wolves Basketball Club, with men and women's teams at all age groups; and two track and field athletics clubs, Livingston & District AAC and Lothian RC. Livingston also has a number of youth football teams with the most successful being Murieston United who have teams ranging from the ages of under 9s to under 21s. They have some notable former players: Scott Arfield, Chris Innes, Derek Fleming, and Gary Wales. Livingston FC Livingston F.C., known to locals as "Livi" or "The Lions", are the most notable football team in the town. They were formed in 1995 on the relocation of Edinburgh-based side Meadowbank Thistle. The stadium opened in November 1995, but the Livingston name had already been adopted some months earlier when the club was still playing at its former home Meadowbank Stadium in Edinburgh. Although they were playing in the Scottish Third Division in their first season in Livingston, six years later the club was promoted to the Scottish Premier League, finished third in their first season and qualifying for the UEFA Cup. Relegation to the Scottish First Division in 2006 came after the club entered administration in 2004 as well as other financial problems. In 2009 they narrowly avoided going out of business and as a result were placed back in the Third Division. The Lions managed to gain promotion to the Scottish Second Division the following year, and returned to the First Division after back to back league championships, on 6 August 2011. They currently compete in the top tier of Scottish Football (Ladbrokes Premiership). Swimming Livingston has several swimming pools, the main pool being a 20m public pool run by West Lothian Leisure (Xcite). Other public pools are also located in local schools including Deans Community High School and Inveralmond High School and the Bannatyne Health Club has a private pool for members. Livingston Cricket Club Livingston has a cricket club known as the Kingfishers which fields teams for juniors and seniors and has fielded professional paid players. The club plays in the East of Scotland Cricket Association and is based in the Murieston area of Livingston. The Club was founded in 1981 by Dr Salem Patel and Doug Druce, playing its first match in August of that year in Armadale. The club joined the East League for the 1982 season, winning Grade D and promotion. The Club played at several locations in Livingston, including Bankton Mains and at Bangour Hospital sports field. The 1st XI remained in Division 4 until winning the league in 1992. In 1994 sponsorship by the Livingston Development Corporation enabled the club to successfully negotiate the big step up to Division 2 where half of the clubs employed paid professional players. West Indian Mark Harper became the club's first paid player and regularly set new batting records throughout the season. The creation of the National leagues in 1996 and the subsequent re-organisation of feeder leagues saw Livingston become a Division 1 club due to reconstruction of the East League. In 1999 the Club finished third, their highest league position to date. This coincided with a move back into Livingston to a large new ground in the Murieston area. Being almost in the foothills of the Pentlands, rainfall is heavier and the growing season considerably shorter than most of the other grounds in the Central Belt, which causes major problems in getting the ground ready for play in April. A new pavilion, the Gerry Toms Pavilion was officially opened on 22 August 2004. Religion Christianity Uniquely in Scotland, Livingston was from its formation designated an "Ecumenical Parish" in a joint initiative by the Church of Scotland, Scottish Episcopal Church, Methodist Church in Great Britain, and the Congregational Union of Scotland (which subsequently united with the United Reformed Church). The Ecumenical Parish has six places of worship. Apart from the Ecumenical Parish, Livingston Old Parish is a congregation solely within the Church of Scotland. There are also churches of other denominations, notably the Catholic Church (who have three congregations: Saint Peters in Carmondean, Saint Andrews in Craigshill, and St Philips in Dedridge), the Baptist Church (who have two congregations in Dedridge and Ladywell), Jehovah's Witnesses (who have two congregations: Livingston Deans and Livingston Dedridge), the Free Church, and The Church of Jesus Christ Latter Day Saints (who have a branch in Deans). Other religions There is a mosque in the Craigshill area of the town called Livingston Mosque and Community Centre and also another within the Deans area. In recent years Jehovah Witnesses have built a Kingdom Hall in Eliburn. Notable residents Notable residents of Livingston include Robin Cook (the former MP for Livingston and Foreign Secretary from 1997 until 2001; died 2005) and Ian Colquhoun (author, born and educated in Livingston). Actors, musicians and entertainers include Nina Nesbitt (singer songwriter) and David Cicero (singer/keyboardist and associate of the Pet Shop Boys who moved to Livingston as a child). Livingston sports personalities include Craig Benson (Olympic swimmer and World junior men's breaststroke champion, born and educated in Livingston), Peter 'Snakebite' Wright (born in Livingston, PDC World darts champion), and Elise Christie (short track skater, who competed at the 2010 Winter Olympics and 2014 Winter Olympics). Livingston is the birthplace and home of several Scottish footplayers, including Scott Arfield (football player for Rangers F.C), Mark Burchill (footballer, educated in Livingston), Paul Dickov (former Arsenal player and former manager Doncaster Rovers from 2013 to 2015), James Penrice (professional footballer for Partick Thistle), David Robertson (footballer for St Johnstone F.C.), Jimmy Scoular (former Portsmouth FC and Newcastle Utd football player and Cardiff City manager), Gary Wales (former Hearts player, and Kilmarnock player), Tommy Walker (former Hearts and Chelsea player and manager for Hearts), Keith Watson (footballer, previously for Hartlepool United), and Danny Wilson (footballer, player for Rangers, Liverpool and a former Hearts captain). Town twinnings Livingston is twinned with: Hochsauerlandkreis, Germany. Grapevine, Texas, USA. References Primary sources Wills, E (1996) Livingston: the Making of a Scottish New Town Cowling, D (1997) An Essay for Today: the Scottish New Towns 1947–1997 Hendrie, W (1989) ''The History of Livingston External links West Lothian Business Portal Livingstoni Community site for Livingston West Lothian Archaeological Trust Retailing in Scotland Towns in West Lothian New towns in Scotland 1960s establishments in Scotland New towns started in the 1960s

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Laker

Jim Laker

James Charles Laker (9 February 1922 – 23 April 1986) was an English professional cricketer who played for Surrey County Cricket Club from 1946 to 1959 and represented England in 46 Test matches. He was born in Shipley, West Riding of Yorkshire, and died in Wimbledon, London. A right-arm off break bowler, Laker is generally regarded as one of the greatest spin bowlers in cricket history. In 1956, he achieved a still-unequalled world record when he took nineteen (of a maximum twenty) wickets in a Test match at Old Trafford Cricket Ground in Manchester, enabling England to defeat Australia in what has become known as "Laker's Match". At club level, he formed a formidable spin partnership with Tony Lock, who was a left-arm orthodox spinner, and they played a key part in the success of the Surrey team through the 1950s including seven consecutive County Championship titles from 1952 to 1958. Laker batted right-handed as a useful tail-ender who scored two first-class centuries. He was considered a good fielder, especially in the gully position. For his achievements in 1951, Laker was selected by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack (Wisden) as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in its 1952 edition. He was selected as the New Zealand Cricket Almanack Player of the Year in 1952 after playing for Auckland in the 1951–52 season. In 1956, his Surrey benefit season realised £11,086 and, at the end of that year, he was voted "BBC Sports Personality of the Year", the first cricketer to win the award. He later worked for BBC Sport as a cricket commentator in its outside broadcast transmissions. Early life and school years Jim Laker was born on 9 February 1922 in Shipley, near Bradford, which was then in the West Riding of Yorkshire. He was raised by his mother Ellen Kane, a schoolteacher, and had four sisters. His father, a stonemason called Charles Laker, had deserted the family when Jim was two years old. Laker began playing cricket at a very early age. His mother was a lifelong enthusiast of the game and, throughout his childhood, he played cricket continuously with her full encouragement. She used to make his sisters bowl to him because she was convinced he had the makings of a batsman. In the years around 1930, Ellen was employed at Frizinghall Council School in Bradford, which Laker attended until 1932. He won a grammar school scholarship which entitled him to a free place at the Salts High School in nearby Saltaire. About that time, Ellen took up with a new partner called Bert Jordan and the family moved to Baildon, which is near Saltaire. This was a sound relationship and Laker was able to enjoy a settled home life through his senior school years from September 1932 for seven years. He said later that he was very happy at Salts and he became a regular member of the school cricket team, playing primarily as a batsman but also as a fast bowler. In March 1938, aged 16, Laker was invited to attend special coaching by Yorkshire County Cricket Club in their winter shed at Headingley. He recalled his mother taking him to buy new cricket gear at Herbert Sutcliffe's shop in Leeds. He said the sacrifice she made was "frightening to contemplate" but she was determined to see him succeed as a cricketer. Yorkshire's coaching sessions were run by the former county batsman Benny Wilson, who was the first to show Laker how to spin the ball and encourage him to develop the skill. Although Wilson ran the teenage coaching classes, Laker was also coached by former Yorkshire players George Hirst, Maurice Leyland, Emmott Robinson and Alfred Wormald. Yorkshire recommended him to join Saltaire Cricket Club, who played in the Bradford League, and he made his debut for them at their Roberts Park ground against Baildon, his local club. He played for Saltaire for three seasons, from 1938 to 1940, on one occasion scoring a century. In the 1938 season, his last at school, he played for Salts HS on Saturday morning and for Saltaire CC in the afternoon. Laker still thought of himself as a batsman and his contemporary Ronnie Burnet, who became Yorkshire's captain in the late 1950s, recalled that Laker bowled a mixed bag of "fast off-cutters-cum-spinners" before the Second World War. Charlie Lee, one of Laker's Saltaire team-mates, had a similar recollection saying that "Jim bowled all sorts of stuff and generally enjoyed himself without ever appearing to have the makings of a great bowler". Army service and move to Surrey Laker left school in February 1939 and obtained full-time employment at Barclays Bank in Bradford city centre, working a nine-hour day for £5 a month. In early 1941, now aged 19, he volunteered for active service and joined the Army. He went to Leicestershire for infantry training and was then posted to the Royal Army Ordnance Corps (RAOC), serving in Palestine and Cairo until 1945, although he was never involved in front line fighting. While Laker had done enough at Saltaire to be well remembered there, his cricketing career really gathered pace and took off while he was with the RAOC in Egypt. Playing on coconut matting wickets in inter-service matches, he decided to develop the off spin technique he had been taught by Benny Wilson. He recalled that, "to my utter amazement", he could turn the ball "quite prodigiously" on the matting strips. John Arlott later wrote that English cricketers in Egypt were writing home and talking about "a Yorkshire lad who could bowl off spin like a master". In 1943, Laker went to Alexandria to play for the RAOC against an RAF team and took five wickets for ten runs including a hat-trick. In 1944, he played against a South African Air Force XI, scored a century and then took six wickets for ten runs. In these matches, he encountered several top-class players including Norman Yardley, Peter Smith, Bert Sutcliffe, Ron Aspinall, Dudley Nourse and Arthur McIntyre. Laker returned to England on leave in early 1945. Soon afterwards, his mother died of a heart attack. She left him an estate worth £1,000, which was fairly substantial at the time. Bert Jordan had died during the war and, all his sisters having married and moved on, his northern roots were broken and he no longer had any pressing reason to return to Bradford. He was able to keep his options open when his military service ended. He had to return to Egypt but was then repatriated in summer 1945 with a year of service still to perform before demobilisation. He was posted to the War Office itself in central London and was invited by an army friend called Colin Harris to lodge with his family in Forest Hill, a couple of miles from Catford. This was meant to be a temporary arrangement but Laker ended up living with the Harris family for over five years, until he was due to get married himself. Despite being on Yorkshire's books, Laker's circumstances after the end of the war led almost inevitably to his being approached by Surrey County Cricket Club. While he was resident with the Harrises at Forest Hill, he continued to play for service teams and, in March 1946, he joined Catford Cricket Club. Some impressive performances for Catford, including ten for 21 against Bromley, were noted by Andrew Kempton, Catford's club president, who was a member of the county club. Kempton knew Andy Sandham, the former England opening batsman who was Surrey's coach in 1946, and recommended Laker. Sandham invited Laker for a trial at The Oval. Soon afterwards, on 17 July, Laker made his first-class debut when Surrey hosted a Combined Services XI, whom they defeated by six wickets. Laker had the creditable figures of three for 78 and three for 43. He was still in the RAOC but was demobilised in August. One of his options was a permanent career in the Regular Army, perhaps even a commission. He considered a return to banking and asked Barclays if they would reinstate him and transfer him to a London branch. They agreed but, as Fred Robinson, one of Laker's old school friends, later told biographer Alan Hill, "neither of those ventures ever really came within his considerations". As soon as Laker was demobbed, Surrey offered him a professional contract, subject to Yorkshire's approval. Yorkshire agreed to his release and he signed for Surrey on terms of £6 a week in winter, augmented by match fees in summer. Laker played in two more first-class matches at the end of the 1946 season. Only seventeen months later in January 1948, he made his Test debut for England at the Kensington Oval in Bridgetown, Barbados. First-class and international career 1947 season and first international tour Laker bowled well at county level in 1947, taking 79 wickets and topping the Surrey bowling averages. His best performances were at Portsmouth, where he dismissed Hampshire with eight for 69, and at Chelmsford, where he took seven for 94 against Essex. Near the end of the season, he was invited to play for Pelham Warner's XI against the South of England in a Hastings Festival match. Whether he knew it or not at the time, this match was effectively a Test trial. He took eight wickets in the match, including a second innings hat-trick. In its 1948 edition, Wisden Cricketers' Almanack (Wisden) said that the discovery of Laker was "very satisfactory" for Surrey. He was described as specialising in off breaks, "fielding smartly" in the gully and showing promise as a batsman. Soon afterwards, he was selected by Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) for their 1947–48 tour of the West Indies. He played in four Tests and, on debut, took seven for 103 in the first innings of the first Test. This tour was a disaster for MCC and the 1947 edition of Playfair Cricket Annual (Playfair) headlined it as "An Ill-Starred Venture". Planning and preparation were poor and the team was badly led by Gubby Allen. Playfair said Laker was the only player who "really justified his selection". Wisden said Laker "excelled" and was "undoubtedly the find of the tour", despite problems with an abdominal injury. 1948 season Playing for Surrey in 1948, Laker took 79 wickets and the team were runners-up in the County Championship behind first-time winners Glamorgan. Still inexperienced at Test level, however, he came in for some heavy punishment when he played in three Tests against the 1948 Australians, an outstanding team that was unbeaten in the whole tour. Laker took nine wickets in the three matches but at a cost of 472 runs and the very high average of 52.44 runs per wicket – in comparison, his full Test career average was an outstanding 21.24. England's worst performance in the 1948 series was at Headingley where they actually played well for the first four days and set Australia a seemingly impossible last day target of 404 to win. Australia, led by Don Bradman, won by seven wickets. Godfrey Evans said the England team was complacent because no one had ever achieved such a target before in Test cricket. Evans himself was a prime culprit because he missed stumping chances, including one off Laker with Bradman beaten and out of his ground. Bradman later said that it was the key moment of the Australian innings. In the match as a whole, Laker bowled 62 overs and took three wickets for 206 runs. The situation was well summarised by Playfair saying that England needed "a leg-spinner or a Verity" (Hedley Verity was a slow left arm orthodox bowler) but they had neither. The implication was that the pitch was not one on which an off-break bowler such as Laker could succeed. Playfair went on to criticise "tactical errors, missed chances and a sad lethargy in the field". After the Headingley match, Laker was omitted from England's team in the final Test at The Oval, his home ground, and he was not included in the squad for the tour of South Africa in 1948–49. Despite his continuing success for Surrey, he could not afterwards find a regular place in the England team until 1956 and went on only one international tour, to the West Indies again in 1953–54, between those in 1947–48 and 1956–57. Alan Hill recorded that, while Laker may not have enjoyed the Headingley Test, its host club were very concerned indeed that Yorkshire-born Laker had eluded their attention. Fred Trueman later recalled that the Yorkshire club president Ernest Holdsworth contacted Laker in 1948 and invited him to dinner at a London restaurant. Laker accepted but was then astonished when Holdsworth tried to persuade him to return and play for Yorkshire. Although Laker did not like the social divide in place at Surrey, he wished to stay with his adopted county and thanked Holdsworth for the offer, which he declined. Len Hutton recalled that, also in 1948, he was asked by the Yorkshire committee to make some discreet enquiries about Laker's situation in Surrey. He reported back that Laker was content where he was and did not wish to play for Yorkshire. Hutton agreed that Yorkshire "went on needing Laker badly" and ruefully admitted that he "tied us in all sorts of knots" in Yorkshire's matches against Surrey. 1949 to 1950–51 In 1949, Laker played in only one of the four Tests against New Zealand even though he took 122 wickets in the season. In this series, England chose Eric Hollies, a leg spinner, in all the matches and Laker's only selection was in the final Test at The Oval when he replaced Les Jackson, a pace bowler, as an extra spinner for the venue. The match was drawn and Laker, bowling well, took 4/78 in New Zealand's second innings. England had no overseas tour in the winter of 1949–50. In 1950, Laker took eight wickets for only two runs in an innings in a Test trial at Bradford Park Avenue when playing for England against "The Rest". The match, scheduled for three days, began on Wednesday, 31 May with a chill wind blowing. The wicket had been uncovered and was drying after recent rain, which meant that a spinning delivery would act unpredictably when pitched. Laker took full advantage. He set an attacking leg side field and bowled around the wicket, concentrating on line and length with minimal flight, which gave the batsmen no time to come forward to the pitch of the ball. Some balls would gain extra bite from the pitch surface and rear up while others would "turn" to an unexpected degree. The Rest were all out before lunch for only 27. Batting conditions improved afterwards and England went on to win by an innings inside two days. As a Test trial, the match was of no use to the selectors and it was argued afterwards that the pitch should have been covered or, failing that, the England team should have batted first. One certainty that the match ensured was that Laker would play in the first Test that summer against the West Indies. Unfortunately, Laker injured his hand when batting in the Test, which impaired his bowling. He took only one wicket in the match, which England won, and the selectors decided to leave him out of the team thereafter. Without him, England lost the series one to three. Although Laker took 166 wickets in 1950, his highest-ever season tally, the selectors continued to ignore him when they chose their squad to tour Australia in 1950–51 and so he accepted an invitation to tour India and Ceylon with a Commonwealth XI, playing in ten matches and taking 36 wickets. The Commonwealth squad was a multi-talented group considered stronger than the England one touring Australia. It was nominally captained by Les Ames but, because of injuries, he handed over to Frank Worrell. The Commonwealth XI were undefeated in 29 matches played between 1 October and 6 March, including four unofficial "tests" against India and one against Ceylon. Laker had to return home in early December because of sinusitis but he enjoyed the tour. He later recalled one incident when a huge rat ran across the field and onto the pitch just as he was about to bowl. Laker stopped and was then astonished to see a kite hawk swoop down, seize the rat in its talons and fly away with it. Laker was used to pigeons on the field at The Oval and he was so surprised by this that, when he did bowl the next ball, it bounced twice and was struck to the boundary. 1951 to 1955 After his recovery from sinusitis, Laker got married just before the 1951 season. He took 149 wickets that season and played in two of the five Tests against South Africa. In the final Test at The Oval, he took ten wickets in the match for 119 runs and England won by four wickets. Laker went to New Zealand in the winter of 1951–52 as a player-coach for Auckland, taking his wife with him for what was effectively an extended honeymoon. He played in four matches for Auckland, taking 24 wickets. The Lakers were in New Zealand for five months and liked it so much that they seriously considered emigrating there. Laker decided that, on balance, his cricketing future was in England and regretfully declined an offer from the Auckland Cricket Association to re-engage as player-coach in 1952–53. In 1952, the season in which Surrey won the first of their seven consecutive County Championship titles, Laker played in four Tests against India. In 1953, he played in three Tests against Australia, including the series decider at The Oval in which England won The Ashes for the first time in twenty years. He toured the West Indies again with MCC in 1953–54, playing in seven matches including four Tests and taking 22 wickets. He played in one Test against Pakistan in 1954 but was not chosen for the 1954–55 tour of Australia. He played in one Test against South Africa in 1955. 1956 Laker finally secured his Test place in 1956 and took part in all five Tests against Australia. He took all ten wickets in an innings for Surrey against the Australians. This was the first time a bowler had taken all ten against the Australians since Ted Barratt in 1878. Laker took 46 wickets in the 1956 Ashes series to establish a still-unbroken record for a five-match Test series between England and Australia, but Sydney Barnes still holds the world record of 49 wickets taken in 1913–14 for England in South Africa. Laker's effort led to him being awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award in 1956, the first cricketer to win the award. Surrey won the County Championship for the fifth consecutive time in 1956. Roy Webber's history of the competition was published soon afterwards and, in his review of the contemporary county teams, he wrote that "it is difficult to imagine a better and more balanced bowling attack than that presented by Alec Bedser, Peter Loader, Stuart Surridge, Jim Laker and Tony Lock". "Laker's Match" In its report of the fourth Test at Old Trafford, Wisden began by saying that "this memorable game will always be known as Laker's Match because of the remarkable performance by the Surrey off-break bowler in taking nine wickets for 37 runs in the first innings and ten wickets for 53 in the second". The match took place from Thursday, 26 to Tuesday, 31 July. England, who had won the toss and decided to bat first, won the match by an innings and 170 runs. England batted until mid-afternoon on the Friday and amassed a total of 459, which included centuries by Peter Richardson and David Sheppard. In reply, Australia were dismissed for 84 and, following on, reached 53 for one at the close. In Australia's first innings, England's two pace bowlers, Trevor Bailey and Brian Statham, bowled only ten overs between them before Laker and Lock were introduced. Laker began from the Warwick Road End but did not take a wicket until he switched to the Stretford End. Before tea, when Australia were 62 for two, he dismissed opener Colin McDonald, who was caught by Lock for 32, and Neil Harvey, who was bowled without scoring. Lock took the wicket of Jim Burke, caught by Colin Cowdrey at slip, with the first ball bowled after tea and England dominated from then on. In only 37 minutes from the restart, Australia collapsed to 84 all out. Laker terminated the innings by taking the last seven wickets for only eight runs in just 22 deliveries. His figures were nine for 37 while Lock's were one for 37. Australia were asked to follow-on and had reached 28 for no wicket when McDonald suffered a knee injury which forced him to retire hurt. Harvey replaced him and was out first ball after hitting Laker to Cowdrey at short mid-on. Australia's best batsman had collected a "pair" and, despairingly, threw his bat into the air as he departed. Burke and Ian Craig put up some resistance and were still together at the close. According to Wisden, the Australians made a protest about the pitch on Friday evening and accused the hosts, Lancashire County Cricket Club, of preparing a pitch suited to spin bowling. Lancashire strongly denied the charge. Australian captain Ian Johnson made no public comment about the issue. It then seemed as if the match was doomed to be ruined by the weather as only 47 minutes of play were possible on the Saturday and only an hour on the Monday. During that time, Australia lost Burke to Laker and reached 84 for two with McDonald (who returned when Burke was out) and Craig batting. On Tuesday, the final day, conditions improved and play began only ten minutes late. McDonald did his best and put up a strong defence, eventually scoring 89. Craig, who made 38, stayed with him until lunch when the score was 112 for two. The morning had been cloudy and the sun began to shine as lunch was taken. This caused the ball to spin quickly and create increased problems for the batsmen. During the afternoon session, Laker took four wickets in nine overs for three runs but then Richie Benaud joined McDonald and they stayed together for 75 minutes to the tea interval. The pitch was taking prodigious spin after tea and Australia's hopes faded when Laker dismissed McDonald with the second ball of the evening session. At 17:27, with just over an hour to go, Laker bowled to Len Maddocks and appealed for leg before wicket. Maddocks was given out and Laker had taken all ten wickets for 53 runs to give England victory. Wisden pointed out that the rain returned on Tuesday night and, on the Wednesday, the entire first-class programme was washed out. Wisden commented that "it can be seen how close was England's time margin, and how the greatest bowling feat of all time nearly did not happen". Writing in 2005, Richie Benaud recalled that there was rain in the Old Trafford area on the final day itself but it did not fall at the venue. Benaud was so impressed by Laker that he decided to shorten his own run-up and, he said, "my bowling attitude". In its match report, Playfair said that Laker "had enjoyed one of the most remarkable bowling performances that has ever been seen on a cricket field". The 1957 edition of Wisden included an article by Neville Cardus that paid tribute to Laker's performances in 1956. Laker's ten for 53 was the first time a bowler had taken all ten wickets in a Test innings. Only two bowlers have achieved the feat since, India's Anil Kumble, who took ten for 74 against Pakistan in 1999, and New Zealander Ajaz Patel, who took ten for 119 against India in 2021. Including Laker himself with nine for 37 in the first innings, there have been 17 instances of a bowler taking nine wickets in a Test match innings. Laker's match bowling figures of nineteen for 90 remain a world record in first-class cricket. The record for the most wickets taken in a Test match was previously held by England's Sydney Barnes who took seventeen for 159 at the Old Wanderers, in Johannesburg, against South Africa in December 1913. Barnes remains the only bowler other than Laker to take seventeen in a Test match. Two common factors link Laker and Barnes. They are the only two bowlers who have taken seventeen or more wickets in a Test match and they both played for Saltaire in the Bradford League, Barnes from 1915 to 1923, Laker from 1938 to 1940. Laker is the only bowler to have taken more than eighteen wickets in a first-class match. There had been 23 previous instances of seventeen or more in a match but, since Laker's feat, only John Davison of Canada in 2004 and Kyle Abbott of Hampshire in 2019 have taken seventeen wickets in a match. 1956–57 to 1964 Laker toured South Africa with MCC in 1956–57, playing in fourteen matches including all five Tests. He took fifty wickets, which was his career-best tally in an overseas season. He played in four Tests against the West Indies in 1957 and four against New Zealand in 1958. The 1958 season was the last of Surrey's seven consecutive County Championships but it was marred by a quarrel between Laker and the team captain Peter May, who had accused Laker of "not trying" in a match against Kent at Blackheath in July. Kent won the match by 29 runs. Laker bowled a total of 54 overs in the match and that immediately followed a haul of 63 overs in a match against Glamorgan at Swansea, which Surrey won. It seems that Laker's spinning finger was definitely suffering from "wear and tear" at the time and this probably reduced his effectiveness. His colleagues held differing views about the matter. Peter Loader said May was completely out of order while Micky Stewart suggested that May should have been aware that "Jim was knackered". Godfrey Evans, who played for Kent in the match, said that Laker was "ill-supported by May". Raman Subba Row blamed May for his "management style" which was not at all people-oriented, unlike that of Stuart Surridge, May's predecessor as Surrey captain, who was a "people person" and "down to earth". On the other hand, Arthur McIntyre blamed Laker for his batting in the Kent match because he "holed out" and made a more general comment about Laker "crying wolf" over injuries to his fingers. On England's disastrous tour of Australia in 1958–59, Laker was one of the few players to enhance his reputation, bowling well on unhelpful pitches, but he badly damaged his spin finger and had to return home early. He played in ten matches including four Tests. The fifth Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in February was his last. He was not selected by England for the series against India in 1959. Because of his damaged finger, he decided to retire from playing at the end of the season, in which Surrey surrendered the title to Yorkshire. His final match for Surrey was against Northamptonshire at The Oval in September. Surrey lost by four wickets and Laker took only one wicket. In 1960, Laker's ghost-written autobiography Over To Me was published. It was controversial because it contained severe criticism of May, especially about the row which followed the match against Kent at Blackheath in 1958. Hill says that the book "testified primarily to Laker's abiding dislike of the social chasm in cricket" created by amateurism. Micky Stewart commented on Laker's view that the game should not be run by the "traditional Oxbridge axis" by saying Laker firmly believed that ability and not background were what counted in administration of the sport, but Stewart added that Laker had no problems with Oxbridge amateurs who were capable. Official displeasure with Over To Me led to the withdrawal by Surrey of Laker's free entry pass to facilities at The Oval. Soon afterwards, the MCC decided to support Surrey and cancelled Laker's honorary membership. Both were eventually restored. Surrey reinstated his free entry pass in 1964 and the MCC his honorary membership in 1967. In 1962, Laker was "persuaded" out of retirement by his old England team-mate Trevor Bailey and, as an amateur, he played in thirty matches for Essex. He remained a formidable bowler through 1962 and 1963, and twice won matches with ten-wicket hauls. He was less effective in the 1964 season, after which he retired for good. Statistical summary Alan Hill's biography includes an extensive statistical appendix, compiled by Paul E. Dyson. Laker made his first-class debut on 17 July 1946, playing for Surrey against the Combined Services XI at The Oval. His last appearance in a first-class match was on 27 February 1965, playing for the International Cavaliers XI against Barbados at the Kensington Oval in Bridgetown. He played in 450 first-class matches and took a total of 1,944 wickets. His best return was ten for 53 in the 1956 Test at Old Trafford. His career average was 18.41 runs per wicket. He captured five wickets in an innings on 127 occasions and ten wickets in a match 32 times. His best season total was 166 wickets at 15.32 in 1950. His best season average was an outstanding 14.23 in 1958, the last year of Surrey's run of seven titles, when he took 116 wickets. He first took 100 wickets in a season in 1948 and achieved the target in eleven consecutive seasons to 1958. Laker's best overseas tally was 50 in 1956–57 on the MCC tour of South Africa. His best overseas average was 15.79 in 1951–52, taking 24 wickets, when he played for Auckland. Although he was a tail end batsman, he scored two centuries with a highest score of 113 (in 1954) and had one score of 99 among eighteen half-centuries. His career batting total was 7,304 runs at the average of 16.60 runs per completed innings. His best season total was 828 runs at 24.35 in 1948. He usually fielded in the gully position and held 271 career catches, with a best season performance in 1954 when he held 29 in as many matches. Laker made his Test debut for England on 21 January 1948, playing against the West Indies at the Kensington Oval in Bridgetown. His last appearance in a Test match was on 18 February 1959 against Australia at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. He played in 46 Tests and took 193 wickets at the average of 21.24. His best return was, as above, ten for 53. He took five wickets in an innings nine times and ten in a match three times. His best series return was 46 wickets at 9.60 against Australia in 1956. He scored 676 runs at 14.08 in Test matches, including two half-centuries with a highest score of 63 against Australia in 1948. He held a total of 12 catches. Issues with amateurism According to the former amateur player Charles Williams, Laker was a "serial complainer" about "shamateurism". Unfortunately, however, he sometimes spoke and acted unwisely in his opposition to the amateur concept which, in any event, was abolished only three years after he retired. In March 1958, an MCC sub-committee delivered a report on the continuance of amateurism with special emphasis on the question of broken-time payments. Soon afterwards, Laker addressed a meeting of The Cricket Society and declared that a cricketer who can't afford to play as an amateur should either turn professional or stop playing. He described broken-time payments as "poppycock" because they were "payments on the side" that enabled amateurs to make more money than professionals; even so, he was not saying anything new as the issue pre-dated even the Grace brothers. After MCC announced their squad to tour Australia in 1958–59, Laker proposed to turn amateur for the duration of the tour and then become a professional again on his return to Surrey. His thinking was based on the possible misinformation that amateurs on the tour would be paid an allowance of £1,000 to cover their expenses while the professionals were to receive a fee of £800. MCC refused his request. Williams wrote that Laker ruined his case through characteristic bluntness and by not fully understanding the reasons why amateurism existed, rightly or wrongly, in the first place. Ironically, Laker did end up playing as an amateur when he came out of retirement to join Essex in 1962. Style and personality In the 1986 Barclays World of Cricket, Colin Cowdrey wrote a mini-biography of Laker, whom he praised as "perhaps the best off-spin bowler the game has seen". Cowdrey described Laker as the "perfect model" for an aspiring slow bowler because he was tall and strong with big hands and a high action. Laker's strength gave him the capability to undertake long spells of bowling. His varied flight of the ball was difficult for the batsman to predict and, if he was given any assistance by pitch or weather conditions, Laker could generate extra pace and spin so as to be at times "almost unplayable". John Arlott once wrote that batsmen at the non-striking end "could hear the ball buzz" as Laker imparted spin on to it. Garry Sobers agreed with him, saying that "you could hear the ball fizz as Jim spun it". Sobers said that Laker was the "undoubtedly the best off-spinner I ever saw" with Lance Gibbs not far behind. Sobers was especially wary of Laker's straight ball because, unusual among spinners, it was delivered at lesser pace than his spinning deliveries and it "drifted" (i.e., as an outswinger). Fred Trueman, who knew and got along with Laker very well, described him as "a modest, laconic, sometimes dour guy". Like everyone else in cricket, Trueman was astounded by Laker's world record at Old Trafford in 1956 but was more impressed by Laker's "self-effacing" reaction to the achievement. As Trueman says, photographs of Laker in the next day's newspapers show him strolling towards the pavilion, not even smiling, sweater over his shoulder, "as if returning from net practice". Trueman went on to say how he "shuddered to think" what sort of posturing would ensue in the unlikely event that Laker's performance should be matched by a 21st-century cricketer. In Peter May's autobiography, he wrote about how Arthur McIntyre kept superbly to the great Surrey bowling attack of Bedser, Loader, Laker and Lock on difficult wickets. McIntyre himself said that, of the four, he had the greatest difficulty keeping wicket to Laker who "spun the ball so viciously". In 2006, Peter Richardson considered the differences between Laker and Lock, saying that Laker was "slightly cynical, difficult to connect with, laconic and moody". Richardson said that Laker and Lock did not get on together and were always competing. Their approaches to the game differed as Lock "would attack" while Laker just kept "chipping away". Richie Benaud had also noted their different characteristics in the way they appealed for a dismissal: "Laker was apologetic, Lock a demander". May, who was Laker's Surrey captain after Stuart Surridge retired in 1956, said that the mere idea of Laker showing enthusiasm was "absurd". Personal life and post-retirement Having recovered from the sinusitis he contracted in India in December 1950, Laker began to think seriously about marriage. He had courted his fiancée Lilly for some years. She was born in Vienna but, opposed to Nazism, she left Austria after the Anschluss and was in the Middle East when World War II began. She joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service in Cairo and met Laker when he was posted there with the RAOC. They worked in the same office and then met again in London at a service reunion event. They married on 27 March 1951 at the Kensington register office and spent a rain-swept honeymoon in Bournemouth before the cricket season began. Lilly survived Laker by 35 years, dying in September 2021 at the age of 102. She and their daughters Fiona and Angela helped Alan Hill with his research for Laker's biography. Being Austrian, Lilly did not know much about cricket. She took numerous congratulatory telephone calls after his 19-wicket feat and, when Laker arrived home, she asked him: "Jim, did you do something good today?" In July 1956, only three weeks before his record-breaking performance at Old Trafford, Laker was Roy Plomley's guest on his Desert Island Discs radio programme. His musical choices included Ol' Man River by Paul Robeson, songs by Vera Lynn and Gracie Fields and classical pieces by Pietro Mascagni and Franz Schubert. His luxury choices were a piano and a cricket ball. Laker developed an interest in broadcasting and, after he retired from playing, became a highly regarded cricket commentator for ITV from 1966 to 1968 and for BBC Television from 1968 until his death in 1986. Fellow commentator John Arlott described Laker's commentary style as: "Wry, dry, laconic, he thought about cricket with a deep intensity and a splendidly ironic point of view" whilst Colin Cowdrey praised Laker's "own brand of television commentary" that made him a respected figure in the medium. Ted Dexter, as a summariser, worked with commentators Laker and Richie Benaud at the BBC and later remarked on how "a new style of interpretation had evolved as ball-by-ball commentary became their preserve", their trademarks being "patience, accuracy and persistence". The commentary was spoofed in Monty Python's Flying Circus "Trailer" sketch in the "Archaeology Today" episode in 1970. Laker was still employed by the BBC when he died at the Parkside Clinic in Wimbledon, aged 64, on 23 April 1986. The cause of death was complications from gall bladder surgery. His body was cremated at Putney Vale Crematorium and his ashes were scattered at The Oval. References Bibliography Biographical Annual reviews Miscellaneous 1922 births 1986 deaths Auckland cricketers BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners British Army personnel of World War II Burials at Putney Vale Cemetery Commonwealth XI cricketers Cricketers from Bradford Cricketers from Shipley, West Yorkshire Cricketers who have taken five wickets on Test debut Cricketers who have taken ten wickets in an innings England Test cricketers English cricket commentators English cricketers of 1946 to 1968 English cricketers Essex cricketers H. D. G. Leveson Gower's XI cricketers International Cavaliers cricketers Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers North v South cricketers Players cricketers Royal Army Ordnance Corps soldiers Surrey cricketers Wisden Cricketers of the Year Wisden Leading Cricketers in the World

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon%20Budokan

Nippon Budokan

, often shortened to simply Budokan, is an indoor arena located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. Originally built for the inaugural Olympic judo competition in the 1964 Summer Olympics, its name translates as Martial Arts Hall in English. While its primary purpose is to host martial arts contests, the arena has gained additional fame as one of the world's most iconic musical performance venues. Budokan was a popular venue for Japanese professional wrestling for a time, and it has hosted numerous other sporting events such as the 1967 Women's Volleyball World Championship. Most recently, the arena hosted the Olympic debut of karate in the 2020 Summer Olympics as well as the judo competition at both the 2020 Summer Olympics and the 2020 Summer Paralympics. A number of famous rock music acts have played at Budokan. The Beatles were the first rock group to play there in a series of concerts held between June 30 and July 2, 1966. ABBA ended their last tour there. Their final show on March 27, 1980, was the last live concert ABBA performed together. Numerous acts have recorded live albums at Budokan, including Blur, Bryan Adams, Bob Dylan, Eric Clapton, Cheap Trick, Dream Theater, Duran Duran, Kiss, Mr. Big, Ozzy Osbourne, Judas Priest, Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, Journey and Deep Purple. Location The Nippon Budokan is located in Kitanomaru Park in the center of Tokyo, two minutes' walking distance from Kudanshita Subway Station, and near the Imperial Palace and Yasukuni Shrine. The 42 m (140 ft) high octagonal structure holds 14,471 people (arena seats: 2,946, 1st floor seats: 3,199, 2nd floor seats: 7,846, standee: 480). The building is modeled after Yumedono (Hall of Dreams) in Hōryū-ji in Nara. Venue history Martial arts Although the Budokan also functions as a venue for big musical events, its primary purpose is for Japanese martial arts. The national championships of the different branches of major martial arts (judo, kendo, karate, aikido, etc.) are held annually at the Budokan. The Budokan has also been associated with professional wrestling's big shows, typically from All Japan Pro Wrestling and Pro Wrestling Noah. However, due to declining audiences following the death of Mitsuharu Misawa and the retirement of Kenta Kobashi, professional wrestling has ceased running regular shows in the Budokan. During Wrestle Kingdom 12, New Japan Pro-Wrestling announced that its yearly G1 Climax tournament's finals would be held at the Budokan. The Muhammad Ali vs. Antonio Inoki hybrid rules fight held at the Budokan in 1976 is seen as a forerunner to mixed martial arts. K-1, Shooto and Pride Fighting Championships have all held events at the arena. Music The Beatles were the first rock group to perform at Budokan in a series of five shows held between June 30 and July 2, 1966. Their appearances were met with opposition from those who felt the appearance of a western pop group would defile the martial arts arena. In July 1973, Japanese television recorded the Santana performance at Budokan. The Budokan gained worldwide fame when American artists Cheap Trick and Bob Dylan used the arena to record their performances, Cheap Trick at Budokan (1978) and Bob Dylan at Budokan (1979). The venue is popular for recording live albums because it has good acoustics, is relatively large and Japanese audiences are known for being highly appreciative when appropriate but quiet during performances. Eric Clapton described the Tokyo audience as "almost overappreciative" in interviews promoting Just One Night (1980), his own live album recorded at the Budokan. American crossover thrash band Stormtroopers of Death released a live album titled Live at Budokan (1992), though the title was in jest and the album was recorded at famed New York City venue The Ritz. The original Beatles concert is heavily bootlegged on audio and video; the first night's concert video was officially released by Apple Records in Japan only as Beatles Concert at Budokan 1966, and excerpts are shown in The Beatles Anthology, while the second Anthology album included the first show's performances of "Rock and Roll Music" and "She's A Woman". The venue is one of the stages in The Beatles: Rock Band video game. Chatmonchy currently holds the record for the largest crowd at Budokan. South Korean girl group T-ara was the first Korean female artist to perform in Nippon Budokan in 2012 and the only Korean female artist to perform there twice in 2013. In 2017, Blackpink became the second such group to perform at the venue. The record for the most Budokan music concerts is held by Eikichi Yazawa, 142 times as of December 19, 2017. Artists that have released live recordings from the venue include: 1970s Led Zeppelin; September 23 and 24, 1971 and October 2 and 3, 1972. Chicago; June 8, 1972. Uriah Heep; 1973, (Live concert filmed on 16mm for television. DVD versions available) Deep Purple; 1972; for the last of the three concerts making up their Made in Japan live album. The Moody Blues; January 18, 1974 The Carpenters; June 7–9, 1974; Live in Japan Focus; June 20, 1975 Queen; 1975, 1976, and 1979. Rainbow; December 16, 1976; On Stage Rainbow performed here both afternoon and evening shows at 3:00 pm and 6:00 p.m. Aerosmith; 1977 (Jan-Feb); see the Japanese bootleg CD Rocks Budokan (label Calm&Storm). Fleetwood Mac; December 5, 1977 and February 3, 4th and 5, 1980 Bay City Rollers; 1977; released as Rollerworld: Live at the Budokan 1977 in 2001. Pink Lady; 1977 (Bye Bye Carnival) and 1979 (Live in Budoukan). Kiss; 1977 and 1978. Cheap Trick; April 27, 28 and 30, 1978; Cheap Trick at Budokan (and the later-released 1998 album at Budokan: The Complete Concert). Ian Gillan Band; 1977–1978; Live at the Budokan (Vols. 1–2). Eric Clapton; December 1979; Just One Night. Diana Ross; 1977; "An Evening with Diana Ross" concert was videotaped during her 1977 tour. Coloratura Soprano Julie Andrews; 1977 "An Evening with Julie Andrews" concert was part of a highly acclaimed sold out national tour of Japan by Julie Andrews Eikichi Yazawa; 1977; Super Live Nippon Budokan, recorded his Budokan concerts of 1977. Devo; 1979 "The Men Who Make the Music" Japanese TV broadcast. A clip of "Red Eye Express" from this show is included in The Men Who Make The Music home video. Gregg Allman Band and Cher ; June 29, 1977 Bob Dylan; 1979; Bob Dylan at Budokan, recorded during his 1978 world tour. Electric Light Orchestra; 1978. Earth, Wind & Fire; 1979. Boston; 1979 1980s Sadao Watanabe; 1980; How's Everything. ABBA; 1980; Momoe Yamaguchi; 1980; Budokan at Last Yellow Magic Orchestra; 1980; Live at Budokan 1980, recorded 1980, released 1993. Queen; 1981; "The Game Tour". 1985; "The Works Tour". The Police; 1981; Budokan Radio On, released 1988. Michael Schenker Group; 1981; One Night at Budokan, released in 1982, deluxe edition released in 2009 John Denver, 1981 Quincy Jones; 1981; Quincy Jones Live at the Budokan. Journey; 1982; "Escape Tour". 1983; "Frontiers Tour". Styx; 1982; Kitarō; 1982; Live at Budokan. Toto; 1982; Live at Budokan 1982, Toto IV Tour. Japan; 1982; Live from the Budokan 1982, Final Tour (Some songs included Yellow Magic Orchestra members Yukihiro Takahashi and Ryuichi Sakamoto). Spinal Tap; 1982; "Smell The Glove Tour". Dave Grusin; 1983; Dave Grusin and the NY-LA Dream Band Grover Washington Jr., Pieces of A Dream; 1983; Aurex Jazz Festival Michael Schenker Group; 1982; One Night at Budokan. Asia; 1983; Live at Budokan, Asia in Asia. Gary Moore; 1984; We Want Moore! during the Victims of the Future tour in 1984, remastered 2002 (Budokan was one of the 4 or 5 different venues where this album was recorded) Frank Sinatra; 1985; Live at the Budokan Hall, Tokyo Phil Collins; 1985; The No Jacket Required World Tour Corey Hart; 1985 Momoko Kikuchi; 1985; "Advanced Domestic Tour Budokan" Judas Priest; 1986; "Fuel for Life Tour" Iron Maiden; 1987, "Somewhere on tour" Dead or Alive; 1987 video Rip It Up Live (VHS/Laserdisc) Kiss; 1988; "Crazy Nights Tour" Miho Nakayama; May 11, 1989; Whuu!! Natural Live at Budokan '89 Stryper 1989; "In God We Trust tour 1990s X Japan; 1990; Rose & Blood Tour Seiko Matsuda - Precious Moment ~1990 Live at Budokan~ X Japan; 1991 Loudness - Live Loudest at the Budokan '91 B'z - Just Another Life (1991). Debbie Gibson - Live In Tokyo: The Possibilities World Tour X Japan; 1992; Extasy Summit 1992 Tin Machine; 1992; who recorded a portion of Tin Machine Live: Oy Vey, Baby, during the It's My Life Tour. Skid Row - Live at Budokan, Tokyo 1992. Diana Ross, Tokyo 1992; 'The Force Behind the Power World Tour' X Japan; 1993 The Doobie Brothers; 1993; Live at Budokan. Aerosmith; 1994; Get a Grip Tour Yngwie Malmsteen; 1994; video Live at Budokan 94, VHS/DVD. Blur; 1995–6; recorded a live compilation CD, Live at the Budokan, in 1995, at the height of Britpop; it was released in 1996. Princess Princess; May 31, 1996; The Last Live Chic; 1996; performance later released as Live at the Budōkan (1999). This was bassist Bernard Edwards's last performance; he died the next day. Diana Ross; 1996; 'Take Me Higher World Tour' Prince; 1996 Prince performed four concerts during the year as the Artist formerly known as Prince. Mr. Big; 1997; recorded Live at Budokan in 1997 Oasis; 1998; Oasis performed three nights in a row during their 'Be Here Now tour' Puffy; 1998; Recorded Jet Tour '98 in support of the album Jet-CD Malice Mizer; 1998; two night stint at the Budokan in support of Merveilles, which yielded their live video Merveilles ~Shuuen to Kisuu~ L'Espace Journey; 1998; Recorded several songs from their Frontiers Tour in 1983 at the Budokan which was included on their live album Greatest Hits Live Lauryn Hill; 1999; The Miseducation Tour (two sold-out shows) Janet Jackson; 1999; The Velvet Rope Tour (five sold-out shows) Faye Wong; 1999; Budokan Live (for further information see: Faye Wong#1999: Venturing into Japan) 2000s Bryan Adams; 2000; Live at the Budokan. Morning Musume; 2000; DVD Morning Musume First Live at Budōkan: Dancing Love Site 2000 Haru (Also Sayaka Ichii's graduation from the group) Malice Mizer; 2-night stint at the Budokan in support of Bara no Seidou, which yielded their live video Bara ni Irodorareta Akui to Higeki no Makuake. Bay City Rollers; 2001; Rollerworld, Live at the Budokan 1977, released as Rollerworld: Live at the Budokan 1977 in 2001. Ozzy Osbourne; 2002; filmed CD/DVD combination Live at Budokan. Pearl Jam; 2003; recorded an official bootleg at Budokan during their Riot Act Tour (for further information see: Pearl Jam#Riot Act: 2002–2005). Duran Duran; July 11 + 12, 2003; played at Budokan; shows recorded live Mariah Carey; 2003; performed three concert shows, part of her Charmbracelet World Tour on July 6, 8 and 10. Incubus; March 3, 2004; performed at Budokan and show recorded as CD Live in Japan 2004 on June 1, 2004 Dream Theater; 2004; 2DVD/3CD Live at Budokan. Hikaru Utada; July 28, 2004; video Utada Hikaru in Budokan 2004: Hikaru no 5. Judas Priest; 2005; DVD Rising in the East. Nana Mizuki; 2005; DVD Nana Mizuki Live Rainbow at Budokan. Avril Lavigne; 2005; DVD Live at Budokan: Bonez Tour, Bonez Tour. Hikaru Utada; 2006; video Utada United 2006 (Hikaru Utada discography#Video Releases) Nana Mizuki; 2006; DVD Nana Mizuki Livedom -Birth- at Budokan. MUCC; 2006; DVD World Tour Final Nippon Budokan 666 Morning Musume; 2006; DVD Morning Musume Concert Tour 2006 Aki: Odore! Morning Curry The Gazette; 2006; DVD Standing Live Tour 2006 [Nameless Liberty. Six Guns...] Tour Final at Nippon Budokan. Ai; 2006; video; Nippon Budokan Ai TM Network; 2007; video TM Network -Remaster- at Nippon Budokan 2007. TVXQ; 2007; Tohoshinki 2nd Live Tour 2007: Five in the Black. Perfume; 2008; "Budokaaaaaaaaaan!!!!!". Joe Hisaishi; 2008; Joe Hisaishi in Budokan – 25 years with the Animations of Hayao Miyazaki. Flow; 2008; Flow Live Tour 2007–2008 'Isle' Final at Nippon Budokan Chatmonchy; 2008; [Restaurant Main Dish] Live at : Budokan 2008. Kishidan; 2009; 氣志團現象2009 AGAIN AND AGAIN DVD Nana Mizuki; 2009; Blu-ray/DVD Nana Mizuki Live Diamond x Fever. MUCC; 2009; DVD -MUCC Live Chronicle 3 "Kyutai" in Nippon Budokan- Mr. Big; 2009; live CD/DVD Back to Budokan. AKB48; 2009; AKB104 Senbatsu Members Sokaku Matsuri The Pillows; 2009; live DVD Lostman Go to Budokan. 2010s Dir En Grey; January 9–10, 2010; live DVD Uroboros: With the Proof in the Name of Living... At Nippon Budokan. An Cafe; January 14, 2010; King of Harajuku Dance Rock. Backstreet Boys; February 18, 2010; recorded live DVD Backstreet Boys: This Is Us Japan Tour 2010 on the This Is Us Tour. Nico Touches the Walls; March 12, 2010; "Walls is Auroras" LIVE. Polysics; March 14, 2010; Budokan or Die!!!! 2010.3.14 One Ok Rock; 2010; live DVD This Is My Budokan?!. Taylor Swift; February 26 & 27, 2011; Speak Now World Tour Morning Musume; 2011; Ai Takahashi's graduation concert "Ai Believe ~Takahashi Ai Graduation Memory Special~. F.T. Island; 2011; Live in Budokan 'Summer Mesengger Tour'. MUCC; 2011; live DVD Chemical Parade Vivid January 7, 2012; Take Off: Birth to the New World Judas Priest; February 16 & 17, 2012; Epitaph World Tour 2PM; 2012; 2PM Six Beautiful Day Live in Budokan Milky Holmes; 2012; Milky Holmes Live in Budokan Lee Seung-gi; 2012; First Japan Live in Budokan Kidou (Hope). T-ara; 2012; Live in Budokan, recording of a concert performed as part of their Jewelry Box tour Dream Morning Musume; March 10, 2012; Dream Morning Musume Special Live 2012 Nippon Budokan~Dai 1 Shou Shuumaku 'Yuusha tachi, Shuugou seyo''' U-KISS; 2012; live DVD U-KISS Live in Budokan. Morning Musume; 2012; Risa Niigaki and Aika Mitsui's graduation concert Ultra Smart. Scandal; March 28, 2012; Japan Title Match Live 2012: Scandal vs Budokan Sonar Pocket; August 3, 2012; Sonapokeizm Special - Natsu no Jin - in Nippon Budokan Acid Black Cherry; 2012; "Live DVD Acid Black Cherry Tour 『2012』" Princess Princess; November 23, 2012; Princess Princess Tour 2012: Saikai at BudokanAi; December 5, 2012; Independent Tour 2012 - Live in Budokan Spyair; December 18, 2012; Morning Musume; 2013; Reina Tanaka's graduation concert, Michishige☆Eleven Soul °C-ute; 2013; Queen of J-Pop ~Tadoritsuita Onna Senshi~ AKB48; 2013; AKB48 Group Rinji Soukai "Shirokuro tsukeyou janai ka!" T-ara; 2013; T-ara Japan Tour 2013: Treasure Box Morning Musume; 2013; ~Chance!~ Berryz Kobo; 2013; Berryz Koubou 10 Shuunen Kinen Budokan Special Live ~Yappari Anata Nashi de wa Ikite Yukenai~ AKB48 Group Research Students; 2013; AKB48 Group Kenkyuusei Concert ~Oshimen Hayai Mono Gachi~ Super Junior KRY; 2013; Special Japan tour Super Junior K.R.Y. Special Winter Concert Mamoru Miyano; October 4, 2013; MAMORU MIYANO SPECIAL LIVE 2013 ～TRAVELING!～ first male voice actor to uphold a one-man show in Budokan LiSA; January 3, 2014; Live Is Smile Always - Kyo mo Ii Hi Da - In Nippon Budokan Avril Lavigne; February 4 and 5, 2014: The Avril Lavigne Tour Babymetal; March 1 and 2, 2014 ; Live at Budokan: Red Night & Black Night Apocalypse Dir En Grey; March 8–9, 2014; Dum Spiro Spero at Nippon BudokanAi; March 26, 2014; Moria Gatchai Masita in Budokan S/mileage; July 15, 2014; S/mileage Live 2014 Natsu Full Charge ~715 Nippon Budokan~ Junho (from 2PM); August 12 and 13, 2014; "Feel" Solo Tour in Japan 2014 Dish; January 1, 2015 LiSA; January 10 and 12, 2015; LiVE is Smile Always - PiNK & BLACK - in Nippon Budokan Silent Siren; January 17, 2015; Silent Siren Live Tour 2014–2015 Fuyu ~Budokan e Go! Siren Go!~ at Budokan Oldcodex; February 11, 2015; "Capture" in Budokan Mamoru Miyano; 2015; MAMORU MIYANO LIVE TOUR 2015 ～AMAZING!～ final at Budokan Kalafina; February 28, 2015; Kalafina Live Best 2015 "Red Day". March 1, 2015; Kalafina Live Best 2015 "Blue Day" The Gazette; March 3, 2015; 13th Anniversary Nippon Budokan Judas Priest; March 11, 2015; Redeemer of Souls Tour Kana-Boon; March 31, 2015 Morning Musume; May 27, 2015; ~Gradation~. 己龍 (Kiryu); July 31, 2015 Hatsune Miku; September 4–5, 2015; Magical Mirai. Eir Aoi; November 2, 2015; Eir Aoi Special Live 2015 World of Blue at Nippon Budokan Angerme; November 29, 2015, Angerme First Concert Tour 2015 Aki "Hyakka Ryouran" ~Fukuda Kanon Sotsugyou Special~ Morning Musume; December 7–8, 2015; ~Prism~. Dish; January 1–2, 2016; 4 Monkey Magic. Wagakki Band; January 6, 2016; Wagakki Band Daishinnenkai 2016 Nippon Budokan: Akatsuki no Utage. Scandal; January 12–13, 2016; SCANDAL ARENA TOUR 2015–2016 「PERFECT WORLD」 Mamoru Miyano; 2016; MAMORU MIYANO LIVE TOUR 2015-16 ～GENERATING!～ final at Budokan Dir En Grey; February 5–6, 2016; Arche at Nippon Budokan iKon; February 15–16, 2016; iKoncert 2016: Showtime Tour Symphogear; February 27–28, 2016; Symphogear Live 2016 YuiKaori; March 12, 2016; RAINBOW CANARY!! ～Brightest Stage～ Shouta Aoi; March 13, 2016; Wonder Lab. ~Bokutachi no Sign~ Aya Uchida; August 13, 2016; AYA UCHIDA Complete LIVE 〜COLORS〜 in Nippon Budokan Kalafina; September 16–17, 2016; Kalafina Arena LIVE 2016 Queen + Adam Lambert; September 21–23; Queen + Adam Lambert 2016 Summer Festival Tour Suzuko Mimori; October 27–28, 2016; Mimori Suzuko Live Tour 2016 "Grand Revue" Final at Nippon Budokan Eir Aoi; November 4–5, 2016; Eir Aoi 5th Anniversary Special Live 2016 ～Last Blue～ at Nippon Budokan My First Story; November 18, 2016; We're Just Waiting 4 You Tour 2016 Final at Budokan Journey; February 7, 2017; recorded live CD/DVD Live in Japan 2017 ClariS; February 10, 2017; ClariS 1st Budōkan Concert ~Futatsu no Kamen to Ushinawareta Taiyō~ (ClariS 1st Budōkan Concert: Two Masks and the Lost Sun) Versailles; February 14, 2017; Chateau de Versailles at Nippon Budokan The Oral Cigarettes; June 16, 2017; Unofficial Dining Tour 2017 at Nippon Budokan Taemin; July 1–2, 2017; TAEMIN The 1st Stage Nippon Budokan Blackpink; July 20, 2017, Japanese Debut Showcase After the Rain; August 9–10, 2017; AtR -Clockwise / Anti-Clockwise- Poppin'Party (BanG Dream!); August 21, 2017; BanG Dream! 4th☆LIVE Miracle PARTY 2017! Aimer; August 29, 2017; Aimer Live in Budokan "blanc et noir" Dream Theater; September 11, 2017; Back to Budokan 2017 Nana Mizuki; January 11–21, 2018; NANA MIZUKI LIVE GATE 2018 Kalafina; January 23, 2018; Kalafina 10th Anniversary LIVE 2018 at Nippon Budokan coldrain; February 6, 2018; FATELESS JAPAN TOUR 2017 Nogizaka46; April 22, 2018; Rina Ikoma Graduation Concert @ Nippon Budokan (生駒里奈 卒業コンサート ＠日本武道館) Winner; April 28, 2018; WINNER Japan Tour 2018 ~We'll always be young~ Mariah Carey; October 31 and November 1, 2018; #1's Tour (two sold-out shows) Maaya Uchida; January 1, 2019; UCHIDA MAAYA New Year LIVE 2019「take you take me BUDOKAN!!」 (sold-out concert) Ensemble Stars!; January 13, 2019; Ensemble Stars! Starry Stage 2nd ～in Nippon Budokan～ Milky Holmes; January 28, 2019; Milky Holmes Final Live Q.E.D. Janet Jackson; February 10 and February 11, 2019; State of the World Tour (two sold-out shows) Aimyon;February 18, 2019; Aimyon Budokan -1995- Roselia, Raise A Suilen, and Poppin'Party (BanG Dream!); February 21–23, 2019; BanG Dream! 7th☆LIVE Inori Minase; June 28–29, 2019; Inori Minase LIVE TOUR 2019 Catch the Rainbow! Official Hige Dandism; July 8, 2019; Official HIGE DANdism one-man tour 2019 @ Nippon Budokan2020s Wagakki Band; January 3–4, 2021; Daishinnenkai 2021 Nippon Budokan: AmanoiwatoBabymetal; 2021; 10 BABYMETAL BUDOKAN Yoasobi; December 4–5, 2021; Nice to Meet You Wagakki Band; January 9, 2022; Daishinnenkai 2022 Nippon Budokan: YasoukenbunrokuOther events The National Memorial Service for War Dead is held with the attendance of the Prime Minister, the Emperor and the Empress annually in Budokan on August 15, the day of Japan's surrender. As well as holding the Live Concert in appreciation of the Popular Anime series Lucky Star: Live in Budokan (Anata No Tame Dakara). A concert was held in honor of Studio Ghibli's 25th anniversary at the Budokan, hosted by Joe Hisaishi. It included repertoire from most of the films Hisaishi composed for Hayao Miyazaki's Studio Ghibli filmography. Diana Ross performed and taped her "Here and Now" television special in 1991 to a sold-out audience. The Japan Record Awards took place in the arena from 1985 to 1993 where all of the artists from around the country receive these awards. Muhammad Ali won a unanimous decision over Mac Foster in their 1972 heavyweight boxing match. On February 13, 1975, a religious gathering was held to hear Rev. Sun Myung Moon speak. On August 27, 2011, Japan's three biggest professional wrestling promotions; All Japan Pro Wrestling, New Japan Pro-Wrestling and Pro Wrestling Noah came together to produce a charity event titled All Together at the arena. On August 10, 11 and 12, 2018 New Japan Pro-Wrestling held the final 3 days of the G1 Climax in the Budokan, which marked the first time in 15 years that New Japan has promoted an event there. New Japan once again returned to the arena for the final 3 days of the 2019 G1 Climax. New Japan also held the Best of the Super Jr. and World Tag League finals in December 2021, as well as their 49th Anniversary Show and the final two days of the upcoming G1 Climax in 2021. Joshi wrestling promotion World Wonder Ring Stardom held their All Star Dream Cinderella event on March 3, 2021. Making this the first time a joshi company to held a event in the venue in 24 years. Professional wrestler and legend in Japan Kenta Kobashi wrestled his final match in Budokan on May 11, 2013, at an event titled Final Burning in Budokan. Kobashi is synonymous with the arena along with fellow wrestlers Toshiaki Kawada and the late Mitsuharu Misawa. In November, the Budokan is a two day-venue for the annual Japan Self-Defense Forces Marching Festival, a yearly tradition and the nation's military tattoo first held here in the fall of 1963. Aside from JSDF bands, foreign armed forces military bands are also invited to join the event. Other uses The Nippon Budokan is the primary setting of the 1989 fighting game Budokan: The Martial Spirit. Players train in various Japanese martial arts, and must then face off at the Budokan arena against computer-controlled opponents. A fictional concert hall based on Nippon Budokan appeared in the music video game Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock (2007) under the name "Kaiju Megadome". The Beatles' appearance at Nippon Budokan was featured in The Beatles: Rock Band (2009). Another fictional hall based on the Nippon Budokan appeared in the Japanese pro-wrestling video game Virtual Pro Wrestling 2: Ōdō Keishō'' (2000). See also List of indoor arenas in Japan References External links Nippon Budokan official website Nippon Budokan Map 1964 Summer Olympics official report. Volume 1. Part 1. pp. 128–30. Basketball venues in Japan Sports venues in Tokyo Culture in Tokyo Indoor arenas in Japan Music venues in Tokyo Dōjō Sports venues completed in 1964 Venues of the 1964 Summer Olympics Venues of the 2020 Summer Olympics Olympic judo venues Olympic karate venues Boxing venues in Japan Buildings and structures in Chiyoda, Tokyo 1964 establishments in Japan

263480

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deviation

Deviation

Deviation may refer to: Mathematics and engineering Allowance (engineering), an engineering and machining allowance is a planned deviation between an actual dimension and a nominal or theoretical dimension, or between an intermediate-stage dimension and an intended final dimension. Deviation (statistics), the difference between the value of an observation and the mean of the population in mathematics and statistics Standard deviation, which is based on the square of the difference Absolute deviation, where the absolute value of the difference is used Relative standard deviation, in probability theory and statistics is the absolute value of the coefficient of variation Deviation of a local ring in mathematics Deviation of a poset in mathematics Frequency deviation, the maximum allowed "distance" in FM radio from the nominal frequency a station broadcasts at Magnetic deviation, the error induced in compasses by local magnetic fields Albums Deviation (Jayne County album), 1995 Deviation (Béla Fleck album), 1984 Other uses Bid‘ah, Islamic term for innovations and deviations acts or groups from orthodox Islamic law (Sharia). Deviance (sociology), a behavior that is a recognized violation of social norms Deviation (2006 film), a short film Deviation (2012 film), a British thriller film starring Danny Dyer Deviation (law) is a departure from a contract or a ship's course, thus breaching the contract Deviationism, an expressed belief which is not in accordance with official party doctrine A work of art in the online community DeviantArt See also Deviance (disambiguation) Deviant (disambiguation) Devious (disambiguation)

263481

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Noonan%20%28Fine%20Gael%20politician%29

Michael Noonan (Fine Gael politician)

Michael Noonan (born 21 May 1943) is an Irish former Fine Gael politician who served as Minister for Finance from 2011 to 2017, Leader of the Opposition and Leader of Fine Gael from 2001 to 2002, Minister for Health from 1994 to 1997, Minister for Industry and Commerce from 1986 to 1987, Minister for Energy from January 1987 to March 1987 and Minister for Justice from 1982 to 1986. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1981 to 2020. Noonan had been a member of every Fine Gael cabinet since 1982, serving in the cabinets of Garret FitzGerald, John Bruton and Enda Kenny. During these terms of office he held the positions of Justice, Energy, Industry and Commerce, Health and Finance. When Fine Gael lost power after the 1997 general election, Noonan remained an important figure in the party when he became Opposition Spokesperson for Finance. He succeeded John Bruton as Leader of Fine Gael and Leader of the Opposition in 2001, however, he resigned following Fine Gael's disastrous showing at the 2002 general election. After eight years as a backbencher, during which time he served as Chairman of the Public Accounts Committee, Fine Gael leader Enda Kenny appointed Noonan to his front bench in 2010, to his former portfolio of Spokesperson for Finance. Early life The son of a local school teacher, Noonan was born in Limerick in 1943, but raised in Loughill, County Limerick. He was educated at the local National School and St. Patrick's Secondary School in Glin, before studying to be a primary school teacher at St. Patrick's College, Drumcondra, Dublin. He subsequently completed a BA and H.Dip. in English and Economics at University College Dublin. He began to work as a secondary school teacher in Dublin. Noonan developed an interest in politics from his mother, whose family had been heavily involved in Fine Gael at local level in Limerick, and joined the Dublin branch of the party after graduating from university. He returned to Limerick in the late 1960s, where he took up a teaching post at Crescent College. Here he continued his involvement in politics, canvassing for the Fine Gael candidate, James O'Higgins, in the Limerick East by-election in 1968, caused by the death of Donogh O'Malley. Political career Early years: 1974–1982 Having been involved in the local Fine Gael organisation in Limerick since the late 1960s, Noonan first held political office in 1974, when he was elected as a member of Limerick County Council. Having built up a local profile he contested the 1981 general election for the party and secured a seat in Limerick East. Upon taking his Dáil seat, Noonan became a full-time politician, giving up his teaching post and resigning his seat on Limerick County Council. Though Fine Gael formed a coalition government with the Labour Party, Noonan, as a first time TD, remained on the backbenches. Cabinet minister: 1982–1987 Fine Gael lost power following the first general election in early 1982, however, Noonan subsequently joined the party's new front bench as Spokesperson for Education. A second general election in late 1982 following the collapse of the Fianna Fáil government, saw another Fine Gael-Labour Party coalition come to power. Just eighteen months after entering the Dáil, Noonan was appointed to the highly sensitive position of Minister for Justice. After a few weeks in office he revealed the illegal phone-tapping of journalists' phones, carried out by the previous Fianna Fáil administration that preceded it in power. That government had authorised illegal phone tapping of the journalists Geraldine Kennedy, Bruce Arnold and Vincent Browne. Seán Doherty signed warrants for the taps while serving as Minister for Justice. Noonan quickly earned a reputation as a tough and uncompromising Minister, regarded by many as one of the best incumbents of the position. His successes included the introduction of a new Criminal Justice Bill while also bringing in reforms in the Garda Síochána, the courts and the prison service and the facing down of a difficult prison officers' dispute. He also dealt with the wording of the controversial abortion referendum in 1983. Noonan, however, also presided over the justice ministry when inmates in an overcrowded and understaffed Spike Island prison set fire to the building. A cabinet reshuffle in 1986, saw Noonan demoted to the position of Minister for Industry and Commerce. Following the withdrawal of the Labour Party from government in 1987, Noonan also briefly took office as Minister for Energy. Opposition: 1987–1994 Fine Gael lost power following the 1987 general election and were confined to the opposition benches. The new Fine Gael leader, Alan Dukes, appointed Noonan to the senior position of front bench Spokesperson for Finance and the Public Service. The party did poorly under Dukes and he was replaced by John Bruton in 1990. Noonan was retained on the new front bench, however, he was demoted to the position of Spokesperson for Transport, Energy and Communications. In 1991, he returned to local politics as a member of Limerick County Council, serving again until 1994. Noonan's period in opposition often saw him at odds with his party leader. Not long after his demotion as Spokesperson for Finance, he announced that he would be taking "positions of leadership" on a wide range of important issues. This was seen as a veiled threat to John Bruton's leadership, with Noonan positioning himself as an alternative party leader. In 1994, a number of Fine Gael TDs attempted to oust Bruton as party leader following poor showings in opinion polls. Noonan aligned himself with the rebels and stated that he would stand for the leadership should Bruton be defeated. The latter survived as leader and Noonan resigned from the front bench. Minister for Health: 1994–1997 In 1994, the 'Rainbow Coalition' was formed and Noonan became Minister for Health. The Department of Health was embroiled in a scandal at the time regarding blood products contaminated with Hepatitis C virus, caused by the negligence of the Blood Transfusion Service Board. Noonan consistently held an authoritarian line on the case of Brigid McCole and would not budge on his views, suffering as a result of the scandal. He threatened to take Bridget's mother Ellen to the Supreme Court, when she wondered why her daughter had contracted the disease. Noonan was forced to establish the Hepatitis C Tribunal of Inquiry and to issue several apologies for his handling of the affair. Noonan remained as Minister for Health until the 1997 general election. The Irish Times said "the woman involved had been infected by a negligent State agency, in the biggest health scandal since its foundation." When RTÉ broadcast a drama, No Tears, on Noonan's treatment of Bridget McCole, Justine McCarthy wrote in the Irish Independent that Noonan "compounded the perception of a heartless pedant by whingeing about the way he was depicted in the drama's final episode, broadcast on the same night that he declined to appear on Questions & Answers and when it was reported that yet another woman who was infected by the State had died from the illness." His home was picketed by anti-abortion campaign group Youth Defence. Return to Opposition: 1997–2011 Leader of Fine Gael: 2001–2002 Despite increasing their seats to 54, Fine Gael returned to opposition and Noonan became Opposition Spokesman for Finance following the 1997 general election. In 2001, following a series of disastrous opinion polls, Noonan and his colleague, Jim Mitchell, tabled a motion of no confidence in the leader, John Bruton. The motion was successful in ousting Bruton as leader, with Noonan becoming leader of Fine Gael and Leader of the Opposition with Mitchell becoming deputy leader. Noonan avoided requests to be interviewed on TV and radio programmes, including some on RTÉ and Today FM, ahead of the leadership election. At the 2002 general election, Fine Gael had a disastrous result, dropping from 54 seats to 31 and a number of high-profile front bench member losses, including Alan Dukes, Deirdre Clune, Alan Shatter and deputy leader Jim Mitchell. Noonan resigned as Fine Gael leader on the night of the election. TD: 2002–2011 He was replaced by Enda Kenny, the runner-up to Noonan in the 2001 leadership election. However, Noonan remained as a TD, and was re-elected at the 2007 general election, and went on to serve on Kenny's Front bench. He was vice-chairperson of the Joint Oireachtas Committee on Constitutional Amendment and Children. Minister for Finance: 2011–2017 In July 2010, Noonan was promoted to the Fine Gael Front Bench as Spokesperson for Finance. In an August 2010 interview with the Sunday Independent, Noonan said he hoped to become Minister for Finance. At the 2011 general election, he was re-elected as a TD for Limerick City, receiving 13,291 (30.8% 1st preference) votes. On 9 March 2011, he was appointed Minister for Finance by Taoiseach Enda Kenny. In March 2011, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the European Union (EU) backed the proposed programme for government and gave the coalition the green light to make changes to the terms of the multibillion-euro bailout. After meeting officials from the IMF – including Ireland mission head Ajai Chopra – European Central Bank (ECB) and European Commission (EC), Noonan said it was agreed the terms of the rescue deal would be altered, as long as the financial targets remain the same. "What was being discussed in general terms was our proposal that the conditions and the memorandum of understanding would be changed for alternative conditions which are in the programme for government," Noonan said. In July 2011, Noonan speaking after an EU summit on 21 July said that the new deal agreed with euro zone leaders means a second bailout for Ireland is "off the table". The deal will see a reduction in the interest rate on bailout loans to Greece, Ireland, Portugal and Italy. This followed a 10-hour emergency summit at which eurozone leaders agreed to provide a second international bailout worth €109 billion to Greece. The plan will be funded by eurozone countries, the proceeds of privatisations and the anticipated €12.6 billion benefit of a debt buyback programme. Noonan said a provision in the agreement meant Ireland would not have to go back to markets when the programme ended if the country had not reached its deficit target. "There's a commitment that if countries continue to fulfil the conditions of their programme, the European authorities will continue to supply them with money even when the programme concludes," he said. There would be "little or no easing" of budgetary conditions for this year, but there could be more positive implications in later years. "I'm afraid we still have to face the music in December," he said. In November 2011, he said the payment of more than €700 million to Anglo Irish Bank bondholders was "the lesser of two evils". On 16 May 2012, Noonan caused controversy with his Greek "holidays" and "feta cheese" comment at a breakfast briefing with Bloomberg news agency. Noonan said these were the only links between Ireland and Greece. He attended the 2012 Bilderberg Conference in his capacity of Minister for Finance at Chantilly, Virginia, from 31 May-3 June 2012. On 5 December 2012, he delivered his second budget as Minister for Finance, which included a new property tax to be introduced in 2013. In February 2013, a deal was reached with the European Central Bank (ECB) in relation to the promissory note used to bail out the former Anglo Irish Bank. Noonan said that the government had achieved its objectives in the negotiations with the ECB, and that the arrangement meant that there would be €1bn less taken from them in terms of taxes and spending cuts up to 2015. Noonan said that the government did not ask for a write down on the Anglo Irish debt during negotiations with the ECB as "the ECB does not do write downs". On 15 October 2013, he delivered the budget for 2014. Following improvements in Ireland's unemployment rate and outlook for growth, the securing of the February 2013 Anglo Irish Bank promissory note deal with the European Central Bank, and Ireland's exit from the EU/IMF/ECB bailout programme and successful return to the bond markets, Noonan was named Europe's best Finance Minister for the previous year in January 2014 by the Financial Times-owned magazine The Banker. When the European Central Bank raised the limit on the amount of emergency liquidity assistance (ELA) available to Greek banks by about €2 billion at the height of the country's government-debt crisis in June 2015, Noonan joined his German counterpart Wolfgang Schäuble in arguing forcefully for limits on the amount of ELA approved by the central bank unless capital controls were introduced. In July 2016, the Central Statistics Office announced 2015 Irish GDP growth of 26.3% and Irish GNP growth of 18.7%. The growth became known internationally by the pejorative term, leprechaun economics. Noonan attributed the figures to multinational restructuring following the closure of the double Irish tax scheme, however they were subsequently attributed to Apple in 2018 (widely suspected in 2016). Noonan came to the defense of Apple when the European Commission announced in August 2016 that it had found against Apple in its investigation of illegal State aid. Noonan led the rejection of any claim by Ireland to the EU Commission's €13 billion fine on Apple, calling it an "attack" by the commission, and was supported by the main opposition party. In October 2016, Noonan introduced changes in the 2016 Finance Act to curb tax abuses of section 110 special purpose vehicles, (securitisation vehicles for IFSC firms), by US distressed debt funds in Ireland (pejoratively called vulture funds in the Irish media). Investigations into these abuses by the financial media, showed the scale and rapid gains these funds were making from NAMA's disposal program, and that these gains were free of Irish taxes. It led to some revision as to whether Noonan had been too quick in selling State assets to distressed debt funds, and had given overly generous tax benefits and incentives. Retirement In May 2017, he announced he would be stepping down as Minister for Finance in the coming weeks when a new Taoiseach was appointed, and as a member of the Dáil at the next general election. Personal life Noonan married Florence Knightley, a native of Castlemaine, County Kerry and a primary school teacher, in 1969. They had three sons: Tim, John and Michael, and two daughters: Orla and Deirdre. In May 2010, Noonan appeared on RTÉ's The Frontline to talk about his wife's battle with Alzheimer's disease. Florence Noonan died on 23 February 2012 of pneumonia. See also EU illegal State aid case against Apple in Ireland References External links Michael Noonan's page on the Fine Gael website Michael Noonan's file at Limerick City Library, Ireland |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- 1943 births Alumni of St Patrick's College, Dublin Alumni of University College Dublin Fine Gael TDs Irish schoolteachers Leaders of Fine Gael Living people Local councillors in County Limerick Members of the 22nd Dáil Members of the 23rd Dáil Members of the 24th Dáil Members of the 25th Dáil Members of the 26th Dáil Members of the 27th Dáil Members of the 28th Dáil Members of the 29th Dáil Members of the 30th Dáil Members of the 31st Dáil Members of the 32nd Dáil Ministers for Finance (Ireland) Ministers for Health (Ireland) Politicians from County Limerick Post-2008 Irish economic downturn Ministers for Enterprise, Trade and Employment

263483

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BNSF%20Railway

BNSF Railway

BNSF Railway is one of the largest freight railroads in North America. One of eight North American Class I railroads, BNSF has 35,000 employees, of track in 28 states, and nearly 8,000 locomotives. It has three transcontinental routes that provide rail connections between the western and eastern United States. BNSF trains traveled over in 2010, more than any other North American railroad. The BNSF Railway Company is the principal operating subsidiary of parent company Burlington Northern Santa Fe, LLC. Headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, the railroad's parent company is a wholly owned subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway, Inc., of Omaha, Nebraska. The current CEO is Kathryn Farmer. According to corporate press releases, the BNSF Railway is among the top transporters of intermodal freight in North America. It also hauls bulk cargo, including enough coal to generate around 25% of the electricity produced in the United States. The creation of BNSF started with the formation of a holding company on September 22, 1995. This new holding company purchased the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway (often called the "Santa Fe") and Burlington Northern Railroad, and formally merged the railways into the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway on December 31, 1996. On January 24, 2005, the railroad's name was officially changed to BNSF Railway Company using the initials of its original name. On November 3, 2009, Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway announced it would acquire the remaining 77.4 percent of BNSF it did not already own for $100 per share in cash and stock—a deal valued at $44 billion. The company is investing an estimated $34 billion in BNSF and acquiring $10 billion in debt. On February 12, 2010, shareholders of Burlington Northern Santa Fe Corporation voted in favor of the acquisition. BNSF and its chief competitor, the Union Pacific Railroad, have a duopoly on all transcontinental freight rail lines in the Western, Midwestern and Southern United States and share trackage rights over thousands of miles of track. History BNSF's history dates back to 1849, when the Aurora Branch Railroad in Illinois and the Pacific Railroad of Missouri were formed. The Aurora Branch eventually grew into the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, (CB&Q), a major component of successor Burlington Northern. A portion of the Pacific Railroad became the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway (Frisco). The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway (ATSF) was chartered in 1859. It built one of the first transcontinental railroads in North America, linking Chicago and Southern California; major branches led to Texas, Denver, and San Francisco. The Interstate Commerce Commission denied a proposed merger with the Southern Pacific Transportation Company in the 1980s. The Burlington Northern Railroad (BN) was created in 1970 through the consolidation of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, the Great Northern Railway, the Northern Pacific Railway and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway. It absorbed the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway (Frisco) in 1980. Its main lines included Chicago-Seattle with branches to Texas (ex-Burlington) and Birmingham, Alabama (ex-Frisco), and access to the low-sulfur coal of Wyoming's Powder River Basin. BN-ATSF merger On June 30, 1994, BN and ATSF announced plans to merge; they were the largest and smallest (by track mileage) of the "Super Seven," the seven largest of the then-twelve U.S. Class I railroads. The long-rumored announcement was delayed by a disagreement over the disposition of Santa Fe Pacific Gold Corporation, a gold mining subsidiary that ATSF agreed to sell to stockholders. This announcement began the next wave of mergers, as the "Super Seven" were merged down to four in the next five years. The Illinois Central Railroad and Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS), two of the five "small" Class Is, announced on July 19 that the former would buy the latter, but this plan was called off on October 25. The Union Pacific Railroad (UP), another major Western system, started a bidding war with BN for control of the SF on October 5. The UP gave up on January 31, 1995, paving the way for the BN-ATSF merger. Subsequently, the UP acquired the Southern Pacific Transportation Company (SP) in 1996, and Eastern systems CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern Railway split Conrail in 1999. On February 7, 1995, BN and ATSF heads Gerald Grinstein and Robert D. Krebs both announced that shareholders had approved the plan, which would save overhead costs and combine BN's coal and ATSF's intermodal strengths. Although the two systems complemented each other with little overlap, in contrast to the Santa Fe-Southern Pacific merger, which failed because it would have eliminated competition in many areas of the Southwest, BN and ATSF came to agreements with most other Class I's to keep them from opposing the merger. UP was satisfied with a single segment of trackage rights from Abilene, Kansas, to Superior, Nebraska, which BN and ATSF had both served. KCS gained haulage rights to several Midwest locations, including Omaha, East St. Louis, and Memphis, in exchange for BNSF getting similar access to New Orleans. SP, initially requesting far-reaching trackage rights throughout the West, soon agreed on a reduced plan, whereby SP acquired trackage rights on ATSF for intermodal and automotive traffic to Chicago, and other trackage rights on ATSF in Kansas, south to Texas, and between Colorado and Texas. In exchange, SP assigned BNSF trackage rights over the former Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad between El Paso and Topeka and haulage rights to the Mexican border at Eagle Pass, Texas. Regional Toledo, Peoria and Western Railway also obtained trackage rights over BN from Peoria to Galesburg, Illinois, a BN hub where it could interchange with SP (which had rights on BN dating from 1990). The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) approved the BNSF merger on July 20, 1995 (with final approval on August 23), less than a month before UP announced on August 3 that it would acquire SP. Parents Burlington Northern Inc. and Santa Fe Pacific Corporation were acquired on September 22, 1995, by the new Burlington Northern Santa Fe Corporation. The merger of the operating companies was held up by issues with unions; ATSF merged on December 31, 1996, into BN, which was renamed the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway Company. Effect of UP-SP merger Union Pacific's merger with Southern Pacific further enlarged the combined BNSF network. Unlike BN and ATSF, UP and SP had significant overlap, where the end of competition between the two risked creating a monopoly for freight carriage in much of the West. UP and BNSF announced in late September 1995 that, in exchange for BNSF not opposing the merger, it would obtain ownership of of line and about of trackage rights to reach these "two-to-one" shippers. Significant additions included rights over SP's Central Corridor from Denver via the Moffat Tunnel and Salt Lake City, and over Donner Pass, to the San Francisco Bay Area, with an alternate route through the Feather River Canyon along UP. The ATSF trackage in California's Central Valley was linked to BN's line into Oregon, through trackage rights over UP between Stockton and Keddie and acquisition of UP's section of the "Inside Gateway" to the beginning of BN trackage at Bieber. In Texas, BNSF received rights in several directions from the Houston area: west over UP to San Antonio, with a branch to Waco, and continuing over SP to Eagle Pass (replacing the haulage rights they had just obtained); south over UP to Brownsville; east over SP to New Orleans (including the purchase of this line east of Lake Charles); and northeast over SP to Memphis with a branch on UP to Little Rock. Ownership of a short connection between Waxahachie and Dallas also went from UP to BNSF. UP, in return, got a few short sections of trackage rights over BNSF, mainly connecting the SP at Chemult to the UP at Bend, Oregon, and connecting the SP at Mojave, California with existing UP rights on ATSF at Barstow, California. On April 18, 1996, UP, BNSF, and the Chemical Manufacturers Association entered into an agreement giving BNSF rights over the UP line between Houston and East St. Louis, paralleling the Houston-Memphis SP line, and allowing BNSF to participate in the UP's plan for directional running, in which each line would serve through trains in only one direction. The Surface Transportation Board, successor to the ICC, approved the UP-SP merger on July 3, and UP control of SP took effect on September 11, 1996. BNSF trackage rights operations began on the Central Corridor on October 10, and soon thereafter on other lines. BNSF continued projects started by its predecessors, most notably BN's work on reopening Stampede Pass. BN had closed Stampede Pass, the Northern Pacific Railway's main line across Washington, in 1984, in favor of the ex-Great Northern Railway's Stevens Pass. BN never abandoned the line and began rehabilitating it in early 1996, and the route reopened in early December, relieving the crowded Stevens Pass. The ex-ATSF main line, now known as the Southern Transcon, has also seen steady work to add tracks, giving BNSF more capacity on this major intermodal route. Attempted merger with CN On December 20, 1999, BNSF and the recently privatized Canadian National Railway announced plans (STB Finance Docket No. 33842 ) to combine as subsidiaries of a new holding company, North American Railways, which would control about of railroad. With CN's lines located primarily in Canada and, through subsidiary Illinois Central Railroad, on a north–south corridor near BNSF's eastern edge, the two systems had little overlap. The combination would have benefited both companies by expanding available cash for capacity improvements, and allowing for longer single-system movements. Shippers and the Surface Transportation Board expressed concern and surprise about the timing, since the merger that produced BNSF had been the only one in the 1990s that did not cause severe deterioration in service. The STB imposed on March 17, 2000, a 15-month moratorium (STB Ex Parte No. 582 ) on mergers involving any two Class I railroads, citing widespread opposition not only to the merger but its effects, likely starting the final round of mergers into two big systems. BNSF and CN immediately turned to the U.S. Court of Appeals, which on July 14 ruled that the STB's right to regulate mergers allowed a moratorium, and the two railroads called off the merger. The STB released its final rules (STB Ex Parte No. 582 (Sub-No. 1) ) on June 11, 2001, requiring any new application to merge two Class I railroads, with the exception of smaller Kansas City Southern Railway, to demonstrate that competition would be preserved and address effects of defensive moves by other carriers. Since then, no Class I mergers have taken place. Acquisition by Berkshire Hathaway On November 3, 2009, Warren Buffett said Berkshire Hathaway would buy BNSF for $44 billion. The acquisition was approved by the boards of both companies and was approved by BNSF shareholders on February 12, 2010. Operations Markets and services With BNSF's large system, it hauls many different commodities, most notably coal and grain, as well as intermodal freight. Predecessor Burlington Northern Railroad (BN) entered Wyoming's low-sulfur coal-rich Powder River Basin in the 1970s through construction of the Powder River Basin Joint Line with Union Pacific Railroad predecessor Chicago and North Western Transportation Company. Coal goes north in unit trains on the three-to-four-track Joint Line to Gillette or south to Orin, where older BN lines and other railroads take it in all directions to coal-burning power plants. BNSF serves over 1,500 grain elevators, located mostly in the Midwest on former BN lines. Depending on where the markets are, this grain may move in any direction in unit trains, or wait in silos for demand to rise. Most commonly, grain may move west on the Northern Transcon to the Pacific Northwest and its export terminals, or south to ports in Texas and the Gulf of Mexico. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway's main contribution to BNSF was the Southern Transcon, a fast intermodal corridor connecting Southern California and Chicago. Most traffic is either trailers of trucking companies such as intermodal partner J. B. Hunt, or containers from the Ports of Long Beach and Los Angeles. The latter begins its trip on the triple-track Alameda Corridor, shared with the Union Pacific Railroad, and then follows BNSF rails from downtown Los Angeles. Its route, the Southern Transcon, has been almost completely double-tracked, and triple-tracking has begun in areas such as Cajon Pass. BNSF transports Boeing 737 fuselages from the Wichita, Kansas plant to Renton, Washington. Finances Trackage The BNSF Railway directly owns and operates track in 28 U.S. states: Alabama, Florida, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. The railway also operates a small amount of track in Canada, including an approximate section that runs from the U.S.-Canada border to Vancouver, British Columbia, some tracks and a yard in Winnipeg, Manitoba, approximately of joint track with the Canadian National Railway, which runs south to the U.S. border at Emerson, Manitoba, and less than a kilometer of trackage at the border in Northgate, Saskatchewan. For administrative purposes, BNSF is divided into two regions and ten operating divisions. The North Region includes the Montana, Northwest, Twin Cities, Heartland and Powder River divisions. The South Region includes the Red River, California, Chicago, Kansas and Southwest divisions. Each division is further divided into subdivisions, which represent segments of track ranging from mainlines to branch-lines. The former Texas and Gulf divisions were combined into the Red River Division, and the former Springfield and Nebraska divisions were combined into the Heartland Division, in the spring of 2016. Not including second, third and fourth main-line trackage, yard trackage, and siding trackage, BNSF directly owns and operates over of track. When these additional tracks are counted, the length of track which the railway directly controls rises to more than . Additionally, BNSF Railway has gained trackage rights on more than of track throughout the United States and Canada. These rights allow the BNSF to operate its own trains with its own crews on competing railroads' main tracks. BNSF locomotives also occasionally show up on competitors' tracks throughout the United States and Canada by way of leases, mileage equalizations, and other contractual arrangements. Yards and facilities BNSF operates various facilities all over the United States, plus a yard in Winnipeg, to support its transportation system. Facilities operated by the railway include yards and terminals throughout its rail network, system locomotive shops to perform locomotive service and maintenance, a centralized operations center for train dispatching and network operations monitoring in Fort Worth, and regional dispatching centers. BNSF Railway also operates numerous transfer facilities throughout the western United States to facilitate the transfer of intermodal containers, trailers, and other freight traffic. BNSF Railway has direct control over a total of 33 intermodal hubs and 23 automotive distribution facilities. The BNSF mechanical division operates 13 locomotive maintenance facilities that perform preventive maintenance, repairs and servicing of equipment. The largest of these facilities are located in Alliance, Nebraska and Argentine Kansas City Kansas. The mechanical division also controls 46 additional facilities responsible for car maintenance and daily running repairs. The BNSF system mechanical division, a subset of the mechanical division, operates two maintenance-of-way work equipment shops, responsible for performing repairs and preventive maintenance to BNSF's track and equipment, in Brainerd, Minnesota and Galesburg, Illinois. The system mechanical division also operates the Western Fruit Express Company's refrigerated car repair shop in Spokane, Washington. Large freight car hump yards are located throughout the BNSF system. Barstow, California – Barstow Yard Galesburg, Illinois – Galesburg Yard Kansas City, Kansas – Argentine Yard Memphis, Tennessee – Tennessee Yard Minneapolis, Minnesota – Northtown Yard Pasco, Washington – Pasco Yard Seattle, Washington – Balmer Yard Tulsa, Oklahoma – Cherokee Yard Lincoln, Nebraska – Hobson Yard Location of some intermodal yards: Cicero, Illinois – Chicago Cicero Chicago, Illinois – Corwith Intermodal Facility Commerce, California Edgerton, Kansas – Logistics Park Kansas City Elwood, Illinois – Logistics Park Chicago Hodgkins, Illinois – Willow Springs Intermodal Facility Haslet, Texas – Alliance Yard Los Angeles, California – Hobart Yard Memphis, Tennessee Oakland, California – Oakland International Gateway Seattle, Washington – Seattle International Gateway (SIG) Intermodal Facility Routes The Northern Transcon runs from Seattle to Chicago. The route is a combination of parts of the old Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway. The Southern Transcon runs from Los Angeles to Chicago. The 2006 BNSF Annual Report states: "We also added about 33 miles of second main track on our main line between Chicago and Los Angeles. All but of this high-volume route were double track, as of the end of 2006. Last year, we ran 100 trains per day on this expanded main line, compared with 60 per day in 2000." Technically, it is not double tracked in mid-Kansas where two routes are used: Mulvane to Wichita to Newton to Emporia for primarily eastbound traffic; Emporia to El Dorado to Augusta to Mulvane for primarily westbound traffic. In 2008, BNSF completed nearly of a third main track through Cajon Pass in Southern California, increasing capacity on the transcontinental main route between Chicago and Los Angeles from 100 to 150 trains per day. BNSF started adding a second main track in Abo Canyon (east of Belen, New Mexico) the largest bottleneck on the Transcon with grading in 2008–2009, bridges in 2010 and signal work in late 2010 or early 2011. Approximately of rock need to be excavated, mostly by blasting. The 2008 BNSF Annual Report states: "Following completion of the Abo Canyon project scheduled in 2011, our 2,200‑mile [3,540 km] Transcontinental Corridor between Southern California and Chicago will have only about 30 miles [48 km] of single track." The Powder River Basin supplies forty percent of the coal in the United States. The 2008 BNSF Annual Report states that the quadruple track project was completed. Operating divisions The BNSF system is divided into 13 divisions grouped into three regions. Each division includes numerous subdivisions, normally comprising a single main line and branches. A fourteenth division, Colorado, has been consolidated with the Powder River Division, except for the Casper and Cody Subdivisions, which were transferred to the Montana Division. Passenger train service BNSF directly operates the BNSF Railway Line for Metra in Chicago — it is the only service which uses BNSF-supplied crews in addition to running over its rails. The company's network additionally hosts other commuter trains, including: Metrolink in Southern California, the Northstar Line in Minneapolis, and Sounder in the Puget Sound Region. The line used by New Mexico Rail Runner Express was sold to the state of New Mexico, but BNSF retained all freight rights on the line and operates freight trains as needed. Metra's cars that were originally purchased by BNSF predecessor Chicago Burlington & Quincy have letterboards above the doors. In about 2011, about 15 of the remaining cars had the original "BURLINGTON" lettering restored, while the rest now read "BNSF RAILWAY". Other Metra cars assigned to BNSF have the current BNSF "swoosh" logo next to the door. Many Amtrak routes use BNSF rails: the Amtrak Cascades, California Zephyr, Carl Sandburg, Coast Starlight, Empire Builder, Heartland Flyer, Illinois Zephyr, Lincoln Service, Pacific Surfliner, San Joaquin, Southwest Chief, Sunset Limited, and Texas Eagle. After the 2015 Oxnard train derailment, BNSF loaned 40 of their AC4400CWs to Metrolink while their Rotem cab cars received upgrades. These 40 units were converted to PTC. The locomotives have since been returned after the cab cars went back into service. Although it does not have a steam program like the Union Pacific, the BNSF has allowed for the Southern Pacific 4449, St. Louis–San Francisco 1522, Santa Fe 3751, Spokane, Portland and Seattle 700 and Milwaukee Road 261 steam locomotives to operate excursions over their rails. Safety BNSF has received E.H. Harriman Award for safety multiple times. But a number of accidents and incidents have occurred on the railway since its inception. As one of the leading supporters of the Operation Lifesaver program to promote safety at railway crossings and rights-of-way, the BNSF Railway, in 2000, established a grade-crossing closure program. This program, in which BNSF works with communities and landowners to identify unnecessary or redundant crossings, has helped close more than 2,900 of BNSF's railway crossings throughout the United States. Due to the program, BNSF has been the industry leader in lowering the number of grade-crossing collisions. BNSF contracts with News Link, a small business in Lincoln, Nebraska, to publish employee newsletters focused on safety for some of the railroad's divisions and shops. These newsletters vary in length from four to 28 pages, published ranging from monthly to quarterly. In 2014, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ordered BNSF to pay over $526,000 to workers who had been terminated in 2010 and 2011 after revealing workplace injuries at the terminal in Havre, Montana, which is in contravention of provisions of the Federal Railroad Safety Act protecting whistleblowers. In August 2016, a "huge number" of used hypodermic drug needles were found along BNSF railroad bridge in between the University Park and St. Johns neighborhoods of Portland, Oregon that has become an encampment for unhoused individuals. According to a conductor quoted by The Oregonian "Pretty much see people down there at all hours of the night. We report them but nobody does anything." Equipment According to the 2007 BNSF Annual Report, at the end of 2007 the railway had more than 40,000 employees; 6,400 locomotives (8,359 as of 2018); and 85,338 freight cars (72,369 as of 2018). Broken down by specific kind of car, the BNSF owned: 36,439 covered hoppers 13,690 gondolas 11,428 open hoppers 10,470 flatcars 7,948 boxcars 4,196 refrigerated "reefer" cars 427 tank cars 416 automobile carriers 81 private/business cars 324 "other" types of cars In addition, the railroad also owned: 3,253 domestic containers 11,714 domestic chassis (Swap body) (?) 4,070 company service vehicles 1,200 trailers 163 commuter passenger cars At the end of 2007, the average age (from date of manufacture) was 15 years for the BNSF's locomotive fleet and 14 years for the freight car fleet. On January 24, 2006, BNSF announced a US$2.4 billion program of infrastructure upgrades for 2006. The upgrade program includes: double- and triple-tracking of track and a second mainline track through New Mexico's Abo Canyon on the former ATSF transcontinental line; expanding the Lincoln, Nebraska, classification yard and double- and triple-tracking of track in Wyoming's Powder River Basin region; expansions at eight of the railroad's larger intermodal facilities, and extending many sidings and expanding and improving refueling facilities. In making the announcement, BNSF chairman Matthew K. Rose cited improvements in the company's return on invested capital, and expressed hope for continued improvement. In March, 2008, the railroad was completing the triple-tracking of Cajon Pass in California, creating four tracks through the pass—three BNSF (former Santa Fe and newly installed) and one Union Pacific (former Southern Pacific). Paint schemes The assortment of colors used on the BNSF Railway over the years has made it one of the most colorful Class I railroads in North America. Most of BNSF's high-horsepower road locomotives are painted in "Heritage" schemes – primarily based on BN predecessor Great Northern Railway's colors of Omaha Orange and Pullman Green, with yellow striping and silver underframes. Since 2005, BNSF's locomotives feature black instead of dark green paint, reminiscent of the original 1970 Burlington Northern scheme. Most of BNSF's BN-ordered SD70MAC's still bear the Executive colors of Grinstein green and cream. Several ex-ATSF C44-9W's still retain their red-and-silver Warbonnet colors, and a large portion of EMD and GE yard power are still in their original BN Cascade Green or ATSF Yellowbonnet schemes. Though, gradually, that is starting to change, as many of these units are now either being retired, or rebuilt, upgraded and repainted in the “Heritage III” and “Heritage IV” schemes, respectively. More information on those paint schemes below. The first locomotive to bear BNSF lettering was BN SD70MAC No. 9647, introduced in late August 1995, just as the Interstate Commerce Commission was approving the merger. VMV Enterprises in Paducah, Kentucky painted it in a one-of-a-kind "commemorative" scheme, combining Santa Fe's "Warbonnet" with BN's "Executive" colors of dark "Grinstein green" and cream (instead of SF's red and silver). "BNSF" replaced "SANTA FE" on the front of the unit, and "Burlington Northern Santa Fe" was painted on the side. Dubbed as "Premium Heritage," the paint scheme was widely rejected by the public, and was often called the "Vomit Bonnet" and the "Barfbonnet." In the spring of 2013, this unit was sent to Relco in Albia, Iowa, to be repainted into the current BNSF Heritage III scheme. By January 1996, BNSF had begun painting locomotives originally ordered for BN and ATSF patched with “BNSF” on the front and sides. Then, in late May, the company introduced a new design on BN SD60M 9297 (then 8197 and now 1474), painted mainly in BN predecessor Great Northern Railway's pre-1967 colors of orange and dark "Pullman green," but also incorporating red and silver, and said to represent all major BN predecessors and Santa Fe. On the front was a new logo, placing "Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway" in the Santa Fe cross. Some of the striping details were different on each side, and employees voted for the simpler right-side design, which, with some minor changes, became the new scheme, replacing the BN colors. However, president and CEO Robert Krebs said the railroad was big enough for two designs, and Santa Fe's "Warbonnet" (with "BNSF" instead of "Santa Fe" on the front) remained alongside the new "Heritage I" scheme. On January 24, 2005, as part of its tenth anniversary celebration, the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway was renamed BNSF Railway, which adopted a new logo. By March, the logo had been applied to the sides and fronts of six ES44DCs, which were otherwise painted in the "Heritage II" scheme, except with black replacing dark green. Slight differences were present on the six locomotives, and on April 11 BNSF officially chose the design it had applied to No. 7701. The "New Image" scheme is also referred to as "Heritage III", the "Nike Swoosh" scheme or simply the "Swoosh" scheme. Some railfans also refer to the logo as "The Wedge" scheme. Since 2006, BNSF's locomotives designated for yard work or local trains have been painted in the "Heritage IV" scheme. Somewhat of a simplified form of the "Heritage III" scheme, "Heritage IV" is virtually identical to the original "Heritage I" scheme, albeit with black instead of dark green, and the current "Nike Swoosh" BNSF logo. Locomotives such as SD40-2's, GP38's, GP60M's and SD60M's have been painted in this scheme. In October 2017 nine GE B40-8W locomotives rebuilt by GE were painted into this scheme. See also BNSF Railway Police, the law enforcement agency responsible for policing BNSF trackage and property Burlington Northern Santa Fe Manitoba, a subsidiary of BNSF, located in Winnipeg, Manitoba Notes References BNSF Railway (January 24, 2005), BNSF Adopts New Corporate and Subsidiary Logos and Changes Name of Railway Subsidiary as Part of Tenth Anniversary Celebration. Retrieved January 25, 2005. BNSF Railway (February 9, 2005), Port of Los Angeles begins discussions with BNSF Railway Company on new intermodal facility. Retrieved February 10, 2005. External links BNSF Railway SEC Filings Berkshire Hathaway Companies based in Fort Worth, Texas Transportation in Fort Worth, Texas Alabama railroads Arizona railroads Arkansas railroads California railroads British Columbia railways Colorado railroads Idaho railroads Iowa railroads Kansas railroads Kentucky railroads Louisiana railroads Manitoba railways Minnesota railroads Mississippi railroads Missouri railroads Montana railroads Nebraska railroads Nevada railroads New Mexico railroads North Dakota railroads Oklahoma railroads Oregon railroads South Dakota railroads Tennessee railroads Texas railroads Utah railroads Washington (state) railroads Wisconsin railroads Wyoming railroads Railroads in the Chicago metropolitan area Companies operating former Canadian Pacific Railway lines Companies operating former Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad lines Companies operating former Chicago and North Western Transportation Company lines Companies operating former Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad lines Companies operating former Illinois Central Railroad lines Companies operating former Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad lines Companies operating former Southern Pacific Transportation Company lines Companies operating former Western Pacific Railroad lines Economy of the Western United States Class I railroads in North America Railway companies established in 1996 1996 establishments in North America American companies established in 1996 Illinois railroads

263484

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Dillon%20%28Fine%20Gael%20politician%29

James Dillon (Fine Gael politician)

James Matthew Dillon (26 September 1902 – 10 February 1986) was an Irish Fine Gael politician who served as Leader of the Opposition and Leader of Fine Gael from 1959 to 1965 and Minister for Agriculture from 1948 to 1951 and 1954 to 1957. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1932 to 1969. Early life Dillon was born in Dublin. He was the son of John Dillon, the last leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party (1918), and Elizabeth Mathew. He was educated at Mount St Benedict's, in Gorey, County Wexford, University College Galway and King's Inns. He qualified as a barrister and was called to the Bar in 1931. Dillon studied business methods at Selfridges in London. After some time at Marshall Field's in Chicago he returned to Ireland where he became manager of the family business known as Monica Duff's in Ballaghaderreen, County Roscommon. Political career Between 1932 and 1937, Dillon served as a TD for the Donegal constituency for the National Centre Party and after its merger with Cumann na nGaedheal, for the new party of Fine Gael. Dillon played a key role in instigating the creation of Fine Gael and would become a key member of the party in later years. He remained as TD for Monaghan from 1937 to 1969. Dillon became deputy leader of Fine Gael under W. T. Cosgrave. He temporarily resigned from Fine Gael in 1942 over its stance on Irish neutrality during World War II. While Fine Gael supported the government's decision to stay out of the war, Dillon urged the government to side with the Allies. A passionate anti-Nazi, Dillon described the Nazi creed as "the devil himself with twentieth-century efficiency". His zeal against Hitler drew him the ire of the German Minister to Ireland Eduard Hempel, who denounced him as a "Jew" and "German-hater". Even Eamonn De Valera, then Taoiseach, was not spared the fierceness of Dillon's rhetoric; when the Taoiseach ridiculed Dillon's stark support for the Allies, noting this meant he had to adopt a Pro-British stance, Dillon defiantly retorted : Dillon had a personally eventful 1942: While holidaying in Carna, County Galway he met one Maura Phelan of Clonmel on a Friday. By that Monday the two were engaged and six weeks after that the pair were married. James was 40, Maura 22 years of age. Dillon was one of the independents who supported the first inter-party government (1948–1951), and was appointed Minister for Agriculture. As Minister, Dillon was responsible for huge improvements in Irish agriculture. Money was spent on land reclamation projects in the areas of less fertile land while the overall quality of Irish agricultural produce increased. Dillon rejoined Fine Gael in 1953. He became Minister for Agriculture again in the second inter-party government (1954–1957). In 1959, Dillon became leader of Fine Gael, succeeding Richard Mulcahy. He became president of the party in 1960. In 1965, Fine Gael lost the general election to Seán Lemass and Fianna Fáil. The non-Fianna Fáil parties won 69 seats to Fianna Fáil's 72. Had the other parties won four more seats between them, they would have been able to form a government. Having narrowly failed to become Taoiseach, Dillon stood down as Fine Gael leader after the election. On Northern Ireland, while Dillon stood against Partition, he equally opposed any "armed solution" or militant nationalist policy, stating: Dillon was a colourful contributor to Dáil proceedings and was noted for his high standard of oratory. He remained a TD until 1969, when he retired from politics. He died in Dublin in 1986 at the age of 83. References Further reading Maurice Manning, James Dillon: A Biography (Wolfhound Press, 2000) 1902 births 1986 deaths Alumni of NUI Galway Irish barristers Irish farmers Leaders of Fine Gael Members of the 7th Dáil Members of the 8th Dáil Members of the 9th Dáil Members of the 10th Dáil Members of the 11th Dáil Members of the 12th Dáil Members of the 13th Dáil Members of the 14th Dáil Members of the 15th Dáil Members of the 16th Dáil Members of the 17th Dáil Members of the 18th Dáil Ministers for Agriculture (Ireland) National Centre Party (Ireland) TDs Politicians from County Dublin Presidential appointees to the Council of State (Ireland) 20th-century Irish lawyers Independent TDs Fine Gael TDs Alumni of King's Inns People from Malahide

263487

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans%20fat%20regulation

Trans fat regulation

Trans fat regulation, that aims to limit the amount of "trans fat" — fat containing trans fatty acids — in industrial food products, has been enacted in many countries. These regulations were motivated by numerous studies that pointed to significant negative health effects of trans fat. It is generally accepted that trans fat in the diet is a contributing factor in several diseases, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer. History As early as 1956, there were suggestions in the scientific literature that trans fats could be a cause of the large increase in coronary artery disease but after three decades the concerns were still largely unaddressed. Instead, by the 1980s, fats of animal origin had become one of the greatest concerns of dieticians. Activists, such as Phil Sokolof, who took out full page ads in major newspapers, attacked the use of beef tallow in McDonald's french fries and urged fast-food companies to switch to vegetable oils. The result was an almost overnight switch by most fast-food outlets to trans fats. Studies in the early 1990s, however, brought renewed scrutiny and confirmation of the negative health impact of trans fats. In 1994, it was estimated that trans fats caused 20,000 deaths annually in the United States from heart disease. Mandatory food labeling for trans fats was introduced in several countries. Campaigns were launched by activists to bring attention to the issue and change the practices of food manufacturers. In January 2007, faced with the prospect of an outright ban on the sale of their product, Crisco was reformulated to meet the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) definition of "zero grams trans fats per serving" (that is less than one gram per tablespoon, or up to 7% by weight; or less than 0.5 grams per serving size) by boosting the saturation and then diluting the resulting solid fat with unsaturated vegetable oils. International regulation The international trade in food is standardized in the Codex Alimentarius. Hydrogenated oils and fats come under the scope of Codex Stan 19. Non-dairy fat spreads are covered by Codex Stan 256-2007. In the Codex Alimentarius, trans fat to be labelled as such is defined as the geometrical isomers of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids having non-conjugated [interrupted by at least one methylene group (−CH2−)] carbon-carbon double bonds in the trans configuration. This definition excludes specifically the trans fats (vaccenic acid and conjugated linoleic acid) that are present especially in human milk, dairy products, and beef. In 2018 the World Health Organization launched a plan to eliminate trans fat from the global food supply. They estimate that trans fat leads to more than 500,000 deaths from cardiovascular disease yearly. Argentina Trans fat content labeling is required starting in August 2006. Since 2010, vegetable oils and fats sold to consumers directly must contain only 2% of trans fat over total fat, and other food must contain less than 5% of their total fat. Starting on 10 December 2014, Argentina has on effect a total ban on food with trans fat, a regulation that could save the government more than US$100 million a year on healthcare. Australia The Australian federal government has indicated that it wants to pursue actively a policy to reduce trans fats from fast foods. The former federal assistant health minister, Christopher Pyne, asked fast food outlets to reduce their trans fat use. A draft plan was proposed, with a September 2007 timetable, to reduce reliance on trans fats and saturated fats. , Australia's food labeling laws do not require trans fats to be shown separately from the total fat content. However, margarine in Australia has been mostly free of trans fat since 1996. Austria Trans fat content limited to 4% of total fat, 2% on products that contain more than 20% fat. Belgium The Conseil Supérieur de la Santé published in 2012 a science-policy advisory report on industrially produced trans fatty acids that focuses on the general population. Its recommendation to the legislature was to prohibit more than 2 g of trans fatty acids per 100 g of fat in food products. Brazil Resolution 360 of 23 December 2003 by the Brazilian ministry of health required for the first time in the country that the amount of trans fat to be specified in labels of food products. On 31 July 2006, such labelling of trans fat contents became mandatory. In 2019 Anvisa published a new legislation to reduce the total amount of trans fat in any industrialized food sold in Brazil to a maximum of 2% by the end of 2023. Canada In a process that began in 2004, Health Canada finally banned partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs), the primary source of industrially produced trans fats in foods, in September 2018. On 15 September 2017, Health Canada announced that trans fat will be completely banned effective on 15 September 2018. and the ban came into effect in September 2018, banning partially hydrogenated oils (the largest source of industrially produced trans fats in foods). It is now illegal for manufacturers to add partially hydrogenated oils to foods sold in or imported into Canada. Public perception A cross-sectional study was conducted in Regina, Saskatchewan in February 2009 at 3 different grocery stores located in 3 different regions that had the same median income before taxes of around $30,000. Of the 211 respondents to the study, most were women who purchased most of the food for their household. When asked how they decide what food to buy, the most important factors were price, nutritional value, and need. When looking at the nutritional facts, however, they indicated that they looked at the ingredients, and neglected to pay attention to the amount of trans fat. This means that trans fat is not on their minds unless they are specifically told of it. When asked if they ever heard about trans fat, 98% said, "Yes." However, only 27% said that it was unhealthy. Also, 79% said that they only knew a little about trans fats, and could have been more educated. Respondents aged 41–60 were more likely to view trans fat as a major health concern, compared to ages 18–40. When asked if they would stop buying their favorite snacks if they knew it contained trans fat, most said they would continue purchasing it, especially the younger respondents. Also, of the respondents that called trans fat a major concern, 56% of them still wouldn't change their diet to non-trans fat snacks. This is because taste and food gratification take precedence over perceived risk to health. "The consumption of trans fats and the associated increased risk of CHD is a public health concern regardless of age and socioeconomic status". Denmark In March 2003, Denmark became the first country to effectively ban artificial trans fat It limited the trans share to 2% of fats and oils destined for human consumption, a standard that partially hydrogenated oil fails. This restriction is on the ingredients rather than the final products. This regulatory approach thus made Denmark the first country in which it was possible to eat "far less" than 1 g of industrially produced trans fats daily, even with a diet including processed foods. One public health study concluded that Danish government's efforts to decrease trans fat intake from 6 g to 1 g per day over 20 years is related to a 50% decrease in deaths from ischemic heart disease. European Union In 2004, the European Food Safety Authority produced a scientific opinion on trans fatty acids, surmising that "higher intakes of TFA may increase risk for coronary heart disease". From 2 April 2021 foods in the EU intended for consumers are required to contain less than 2g of industrial trans fat per 100g of fat. Greece Law in Greece limits content of trans fats sold in school canteens to 0.1% (Ministerial Decision Υ1γ/ΓΠ/οικ 81025/ΦΕΚ 2135/τ.Β’/29-08-2013 as modified by Ministerial Decision Υ1γ/ Γ.Π/οικ 96605/ΦΕΚ 2800 τ.Β/4-11-201). Iceland Total trans fat content was limited in 2010 to 2% of total fat content. Israel Since 2014, it is obligatory to mark food products with more than 2% (by weight) fat. The nutritional facts must contain the amount of trans fats. Romania On 19 August 2020, the president promulgated Law 182/2020 that limits trans fats to 2 grams per every 100 grams of fat, max. The food producers who will not conform will be fined with a sum ranging between 10,000 and 30,000 lei. It will come into force on the 1st of April 2020, and it was initiated in 2017 by Save Romania Union senator Adrian Wiener. Saudi Arabia The Saudi Food and Drug Authority (SFDA) requires importers and manufacturer to write the trans fats amounts in the nutritional facts labels of food products according to the requirements of Saudi Standard Specifications/Gulf Specifications. Starting in 2020, Saudi Minister of Health announced the ban of trans fat in all food products due to their health risks. Singapore The Ministry of Health announced on 6 March 2019 that partially-hydrogenated oils (PHOs) will be banned. A target was set to ban PHOs by June 2021, aiming to encourage healthy eating habits. The ban took effect on 1 June 2021. Sweden The parliament gave the government a mandate in 2011 to submit without delay a law prohibiting the use of industrially produced trans fats in foods, as of 2017 the law has not yet been implemented. Switzerland Switzerland followed Denmark's trans fats ban, and implemented its own starting in April 2008. United Kingdom In October 2005, the Food Standards Agency (FSA) asked for better labelling in the UK. In the edition of 29 July 2006 of the British Medical Journal, an editorial also called for better labelling. In January 2007, the British Retail Consortium announced that major UK retailers, including Asda, Boots, Co-op Food, Iceland, Marks and Spencer, Sainsbury's, Tesco and Waitrose intended to cease adding trans fatty acids to their own products by the end of 2007. Sainsbury's became the first UK major retailer to ban all trans fat from all their own store brand foods. On 13 December 2007, the Food Standards Agency issued news releases stating that voluntary measures to reduce trans fats in food had already resulted in safe levels of consumer intake. On 15 April 2010, a British Medical Journal editorial called for trans fats to be "virtually eliminated in the United Kingdom by next year". The June 2010 National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) report Prevention of cardiovascular disease declared that 40,000 cardiovascular disease deaths in 2006 were "mostly preventable". To achieve this, NICE offered 24 recommendations including product labelling, public education, protecting under–16s from marketing of unhealthy foods, promoting exercise and physically active travel, and even reforming the Common Agricultural Policy to reduce production of unhealthy foods. Fast-food outlets were mentioned as a risk factor, with (in 2007) 170 g of McDonald's fries and 160 g nuggets containing 6 to 8 g of trans fats, conferring a substantially increased risk of coronary artery disease death. NICE made three specific recommendation for diet: (1) reduction of dietary salt to 3 g per day by 2025; (2) halving consumption of saturated fats; and (3) eliminating the use of industrially produced trans fatty acids in food. However, the recommendations were greeted unhappily by the food industry, which stated that it was already voluntarily dropping the trans fat levels to below the WHO recommendations of a maximum of 2%. Rejecting an outright ban, the Health Secretary Andrew Lansley launched on 15 March 2012 a voluntary pledge to remove artificial trans fats by the end of the year. Asda, Pizza Hut, Burger King, Tesco, Unilever and United Biscuits are some of 73 businesses who have agreed to do so. Lansley and his special Adviser Bill Morgan formerly worked for firms with interests in the food industry and some journalists have alleged that this results in a conflict of interest. Many health professionals are not happy with the voluntary nature of the deal. Simon Capewell, Professor of Clinical Epidemiology at the University of Liverpool, felt that justifying intake on the basis of average figures was unsuitable since some members of the community could considerably exceed this. United States The first direct regulation of trans fat by the FDA was a requirement that it be labeled in amounts above 0.5g per serving, which took effect on January 1, 2006. On 11 July 2003, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a regulation requiring manufacturers to list trans fat on the Nutrition Facts panel of foods and some dietary supplements. The new labeling rule became mandatory across the board on 1 January 2006, even for companies that petitioned for extensions. However, unlike in many other countries, trans fat levels of less than 0.5 grams per serving can be listed as 0 grams trans fat on the food label. According to a study published in the Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, without an interpretive footnote or further information on recommended daily value, many consumers do not know how to interpret the meaning of trans fat content on the Nutrition Facts panel. Without specific prior knowledge about trans fat and its negative health effects, consumers, including those at risk for heart disease, may misinterpret nutrient information provided on the panel. The FDA did not approve nutrient content claims such as "trans fat free" or "low trans fat", as they could not determine a "recommended daily value". Nevertheless, the agency is planning a consumer study to evaluate the consumer understanding of such claims and perhaps consider a regulation allowing their use on packaged foods. However, there is no requirement to list trans fats on institutional food packaging; thus bulk purchasers such as schools, hospitals, jails and cafeterias are unable to evaluate the trans fat content of commercial food items. Critics of the plan, including FDA advisor Dr. Carlos Camargo, have expressed concern that the 0.5 gram per serving threshold is too high to refer to a food as free of trans fat. This is because a person eating many servings of a product, or eating multiple products over the course of the day may still consume a significant amount of trans fat. Despite this, the FDA estimates that by 2009, trans fat labeling will have prevented from 600 to 1,200 cases of coronary artery disease, and 250 to 500 deaths, yearly. This benefit is expected to result from consumers choosing alternative foods lower in trans fats, and manufacturers reducing the amount of trans fats in their products. The American Medical Association supports any state and federal efforts to ban the use of artificial trans fats in U.S. restaurants and bakeries. The American Public Health Association adopted a new policy statement regarding trans fats in 2007. These new guidelines, entitled Restricting Trans Fatty Acids in the Food Supply, recommend that the government require nutrition facts labeling of trans fats on all commercial food products. They also urge federal, state, and local governments to ban and monitor use of trans fats in restaurants. Furthermore, the APHA recommends barring the sales and availability of foods containing significant amounts of trans fat in public facilities including universities, prisons, and day care facilities etc. In 2010, according to the FDA, the average American consumed 5.8 grams of trans fat per day (2.6% of energy intake). Monoglycerides and diglycerides are not considered fats by the FDA, despite their nearly equal calorie per weight contribution during ingestion. On 7 November 2013, the FDA issued a preliminary determination that trans fats are not "generally recognized as safe", which was widely seen as a precursor to reclassifying trans fats as a "food additive," meaning they could not be used in foods without specific regulatory authorization. This would have the effect of virtually eliminating trans fats from the US food supply. The ruling was formally enacted on 16 June 2015, requiring that within three years, by 18 June 2018 no food prepared in the United States is allowed to include trans fats, unless approved by the FDA. The FDA agreed in May 2018 to give companies one more year to find other ingredients for enhancing product flavors or grease industrial baking pans, effectively banning trans fats in the United States from May 2019 onwards. Also, while new products can no longer be made with trans fats, they will give foods already on the shelves some time to cycle out of the market. State and local regulation Even before the federal ban, the state of California and several U.S. cities took action to reduce consumption of trans fats. In 2005, Tiburon, California, became the first American city where all restaurants voluntarily cook with trans fat-free oils. In 2007, Montgomery County, Maryland, approved a ban on partially hydrogenated oils, becoming the first county in the nation to restrict trans fats. New York City embarked on a campaign in 2005 to reduce consumption of trans fats, noting that heart disease is the primary cause of resident deaths. This has included a public education campaign and a request to restaurant owners to eliminate trans fat from their offerings voluntarily. Finding that the voluntary program was not successful, New York City's Board of Health in 2006 solicited public comments on a proposal to ban artificial trans fats in restaurants. The board voted to ban trans fat in restaurant food on 5 December 2006. New York was the first large US city to strictly limit trans fats in restaurants. Restaurants were barred from using most frying and spreading fats containing artificial trans fats above 0.5 g per serving on 1 July 2007, and were supposed to have met the same target in all of their foods by 1 July 2008. The Philadelphia City Council unanimously voted to enact a ban in February 2007, and the measure was signed into law by Mayor John F. Street. The ordinance does not apply to prepackaged foods sold in the city, but did require restaurants in the city to stop frying food in trans fats by 1 September 2007. The ordinance also contained a provision going into effect one year later that barred trans fat from being used as an ingredient in commercial kitchens. On 10 October 2007, the Philadelphia City Council approved the use of trans fats by small bakeries throughout the city. Nassau County, a suburban county on Long Island, New York, banned trans fats in restaurants effective 1 April 2008. Bakeries were granted an extension until 1 April 2011. Albany County of New York passed a ban on trans fats. The ban was adopted after a unanimous vote by the county legislature on 14 May 2007. The decision was made after New York City's decision, but no plan has been put into place. Legislators received a letter from Rick J. Sampson, president and CEO of the New York State Restaurant Association, calling on them to "delay any action on this issue until the full impact of the New York City ban is known." San Francisco officially asked its restaurants to stop using trans fat in January 2008. The voluntary program will grant a city decal to restaurants that comply and apply for the decal. Legislators say the next step will be a mandatory ban. Chicago also passed partial ban on oils and posting requirements for fast food restaurants. Trans fat bans were also introduced in the state legislatures of Massachusetts, Maryland, and Vermont. In March 2008, the Boston Public Health Commission's Board of Health passed a regulation food service establishments from selling foods containing artificial trans fats at more than 0.5 grams per serving, which is similar to the New York City regulation; there are some exceptions for clearly labeled packaged foods and charitable bake sales. King County, Washington passed a ban on artificial trans fats effective 1 February 2009. In July 2008, California became the first state to ban trans fats in restaurants effective 1 January 2010; Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed the bill into law. California restaurants are prohibited from using oil, shortening, and margarine containing artificial trans fats in spreads or for frying, with the exception of deep frying doughnuts. As of 1 January 2011, doughnuts and other baked goods have been prohibited from containing artificial trans fats. Packaged foods are not covered by the ban and can legally contain trans fats. In 2007, the American Heart Association launched its "Face the Fats" campaign to help educate the public about the negative effects of trans fats. 2015–2018 phaseout In 2009, at the age of 94, University of Illinois professor Fred Kummerow, a trans fat researcher who had campaigned for decades for a federal ban on the substance, filed a petition with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) seeking elimination of artificial trans fats from the U.S. food supply. The FDA did not act on his petition for four years, and in 2013 Kummerow filed a lawsuit against the FDA and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, seeking to compel the FDA to respond to his petition and "to ban partially hydrogenated oils unless a complete administrative review finds new evidence for their safety." Kummerow's petition stated that "Artificial trans fat is a poisonous and deleterious substance, and the FDA has acknowledged the danger." Three months after the suit was filed, on 16 June 2015, the FDA moved to eliminate artificial trans fats from the U.S. food supply, giving manufacturers a deadline of three years. The FDA specifically ruled that trans fat was not generally recognized as safe and "could no longer be added to food after 18 June 2018, unless a manufacturer could present convincing scientific evidence that a particular use was safe." Kummerow stated: "Science won out." The ban is believed to prevent about 90,000 premature deaths annually. The FDA estimates the ban will cost the food industry $6.2 billion over 20 years as the industry reformulates products and substitutes new ingredients for trans fat. The benefits are estimated at $140 billion over 20 years mainly from lower health care spending. Food companies can petition the FDA for approval of specific uses of partially hydrogenated oils if the companies submit data proving the oils' use is safe. Food industry response Manufacturer response Palm oil, a natural oil extracted from the fruit of oil palm trees that is semi-solid at room temperature (15–25 degrees Celsius), can potentially serve as a substitute for partially hydrogenated fats in baking and processed food applications, although there is disagreement about whether replacing partially hydrogenated fats with palm oil confers any health benefits. A 2006 study supported by the National Institutes of Health and the USDA Agricultural Research Service concluded that palm oil is not a safe substitute for partially hydrogenated fats (trans fats) in the food industry, because palm oil results in adverse changes in the blood concentrations of LDL and apolipoprotein B just as trans fat does. In May 2003, BanTransFats.com Inc., a U.S. non-profit corporation, filed a lawsuit against the food manufacturer Kraft Foods in an attempt to force Kraft to remove trans fats from the Oreo cookie. The lawsuit was withdrawn when Kraft agreed to work on ways to find a substitute for the trans fat in the Oreo. The J.M. Smucker Company, American manufacturer of Crisco (the original partially hydrogenated vegetable shortening), in 2004 released a new formulation made from solid saturated palm oil cut with soybean oil and sunflower oil. This blend yielded an equivalent shortening much like the prior partially hydrogenated Crisco, and was labelled zero grams of trans fat per 1 tablespoon serving (as compared with 1.5 grams per tablespoon of original Crisco). As of 24 January 2007, Smucker claims that all Crisco shortening products in the US have been reformulated to contain less than one gram of trans fat per serving while keeping saturated fat content less than butter. The separately marketed trans fat free version introduced in 2004 was discontinued. On 22 May 2004, Unilever, the corporate descendant of Joseph Crosfield & Sons (the original producer of Wilhelm Normann's hydrogenation hardened oils) announced that they have eliminated trans fats from all their margarine products in Canada, including their flagship Becel brand. Agribusiness giant Bunge Limited, through their Bunge Oils division, are now producing and marketing an NT product line of non-hydrogenated oils, margarines and shortenings, made from corn, canola, and soy oils. Since 2003, Loders Croklaan, a wholly owned subsidiary of Malaysia's IOI Group has been providing trans fat free bakery and confectionery fats, made from palm oil, for giant food companies in the United States to make margarine. Major users' response Some major food chains have chosen to remove or reduce trans fats in their products. In some cases these changes have been voluntary. In other cases, however, food vendors have been targeted by legal action that has generated a lot of media attention. The following major fast food chain menus and product lines are artificial trans fat free (that is, less than 0.5 g per serving): Taco Bell, Chick-fil-A, Girl Scout Cookies, KFC (eliminated from all but Mac and cheese, biscuits and chicken potpie in 2007, the rest in 2009), McDonald's, Burger King, and Wendy's have greatly reduced partially hydrogenated oils (containing artificial trans fats) in their food; most of the remaining trans fat is naturally occurring, in the form of about a gram per 1/4 lb burger patty, and smaller amounts in fatty dairy products such as cheese, butter, and cream. Naturally occurring trans fat causes the Baconator, for example, to have 2.5 grams. A large chain's large fries typically had about 6 grams until around 2007, which some of the above-mentioned food chains removed by switching to trans-fat-free cooking oil. These reformulations can be partly attributed to 2006 Center for Science in the Public Interest class action complaints, and to New York's trans fat ban, with companies such as McDonald's's stating they would not be selling a unique product just for New York customers but would implement a nationwide or worldwide change. Although IHOP restaurants pledged in a 2007 press release to eliminate trans fat from their food, the nutrition information on the company website for the Summer/Fall 2015 Core Menu shows that they still have a considerable amount of trans fat in their food, including 4.5 grams in their "mega monster cheeseburger". The Girl Scouts of the USA announced in November 2006 that all of their cookies contain less than 0.5 g trans fats per serving, thus meeting or exceeding the FDA guidelines for the "zero trans fat" designation. High levels of trans fats remain common in packaged baked goods. Health Canada's monitoring program, which tracks the changing amounts of TFA and SFA in fast and prepared foods shows considerable progress in TFA reduction by some industrial users while others, as of 2007, lag behind. In many cases, SFAs have been substituted for the TFAs. See also Diet and heart disease Health crisis Fat interesterification References Food safety Nutrition Product safety Regulation

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattle%20mutilation

Cattle mutilation

Cattle mutilation (also known as bovine excision and unexplained livestock death, or animal mutilation) is the killing and mutilation of cattle under unusual, usually bloodless circumstances. This phenomenon has been observed among wild animals as well. Worldwide, sheep, horses, goats, pigs, rabbits, cats, dogs, bison, deer and elk have been reported mutilated with similar bloodless excisions; often an ear, eyeball, jaw flesh, tongue, lymph nodes, genitals and rectum are removed. Since the first reports of animal mutilations, various explanations have been offered, ranging from natural decomposition and normal predation to cults and secretive governmental and military agencies, to a range of speculations, including cryptid predators (like the chupacabra) and extraterrestrials. Mutilations have been the subject of two independent federal investigations in the United States. History The earliest known documented outbreak of unexplained livestock deaths occurred in early 1606 "...about the city of London and some of the shires adjoining. Whole slaughters of sheep have been made, in some places to number 100, in others less, where nothing is taken from the sheep but their tallow and some inward parts, the whole carcasses, and fleece remaining still behind. Of this sundry conjectures, but most agree that it tendeth towards some fireworks." The outbreak was noted in the official records of the Court of James I of England. Charles Fort collected many accounts of cattle mutilations that occurred in England in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. John Keel mentioned investigating animal mutilation cases in 1966 (while with Ivan T. Sanderson) that were being reported in the Upper Ohio River Valley, around Gallipolis, Ohio. The "Snippy" horse mutilation Animal mutilation was relatively unknown until 1967, when the Pueblo Chieftain published a story about a horse called "Snippy" that was mysteriously killed and mutilated in Alamosa, Colorado. On September 9, 1967, Agnes King and her son Harry reportedly found the dead body of their three-year-old horse. The horse's head and neck had been skinned and defleshed, and the body displayed cuts that, to King, looked very precise. No blood was at the scene, according to Harry, and a strong medicinal odor was in the air. The story was republished by the wider press and distributed nationwide; this case was the first to feature speculation that extraterrestrial beings and unidentified flying objects were associated with mutilation. A subsequent investigation by Wadsworth Ayer for the Condon Committee concluded that "There was no evidence to support the assertion that the horse's death was associated in any way to abnormal causes". When the Lewises phoned Alamosa County Sheriff Ben Phillips, he told them that the death was probably due to "a lightning strike" and never bothered to visit the site. Early press coverage of the case misnamed Lady as Snippy. Snippy was Lady's sire and belonged to Nellie's husband, Berle Lewis. Later press coverage mentions that the horse had been shot "in the rump". However, two students from Alamosa State College confessed to sneaking out into the pasture and shooting the horse several weeks after the case was publicized. 1973 mutilations On December 4, 1973, law enforcement reported a wave of cattle mutilations in seven counties across Kansas and Nebraska. Sexual organs were reported having been removed. Weeks later, it was reported 38 mysterious cattle deaths has occurred across 11 counties. Multiple lab tests suggested many of the animals had died from "blackleg", a cattle disease. 1974 mutilations and unidentified helicopters By June 1974, mutilations were reported to have spread to Lancaster County, Nebraska. On August 20, 1974, the Lincoln Journal Star reported strange, unidentified helicopters shining spotlights into fields that would soon become mutilation sites. One investigator claimed helicopter sightings had become a nightly occurrence, with both the FAA and the National Guard reportedly being unaware of any helicopter activity. After ranchers began forming night vigils, the National Guard warned its helicopter pilots to fly at higher than normal altitude to avoid fire from "jittery farmers". State leaders called for an investigation. By October 1974, it was reported that UFO conspiracy theorists considered cattle mutilations might be related to flying saucers. Later developments Senator Floyd K. Haskell contacted the FBI asking for help in 1975 due to public concern regarding the issue. He claimed there had been 130 mutilations in Colorado alone, and further reports across nine states. A 1979 FBI report indicated that, according to investigations by the New Mexico State Police, there had been an estimated 8,000 mutilations in Colorado, causing approximately $1,000,000 damage. Many cases of mutilation have been reported worldwide since the 1967 Snippy incident, chiefly in the Americas and Australia. In South America, an estimated 3,500 incidents have occurred since 2002, when around 400 cases were reported. Mutilation investigators assert that a large number of cases are never reported to authorities, perhaps no more than one in ten. In the summer of 2019, five bulls were mutilated at the Silvies Valley Ranch in Oregon. It is estimated that each 2,000 pound bull was worth US$6,000. The FBI has made no comment on if there is an investigation or not on this particular event but the Silvies Valley Ranch offered a $25,000 reward for information on the topic. Characteristics Physical characteristics In most cases, mutilation wounds appear to be clean and carried out surgically. Mutilated animals are sometimes reported to have been drained of blood and show no sign of blood in the immediate area or around their wounds. According to Howard Burgess, nearly 90 percent of mutilated cattle are between four and five years old. In some cases, strange marks or imprints near the site have been found. In the famous "Snippy" case, there was an absolute absence of tracks in a 100 ft (30 m) radius of the carcass (even the horse's own tracks disappeared within 100 ft (30 m) of the body.) But within this radius, several small holes were found seemingly "punched" in the ground and two bushes were absolutely flattened. In Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, June 1976, a "trail of suction cup-like impressions" was found leading from a mutilated three-year-old cow. The indentations were in a tripod form, 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter, 28 inches (70 cm) apart, and disappeared 500 feet (150 m) from the dead cow. Similar incidents were reported in the area in 1978. Laboratory reports Laboratory reports carried out on some mutilated animals have shown unusually high or low levels of vitamins or minerals in tissue samples, and the presence of chemicals not normally found in animals. However, not all mutilated animals display these anomalies, and those that do have slightly different anomalies from one another. On account of the time between death and necropsy, and a lack of background information on specific cattle, investigators have often found it impossible to determine if these variations are connected to the animals' deaths or not. In one case documented by New Mexico police and the FBI, an 11-month-old cross Hereford-Charolais bull, belonging to a Mr. Manuel Gomez of Dulce, New Mexico, was found mutilated on March 24, 1978. It displayed "classic" mutilation signs, including the removal of the rectum and sex organs with what appeared to be “a sharp and precise instrument” and its internal organs were found to be inconsistent with a normal case of death followed by predation. "Both the liver and the heart were white and mushy. Both organs had the texture and consistency of peanut butter" Gabriel L Valdez, New Mexico Police The animal's heart as well as bone and muscle samples were sent to the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory for microscopic and bacteriological studies, while samples from the animal's liver were sent to two separate private laboratories. Los Alamos detected the presence of naturally occurring Clostridium bacteria in the heart, but was unable to reach any conclusions because of the possibility that the bacteria represented postmortem contamination. No microscopic changes of pathological significance were found in the heart tissue. Samples from the animal's liver were found to be completely devoid of copper and to contain 4 times the normal level of zinc, potassium and phosphorus. The scientists performing the analysis were unable to explain these anomalies. Blood samples taken at the scene were reported to be "light pink in color" and “Did not clot after several days” while the animal's hide was found to be unusually brittle for a fresh death (the animal was estimated to have been dead for 5 hours) and the flesh underneath was found to be discolored. None of the laboratories were able to report any firm conclusions on the cause of the blood or tissue damage. At the time, it was suggested that a burst of radiation may have been used to kill the animal, blowing apart its red blood cells in the process. This hypothesis was later discarded as subsequent reports from the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory later confirmed the presence of anti-coagulants in samples taken from other cows mutilated in the region. Conventional explanations As with most disputed phenomena, there are a number of potential explanations for the causes of cattle mutilations, ranging from death by natural causes to purposeful acts by unknown individuals. U.S. governmental explanation After coming under increasing public pressure, Federal authorities launched a comprehensive investigation of the mutilation phenomenon. In May 1979, the case was passed on to the FBI, which granted jurisdiction under Title 18. The investigation was dubbed "Operation Animal Mutilation". The investigation was funded by a $44,170 grant () from the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, and was headed by FBI agent Kenneth Rommel. It had five key objectives: To determine the reliability of the information on which the grant was based, which entailed gathering as much information as possible about the cases reported in New Mexico prior to May 1979 To determine the cause of as many mutilations as possible, especially those reported in New Mexico To determine if livestock mutilations as described constitute a major law enforcement problem If these mutilations do constitute a major law enforcement problem, to determine the scope of the problem and to offer recommendations on how to deal with it If it is shown that the mutilation phenomenon is not a law enforcement problem, to recommend that no further law enforcement investigations be funded. Rommel's final report, released in June 1980, was 297 pages long; in the report's introduction, Rommel stated: "According to some estimates, by 1979 10,000 head of cattle have been mysteriously mutilated". However, the report concluded that the mutilations were predominantly the result of natural predation, but did acknowledge that some cases contained anomalies that could not be accounted for by conventional wisdom. The FBI was unable to identify any individuals responsible for the mutilations. Details of the investigation are now available under the Freedom of Information Act. The released material includes correspondence from Rommel where he states that "most credible sources have attributed this damage to normal predator and scavenger activity". New Mexico State patrolman Gabe Valdez, who by the time of the Rommel report had investigated dozens of mutilation cases, told investigator Christopher O'Brien that "during the six to eight months when Rommel was actively investigating the mutilations in New Mexico, the state (especially the northern tier) became suddenly quiet with very few (if any) true mutilations being reported to officials". Valdez was convinced that Rommel never was able to investigate a single high-strange case, because the mutilators moved their operations to other parts of the west. Rommel (a former FBI bank robbery expert) was disgusted by dead necrotic cows and chose to let others do the actual investigations while he waited upwind in the car. Western Canada, during this period, was especially hard hit. During the six to eight months of Rommel's investigation, RCMP investigator Corporal Lyn Lauber of the Calgary detachment (who was in charge of the Canadian mutilation probe) investigated numerous high-strange cases. When Rommel's final report was released to the public. Lauber answered an inquiry by investigator Tommy Bland: "I find it difficult to understand how Rommel could make a statement such as this, without ever having personally witnessed a [real] mutilation firsthand". He also stated that "I would like to see Rommel write off our confirmed cases as due to predators". Prior to the involvement of the FBI, the ATF launched their own investigation into the phenomenon. Both federal investigations were preceded (and followed, to some extent) by a state-level investigation carried out by law enforcement officials in New Mexico. This investigation reported finding evidence that some mutilated animals had been tranquilized and treated with an anti-coagulant prior to their mutilation. It also contended that alleged surgical techniques performed during mutilations had become "more professional" over time. However, officers in charge were unable to determine responsibility or motive. The ATF investigation was headed by ATF Agent Donald Flickinger. The New Mexico investigation was headed by Officer Gabe Veldez of the New Mexico State Patrol, with the assistance of Cattle Inspector Jim Dyad and Officer Howard Johnston of the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. Natural causes While many unconventional explanations have been put forward to explain cattle mutilations, a variety of scientists, veterinary workers, and knowledgeable observers (including farmers and other agricultural workers) have suggested more conventional ideas, most of which revolve around the hypothesis that "mutilated" animals died of natural causes and were subjected to known terrestrial phenomena – including the action of predators, parasites, and scavengers. Missing or mutilated mouth, lips, anus, and genitalia are explained as: Contraction of missing/damaged areas due to dehydration. The actions of small scavengers and burrowing parasites seeking to enter or consume the body in areas where skin is at its thinnest. Missing/mutilated eyes and soft internal organs are explained as: The action of carrion feeding insects such as blowflies, and opportunistic or carrion birds such as vultures, which are known to direct themselves toward an animal's eyes, and to enter the body through the openings of the mouth and anus in order to feed on soft internal organs. Absence of blood is explained as: Blood pooling in the lowest points in the body where it will break down into its basic organic components. Blood that is external to the body, or in the area of a wound being consumed by insects or reduced by solar desiccation. Surgical incisions in the skin are explained as: Tears in the skin created when it is stretched by postmortem bloat and/or as dehydration causes the animal's hide to shrink and split, often in linear cuts. Incisions caused by scavengers or predators, possibly exacerbated by the above. The hypothesis that natural phenomena account for most mutilation characteristics has been validated by a number of experiments, including one cited by long-time scientific skeptic Robert T. Carroll, conducted by Washington County (Arkansas) Sheriff's Department. In the experiment, the body of a recently deceased cow was left in a field and observed for 48 hours. During the 48 hours, postmortem bloating was reported to have caused incision-like tears in the cow's skin that matched the "surgical" cuts reported on mutilated cows, while the action of blowflies and maggots reportedly matched the soft tissue damage observed on mutilated cows. Experiments have also been conducted to compare the different reactions of surgically cut hide/flesh and predated hide/flesh to natural exposure. They demonstrated pronounced differences between surgical cuts and non surgical cuts over time. Some ranchers have disputed the scientific "natural causes hypothesis" on the grounds that the mutilated animals often fall outside of the normal categories of natural deaths by predation or disease. One reason cited is that the animals were healthy and showed no sign of disease prior to death, and were large and strong enough not to be a likely target for a predator. In some cases, ranchers have reported that the mutilated cattle were among the healthiest and strongest animals in their herd. Human intervention Animal cruelty and human activity It is alternatively hypothesised that cattle mutilations are the result of two unrelated deviant phenomena. The bulk of mutilations are the result of predation and other natural processes, and those with anomalies that cannot be explained in this way are the work of humans who derive pleasure or sexual stimulation from mutilating animals. Human attacks against animals are a recognized phenomenon. There have been many recorded cases around the world, and many convictions. Typically the victims of such attacks are cats, dogs, and other family pets, and the actions of humans are usually limited to acts of cruelty such as striking, burning, or beating animals. However, attacks have also been recorded against larger animals, including sheep, cows, and horses. Humans, particularly those with sociopathic disorders, have been found to have mutilated animals in elaborate ways using knives or surgical instruments. On April 20, 1979, C Hibbs of the New Mexico State Veterinary diagnostics Laboratory spoke before a hearing chaired by Senator Harrison Schmitt. Hibbs testified that mutilation fell into three categories, one of which was animals mutilated by humans. FBI records did not record the percentage of mutilated animals that fell into this category. Cults Closely related to the deviant hypothesis is the hypothesis that cattle mutilations are the result of cult activity. However, contrary to the deviancy hypothesis, which holds that cattle are mutilated at random by individual deviants, the cult hypothesis holds that cattle mutilations are coordinated acts of ritual sacrifice carried out by organized groups. Beliefs held by proponents of the cult hypothesis vary, but may include: That the apparent absence of blood at mutilation sites may indicate cult members would harvest it That organs have been removed from cattle for use in rituals That unborn calves have been harvested from mutilated cattle. The hypothesis that cults were responsible for cattle mutilation was developed in the U.S. during the 1970s and 1980s, a time of growing national concern over cults (such as the Peoples Temple and Jonestown) and ritual satanic abuse ("Satanic panic"). In 1975, the US Treasury Department assigned Donald Flickinger to investigate the existence of connections between cults and the mutilation of cattle. The operation came under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. Flickinger recorded a number of 'unusual' incidents and circumstantial evidence, but was unable to find sufficient evidence of cult involvement for the ATF to take further action. Media reports of the time reported his investigation was dropped when it was determined cattle deaths were not a prelude to a co-ordinated campaign against elected officials by cult members. However, there were various reports during the time of menacing groups prowling around mutilation sites. In September 1975, a forestry service employee in Blaine County, Idaho, reported seeing a group of people in black hooded robes. Several cattle were found mutilated in the area the following day. On October 9, 1975, a motorist on U.S Highway 95 in northern Idaho, in an area of frequent cattle mutilation, reported to police that some 15 masked individuals formed a roadblock with linked arms, forcing him to turn around. Since the beginning of the cult hypothesis, law enforcement agents in several states and provinces, including Alberta, Idaho, Montana, and Iowa have reported evidence implicating cults in several instances of cattle mutilations. During their investigations, the FBI and the ATF were unable to find appropriate evidence, including signs of consistency between mutilations, to substantiate that the animals had been the victims of any form of ritual sacrifice or organized mutilation effort. They were also unable to determine how or why a cult would perform procedures that would result in the anomalies reported in some necropsies, or to verify that the anomalies were 1) connected to the mutilations themselves 2) the result of human intervention. In most cases, mutilations were either ruled due to natural causes, or the cattle were too far decayed for any useful conclusions to be drawn. Some cases of cult hysteria were traced back to fabrication by individuals unrelated to the incident. In one case it was concluded that claims had been falsified by a convict seeking favorable terms on his sentence in exchange for information. In another case, claims were traced back to local high school students who had circulated rumors as a joke. Government or military experimentation In his 1997 article “Dead Cows I've Known”, cattle mutilation researcher Charles T. Oliphant speculates cattle mutilation to be the result of covert research into emerging cattle diseases, and the possibility they could be transmitted to humans. Additionally, a 2002 National Institute for Discovery Science report relates the eyewitness testimony of two Cache County, Utah, police officers. The area had seen many unusual cattle deaths, and ranchers had organized armed patrols to surveil the unmarked aircraft which they claimed were associated with the livestock deaths. The police witnesses claim to have encountered several men in an unmarked U.S. Army helicopter in 1976 at a small community airport in Cache County. The witnesses asserted that after this heated encounter, cattle mutilations in the region ceased for about five years. Biochemist Colm Kelleher, who has investigated several purported mutilations first-hand, argues that the mutilations are most likely a clandestine U.S. government effort to track the spread of Bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and related diseases, such as scrapie. A brief sampling of cases: On April 8, 1979, three police officers in Dulce, New Mexico, reported a mysterious aircraft which resembled a U.S. military helicopter hovering around a site following a wave of alleged mutilation which claimed 16 cows. On July 15, 1974, two unregistered helicopters, a white helicopter and a black twin-engine aircraft were reported to have opened fire on Robert Smith Jr. while he was driving his tractor on his farm in Honey Creek, Iowa. This attack followed a rash of alleged mutilations in the area and across the nearby border in Nebraska. The reports of "helicopter" involvement have been used to explain why some cattle appear to have been "dropped" from considerable heights. Other explanations Aliens and UFOs In 1974, a few months after the first spate of alleged mutilations in the US, multiple farmers in Nebraska claimed to witness UFOs on the nights their cattle were harmed. The sightings were hailed by UFO researchers as the first physical evidence of extraterrestrial life. Government interference At the same time that UFO reports were being filed with law enforcement, larger number of ranchers claimed to see black helicopters around their fields, coinciding with the cattle mutilations. Although some initially thought these were used by cattle rustlers, suspicion soon pointed toward a military operation running out of Fort Riley, Kansas. By 1975, the problem was so prevalent, that some ranchers formed armed vigilante groups to patrol their fields at night. Authorities ran ads in Colorado urging ranchers to not shoot at their survey helicopters. In July 1975, reporter Dane Edwards of the Brush Banner published a cattle mutilation story and began investigating a theory that a cult was responsible. When the origin of the cult theory was traced to a federal inmate and no cult members were ever identified, ranchers and law enforcement started looking for other explanations. Edwards reported his theory that the government was testing cattle parts to develop biological weapons to use in Vietnam, going so far as to write to Colorado Senator Floyd K. Haskell during Haskell's investigation to accuse agents of threatening him into silence. In October, Edwards gave an interview to the Gazette (Colorado Springs Gazette Telegraph), announcing a theory that a government project was behind the mutilations. He expressed frustration that the FBI would not get involved and said he would be writing a book explaining "how the project was conceived". Shortly after, he was fired by the Gazette and then disappeared. On December 5th 1975, Edwards' wife reported him as a missing person. Edwards reemerged in the 1990s. He had adopted a new name, Dr. David Ellsworth, and founded an English-language instruction program that was adopted by many federal universities in Mexico. Unknown creatures explanation Local folklore has attributed the mutilations to chupacabras or similar creatures. See also Horse ripping Black helicopters Linda Moulton Howe List of mutilatory procedures on animals List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Surplus killing Croydon Cat Killer Footnotes External links The Skeptic's Dictionary explanation of Cattle Mutilation Human Mutilation by Aliens – Brazilian Case With Photos FBI files on Animal Mutilation Animal Mutilation News at Paranormalnews.com Return of the Mootilators. Mark Pilkington reports on Argentinian cases The Straight Dope, on Cattle Mutilations UFO-related phenomena Conspiracy theory Alien abduction Cruelty to animals Animal killing

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix%20Command

Phoenix Command

Phoenix Command was a role-playing game system published by Leading Edge Games, and copyrighted by Barry Nakazono and David McKenzie. Various versions of the system featured in the games Morning Star Missions, Living Steel, and Aliens Adventure Game. Phoenix Command had extremely detailed rules in an attempt to realistically simulate combat. The game utilized lookup tables which resolve injuries to specific digits, organs, and bones, and simulates the physics of different attacks, such as bullets with different velocities. A simplified rules system was used for most of the movie tie-ins as well as Living Steel. The manuals have quotes and extra information in the margins, many of which are darkly humorous. The original game contained a 56-page spiral bound rule book, 32 page modern military weapon data supplement, reference tables, blank character sheets and one ten sided die. Additional supplements included the Hand to Hand Combat System (1988), World War 2 Weapon Data Supplement (1988), Wild West Weapon Data Supplement (1989), Civilian Weapon Data Supplement (1987), Living Steel Power Armour Sourcebook (1991), Advanced Damage Tables (1987) and High Tech Weapon Data Supplement (1987) amongst others. Design philosophy In the designers' own words, Phoenix Command is "...designed to be truly realistic; not complex, or deadly, but simply a representation of what really happens to people." The goal of realism made the rules very complex for a role playing game, to the point where Phoenix Command is regularly held up as an example of the extreme end of RPG complexity. Reviews Different Worlds #47 References External links Leading Edge Games games Military role-playing games Role-playing games introduced in 1986

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road%20Show%20%28musical%29

Road Show (musical)

Road Show (previously titled Bounce, and before that Wise Guys, and Gold!) is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and a book by John Weidman. It tells the story of Addison Mizner and his brother Wilson Mizner's adventures across America from the beginning of the twentieth century during the Klondike gold rush to the Florida real estate boom of the 1920s. The musical takes considerable liberties with the facts of the brothers' lives. The history and evolution of the show are extraordinarily complex, with numerous different versions and recordings. After a 1999 workshop in New York City, the musical was produced in Chicago and Washington, D.C. in 2003 under the title Bounce, but it did not achieve much success. A revised version of the musical premiered Off-Broadway in New York in October 2008. Background Addison and Wilson Mizner both died in 1933. Interest in their colorful lives as dramatic/musical subjects began with the 1952 publication of The Last Resorts, by Cleveland Amory. Irving Berlin was a friend of Addison, and referred to Wilson as "my pal." He began work on a musical called The Mizner Story. It was not completed; a partial manuscript is in the Library of Congress. After the 1953 publication of Alva Johnston's The Legendary Mizners he returned to the project and completed Wise Guy. It was never produced, though songs from it have been published and recorded. At about the same time, Sondheim began work on a musical based on The Last Resorts, which he discussed with Oscar Hammerstein. In 1956 David Merrick, "for purposes of comparison, sent Sondheim a script by Sam Behrman of Irving Berlin's unproduced musical." Sondheim set his idea aside. Three songs from it ("Pour le Sport", "High Life", and "I Wouldn't Change a Thing") have been published in The almost unknown Stephen Sondheim. Production history The musical premiered at the New York Theatre Workshop from October through November 1999 under the title, Wise Guys. It was directed by Sam Mendes and starred Nathan Lane and Victor Garber as brothers Addison Mizner and Wilson Mizner. A legal case involving Scott Rudin and Weidman and Sondheim held up further production. Substantially rewritten and given the new title Bounce, the show opened on June 20, 2003 at the Goodman Theatre in Chicago. The production was directed by Harold Prince, with choreography by Michael Arnold, set design by Eugene Lee, costume design by Miguel Angel Huidor, lighting design by Howell Binkley, and hair design by David H. Lawrence. The cast starred Richard Kind (Addison Mizner), Howard McGillin (Wilson Mizner), Jane Powell (Mama Mizner), Herndon Lackey (Papa Mizner/Businessman/Englishman/Plantation Owner/Armstrong/Real Estate Owner), Gavin Creel (Hollis Bessemer), and Michele Pawk (Nellie). This production reunited Sondheim with longtime collaborator Prince for the first time since the disastrous original Broadway production of Merrily We Roll Along in 1981. The musical then ran at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. in October and November 2003 with the Chicago cast. It received mixed–to–negative reviews and was not produced in New York. A private reading of Bounce was held at the Public Theater on February 6, 2006. Playbill reported that Eric Schaeffer directed, with Richard Kind and Bernadette Peters among the cast. A new production of the musical, now titled Road Show, rewritten without an intermission and without the leading female character of Nellie (who had been added for 2003 production), opened Off-Broadway at The Public Theater's Newman Theater in previews on October 28, 2008, officially opening on November 18, and closing December 28, 2008. John Doyle was the director and designer, with Michael Cerveris and Alexander Gemignani playing brothers Wilson and Addison Mizner respectively, Alma Cuervo as Mama, Claybourne Elder as Hollis, and William Parry as Papa. This production won the 2009 Obie Award for Music and Lyrics. and the Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Lyrics (Sondheim). The title changes reflect attempts by the creators to hone the show's story and themes. "Ideally the title is connected to what we hope the show is about," Weidman said. The musical opened at the Menier Chocolate Factory, London in previews on June 24, 2011, officially on July 6 and closed on September 18. John Doyle was the director and designer, with a cast featuring Michael Jibson, David Bedella, and Jon Robyns. The U.S. regional premiere opened at Stages Repertory Theatre in Houston, Texas on May 22, 2013, directed by Kenn McLaughlin. The cast featured Tom Frey and L. Jay Meyer, playing Wilson and Addison Mizner, respectively, along with Susan Shofner as Mama, Jimmy Phillips as Papa, and Michael McClure as Hollis. Rounding out the cast were Cameron Bautsch, Bridget Bierne, Hunter Frederick, Sarah Myers, Amanda Parker, Amanda Passanante, Tom Prior, and Brandon Whitley. A production opened at the Chicago Shakespeare Theatre on March 13, 2014, starring Andrew Rothenberg as Wilson and Michael Aaron Lidner as Addison. The New England premiere of Road Show ran from January 12 to February 11, 2018 at The Lyric Stage Company of Boston in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2019, Road Show was presented as part of the Encores! Off-Center season at New York City Center from July 24–27. This production starred Brandon Uranowitz as Addison, Raúl Esparza as Wilson, Chuck Cooper as Papa Mizner, Mary Beth Peil as Mama Mizner, and Jin Ha as Hollis Bessemer and was directed and choreographed by Will Davis. Early versions In the workshop, then titled Wise Guys, the show was framed as a vaudeville act, with Wilson and Addison opening the show with the title song, in the style of vaudeville comics, a theme that recurred over the show. The tone was meant to be similar to the Road to ... films starring Bob Hope and Bing Crosby. There was an additional song for Mama Mizner called "Brothers", and a song for Wilson called "Stay Right Where You Are", in which he seduces his future wife. Addison had a song in Act II sung to a sick Wilson called, "Make it Through the Night." This version dealt with Addison's real-life business partner Paris Singer, however, the writers soon decided to deal more openly with Addison's sexuality, and the character of Hollis Bessemer was created. Eventually, the vaudeville concept was dropped, and the overall tone of the show became less comic. In the later stage version, then titled Bounce, the character of Wilson's wife was developed into a secondary lead called Nellie. Wilson first meets her in a saloon in Alaska, where she seduces him with the song "What's Your Rush?". They re-encounter each other in New York, Nellie having become rich on the brothers' gold claim, and they marry after the song "The Best Thing That Ever Has Happened". She divorces him when his enterprises interfere with their love life. The brothers meet her again in Florida, where she joins in the Boca Raton scheme. After this fails, she leaves with Hollis to find her next opportunity. In Road Show, her character was again reduced to Wilson's marriage to her in Act I. For Road Show, Sondheim rewrote the opening number "Bounce" as "Waste," to reflect a darker tone. He added an additional song, "Brotherly Love," for the Mizners, and rewrote "The Best Thing That Ever Has Happened" as a duet for Addison and Hollis. Plot of Road Show After the 1933 death of Addison Mizner, people who knew him, including his estranged lover Hollis Bessemer, comment on his life and the way he squandered his talents ("Waste"). Addison's younger brother Wilson appears and speaks to Addison, who angrily claims that Wilson was the cause of all his failures. The time shifts to Papa Mizner's death in California at the beginning of the twentieth century. On his deathbed, Papa charges his sons with the task of using their gifts to shape America ("It's In Your Hands Now"), telling them that there's a "road" to follow. Mama Mizner reveals the family's wealth has been eaten away by Papa's long illness and advises the boys to seek gold in Alaska; Addison is reluctant, but goes along with Wilson anyway ("Gold!"). In the Klondike, the brothers share a sleeping bag and reminisce about their childhood ("Brotherly Love"). Wilson leaves to get supplies while Addison works the claim. Wilson is lured into a game of poker. Addison is shocked to discover his brother gambling. Wilson explains his newfound love of taking risks regardless of what's at stake ("The Game"). Wilson stakes their gold claim in a poker game and wins the saloon in which the game is taking place. (This episode is fictitious.) A shade of Papa Mizner appears and tells Addison that this was not what he had in mind for his sons. Addison leaves in disgust with his share of Wilson's winnings and travels around the world searching for business opportunities and a sense of purpose ("Addison's Trip"). All of his ventures fail due to bad luck. He is left with nothing but souvenirs that inspire him to take up architecture (so he can design a house in which to show them off). Wilson's businesses in Alaska also have failed, so he comes south to seek his brother's help. Wilson seduces and marries Addison's first client, a rich widow, and fritters away her money on various flashy endeavours, including fixed boxing matches and horse races ("That Was A Year"). Although Wilson's various partners lose money, they remain fond of him because of the verve and energy with which he lives. Even Mama Mizner, who is being looked after by Addison and never receives any visits from Wilson, enjoys reading about Wilson's exploits, saying that she can live through him ("Isn't He Something!"). Only Addison remains uncharmed by Wilson, and when Wilson finally comes back, his resources exhausted, he finds that Mama has died in his absence. Addison angrily throws Wilson out of the house. Learning of rising property interests in Florida ("Land Boom!"), Addison decides to travel to Palm Beach to take advantage of the many rich people settling there who need houses built. (In reality, Mizner went there for his health.) On the train he meets the fictitious Hollis Bessemer, with whom he is smitten instantly. Hollis is the son of a wealthy industrialist, cut off by his father for refusing to enter the family business. His real passion is art, and although he is not talented, he dreams of creating an artist colony in Palm Beach with the help of his aunt, who is staying there in a hotel ("Talent"). Addison shows Hollis's aunt a plan for a house he proposes to build for her. Impressed, she agrees and offers to sponsor Hollis's artist colony. However, Hollis and Addison, now lovers, are too busy designing resort homes for the rich ("You") and enjoying each other's company ("The Best Thing That Ever Has Happened") to follow up on Hollis's original plan. Wilson arrives at Hollis's and Addison's house, destitute and sick ("The Game [Reprise]"). Addison reluctantly takes him in, and when Wilson has recovered, he begins to work on Hollis, persuading him to be a patron to his newest scheme: to build a brand new city in Boca Raton with Wilson as promoter and Addison as chief architect ("Addison's City"). Wilson's con man instincts resurface. He promotes the Boca Raton real estate scheme with increasingly extravagant and eventually fraudulent claims, creating a price bubble ("Boca Raton"). Addison goes along, until it is Hollis who finally puts a stop to the real-estate scheme. He asks Addison to choose between Wilson and him. Addison, brought to a state of desperation, drives Hollis away by claiming he never loved him. Addison also orders Wilson out of his life ("Get Out"), but Wilson insists Addison loves him too much ("Go"). Addison agrees, but still wants him to go. Wilson leaves for good, but not quite, for in the finale (as in the first scene) all the characters leave the stage except for Wilson and Addison. At this point, Wilson realizes that he, too, has died. The brothers bicker half-heartedly, their differences no longer mattering enough to keep them apart. Confronted by their father, they shrug off his criticisms and the brothers set out together on the road to eternity—or, as Wilson calls it, "the greatest opportunity of all". "Sooner or later", he says, "we're bound to get it right." Historical liberties Sometimes the musical is mistaken as a faithful portrayal of the lives of the two brothers; this is not quite the case. Sondheim's interest in the brothers' story came from The Legendary Mizners, written by Alva Johnston, which Sondheim admits was an "exaggerated biography" and Johnston a "fanciful reporter". The exaggerated tone was also kept because Sondheim and Weidman felt it suited the two brothers' attitudes in their own writings, such as Wilson's screenplays and Addison's autobiography. While Addison was an architect and Wilson a con man, among other things, Hollis Bessemer is fictitious. In early workshops his role was filled by Addison's real-life friend Paris Singer, but Singer was not a homosexual and was not Addison's lover. In the workshopped Wise Guys, Addison's sexuality was only hinted at, but Sondheim and Weidman decided they had to address it more openly, and so the character of Hollis was created to give him a love interest. As Sondheim put it, "We wanted to take liberties with our characters, but not misrepresent them. Or be sued by Singer's descendants." Wilson's role in the Boca Raton fiasco is exaggerated, and while he did marry a rich widow, who quickly divorced him, she had not been a client of Addison. Addison never blamed Wilson for all his problems. Mama Mizner was not behind the gold mining adventure by her sons. While Addison did travel considerably, it was not around the world, and it was not the case that part of it was a string of businesses. Addison's alleged decision to become an architect so as to build a house for his souvenirs is colorful, but fictitious. Wise Guys and Bounce stuck more closely to the facts of the brothers' lives, including references to their other siblings, their father's successful career, and Wilson's New York period, but Sondheim and Weidman decided these facts held back the story with what Sondheim called "interesting and irrelevant information". "In our attempt to cover every colorful incident in the Mizners' lives we were shortchanging the emotional content of the material: the convoluted love story between the brothers and with their parents." Musical numbers As presented in the 1997 Wise Guys workshop Act I First Vaudeville - Wilson and Addison Benicia - Mama and Ensemble My Two Young Men - Mama Gold! - Prospector, Wilson, Addison, Mama, and Ensemble Second Vaudeville - Wilson and Addison Next to You - Wilson, Addison, and Mama Addison's Trip - Addison and Ensemble Dowagers - Addison The Good Life - Wilson The Game - Wilson Journalists - Wilson What's Next? - Wilson The Game (reprise) - Wilson What's Next? (reprise) - Wilson and Ensemble Third Vaudeville - Wilson and Addison What's Next? (reprise) - Addison I'm on My Way (reprise) - Addison Act II Fourth Vaudeville - Wilson and Addison Palm Beach Sequence - Addison, Paris and Ensemble Fifth Vaudeville - Addison, Paris, and Wilson Boca Raton Sequence - Ensemble Get Out of My Life/Go - Wilson and Addison Final Vaudeville - Wilson and Addison As presented in the 1999 Wise Guys workshop Act I Wise Guys - Addison and Wilson It's in Your Hands - Papa Mizner My Two Young Men - Mama Mizner Gold - Prospector You and Me Together - Wilson The Game - Wilson Wise Guys (reprise) - Addison and Wilson Next to You - Addison and Wilson Addison's Trip (On My Way) - Addison and Ensemble Stay Right Where You Are - Wilson and Myra That Was a Year - Wilson and Ensemble A Little House for Mama - Addison Isn't He Something? - Mama Mizner Wise Guys (reprise) - Addison and Wilson Act II Talent - Paris Singer You - Addison and Paris Make It Through the Night - Addison Wise Guys (reprise) - Addison, Wilson and Paris Boca Raton - Wilson, Addison, Ensemble It's in Your Hands Now - Wilson, Addison, Ensemble Call it Home - Wilson Get Out of My Life - Addison Wise Guys (reprise) - Addison and Wilson As presented in 2003 as Bounce, Kennedy Center Act I Bounce – Wilson, Addison Opportunity – Papa, Mama Gold! – Prospector, Wilson, Mama, Addison, Alaskans Gold! (Reprise) – What's Your Rush? – Nellie The Game – Wilson Next to You – Addison, Wilson, Mama Addison's Trip (Around the World) – Addison, Salesman, Guatemalans, Servants The Best Thing That Ever Happened – Wilson, Nellie I Love This Town - Wilson, Nellie, Addison, and Company Alaska – Mrs. Yerkes, Wilson § New York Sequence - Wilson, Nellie, Reporters, Photographer, Ketchel, Armstrong, Jockey, Gamblers, Policeman, Wilson's Women § Isn't He Something? – Mama Bounce (Reprise) – Addison, the cast. Act II The Game – Addison, Nellie, Wilson, Promoter Talent – Hollis You – Addison, Hollis, Aristocrats Addison's City – Hollis, Wilson, Nellie, Addison Get Rich Quick - Company Boca Raton – Boca Girl, Sportsmen, Fashion Models, Yachtsmen, Caruso, Salvador Dalí, Wilson, Addison, Nellie, Hollis, Prospector, Varmints, Bobby Jones, Mae West, Princess Ghika, Chorus § Last Fight – Addison, Wilson Bounce (Reprise) – Wilson, Addison § In Chicago production, not in Kennedy Center As presented in 2008 as Road Show, performed in one act Waste – Full Company It's in Your Hands Now – Papa Gold! – Full Company Brotherly Love – Addison, Wilson The Game – Wilson Addison's Trip – Full Company That Was a Year – Full Company Isn't He Something! – Mama Land Boom! – Real Estate Agent Talent – Hollis You – Full Company The Best Thing That Ever Has Happened – Addison, Hollis The Game (Reprise) – Wilson Addison's City – Addison, Hollis, Wilson Boca Raton – Full Company Get Out – Addison Go – Wilson Finale – Addison, Wilson Critical response Referring to the 2003 Bounce productions, TheaterMania noted the "brace of mixed-to-negative reviews has all but assured that this production of Bounce will not be coming to New York." In November 2003, The New York Times reported "the show, which received lukewarm reviews in two tryout runs, is not coming to Broadway anytime soon." Ben Brantley, in his New York Times review of the 2003 Kennedy Center production, said "[It] never seems to leave its starting point...Mr. Kind and Mr. McGillin execute this self-introduction [title song] charmingly, translating wryness and ruefulness into a breezy soft-shoe sensibility. But in a sense, when they have finished the song they have already delivered the whole show...Bounce, which features the vibrant Michele Pawk as a zestful gold digger (of both Klondike and jazz-age varieties) and Jane Powell as the Mizners' mother, only rarely kicks into a higher gear than the one that gently propels the opening duet...their trajectory feels as straight and flat as a time line in a history book. The bounce in Bounce is never very high...Much of the music, while whispering of earlier, more flashily complex Sondheim scores, has a conventional surface perkiness that suggests a more old-fashioned, crowd-pleasing kind of show than is this composer's wont. But his extraordinary gift for stealthily weaving dark motifs into a brighter musical fabric is definitely in evidence, mellifluously rendered in the peerless Jonathan Tunick's orchestrations." Brantley, in his review of the 2008 production, praised Cerveris and Gemignani, but declares that, "The problem is that this musical's travelogue structure precludes its digging deep. It hints at dark and shimmering glories beneath the surface that it never fully mines. Like its leading characters, 'Road Show' doesn’t quite know what to do with the riches at its disposal." Recordings An original cast recording of the 2003 version (then titled Bounce) was released on May 4, 2004 by Nonesuch Records. An original cast recording of the 2008 Public Theater production was released June 30, 2009 by PS Classics and Nonesuch Records. References External links 2003 Interview with Richard Kind and Howard McGillin 2004 Interview with Stephen Sondheim, John Weidman, and Jonathan Tunick 2003 Story about recording the original cast CD Bounce on The Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide Road Show at the Music Theatre International website talkinbroadway.co review, November 2, 2003 Interview with Sondheim, August 12, 2008 Description of the sets, costumes and lights for the Chicago production. Alisa Roost Road Show. Theatre Journal Review. Off-Broadway musicals Original musicals 2003 musicals Musicals inspired by real-life events Musicals by Stephen Sondheim LGBT-related musicals

263495

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa%20Guerrero

Lisa Guerrero

Lisa Marie Guerrero (born April 9, 1964) is an American investigative journalist, keynote speaker, actress, former sportscaster, host and model. Since 2006, Guerrero has been an investigative correspondent for the nationally syndicated newsmagazine Inside Edition. Early years Guerrero was born in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of Walter Coles, an American of English descent, and Lucy Guerrero, who was from Chile. Guerrero spent her childhood living in San Diego, California, and Huntington Beach, California. In 1972, when she was aged eight, her mother died of lymphoma cancer. To cope with the loss, her father enrolled her in theater therapy. Career Early career and acting roles Guerrero began her show-business career in the 1980s as a cheerleader for the Los Angeles Rams, after which she became Entertainment Director for the Atlanta Falcons and New England Patriots. In the 1990s, she starred in Aaron Spelling's Sunset Beach as the female jewel thief Francesca Vargas. She also guest-starred in Frasier (the "Odd Man Out" and "Frasier's Imaginary Friend" episodes), George Lopez and In the Heat of the Night. In 1992, Guerrero, billed under her given name Lisa Coles, made a brief appearance in the superhero film Batman Returns. Guerrero's character, credited as "Volunteer Bimbo" tells the film's villain, Penguin (Danny DeVito) that he is the coolest role-model a young person could have. The Penguin retorted by saying that she's the hottest young person a role-model could have. In 1997, she became a sports anchor on Los Angeles' KCBS-TV and later KTTV. In 1998, she was cast as Wonderful Woman in the comedy feature Super Hero: The Movie. It wasn't released until February 2021. According to the movie trailer, it was thought to be destroyed in a fire but a copy was found decades later. Fox Sports In 1999, Lisa Guerrero moved to the Fox Network, where she participated in such shows as Sports Geniuses, Fox Overtime, Fox Extra Innings and the Toughman competition shows. Guerrero travelled to Egypt to tape the special Opening the Tombs of the Golden Mummies and starred in the San Diego Chargers magazine-style television show. Guerrero also co-hosted The Best Damn Sports Show Period, alongside Tom Arnold, John Salley, John Kruk and Michael Irvin. Monday Night Football In 2003, she left The Best Damn Sports Show Period to join ABC's Monday Night Football television crew. The show hired her with the intention of making her a sideline reporter — personality-driven and feature-driven — but later changed their minds. Guerrero left the Monday Night Football team after one season. Playboy appearance Guerrero appeared topless in the January 2006 issue of Playboy magazine, billed on the cover as "The Best Damn Sports Beauty". Inside Edition On June 15, 2006, Guerrero became a correspondent on the TV news magazine Inside Edition. She later became the show's Chief Investigative Correspondent and has worked on undercover stories and investigative reports. In 2011, she won the National Headliner Award for Best Investigative Report, beating Anderson Cooper for her undercover exposé on air duct cleaning scams. Lisa has been nominated for a Prism Award for her story on the dangers of alcohol and boating. She was also nominated for a Genesis Award nomination for her investigation into horse slaughter farms in Florida. Acting She and her ex-husband, retired baseball pitcher Scott Erickson, made an independent film, A Plumm Summer (2007). Guerrero played the lead role and was also credited as executive producer. She has continued to act. She made a brief cameo appearance in the Brad Pitt feature film Moneyball as well as a recurring role in TNT's television drama series Southland. Guerrero also co-hosted VH1's game show The World Series of Pop Culture. In 2010, Guerrero hosted the first live webcast of the 82nd Academy Awards red carpet for Oscar.com, integrating viewers' questions from Facebook into celebrity interviews. In January 2012, Guerrero hosted Shooting Stars: Salute to Service, a reality competition show on the Velocity channel. In 2021, Super Heroes: The Movie was released on Amazon streaming where she stars as Wonderful Woman. This was her first leading role in a feature film. It was shot in 1998 but it was never released at the time because it was thought to be destroyed in a fire. Author Guerrero has written a book, Jewelry For Your Table (), a how-to crafts treatise on table setting, published in 2016. It instructs creating handmade artwork for the dining table. She has occasionally written a blog for the Los Angeles Times sports section and Huffington Post. Filmography Self Hell's Kitchen (2014) Dining room guest Shooting Stars: Salute to Service (2012) Host The John and Ken Show (2010) Guest Dr. Phil (2010) Guest Live From the Red Carpet: 82nd Academy Awards Oscar.com (2010) Host Inside Edition (2009–present) Chief Investigative Correspondent E! True Hollywood Story (1 episode, 2009) Headline News (2008–present) Guest E! News (2008–present) Guest Inside Edition (2007–2008) West Coast Correspondent World Series of Pop Culture (8 episodes, 2006) Commentator The Big Idea with Donny Deutsch (1 episode, 2006) Weekends at the DL (1 episode, 2005) Madden NFL 2006 (2005) (VG) (voice) Beyond the Glory (1 episode, 2005) Monday Night Football (16 episodes, 2003) Sideline Reporter Jimmy Kimmel Live! (1 episode, 2003) The Best Damn Sports Show Period (2001–2002) TV series Sexiest Bachelor in America Pageant (2000) (TV) Co-Host Southern California Sports Report (2000) TV series Host Sports Geniuses (2000) TV series Co-host Extra (1994) TV series Co-anchor Wild West Showdown (1994) Actress In the Heat of the Night (1 episode, 1990) Matlock (1 episode, 1991) Batman Returns (1992) Love Potion No. 9 (1992) Seinfeld (1 episode, 1994) Cybill (1 episode, 1996) Fire Down Below (1997) Frasier (2 episodes, 1997) Sunset Beach (1998–1999, 86 episodes) Francesca Vargas George Lopez (episode "Feel the Burn", 2003) Linda Lorenzo Today You Die (2005) A Plumm Summer (2007) Winged Creatures (2008) Victorious (pilot, 2010) Southland (2010-2011) Moneyball (2011) Producer A Plumm Summer (2007) References External links Lisa's Official Website Lisa on Instagram Lisa on Facebook Lisa on Twitter 1964 births Actresses from Chicago American film actresses American infotainers American people of Chilean descent American soap opera actresses American television sports announcers American television reporters and correspondents Figure skating commentators Golf writers and broadcasters Living people National Football League announcers National Football League cheerleaders Women sports announcers American cheerleaders American women television journalists Inside Edition 21st-century American women

263500

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna%20Glass

Joanna Glass

Joanna McClelland Glass (born October 7, 1936 in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan) is a Canadian playwright. She became an American citizen in 1962. Plays 1972 Canadian Gothic 1972 American Modern 1975 Artichoke 1980 To Grandmother's House We Go 1983 Play Memory 1989 Yesteryear 1993 If We Are Women 2004 Trying 2008 Palmer Park 2010 Mrs. Dexter and Her Daily Novels 1975 Reflections on a Mountain Summer (Knopf) 1984 Woman Wanted (St. Martin's) See also Woman Wanted, film adapted from novel. References Further reading The Oxford companion to Canadian literature, 2nd ed., pp. 464–466 The Oxford companion to Canadian theatre, pp. 234–235. External links Joanna Glass entry at The Canadian Encyclopedia 1936 births Living people Canadian women dramatists and playwrights Writers from Saskatoon Canadian emigrants to the United States 20th-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights 21st-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights 20th-century Canadian women writers 21st-century Canadian women writers

263501

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%20Guettel

Adam Guettel

Adam Guettel (; born December 16, 1964) is an American composer-lyricist of musical theater and opera. The grandson of musical theatre composer Richard Rodgers, he is best known for the musical The Light in the Piazza, for which he won two Tony Awards, for Best Score and Best Orchestrations, and two Drama Desk Awards, for Best Music and Best Orchestrations. Biography Early years Guettel was born on December 16, 1964, to film executive Henry Guettel and writer/composer Mary Rodgers, daughter of famed composer Richard Rodgers, and was raised on the Upper West Side of New York City. He performed as a boy soprano soloist in operas including Pelléas et Mélisande and The Magic Flute, both at the Metropolitan Opera and the New York City Opera, and in another production of Pelléas with the Santa Fe Opera. He was also slated to play Amahl in the film remake of Gian Carlo Menotti's "Amahl and the Night Visitors". He later claimed that he ended his career as a boy soprano at age 13, by faking that his voice was changing; he turned to music composition soon afterward. He attended Phillips Exeter Academy, School Year Abroad (SYA France), Interlochen Center for the Arts and graduated from Yale University in 1987. Career His early works include 1996's Floyd Collins, Love's Fire, and Saturn Returns (which was recorded as Myths and Hymns). Guettel's music was almost immediately characterized by its complexity and chromaticism. His major influences include Igor Stravinsky, Maurice Ravel, Claude Debussy, Benjamin Britten, and Stevie Wonder. Stephen Sondheim has referred to Guettel's work as "dazzling." Guettel's songs have been recorded by such artists as Audra McDonald and Brian d'Arcy James. He also contributed original scores to several documentary films, including Arguing the World and Jack: The Last Kennedy Film. In 1999, he performed a concert evening of his own work at New York's Town Hall. In 2004, Guettel contributed vocals to Jessica Molaskey's P.S. Classics album Make Believe, dueting with Molaskey on his grandfather's song "Glad To Be Unhappy." After six years working on the project, Guettel's musical The Light in the Piazza opened on Broadway in 2005. The show, which starred Victoria Clark and Kelli O'Hara, met with mixed critical notices, but on June 5, 2005, Adam Guettel won the Tony Award for Best Original Score and the Tony Award for Best Orchestrations. He spent much of the period from 2005 to 2007 working on a musical adaptation of The Princess Bride with original screenwriter William Goldman. As of January 2007, Guettel had written the music for ten songs for the project. An orchestral suite from the score was performed at the Hollywood Bowl in November 2006, and Lincoln Center conducted a workshop of Bride in January 2007. The project was abandoned when Goldman reportedly demanded 75 percent of the author's share, even though Guettel was writing both the music and the lyrics. In summer 2007, Guettel composed incidental music for a production of Anton Chekhov's play Uncle Vanya at the Intiman Playhouse in Seattle, Washington. In July 2009, the Signature Theatre of Arlington, Virginia, commissioned Guettel to write a new musical for their 2011-2012 season, under the auspices of their American Musical Voices Project. Currently in the works, this will be a musical adaptation of the Danny Boyle film Millions. Other current projects include an opera based on the short stories of Washington Irving and the opera, The Invisible Man, commissioned by the Houston Grand Opera. In 2019, Guettel's score for To Kill A Mockingbird was nominated for a Tony Award. Guettel is also making a musical out of the 1962 film Days of Wine and Roses. Another major aspect of Guettel's career is his work as a teacher. Since 1995, he has taught masterclasses and seminars in musical theatre performance and songwriting, considering this to be an important complement to his work as a composer. He has led such classes at DePauw University, DePaul University, New York University, Pace University, Harvard University, Yale University, Princeton University, Emerson College, Elon University, The Boston Conservatory, Southern Methodist University, Syracuse University, Wagner College and many others. Guettel received an honorary doctorate from Lehman College in 2007. Family Guettel is the son of composer, author and Juilliard School chairman Mary Rodgers, who died on June 26, 2014, and grandson of legendary musical theater composer Richard Rodgers. His father Henry Guettel (died October 7, 2013) was a film executive and was the executive director of the Theater Development Fund. When Guettel took up music composition in his mid-teens, he was encouraged by his family. His mother said that she offered him advice for around a year, "After that, he was so far beyond anything I could ever have dreamed of, I just backed off." Richard Rodgers, who died when Guettel was 15, overheard an early composition, said he liked it and asked him to play it louder. Guettel has qualified the compliment, noting that "He was literally on his deathbed on the other side of the living-room wall." In his high school and collegiate years and into his early twenties, Guettel worked as a rock and jazz musician, singing and playing bass, before realizing "that writing for character and telling stories through music was something that I really loved to do, and that allowed me to express love." Influences In an interview, Guettel stated a portion of his influences that included I. M. Pei, Louis Kahn, Vincent Scully, Jane Jacobs, Igor Stravinsky, Stevie Wonder, Adam de la Halle, Harry Nilsson, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Steve Jobs, Björk, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Benjamin Britten, William Inge, Stephen Sondheim, Jody Williams, and Marvin Gaye. References External links Adam Guettel Papers at the Library of Congress . . . Adam Guettel's website American musical theatre composers American musical theatre lyricists American people of German-Jewish descent Broadway composers and lyricists Jewish American composers Jewish American musicians Jewish American songwriters Phillips Exeter Academy alumni Songwriters from New York (state) Tony Award winners Drama Desk Award winners Nonesuch Records artists Yale University alumni 1964 births Living people People from the Upper West Side 21st-century American Jews

263506

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/561%20BC

561 BC

The year 561 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 193 Ab urbe condita. The denomination 561 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events Croesus becomes king of Lydia (or 560 BC). All eight solar system planets, including the now redefined dwarf planet Pluto, fall into planetary alignment. Deaths Alyattes, king of Lydia (or 560 BC) Zedekiah, king of Judah References 560s BC

263507

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Leacock%20Memorial%20Medal%20for%20Humour

Stephen Leacock Memorial Medal for Humour

The Stephen Leacock Memorial Medal for Humour, also known as the Stephen Leacock Medal for Humour or just the Leacock Medal, is an annual literary award presented for the best book of humour written in English by a Canadian writer, published or self-published in the previous year. The silver medal, designed by sculptor Emanuel Hahn, is a tribute to well-known Canadian humorist Stephen Leacock (1869–1944) and is accompanied by a cash prize of $25,000 (CAD). It is presented in the late spring or early summer each year, during a banquet ceremony in or near Leacock’s hometown of Orillia, Ontario. The medal is one of the oldest literary prizes in Canada, and is the only one awarded to a work of humour. It has been awarded every year since 1947 with the exception of 1959 when it was reported that no worthy entries had been submitted. History The Stephen Leacock Associates, the non-profit organising body behind the award, was founded in 1946 by a loose group of Leacock’s friends and supporters. Although administered and presented separately, in early years the award was announced as part of the Governor General's Awards announcements, later moving to a separate announcement. Each year the Associates’ board of directors appoints a panel of suitable judges from around the country, and also commissions readers who rank and select from submitted works a long list of ten books, which is later narrowed to a short list of three books (previously five). The shortlist is typically announced in early May. In 1990, for the only time in the award's history they did not whittle the initial longlist down to a shortlist, but simply announced a shortlist of ten books which were all considered for the final award. The cash prize began in 1970, as a $2,500 award co-sponsored by Manulife Insurance and the Hudson's Bay Company. The following decades saw gradual increases in the amount of the prize under a number of sponsors, reaching its current value of $15,000 in 2009, sponsored by the TD Bank Financial Group. As of 2018, both remaining shortlist authors each receive cash prizes of $3,000. In 1969 the Associates established a quarterly newsletter called The Newspacket to commemorate the centenary of the author’s birth. The publication prints excerpts from nominated books, and is itself a showcase for Canadian humour writing. The Newspacket has been published irregularly in recent years. In 1977 the group established an annual Student Award for Humour, which honours and encourages young Canadian writers from secondary and post-secondary levels with recognition and cash prizes for the top three. Organization The Leacock Award is ceremonially led by a past winner or nominee, who holds the honorary title "Mayor of Mariposa". The duties of this position include giving a speech at the awards ceremony, and representing the Leacock Foundation in other public appearances including McGill University's annual Leacock Lecture. Held by Dan Needles until 2018, the position was taken over by Drew Hayden Taylor in 2019 and renamed "Grand Chief of Mariposa" to reflect Taylor's First Nations heritage. The Medal The medal, cast in silver and designed by Canadian sculptor Emanuel Hahn, is two inches (5.08 cm) in diameter and approximately 0.125 inches (.32 cm) thick. It weighs 3.125 ounces (88.59 g). On the obverse is a profile of Stephen Leacock’s head and the dates of his lifespan (1869–1944). The words "Stephen Leacock Memorial Medal Founded 1946" are worked around the perimeter. The reverse side features the words "Orillia “The Sunshine Town” Award for Canadian Humour". A jolly face represents the sun resting on waves, and the latitude and longitude of Orillia, Ontario, Canada, appear in small figures at the top. Two small fish swim beneath the waves, and two large mosquitoes are depicted — one on the sun, the other in the water. Below the design, there is room for the winner’s name and date to be inscribed, and below that a small maple leaf emblem. Winners and nominees 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s References External links Leacock Medal for Humour Website Canadian literary awards Comedy and humor literary awards Canadian comedy and humour awards Awards established in 1946 1946 establishments in Canada

263509

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/605%20BC

605 BC

The year 605 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 149 Ab urbe condita. The denomination 605 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events Battle of Carchemish: Crown Prince Nebuchadnezzar defeats the allied armies of Egypt and former Assyria, securing the Babylonian conquest of Assyria (approximate date). Battle of Hamath: Nebuchadnezzar II defeats the remainder of the Egyptian army after the Battle of Carchemish. Nebuchadnezzar II succeeds his father Nabopolassar as king of Babylonia. Births Deaths Nabopolassar, founder of the Neo-Babylonian Empire References

263510

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/568%20BC

568 BC

The year 568 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 186 Ab urbe condita. The denomination 568 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events Amtalqa succeeds his brother Aspelta as king of Kush. Births Deaths Pittacus of Mytilene, one of the Seven Sages of Greece Aspelta, king of Kush References

263512

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/570%20BC

570 BC

The year 570 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 184 Ab urbe condita. The denomination 570 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events Berlin Kore, from a cemetery at Keratea, near Athens, is begun. It is now at the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Germany. The Satrapy of Armenia is established as a province of the Achaemenid Empire. This is the first polity to bear the name Armenia. Francois Vase, black figure decoration on a volute crater, is made by Kleitias and Ergotimos (approximate date). It is now in a museum in Italy. Amasis II drives Apries from the throne of Egypt. Births Xenophanes, Greek philosopher Pythagoras, Samian Greek philosopher and mathematician (approximate date) Deaths Sappho, Greek lyric poet Ezekiel, Hebrew prophet References

263518

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Boroughbridge

Battle of Boroughbridge

The Battle of Boroughbridge was fought on 16 March 1322 in England between a group of rebellious barons and King Edward II, near Boroughbridge, north-west of York. The culmination of a long period of antagonism between the King and Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, his most powerful subject, it resulted in Lancaster's defeat and execution. This allowed Edward to re-establish royal authority and hold on to power for almost five more years. Though not a part of the Wars of Scottish Independence, the battle is significant for its employment of tactics learned in the Scottish wars in a domestic, English conflict. Both the extensive use of foot soldiers rather than cavalry and the heavy impact caused by the longbow represented significant steps in military developments. Background Edward II was a weak and ineffectual king (made to look the more so by comparison with his father and son, Edward I and Edward III), and his reign was marked by military failure and internal strife. A great number of the barons turned against the King and Thomas of Lancaster eventually became the leader of the opposition. Lancaster was Edward's cousin and next to the King was the richest man in the country. Through a set of regulations known as the Ordinances, Lancaster and his associates had been trying to put restrictions on royal authority, but by the late 1310s Edward was again in full control of central government. The situation was aggravated by the King's ostentatious patronage of his favourite, Hugh Despenser, and Hugh's father by the same name. In 1319 the King and Lancaster fell out during a failed campaign against Scotland. The next year Lancaster refused to attend a parliament summoned by the King, and later the same year Edward obtained papal absolution from his oath to follow the Ordinances. Meanwhile an inheritance dispute had broken out in the Welsh Marches between the Despensers and certain marcher lords, including Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford. Lancaster now took the initiative with the discontented. In 1321 he summoned two meetings of magnates, one at Lancaster's residence of Pontefract in March and the other at Sherburn in June. The meetings consisted of northern and marcher lords as well as Lancaster's own retainers, but little assistance was forthcoming from the northerners. The marcher rebellion and the threat of civil war forced the King to exile the younger Despenser, but the favourite was recalled within weeks. Edward now seized the initiative and moved northwards. Lancaster convened one final meeting at Doncaster in November and also entered into an alliance with Robert I of Scotland to strengthen his hand against the King. In January 1322 Edward crossed the River Severn and secured the surrender of several of the marcher lords while Lancaster remained passive. As the royal army crossed the River Trent after the Battle of Burton Bridge Lancaster was forced to flee north. On 16 March Lancaster and his army had reached Boroughbridge by the River Ure, where they were joined by the Earl's Secretary, Sir Robert de Holland, and the force he had raised in Lancashire. There they were cut off by the forces of Sir Andrew Harclay, a veteran of the Scottish wars, who had gathered the levies from the counties of Cumberland and Westmorland. Battle When Lancaster arrived at the town of Boroughbridge Harclay was already in possession of the bridge over the river. The rebel forces counted probably no more than 700 knights and men-at-arms against the 4,000 or so soldiers in the royal army. Lancaster initially tried to negotiate but Harclay could not be swayed. Since there was no realistic alternative place to cross the river and with the royal forces in pursuit from the south, the rebels had no choice but to fight. The ensuing battle was short and one-sided. Harclay had deployed his men on foot to hold the bridge from the northern side. Additional forces were placed at a nearby ford, though contemporary sources do not specify the exact location of this ford. The royal pikemen were deployed in a schiltron formation, a tactic learned from the Scots in the Scottish wars. The formation proved effective against the oncoming cavalry. The rebels divided into two columns; one led by Hereford and Roger de Clifford, attacking the bridge on foot, the other under Lancaster, trying to cross the ford by horse. According to a graphic description in the chronicle the Brut, Hereford was killed as he crossed the bridge by a pikeman hiding underneath, who thrust his spear up through the Earl's anus. Clifford was also severely injured, and that column of the army fell into disarray. Lancaster's party fared little better; under heavy archery fire his cavalry was cut off before it even reached the ford, and was forced to retreat. This event shows an early – if not entirely novel – effective use of the longbow against cavalry, a tactic which was to become central to future English military success. Lancaster negotiated a truce with Harclay, and withdrew to the town. During the night a great number of the rebels deserted, and the next day the sheriff of York arrived from the south with additional forces. Lancaster, now greatly outnumbered and with no chance of retreat, had no choice but to surrender to Harclay. Aftermath Thomas of Lancaster was taken to Pontefract Castle, which by then had fallen to the King. There he was submitted to what was little more than a show trial and – in front of a gathering of earls and barons – sentenced to death. On 22 March 1322 he was led out of the castle and beheaded in front of a jeering crowd. Subsequently a cult emerged around the person of the late earl as a martyr and even a possible saint. Lancaster had shown no signs of extraordinary piety nor other personal abilities during his lifetime and the cult has been interpreted as a reaction to the incompetent and oppressive reign of Edward II. Some thirty of Lancaster's followers were also executed, among these Clifford and the baron John Mowbray. Clifford was hung from Clifford’s Tower in York, which is now named after him. Andrew Harclay was richly rewarded for his loyal and competent performance at Boroughbridge. On 15 March he was created Earl of Carlisle and promised lands worth 1000 marks yearly. Yet Harclay, who had turned down Lancaster's overtures to join in the rebellion, was no great adherent of the King. As a warden of the Scottish Marches he grew constantly more frustrated with the King's idleness, and eventually negotiated a peace treaty with the Scots. This action on Harclay's part amounted to treason and early in 1323 he was apprehended by the King's men and hanged, drawn and quartered. As for Edward II himself, his dependence on the Despensers grew only deeper and their transgressions more severe. Lancaster's supporters (including Roger Mortimer, William Trussell and Robert de Holland) found themselves systematically accused of false charges, being imprisoned and having their lands taken over by the Despensers. Mortimer and Trussell eventually fled to Paris, where they were to be joined by Edward's estranged wife, Isabella, who may have become Mortimer's lover. In 1327 Isabella and Mortimer staged a coup against the King. Edward II was deposed and his son, Edward III, succeeded him. References Sources External sources The Battle of Boroughbridge at The Battlefields Trust. English Heritage Battlefield Report: Boroughbridge 1322 1322 in England Battles involving England Military history of North Yorkshire Registered historic battlefields in England Conflicts in 1322 Battle Despenser War 14th century in Yorkshire

263521

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MorphOS

MorphOS

MorphOS is an AmigaOS-like computer operating system (OS). It is a mixed proprietary and open source OS produced for the Pegasos PowerPC (PPC) processor based computer, PowerUP accelerator equipped Amiga computers, and a series of Freescale development boards that use the Genesi firmware, including the Efika and mobileGT. Since MorphOS 2.4, Apple's Mac mini G4 is supported as well, and with the release of MorphOS 2.5 and MorphOS 2.6 the eMac and Power Mac G4 models are respectively supported. The release of MorphOS 3.2 added limited support for Power Mac G5. The core, based on the Quark microkernel, is proprietary, although several libraries and other parts are open source, such as the Ambient desktop. Characteristics and versions Developed for PowerPC central processing units (CPUs) from Freescale and IBM while supporting the original AmigaOS Motorola 68000 series (68k, MC680x0) applications via proprietary task-based emulation, and most AmigaOS PPC applications via API wrappers. It is application programming interface (API) compatible with AmigaOS 3.1 and has a graphical user interface (GUI) based on Magic User Interface (MUI). Besides the Pegasos version of MorphOS, there is a version for Amiga computers equipped with PowerUP accelerator cards produced by Phase5. This version is free, as is registration. If unregistered, it slows down after each two-hour session. PowerUP MorphOS was most recently updated on 23 February 2006; however, it does not exceed the feature set or advancement of the Pegasos release. A version of MorphOS for the Efika, a very small mainboard based on the ultra-low-power MPC5200B processor from Freescale, has been shown at exhibitions and user gatherings in Germany. Current (since 2.0) release of MorphOS supports the Efika. Components ABox ABox is an emulation sandbox featuring a PPC native AmigaOS API clone that is binary compatible with both 68k Amiga applications and both PowerUP and WarpOS formats of Amiga PPC executables. ABox is based in part on AROS Research Operating System. ABox includes Trance JIT code translator for 68k native Amiga applications. Other AHI – audio interface: 6.7 Ambient – the default MorphOS desktop, inspired by Workbench and Directory Opus 5 CyberGraphX – graphics interface originally developed for Amiga computers: 5.1 Magic User Interface – primary graphical user interface (GUI) toolkit: 4.2 Poseidon – the Amiga USB stack developed by Chris Hodges TurboPrint – the printing system TinyGL – OpenGL implementation and Warp3D compatibility is featured via Rendering Acceleration Virtual Engine (RAVE) low-level API: V 51 Quark – manages the low level systems and hosts the A/Box currently MorphOS software MorphOS can run any system friendly Amiga software written for 68k processors. Also it is possible to use 68k libraries or datatypes on PPC applications and vice versa. It also provides compatibility layer for PowerUP and WarpUP software written for PowerUP accelerator cards. The largest repository is Aminet with over 75,000 packages online with packages from all Amiga flavors including music, sound, and artwork. MorphOS-only software repositories are hosted at MorphOS software, MorphOS files and MorphOS Storage. Bundled applications MorphOS is delivered with several desktop applications in the form of pre-installed software. Supported hardware Max. 1.72 GB RAM; virtual memory is not supported. Only Radeon cards have support; Nvidia cards are not supported. Amiga Amiga 1200 with Blizzard PPC accelerator card Amiga 3000 with CyberStorm PPC accelerator card Amiga 4000 with CyberStorm PPC accelerator card Apple Mac mini G4 eMac Power Mac G4 PowerBook G4 (except for 12" aluminum models) iBook G4 Power Mac G5 Power Mac G4 Cube iMac G5 (only model A1145 – G5 2.1 20" (iSight)) Genesi/bPlan GmbH Efika 5200B Pegasos I G3, II G3/G4 ACube ACube Systems Srl company and their Sam460 series mainboards A-Eon Technology AmigaOne X5000 mainboard History The project began in 1999, based on the Quark microkernel. The earliest versions of MorphOS ran only via PPC accelerator cards on the Amiga computers, and required portions of AmigaOS to fully function. A collaborative effort between the companies bPlan (of which the lead MorphOS developer is a partner) and Thendic-France in 2002 resulted in the first regular, non-prototype production of bPlan-engineered Pegasos computers capable of running MorphOS or Linux. Thendic-France had financial problems and folded; however, the collaboration continued under the new banner of "Genesi". A busy promotional year followed in 2003, with appearances at conventions and exhibitions in several places around the world, including the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in Las Vegas. After some bitter disagreements within the MorphOS development team in 2003 and 2004, culminating with accusations by a MorphOS developer that he and others had not been paid, the Ambient desktop interface was released under GPL and is now actively developed by the Ambient development team. Subject to GPL rules, Ambient continues to be included in the commercial MorphOS product. An alternative MorphOS desktop system is Scalos. On April 1, 2008, the MorphOS team announced that MorphOS 2.0 would be released within Q2/2008. This promise was only kept by a few seconds, with the release of MorphOS 2.0 occurring on June 30, 2008 23:59 CET. MorphOS 3.11 is commercially available at a price of €79 per machine (€49 for the Efika PPC or Sam460 boards). A fully functional demo of MorphOS is available, but without a keyfile, its speed is decreased significantly after 30 minutes of use per session; rebooting the system allows for another 30 minutes of use. Release history of 0.x/1.x series Release history of 2.x/3.x series MorphOS 2 includes a native TCP/IP stack ("Netstack") and a Web browser, Sputnik or Origyn Web Browser. Sputnik was begun under a user community bounty system that also resulted in MOSNet, a free, separate TCP/IP stack for MorphOS 1 users. Sputnik is a port of the KHTML rendering engine, on which WebKit is also based. Sputnik is no longer being developed and was removed from later MorphOS 2 releases. See also Ambient (desktop environment) Amiga APUS (computer) AROS Research Operating System (AROS) Magic User Interface (MUI) References External links Aminet Amiga/MorphOS software repository MorphZone, Supported Computers MorphOS Software Database MorphOS software repository MorphOS: The Lightning OS Obligement – Magazine about AmigaOS and MorphOS www.warmup-asso.org – Portal dedicated to MorphOS users MorphOS Storage – MorphOS Software Storage 2000 software Amiga software MorphOS software Operating system distributions bootable from read-only media PowerPC operating systems Microkernel-based operating systems Microkernels

263523

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caf%C3%A9%20wall%20illusion

Café wall illusion

The café wall illusion is a geometrical-optical illusion in which the parallel straight dividing lines between staggered rows with alternating dark and light "bricks" appear to be sloped, not parallel as they really are. It was first described under the name Kindergarten illusion in 1898, and re-discovered in 1973 by Richard Gregory. According to Gregory, this effect was observed by a member of his laboratory, Steve Simpson, in the tiles of the wall of a café at the bottom of St Michael's Hill, Bristol. It is a variant of the shifted-chessboard illusion originated by Hugo Münsterberg. In the construction of the optical illusion often each "brick" is surrounded by a layer of "mortar" intermediate between the dark and light colours of the "bricks". In the first attempt at its deconstruction, the illusion was ascribed largely to the irradiation illusion (apparent greater size of a white area than of a black one), and the image disappears when black and white are replaced by different colours of the same brightness. But a component of the illusion remains even when all optical and retinal components are factored out. Contrast polarities seem to be the determining factor in the tilt's direction. See also Visual illusions Geometrical-optical illusions References External links An interactive web app for demonstrating the Café wall illusion An interactive version of the Café wall illusion that allows for adjusting the offset and turning the black boxes into white boxes An animated proof that the horizontal lines are parallel and straight The original café in Bristol on Google Maps Street View Sample architecture Optical illusions

263526

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Harclay%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Carlisle

Andrew Harclay, 1st Earl of Carlisle

Andrew Harclay, 1st Earl of Carlisle (ca. 1270 – 3 March 1323), alternatively Andreas de Harcla, was an important English military leader in the borderlands with Scotland during the reign of Edward II. Coming from a knightly family in Westmorland, he was appointed sheriff of Cumberland in 1311. He distinguished himself in the Scottish Wars, and in 1315 repulsed a siege on Carlisle Castle by Robert the Bruce. Shortly after this, he was taken captive by the Scots, and only released after a substantial ransom had been paid. His greatest achievement came in 1322, when he defeated the rebellious baron Thomas of Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge on 16–17 March. For this he was created Earl of Carlisle. As one of the main military leaders on the border to Scotland, Harclay became frustrated with Edward II's inactivity, particularly the humiliating English defeat at the Battle of Old Byland on 14 October 1322, which made it clear that the war could not be won. Harclay initiated negotiations with the Scots on his own accord, and on 3 January 1323, he signed a peace treaty with Robert the Bruce. The act was without royal sanction, and amounted to treason. The king issued an arrest order for the earl, and on 25 February Harclay was taken into the king's custody. He was arraigned before royal justices on 3 March, denied a hearing, and executed the same day. He was hanged, drawn and quartered, and the various parts of his body displayed in different parts of the country. His alleged treason, capture and execution is described in the Lanercost Chronicle. Only after five years was he allowed a proper burial, but the conviction for treason was never annulled. Family and early career The family name of Harclay derives from Hartley in Westmorland. Though relatively little is known about his early years, Andrew Harclay was probably the eldest son of Sir Michael Harclay and Joan, daughter of the Yorkshire landowner William Fitzjohn. His younger brother was the theologian Henry Harclay, a Chancellor of the University of Oxford. Michael Harclay was a retainer of the Clifford family, and served as sheriff of Cumberland from 1285 to 1296. The first documented appearance of Andrew Harclay was at a Westmorland eyre in 1292, at which point it must be assumed that he was at least twenty-one years old, and therefore born in the early 1270s. Military career His military career can be traced back as far as 1304 when he took part in a campaign in the Scottish Wars. In 1309, he received a royal order to assist Robert de Clifford in the defence of the Marches against Scotland. His standing in local affairs was further advanced in 1311, when he was appointed sheriff of Cumberland, like his father had been before him. This was followed by his election as Knight of the Shire in 1312, and in December 1313, he distinguished himself as the leader of the defence against a Scottish invasion. He received further acclaim in the summer of 1315, when he successfully defended Carlisle Castle against a siege by Robert the Bruce. For this he was awarded a gift of 1000 marks from the king. Late in 1315 or in 1316, Harclay was taken captive by the Scots, who demanded 2000 marks in ransom. His meteoric rise over the previous years had made him some enemies in local society, who now took the opportunity to spread slanderous rumours about him at court. The king nevertheless helped raise the necessary money to secure Harclay's freedom, but for the next few years he seems to have been out of royal favour. It was not until 1319 that he once more was appointed sheriff, and at the same time made keeper of Carlisle and Cockermouth castles, and Warden of the West Marches. In 1321 he also received a personal summons to parliament. Boroughbridge Harclay's most prominent achievement came with the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322. The battle was the culmination of an ongoing struggle between King Edward II and his most powerful earl, Thomas of Lancaster. The conflict stemmed from disagreement over the handling of the war with Scotland; Lancaster, and many others, found the king's war effort lacking. After failing to incite an insurrection against the king, Lancaster was in March 1322 fleeing northwards from the royal army. Meanwhile, Harclay, as sheriff of Cumberland, was ordered by the king to levy the forces of the northern counties of Cumberland and Westmorland, and move south. His orders were to meet up with the royal army, but while stopping at the town of Ripon in Yorkshire, he received intelligence that Lancaster would arrive at nearby Boroughbridge the next day. Harclay decided to take the initiative, and occupy the bridge that would prevent Lancaster's passage across the River Ure. Lancaster's army arrived at Boroughbridge on 16 March. The rebels were greatly outnumbered; while Harclay commanded around 4000 men, Lancaster only had some 700 knights and men-at-arms, with followers, in his service. In addition to this, the loyalist forces were highly trained and experienced from the Scottish Wars. Harclay used tactics the English had learned from the Scots in these wars. The Lanercost Chronicle describes how Harclay employed the Scottish schiltron – a compact formation of infantrymen with pikes or spears, highly effective against Lancaster's cavalry-heavy forces. According to The Brut, Lancaster tried to persuade Harclay to join his side, in return for great rewards in land. Harclay had previously been a supporter of Lancaster, possibly also the earl's retainer; in 1318, a general royal pardon for Lancaster and his adherents contained Harclay's name. On this occasion, however, Harclay decided to remain loyal to the king, and turned down the earl's offer. The engagement was short and one-sided. Lancaster's plan was to charge across a ford in the river, while the Earl of Hereford – one of the few magnates who had remained loyal to Lancaster – crossed the bridge. Hereford was killed on the bridge, his companion Roger de Clifford, 2nd Baron de Clifford was badly wounded, and this advance failed. Lancaster, meanwhile, came under such heavy archery fire that he had to call off his attack. Defections during the night, combined with royal reinforcements, forced him to surrender the next day, and on 22 March he was executed. The king was greatly pleased with Harclay's effort, and rewarded him lavishly. On 25 March, Harclay was created Earl of Carlisle, and given land worth 1000 marks a year. On 15 September, he was also made chief Warden of the Marches. Treason On 14 October 1322, the English army was routed by the Scots, under the command of Robert the Bruce, at the Battle of Old Byland in Yorkshire. The English commander, John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond, was taken prisoner. King Edward, who did not take part in the battle, was fifteen miles away at Rievaulx Abbey. When he heard the news he fled to York leaving behind the Great Seal of England and a large amount of treasure. It was the worst defeat the English had suffered in the wars since the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. Harclay had received a summons to join the royal army, but had not been able to bring his troops south in time to come to Richmond's rescue. The event convinced him that the war against Scotland could not be won under the leadership of the present king. Instead he entered into direct negotiations with the Scots, without the king's sanction. On 3 January 1323, he signed a peace treaty with Robert the Bruce at Lochmaben. The treaty recognised Scotland as an independent kingdom. It stipulated that Robert was to pay 40,000 marks to the English, and that Edward should be allowed to choose a wife from his own family for Robert's heir. Implied in the text, however, was an alliance between Robert and Harclay to use force against Edward, if necessary, to implement the terms of the treaty. It seems unlikely that Harclay expected royal clemency for his actions. More likely he contemplated a defection to the side of Robert the Bruce; rumour had it he even planned marrying one of Bruce's daughters, however there is no evidence of this. It is nevertheless likely that his action grew out of genuine concern with the northern situation, and was a desperate attempt to make the best out of a disastrous situation. Though historians have generally shown understanding for Harclay's actions, it is nevertheless common to refer to the event as "Harclay's treason". In the words of Maurice Keen: "To make a truce, or to indeed to give safe-conducts or make any agreement with the king's enemies without proper grant of powers, again constituted lèse majesté and can be found defined as such in other military cases". Harclay had received such powers in February 1322, but he was considered to have overstepped his prerogative by the 1323 treaty. It is also possible that Edward held a grudge against Harclay for the latter's failure to come to the rescue at Byland, and that this was behind the king's later, severe reaction. There is, however, no evidence that Harclay received the royal letter in time to arrive at the battlefield any earlier than he did. Death and aftermath When Edward found out about Harclay's treason, he issued an order for the earl's arrest. As Harclay attempted to garner support for his cause, the king began to fortify the northern castles. The stalemate lasted until 25 February, when Sir Anthony Lucy arrested the earl at Carlisle Castle. Lucy, who acted with only a small force, was clearly trusted by Harclay, so the arrest must have been conducted as a surprise manoeuvre. The enmity between Lucy and Harclay could stem from a dispute over the honour of Papcastle. In 1322, Harclay had also briefly disseised Lucy of his lands after the 1322 rebellion, even though Lucy had taken no part in that event. On 3 March, Harclay was arraigned before a royal justice in Carlisle, but was denied a proper hearing. He was brought forward apparelled in his robes of estate as a knight and earl. His spurs of knighthood were hewed off, and his sword was broken over his head. He was stripped of his robes, and proclaimed to be no knight, but a knave. He was then convicted as a traitor, and condemned to be hanged, drawn and quartered. He behaved with dignity at his execution, where he maintained that he had acted as he did out of concern for the best interest of the country. After his death, his head was taken to the king at Knaresborough in Yorkshire, before it was hung up on London Bridge. The four parts of his body were dispersed around the country, and displayed in Carlisle, Newcastle, Bristol, and Dover. Harclay's head was on display in London for five years before it was taken down. His sister petitioned the king to return the various parts of the body for a Christian burial, and in 1328 her request was granted. Further clemencies were not awarded. In the reign of Edward III, Harclay's nephew Henry petitioned to have the charge of treason annulled, but the petition was ignored. As for the peace treaty, the wisdom of Harclay's policy was vindicated after his death. Edward II's inability to win the war against the Scots, combined with his refusal to give up his claim on the Scottish crown, proved untenable in the end. Furthermore, it was Harclay's military skills and well-organised forces that gave what little protection the northern borders had over the previous years. Less than three months after Harclay's execution, Edward agreed on a thirteen-year truce with Scotland. Harclay in fiction Harclay's unauthorised negotiations with Robert the Bruce are dealt with in some significant detail in The Price of the King's Peace, the third volume of Nigel Tranter's Bruce trilogy, where he is called "Andrew Harcla". References Sources Further reading External sources The Battle of Boroughbridge at The Battlefields Trust. 1270s births 1323 deaths Harclay People executed under the Plantagenets for treason against England People executed under the Plantagenets by hanging, drawing and quartering Year of birth uncertain People of the Wars of Scottish Independence High Sheriffs of Cumberland English MPs 1321 Executed English people English politicians convicted of crimes

263527

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We%20Wish%20to%20Inform%20You%20That%20Tomorrow%20We%20Will%20Be%20Killed%20with%20Our%20Families

We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families

We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families: Stories from Rwanda is a 1998 non-fiction book by The New Yorker writer Philip Gourevitch about the 1994 Rwandan genocide, in which an estimated 1,000,000 Tutsis and Hutus were killed. Summary The book describes Gourevitch's travels in Rwanda after the Rwandan genocide, in which he interviews survivors and gathers information. Gourevitch retells survivors' stories, and reflects on the meaning of the genocide. The title comes from an April 15, 1994, letter written to Pastor Elizaphan Ntakirutimana, president of the Seventh-day Adventist Church's operations in western Rwanda, by seven Adventist pastors who had taken refuge with other Tutsis in an Adventist hospital in the locality of Mugonero in Kibuye prefecture. Gourevitch accused Ntakirutimana of aiding the killings that happened in the complex the next day. Ntakirutimana was eventually convicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. The book not only explains the genocide's peak in 1994, but the history of Rwanda leading up to the major events. Reception and criticism This book won numerous awards, including the 1998 National Book Critics Circle award, the Los Angeles Times Book Prize, the 1999 Guardian First Book Award and the George K. Polk Award for Foreign Reporting. Africanist René Lemarchand criticizes the book: What is missing from Gourevitch's account is the how and why of the killings. It is one thing to describe the horror, another to explain the motivations that occasioned the carnage. ... The absence of attention to the history of the country creates a portrait of a genocide that is insensitive to the complexity of the circumstances. In essence, Gourevitch's story reduces the butchery to the tale of bad guys and good guys, innocent victims and avatars of hate. His frame of reference is the Holocaust. The book was featured as one of the first Brotherhood 2.0 book club books. In 2019, it was ranked by Slate as one of the 50 best nonfiction books of the past 25 years. See also Léon Mugesera References External links BBC report of trial of Ntakirutimana Sept. 1998 review by Scott Sutherland at Salon.com Booknotes interview with Gourevitch on We Wish to Inform You, November 22, 1998 Frontline interview Biography of Philip Gourevitch 1998 non-fiction books 20th-century history books History books about the Rwandan genocide Works about the Rwandan genocide National Book Critics Circle Award-winning works Farrar, Straus and Giroux books

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Godbout

Jacques Godbout

Jacques Godbout, OC, CQ (born November 27, 1933) is a Canadian novelist, essayist, children's writer, journalist, filmmaker and poet. By his own admission a bit of a dabbler (touche-à-tout), Godbout has become one of the most important writers of his generation, with a major influence on post-1960 Quebec intellectual life. Biography Born in Montreal, Quebec, after studies at Collège Jean-de-Brébeuf and the Université de Montréal, Godbout taught French in Ethiopia before joining the National Film Board of Canada (NFB) as producer and scriptwriter in 1958. He was active during Quebec's Quiet Revolution during which time he wrote a number of penetrating essays, the most important of which were collected in Le Réformiste (1975) and Le Murmure marchand (1984). Godbout was a co-founder of Liberté (1959), the Mouvement laique de la langue française (1962) and the Union des écrivains Québécois (1977). Godbout's films include four full-length features and more than 15 documentaries. He has also written nine novels for adults and two for children. Godbout currently writes a monthly column in the Quebec newsmagazine L'actualité. Godbout lives in Outremont, a former city now in Montreal. He is the grand-nephew of former Quebec Premier Adélard Godbout. Godbout's novel Une histoire américaine (1986) was chosen for inclusion in the French version of Canada Reads, broadcast on Radio-Canada in 2004, where it was championed by trade-union activist and professor Gérald Larose. Awards and recognition On June 30, 2016, Godbout was made an Officer of the Order of Canada by Governor General David Johnston for "his significant contributions to the literary arts and critical thinking for more than half a century." His other awards and recognition include: Chevalier of the National Order of Quebec Ludger-Duvernay Prize (1973) Awarded the 2007 Prix Maurice Genevoix for La concierge du Panthéon Nominated for a 1997 Governor General's Award for children's literature for Une leçon de chasse Winner of the Quebec government's Prix Athanase-David in 1985 Prix Belgique-Canada (1978) Winner of the 1967 Governor General's Award for Fiction for Salut Galarneau!' ' Bibliography PoetryCarton pâte — 1956Les pavés secs — 1958C'est la chaude loi des hommes — 1960La grande muraille de Chine — 1969Souvenirs Shop — poèmes et proses — 1984 FictionL'aquarium — 1962La couteau sur la table — 1965 (translated into English as The Knife on The Table)Salut Galarneau! — 1967 (winner of the 1967 Governor General's Award for Fiction; translated into English as Hail Galarneau!)D'amour P.Q. — 1972L'isle au dragon — 1976 (translated into English as Dragon Island)Les têtes à Papineau — 1981Une histoire américaine — 1986Le temps des Galarneau — 1993Opération Rimbaud — 1999 Non-fictionLe réformiste: textes tranquilles — 1975Le murmure marchand — 1984Abécédaire Québécois — 1988L'écran du bonheur — 1990L'écrivain de province: journal 1981–1990 — 1991Le sort de l'Amérique — 1997 Children's literatureUne leçon de chasse — 1997 (nominated for a Governor General's Award)Mes petites fesses — 1998 Filmography Fiction YUL 871 - 1966 Kid Sentiment - 1967 IXE-13 - 1971 The Swindle (La Gammick) - 1974 Documentaries À St-Henri le cinq septembre (narration) Les Administrateurs L'Affaire Norman William Aimez-vous les chiens? Alias Will James Anglo Blues Anne Hébert, 1916–2000 Bientôt Noâl Les Canadiens Cinéma vérité : le moment décisif Comme en Californie Derrière l'image Deux épisodes dans la vie d'Hubert Aquin Les Dieux Distorsions L'École des peintres En dernier recours L'Extràme-Nord canadien Fabienne sans son Jules Feu l'objectivité Les héritiers du mouton noir Huit témoins L'Invasion (1775–1975) L'Invention du stress Jacques de Tonnancour, une interview Les Maîtres-sondeurs Marée au Ghana Le monde va nous prendre pour des sauvages The Black Sheep (Le Mouton noir) Paul-Émile Borduas (1905–1960) Les Petits Arpents Pour l'amour du stress Pour quelques arpents de neige Le Prospecteur et la Technique Quand vient l'été Québec Soft (La musique adoucit les moeurs) Rose et Landry Le Sort de l'Amérique Tàtes blanches Le Tir au fusil Traitor or Patriot (Traître ou Patriote) Travail d'équipe et Recherches agricoles Les "Troubbes" de Johnny Un monologue Nord-Sud Une Leçon de chasse Vivre sa ville Les Vrais Cousins'' See also List of Quebec writers List of Quebec film directors List of Quebec movies Literature of Quebec Culture of Quebec Cinema of Quebec References External links Watch films by Jacques Godbout at NFB.ca Jacques Godbout fonds (R11744) at Library and Archives Canada Godbout, item at Athabasca University 1933 births Living people Canadian documentary film directors Canadian male novelists 20th-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian male writers Canadian male poets 20th-century Canadian novelists Canadian poets in French Governor General's Award-winning fiction writers Journalists from Montreal Knights of the National Order of Quebec Writers from Montreal Film directors from Montreal National Film Board of Canada people Officers of the Order of Canada Prix Maurice Genevoix winners Prix Athanase-David winners Canadian novelists in French Canadian male non-fiction writers

263530

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durr%C3%ABs

Durrës

Durrës ( , ; ) is the second most populous city of the Republic of Albania and seat of Durrës County and Durrës Municipality. It is located on a flat plain along the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast between the mouths of the Erzen and Ishëm at the southeastern corner of the Adriatic Sea. Durrës' climate is profoundly influenced by a seasonal Mediterranean climate. Durrës was founded by Ancient Greek colonists from Corinth and Corcyra under the name of Epidamnos around the 7th century BC in cooperation with the local Illyrian Taulantii. Also known as Dyrrachium, Durrës essentially developed as it became an integral part of the Roman Empire and its successor the Byzantine Empire. The Via Egnatia, the continuation of the Via Appia, started in the city and led across the interior of the Balkan Peninsula to Constantinople in the east. In the Middle Ages, Durrës was contested between Bulgarian, Venetian and Ottoman dominions. The Ottomans ultimately prevailed, ruling the city for more than 400 years from 1501 until 1912. Following the Albanian Declaration of Independence, the city served as the capital of the Principality of Albania for a short period of time. Subsequently, it was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy in the interwar period and was occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II. Durrës experienced a strong expansion in its demography and economic activity during the Communism in Albania. The transport connections, concentration of economic institutions and industrial tradition underlie Durrës' leading economic position in Albania. It is served by the Port of Durrës, one of the largest on the Adriatic Sea, which connects the city to other neighbouring countries. Its most considerable attraction is the Amphitheatre of Durrës that is included on the Albanian tentative list for designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Once having a capacity for 20,000 people, it is the largest amphitheatre in the Balkan Peninsula. Name In antiquity, the city was known as Epidamnos (Ἐπίδαμνος) and Dyrrhachion (Δυρράχιον) in classical Greek and then Epidamnus and Dyrrachium in classical Latin. Epidamnos is the older known of the two Greek toponyms; it is widely considered to be of Illyrian origin, as first proposed by linguist Hans Krahe, and is attested in Thucydides (5th century BC), Aristotle (4th century BC), and Polybius (2nd century BC). Etymologically, Epidamnos may be related to Proto-Albanian *dami (cub, young animal, young bull) > dem (modern Albanian) as proposed by linguist Eqrem Çabej. Although the name Epidamnos/Epidamnus was more commonly used among Ancient Greek authors, the coinage of the city only used the abbreviations for the name Dyrrhachion/Dyrrhachium. Dyrrachium was chosen as the sole name of the city after the Roman Republic got control of the region after the Illyrian Wars in 229 BC. The Latin spelling of /y/ retained the form of Doric Greek Dyrrhachion, which was pronounced as /Durrakhion/. This change of the name is already attested in classical literature. Titus Livius, at the end of the first century BC, writes in Ab Urbe Condita Libri that at the time of the Illyrian Wars (roughly 200 years earlier) the city was not known as Dyrrachium, but as Epidamnus. Pomponius Mela, about 70 years later than Titus Livius, attributed the change of the name to the fact that the name Epidamnos reminded the Romans of the Latin word damnum, which signified evil and bad luck; Pliny the Elder, who lived in the same period, repeated this explanation in his own works. However, the Romans may have adopted the new name because it was already in more frequent use by citizens of the city. The name Dyrrhachion is usually explained as a Greek compound from 'bad' and 'rocky shore, flood, roaring waves', an explanation already hinted at in antiquity by Cassius Dio, who writes it referred to the difficulties of the rocky coastline, while also reporting that other Roman authors linked it to the name of an eponymous hero Dyrrachius. The mythological construction of the city's name was recorded by Appian (2nd century AD) who wrote that the king of the barbarians of this country, Epidamnus gave the name to the city. His daughter's son Dyrrachius, built a port near the town that he called Dyrrachium. Stephanus of Byzantium repeated this mythological construction in his work. It is unclear whether the two toponyms referred originally to different areas of the territory of the city or whether they referred to the same territory. Classical literature indicates that they more probably referred to different neighbouring areas originally. Gradually, the name Epidamnus fell out of use and Dyrrachium became the sole name for the city. Archaeological research has shown that at the time of the foundation of Durrës, two distinct settlements existed on its territory. The first one is a hill site with no direct contact with the sea. It predates the colony and might represent the settlement which held the toponym known as Epidamnos in ancient literature. The hill site overlooks to its south the second site which is the territory of the port of Durrës, where the colony was founded. Its location on a rocky shore struck by waves on all sides reflects the description of the toponym Dyrrhachion. The distinction between these two districts of the city remained in place even much later. In the 19th century, Durrës proper was the district of the port, while the hill north of it was a separate settlement, Stani (Kodra e Stanit). The modern names of the city in Albanian (Durrës) and Italian (Durazzo, ) are derived from Dyrrachium/Dyrrachion. An intermediate, palatalized antecedent is found in the form Dyrratio, attested in the early centuries AD. The palatalized /-tio/ ending probably represents a phonetic change in the way the inhabitants of the city pronounced its name. The preservation of old Doric /u/ indicates that the modern name derives from populations to whom the toponym was known in its original Doric pronunciation. By contrast, in Byzantine Greek, the name of the city is pronounced with the much later evolution of /u/ as /i/. The modern Italian name evolved in the sub-dialects that emerged from Colloquial Latin in northern Italy. The modern Albanian name evolved independently from the parent language of Albanian around the same period of the post-Roman era in the first centuries AD as the difference in stress in the two toponyms (first syllable in Albanian, second in Italian) highlights. In English usage, the Italian form Durazzo used to be widespread, but the local Albanian name Durrës has gradually replaced it in recent decades. History Earliest period The territory of Durrës was populated at least starting from the Eneolithic and then, from protohistoric times, it was inhabited by Illyrian peoples. Antiquity Though surviving remains are minimal, Durrës is one of the oldest cities in Albania. In terms of mythology, the genealogy of the foundation of Dyrrhachium includes among the founders Illyrian men (the Illyrian king Epidamnos and his grandson Dyrrachos), Greek men (the Corinthian Falio, descendant of Heracles), heroes (Heracles who was given part of the lands) and gods (Poseidon, as father of Dyrrachos). Several ancient people held the site: the presence of the Brygi appears to be confirmed by several ancient writers, the Illyrian Taulantii (their arrival has been estimated to have happened not later than the 10th century BC), probably the Liburni who expanded southwards in the 9th century BC. The city was founded by Greek colonists in 627 BC on the coast of the Taulantii. According to ancient authors, the Greek colonists helped the Taulantii to expel Liburnians and mixed with the local population establishing the Greek element to the port. A flourishing commercial centre emerged and the city grew rapidly. The fact that about the 6th century BC the citizens of Epidamnus constructed a Doric-style treasury at Olympia confirms that the city was among the richest of the Ancient Greek world. An ancient account describes Epidamnos as ‘a great power and very populated’ city. After 323 BC Epidamnus-Dyrrhachium was involved in the intervention in Illyria of the Macedonians under Cassander, who clashed with the Illyrians under Glaukias. In 314 BC the Macedonian king seized the city but the garrison he established there was in turn besieged and driven out by the Illyrian king and the Corcyrans. In 312 BC, after another unsuccessful attack of Cassander in the region, the city came under the protection of Glaukias. Those events marked the end of Macedonian presence on the Adriatic coast for almost one century. The city probably came under the control of Pyrrhus of Epirus at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. From about 280 BC the Illyrian king Monunius, and his successor Mytilos minted in Dyrrhachion silver and bronze coins respectively, bearing the king's name and the symbol of the city. The fact that their coins were struck in the city mint of Dyrrhachion stresses that they exercised to some extent their authority over the city. Epidamnus came under the control of the Illyrian Ardiaei under Agron, who fortified the city (c. 250-231 BC). When the Romans defeated the Illyrians, they replaced the rule of queen Teuta with that of Demetrius of Pharos, one of her generals. He lost his kingdom, including Epidamnus, to the Romans in 219 BC at the Second Illyrian War. In the Third Illyrian War Epidamnus was attacked by Gentius but he was defeated by the Romans at the same year. For Catullus, the city was Durrachium Hadriae tabernam, "the taberna of the Adriatic", one of the stopping places for a Roman traveling up the Adriatic, as Catullus had done himself in the sailing season of 56. After the Illyrian Wars with the Roman Republic in 229 BC ended in a decisive defeat for the Illyrians, the city passed to Roman rule, under which it was developed as a major military and naval base. The Romans preferred to use the name Dyrrachium (Greek: Δυρράχιον / Dyrrhachion) for the city. They considered the name Epidamnos to be inauspicious because of its wholly coincidental similarities with the Latin word damnum, meaning "loss" or "harm". The meaning of Dyrrachium ("bad spine" or "difficult ridge" in Greek) is unclear, but it has been suggested that it refers to the imposing cliffs near the city. During the Great Roman Civil War in Illyria, the Battle of Dyrrachium was undertaken by Julius Caesar against Gnaeus Pompey. The battle was a victory for Pompey, but it preceded the more decisive Battle of Pharsalus in Greece where Caesar won. Under Roman rule, Dyrrachium prospered; it became the western end of the Via Egnatia, the great Roman road that led to Thessalonica and on to Constantinople. Another lesser road led south to the city of Buthrotum, the modern Butrint. The Roman emperor Caesar Augustus made the city a colony for veterans of his legions following the Battle of Actium, proclaiming it a civitas libera (free town). In the 4th century, Dyrrachium was made the capital of the Roman province of Epirus nova. It was the birthplace of the emperor Anastasius I in c. 430. Sometime later that century, Dyrrachium was struck by a powerful earthquake which destroyed the city's defences. Anastasius I rebuilt and strengthened the city walls, thus creating the strongest fortifications in the western Balkans. The walls were so thick that, according to the Byzantine historian Anna Komnene, four horsemen could ride abreast on them. Significant portions of the ancient city defences still remain, although they have been much reduced over the centuries. Like much of the rest of the Balkans, Dyrrachium and the surrounding Dyrraciensis provinciae suffered considerably from barbarian incursions during the Migrations Period. It was besieged in 481 by Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, and in subsequent centuries had to fend off frequent attacks by the Bulgarians. Unaffected by the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city continued under the Byzantine Empire as an important port and a major link between the Empire and western Europe. During the sixth century based on accounts of Procopius, the city was mainly inhabited by a Greek population. Middle Ages The city and the surrounding coast became a Byzantine province, the Theme of Dyrrhachium, probably in the first decade of the 9th century. Durrës became a Christian city quite early on; its bishopric was created around 58 and was raised to the status of an archbishopric in 449. It was also the seat of an Orthodox metropolitan bishop. The city remained in Byzantine hands until the late 10th century, when Samuel of Bulgaria gained control of the city, possibly through his marriage with Agatha, daughter of the local magnate John Chryselios. Samuel made his son-in-law Ashot Taronites, a Byzantine captive who had married his daughter Miroslava, governor of the city. In circa 1005, however, Ashot and Miroslava, with the connivance of Chryselios, fled to Constantinople, where they notified Emperor Basil II of their intention to surrender the city to him. Soon, a Byzantine squadron appeared off the city under Eustathios Daphnomeles, and the city returned to Byzantine rule. In the 11th–12th centuries, the city was important as a military stronghold and a metropolitan see rather than as a major economic center, and never recovered its late antique prosperity; Anna Komnene makes clear that medieval Dyrrhachium occupied only a portion of the ancient city. In the 1070s, two of its governors, Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder and Nikephoros Basilakes, led unsuccessful rebellions trying to seize the Byzantine throne. Dyrrachium was lost in February 1082 when Alexios I Komnenos was defeated by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund in the Battle of Dyrrhachium. Byzantine control was restored a few years later, but the Normans under Bohemund returned to besiege it in 1107–08, and sacked it again in 1185 under King William II of Sicily. In 1205, after the Fourth Crusade, the city was transferred to the rule of the Republic of Venice, which formed the "Duchy of Durazzo". This Duchy was conquered in 1213 and the city taken by the Despotate of Epirus under Michael I Komnenos Doukas. In 1257, Durrës was briefly occupied by the King of Sicily, Manfred of Hohenstaufen. It was re-occupied by the Despot of Epirus Michael II Komnenos Doukas until 1259, when the Despotate was defeated by the Byzantine Empire of Nicaea in the Battle of Pelagonia. In the 1270s, Durrës was again controlled by Epirus under Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas, the son of Michael II, who in 1278 was forced to yield the city to Charles d' Anjou (Charles I of Sicily). In c. 1273, it was wrecked by a devastating earthquake (according to George Pachymeres) but soon recovered. It was briefly occupied by King Milutin of Serbia in 1296. In the thirteenth century, a Jewish community existed in Durrës and was employed in the salt trade. In the early 14th century, the city was ruled by a coalition of Anjous, Hungarians, and Albanians of the Thopia family. In 1317 or 1318, the area was taken by the Serbs and remained under their rule until the 1350s. At that time the Popes, supported by the Anjous, increased their diplomatic and political activity in the area, by using the Latin bishops, including the archbishop of Durrës. The city had been a religious center of Catholicism after the Anjou were installed in Durrës. In 1272, a Catholic archbishop was installed, and until the mid-14th century there were both Catholic and Orthodox archbishops of Durrës. Two Irish pilgrims who visited Albania on their way to Jerusalem in 1322, reported that Durrës was "inhabited by Latins, Greeks, perfidious Jews and barbaric Albanians". When the Serbian Tsar Dušan died in 1355, the city passed into the hands of the Albanian family of Thopias. In 1376 the Navarrese Company Louis of Évreux, Duke of Durazzo, who had gained the rights on the Kingdom of Albania from his second wife, attacked and conquered the city, but in 1383 Karl Topia regained control of the city. The Republic of Venice regained control in 1392 and retained the city, known as Durazzo in those years, as part of the Albania Veneta. It fended off a siege by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II in 1466 but fell to Ottoman forces in 1501. Under Ottoman rule, many of its inhabitants converted to Islam and many mosques were erected. The city was renamed Dıraç but did not prosper under the Ottomans and its importance declined greatly. Following the establishment of Ottoman rule in 1501, the Durrës Jewish community experienced population growth. By the mid-19th century, its population was said to have been only about 1,000 people living in some 200 households. In the late nineteenth century, Durrës contained 1,200 Orthodox Aromanians (130 families) who lived among the larger population of Muslim Albanians alongside a significant number of Catholic Albanians. The decrepitude of Durrës was noted by foreign observers in the early 20th century: "The walls are dilapidated; plane-trees grow on the gigantic ruins of its old Byzantine citadel; and its harbour, once equally commodious and safe, is gradually becoming silted up." Durrës was a main centre in İşkodra Vilayet before 1912. Modern Durrës was an active city in the Albanian national liberation movement in the periods 1878–1881 and 1910–1912. Ismail Qemali raised the Albanian flag on 26 November 1912 but the city was occupied by the Kingdom of Serbia three days later during the First Balkan War. On 29 November 1912 Durrës became the county town of the Durrës County () one of the counties of the Kingdom of Serbia established on the part of the territory of Albania occupied from Ottoman Empire. The Durrës County had four districts (): Durrës, Lezha, Elbasan and Tirana. The army of the Kingdom of Serbia retreated from Durrës in April 1913. The city became Albania's second national capital (after Vlora) on 7 March 1914 under the brief rule of Prince William of Wied. It remained Albania's capital until 11 February 1920, when the Congress of Lushnjë made Tirana the new capital. During the First World War, the city was occupied by Italy in 1915 and by Austria-Hungary in 1916–1918. On 29 December 1915, a Naval Battle was fought off Durazzo. On 2 October 1918, several allied ships bombarded Durazzo and attacked the few Austrian ships in the harbour. Although civilians started to flee the city at the start of the bombardment, many casualties were inflicted on the innocent and neutral population. The Old City being adjacent to the harbour was largely destroyed, including the Royal Palace of Durrës and other primary public buildings. It was captured by Italian troops on 16 October 1918. Restored to Albanian sovereignty, Durrës became the country's temporary capital between 1918 and March 1920. It experienced an economic boom due to Italian investments and developed into a major seaport under the rule of King Zog, with a modern harbour being constructed in 1927. It was at this time the Royal Villa of Durrës was built by Zog as a summer palace, that still dominates the skyline from a hill close to the old city. An earthquake in 1926 damaged some of the city and the rebuilding that followed gave the city its more modern appearance. During the 1930s, the Bank of Athens had a branch in the city. Durrës (called Durazzo again in Italian) and the rest of Albania were occupied in April 1939 and annexed to the Kingdom of Italy until 1943, then occupied by Nazi Germany until autumn 1944. Durrës's strategic value as a seaport made it a high-profile military target for both sides. It was the site of the initial Italian landings on 7 April 1939 (and was fiercely defended by Mujo Ulqinaku) as well as the launch point for the ill-fated Italian invasion of Greece. The city was heavily damaged by Allied bombing during the war and the port installations were blown up by retreating German soldiers in autumn 1944. The Communist regime of Enver Hoxha rapidly rebuilt the city following the war, establishing a variety of heavy industries in the area and expanding the port. It became the terminus of Albania's first railway, begun in 1947 (Durrës–Tiranë railway). In the late 1980s, the city was briefly renamed Durrës-Enver Hoxha. The city was and continues to remain the center of Albanian mass beach tourism. Following the collapse of communist rule in 1990, Durrës became the focus of mass emigrations from Albania with ships being hijacked in the harbour and sailed at gunpoint to Italy. In one month alone, August 1991, over 20,000 people migrated to Italy in this fashion. Italy intervened militarily, putting the port area under its control, and the city became the center of the European Community's "Operation Pelican", a food-aid program. In 1997, Albania slid into anarchy following the collapse of a massive pyramid scheme which devastated the national economy. An Italian-led peacekeeping force was controversially deployed to Durrës and other Albanian cities to restore order, although there were widespread suggestions that the real purpose of "Operation Alba" was to prevent economic refugees continuing to use Albania's ports as a route to migrate to Italy. Following the start of the 21st century, Durrës has been revitalized as many streets were repaved, while parks and façades experienced a face lift. Geography Durrës is located on the Bay of Durrës on a flat alluvial plain between the river mouths of Erzen and the Ishëm along the Adriatic Sea within the Mediterranean Sea. The municipality of Durrës is encompassed in the County of Durrës within the Northern Region of Albania and consists of the adjacent administrative units of Ishëm, Katund i Ri, Manëz, Rrashbull, Sukth and Durrës as its seat. It stretches from the mouth of Ishëm River at the Cape of Rodon in the north across the Bay of Lalzi to the Shkëmbi i Kavajës in the south. Climate According to the Köppen climate classification, Durrës is classified under the periphery of the hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) zone with an average annual temperature of . Its climate is influenced by its proximity to the Adriatic Sea in the Mediterranean Sea and the hills in the Western Lowlands in the hinterlands. The summers are predominantly hot and dry, the winters relatively mild, and falls and springs mainly stable, in terms of precipitation and temperatures. The mean monthly temperature ranges between in winter to in summer. The highest temperature of was recorded on 14 August 1957. The lowest temperature of was registered on 26 January 1954. Durrës receives most of the precipitation in winter months and less in summer months. The mean annual precipitation ranges between and . Politics Durrës is a municipality governed by a mayor–council system with the mayor of Durrës and the members of the Durrës Municipal Council being responsible for the administration of Durrës Municipality. The mayor of Durrës is elected by its people to act as the executive officer of the municipality. The Durrës Municipal Council is the legislative body of the municipality and is also a democratically elected institution, comprising 51 councillors since the latest municipal election. Both, the mayor and members of the municipal council serve four-year terms without term limits. Economy Durrës is an important link to Western Europe due to its port and its proximity to the Italian port cities, notably Bari, to which daily ferries run. As well as the dockyard, it also possesses an important shipyard and manufacturing industries, notably producing leather, plastic and tobacco products. The southern coastal stretch of Golem is renowned for its traditional mass beach tourism having experienced uncontrolled urban development. The city's beaches are also a popular destination for many foreign and local tourists. In 2012, new water sanitation systems are being installed to eliminate sea water pollution. In contrast, the northern coastal stretch of Lalzit Bay is mostly unspoiled and set to become an elite tourism destination as a number of beach resorts are being built since 2009. Neighboring districts are known for the production of good wine and a variety of foodstuffs. According to the World Bank, Durrës has made significant steps of starting a business in 2016. Durrës ranks ninth among 22 cities in Southeastern Europe before the capital Tirana, Belgrade, Serbia and Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Transportation Major roads and railways pass through the city of Durrës thank to its significant location and connect the northern part of the country to the south and the west with the east. Durrës is the starting point of Pan-European Corridor VIII, national roads SH2 and SH4, and serves as the main railway station of the Albanian Railways (HSH). The Pan-European Corridor VIII is one of the Pan-European corridors. It runs between Durrës, at the Adriatic coast, and Varna, at the Bulgarian Black Sea coast. The National Road 2 (SH2) begins at the Port of Durrës at the Dajlani Overpass, bypasses the road to Tirana International Airport, and ends at the Kamza Overpass in the outskirts of Tirana where it meets National Road 1 (SH1) State Road heading to northern Albania. The Albania–Kosovo Highway is a four-lane highway constructed from 2006 to 2013 between Albania and Kosovo. As part of the South-East European Route 7, the highway will connect the Adriatic Sea ports of Durrës via Pristina, with the E75/Corridor X near Niš, Serbia. As most tourists come through Kosovo, the laying of the highway make it easier to travel to Durrës. The Port of Durrës, in the south-west of the city, is one of the major ports of the Adriatic Sea and plays a very important role in the city's economy. The port is located on an artificial basin that is formed between two moles, with a west-northwesterly oriented entrance approximately wide as it passes between the ends of the moles. The port is also a key location for transit networks and passenger ferry, giving Durrës a strategic position with respect to the Pan-European Corridor VIII. The port has experienced major upgrades in recent years culminating with the opening of the new terminal in July 2012. In 2012, The Globe and Mail ranked Durrës at no. 1 among 8 exciting new cruise ports to explore. It is one of the largest passenger port on the Adriatic Sea that handle more than 1.5 million passengers per year. The rail station of Durrës is connected to other cities in Albania, including Vlorë and the capital of Tirana. The Durrës–Tiranë railway was a railway line which joined the two biggest cities in Albania: Durrës and Tiranë. The line connects to the Shkodër–Vorë railway halfway in Vorë, and to the Durrës-Vlorë railway in Durrës. In 2015, some rail stations and rolling stock along the Durrës-Tiranë line are being upgraded and latter colored red and white. Demography Durrës is the second most populous municipality in Albania and one of the most populous on the Adriatic Sea with a growing number of inhabitants. According to the 2011 census, the municipal unit of Durrës had an estimated population of 113,249 of whom 56,511 were men and 56,738 women. Albania is a secular state with no state religion and the freedom of belief, conscience and religion is explicitly guaranteed in the constitution of the country. Durrës is therefore religiously diverse and has many places of worship catering to its religious population, whom are adherents of Christianity, Islam and Judaism. Islam was introduced to the city in the early 16th century during the Ottoman conquest. Much of the local population converted to Islam during the four centuries of Ottoman rule. The two most well-known mosques in the city are the Great Mosque of Durrës (built in 1931 on the site of an earlier Ottoman mosque) and the Fatih Mosque, erected in 1502 just one year after the city became part of the Ottoman Empire. Christianity in Durrës and elsewhere in Albania has a presence dating back to classical antiquity. Christian traditions relate that the archbishopric of Durrës was founded by the apostle Paul while he was preaching in Illyria and Epirus and that there were possibly about seventy Christian families in the city as early as the time of the apostles. The Orthodox Church of Albania, which has been autocephalous since 1923, was divided into the archbishopric of Tirana–Durrës, headed by the Metropolitan and sub-divided into the local church districts of Tirana, Durrës, Shkodër and Elbasan. Culture The theatrical and musical life of the city is centered on the Aleksandër Moisiu Theatre, the Estrada Theatre, a puppet theatre, and the Philharmonic Orchestra. The annual International Film Summerfest of Durrës, founded in 2008, is held in late August or early September in the amphitheatre. In 2004 and 2009 Miss Globe International was held in Durrës. The city is home to different architectural styles that represent influential periods in its history. The architecture is influenced by Illyrian, Greek, Roman and Italian architecture. In the 21st century, part of Durrës turned into a modernist city, with large blocks of flats, modern new buildings, new shopping centres and many green spaces. Education Durrës has a long tradition of education since the beginning of civil life from antiquity until today. After the fall of communism in Albania, a reorganization plan was announced in 1990, that would extend the compulsory education program from eight to ten years. The following year, major economic and political crisis in Albania, and the ensuing breakdown of public order, plunged the school system into chaos. Later, many schools were rebuilt or reconstructed, to improve learning conditions especially in larger cities of the country. Durrës is host to academic institutions such as the University of Durrës, Albanian College of Durrës, Kajtazi Brothers Educational Institute, Gjergj Kastrioti High School, Naim Frashëri High School, Sports mastery school Benardina Qerraxhiu and Jani Kukuzeli Artistic Lycee. One of the city's main sights is the Byzantine city wall, also called Durrës Castle, while the largest amphitheatre in the Balkans is close to the city's harbour. This fifth-century construction is currently under consideration for listing as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Museums Durrës is home to the largest archaeological museum in the country, the Durrës Archaeological Museum, located near the beach. North of the museum are the sixth-century Byzantine walls constructed after the Visigoth invasion of 481. The bulk of the museum's collection comprises artefacts from the nearby ancient site of Dyrrhachium and includes an extensive collection from the Illyrian, Ancient Greek, Hellenistic and Roman periods. Items of major note include Roman funeral steles and stone sarcophagi, a colourful elliptical mosaic measuring , known as The Beauty of Durrës, and a collection of miniature busts of Venus, testament to the time when Durrës was a centre of worship of the goddess. There are several other museums including the Royal Villa of Durrës and the Museum of History (in the house of the actor Aleksandër Moisiu). International relations In 2008, Bosnia and Herzegovina opened a consulate in the city considering that there is a community with Bosniak ancestry that lives in Durres County. They are mostly concentrated in two neighborhoods of the city of Shijak, Borake and Koxhas. Nowadays it seems that the consulate is no longer active. These countries have an honorary consulate in Durrës: Twin and sister cities Durrës is twinned with: Bari, Italy Bitonto, Italy Istanbul, Turkey Thessaloniki, Greece Cooperation and friendship Durrës has cooperation and friendship relationships with: Kumanovo, North Macedonia Shantou, China Ulcinj, Montenegro See also List of ancient cities in Illyria List of mayors of Durrës List of people from Durrës Notes References Bibliography External links durres.gov.alOfficial Website {{|ODB}} Cities in Albania Administrative units of Durrës Municipalities in Durrës County Populated coastal places in Albania 627 BC 7th-century BC establishments Populated places established in the 7th century BC Mediterranean port cities and towns in Albania Former national capitals Illyrian Albania Cities in ancient Illyria Greek colonies in Illyria Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Albania Hellenistic Albania Roman sites in Albania Territories of the Republic of Venice

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Beattie%20%28poet%29

James Beattie (poet)

James Beattie (; 25 October 1735 – 18 August 1803) was a Scottish poet, moralist, and philosopher. Career He became schoolmaster of the parish of Fordoun in 1753. He took the position of usher at the grammar-school of Aberdeen in 1758. In 1760, he was, to his surprise, appointed Professor of Moral Philosophy at Marischal College (later part of Aberdeen University) as a result of the influence exerted by his close friend, Robert Arbuthnot of Haddo. In the following year he published a volume of poems, The Judgment of Paris (1765), which attracted attention. But the two works that brought him most fame were An Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth, and his poem of The Minstrel. The Essay, intended as an answer to David Hume, had great immediate success, and led to an introduction to the King, a pension of £200, and the degree of LL.D. from Oxford. The first book of The Minstrel was published in 1771 and the second in 1774, and constitutes his true title to remembrance, winning him the praise of Samuel Johnson. It contains much beautiful descriptive writing. Beattie was prominent in arguing against the institution of slavery, notably in his Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth (1770), and in Elements of Moral Science (1790–93), where he used the case of Dido Belle to argue the mental capacity of black people. Beattie was an amateur cellist and member of the Aberdeen Musical Society. He considered questions of music philosophy in his essay On Poetry and Music (written 1762, published 1776), which was republished several times and translated into French in 1798. His poem "The Hermit" was set to music by Tommaso Giordani (1778). Beattie co-founded the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1783. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1786. Personal life James Beattie was born the youngest of six children of a shopkeeper and small farmer at Laurencekirk in the Mearns, and educated at Marischal, graduating in 1753. Beattie underwent much domestic sorrow in his later years, which broke down his own health and spirits. His wife, Mary née Dunn, whom he had married in 1767, went mad and was committed to a Musselburgh asylum. His two promising sons both died: James Hay in 1790 aged 22 from "nervous atrophy", and Montagu in 1796, a 'promising poet' aged 18 after a short illness. He relinquished his duties at Marischal in 1797. That year he became afflicted with rheumatism, and in 1799 he had a stroke of palsy. He died in Aberdeen in 1803 and is buried there in St Nicholas' Churchyard. His niece, Margaret Valentine, married Reverend Professor George Glennie FRSE. Recognition Beattie is today remembered primarily for his poetry and for his staunch opposition to slavery. His philosophical work have generally been assessed very negatively in the time since his death, with Immanuel Kant stating that his misunderstanding of most of David Hume's work was "positively painful". Philosopher John Immerwahr states that among contemporary scholars, Beattie is regarded as "a superficial thinker who is primarily known because he was the source for some of Kant's knowledge of Hume". A biographical sketch, An Account of the Life of James Beattie, LL.D., was published in 1804 by Alexander Bower. The poet Robert Burns informed Mrs Frances Dunlop in a letter that the idea of using Coila as the name of his poetic muse first came to him from Beattie's use of a muse named 'Scota' in his Scots language poem of 1768 titled To Mr Alexander at Lochlee. Beattie is one of the sixteen Scottish poets and writers depicted on the Scott Monument on Princes Street in Edinburgh. He appears on the left side of the east face. Works Original Poems and Translations (1760) The Judgement of Paris (1765) Poems on Several Subjects (1766) An Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth (1770) The Minstrel; or, The Progress of Genius (two volumes, 1771 and 1774) Essays, on the nature and immutability of truth in opposition to sophistry and scepticism. On poetry and music as they affect the mind. On laughter and ludicrous composition. On the utility of classical learning (1776) Essays on Poetry (1778) Scoticisms, Arranged in Alphabetical Order, Designed to Correct Improprieties of Speech and Writing (1779) Poems on several occasions (1780) Dissertations Moral and Critical (1783) The Evidence of the Christian Religion Briefly and Plainly Stated (two volumes, 1786) The theory of language. Part I. Of the origin and general nature of speech. Part II. Of universal grammar (1788) Elements of Moral Science (two volumes, 1790–1793) Vol 1 Vol 2 The Poetical Works of James Beattie (1831), edited by A. Dyce The poetical works of Beattie, Blair, and Falconer (1868), edited by Charles Cowden Clarke James Beattie's Day-Book, 1773–1778 (1948), edited by R. S. Walker James Beattie's Diary (1948), edited by R. S. Walker See also List of abolitionist forerunners Notes References Beattie, James, Elements of Moral Science, 1790. Facsimile ed., 1975, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, . Further reading External links James Beattie at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) 1735 births 1803 deaths 18th-century Scottish people 19th-century Scottish people People educated at Aberdeen Grammar School Academics of the University of Aberdeen Alumni of the University of Aberdeen People from Kincardine and Mearns Scottish literary critics Scottish scholars and academics Scottish poets Scottish essayists Members of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh Founder Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Scottish philosophers Enlightenment philosophers Scottish schoolteachers Scottish translators Scottish Christians 18th-century British translators Members of the American Philosophical Society

263549

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Academy

British Academy

The British Academy is the United Kingdom's national academy for the humanities and the social sciences. It was established in 1902 and received its royal charter in the same year. It is now a fellowship of more than 1,000 leading scholars spanning all disciplines across the humanities and social sciences and a funding body for research projects across the United Kingdom. The academy is a self-governing and independent registered charity, based at 10–11 Carlton House Terrace in London. The British Academy is funded with an annual grant from the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS). In 2014/15 the British Academy's total income was £33,100,000, including £27,000,000 from BIS. £32,900,000 was distributed during the year in research grants, awards and charitable activities. Purposes The academy states that it has five fundamental purposes: To speak up for the humanities and the social sciences To invest in the very best researchers and research To inform and enrich debate around society's greatest questions To ensure sustained international engagement and collaboration To make the most of the Academy's assets to secure the Academy for the future. History The creation of a "British Academy for the Promotion of Historical, Philosophical and Philological Studies" was first proposed in 1899 in order that Britain could be represented at meetings of European and American academies. The organisation, which has since become simply "the British Academy", was initiated as an unincorporated society on 17 December 1901, and received its Royal Charter from King Edward VII on 8 August 1902. Since then, many of Britain's most distinguished scholars in the humanities and social sciences have been involved in the life of the academy, including John Maynard Keynes, Isaiah Berlin, C. S. Lewis and Henry Moore. Until 1927–28 the academy had no premises. Then it moved to some rooms in No. 6 Burlington Gardens. In 1968 it moved the short distance to Burlington House. It subsequently moved to headquarters near Regent's Park. Then in 1998 the Academy moved to its present headquarters in Carlton House Terrace. Overlooking St James's Park, the terrace was designed by John Nash and built in the 1820s and 1830s. Number 10 was formerly the London residence of the Ridley family and number 11 was from 1856 to 1875 the home of Prime Minister William Gladstone. In March 2010, the academy embarked on a £2.75m project to renovate and restore the public rooms in No. 11, following the departure of former tenant the Foreign Press Association, and link the two buildings together. The work was completed in January 2011 and the new spaces include a new 150-seat Wolfson Auditorium are available for public hire. In addition to offices for its staff 10 - 11 Carlton House Terrace is used for academy conferences and events and parts of the building are available on a private hire basis for events. The history, problems and achievements of the academy have been recorded in works by two of its secretaries. Sir Frederic Kenyon's volume of 37 pages covers the years up to 1951; Sir Mortimer Wheeler's volume covers the years 1949 to 1968. Fellowship Election as a Fellow of the British Academy recognises high scholarly distinction in the humanities or social sciences, evidenced by published work. Fellows may use the letters FBA after their names. Fellows are elected into one of the following disciplinary sections: Humanities Classical Antiquity Theology and Religious Studies African and Oriental Studies Linguistics and Philology Early Modern Languages and Literatures Modern Languages, Literatures and other Media Archaeology Medieval Studies Early Modern History to c1800 Modern History from c1800 History of Art and Music Philosophy Culture, Media and Performance Social Sciences Law Economics and Economic History Anthropology and Geography Sociology, Demography and Social Statistics Political Studies: Political Theory, Government and International Relations Psychology Management and Business Studies Education Funding schemes The British Academy channels substantial public funding into support for individuals and organisations pursuing humanities and social sciences research and scholarship in the UK and overseas. These funding schemes are designed to aid scholars at different stages of their academic career and include postdoctoral fellowships, Wolfson Research Professorships, Leverhulme Senior Research Fellowships, small research grants and British Academy Research Projects. In addition to its main public funds supported by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, the academy also draws on private funds arising from gifts, legacies, contributions made by fellows and grants from research foundations to support a further range of research activities. In 2014/15, the academy received around £30m to support research and researchers across the humanities and social sciences. Funds available to the academy were invested in the following main areas: research career development; a portfolio of research grant opportunities, and international engagement. The demand and quality of applications submitted for academy funding remains high. This year the academy received around 3,600 applications and made 588 awards to scholars based in around 100 different universities across the UK – a success rate of 16 per cent. International work In order to promote the interests of UK research and learning around the world, the Academy works to create frameworks to support international networking and collaboration and develop the role of humanities and social sciences research in tackling global challenges. It draws on expertise from a wide range of sources from within the fellowship and on specialist advice from its seven Area Panels for Africa, China, the Middle East, Europe, South Asia, and Latin America/Caribbean. The Academy also funds and coordinates a network of overseas institutes which provide local expertise, logistical support and often a working base for UK scholars. These include research institutes in Amman, Ankara, Athens, Jerusalem, Nairobi, Rome and Tehran, as well as UK-based specialist learned societies which run strategic research programmes in other parts of the world including Africa, Latin America and South and South East Asia. Higher education and research As the UK's national voice for the humanities and social sciences, the British Academy seeks to promote and protect the interests and health of these disciplines and their research base. It makes independent representations to the government and other bodies on relevant higher education and research issues, contributes statements and submissions to formal consultations and organises a range of policy events and discussions, liaising regularly with learned societies, universities, national academies and other relevant organisations. British Academy's policy work The British Academy's Fellowship represents breadth and excellence of expertise across these disciplines, and the Academy's policy work is dedicated to applying that insight to policy issues for public benefit and societal well-being. The goal is to enlighten the context, meaning and practicalities of policy challenges. This work is meant to bring independence, authority and objectivity to complex issues, such as public policy, skills, education and research. From reports to small meetings, the British Academy provides a forum for examining issues that are important for the society and the economy. Public events The British Academy organises a wide-ranging annual programme of more than 50 public lectures, panel discussions, conferences and seminars showcasing new research and debating topical issues. This includes a number of long-established lecture series, such as the Shakespeare Lecture, first given in 1911. Most events are free and most take place at the Academy's headquarters in Carlton House Terrace Award of prizes The British Academy awards a total of 15 prizes and medals, most of them awarded annually. British Academy President's Medal, created in 2010 and awarded to up to five recipients each year who have demonstrated "signal service to the cause of the humanities and social sciences" British Academy Medal, created in 2013 and awarded to up to three recipients each year "for landmark academic achievement in any of the humanities and social science disciplines supported by the Academy" Burkitt Medal, created in 1923 Kenyon Medal, first awarded in 1957 Leverhulme Medal and Prize, created in 2002 British Academy Book Prize for Global Cultural Understanding, established in 2013 Peter Townsend Policy Press Prize, created in 2011 Wiley Prize in Psychology, first awarded in 2009 Wiley Prize in Economics, first awarded in 2013 Brian Barry Prize in Political Science, first awarded in 2014 Serena Medal, first awarded in 1920 Edward Ullendorff Medal, first awarded in 2012 Rose Mary Crawshay Prize, first awarded in 1916 Grahame Clark Medal, first awarded in 1993 Sir Israel Gollancz Prize, first awarded in 1925 Landscape Archaeology Medal, first awarded in 2007 Neil & Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics, first awarded in 2014 Derek Allen Prize, first awarded in 1977 Presidents of the British Academy The Lord Reay 1902–1907 Sir Edward Maunde Thompson 1907–1909 Samuel Henry Butcher 1909–1910 Sir Adolphus Ward 1911–1913 The Viscount Bryce 1913–1917 Sir Frederic Kenyon 1917–1921 The Earl of Balfour 1921–1928 H. A. L. Fisher 1928–1932 John William Mackail 1932–1936 Sir David Ross 1936–1940 Sir J. H. Clapham 1940–1946 Sir Idris Bell 1946–1950 Sir Charles Kingsley Webster 1950–1954 Sir George Norman Clark 1954–1958 Sir Maurice Bowra 1958–1962 The Lord Robbins 1962–1967 Sir Kenneth Clinton Wheare 1967–1971 Sir Denys Lionel Page 1971–1974 Sir Isaiah Berlin 1974–1978 Sir Kenneth Dover 1978–1981 Owen Chadwick 1981–1985 Sir Randolph Quirk 1985–1989 Sir Anthony Kenny 1989–1993 Sir Keith Thomas 1993–1997 Sir Tony Wrigley 1997–2001 The Viscount Runciman of Doxford 2001–2004 The Baroness O'Neill of Bengarve 2005–2009 Sir Adam Roberts 2009–2013 The Lord Stern of Brentford 2013–2017 Sir David Cannadine 2017–2021 Julia Black 2021–2025 Secretaries of the British Academy Sir Israel Gollancz (1902–1930) Sir Frederic G. Kenyon (1930–1949) Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1949–1968) Derek Allen (1969–1973) N. J. Williams (1973–1977) J. P. Carswell (1978–1983) P. W. H. Brown (1983–2006) Robin Jackson (2006–2015) Alun Evans (2015–2019) Hetan Shah (2020-) Publications Lectures and conferences papers Monographs Research series See also :Category:Fellows of the British Academy Royal Society References External links Carlton House Terrace 1902 establishments in the United Kingdom Charities based in London Department for Business, Innovation and Skills National academies of arts and humanities Scientific organizations established in 1902 Scientific organisations based in the United Kingdom Members of the International Science Council

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delivery%20month

Delivery month

For futures contracts specifying physical delivery, the delivery month is the month in which the seller must deliver, and the buyer must accept and pay for, the underlying. For contracts specifying cash settlement, the delivery month is the month of a final mark-to-market. The exact dates of acceptable delivery vary considerably and will be specified by the exchange in the contract specifications. For most futures contracts, at any given time, one contract will typically be traded much more actively than others. This is called variously the front month or the top step contract. Financial contracts traded on US futures exchanges (such as bonds, short-term interest rates, foreign exchange and US stock indexes) tend to expire quarterly, in March, June, September and December. For financial contracts traded on non-US futures exchanges, the expiration schedule may not be quarterly. This table lists the conventional letter codes used in tickers to specify delivery month: To name a specific contract in a financial futures market, the month code will follow the contract code, and in turn be followed by the year. For example, CLZ3 is the December 2023 NYMEX crude oil contract. CL denotes crude oil (crude light), Z corresponds to the December delivery month, and 3 refers to 2023. References External links CME's reference of month codes Derivatives (finance)