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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Fulford%20%28journalist%29

Robert Fulford (journalist)

Robert Marshall Blount Fulford (born February 13, 1932) is a Canadian journalist, magazine editor, and essayist. He lives in Toronto, Ontario. Personal life Fulford was born in Ottawa, Ontario to Frances (Blount) Fulford and A. E. Fulford, a journalist and editor at Canadian Press. He grew up in The Beaches neighbourhood in Toronto and was a childhood friend of Glenn Gould. He is married to writer and producer Geraldine Sherman, with whom he has two daughters. His daughter Sarah is the editor-in-chief of Toronto Life magazine. Career Fulford's media career began at the age of 16, while still in high school, when he worked for Toronto radio station CHUM reporting on high school sports and producing a weekly radio show for teenagers. In the summer of 1950, Fulford left high school and went to work for The Globe and Mail as a sports reporter. Subsequently, Fulford rose to various editorial positions at the newspaper before moving to The Toronto Star as a columnist (1959–1962, 1964–1968 and 1971–1987). From 1963 to 1964 he was a columnist and editor of the Reviews section at Maclean's magazine before returning to the Star. He covered Expo 67 for the newspaper and wrote a book on the world's fair, This Was Expo. From 1968 until 1987, Fulford was the editor of Saturday Night magazine and also wrote both a general column for the magazine under his own name, and film reviews under the pseudonym "Marshall Delaney". He then worked as a columnist for the Financial Times of Canada (1988–1992), The Globe and Mail (1992–1999) and the National Post (1999–2019) Fulford worked as the co-host with Richard Gwyn of Realities, a long-form interview show on TVOntario (1982–1989) and as a regular panelist on CBC Radio's Morningside (1989–1993). In 1999, he delivered the Massey Lecture. In 1984, Fulford was awarded the honour of Officer of the Order of Canada. In his 1988 entry for The Canadian Encyclopedia, Douglas Fetherling described Fulford's politics as being on "the more conservative end of the liberal spectrum". Fulford is also a critic of literature, art and films. He has written extensively about the Canadian abstract art group Painters Eleven, its members (particularly William Ronald, Tom Hodgson, and Harold Town), and the Saskatchewan abstract artist Mashel Teitelbaum. Selected bibliography This Was Expo - 1968 Crisis at the Victory Burlesk: Culture, Politics and Other Diversions - 1968 Harold Town Drawings - 1968 (editor) Marshall Delaney at the Movies - 1974 An Introduction to the Arts in Canada - 1977 Canada: A Celebration - 1983 Best Seat in the House: Memoirs of a Lucky Man - 1988 Accidental City: The Transformation of Toronto - 1995 Toronto Discovered - 1998 The Triumph of Narrative: Storytelling in the Age of Mass Culture - 1999 See also List of newspaper columnists Notes External links 1932 births Living people Canadian art critics Canadian columnists Canadian male essayists Canadian social commentators Journalists from Ontario Officers of the Order of Canada The Globe and Mail columnists Toronto Star people Maclean's writers and editors National Post people Canadian magazine editors Canadian male journalists Canadian theatre critics Writers from Ottawa 20th-century Canadian essayists 20th-century Canadian male writers 21st-century Canadian essayists 21st-century Canadian male writers Saturday Night (magazine) editors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergot

Ergot

Ergot ( ) or ergot fungi refers to a group of fungi of the genus Claviceps. The most prominent member of this group is Claviceps purpurea ("rye ergot fungus"). This fungus grows on rye and related plants, and produces alkaloids that can cause ergotism in humans and other mammals who consume grains contaminated with its fruiting structure (called ergot sclerotium). Claviceps includes about 50 known species, mostly in the tropical regions. Economically significant species include C. purpurea (parasitic on grasses and cereals), C. fusiformis (on pearl millet, buffel grass), C. paspali (on dallis grass), C. africana (on sorghum), and C. lutea (on paspalum). C. purpurea most commonly affects outcrossing species such as rye (its most common host), as well as triticale, wheat, and barley. It affects oats only rarely. C. purpurea has at least three races or varieties, which differ in their host specificity: G1 — land grasses of open meadows and fields; G2 — grasses from moist, forest, and mountain habitats; G3 (C. purpurea var. spartinae) — salt marsh grasses (Spartina, Distichlis). Life cycle An ergot kernel, called a sclerotium, develops when a spore of fungal species of the genus Claviceps infects a floret of flowering grass or cereal. The infection process mimics a pollen grain growing into an ovary during fertilization. Infection requires that the fungal spore have access to the stigma; consequently, plants infected by Claviceps are mainly outcrossing species with open flowers, such as rye (Secale cereale) and ryegrasses (genus Lolium). The proliferating fungal mycelium then destroys the plant ovary and connects with the vascular bundle originally intended for seed nutrition. The first stage of ergot infection manifests itself as a white soft tissue (known as sphacelia) producing sugary honeydew, which often drops out of the infected grass florets. This honeydew contains millions of asexual spores (conidia), which insects disperse to other florets. Later, the sphacelia convert into a hard dry sclerotium inside the husk of the floret. At this stage, alkaloids and lipids accumulate in the sclerotium. Claviceps species from tropic and subtropic regions produce macro- and microconidia in their honeydew. Macroconidia differ in shape and size between the species, whereas microconidia are rather uniform, oval to globose (5×3 μm). Macroconidia are able to produce secondary conidia. A germ tube emerges from a macroconidium through the surface of a honeydew drop and a secondary conidium of an oval to pearlike shape is formed, to which the contents of the original macroconidium migrates. Secondary conidia form a white, frost-like surface on honeydew drops and spread via the wind. No such process occurs in Claviceps purpurea, Claviceps grohii, Claviceps nigricans, and Claviceps zizaniae, all from northern temperate regions. When a mature sclerotium drops to the ground, the fungus remains dormant until proper conditions (such as the onset of spring or a rain period) trigger its fruiting phase. It germinates, forming one or several fruiting bodies with heads and stipes, variously coloured (resembling a tiny mushroom). In the head, threadlike sexual spores form, which are ejected simultaneously when suitable grass hosts are flowering. Ergot infection causes a reduction in the yield and quality of grain and hay, and if livestock eat infected grain or hay it may cause a disease called ergotism. Black and protruding sclerotia of C. purpurea are well known. However, many tropical ergots have brown or greyish sclerotia, mimicking the shape of the host seed. For this reason, the infection is often overlooked. Insects, including flies and moths, carry conidia of Claviceps species, but it is unknown whether insects play a role in spreading the fungus from infected to healthy plants. Evolution The evolution of plant parasitism in the Clavicipitaceae dates back at least 100 million years, to the early-mid Cretaceous. An amber fossil discovered in 2014 preserves a grass spikelet and an ergot-like parasitic fungus. The fossil shows that the original hosts of the Clavicipitaceae could have been grasses. The discovery also establishes a minimum time for the conceivable presence of psychotropic compounds in fungi. Several evolutionary processes have acted to diversify the array of ergot alkaloids produced by fungi; these differences in enzyme activities are evident at the levels of substrate specificity (LpsA), product specification (EasA, CloA) or both (EasG and possibly CloA). The "old yellow enzyme", EasA, presents an outstanding example. This enzyme catalyzes reduction of the C8=C9 double-bond in chanoclavine I, but EasA isoforms differ in whether they subsequently catalyze reoxidation of C8–C9 after rotation. This difference distinguishes most Clavicipitaceae from Trichocomaceae, but in Clavicipitaceae it is also the key difference dividing the branch of classical ergot alkaloids from dihydroergot alkaloids, the latter often being preferred for pharmaceuticals due to their relatively few side effects. Effects on humans, other mammals and LSD The ergot sclerotium contains high concentrations (up to 2% of dry mass) of the alkaloid ergotamine, a complex molecule consisting of a tripeptide-derived cyclol-lactam ring connected via amide linkage to a lysergic acid (ergoline) moiety, and other alkaloids of the ergoline group that are biosynthesized by the fungus. Ergot alkaloids have a wide range of biological activities including effects on circulation and neurotransmission. Ergot alkaloids are classified as: derivatives of 6,8-dimethylergoline and lysergic acid derivatives. Ergotism is the name for sometimes severe pathological syndromes affecting humans or other animals that have ingested plant material containing ergot alkaloid, such as ergot-contaminated grains. The Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony, an order of monks established in 1095, specialized in treating ergotism victims with balms containing tranquilizing and circulation-stimulating plant extracts. The common name for ergotism is "St. Anthony's Fire", in reference to this order of monks and the severe burning sensations in the limbs which was one of the symptoms. There are two types of ergotism. The first is characterized by muscle spasms, fever and hallucinations and the victims may appear dazed, be unable to speak, become manic, or have other forms of paralysis or tremors, and suffer from hallucinations and other distorted perceptions. This is caused by serotonergic stimulation of the central nervous system by some of the alkaloids. The second type of ergotism is marked by violent burning, absent peripheral pulses and shooting pain of the poorly vascularized distal organs, such as the fingers and toes, and are caused by effects of ergot alkaloids on the vascular system due to vasoconstriction, sometimes leading to gangrene and loss of limbs due to severely restricted blood circulation. The neurotropic activities of the ergot alkaloids may also cause hallucinations and attendant irrational behaviour, convulsions, and even death. Other symptoms include strong uterine contractions, nausea, seizures, high fever, vomiting, loss of muscle strength and unconsciousness. Since the Middle Ages, controlled doses of ergot were used to induce abortions and to stop maternal bleeding after childbirth. Klotz offers a detailed overview of the toxicities in mammalian livestock, stating that the activities are attributable to antagonism or agonism of neurotransmitters, including dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine. He also states that the adrenergic blockage by ergopeptines (e.g., ergovaline or ergotamine) leads to potent and long-term vasoconstriction, and can result in reduced blood flow resulting in intense burning pain (St. Anthony's fire), edema, cyanosis, dry gangrene and even loss of hooves in cattle or limbs in humans. Reduced prolactin due to ergot alkaloid activity on dopamine receptors in the pituitary is also common in livestock. Reduced serum prolactin is associated with various reproductive problems in cattle, and especially in horses, including agalactia and poor conception, and late-term losses of foals and sometimes mares due to dystocia and thickened placentas. Although both gangrenous and convulsive symptoms are seen in naturally occurring ergotism resulting from the ingestion of fungus infected rye, only gangrenous ergotism has been reported following the excessive ingestion of ergotamine tartrate. Ergot extract has been used in pharmaceutical preparations, including ergot alkaloids in products such as Cafergot (containing caffeine and ergotamine or ergoline) to treat migraine headaches, and ergometrine, used to induce uterine contractions and to control bleeding after childbirth. Clinical ergotism as seen today results almost exclusively from the excessive intake of ergotamine tartrate in the treatment of migraine headache. In addition to ergot alkaloids, Claviceps paspali also produces tremorgens (paspalitrem) causing "paspalum staggers" in cattle. The fungi of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus also produce ergot alkaloids, notably some isolates of the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus, and have been isolated from plants in the family Convolvulaceae, of which morning glory is best known. The causative agents of most ergot poisonings are the ergot alkaloid class of fungal metabolites, though some ergot fungi produce distantly related indole-diterpene alkaloids that are tremorgenic. Ergot does not contain lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) but instead contains lysergic acid as well as its precursor, ergotamine. Lysergic acid is a precursor for the synthesis of LSD. Their realized and hypothesized medicinal uses have encouraged intensive research since the 1950s culminating on the one hand in development of drugs both legal (e.g., bromocriptine) and illegal (e.g., LSD), and on the other hand in extensive knowledge of the enzymes, genetics, and diversity of ergot alkaloid biosynthetic pathways. The January 4, 2007 issue of the New England Journal of Medicine includes a paper that documents a British study of more than 11,000 Parkinson's disease patients. The study found that two ergot-derived drugs, pergolide and cabergoline, commonly used to treat Parkinson's Disease may increase the risk of leaky heart valves by up to 700%. History Ergotism is the earliest recorded example of mycotoxicosis, or poisoning caused by toxic molds. Early references to ergotism date back as far as 600 BC, an Assyrian tablet referred to it as a 'noxious pustule in the ear of grain'. In 350 BC, the Parsees described 'noxious grasses that cause pregnant women to drop the womb and die in childbed'. In ancient Syria, ergot was called 'Daughter of Blood'. Radulf Glaber described an ailment he called 'hidden fire' or ignus ocultus, in which a burning of the limb is followed by its separation from the body, often consuming the victim in one night. In 1588, Johannes Thallius wrote that it is called 'Mother of Rye', or rockenmutter, and is used to halt bleeding. Human poisoning due to the consumption of rye bread made from ergot-infected grain was common in Europe in the Middle Ages. The first mention of a plague of gangrenous ergotism in Europe comes from Germany in 857, following this France and Scandinavia experienced similar outbreaks; England is noticeably absent from the historical regions affected by ergotism as their main source of food was wheat, which is resistant to ergot fungi. In 944, a massive outbreak of ergotism caused 40,000 deaths in the regions of Aquitaine, Limousin, Perigord, and Angoumois in France. In Hesse in 1596, Wendelin Thelius was one of the first to attribute ergotism poisoning to grain. In 1778, S. Tessier, observing a huge epidemic in Sologne, France in which more than 8,000 people died, recommended drainage of fields, compulsory cleaning of grain, and the substitution of potatoes for affected grain. Saint Anthony's fire and the Antonites In 1722, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great was thwarted in his campaign against the Ottoman Empire as his army, traveling down the Terek steppe, were struck by ergotism and were forced to retreat in order to find edible grains. A diary entry from the time describes that as soon as people ate the poisoned bread they became dizzy, with such strong nerve contractions that those who did not die on the first day found their hands and feet falling off, akin to frostbite. The epidemic was known as Saint Anthony's fire, or ignis sacer, and some historical events, such as the Great Fear in France during the French Revolution have been linked to ergot poisoning. Saint Anthony was a 3rd Century Egyptian ascetic who lived by the Red Sea and was known for long fasting in which he confronted terrible visions and temptations sent from the Devil. He was credited by two noblemen for assisting them in recovery from the disease; they subsequently founded the Order of St. Anthony in honor of him. Anthony was a popular subject for art in the Middle Ages and his symbol is a large blue "T" sewn onto the shoulder of the order's monks, symbolizing the crutch used by the ill and injured. The Order of St. Anthony, who were also known as Antonites, grew quickly and hospitals spread through France, Germany, and Scandinavia and gained wealth and power as grateful patrons bestowed money and charitable goods to the hospitals. By the end of the Middle Ages, there were 396 settlements and 372 hospitals owned by the order and pilgrimages to such hospitals became popular as well as the donation of limbs lost to ergotism, which were displayed near shrines to the saint. These hagiotherapeutic centers were the first specialized European medical welfare systems and the friars of the order were knowledgeable about treatment of ergotism and the horrifying effects of the poison. The sufferers would receive ergot-free meals, wines containing vasodilating and analgesic herbs, and applications of Antonites-balsalm, which was the first transdermal therapeutic system (TTS) in medical history. Their medical recipes have been lost to time, though some recorded treatments still remain. After 1130 AD, the monks were no longer permitted to perform operations, and so barber surgeons were employed to remove gangrenous limbs and treat open sores. Three barbers founded a hospital in Memmingen in 1214 and accepted those who were afflicted with the gangrenous form of ergotism. Patients were fed and housed with the more able-bodied individuals acting as orderlies and assistants. Patients with the convulsive form of ergotism, or ergotismus convulsivus, were welcomed for only nine days before they were asked to leave as convulsive ergotism was seen as less detrimental. Though the sufferers often experienced irreversible effects, they most often returned to their families and resumed their livelihoods. An important aspect to the Order of St. Anthony's treatment practices was the exclusion of rye bread and other ergot-containing edibles, which halted the progression of ergotism. There was no known cure for ergotism itself, however there was treatment of the symptoms, which often included blood constriction, nervous disorder, and/or hallucinations; if the sufferer survived the initial poisoning, his limbs would often fall off and he or she would continue to improve in health if they halted consumption of ergot. The trunk of the body remained relatively untouched by the disease until its final stages and the victims, not understanding the cause of their ailment, would continue to imbibe ergot-laden food for weeks until the condition reached their digestive system. It is believed that the peasantry and children were most susceptible to ergotism, though the wealthy were afflicted as well, as at times entire villages relied on tainted crops for sustenance and during times of famine, ergotism reached into every house. Ergot fungus is impervious to heat and water, thus it was most often baked into bread through rye flour; though other grasses can be infected, it was uncommon in Medieval Europe to consume grasses other than rye. The physiological effects of ergot depended upon the concentration and combinations of the ingested ergot metabolites, as well as the age and nutritional status of the afflicted individual. The Antonites began to decline after physicians discovered the genesis of ergotism and recommended methods for removing the sclerotium from the rye crops. In 1776, the cloisters of the Antonites were incorporated into the Maltese Knights Hospitaller, losing much of their medical histories in the process and losing the ergotism cures and recipes due to lack of use and lack of preservation. Usage in gynaecology and obstetrics Midwives and very few doctors in Europe have used extracts from ergot for centuries: In a Nürnberg manuscript of 1474 powdered ergot was prescribed together with Laurel-fruits and rhizomes of Salomon's seals to cure permutter or heffmutter, that means pain in the lower abdomen caused by the 'uprising of the womb' In a printed book of 1582 the German physician Adam Lonicer wrote, that three sclerotia of ergot, used several times a day, were used by midwives as a good remedy in case of the "uprising and pain of the womb" (auffſteigen vnd wehethumb der mutter) Joachim Camerarius the Younger wrote in 1586, that sclerotia of ergot held under the tongue, would stop bleeding To prove that ergot is a harmless sort of grain, in 1774 the French pharmacist Antoine-Augustin Parmentier edited a letter he had received from Madame Dupile, a midwife of Chaumont-en-Vexin. She had told him that if uterine contractions were too weak in the expulsion stage of childbirth, she and her mother gave peeled ergot in an amount of the filling of a thimble dispersed in water, wine or broth. The administration of ergot was followed by a mild childbirth within 15 minutes. The French physician Jean-Baptiste Desgranges (1751–1831) published in 1818, that in 1777 he had met midwives in Lyon, who successfully treated feeble uterine contractions by administering the powder of ergot. Desgranges added this remedy to his therapeutic arsenal. From 1777 to 1804 he was successful in alleviating childbirth for more than twenty women by the administration of the powder of ergot. He never saw any side-effect of this treatment. In the United States, in 1807 Dr. John Stearns of Saratoga County, New York wrote to a friend, that he had used over several years a pulvis parturiens with complete success in patients with "lingering parturitation". This pulvis parturiens consisted of ergot, that he called a "spurious groth of rye". He boiled "half a drachm" (ca. 2g) of that powder in half a pint of water and gave one third every twenty minutes, till the pains commenced. In 1813 Dr. Oliver Prescott (1762–1827) of Newburyport, Massachusetts published a dissertation "on the natural history and medical effects of the secale cornutum", in which he described and analysed the experience he had gathered over five years while using ergot in cases of poor uterine action in the second stage of labour in childbirth. The 1836 Dispensatory of the United States recommended "to a woman in labour fifteen or twenty grains [ca. 1 to 1,3g] of ergot in powder to be repeated every twenty minutes, till its peculiar effects are experienced, or till the amount of a drachm [ca. 3,9g] has been taken". In 1837 the French Codex Pharmacopee Francaise required ergot to be kept in all pharmacies. Low to very low evidence from clinical trials suggests that prophylactic use of ergot alkaloids, administered by intravenous (IV) or intramuscular (IM) in the third stage of labor, may reduce blood loss and may reduce the risk of moderate to severe hemorrhage following delivery, however this medication may also be associated with higher blood pressure and higher pain. It is not clear of oral ergo alkaloids are beneficial or harmful as they have not been well studied. A 2018 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that other medications such as oxytocin, syntometrine and prostaglandins, may be preferred over ergot alkaloids. Though ergot was known to cause abortions in cattle and humans, it was not a recognized use for it as abortion was illegal in most countries, thus evidence for its use in abortion is unknown. Most often, ergot was used to speed the process of parturition or delivery, and was not used for the purpose of halting postpartum bleeding, which is a concern of childbirth. However, until anesthesia became available, there was no antidote or way of controlling the effects of ergot. So if the fetus did not move as expected, the drug could cause the uterus to mold itself around the child, rupturing the uterus and killing the child. David Hosack, an American physician, noted the large number of stillbirths resulting from ergot use and stated that rather than pulvis ad partum, it should be called pulvis ad mortem. He began advocating for its use to halt postpartum bleeding. Eventually, doctors determined that the use of ergot in childbirth without an antidote was too dangerous. They ultimately restricted its use to expelling the placenta or stopping hemorrhage. Not only did it constrict the uterus, ergot had the ability to increase or decrease blood pressure, induce hypothermia and emesis, and influence pituitary hormone secretions. In 1926, Swiss psychiatrist Hans Maier suggested to use ergotamine for the treatment of vascular headaches of the migraine type. In the 1930s, abortifacient drugs were marketed to women by various companies under various names such as Molex pills and Cote pills. Since birth control devices and abortifacients were illegal to market and sell at the time, they were offered to women who were "delayed". The recommended dosage was seven grains of ergotin a day. According to the United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC) these pills contained ergotin, aloes, Black Hellebore, and other substances. The efficacy and safety of these pills are unknown. The FTC deemed them unsafe and ineffective and demanded that they cease and desist selling the product. Currently, over a thousand compounds have been derived from ergot ingredients. Speculated cause of hysterics and hallucinations It has been posited that Kykeon, the beverage consumed by participants in the ancient Greek Eleusinian Mysteries cult, might have been based on hallucinogens from ergotamine, a precursor to the potent hallucinogen LSD, and ergonovine. An article appearing in the July 23, 1881 edition of Scientific American entitled "A New Exhilarating Substance" denotes cases of euphoria upon consuming tincture of ergot of rye, particularly when mixed with phosphate of soda and sweetened water. In rainy years, it was thought rye bread exceeded 5% ergot. British author John Grigsby contends that the presence of ergot in the stomachs of some of the so-called 'bog-bodies' (Iron Age human remains from peat bogs Northeast Europe, such as the Tollund Man) is indicative of use of Claviceps purpurea in ritual drinks in a prehistoric fertility cult akin to the Greek Eleusinian Mysteries. In his 2005 book Beowulf and Grendel, he argues that the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf is based on a memory of the quelling of this fertility cult by followers of Odin. He writes that Beowulf, which he translates as barley-wolf, suggests a connection to ergot which in German was known as the 'tooth of the wolf'. Linnda R. Caporael posited in 1976 that the hysterical symptoms of young women that had spurred the Salem witch trials had been the result of consuming ergot-tainted rye. However, Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, after a review of the historical and medical evidence, later disputed her conclusions. Other authors have likewise cast doubt on ergotism as the cause of the Salem witch trials. Claviceps purpurea Mankind has known about Claviceps purpurea for a long time, and its appearance has been linked to extremely cold winters that were followed by rainy summers. The sclerotial stage of C. purpurea conspicuous on the heads of ryes and other such grains is known as ergot. Favorable temperatures for growth are in the range of 18–30 °C. Temperatures above 37 °C cause rapid germination of conidia. Sunlight has a chromogenic effect on the mycelium, with intense coloration. Cereal mashes and sprouted rye are suitable substrates for growth of the fungus in the laboratory. Claviceps africana Claviceps africana infects sorghum. In sorghum and pearl millet, ergot became a problem when growers adopted hybrid technology, which increased host susceptibility. It only infects unfertilized ovaries, so self-pollination and fertilization can decrease the presence of the disease, but male-sterile lines are extremely vulnerable to infection. Symptoms of infection by C. africana include the secretion of honeydew (a fluid with high concentrates of sugar and conidia), which attracts insects like flies, beetles, and wasps that feed on it. This helps spread the fungus to uninfected plants. In Sorghum this honeydew can be spotted coming out of head flowers. A whitish sticky substance can also be observed on leaves and on the ground. C. africana caused ergot disease that caused a famine in 1903-1906 in Northern Cameroon, West Africa, and also occurs in eastern and southern Africa, especially Zimbabwe and South Africa. Male sterile sorghums (also referred to as A-lines) are especially susceptible to infection, as first recognized in the 1960s, and massive losses in seed yield have been noted. Infection is associated with cold night temperatures that are below 12 °C occurring two to three weeks before flowering. Sorghum ergot caused by Claviceps africana Frederickson, Mantle and De Milliano is widespread in all sorghum growing areas, whereas the species was formerly restricted to Africa and Asia where it was first recorded more than 90 years ago, it has been spreading rapidly and by the mid-1990s it reached Brazil, South Africa, and Australia. By 1997, the disease had spread to most South American countries and the Caribbean including Mexico, and by 1997 had reached Texas in the United States. Management Partners of the CABI-led programme, Plantwise including the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock in Zambia have several recommendations for managing the spread of ergot, these include; planting tolerant varieties, disk fields after harvest to prevent sorghum ratoon and volunteer plants from developing, remove any infected plants, and carrying out 3 year crop rotations with legumes. Claviceps paspali Claviceps paspali infects wild grasses and could be found on the common grass Paspalum. Like the C. africana, C. paspali also secretes honeydew which is consumed by bees. The bees then create a honey called fic'e (Paraguayan Makai Indian language), which is infused with secretions from the plants and has a pungent aroma. If consumed in high amounts, the honey can cause drunkenness, dizziness and even death. See also Medicinal mushrooms Universal Laboratories Building: a major producer of ergot Sources References External links Claviceps purpurea - Ergot Alkaloid Ergot article from North Dakota State University, 2002 PBS Secrets of the Dead: "The Witches Curse" (concerning the Salem trials and ergot) Parkinson's Drugs Can Damage Heart Valves. HealthDay. January 3, 2007. Abortifacients Barley diseases Cereal diseases Fungal plant pathogens and diseases Hypocreales Medicinal fungi Natural sources of lysergamides Parasitic fungi Psychoactive fungi Rye diseases Sordariomycetes genera Triticale diseases Wheat diseases Taxa named by Edmond Tulasne

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater

Groundwater

Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology. Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it can also contain soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, including the Great Lakes. Many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater. Use of groundwater has related environmental issues. For example, polluted groundwater is less visible and more difficult to clean up than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills, excessive fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, industrial fracking, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems. Additionally, groundwater is susceptible to saltwater intrusion in coastal areas and can cause land subsidence when extracted unsustainably, leading to sinking cities (like Bangkok)) and loss in elevation (such as the multiple meters lost in the Central Valley of California). These issues are made more complicated by sea level rise and other changes caused by climate changes which will change precipitation and water scarcity globally. Characteristics Location (aquifers) An aquifer is a layer of porous substrate that contains and transmits groundwater. When water can flow directly between the surface and the saturated zone of an aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined. The deeper parts of unconfined aquifers are usually more saturated since gravity causes water to flow downward. The upper level of this saturated layer of an unconfined aquifer is called the water table or phreatic surface. Below the water table, where in general all pore spaces are saturated with water, is the phreatic zone. Substrate with low porosity that permits limited transmission of groundwater is known as an aquitard. An aquiclude is a substrate with porosity that is so low it is virtually impermeable to groundwater. A confined aquifer is an aquifer that is overlain by a relatively impermeable layer of rock or substrate such as an aquiclude or aquitard. If a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from its recharge zone, groundwater can become pressurized as it flows. This can create artesian wells that flow freely without the need of a pump and rise to a higher elevation than the static water table at the above, unconfined, aquifer. Water cycle Groundwater makes up about thirty percent of the world's fresh water supply, which is about 0.76% of the entire world's water, including oceans and permanent ice. About 99% of the world's liquid fresh water is ground water. Global groundwater storage is roughly equal to the total amount of freshwater stored in the snow and ice pack, including the north and south poles. This makes it an important resource that can act as a natural storage that can buffer against shortages of surface water, as in during times of drought. Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from precipitation, streams, and rivers when this recharge reaches the water table. Groundwater can be a long-term 'reservoir' of the natural water cycle (with residence times from days to millennia), as opposed to short-term water reservoirs like the atmosphere and fresh surface water (which have residence times from minutes to years). The figure shows how deep groundwater (which is quite distant from the surface recharge) can take a very long time to complete its natural cycle. The Great Artesian Basin in central and eastern Australia is one of the largest confined aquifer systems in the world, extending for almost 2 million km2. By analysing the trace elements in water sourced from deep underground, hydrogeologists have been able to determine that water extracted from these aquifers can be more than 1 million years old. By comparing the age of groundwater obtained from different parts of the Great Artesian Basin, hydrogeologists have found it increases in age across the basin. Where water recharges the aquifers along the Eastern Divide, ages are young. As groundwater flows westward across the continent, it increases in age, with the oldest groundwater occurring in the western parts. This means that in order to have travelled almost 1000 km from the source of recharge in 1 million years, the groundwater flowing through the Great Artesian Basin travels at an average rate of about 1 metre per year. Recent research has demonstrated that evaporation of groundwater can play a significant role in the local water cycle, especially in arid regions. Scientists in Saudi Arabia have proposed plans to recapture and recycle this evaporative moisture for crop irrigation. In the opposite photo, a 50-centimeter-square reflective carpet, made of small adjacent plastic cones, was placed in a plant-free dry desert area for five months, without rain or irrigation. It managed to capture and condense enough ground vapor to bring to life naturally buried seeds underneath it, with a green area of about 10% of the carpet area. It is expected that, if seeds were put down before placing this carpet, a much wider area would become green. Temperature The high specific heat capacity of water and the insulating effect of soil and rock can mitigate the effects of climate and maintain groundwater at a relatively steady temperature. In some places where groundwater temperatures are maintained by this effect at about 10 °C (50 °F), groundwater can be used for controlling the temperature inside structures at the surface. For example, during hot weather relatively cool groundwater can be pumped through radiators in a home and then returned to the ground in another well. During cold seasons, because it is relatively warm, the water can be used in the same way as a source of heat for heat pumps that is much more efficient than using air. Quantities The volume of groundwater in an aquifer can be estimated by measuring water levels in local wells and by examining geologic records from well-drilling to determine the extent, depth and thickness of water-bearing sediments and rocks. Before an investment is made in production wells, test wells may be drilled to measure the depths at which water is encountered and collect samples of soils, rock and water for laboratory analyses. Pumping tests can be performed in test wells to determine flow characteristics of the aquifer. The characteristics of aquifers vary with the geology and structure of the substrate and topography in which they occur. In general, the more productive aquifers occur in sedimentary geologic formations. By comparison, weathered and fractured crystalline rocks yield smaller quantities of groundwater in many environments. Unconsolidated to poorly cemented alluvial materials that have accumulated as valley-filling sediments in major river valleys and geologically subsiding structural basins are included among the most productive sources of groundwater. Fluid flows can be altered in different lithological settings by brittle deformation of rocks in fault zones; the mechanisms by which this occurs are the subject of fault zone hydrogeology. Uses Most land areas on Earth have some form of aquifer underlying them, sometimes at significant depths. In some cases, these aquifers are rapidly being depleted by the human population. Of all natural resources, groundwater is the most extracted resource in the world. As of 2010, the top five countries by volume of groundwater extraction were India, China, the US, Pakistan, and Iran. A majority of extracted groundwater, 70%, is used for agricultural purposes. Groundwater is the most accessed source of freshwater around the world, including as drinking water, irrigation, and manufacturing. Groundwater accounts for about half of the world's drinking water, 40% of its irrigation water, and a third of water for industrial purposes. Fresh-water aquifers, especially those with limited recharge by snow or rain, also known as meteoric water, can be over-exploited and depending on the local hydrogeology, may draw in non-potable water or saltwater intrusion from hydraulically connected aquifers or surface water bodies. This can be a serious problem, especially in coastal areas and other areas where aquifer pumping is excessive. In some areas, the ground water can become contaminated by arsenic and other mineral poisons. Aquifers are critically important in human habitation and agriculture. Deep aquifers in arid areas have long been water sources for irrigation (see Ogallala below). Many villages and even large cities draw their water supply from wells in aquifers. Municipal, irrigation, and industrial water supplies are provided through large wells. Multiple wells for one water supply source are termed "wellfields", which may withdraw water from confined or unconfined aquifers. Using ground water from deep, confined aquifers provides more protection from surface water contamination. Some wells, termed "collector wells", are specifically designed to induce infiltration of surface (usually river) water. Aquifers that provide sustainable fresh groundwater to urban areas and for agricultural irrigation are typically close to the ground surface (within a couple of hundred metres) and have some recharge by fresh water. This recharge is typically from rivers or meteoric water (precipitation) that percolates into the aquifer through overlying unsaturated materials. Occasionally, sedimentary or "fossil" aquifers are used to provide irrigation and drinking water to urban areas. In Libya, for example, Muammar Gaddafi's Great Manmade River project has pumped large amounts of groundwater from aquifers beneath the Sahara to populous areas near the coast. Though this has saved Libya money over the alternative, desalination, the aquifers are likely to run dry in 60 to 100 years. Aquifer depletion has been cited as one of the causes of the food price rises of 2011. Issues Overview Certain problems have beset the use of groundwater around the world. Just as river waters have been over-used and polluted in many parts of the world, so too have aquifers. The big difference is that aquifers are out of sight. The other major problem is that water management agencies, when calculating the "sustainable yield" of aquifer and river water, have often counted the same water twice, once in the aquifer, and once in its connected river. This problem, although understood for centuries, has persisted, partly through inertia within government agencies. In Australia, for example, prior to the statutory reforms initiated by the Council of Australian Governments water reform framework in the 1990s, many Australian states managed groundwater and surface water through separate government agencies, an approach beset by rivalry and poor communication. In general, the time lags inherent in the dynamic response of groundwater to development have been ignored by water management agencies, decades after scientific understanding of the issue was consolidated. In brief, the effects of groundwater overdraft (although undeniably real) may take decades or centuries to manifest themselves. In a classic study in 1982, John D. Bredehoeft and colleagues modeled a situation where groundwater extraction in an intermontane basin withdrew the entire annual recharge, leaving ‘nothing’ for the natural groundwater-dependent vegetation community. Even when the borefield was situated close to the vegetation, 30% of the original vegetation demand could still be met by the lag inherent in the system after 100 years. By year 500, this had reduced to 0%, signalling complete death of the groundwater-dependent vegetation. The science has been available to make these calculations for decades; however, in general water management agencies have ignored effects that will appear outside the rough timeframe of political elections (3 to 5 years). Marios Sophocleous argued strongly that management agencies must define and use appropriate timeframes in groundwater planning. This will mean calculating groundwater withdrawal permits based on predicted effects decades, sometimes centuries in the future. As water moves through the landscape, it collects soluble salts, mainly sodium chloride. Where such water enters the atmosphere through evapotranspiration, these salts are left behind. In irrigation districts, poor drainage of soils and surface aquifers can result in water tables' coming to the surface in low-lying areas. Major land degradation problems of soil salinity and waterlogging result, combined with increasing levels of salt in surface waters. As a consequence, major damage has occurred to local economies and environments. Four important effects are worthy of brief mention. First, flood mitigation schemes, intended to protect infrastructure built on floodplains, have had the unintended consequence of reducing aquifer recharge associated with natural flooding. Second, prolonged depletion of groundwater in extensive aquifers can result in land subsidence, with associated infrastructure damage – as well as, third, saline intrusion. Fourth, draining acid sulphate soils, often found in low-lying coastal plains, can result in acidification and pollution of formerly freshwater and estuarine streams. Another cause for concern is that groundwater drawdown from over-allocated aquifers has the potential to cause severe damage to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems – in some cases very conspicuously but in others quite imperceptibly because of the extended period over which the damage occurs. Overdraft Groundwater is a highly useful and often abundant resource. However, over-use, over-abstraction or overdraft, can cause major problems to human users and to the environment. The most evident problem (as far as human groundwater use is concerned) is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing wells. As a consequence, wells must be drilled deeper to reach the groundwater; in some places (e.g., California, Texas, and India) the water table has dropped hundreds of feet because of extensive well pumping. The GRACE satellites have collected data that demonstrates 21 of Earth's 37 major aquifers are undergoing depletion. In the Punjab region of India, for example, groundwater levels have dropped 10 meters since 1979, and the rate of depletion is accelerating. A lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as groundwater-related subsidence and saltwater intrusion. Groundwater is also ecologically important. The importance of groundwater to ecosystems is often overlooked, even by freshwater biologists and ecologists. Groundwaters sustain rivers, wetlands, and lakes, as well as subterranean ecosystems within karst or alluvial aquifers. Not all ecosystems need groundwater, of course. Some terrestrial ecosystems – for example, those of the open deserts and similar arid environments – exist on irregular rainfall and the moisture it delivers to the soil, supplemented by moisture in the air. While there are other terrestrial ecosystems in more hospitable environments where groundwater plays no central role, groundwater is in fact fundamental to many of the world's major ecosystems. Water flows between groundwaters and surface waters. Most rivers, lakes, and wetlands are fed by, and (at other places or times) feed groundwater, to varying degrees. Groundwater feeds soil moisture through percolation, and many terrestrial vegetation communities depend directly on either groundwater or the percolated soil moisture above the aquifer for at least part of each year. Hyporheic zones (the mixing zone of streamwater and groundwater) and riparian zones are examples of ecotones largely or totally dependent on groundwater. Subsidence Subsidence occurs when too much water is pumped out from underground, deflating the space below the above-surface, and thus causing the ground to collapse. The result can look like craters on plots of land. This occurs because, in its natural equilibrium state, the hydraulic pressure of groundwater in the pore spaces of the aquifer and the aquitard supports some of the weight of the overlying sediments. When groundwater is removed from aquifers by excessive pumping, pore pressures in the aquifer drop and compression of the aquifer may occur. This compression may be partially recoverable if pressures rebound, but much of it is not. When the aquifer gets compressed, it may cause land subsidence, a drop in the ground surface. The city of New Orleans, Louisiana is actually below sea level today, and its subsidence is partly caused by removal of groundwater from the various aquifer/aquitard systems beneath it. In the first half of the 20th century, the San Joaquin Valley experienced significant subsidence, in some places up to 8.5 metres (28 feet) due to groundwater removal. Cities on river deltas, including Venice in Italy, and Bangkok in Thailand, have experienced surface subsidence; Mexico City, built on a former lake bed, has experienced rates of subsidence of up to 40 cm (1'3") per year. For coastal cities, subsidence can increase the risk of other environmental issues, such as sea level rise. For example, Bangkok is expected to have 5.138 million people exposed to coastal flooding by 2070 because of these combining factors. Seawater intrusion Seawater intrusion is the flow or presence of seawater into coastal aquifers; it is a case of saltwater intrusion. It is a natural phenomenon but can be caused or worsened by anthropogenic factors, such as climate change caused sea level rise. In the case of homogeneous aquifers, seawater intrusion forms a saline wedge below a transition zone to fresh groundwater, flowing seaward on the top. These changes can have other effects on the land above the groundwater: as an example a 2020 study published in Nature found that coastal groundwater in California would rise in many aquifers, increasing risks of flooding and runoff challenges. Pollution Polluted groundwater is less visible, but more difficult to clean up, than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems. Polluted groundwater is mapped by sampling soils and groundwater near suspected or known sources of pollution, to determine the extent of the pollution, and to aid in the design of groundwater remediation systems. Preventing groundwater pollution near potential sources such as landfills requires lining the bottom of a landfill with watertight materials, collecting any leachate with drains, and keeping rainwater off any potential contaminants, along with regular monitoring of nearby groundwater to verify that contaminants have not leaked into the groundwater. Groundwater pollution, from pollutants released to the ground that can work their way down into groundwater, can create a contaminant plume within an aquifer. Pollution can occur from landfills, naturally occurring arsenic, on-site sanitation systems or other point sources, such as petrol stations with leaking underground storage tanks, or leaking sewers. Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area, its advancing boundary often called a plume edge, which can then intersect with groundwater wells or daylight into surface water such as seeps and springs, making the water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife. Different mechanism have influence on the transport of pollutants, e.g. diffusion, adsorption, precipitation, decay, in the groundwater. The interaction of groundwater contamination with surface waters is analyzed by use of hydrology transport models. The danger of pollution of municipal supplies is minimized by locating wells in areas of deep groundwater and impermeable soils, and careful testing and monitoring of the aquifer and nearby potential pollution sources. Arsenic and fluoride Around one-third of the world's population drinks water from groundwater resources. Of this, about 10 percent, approximately 300 million people, obtains water from groundwater resources that are heavily polluted with arsenic or fluoride. These trace elements derive mainly from natural sources by leaching from rock and sediments. New method of identifying substances that are hazardous to health In 2008, the Swiss Aquatic Research Institute, Eawag, presented a new method by which hazard maps could be produced for geogenic toxic substances in groundwater. This provides an efficient way of determining which wells should be tested. In 2016, the research group made its knowledge freely available on the Groundwater Assessment Platform GAP. This offers specialists worldwide the possibility of uploading their own measurement data, visually displaying them and producing risk maps for areas of their choice. GAP also serves as a knowledge-sharing forum for enabling further development of methods for removing toxic substances from water. Regulations United States In the United States, laws regarding ownership and use of groundwater are generally state laws. Regulation of groundwater to minimize pollution of groundwater is addressed in both state and federal law; in the latter case, through regulations issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The Rule of Capture, based on English common law, provides each landowner the ability to capture as much groundwater as they can put to a beneficial use, but they are not guaranteed any set amount of water. As a result, well-owners are not liable to other landowners for taking water from beneath their land. State laws or regulations will often define "beneficial use", and sometimes place other limits, such as disallowing groundwater extraction which causes subsidence on neighboring property. Limited private ownership rights similar to riparian rights in a surface stream. The amount of groundwater right is based on the size of the surface area where each landowner gets a corresponding amount of the available water. Once adjudicated, the maximum amount of the water right is set, but the right can be decreased if the total amount of available water decreases as is likely during a drought. Landowners may sue others for encroaching upon their groundwater rights, and water pumped for use on the overlying land takes preference over water pumped for use off the land. The Reasonable use rule in American drainage law does not guarantee the landowner a set amount of water, but allows unlimited extraction as long as the result does not unreasonably damage other wells or the aquifer system. Usually this rule gives great weight to historical uses and prevents new uses that interfere with the prior use. EPA published its "Ground Water Rule", applicable to public water systems, in 2006. The rule focuses on groundwater-supplied systems that may be subject to contamination from fecal bacteria, and requires such systems to take corrective action. In real estate property transactions both groundwater and soil are the subjects of scrutiny. For brownfields sites (formerly contaminated sites that have been remediated), EPA requires preparation of Phase I Environmental Site Assessments, to investigate and disclose potential pollution issues. In the San Fernando Valley of California, real estate contracts for property transfer below the Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL) and eastward have clauses releasing the seller from liability for groundwater contamination consequences from existing or future pollution of the Valley Aquifer. India In India, 65% of the irrigation is from groundwater and about 90% of extracted groundwater is used for irrigation. The groundwater regulation is controlled and maintained by the central government and four organizations; 1) Central Water Commission, 2) Central Ground Water, 3) Central Ground Water Authority, 4) Central Pollution Control Board. Laws, regulations and scheme regarding India's groundwater: 2019 Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal groundwater scheme), a 5 years (2020-21 to 2024-25) scheme costing INR 6 billion (US$854 million) for managing demand side with village panchayat level water security plans, was approved for implementation in 8,350 water-stressed villages across 7 states, including Haryana, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. 2013 National Water Framework Bill ensures that India's groundwater is a public resource, and is not to be exploited by companies through privatization of water. The National Water Framework Bill allows for everyone to access clean drinking water, of the right to clean drinking water under Article 21 of 'Right to Life' in India's Constitution. The bill indicates a want for the states of India to have full control of groundwater contained in aquifers. So far Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, West Bengal, Telangana, Maharashtra, Lakshadweep, Puducherry, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli are the only ones using this bill. In 2012, National Water Policy was updated, which had previously been launched in 1987 and updated in 2002 and later in 2012. In 2011, the Indian Government created a Model Bill for Groundwater Management; this model selects which state governments can enforce their laws on groundwater usage and regulation. 1882 Easement Act gives landowners priority over surface and groundwater that is on their land and allows them to give or take as much as they want as long as the water is on their land. This act prevents the government from enforcing regulations of groundwater, allowing many landowners to privatize their groundwater instead accessing it in community areas. 1882 Easement Act's Section 7(g) states that every landowner has the right to collect within his limits, all water under the land and on its surface which does not pass in a defined channel. Canada A significant portion of Canada’s population relies on the use of groundwater. In Canada, roughly 8.9 million people or 30% of Canada's population rely on groundwater for domestic use and approximately two thirds of these users live in rural areas. The Constitution Act, 1867, does not give authority over groundwater to either order of Canadian government; therefore, the matter largely falls under provincial jurisdiction Federal and Provincial governments can share responsibilities when dealing with agriculture, health, inter-provincial waters and national water-related issues. Federal jurisdiction in areas as boundary/trans-boundary waters, fisheries, navigation, and water on federal lands, First Nations reserves and in Territories. Federal jurisdiction over groundwater when aquifers cross inter-provincial or international boundaries. A large federal government groundwater initiative is the development of the multi-barrier approach. The multi-barrier approach is a system of processes to prevent the deterioration of drinking water from the source. The multi-barrier consists of three key elements: Source water protection, Drinking water treatment, and Drinking water distribution systems. By country Groundwater is an important water resource for the supply of drinking water, especially in arid countries. Extraterrestrial groundwater Groundwater may not be confined only to Earth. The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have been influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that liquid water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiter's moon Europa. See also References External links USGS Office of Groundwater IAH, International Association of Hydrogeologists The Groundwater Project - Online platform for groundwater knowledge Hydrology Hydraulic engineering Soil mechanics Liquid water Water and the environment Water Lithosphere

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daddy%20Wouldn%27t%20Buy%20Me%20a%20Bow%20Wow

Daddy Wouldn't Buy Me a Bow Wow

"Daddy Wouldn’t Buy Me a Bow Wow" is a song written in 1892 by prolific English songwriter Joseph Tabrar. It was written for, and first performed in 1892 by, Vesta Victoria at the South London Palace, holding a kitten. The same year it was recorded by Silas Leachman for the North American Phonograph Co. of Chicago (Talking Machine Company of Chicago/Chicago Talking Machine). In 1895 Toulouse-Lautrec painted May Belfort singing it. The comedian Arthur Roberts also had success in the 1890s with the song. The song featured in the 1934 musical movie Evergreen, sung by Jessie Matthews, and was also revived after World War II. The chorus was sung by Helen Mirren and Peter Sellers in the 1980 movie The Fiendish Plot of Dr. Fu Manchu. It is also the tune Sarah Jane Smith whistles when she leaves the Doctor at the end of the Doctor Who episode "The Hand of Fear". It is sung by the EastEnders cast, led by Anna Wing (Lou Beale, as part of the 1985 EastEnders Sing Along. In the first episode of the 1983 BBC series Reilly, Ace of Spies, one of Sidney Reilly's mistresses performs a striptease to a phonograph recording of the song. On CD A version of Vesta Victoria singing the song can be found on the CD 60 Old-Time Variety Songs It also appears on the Ultimate Pub Sing-A-Long Album Lyrics I love my little cat, I do With soft black silky hair It comes with me each day to school And sits upon the chair When teacher says "why do you bring That little pet of yours?" I tell her that I bring my cat Along with me because Daddy wouldn't buy me a bow-wow! bow wow! Daddy wouldn't buy me a bow-wow! bow wow! I've got a little cat And I'm very fond of that But I'd rather have a bow-wow Wow, wow, wow, wow We used to have two tiny dogs Such pretty little dears But daddy sold 'em 'cause they used To bite each other's ears I cried all day, at eight each night Papa sent me to bed When Ma came home and wiped my eyes I cried again and said Daddy wouldn't buy me a bow-wow! bow wow! Daddy wouldn't buy me a bow-wow! bow wow! I've got a little cat And I'm very fond of that But I'd rather have a bow-wow Wow, wow, wow, wow I'll be so glad when I get old To do just as I "likes" I'll keep a parrot and at least A half a dozen tykes And when I've got a tiny pet I'll kiss the little thing Then put it in its little cot And on to it I'll sing Daddy wouldn't buy me a bow-wow! bow wow! Daddy wouldn't buy me a bow-wow! bow wow! I've got a little cat And I'm very fond of that But I'd rather have a bow-wow Wow, wow, wow, wow References Songs about fathers Songs about dogs Songs about cats 1892 songs British songs

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20Arts

Electronic Arts

Electronic Arts Inc. (EA) is an American video game company headquartered in Redwood City, California. It is the second-largest gaming company in the Americas and Europe by revenue and market capitalization after Activision Blizzard and ahead of Take-Two Interactive, and Ubisoft as of May 2020. Founded and incorporated on May 27, 1982, by Apple employee Trip Hawkins, the company was a pioneer of the early home computer game industry and promoted the designers and programmers responsible for its games as "software artists." EA published numerous games and some productivity software for personal computers, all of which were developed by external individuals or groups until 1987's Skate or Die!. The company shifted toward internal game studios, often through acquisitions, such as Distinctive Software becoming EA Canada in 1991. Currently, EA develops and publishes games of established franchises, including Battlefield, Need for Speed, The Sims, Medal of Honor, Command & Conquer, Dead Space, Mass Effect, Dragon Age, Army of Two, Titanfall, and Star Wars, as well as the EA Sports titles FIFA, Madden NFL, NBA Live, NHL, and EA Sports UFC. Their desktop titles appear on self-developed Origin, an online gaming digital distribution platform for PCs and a direct competitor to Valve's Steam and Epic Games' Store. EA also owns and operates major gaming studios such as EA Tiburon in Orlando, EA Vancouver in Burnaby, EA Romania in Bucharest, DICE in Stockholm and Los Angeles, BioWare in Edmonton and Austin, and Respawn Entertainment in Los Angeles and Vancouver. History 1982–1991: Trip Hawkins era, founding, and early success Trip Hawkins had been an employee of Apple since 1978, at a time when the company had only about fifty employees. Over the next four years, the market for home personal computers skyrocketed. By 1982, Apple had completed its initial public offering (IPO) and become a Fortune 500 company with over one thousand employees. In February 1982, Trip Hawkins arranged a meeting with Don Valentine of Sequoia Capital to discuss financing his new venture, Amazin' Software. Valentine encouraged Hawkins to leave Apple, where Hawkins served as Director of Product Marketing, and allowed Hawkins use of Sequoia Capital's spare office space to start the company. On May 27, 1982, Trip Hawkins incorporated and established the company with a personal investment of an estimated . For more than seven months, Hawkins refined his Electronic Arts business plan. With aid from his first employee (with whom he worked in marketing at Apple), Rich Melmon, the original plan was written, mostly by Hawkins, on an Apple II in Sequoia Capital's office in August 1982. During that time, Hawkins also employed two of his former staff from Apple, Dave Evans and Pat Marriott, as producers, and a Stanford MBA classmate, Jeff Burton from Atari for international business development. The business plan was again refined in September and reissued on October 8, 1982. By November, the employee headcount rose to 11, including Tim Mott, Bing Gordon, David Maynard, and Steve Hayes. Having outgrown the office space provided by Sequoia Capital, the company relocated to a San Mateo office that overlooked the San Francisco Airport landing path. Headcount rose rapidly in 1983, including Don Daglow and Richard Hilleman. When he incorporated the company, Hawkins originally chose Amazin' Software as their company name, but his other early employees of the company universally disliked the name and it changed its name to Electronic Arts in November 1982. He scheduled an off-site meeting in the Pajaro Dunes, where the company once held such off-site meetings. Hawkins had developed the ideas of treating software as an art form and calling the developers, "software artists". Hence, the latest version of the business plan had suggested the name "SoftArt". However, Hawkins and Melmon knew the founders of Software Arts, the creators of VisiCalc, and thought their permission should be obtained. Dan Bricklin did not want the name used because it sounded too similar (perhaps "confusingly similar") to Software Arts. However, the name concept was liked by all the attendees. Hawkins had also recently read a bestselling book about the film studio United Artists, and liked the reputation that the company had created. Hawkins said everyone had a vote but they would lose it if they went to sleep. Hawkins liked the word "electronic", and various employees had considered the phrases "Electronic Artists" and "Electronic Arts". When Gordon and others pushed for "Electronic Artists", in tribute to the film company United Artists, Steve Hayes opposed, saying, "We're not the artists, they [the developers] are..." This statement from Hayes immediately tilted sentiment towards Electronic Arts and the name was unanimously endorsed and adopted later in 1982. He recruited his original employees from Apple, Atari, Xerox PARC, and VisiCorp, and got Steve Wozniak to agree to sit on the board of directors. Hawkins was determined to sell directly to buyers. Combined with the fact that Hawkins was pioneering new game brands, this made sales growth more challenging. Retailers wanted to buy known brands from existing distribution partners. Former CEO Larry Probst arrived as VP of Sales in late 1984 and helped expand the already successful company. This policy of dealing directly with retailers gave EA higher margins and better market awareness, key advantages the company leveraged to leapfrog its early competitors. Promoting its developers was a trademark of EA's early days. Games were sold in square packages modeled after album covers (such as those for 1983's M.U.L.E. and Pinball Construction Set). Hawkins thought the packaing would both save costs and convey an artistic feeling. EA routinely referred to their developers as "artists" and gave them photo credits in their games and full-page magazine ads. Their first such ad, accompanied by the slogan "We see farther," was the first video game advertisement to feature software designers. EA shared lavish profits with their developers, which added to their industry appeal. In the mid-1980s, Electronic Arts aggressively marketed products for the Amiga, a home computer introduced in 1985. Commodore had given EA development tools and prototype machines before Amiga's actual launch. For Amiga EA published some notable non-game titles. A drawing program Deluxe Paint (1985) and its subsequent versions became perhaps the most famous piece of software available for Amiga platform. In addition, EA's Jerry Morrison conceived the idea of a file format that could store images, animations, sounds, and documents simultaneously, and would be compatible with third-party software. He wrote and released to the public the Interchange File Format, which soon became an Amiga standard. Other Amiga programs released by EA included Deluxe Music Construction Set, Instant Music and Deluxe Paint Animation. Some of them, most notably Deluxe Paint, were ported to other platforms. For Macintosh EA released a black & white animation tool called Studio/1, and a series of Paint titles called Studio/8 and Studio/32 (1990). Relationships between Electronic Arts and their external developers often became difficult when the latter missed deadlines or diverged from the former's creative directions. In 1987, EA released Skate or Die!, their first internally developed game. EA continued publishing their external developers' games while experimenting with their internal development strategy. This led to EA's decision of purchasing out a series of companies they identify as successful, as well as the decision to release annualized franchises to cut budget costs. Because of Trip Hawkins' obsession of simulating a sports game, he signed a contract with football coach John Madden that led to EA's developing and releasing annual Madden NFL games. In 1988 EA published a flight simulator game exclusively for Amiga, F/A-18 Interceptor, with filled-polygon graphics that were advanced for the time. Another significant Amiga release (also initially available for Atari ST, later converted for other platforms) was Populous (1989) developed by Bullfrog Productions. It was a pioneering title in the genre that was later called "god games". In 1990, Electronic Arts began producing console games for the Nintendo Entertainment System, after previously licensing its computer games to other console-game publishers. 1991–2007: Larry Probst era, continuous expansion, and success into the new millennium In 1991, Trip Hawkins stepped down as EA's CEO and was succeeded by Larry Probst. Hawkins went on to found the now-defunct 3DO Company, but still remained EA's chair until July 1994. In October 1993, 3DO developed the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer, which at the time was the most powerful game console. Once a critic of game consoles, Hawkins had conceived a console that unlike its competitors would not require a first-party license to be marketed, and was intended to appeal to the PC market. Electronic Arts was The 3DO Company's primary partner in sponsoring their console, showcasing on it their latest games. With a retail price of US$700 () compared to its competitors' $100, the console lagged in sales, and with the 1995 arrival to North America of Sony's PlayStation, a cheaper and more powerful alternative, combined with a lower quality of the 3DO's software library as a backfiring of its liberal license policy, it fell further behind and lost competition. Electronic Arts dropped its support for 3DO in favor of the PlayStation, 3DO's production ceased in 1996 and, for the remainder of the company's lifetime, 3DO developed video games for other consoles and the IBM PC until it folded in 2003. In 1995, Electronic Arts won the European Computer Trade Show award for best software publisher of the year. As the company was still expanding, they opted to purchase space in Redwood Shores, California in 1995 for construction of a new headquarters, which was completed in 1998. Early in 1997, Next Generation identified Electronic Arts as the only company to regularly profit from video games over the past five years, and noted it had "a critical track record second to none". In 1999, EA replaced their long-running Shapes logo with one based on the EA Sports logo used at the time. EA also started to use a brand-specific structure around this time, with the main publishing side of the company rebranding to EA Games. The EA Sports brand was retained for major sports titles, the new EA Sports Big label would be used for casual sports titles with an arcade twist, and the full Electronic Arts name would be used for co-published and distributed titles. EA began to move toward direct distribution of digital games and services with the acquisition of the popular online gaming site Pogo.com in 2001. In 2009, EA acquired the London-based social gaming startup Playfish. In 2004, EA made a multimillion-dollar donation to fund the development of game production curriculum at the University of Southern California's Interactive Media Division. On February 1, 2006, Electronic Arts announced that it would cut worldwide staff by 5 percent. On June 20, 2006, EA purchased Mythic Entertainment, who are finished making Warhammer Online. After Sega's ESPN NFL 2K5 successfully grabbed market share away from EA's dominant Madden NFL series during the 2004 holiday season, EA responded by making several large sports licensing deals which include an exclusive agreement with the NFL, and in January 2005, a 15-year deal with ESPN. The ESPN deal gave EA exclusive first rights to all ESPN content for sports simulation games. On April 11, 2005, EA announced a similar, 6-year licensing deal with the Collegiate Licensing Company (CLC) for exclusive rights to college football content. Much of EA's success, both in terms of sales and with regards to its stock market valuation, is due to its strategy of platform-agnostic development and the creation of strong multi-year franchises. EA was the first publisher to release yearly updates of its sports franchises—Madden, FIFA, NHL, NBA Live, Tiger Woods, etc.—with updated player rosters and small graphical and gameplay tweaks. Recognizing the risk of franchise fatigue among consumers, EA announced in 2006 that it would concentrate more of its effort on creating new original intellectual property. In September 2006, Nokia and EA announced a partnership in which EA becomes an exclusive major supplier of mobile games to Nokia mobile devices through the Nokia Content Discoverer. In the beginning, Nokia customers were able to download seven EA titles (Tetris, Tetris Mania, The Sims 2, Doom, FIFA 06, Tiger Woods PGA Tour 06 and FIFA Street 2) on the holiday season in 2006. Rick Simonson is the executive vice-president and director of Nokia and starting from 2006 is affiliated with John Riccitiello and are partners. 2007–2013: John Riccitiello era In February 2007, Probst stepped down from the CEO job while remaining on the board of directors. His handpicked successor is John Riccitiello, who had worked at EA for several years previously, departed for a while, and then returned. Riccitiello previously worked for Elevation Partners, Sara Lee and PepsiCo. In June 2007, new CEO John Riccitiello announced that EA would reorganize itself into four labels, each with responsibility for its own product development and publishing (the city-state model). The goal of the reorganization was to empower the labels to operate more autonomously, streamline decision-making, increase creativity and quality, and get games into the market faster. This reorganization came after years of consolidation and acquisition by EA of smaller studios, which some in the industry blamed for a decrease in quality of EA titles. In 2008, at the DICE Summit, Riccitiello called the earlier approach of "buy and assimilate" a mistake, often stripping smaller studios of its creative talent. Riccitiello said that the city-state model allows independent developers to remain autonomous to a large extent, and cited Maxis and BioWare as examples of studios thriving under the new structure. Also, in 2007, EA announced that it would be bringing some of its major titles to the Macintosh. EA has released Battlefield 2142, Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars, Crysis, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Madden NFL 08, Need for Speed: Carbon and Spore for the Mac. All of the new games have been developed for the Macintosh using Cider, a technology developed by TransGaming that enables Intel-based Macs to run Windows games inside a translation layer running on Mac OS X. They are not playable on PowerPC-based Macs. It was revealed in February 2008 that Electronic Arts had made a takeover bid for rival game company Take-Two Interactive. After its initial offer of per share, all cash stock transaction offer was rejected by the Take-Two board, EA revised it to per share, a 64% premium over the previous day's closing price and made the offer known to the public. Rumours had been floating around the Internet prior to the offer about Take-Two possibly being bought over by a bigger company, albeit with Viacom as the potential bidder. In May 2008, EA announced that it will purchase the assets of Hands-On Mobile Korea, a South Korean mobile game developer and publisher. The company will become EA Mobile Korea. In September 2008, EA dropped its buyout offer of Take-Two. No reason was given. As of November 6, 2008, it was confirmed that Electronic Arts is closing their Casual Label & merging it with their Hasbro partnership with The Sims Label. EA also confirmed the departure of Kathy Vrabeck, who was given the position as former president of the EA Casual Division in May 2007. EA made this statement about the merger: "We've learned a lot about casual entertainment in the past two years, and found that casual gaming defies a single genre and demographic. With the retirement and departure of Kathy Vrabeck, EA is reorganizing to integrate casual games—development and marketing—into other divisions of our business. We are merging our Casual Studios, Hasbro partnership, and Casual marketing organization with The Sims Label to be a new Sims and Casual Label, where there is a deep compatibility in the product design, marketing and demographics. [...] In the days and weeks ahead, we will make further announcements on the reporting structure for the other businesses in the Casual Label including EA Mobile, Pogo, Media Sales and Online Casual Initiatives. Those businesses remain growth priorities for EA and deserve strong support in a group that will complement their objectives." This statement comes a week after EA announced it was laying off 6% about 600 of their staff positions and had a net loss for the quarter. Due to the 2008 economic crisis, Electronic Arts had a poorer than expected 2008 holiday season, moving it in February 2009 to cut approximately 1100 jobs, which it said represented about 11% of its workforce. It also closed 12 of their facilities. Riccitiello, in a conference call with reporters, stated that their poor performance in the fourth quarter was not due entirely to the poor economy, but also to the fact that they did not release any blockbuster titles in the quarter. In the quarter ending December 31, 2008, the company lost . On February 2, 2009, Ludlum Entertainment had inked a deal with Electronic Arts to grant exclusive rights to bring the work of Robert Ludlum into video gaming. As of early May 2009, the subsidiary studio EA Redwood Shores was known as Visceral Games. On June 24, 2009, EA announced it will merge two of its development studios, BioWare and Mythic into one single role-playing video game and MMO development powerhouse. The move will actually place Mythic under control of BioWare as Ray Muzyka and Greg Zeschuk will be in direct control of the new entity. By fall 2012, both Muzyka and Zeschuk had chosen to depart the merged entity in a joint retirement announcement. On November 9, 2009, EA announced layoffs of 1,500 employees, representing 17% of its workforce, across a number of studios including EA Tiburon, Visceral Games, Mythic and EA Black Box. Also affected were "projects and support activities" that, according to Chief Financial Officer Eric Brown "don't make economic sense", resulting in the shutdown of popular communities such as Battlefield News and the EA Community Team. These layoffs also led to the complete shutdown of Pandemic Studios. In October 2010, EA announced the acquisition of England-based iPhone and iPad games publisher Chillingo for in cash. Chillingo published the popular Angry Birds for iOS and Cut the Rope for all platforms, but the deal did not include those properties, so Cut the Rope became published by ZeptoLab, and Angry Birds became published by Rovio Entertainment. On May 4, 2011, EA reported $3.8 billion in revenues for the fiscal year ending March 2011, and on January 13, 2012, EA announced that it had exceeded $1 billion in digital revenue during the previous calendar year. In a note to employees, EA CEO John Riccitiello called this "an incredibly important milestone" for the company. In June 2011, EA launched Origin, an online service to sell downloadable games for personal computers directly to consumers. Around this time, Valve, which runs Steam in direct competition with Origin, announced changes to storefront policy disallowing games that used in-game purchases that were not tied to Steam's purchasing process, and removed several of EA's games, including Crysis 2, Dragon Age II, and Alice: Madness Returns in 2012. Though EA released a new packaged version of Crysis 2 that including all the downloadable content without the storefront features, EA did not publish any additional games on Steam until 2019, instead selling all personal computer versions of games through Origin. In July 2011, EA announced that it had acquired PopCap Games, the company behind games such as Plants vs. Zombies and Bejeweled. EA continued its shift toward digital goods in 2012, folding its mobile-focused EA Interactive (EAi) division "into other organizations throughout the company, specifically those divisions led by EA Labels president Frank Gibeau, COO Peter Moore, and CTO Rajat Taneja, and EVP of digital Kristian Segerstrale." 2013–present: Andrew Wilson era, Disney partnership, monetization On March 18, 2013, John Riccitiello announced that he would be stepping down as CEO and a member of the Board of Directors on March 30, 2013. Larry Probst was also appointed executive chairman on the same day. Andrew Wilson was named as the new CEO of EA by September 2013. In April 2013, EA announced a reorganization which was to include dismissal of 10% of their workforce, consolidation of marketing functions which were distributed among the five label organizations, and subsumption of Origin operational leadership under the President of Labels. EA acquired the lucrative exclusive license to develop games within the Star Wars universe from Disney in May 2013, shortly after Disney's closure of its internal LucasArts game development in 2013. EA secured its license from 2013 through 2023, and began to assign new Star Wars projects across several of its internal studios, including BioWare, DICE, Visceral Games, Motive Studios, Capital Games and external developer Respawn Entertainment. In April 2015, EA announced that it would be shutting down various free-to-play games in July of that year, including Battlefield Heroes, Battlefield Play4Free, Need for Speed: World, and FIFA World. The reorganization and revised marketing strategy lead to a gradual increase in stock value. In July 2015, Electronic Arts reached an all-time high with a stock value of US$71.63, surpassing the previous February 2005 record of $68.12. This is also up 54% from $46.57 in early January 2015. The surge was partly attributed to EA's then-highly anticipated Star Wars Battlefront reboot, which released one month before Star Wars: The Force Awakens, also highly anticipated. During E3 2015, vice-president of the company, Patrick Söderlund, announced that the company will start investing more on smaller titles such as Unravel so as to broaden the company's portfolio. On December 10, 2015, EA announced a new division called Competitive Gaming Division, which focuses on creating competitive game experience and organizing ESports events. It was once headed by Peter Moore. In May 2016, Electronic Arts announced that they had formed a new internal division called Frostbite Labs. The new department specializes in creating new projects for virtual reality platforms, and "virtual humans". The new department is located in Stockholm and Vancouver. EA announced the closure of Visceral Games in October 2017. Prior, Visceral had been supporting EA's other games but was also working on a Star Wars title named Project Ragtag since EA's acquisition of the Star Wars license, even hiring Amy Hennig to direct the project. While EA did not formally give a reason for the closure, industry pundits believed that EA was concerned about the principally single-player game which would be difficult to monetize, as well as the slow pace of development. EA's original approach to the microtransactions in Star Wars Battlefront II sparked an industry-wide debate on the use of random-content loot boxes. While other games had used loot boxes, EA's original approach within Battlefront II from its early October 2017 launch included using such mechanics for pay to win gameplay elements, as well as locking various Star Wars characters behind expensive paywalls, leading several gaming journalists and players to complain. EA modified some of the costs of these elements in anticipation of the game's full November 2017 launch, but they were reportedly told by Disney to disable all microtransactions until they could come up with a fairer monetization scheme. Ultimately, by March 2018, EA had developed a fairer system that eliminated the pay to win elements and drastically reduced costs for unlocking characters. The controversy over Battlefront II loot boxes led to an 8.5% drop in stock value in one month—about $3.1 billion and impacted EA's financial results for the following quarters. Further, the visibility of this controversial led to debate at government levels around the world to determine if loot boxes were a form of gambling and if they should be regulated. In January 2018, EA announced eMLS, a new competitive league for EA Sports' FIFA 18 through its Competitive Gaming Division (CGD) and MLS. That same month, EA teamed up with ESPN and Disney XD in a multi-year pact to broadcast Madden NFL competitive matches across the world through its Competitive Gaming Division arm. On August 14, 2018, Patrick Söderlund announced his departure from EA as its vice-president and chief design officer, after serving twelve years with the company. With Söderlund's departure, the SEED group was moved as part of EA's studios, while the EA Originals and EA Partners teams were moved under the company's Strategic Growth group. On February 6, 2019, Electronic Arts' stock value was hit by a decline of 13.3%, the worst decline since Halloween 2008. This was largely due to the marketing of their anticipated title Battlefield V, which was released after the holiday season of October 2018. Stocks were already declining since late August, when EA announced that Battlefield Vs release would be delayed until November. Upon release, the game was met with a mixed reception, and EA sold one million fewer copies than their expected figure of 7.3 million. Also attributed to the stock plunge was the game's lack of the game mode Battle Royale, popularized by PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds and then Fortnite. Stocks then surged 9.6% with the surprise release of Apex Legends, which garnered 25 million players in just one week, smashing Fortnites record of 10 million players in two weeks. In advance of the end of its financial quarter ending March 31, 2019, Wilson announced they were cutting about 350 jobs, or about 4% of its workforce, primarily from their marketing, publishing, and operations divisions. Wilson stated the layoffs were necessary to "address our challenges and prepare for the opportunities ahead". EA announced in October 2019 that it would be returning to release games on Steam, starting with the November 2019 release of Star Wars: Jedi Fallen Order, as well as bringing the EA Access subscription service to Steam. While EA plans to continue to sell games on Origin, the move to add Steam releases was to help get more consumers to see their offerings. Due to COVID-19 lockdowns and growing demand for online games, EA's revenue grew to $1.4bn in the first quarter of 2020. EA rebranded both EA Access and Origin to EA Play on August 18, 2020, but otherwise without changing the subscription price or services offered as part of a streamlining effort. In December 2020, EA placed a bid to buy Codemasters, a British developer of racing games, in a deal worth $1.2 billion, outbidding an earlier offer placed by Take-Two Interactive. The acquisition, agreed to by Codemasters, was completed by February 18, 2021, with all shares of Codemasters transferred to Codex Games Limited, a subsidiary of EA. Wilson stated that "the franchises in our combined portfolio will enable us to create innovative new experiences and bring more players into the excitement of cars and motorsport". In January 2021, Disney announced it had revived the Lucasfilm Games label for its licensed video game properties and announced new games including a new Star Wars game that would be developed by Ubisoft aimed for release in 2023, indicating that EA's ten-year exclusive license in 2013 to the Star Wars property was likely not extended. EA still maintained a non-exclusive license to Star Wars games, affirming more titles will be coming following this announcement. As of February 2021, EA's Star Wars games had sold more than 52 million copies and brought in more than in revenue. After a six-year absence from producing college sports-based game due to legal issues related to student athlete likenesses with the NCAA, EA announced in February 2021 that it was returning to college sports with a planned EA Sports College Football title to likely be released in 2023. The company announced its plans to extend its mobile commitment in February 2021 by acquiring Glu Mobile in an deal estimated worth . The acquisition was completed by the end of April 2021. The Public Investment Fund of Saudi Arabia acquired 7.4 million shares of EA, valued at , in February 2021. Former CEO and current chairman Probst stated in May 2021 he was retiring from the company. Current EA CEO Wilson took over as chairman. In June 2021, EA confirmed that they had suffered a data breach, with game and engine source code taken from their servers, including the source for the Frostbite Engine and FIFA 21, though assuring no player or user data had been obtained. Hackers that had taken the code had started selling it around on the dark web. The perpetuators of this breach began to extort EA for money in July, releasing small portions of the data to public forums and threatening to release more if their demands were not met. EA acquired mobile game developer Playdemic Studios in Manchester, England from Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment in June 2021 for , following the merger of Discovery, Inc. with WarnerMedia. The acquisition is expected to complete by 2022. In their SEC filings in September 2021, the company said that current CFO and COO Blake Jorgensen will be stepping down by mid-2022. The company's COO role will be taken over by studios head Laura Miele, while a search for a CFO will be launched. Games Company structure EA is headed by CEO Andrew Wilson. As of April 2018, all of the studios subsidiaries of EA respond to Laura Miele, head of EA Worldwide Studios as Chief Studios Officer. Development studios BioWare in Edmonton, Canada; acquired in October 2007. BioWare Austin in Austin, Texas; acquired in October 2007. Codemasters in Southam, England; founded in October 1986, acquired by EA in February 2021. Codemasters Birmingham in Birmingham, England Codemasters Cheshire in Cheshire, England Codemasters Kuala Lumpur in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Codemasters India in Pune, India Slightly Mad Studios in London, England; founded in 2009, acquired by Codemasters in November 2019. Criterion Games in Guildford, England; acquired in August 2004. DICE in Stockholm, Sweden; acquired in October 2006. Frostbite Labs in Stockholm, Sweden; founded in May 2016. Frostbite Vancouver in Burnaby, Canada; founded in May 2016. EA Baton Rouge in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; founded in September 2008. EA Chillingo in Macclesfield, England; acquired in October 2010, reduced to bare staff in 2017 to primarily support mobile publishing. EA Galway in Galway, Ireland. EA Gothenburg in Gothenburg, Sweden; founded in March 2011. From March 2011 to November 2012, the studio was named EA Gothenburg. From November 2012 to January 2020, the studio was named Ghost Games, until the original name came back. EA Mobile in Los Angeles, California; founded in 2004. EA Capital Games in Sacramento, California; acquired in 2011. From 2011 to 2014, the studio was named BioWare Sacramento. EA Redwood Studios in Redwood City, California; founded in 2016. Firemonkeys Studios in Melbourne, Australia; acquired in July 2012. Glu Mobile in San Francisco, California; acquired in April 2021. PlayFirst in Delaware; acquired by Glu in September 2014. Industrial Toys in Pasadena, California; acquired in July 2018. Playdemic in Manchester, England; acquired by EA in June 2021 from WarnerMedia Red Crow Studios in Charlottetown, Canada Slingshot Games in Hyderabad, India. Tracktwenty Studios in Helsinki, Finland; founded in 2012. EA Sports in Redwood Shores, California; founded in 1991. EA Cologne in Cologne, Germany EA Madrid in Madrid, Spain; founded in October 2018. EA Romania in Bucharest, Romania; acquired in 2006. EA Tiburon in Maitland, Florida; acquired in April 1998. EA Vancouver in Burnaby, Canada; acquired in 1991. Metalhead Software in Victoria, British Columbia; acquired in May 2021. Full Circle in Vancouver, Canada; opened in 2021. Maxis in Redwood City, California; acquired in July 1997. Maxis Texas in Austin, Texas was opened in 2019, working on a new IP Maxis Europe in multiple locations in Europe, was opened in 2021. Motive Studios in Montreal, Canada; founded in July 2015. Motive Studios Vancouver in Burnaby, Canada; founded in June 2018. Pogo Studios in Redwood City, California; acquired in March 2001. Pogo Studios Shanghai in Shanghai, China. PopCap Games in Seattle, Washington; acquired in July 2011. PopCap Shanghai in Shanghai, China; acquired in July 2011. PopCap Hyderabad in Hyderabad, India; acquired in July 2011. Respawn Entertainment in Sherman Oaks, California; acquired in December 2017. Respawn Vancouver opened in 2020. Ripple Effect Studio in Los Angeles, California; established in May 2013, previously a subsidiary of DICE called DICE Los Angeles and a support studio before becoming its own company and being renamed in 2021. Spearhead in Seoul, South Korea; founded in 1998. From 1998 to July 2004, the studio was named EA Korea. Unnamed studio in Seattle, Washington, led by Kevin Stephens formerly vice-president of Monolith Productions, founded in May 2021. Unnamed studio in Seattle, Washington, led by Marcus Lehto former creative director of Bungie, founded in October 2021. Former BioWare Montreal in Montreal, Canada; founded in March 2009, the studio merged into Motive Studios in August 2017. BioWare San Francisco in San Francisco, California; founded as EA2D, the studio was renamed in August 2011 and closed in March 2013. Bullfrog Productions in Guildford, England; acquired in January 1995, the studio closed in 2001. Danger Close Games in Los Angeles, California; acquired in February 2000, the studio closed in June 2013. EA Baltimore in Baltimore, Maryland; founded in 1998, the studio closed in 2002. EA Black Box in Burnaby, Canada; acquired in June 2002 as Black Box Games, later rebranded as EA Black Box. The studio closed in April 2013. EA Bright Light in Guildford, England; founded in 1995 as EA UK, the studio was renamed in 2008 and closed in October 2011. EA Chicago in Hoffman Estates, Illinois; founded in February 2004, the studio closed in November 2007. EA North Carolina in Morrisville, North Carolina; the studio closed in September 2013. EA Pacific in Irvine, California; the studio was acquired in August 1998 as Westwood Pacific, the studio was renamed in 2002 and closed in 2003. EA Phenomic in Ingelheim am Rhein, Germany; the studio was acquired in August 2006 and closed in July 2013. EA Salt Lake in Salt Lake City, Utah; the studio was acquired in December 2006 and closed in April 2017. EA Seattle in Seattle, Washington; the studio was acquired in January 1996 and closed in 2002. Easy Studios in Stockholm, Sweden; the studio was founded in 2008 and closed in March 2015. Firemint in Melbourne, Australia; the studio was acquired in May 2011 and merged with Iron Monkey Studios to become Firemonkeys Studios in July 2012. Hypnotix in Little Falls, New Jersey; acquired in July 2005, the studio was merged into EA Tiburon. Iron Monkey Studios in Sydney, Australia; the studio was acquired in May 2011 and merged with Firemint to become Firemonkeys Studios in July 2012. Kesmai in Charlottesville, Virginia; the studio was acquired in 1999 and closed in 2001. Mythic Entertainment in Fairfax, Virginia; acquired in July 2006 as EA Mythic, the studio became Mythic Entertainment in July 2008, then BioWare Mythic in June 2009 and again Mythic Entertainment in 2012. The studio closed in May 2014. NuFX in Hoffman Estates, Illinois; the studio was acquired in February 2004 and closed in the same year. Origin Systems in Austin, Texas; the studio was acquired in September 1992 and closed in February 2004. Pandemic Studios in Los Angeles, California and Brisbane, Australia; the studio was acquired in October 2007 and closed in November 2009. Playfish in London, England; the studio was acquired in 2009 and closed in June 2013. Quicklime Games; closed in April 2013. Uprise in Uppsala, Sweden; founded as Uprise and acquired in 2012 as ESN. From 2014, the studio was named Uprise again. It merged into DICE Stockholm in 2019. Victory Games in Los Angeles, California; founded in February 2011 as BioWare Victory, the studio was renamed in November 2012 and closed in October 2013. Visceral Games in Redwood City, California; founded in 1998 as EA Redwood Shores, the studio was renamed in 2009 and closed in October 2017. Waystone Games in Los Angeles, California; the studio closed in November 2014. Westwood Studios in Las Vegas, Nevada; the studio was acquired in August 1998 and closed in March 2003. Labels EA Worldwide Studios Formerly EA Games, EA Worldwide Studios is home to many of EA's studios, which are responsible for action-adventure, role playing, racing and combat games marketed under the EA brand. In addition to traditional packaged-goods games, EA Worldwide Studios also develops massively multiplayer online role-playing games. As of April 2018, the division is led by Laura Miele. EA Sports First introduced in 1991 as the Electronic Arts Sports Network, before being renamed due to a trademark dispute with ESPN, EA Sports publishes all the sports games from EA, including FIFA Football, Madden NFL, Fight Night, NBA Live, NCAA Football, Cricket, NCAA March Madness, Tiger Woods PGA Tour, NHL, NASCAR and Rugby. In 2011, Forbes ranked EA Sports eighth on their list of most valuable sports brands, with a value of . EA All Play EA All Play is a mobile-oriented label that, since 2012, publishes digital titles like The Simpsons''', Tetris, and Battlefield, as well as Hasbro board games like Scrabble. EA Competitive Gaming Division The EA Competitive Gaming Division (CGD), founded in 2015 by Peter Moore and currently headed by Todd Sitrin, is the group dedicated on enabling global eSports competitions on EA's biggest franchises including FIFA, Madden NFL, Battlefield and more. SEED The Search for Extraordinary Experiences Division (SEED) was revealed at the 2017 Electronic Entertainment Expo as a technology research division and incubator, using tools like deep learning and neural networks to bring in player experiences and other external factors to help them develop more immersive narratives and games. SEED has offices in Los Angeles and Stockholm. Former labels EA Kids — A label for educational titles. In January 1995, EA sold the label to and in conjunction with Capital Cities/ABC formed the independent ABC/EA Home Software, which was later absorbed into Creative Wonders in that year's May. In October 1997, EA and ABC sold Creative Wonders to The Learning Company for $40 million. EA Sports Big — A label used from 2000 to 2008 for arcade-styled extreme sports. EA Sports Freestyle — A short-lived replacement for EA Sports Big used from 2008 to 2009, which focused exclusively on casual sports games, regardless of genre. The label was used for only three games before being retired. Electronic Arts Studios EA Games Partnership and initiatives EA Partners program (1997–present) EA Partners co-publishing program was dedicated to publishing and distributing games developed by third-party developers. EA Partners began as EA Distribution, formed in 1997 and led by Tom Frisina, a former executive from Accolade and Three-Sixty who helped both companies find third-party developers as to provide publishing support for them. Frisina's early partners included Looking Glass Studios, MGM Interactive for the rights to the James Bond property, DreamWorks Interactive, and eventually DICE; in the latter two cases, these studios were acquired by EA as part of the EA DICE family. In 2003, EA's president John Riccitiello pushed for a renaming of the EA Distribution label, seeing the potential to bring in more independent developers and additional revenue streams. While they rebranded the label as EA Partners in 2003, Riccitiello left EA the following year, which disrupted the direction the label had been aiming to go. Oddworld Inhabitants, who had signed on with EA Partner for their next Oddworld games, found the situation difficult as EA Partners was reluctant to support games where they did not own the intellectual property rights and instead favored internal development. The situation with EA Partners switched gears in 2005 after EA and Valve signed an EA Partners deal for the physical distribution of The Orange Box; EA Partners realized it needed to be flexible to handle the different publishing opportunities presented to them. A similar breakthrough was reached with signing on Harmonix for the distribution of the Rock Band games, requiring them to work closely with MTV Games on the plastic instrument controllers necessary for the titles. A number of major partnerships were made over the next few years, including Namco Bandai, Crytek, Starbreeze Studios, id Software, Epic Games and People Can Fly, Double Fine Productions, Grasshopper Manufacture, Spicy Horse, and Realtime Worlds. While many of these partnerships proved successful, the division had two major marks on its name. It was associated with the situation around Kingdoms of Amalur: Reckoning developed by 38 Studios, which had been significantly backed by loans from taxpayer funds from the state of Rhode Island. Kingdoms failed to be commercially successful, and EA Partners pulled out of making a sequel, leaving 38 Studios in default of its loan payback to the state. Secondly, while The Secret World from Funcom launched as a subscription game, Funcom had to switch their monetization model to free-to-play to improve their revenues, which further affected EA Partners. Around April 2013, as part of a large 1000-employee layoff, many reporters claimed that EA Partners was also being shut down for its poor commercial performance, but the program remained active as the company refocused its efforts. The label remained dormant over the next several years, while Letts expanded on the EA Originals program, but following the move of EA Partners and EA Origins into the Strategic Growth group in August 2018, the label was revived on the March 2019 with a publishing deal with Velan Studios, formed from the former heads of Vicarious Visions. Notable publishing/distribution agreements include: Alice: Madness Returns – Spicy Horse APB – Realtime Worlds Brütal Legend – Double Fine Productions Bulletstorm – Epic Games Crysis series – Crytek DeathSpank – Hothead Games Fuse – Insomniac Games Hellgate: London – Flagship Studios Kingdoms of Amalur: Reckoning – 38 Studios, Big Huge Games Rock Band series – Harmonix and MTV Games The Secret World – Funcom Shadows of the Damned – Grasshopper Manufacture Shank series – Klei Entertainment Syndicate – Starbreeze Studios Warp – Trapdoor EA Originals program (2017–present) EA Originals is a program within Electronic Arts to help support independently developed video games. EA funds the money for development, and once it recoups that, all additional revenue goes to the partner studio that created the game. That studio also gets to keep the intellectual property rights for whatever it creates, and even has creative control over the project. The program was announced at EA's press event at the 2016 E3 Conference, and builds upon the success they had with Unravel from Coldwood Interactive in 2015. The first game to be supported under this program was Fe by Zoink, released in 2018. It was followed by A Way Out from Hazelight Studios, Unravel Two from Coldwood Interactive and Sea of Solitude from Jo-Mei Games. In 2019, during its EA Play event, EA teased three new titles. Among the games featured were Lost in Random from Zoink and an unnamed title from Hazelight Studios. It was also announced that Glowmade would be entering the initiative with a title called RushHeart. In June 2020, Hazelight Studios' untitled project was revealed as It Takes Two'' and was released the following year. Criticism and controversy Since the mid-2010s, Electronic Arts has been in the center of numerous controversies involving acquisitions of companies and alleged anti-consumerist practices in their individual games (which can be further read on their own articles), as well as lawsuits alleging EA's anti-competition when signing sports-related contracts. References Further reading External links 1982 establishments in California Companies based in Redwood City, California Companies listed on the Nasdaq Entertainment companies based in California Macintosh software companies Multinational companies headquartered in the United States Public Investment Fund Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area Video game companies based in California Video game companies established in 1982 Video game companies of the United States Video game development companies Video game publishers Wargame companies

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denny%20Hulme

Denny Hulme

Denis Clive Hulme (18 June 1936 – 4 October 1992), commonly known as Denny Hulme, was a New Zealand racing driver who won the Formula One World Drivers' Championship for the Brabham team. Between his debut at Monaco in 1965 and his final race in the 1974 US Grand Prix, he started 112 Grand Prix, resulting eight victories and 33 trips to the podium. He also finished third in the overall standing in 1968 and 1972. Hulme showed versatility by dominating the Canadian-American Challenge Cup (Can-Am) for Group 7 sports cars. As a member of the McLaren team that won five straight titles between 1967 and 1971, he won the individual Drivers' Championship twice and runner-up on four other occasions. Following his Formula One tenure with Brabham, Hulme raced for McLaren in multiple formats—Formula One, Can-Am, and at the Indianapolis 500. Hulme retired from Formula One at the end of the 1974 season but continued to race Australian Touring Cars. Hulme was nicknamed 'The Bear', because of his "gruff nature" and "rugged features"; however, he was also "sensitive (...) unable to express his feelings, except in a racing car". During the early part of his career, Hulme preferred to race bare foot as he believed that it gave him a better feel of the throttle. This changed in 1960 when he started competing in the more highly regulated European championships. During his career, Hulme drove the most powerful cars of his era. He raced in F1, F2, Indycars, saloon/touring cars, CanAm and endurance races, all during the same season. After retiring from F1, he even drove in truck races. Hulme's death by heart attack, whilst driving a BMW M3 during the Bathurst 1000 in Australia, made him the seventh former Formula One champion to die, and the first to die of natural causes (versus three racing incidents, two incidents on public roads and one incident involving aircraft). Early racing career Hulme was born on a tobacco farm belonging to his parents in Motueka in the South Island of New Zealand. His father Clive Hulme was awarded a Victoria Cross, as a sniper, while fighting in the Battle of Crete in 1941. Whilst growing up on his family's farm in Pongakawa (near Te Puke), Hulme learned to drive a truck while sitting on his father's lap, and by the age of six, he was driving solo. He left school and went to work in a garage. He saved up enough money to buy an MG TF, promptly entering this in hillclimbing events. After that his father brought a MGA for him. After making impressive progress he purchased a F2 Cooper-Climax, subsequently being chosen for the New Zealand Driver to Europe program, along with fellow Kiwi, George Lawton. The pair of young New Zealanders began competing in Formula Junior and Formula Two across Europe, in a Cooper-BMC and Cooper–Ford respectively. Hulme won the 1960 Gran Premio di Pescara for Formula Juniors, but the newspapers back in New Zealand made no mention of this, as they wrote only about Bruce McLaren. However, the year, 1960 ended in disaster, when Lawton crashed during a race at Roskilde (Denmark) dying in Hulme's arms. As the New Zealand press were ignoring Hulme, he hired a 2½ litre Cooper from Reg Parnell and entered it in the 1961 New Zealand Gold Star Championship. He won the title straight away. He appeared at Le Mans for the Abarth team, taking a class win in S850 the class (partnered by fellow Kiwi Angus Hyslop), before Ken Tyrrell invited the likable (but sometimes gruff) New Zealander to race in his Formula Junior and Formula Two team, in 1962, when Tony Maggs was unavailable due to his Formula One commitments. Once there, basing himself in London, he worked as a mechanic in Jack Brabham's garage in Chessington and began to pave his way on his motor-racing path. It was Brabham who gave him drives in his Brabham sportscars and single seaters. During the 1963 season, he won seven International Formula Junior and after some impressive performances there, it was his old boss Jack Brabham who gave Hulme the call and he joined the Australian legend's F2 team. In 1964, the pair set about dominating the Championship that year, resulting in a one–two finish in the FFSA Trophées de France series. The pair also finished one–two in the 1966 series. During this spell in F2 between 1964 and 1966, Hulme won a total of three races in the series, plus two non-championship events (the 1964 Grote Prijs van Limborg and the 1965 Spring Trophy). Hulme was rewarded with some non-championship Formula One races. Away from single seaters, Hulme also raced the occasional saloon car. In appalling conditions, on 6 July 1963, Hulme won his first major saloon car race. The second Motor-sponsored Six-Hour, a round of the European Touring Car Championship, saw the pre-race favourite, a 7-litre Ford Galaxie driven by Dan Gurney and Jack Brabham flounder in the wet and the Jaguars dominated the race. Hulme would win, partnered by Roy Salvadori, after the winners on the road were disqualified for engine irregularities. Formula One career 1965–1967 – with Brabham After making numerous appearances in non-championship events for Brabham during the 1964 season, as the Brabham team had signed Dan Gurney to race alongside their boss, Hulme finally got the call he had been waiting for, making his World Championship debut in 1965 at Monaco. Later that year, he scored his first points, for fourth position at the daunting Clermont-Ferrand (Charade) circuit in France. 1966 was Hulme's first full season of Formula One. Now, after the departure of Dan Gurney, he was the outright number two at the Brabham team behind Jack himself. Finishing a fine fourth that year (with Jack winning the Drivers' and the Brabham team the Constructors' Championship), the highlights came with a third place at Reims in France, a second behind Brabham at Brands Hatch, and the fastest lap at Zandvoort, before ignition problems put paid to his race there. Whilst his boss won the World title, Hulme made it to the podium four times during season, finishing fourth overall in the standings. The 1967 Championship was essentially an internal affair within the Brabham Racing Organisation team for most of the year, but the new Lotus 49 gave Jim Clark and Graham Hill the opportunity to bite back. Their Brabham-Repcos were not the fastest cars, however they were reliable and consistent, as were Brabham and Hulme. During the season, he would take two wins in the 11-race Championship, at Monte Carlo and the ferocious Nürburgring (the Green Hell). Although Hulme silenced many critics with his excellent win in Monaco, the race was marred by the appalling accident that would claim the life of Lorenzo Bandini, who was chasing Hulme at the time of the crash. His second Grand Prix win of 1967, was on the legendary Nordschleife of the Nürburgring. This victory proved his versatility on any type of track. A further six visits to the podium gave Hulme the advantage he needed. He won the Championship by five points from Brabham, and a further five from Jim Clark. Hulme was the first (and to date, only) Formula One World Champion from New Zealand. 1968–1974 – with McLaren saw a move to the McLaren team, owned by fellow Kiwi Bruce McLaren. Although the 'Bruce and Denny Show' dominated the North American Can-Am sportcar series from 1966, their time in Formula One was less successful. The South African race, held at the legendary Kyalami circuit, proved difficult for the team. Despite having to use the old BRM V12 engines on an old M5A chassis, Hulme brought it home a creditable fifth. By the Spanish round at Jarama, the Cosworth DFV V8 engine was installed in the brand new M7A chassis and the performances improved. After victory in the BRDC International Trophy, Hulme picked up second place in Spain, before taking two more wins that year at Monza and in Canada, leaving him with an outside chance of retaining the Championship crown against Graham Hill and the young Jackie Stewart. The finale, in Mexico City, determined the champion that year, but Hulme suffered a suspension failure on his McLaren. was a disaster for Hulme: the revised M7A chassis struggled with reliability and Hulme managed only 20 points, attaining one victory, at the final round at the Mexican Grand Prix. Hulme ended the season in sixth position in the drivers' standings. brought a new decade, but Hulme's luck did not change. Team boss and friend Bruce McLaren was killed whilst testing the CanAm McLaren M8D, which affected Hulme. Another problem occurred that year when he suffered burns to his hands from a methanol fire during practice for the Indianapolis 500. As a result, he missed the Dutch Grand Prix in 1970. Undeterred, he felt he owed it to Bruce and the McLaren team to continue racing. Besides his emotional distress and serious burns, he still managed a creditable fourth in the championship with 27 points. Although Hulme would claim third place in the 1970 Mexican Grand Prix, the race was marred by the immense crowd of over 200,000. The crowd proved almost uncontrollable and almost forced the cancellation of the race. They were crammed in front of the guard-rails, sat at the trackside and ran across the track itself. The drivers were concerned that someone would be killed. During qualifying, Hulme missed some children by inches. They were playing a game of chicken to see who got nearest to the cars as they hurtled past. started promisingly. At Kyalami, he led dominantly—but the rising-rate suspension system forced him out, after only a few laps. The McLaren team were in disarray. The season was even worse than 1970 results-wise, as Hulme did not even make the podium, although he set the fastest laps in Canada and the United States that year—but results were hard to come by. Hulme ended up ninth in the standings for 1971. Beauty, fragrance and men's products company Yardley took over title sponsorship of a new McLaren in , and it paid dividends for Hulme. Partnered with good friend Peter Revson, Hulme was back on winning ways taking victory in South Africa, and a few fine podiums elsewhere, finishing 1972 in third place with 39 points. Meanwhile, Hulme also won the non-championship International Gold Cup race at Oulton Park. Amazingly, Hulme scored only one pole position in his F1 career aboard a McLaren M23, in 1973 at Kyalami—he appeared to have a good relationship with the South African venue. However, Hulme was outshone by friend and teammate Peter Revson in , and he finished a place down on the American in sixth, 12 points adrift. By the 1973 Belgian Grand Prix, Hulme and McLaren had taken F1 safety forward, when his car introduced the Graviner life-support system to Formula One, supplying the driver breathable air in the event of fire. Hulme won the Swedish Grand Prix luckily, though he also set the fastest lap. The race seemed to be set up for a home victory for Ronnie Peterson, with his Lotus teammate, Emerson Fittipaldi in second, when the Lotuses hit trouble. Fittipaldi being slowed with gearbox issues, and then Peterson with a slow rear wheel puncture. As Hulme decided to run with harder tyres, he passed Peterson on the penultimate lap to win. Hulme expressed sadness to "have taken that away from Ronnie". He and Revson had built up a strong friendship off the back of their F1 camaraderie—they also competed together in the Can-Am series. When Revson left McLaren at the end of 1973 to join Shadow, Hulme would have been disappointed. In his time at McLaren, Hulme won six Grands Prix, but he was nearing the end of his time in F1, and his competitive urges were being blunted by a growing apprehension about the dangers of racing. After the Brazilian Grand Prix in which Hulme finished in twelfth place, these fears were well founded. when testing at Kyalami commenced, in March 1974, Peter Revson suffered a front suspension failure (broken front Ball Joint), veering head-on into the barriers. Hulme tried in vain to save his friend's life, but to no avail. After the accident Hulme announced that he would see out before retiring from Grand Prix racing. However, other than winning the Argentine event (he inherited the lead when his now teammate Fittipaldi inadvertently knocked-off the electrical "kill-switch" on his steering wheel, on the penultimate lap) and coming home second in Austria, he did not make much of an impact on the season, and he retired dignified at the end of the year and stepped away from the sport and returned to New Zealand. Away from F1 1966 Le Mans 24 hours At the finish of the 1966 Le Mans 24 hours, the two Shelby-American Inc. entered Ford GT40 MK II's were both on the lead lap, running first and second, with the car Hulme was partnering with Ken Miles in the lead. In the lead half-hour of the race, the Fords bunched up together in a pre-arranged plan for Bruce McLaren and Miles to cross the line, headlights ablaze, in a dead-heat. Unfortunately the dead-heat that Henry Ford II had so proudly planned did not come off, as the timekeepers decided that a dead-heat was technically impossible as the Hulme/Miles car had qualified faster than the McLaren/Amon car, and therefore covered a shorter race distance. Therefore, when the two cars arrived side by side at the finish, Bruce McLaren and Chris Amon were classified as the winners, with Hulme and Ken Miles in second. Can-Am (1966–1972) In 1966, while driving for the Brabham team in Formula One, Hulme drove in the inaugural season of the Can-Am racing series of FIA Group 7 racing, driving the same Sid Taylor entered Lola T70 he had driven with success in UK Group 7 races that year, but achieving no success in the Can-Am races. In 1967 he joined the McLaren team of New Zealand countryman Bruce McLaren for the series, replacing Chris Amon who had gone to Ferrari. This partnership became so successful, the Americans called them the 'Bruce and Denny Show', such was their domination. In the 1967 season, the year of his F1 Championship win with Brabham, Hulme finished second to team leader Bruce McLaren for the Can-Am championship, scoring three wins in six races and earning 24 points in the McLaren M6A. Hulme won the Can-Am Championship in 1968, taking three victories in the six race season, earning 35 points in the McLaren M8A. 1969 saw the McLaren team continue to dominate the series; driving the McLaren M8B, they won every race, with multiple 1–2 finishes, and even a 1–2–3 finish when Dan Gurney drove the spare car. Hulme scored five victories in eleven races in 1969, earning 160 points to finish second to teammate McLaren in the championship. The 1970 season was a difficult one for the team, as they mourned the loss of leader Bruce McLaren, who had died while pre-season testing the McLaren M8D "Batmobile" at the Goodwood Circuit. Teamed first with driver Dan Gurney, then with driver Peter Gethin, Hulme led the team with six wins in ten races, winning his second Can-Am Championship driving the M8D to 132 points—more than double the number of the second-place competitor. For the 1971 season Hulme's teammate was his good friend Peter Revson, who took the Can-Am crown that year with Hulme in second (three wins in ten races), driving the McLaren M8F. In his final season, Hulme drove the McLaren M20 to second place in the 1972 championship on 65 points, with two wins in the nine race season. Following his quiet start in the 1966 season, Hulme scored 22 wins with 11 second place and 2 third-place finishes in 52 Can-Am races from 1967 through 1972 – standing on the podium for 67% of the races during those six seasons. In those same six seasons, he was the Can-Am season champion twice, and championship runner-up four times. His 22 career wins are the most by any driver in the Can-Am series. Indy 500 Hulme competed in the Indianapolis 500 on four occasions: 1967, 1968, 1969, and 1971. His best results in the event were in 1967 and 1968, both times finishing fourth. He did not compete in the 1970 race, due to methanol burns to the hands after a fire during practice. Tasman Series Hulme finished third in the 1964 Tasman Series with one win and three podiums. He would later compete in 1967 and 1968, collecting a podium in each year. British Sportscar Championship (1965–1969) On weekends away from the Formula One, Hulme would sometimes race for Sid Taylor Racing in the British Sportscar Championship. During this time, he won a total of 12 races, mostly in a Lola T70, including three RAC Tourist Trophies, one of which was a round of the 1965 World Sportscar Championship. After F1 After leaving the sport, Hulme led the GPDA (Grand Prix Drivers' Association) for a brief period, but the cut and thrust nature of the post was ill-suited to his gentlemanly nature and he did not fill the post for very long. He then retired to New Zealand, returning to touring cars to race occasionally in the Benson & Hedges 500 race at Pukekohe Park Raceway in the late 1970s first in Chrysler Chargers then later a Volkswagen Golf, partnering Stirling Moss on occasion for the 500 kilometre endurance format. Hulme began racing regularly again in 1982 with amateur racer Ray Smith, building up a team with the Holden Commodore V8 capable of winning the New Zealand Production Car Series for Group A touring cars in 1983–84. Hulme also started racing in Australia, racing in the team of former European compatriot Frank Gardner's JPS Team BMW, which included second in class at the 1984 Bathurst 1000. Hulme returned to Europe in 1986 racing in the European Touring Car Championship in a Tom Walkinshaw Racing prepared Rover Vitesse. That campaign culminated in a victory in the RAC Tourist Trophy, Hulme's fourth win in the event, 18 years after his third win. After that Hulme raced briefly for Bob Jane's Mercedes-Benz team before linking up with Larry Perkins in 1987, moving with Perkins in 1988 to the newly formed Holden Racing Team. It was with Holden, that Hulme would record his last visit to a podium, when he finished second, in the 1988 South Australia Cup. Hulme would later join Benson & Hedges Racing, another team run by Frank Gardner in 1990. In the meantime, Hulme was a keen enthusiast of truck racing, which became popular in New Zealand in the early 1990s running Scania trucks, returning to Europe to race in European Truck Championship. Death A favourite event of Hulme's was the Bathurst 1000, held at the famous Mount Panorama track in Australia. In the 1992 event he was driving a semi-works supported BMW M3 for Benson & Hedges Racing when after complaining over the car-to-pits radio of blurred vision (originally thought to be because of the heavy rain) Hulme suffered a massive heart attack at the wheel whilst driving along the high-speed Conrod Straight. After veering into the wall on the left side of the track at about , he managed to bring the car to a relatively controlled stop sliding against the safety railing and concrete wall on the right side of the track. When marshals reached the scene, they found Hulme still strapped in. He was taken from the car straight to Bathurst Hospital where he was officially pronounced dead. According to his sister Anita, Hulme's health began deteriorating after the death of his 21-year-old son, Martin Clive, on Christmas Day, 1988, at Lake Rotoiti in the Bay of Plenty. "He was so upset after Martin’s death", says Anita. "He used to go and sit in the cemetery. I know that he died of a broken heart". Legacy Several awards were named in Hulme's memory: The Denny Hulme Memorial Trophy awarded at the Targa Tasmania The NZ Motor Cup: Denny Hulme Memorial Trophy awarded during the Toyota Racing Series Hulme was portrayed by Ben Collins in the 2019 film Ford v Ferrari. Honours and awards 1967 – New Zealand Sportsman of the Year. 1967/1970/1974 – Winner of the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy. 1992 – Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire, for services to motorsport, in the 1992 Queen's Birthday Honours 1993 – Inducted into the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame. 1994 – Inducted into the New Zealand Motorsports Wall of Fame. 1998 – Inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America. 2002 – Inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame. Racing record Career summary Complete Formula One World Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) Non-championship Formula One results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Tasman Series Indianapolis 500 Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results 24 Hours of Daytona Complete Bathurst 1000 results Further reading Eoin Young. Memories of the Bear: A Biography of Denny Hulme. J H Haynes & Co. Ltd. . References External links An Appreciation of Denny Hulme "Follow The Bear" – a personal memoir of Hulme Denny Hulme statistics Biographical article and video clip on The Speed Blog The Bruce McLaren Trust Official Website New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame Trio At The Top – a documentary about Bruce McLaren, Denny Hulme and Chris Amon on NZ On Screen 1936 births 1992 deaths Indianapolis 500 Rookies of the Year Indianapolis 500 drivers International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees New Zealand racing drivers New Zealand Formula One drivers New Zealand people of English descent New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in Australia Brabham Formula One drivers McLaren Formula One drivers International Race of Champions drivers BRDC Gold Star winners Formula One World Drivers' Champions Formula One race winners 24 Hours of Le Mans drivers 12 Hours of Reims drivers 24 Hours of Daytona drivers 12 Hours of Sebring drivers British Formula Three Championship drivers Tasman Series drivers World Sportscar Championship drivers People from Motueka New Zealand Officers of the Order of the British Empire European Touring Car Championship drivers Filmed deaths in sports

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratus

Erasistratus

Erasistratus (; ; c. 304 – c. 250 BC) was a Greek anatomist and royal physician under Seleucus I Nicator of Syria. Along with fellow physician Herophilus, he founded a school of anatomy in Alexandria, where they carried out anatomical research. As well, he is credited with helping to found the methodic school of teachings of medicine in Alexandria whilst opposing traditional humoral theories of Hippocratic ideologies. Together, with Herophilus, is credited by historians as the potential founder of neuroscience due to his acknowledgements of nerves and their roles in motor control through the brain and skeletal muscles. Furthermore, Erasistratus is seen as one of the first physicians/scientists to conduct recorded dissections and potential vivisections alongside Herophilus. The two physicians were said by several Roman authors, notably Augustine, Celsus, and Tertullian, to have controversially performed vivisections on criminals to study the anatomy and possible physiology of human organs while they were in Alexandria. Because of their research, Erasistratus and Herophilus were heavily criticized for their utilization of vivisections specifically, namely the author Tertullian who followed Christian values. Erasistratus and Herophilus are thought to be the only physicians to perform dissections on the human body systematically until the Renaissance. He is credited for his description of the valves of the heart, and he also concluded that the heart was not the center of sensations, but instead it functioned as a pump. Erasistratus was among the first to distinguish between veins and arteries. He believed that the arteries were full of air and that they carried the "animal spirit" (pneuma). He considered atoms to be the essential body element, and he believed they were vitalized by the pneuma that circulated through the nerves. He also thought that the nerves moved a nervous spirit from the brain. He then differentiated between the function of the sensory and motor nerves, and linked them to the brain. He is credited with one of the first in-depth descriptions of the cerebrum and cerebellum. Erasistratus is regarded by some as the founder of physiology. Life Erasistratus is generally supposed to have been born at Ioulis on the island of Ceos, though Stephanus of Byzantium refers to him as a native of Cos; Galen, as a native of Chios; and the emperor Julian, as a native of Samos. Pliny says he was the grandson of Aristotle by his daughter Pythias, but this is not confirmed by any other ancient writer; and according to the Suda, he was the son of Cretoxena, the sister of the physician Medius, and Cleombrotus. From the latter it is not quite clear whether Cleombrotus was his father or his uncle. He was a pupil of Chrysippus of Cnidos, Metrodorus, and apparently Theophrastus. He lived for some time at the court of Seleucus I Nicator, where he acquired great reputation by discovering the disease of Antiochus I Soter, the king's eldest son, probably 294 BC. Seleucus in his old age had lately married Stratonice, the young and beautiful daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and she had already borne him one child. Antiochus fell violently in love with his stepmother, but did not disclose his passion, and chose rather to pine away in silence. The physicians were quite unable to discover the cause and nature of his disease, and Erasistratus himself was at a loss at first, till, finding nothing amiss about his body, he began to suspect that it must be his mind which was diseased, and that he might perhaps be in love. Erasistratus confirmed his conjecture when he observed that the skin of Antiochus grew hotter, his colour deeper, and his pulse quicker whenever Stratonice came near him, while none of these symptoms occurred on any other occasion. Accordingly, he told Seleucus that his son's disease was incurable, for he was in love, and that it was impossible to gratify his passion. The king wondered what the obstacle could be, and asked who the lady was. "My wife," replied Erasistratus; upon which Seleucus began to persuade him to give her up to his son. The physician asked him if he would do so himself if it were his wife that the prince was in love with. The king protested that he would most gladly; upon which Erasistratus told him that it was indeed his own wife who had inspired his passion, and that he chose rather to die than to disclose his secret. Seleucus was as good as his word, and not only gave up Stratonice, but also resigned to his son several provinces of his empire. This celebrated story is told with variations by many ancient authors, and a similar anecdote has been told of Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna, and (if the names be not fictitious) Panacius and Acestinus. If this is the anecdote referred to by Pliny, as is probably the case, Erasistratus is said to have received one hundred talents for being the means of restoring the prince to health, which would amount to one of the largest medical fees upon record. Very little more is known of the personal history of Erasistratus: he lived for some time at Alexandria, which was at that time beginning to be a celebrated medical school, and gave up practice in his old age, that he might pursue his anatomical studies without interruption. He and fellow physician Herophilus practiced anatomy with great success, and with such ardour that they are supposed to have dissected criminals alive. These criminals were supposedly supplied by the king at the request of Herophilus. By conducting these dissections on live subjects they were able to see the true color and shape of internal organs that were not present in deceased subjects. However, conducting these vivisections did not lead to the discovery that there was blood and not just pneuma present in the arteries, which should have been evident in dissecting a live person. Erasistratus appears to have died in Asia Minor, as the Suda mentions that he was buried by mount Mycale in Ionia. The exact date of his death is not known, but he probably lived to a good old age, as, according to Eusebius, he was alive 258 BC, about forty years after the marriage of Antiochus and Stratonice. He had numerous pupils and followers, and a medical school bearing his name continued to exist at Smyrna in Ionia nearly till the time of Strabo, about the beginning of the 1st century. The following are the names of the most celebrated physicians belonging to the sect founded by him: Apoemantes, Apollonius Memphites, Apollophanes Artemidoras, Charidemus, Chrysippus, Heraclides of Smyrna, Hermogenes, Hicesius, Martialius, Menodorus, Ptolemaeus, Strato, Xenophon. An attack on Erasistratus and his followers is preserved in Anonymus Londinensis. Medicine Erasistratus wrote many works on anatomy, practical medicine and pharmacy, of which only the titles remain, together with a great number of short fragments preserved by Galen, Caelius Aurelianus, and other ancient writers. These, however, are sufficient to enable us to form a reasonable idea of his opinions both as a physician and an anatomist. It is as an anatomist that he is most celebrated, and perhaps there is not one ancient physician that did more to promote that branch of medical science than he. He appears to have been very near the discovery of the circulation of the blood, for in a passage preserved by Galen he says: The vein arises from the part where the arteries, that are distributed to the whole body, have their origin, and penetrates to the sanguineous [or right] ventricle [of the heart]; and the artery [or pulmonary vein] arises from the part where the veins have their origin, and penetrates to the pneumatic [or left] ventricle of the heart. The description is not very clear, but seems to show that he supposed the venous and arterial systems to be more intimately connected than was generally believed. This idea is confirmed by another passage in which he is said to have differed from the other ancient anatomists, who believed that the veins arise from the liver, the arteries arise from the heart and the heart is the origin both of the veins and the arteries. With these ideas, it can have been only his belief that the arteries contained air and not blood, that hindered his anticipating Harvey's discovery. These views also supported his belief that blood production started in the liver, and not the heart. Erasistratus had a theory that if an artery was traumatized then it would be possible however to find blood at that point, not due to blood being present within the artery itself, but rather because of the body functioning like a vacuum. When a hole would form in an artery, it would create a vacuum that would pull blood into it from a nearby vein. With his discovery of the functioning of the four main valves of the heart, he saw that when material is moved out of the heart, new material moves in, but this does not happen constantly like a water pipe. Once material has left the heart it can not come back in, and material that has entered the heart can not flow back out in the same direction. This is accomplished by membranes that open and close their mouths on the valves of the heart. However, according to Erasistratus the material moving through these valves is pneuma. The tricuspid valves of the heart are generally said to have derived their name from Erasistratus. This, however, appears to be an oversight, as Galen attributes it not to him, but to one of his followers. Erasistratus also made observations on the morphology of the heart, describing the pulmonary artery and the aorta to have a sigmoid shape, a name which is still used presently. Erasistratus also appears to have paid particular attention to the anatomy of the brain, and in a passage from his works preserved by Galen he speaks as if he had himself dissected a human brain. Galen says that before Erasistratus had more closely examined into the origin of the nerves, he imagined that they arose from the dura mater and not from the substance of the brain; and that it was not until he was advanced in life that he satisfied himself by actual inspection that such was not the case. According to Rufus of Ephesus, he divided the nerves into those of sensation and those of motion, of which the former he considered to be hollow and to arise from the membranes of the brain and the latter from the substance of the brain itself and of the cerebellum. He asserted that the spleen, the bile, and several other parts of the body, were entirely useless to animals. Erasistratus believed that fluids, when drunk, passed through the esophagus into the stomach. During his time, there was controversy that was carried on as to whether fluids when drunk passed through the trachea into the lungs, or through the esophagus into the stomach. He is also supposed to have been the first person who added to the word arteria, which had hitherto designated the canal leading from the mouth to the lungs, the epithet tracheia, to distinguish it from the arteries, and hence to have been the originator of the modern name trachea. He attributed the sensation of hunger to emptiness of the stomach, and said that the Scythians were accustomed to tie a belt tightly round their middle, to enable them to abstain from food for a longer time without suffering inconvenience. The pneuma (spiritual substance) played a very important part both in his system of physiology and pathology: he supposed it to enter the lungs by the trachea, thence to pass by the pulmonary veins into the heart, and thence to be diffused throughout the whole body by means of the arteries; that the use of respiration was to fill the arteries with air; and that the pulsation of the arteries was caused by the movements of the pneuma. He accounted for diseases in the same way, and supposed that as long as the pneuma continued to fill the arteries and the blood was confined to the veins, the individual was in good health; but that when the blood from some cause or other got forced into the arteries, inflammation and fever was the consequence. Of his method of cure the most remarkable peculiarity was his aversion to bloodletting and purgative medicines: he seems to have relied chiefly on diet and regimen, bathing, exercise, friction, and the most simple vegetables. Erasistratus was against bloodletting likely due to his theory of plethora. This was a medical term that was commonly used in Hellanistic Greece, and Erasistratus believed it was where one's body parts were full of undigested fragments of food, causing the body to then function improperly. This theory of plethora then was why many of his treatments pertained to diet, fasting, and use of drugs that would change digestion. In surgery he was celebrated for the invention of a catheter that bore his name, and which was S-shaped. Much to the disagreement that Galen had towards Erasistratus's views regarding phlebotomy, the Alexandrian physician was said by Galen in his work entitled, Bloodletting, against the Erasistrateans at Rome, to have disregarded the importance of the practice and rather suggested alternative methods. Notably, Erasistratus suggests the bandaging of a patient's armpits and groin to achieve the desired results associated with phlebotomy. Galen continues in his work to highly criticize this viewpoint that the Alexandrian physician had regarding the medical practice, and points out that Erasistratus did not give enough evidence to support the avoidance of phlebotomy for other treatments. Association with Herophilus and Galen Erasistratus is frequently mentioned in historical documents with other significant figures of both his time period of the 3rd and 4th century BC and afterwards thanks to his accomplishments and advancements in the field of medicine. The most prominent person he is referenced with from when he was living was that of Herophilus, another physician that was an important part of ancient Alexandrian medicine with Erasistratus. Together, Erasistratus and Herophilus attributed to the revolutionary growth of knowledge in the Hellenistic period in not only science but culture as well in accordance to the writings of historians of antiquity. Although, it is noted that Erasistratus and Herophilus did not share similar ideologies in the science of medicine as well as its practice. One topic the two disagreed on what substance was actually carried by the arteries. Herophilus believed that the arteries carried a mixture of pneuma and blood, while Erasistratus believed that they solely carried pneuma. Erasistratus is said to have natural philosophical views as compared to others during the time, paving the way for the teaching of methodologists in the field of medicine. The publications of some of Galen's work, from which there are many mentions of Erasistratus and Herophilus, led to further understanding of the differing ideologies. Erasistratus and Galen both supported the theory of pneuma, however their beliefs on how pneuma acquired the air it needed differed. Erasistratus believed that pneuma received the air it needed from the lungs. Galen agreed that air from the lungs was used for pneuma, however in expelling also as much air as was breathed in there wasn't enough air present to account for all the pneuma needed to function. Galen also believed that air was brought in through pores of the skin, and through the nose which would move to the bony cavities of the brain to be used as psychic pneuma. Galen also noted his disagreement with Erasistratus and Herophilus on their view of the composition of organic bodies. They adopted an Aristotelian view of organic bodies consisting of three levels: elements, uniform, and non-uniform parts. Elements consisted of the elements, earth, wind, water, and fire. Uniform parts consisted of the nature of animals such as bone and flesh. Finally, non-uniform parts of nature were things such as a face or hand. Erasistratus and Herophilus believed that doctors should concern themselves with the uniform and non-uniform levels of the body, but not elements as that was the job of philosophers and scientists. This coincides with the role placed on physicians of the time to not act as scientists. Galen however, believed that to understand the human body one had to understand the mixture of its elements. Much of what is known of Erasistratus and that of his work he did in the 3rd and 4th BC has become known through the work done by Galen. Galen frequently notes the past ideas that had become prevalent from the work of Erasistratus when comparing it to that of his work and ideas. Some historians have suggested that due to Erasistratus's disagreements with the ideologies found within Hippocratic teachings and beliefs, as well as notably phlebotomy, that Galen seems to ridicule some work that Erasistratus had synthesized. However, there are numerous times that Galen backs the ideas of Erasistratus as well, leading to opposing claims that Galen was generally negative when discussing the ideologies produced by Erasistratus. Downfall and loss of influence after death By the time both Erasistratus and Herophilus had died, the empiricist school of medicine in Alexandria reigned as the most widely accepted ideology and method for practicing medicine for several centuries. One notable event that historians credit to downfall of Erasistratus's ideas and influence was that of the Syrian War that occurred from 246–241 BC due to its negative effect on the Alexandrian society, reducing its ability to fund programs that would continue the teachings of Erasistratus. Although, even before the Syrian War devastated the culture and economy of the Alexandrian society, Ptolemy Malefactor in 145 BC negatively impacted the continuation of Erasistratus's teachings and ideas, as well as other Alexandrian teachings, as he pushed for Alexandrian intelligentsia to be removed from the Alexandrian society completely. Ultimately, the destruction of many works, including that of Erasistratus and Herophilus, because of a fire that erupted at the great library in 391 AD may have been the greatest reason why there are limited sources of material to understand the teachings and work of Erasistratus outside that of the references to the Alexandrian physician from Galen's writings. Furthermore, it may also be the event that resulted in none of Erasistratus's original writing remaining. Discovery of information regarding the Alexandrian physicians Much of the documentation of the works of Erasistratus and Herophilus was undiscovered until the late 20th century, so the importance of Erasistratus in the advancement of medical knowledge was not fully understood. The only substantial collection of information about their work was several fragments of their writings assembled by K.F.H. Marx and R. Fuchs from German texts. Before that, nearly the only way to learn about the work was by analyzing Galen's works, which mention Erasistratus. Similar sets of fragmented texts were also collected in English by J.F. Dobson. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, H. von Staden and Garofalo also found many important sources of information on the Alexandrian physicians. Notes References Further reading Balalykin, Dmitry A. “What Do We Know about Erasistratus? Part 1.” History of Medicine 5, no. 1 (January 2018): 3–13. doi:10.17720/2409-5834.v5.1.2018.01a. Balalykin, Dmitry A. “What Do We Know about Erasistratus? Part 2.” History of Medicine 5, no. 2 (April 2018): 154–67. doi:10.17720/2409-5583.v5.2.2018.01a. Boylan, Michael. "Galen: On Blood, the Pulse, and the Arteries." Journal of the History of Biology 40, no. 2 (2007): 207–230. Ferngren, Gary. “Vivisection Ancient and Modern.” History of Medicine 4, no. 3 (July 2017): 211–21. doi:10.17720/2409-5834.v4.3.2017.02b. Leith, David. 2015. “Elements and Uniform Parts in Early Alexandrian Medicine.” Phronesis 60 (4): 462–91. doi:10.1163/15685284-12341293. Mavrodi, Alexandra. "Morphology of the Heart Associated with Its Function as Conceived by Ancient Greeks." International Journal of Cardiology. 172, no. 1 (2014): 23–28. Tieleman, Teun. “Head and Heart.” Religion & Theology 21, no. 1/2 (March 2014): 86–106. doi:10.1163/15743012-02101003. Wills, Adrian, and A Wills. “Herophilus, Erasistratus, and the Birth of Neuroscience.” Lancet 354, no. 9191 (November 13, 1999): 1719–20. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)02081-4. 3rd-century BC Greek physicians Greek biologists Greek anatomists History of neuroscience Greek neuroscientists 300s BC births 250s BC deaths People from Kea (island)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Tabrar

Joseph Tabrar

Joseph Tabrar (5 November 1857 – 22 August 1931) was a prolific English writer of popular music hall songs. His song "Daddy Wouldn't Buy Me a Bow Wow" (1892) became Vesta Victoria's first major popular success. Biography Tabrar was born in Clerkenwell, London; his father was a gas fitter, George Tabrar. Joseph Tabrar began his musical career in the church choir. By the age of 13 he was singing at Evans Music-and-Supper Rooms. He performed in music halls as a clown and acrobat as well as a musician, and for some years was a member of the Moore and Burgess Minstrels who performed regularly at St James's Hall in Piccadilly. His brother Tom and sister Lizzie also became music hall entertainers. Tadrar soon became recognised by performers as a songwriter. In 1880, his song "I Am a Millionaire" was performed by George Leybourne and became successful, and by 1881 Tabrar was describing himself in the census as an "author and composer". He wrote Leybourne's 1883 success "Ting Ting, That's How the Bell Goes", and wrote and composed songs for pantomimes performed at the Pavilion Theatre, Whitechapel, including Little Red Riding Hood (1884), Cinderella (1892), Sindbad the Sailor (1893), Whittington and His Cat (1895), and Jack and the Beanstalk (1897). His 1892 song "Daddy Wouldn't Buy Me a Bow Wow" was originally written for Ada Reeve, but when Vesta Victoria heard it she immediately started to perform it, to great success. His other successes included "The Ship Went Down" (1898, performed by Harry Rickards), "For Months and Months and Months" (1909, performed by Jack Smiles), as well as many songs performed by Charles Godfrey, Marie Lloyd, George Robey, and others. He established his office in Stamford Street, Waterloo. Over his 60-year songwriting career, Tabrar wrote thousands of songs, many of them written to order; he is known to have written 7,200 songs, but claimed to have written more than twice that number. According to Peter Gammond: "There was hardly a music hall artist during his time who did not call upon 'Joe' for some material: this included, besides songs, monologues, duologues, sketches, short operettas, and many pantomime scripts...". His son Joseph, who performed as Fred Earle, became a popular comic and music hall entertainer. The elder Joseph Tabrar continued to write songs, and teach songwriting skills, from his office until after the First World War. He made relatively little money from his songs and in 1899 described himself as "impecuniously embarrassed"; a benefit concert was held with such performers as Dan Leno, G. H. Chirgwin, and Florrie Forde. In 1916, a second benefit concert was arranged to provide financial support, but it was poorly attended. He died in Camberwell in 1931, aged 73. Tabrar is buried in the former VABF memorial at Streatham Park Cemetery, which has been restored by The Music Hall Guild of Great Britain and America. Songs Tabrar's songs include: "All Bad! Very Very Bad" (1887?) "Bid Me Goodbye For Ever" "Daddy Wouldn't Buy Me a Bow Wow" (1892) "Dear Old Ned" "For Months and Months and Months" (1909) "Goodbye! Goodbye!! Goodbye!!!'' (1887?) "He’s Sailing On the Briny Ocean" "Hundreds and Thousands" "Just a Little" (1889?) "Madame Duvan" (1880s) "Mary Ann" "Not While Britannia's Alive" (1890?) "Oh! You Little Darling" (188?) "She's a Real Good Mother" (1883) "Ting Ting That's How The Bell Goes" (1883) "Trilby's Revival" "Waiting Waiting Waiting" References External links 1857 births 1931 deaths British songwriters Burials at Streatham Park Cemetery

262953

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Hopkin

Mary Hopkin

Mary Hopkin (born 3 May 1950), credited on some recordings as Mary Visconti (from her marriage to Tony Visconti), is a Welsh singer songwriter best known for her 1968 UK number 1 single "Those Were the Days". She was one of the first artists to be signed to the Beatles' Apple label. Biography Early singing career Hopkin was born into a Welsh-speaking family in Pontardawe, Wales; her father worked as a housing officer. She took weekly singing lessons as a child and began her musical career as a folk singer with a local group called the Selby Set and Mary. She released an EP of Welsh-language songs for a local record label called Cambrian, based in her hometown, before signing to Apple Records, owned by the Beatles, one of the first artists to do so. The model Twiggy saw her winning the ITV television talent show Opportunity Knocks and recommended her to Paul McCartney. Her debut single, "Those Were the Days", produced by McCartney, was released in the UK on 30 August 1968. Despite competition from well-established star Sandie Shaw, whose single was also released that year, Hopkin's version became a number 1 hit on the UK Singles Chart. It reached number 2 on the US Billboard Hot 100, where for three weeks it was held out of the top spot by the Beatles' "Hey Jude", and spent two weeks at number 1 on Canada's RPM singles chart. It sold over 1,500,000 copies in the United States alone, and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA. Global sales topped 8,000,000. On 2 October 1968, Hopkin appeared at St Paul's Cathedral in London for the Pop Experience, where she sang "Morning of My Life", "Turn Turn Turn" and "Plaisir d'amour". In December that year, the NME music magazine reported that Hopkin was considering a lead acting role in Stanley Baker's planned film Rape of the Fair Country, which was to be based on Alexander Cordell's book of the same name. That particular project did not materialise but Hopkin did sing the title songs to two of Baker's films, Where's Jack? and Kidnapped. On 21 February 1969, Hopkin's debut album, Post Card, again produced by McCartney, was released. It included covers of three songs from Donovan, who also played on the album, and one song each from George Martin and Harry Nilsson. It reached number 3 on the UK Albums Chart, although it proved to be her solitary success in that chart. In the United States, Post Card reached number 28 on the Billboard albums chart. The next single was "Goodbye", written by McCartney (credited to Lennon–McCartney), and released on 26 March 1969. It reached number 2 on the UK Singles Chart, number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 15 on the RPM chart in Canada. Hopkin said she interpreted "Goodbye" as McCartney pledging to stop "micromanaging" her career, since she was uncomfortable with his positioning of her as a pop chanteuse. She also expressed dissatisfaction with her manager at this time, Terry Doran. Hopkin's third single, "Temma Harbour", was a re-arrangement of a Philamore Lincoln song. Her first single not to be produced by McCartney, it was released on 16 January 1970 and peaked at number 6 in the UK and number 42 in Canada. In the US, "Temma Harbour" reached number 39 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 4 on the magazine's Easy Listening chart. Along with Donovan and Billy Preston, Hopkin was one of the chorus singers on the Radha Krishna Temple's 1970 hit single "Govinda", produced by George Harrison for Apple Records. Eurovision In March 1970, Hopkin represented the United Kingdom in the 1970 Eurovision Song Contest, achieving second place with "Knock, Knock Who's There?" Although she gave a confident performance and sang in a crystal-clear voice, and despite being the pre-contest favourite, Hopkin lost to "All Kinds of Everything", performed by Irish singer Dana. Produced by Mickie Most, "Knock, Knock Who's There?" was released as a single on 23 March 1970 and peaked at number 2 in the UK. It was a worldwide hit, selling over a million copies. Hopkin's final big hit was "Think About Your Children", released in October 1970, which reached number 19 in the UK. Hopkin has expressed dissatisfaction with the material produced by Most, who had taken over as her producer with "Temma Harbour". After appearing in Eurovision, Hopkin wanted to return to her folk-music roots. After Eurovision At McCartney's insistence, Hopkin had recorded a cover of "Que Sera, Sera" in August 1969. Hopkin had no wish to record the song and refused to have the single released in Britain. Initially issued in France in September 1969, it was released in North America in June 1970. The single peaked at number 77 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 47 in Canada, and was also a hit in Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and Rhodesia (present-day Zimbabwe). The last single to hit the British charts was "Let My Name Be Sorrow", which reached number 46 in July 1971. It was produced by Tony Visconti, whom Hopkin had met earlier for a Welsh recording of "Sparrow". "Let My Name Be Sorrow" was a hit in Poland in January 1972. Hopkin's second album, Earth Song, Ocean Song, was released by Apple on 1 October 1971. The album was produced by Visconti and included cover versions of songs written by Cat Stevens, Gallagher and Lyle and Ralph McTell, as well as the two title tracks by Liz Thorsen. Hopkin felt it was the album she had always wanted to make, so, coinciding with her marriage to Visconti and with little left to prove, she left the music scene. The album's single, "Water, Paper and Clay", missed the Billboard Hot 100. It was Hopkin's last single for Apple Records, which she left in March 1972. After Hopkin's departure from Apple, a compilation album titled Those Were the Days was released in the latter part of 1972. The album featured all of Hopkin's hits but failed to chart. ”Knock Knock, Who's There?" was released as a single in the United States and Canada, both countries having been excluded from the first release of that record in 1970. The single reached number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 11 on the Easy Listening chart in December 1972, giving Hopkin her last US hit. Television series Following her appearance in the Eurovision contest, Hopkin had her own peak time TV series, Mary Hopkin in the Land of ..., on BBC 1. Created by Eric Merriman, each episode featured Hopkin looking at a different aspect of storytelling through music and dance. The six 30-minute programmes were broadcast in 1970 and were repeated in 1971. After the hit singles After marrying Visconti in 1971, Hopkin withdrew from the pop-music scene to have a family. Although reportedly unhappy with show business, she did not stop recording. She travelled to Australia with Visconti in January 1972 and performed at a large outdoor rock festival in South Australia, in addition to giving concerts in several major cities. In March, Hopkin announced her departure from Apple Records; her manager, Jo Lustig, said they were considering offers from "three major [record] companies". In June, the single "Summertime Summertime" / "Sweet and Low" was released on Bell Records under the name of Hobby Horse. The A-side was a cover of a 1958 song by the Jamies. With Visconti's assistance, she released the 1972 Christmas single "Mary Had a Baby" / "Cherry Tree Carol" on Regal Zonophone Records. Hopkin starred in her own, one-off TV special for BBC 1 on 29 July 1972. Titled Sing Hi, Sing Lo, it was billed simply as "light entertainment starring Mary Hopkin". Although no other singles or albums came out in her name until 1976, she sang on numerous recordings that her husband produced, such as those featuring Tom Paxton, Ralph McTell, David Bowie (Low), Bert Jansch, The Radiators from Space, Thin Lizzy, Carmen, Sarstedt Brothers, Osibisa, Sparks, Hazel O'Connor, and Elaine Paige. On all of these recordings (and also on her husband's own Inventory album) she is credited as "Mary Visconti". During this time, she also appeared on various TV shows such as Cilla Black's, and various radio programmes. Return to recording In 1976, she returned to recording under her birth name and released the single "If You Love Me (Really Love Me)" (originally recorded by Édith Piaf as "Hymne à l'amour"), which reached Number 32 in the UK chart. The B-side, "Tell Me Now", was an original composition by Hopkin. Her next single was "Wrap Me in Your Arms", with the B-side again written by Hopkin ("Just A Dreamer"). These singles came out on Visconti's Good Earth Records label. Several songs recorded for an album at the time have now been released under Hopkin's own label, Mary Hopkin Music. Two members of Steeleye Span (Bob Johnson and Pete Knight) chose Hopkin to play "Princess Lirazel" on their concept album The King of Elfland's Daughter. She also appeared at the Cambridge Folk Festival with Bert Jansch. In 1976, her second child was born. Before the 1970s ended, Decca released a compilation album of Hopkin's Cambrian recordings, The Welsh World of Mary Hopkin. 1980s Hopkin's first project in the 1980s was a well-reviewed stint playing the Virgin Mary in Rock Nativity at the Hexagon Theatre in Reading, Berkshire. After this, Mike Hurst (record producer and formerly of the Springfields) asked her to sing lead in a new group named Sundance that he had formed with Mike de Albuquerque of ELO. Their only single, "What's Love", allowed them to tour the UK with Dr. Hook but Hopkin quickly left the group, dissatisfied with the gigs. "What's Love" proved very popular in South Africa, albeit the only territory where it charted, peaking at no.10 in April 1982. In 2002, Hurst released recordings from this time on the Angel Air label. Hopkin and Visconti divorced in 1981. The following year she provided vocals on "Rachael's Song" for the Vangelis soundtrack of Blade Runner. Around 1984, Peter Skellern asked her to join him and Julian Lloyd Webber in a group called Oasis. Their self-titled and only album, Oasis, was released on WEA along with two singles. The album reached number 23 on the UK album chart in 1984 and remained there for 14 weeks. A tour of the UK was planned but was brought to an abrupt end because Hopkin became ill. The group disbanded shortly afterwards. During the 1980s, Hopkin appeared in several charity shows, including an appearance at the London Palladium with Ralph McTell. In 1988, she took part in George Martin's production of Dylan Thomas' Under Milk Wood. She played the character Rosie Probert and performed a piece called "Love Duet" with Freddie Jones as Captain Cat. The making of the record was filmed and made into a special edition of The South Bank Show, where Hopkin and Jones were shown rehearsing and recording "Love Duet". In 1992, the cast reunited for a performance of the play as a tribute to Thomas in the presence of Prince Charles for The Prince's Trust. Hopkin recorded an album called Spirit in 1989. This was released on the Trax label and is a collection of light classical songs and featured the single "Ave Maria". The record was produced by Benny Gallagher, of Gallagher and Lyle, who had contributed songs to her during her days at Apple Records. 1990s Early in 1990, Hopkin sang with The Chieftains at the London Palladium in a charity show and later joined them on a tour of the UK. She continued to do projects of her choosing, working with people such as Julian Colbeck; she wrote the lyrics and performed a song on his CD Back to Bach. Also, there was Marc Cerrone's The Collector, a stage play/opera, for which she performed two songs on the CD and video. She worked again with old friends, the guitarist Brian Willoughby and Dave Cousins (of Strawbs) on their CD The Bridge. She also appeared on a Beatles' tribute album by RAM Pietsch. In 1996, the Welsh label Sain bought Cambrian's back catalogue and released all of Hopkin's Welsh recordings on a CD called Y Caneuon Cynnar/The Early Recordings, which removed the overdubbed drums found on the Decca recordings. In 1999, she again joined The Chieftains on their UK tour and, later that year, performed concerts in Scotland with Benny Gallagher and Jim Diamond. There were also three TV documentaries about her, one each for HTV (1998), BBC Television (1998) and S4C (2000). She made a guest appearance on The Crocketts' album The Great Brain Robbery, sang the theme song for Billy Connolly's BBC TV series World Tour of England, Ireland and Wales and re-recorded "Those Were The Days" with Robin Williams rapping. She also appeared in the Sara Sugarman film Very Annie Mary. 2000s In September 2005, she released a retrospective album on a label run by her daughter, Mary Hopkin Music, titled Live at the Royal Festival Hall 1972. It was followed in December 2006 by a Christmas recording, "Snowed Under", released on download only. To celebrate her 57th birthday in 2007, she released an album called Valentine on her new eponymous label. It included 12 previously unheard tracks dating from 1972 to 1980, three of which were written by Hopkin. In 2008, a new album, Recollections, was released on her own label. It included 11 tracks that were originally recorded between 1970 and 1986, alongside a CD of three Christmas songs which included "Mary Had a Baby" and "The Cherry-Tree Carol" (these tracks were first released on Regal Zonophone in 1972) and "Snowed Under", which was released in 2006 as a download only. Her final archival CD, Now and Then, was released in May 2009. It comprises 14 tracks recorded between 1970 and 1988. She sang the song "Y 'deryn pur" ("Gentle Bird") on the album Blodeugerdd: Song of the Flowers – An Anthology of Welsh Music and Song released by Smithsonian Folkways Recordings in June 2009. 2010s Hopkin's daughter, Jessica Lee Morgan, released her first CD, called I Am Not, on which Hopkin sings on several songs. In October 2010, Hopkin and her son, Morgan Visconti, released You Look Familiar, a collaboration which brings together Hopkin's melodies, lyrics and vocals with her son's instrumentation and arrangements. In 2013, Painting by Numbers was released on Mary Hopkin Music. The album includes 10 tracks written by Hopkin, two of which are co-written with friends; "Love Belongs Right Here" with Brian Willoughby and "Love, Long Distance" with Benny Gallagher. For Christmas 2014, Hopkin recorded a single with her son and daughter. The traditional carol, "Iesu Faban" (meaning "Baby Jesus" in Welsh), was described on her website as a "close, intimate choral performance of a traditional Welsh Christmas carol". To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the release of "Those Were the Days", on 30 August 2018 Hopkin released a new acoustic version, on an EP also featuring the live version from her 1972 "farewell" concert at the Royal Festival Hall. Also included are the versions of "Those Were the Days" and "Goodbye" released in 1977, produced by her then husband, Tony Visconti. Discography Post Card (1969) Earth Song, Ocean Song (1971) Spirit (1989) Valentine (2007) Recollections (2008) Now and Then (2009) You Look Familiar (with Morgan Visconti; 2010) Painting by Numbers (2013) Another Road (2020) A Christmas Chorale (2020) See also Apple Records discography References External links Biography on BBC Wales Interview on BBC Wales 1950 births Living people Apple Records artists Bards of the Gorsedd Eurovision Song Contest entrants for the United Kingdom Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1970 People from Pontardawe 20th-century Welsh women singers Welsh songwriters Welsh-language singers 21st-century Welsh women singers Oasis (1980s band) members

262954

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taglish

Taglish

Taglish or Englog is code-switching and/or code-mixing in the use of Tagalog and English, the most common languages of the Philippines. The words Taglish and Englog are portmanteaux of the words Tagalog and English. The earliest use of the word Taglish dates back to 1973, while the less common form Tanglish is recorded from 1999. Taglish is widely used in the Philippines, but is also used by Filipinos in overseas communities. It also has several variants, including coño English, jejenese and swardspeak. Description Taglish is very widespread in the Philippines and has become the de facto lingua franca among the urbanized and/or educated middle class. It is largely considered the "normal acceptable conversation style of speaking and writing" in informal settings. It is so widespread that a non-native speaker can be identified easily because they predominantly use pure Tagalog, whereas a native speaker would switch freely with English. According to the linguist Maria Lourdes S. Bautista, there are two contrasting types of code-switching in the Philippines: deficiency-driven and proficiency-driven. Deficiency-driven code-switching is when a person is not competent in one language and thus has to switch back to the language they are more familiar with. This is common among younger children, as in the example below given by Bautista: Proficiency-driven code-switching, on the other hand, is when a person is fully competent in both languages being used and can switch between them easily. It is the main type of code-switching in the islands. The example below is given by Bautista, taken from an interview with the television journalist Jessica Soho: Proficiency-driven code-switching is characterized by frequent switching of the Matrix Language (ML) between Tagalog and English, demonstrating the high proficiency of the speakers in both languages. There are also a wide range of strategies involved, including: the formation of bilingual verbs by the addition of prefixes, suffixes, and infixes (e.g. Nagsa-sweat ako = "I was sweating"); switching at the morphological, word, phrasal, or clausal levels; and the use of system morphemes (like enclitics, conjunctions, etc.) within long stretches of ML content; and even the inversion of the verb–subject–object word order of Tagalog into the subject-verb-object order of English. According to Bautista, the reason for this type of code-switching is what she termed "communicative efficiency", wherein a speaker can "convey meaning using the most accurate, expressive, or succinct lexical items available to them." The linguist Rosalina Morales Goulet also enumerated several reasons for this type of code-switching. They are: "for precision, for transition, for comic effect, for atmosphere, to bridge or create social distance, for snob appeal, and for secrecy." Characteristics Taglish was originally a manner of speaking in Metro Manila involving the mixing of Tagalog/Filipino and English together. However, this practice has spread to other areas where both English and Tagalog/Filipino are spoken. It is characteristically a form of Tagalog/Filipino that mixes in English words, where Tagalog/Filipino is the substratum and English is the superstratum. Next to code-switching between sentences, clauses, and phrases in "pure" Tagalog and English, Taglish speech also code-mixes especially with sentences that follow the rules of Tagalog grammar with Tagalog syntax and morphology, but that occasionally employs English nouns and verbs in place of their Tagalog counterparts. Examples: English verbs and even some nouns can be employed as Tagalog verb roots. This is done by the addition of one or more prefixes or infixes and by the doubling of the first sound of the starting form of the noun or verb, consistent with Tagalog morphology but usually retaining English spelling for the roots. The English verb drive can be changed to the Tagalog word magda-drive meaning will drive (used in place of the Tagalog word magmamaneho). The English noun Internet can also be changed to the Tagalog word nag-Internet meaning have used the Internet. Taglish also uses sentences of mixed English or Tagalog words and phrases. The conjunctions used to connect them can come from any of the two. Some examples include: Because of its informal nature, experts of English and Tagalog discourage its use. There are examples of modern books in Taglish: the adventure novel Bullet With A Name (2018) by Kirsten Nimwey, the love novel Aeternum Dream (2018) by Harkin Deximire, and more. Forms Swardspeak Swardspeak is a kind of Taglish/Englog LGBT slang used by the LGBT demographic of the Philippines. It is a form of slang that uses words and terms primarily from Philippine English, Tagalog/Filipino, and/or Cebuano and Hiligaynon, and occasionally as well as Japanese, Korean, Chinese, Sanskrit, or other languages. Names of celebrities, fictional characters, and trademarks are also often used. Coño English Coño English () or Colegiala English () is a creole of Taglish/Englog that originated from the younger generations of affluent families in Manila. The word coño or , itself came from . It is a form of Philippine English that mixes Tagalog/Filipino words, where opposite to Taglish, English is the substratum and Tagalog/Filipino is the superstratum. The most common aspect of Coño English is the building of verbs by using the English word "make" with the root word of a Tagalog verb: And adding the English conjunctions "like so" before using a Tagalog adjective to finish the sentence. Examples: Sometimes, Tagalog interjections such as ano, naman, pa, na (or nah), no (or noh), a (or ha), e (or eh), and o (or oh) are placed to add emphasis. However, eh as an interjective in English is found chiefly in Canadian English, although stereotypically, and as a tag question or an expression of apathy or lack of enthusiasm in English varieties within the Western world including Australia and New Zealand. But especially in New Zealand, eh? is used much more than in Canada to elicit a response. (contractions from ) are used for questions and are added only to the end of a sentence. , is also used for questions and is placed in the front or the end. It may also be used as an interjection, no?, (equal to the Spanish ¿no? and the German nicht?) and is pronounced as or , with a pure vowel instead of the English glide, which shows influence from Spanish in Filipino. "E"/"Eh" (added to answers to questions) and "o"/"oh" (for statements) are used for exclamations and are added to the front only. (not yet; not yet done; to continue; still) and can be placed in the middle or end. (particle used to soften requests or put emphasis) is placed anywhere. English adjectives are often replaced with Tagalog verbs. The language also occasionally uses Spanish words or Spanish loanwords from Filipino/Tagalog, like baño/banyo ("bathroom"), tostado ("toasted") and jamón ("ham"). The feminine sound of Coño English makes male speakers sometimes overuse the to make it sound more masculine. Sometimes is used instead of pare or along with it: See also Pseudo-anglicism Code-switching Bislish, code-switching between Visayan and English References External links Wikang Taglish, Kamulatang Taglish, article by Virgilio S. Almario English language Tagalog language Code-switching

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Chateauguay

Battle of the Chateauguay

The Battle of the Chateauguay was an engagement of the War of 1812. On 26 October 1813, a combined British and Canadian force consisting of 1,530 regulars, volunteers, militia and Native Americans from Lower Canada, commanded by Charles de Salaberry, repelled an American force of about 2,600 regulars which was attempting to invade Lower Canada and ultimately attack Montreal. The Battle of the Chateauguay was one of the two battles (the other being the Battle of Crysler's Farm) which caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort in the autumn of 1813. Prelude American plan Late in 1813, United States Secretary of War John Armstrong devised a plan to capture Montreal, which might have led to the conquest of all Upper Canada. Two divisions were involved. One would descend the St. Lawrence River from Sackett's Harbor on Lake Ontario, while the other would advance north from Plattsburgh on Lake Champlain. The two divisions would unite in front of the city for the final assault. The Americans around Lake Champlain were led by Major General Wade Hampton, who had taken command on 4 July 1813. Hampton had several misgivings about the plan. His own troops, encamped at Burlington, Vermont, were raw and badly trained, and his junior officers themselves lacked training and experience. There were insufficient supplies at his forward base at Plattsburgh as the British had controlled the lake since 3 June. On that day, two American sloops pursued British gunboats into the Richelieu River and were forced to surrender after the wind dropped and they were trapped by gunboats and artillery firing from the river banks. The British took over the sloops and used them in a raid against a number of settlements around Lake Champlain. In particular, they captured or destroyed quantities of supplies in and around Plattsburgh. Although the British crews and troops involved in the raid were subsequently returned to other duties, the American naval commander on the lake, Lieutenant Thomas Macdonough, was unable to construct a flotilla of sloops and gunboats to counter the British vessels until August. Hampton, a wealthy southern plantation owner, despised Major General James Wilkinson who commanded the division from Sackett's Harbor and who had a reputation for corruption and treacherous dealings with Spain. The two men, who were the two senior generals in the United States Army after the effective retirement of Major General Henry Dearborn on 6 July 1813, had been feuding with each other since 1808. Hampton at first refused to accept orders from Wilkinson, until Armstrong (who had himself moved to Sackett's Harbor) arranged that all correspondence regarding the expedition was to pass through the War Department. Hampton's movements On 19 September, Hampton moved by water from Burlington to Plattsburgh, escorted by Macdonough's gunboats, and made a reconnaissance in force towards Odelltown on the direct route north from Lake Champlain. He decided that the British forces were too strong in this sector. The garrison of Ile aux Noix, where the British sloops and gunboats were based, numbered about 900 and there were other outposts and light troops in the area. Also, water on this route was short after a summer drought had caused the wells and streams to dry up, though this excuse caused some amusement among Hampton's officers as Hampton was known to be fond of drink. Hampton's force marched west instead to Four Corners, on the Chateauguay River. As Wilkinson's expedition was not ready, Hampton's force waited at Four Corners until 18 October. Hampton was concerned that the delay was depleting his supplies and giving the British time to muster forces against him. Hearing from Armstrong that Wilkinson's force was "almost" ready to set out, he began advancing down the Chateauguay River. A brigade of 1,400 New York militia refused to cross the frontier into Canada, leaving Hampton with two brigades of regulars numbering about 2,600 in total, 200 mounted troops and 10 field guns. Large numbers of loaded wagons accompanied the force. Hampton's advance was slowed because the bridges across every stream had been destroyed and trees had been felled across the roads (which themselves were little more than tracks). Canadian counter-moves The Swiss-born Major-General Louis de Watteville was appointed commander of the Montreal District on 17 September. In response to reports of the American advance, he ordered several units of militia called up. Reinforcements (two battalions of the Royal Marines) were also moving up the St. Lawrence from Quebec. The Governor-General of Canada, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, ordered Lieutenant Colonel George MacDonnell to move from Kingston on Lake Ontario to the front south of Montreal with his 1st Light Battalion of mixed regular and militia companies. Already though, the commander of the outposts, Lieutenant Colonel Charles de Salaberry, had been organising his defences. In addition to his own corps (the Canadian Voltigeurs) and George MacDonnell's 1st Light Battalion, he had called in several units of the Select Embodied Militia and local militia units. De Salaberry had many informants among the farmers in the area who provided accurate information about the strength of Hampton's force and its movements, while Hampton had very poor intelligence about De Salaberry's force. The road along which Hampton was advancing followed the north bank of the Chateauguay. Facing a ravine where a creek (the English River) joined the Chateauguay, de Salaberry ordered abatis (obstacles made of felled trees) to be constructed, blocking the road. Behind these he posted the light company of the Canadian Fencibles under Captain Richard Ferguson (50); two companies of the Canadian Voltigeurs under Captain Michel-Louis Juchereau Duchesnay and his brother Captain Jean-Baptiste Juchereau Duchesnay, totalling about 100 men; a company from the 2nd Battalion Sedentary Beauharnois Militia under Captain Longuetin (about 100) and perhaps two dozen Native Americans (Abenaki, Algonquin and Iroquois) nominally commanded by Captain Lamothe. To guard a ford across the Chateauguay behind the abatis, de Salaberry posted the light companies of the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of Select Embodied Militia under Captains de Tonnancoeur and Daly, and another company of Beauharnois militia under Captain Brugière (about 160 in total). In successive reserve positions, stretching a mile and a half along the river from the abatis to the ford and beyond, were another five companies of the Canadian Voltigeurs (about 300); the main body of the 2nd Select Embodied Militia (480), 200 more local "sedentary" militia; and another 150 Kahnawake and Mohawks and other Native Americans commanded by Captains Lorimier and Ducharme, among others. De Salaberry commanded the front line in person, while the reserves were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel MacDonnell. All of de Salaberry's forces were raised in Lower Canada. The Canadian Fencibles were raised as regulars, though liable for service in North America only. The Voltigeurs were volunteers and were treated as regulars for most purposes. The Select Embodied Militia contained some volunteers but consisted mainly of men drafted by ballot for a year's full-time service. De Salaberry had been so confident of victory that he had not informed his superiors of his actions. De Watteville and Sir George Prevost rode forward and "approved" de Salaberry's dispositions, even as the fighting started. Battle Hampton knew of the existence of the ford and, late on 25 October, he decided to send 1,500 men of his first brigade (including most, if not all, of his light infantry) under Colonel Robert Purdy, to cross to the south bank of the Chateauguay, circle round the British position and outflank it by capturing the ford at dawn, while the remainder under Brigadier General George Izard attacked from the front. After Purdy set off, Hampton received a letter from Armstrong, dated 16 October, informing him that Armstrong himself was relinquishing overall command of the combined American forces, leaving Wilkinson in charge. Hampton was also ordered to construct winter quarters for 10,000 men on the Saint Lawrence. Hampton interpreted this instruction to mean that there would be no attack on Montreal that year and the entire campaign was pointless. He would probably have retreated immediately, except that Purdy would then have been left isolated. Purdy's men spent a miserable night marching through swampy woods in pouring rain, becoming quite lost. As dawn broke on 26 October, they located the correct trail, but inexperienced or unwilling guides first led them about mid-morning to a point on the river opposite de Salaberry's forward defences. Some time after noon, Purdy's brigade encountered the detachment de Salaberry had posted to guard the ford. Captain Daly, leading the light company of the 3rd Select Embodied Militia, launched an immediate attack against the Americans, while other Canadian troops engaged them from across the river. The Americans were thrown into confusion and driven back. Captain Daly and Captain Brugière were severely wounded and their men withdrew, but when the Americans tried to pursue they once again came under fire from the north bank of the Chateauguay and were again thrown into disarray. After Purdy's force had been in action for some time with no obvious signs of American success, Izard's force marched into the ravine facing de Salaberry's defences and deployed into line. Legend has it that at this point, an American officer rode forward to demand the Canadians' surrender. As he had omitted to do so under a flag of truce, he was shot down by de Salaberry himself. Izard's troops began steady, rolling volleys into the abatis and trees. These conventional tactics, better suited to pitched battles between regular forces in open terrain, were almost entirely ineffective against the Canadians. The defenders replied with accurate individual fire. Lieutenant Pinguet of the Canadian Fencibles later related "All our men fired from thirty-five to forty rounds so well aimed that the prisoners told us next day that every shot seem to pass at about the height of a man's breast or head. Our company was engaged for about three-quarters of an hour before reinforcements came up." Surprisingly few Americans were hit however. On the Canadian right, the light company of the Fencibles were outflanked and fell back, but either on de Salaberry's orders or on their own initiative, MacDonnell and several companies from the reserve were already making their way forward. They did so with bugle calls, cheers and Indian war whoops. De Salaberry is also credited in several accounts with sending buglers into the woods to sound the "Advance" as a ruse de guerre. The unnerved Americans thought themselves outnumbered and about to be outflanked and fell back . Hampton's four guns did not come into action. Purdy first fell back to the river bank opposite De Salaberry's front line, expecting to find Izard still in action, so that he could ferry his wounded across the river. Instead, he once again found himself under fire from De Salaberry and was forced to retreat through the woods to his starting-place. Once Purdy had extricated himself after another dismal night in the woods, the American army withdrew in good order. De Salaberry did not pursue. Casualties De Salaberry reported 5 killed, 16 wounded and 4 missing but 3 of the men who had been returned as "killed" later rejoined the ranks unharmed, giving a revised Canadian loss of 2 killed, 16 wounded and 4 missing. The American losses were officially reported by Hampton's Adjutant-General (Colonel Henry Atkinson) as 23 killed, 33 wounded and 29 missing. De Salaberry reported that 16 American prisoners were taken. Aftermath Having reunited his forces, Hampton held a council of war. This unanimously concluded that a renewed advance stood no chance of success. Furthermore, the roads were becoming impassable under the autumn rains, and Hampton's supplies would soon be exhausted. Hampton ordered a withdrawal to Four Corners and sent Colonel Atkinson to Wilkinson with a report of his situation. Wilkinson's own force had reached a settlement named Hoags, on the Saint Lawrence River a few miles upstream from Ogdensburg, when they received this news. Wilkinson replied with orders for Hampton to advance to Cornwall, bringing sufficient supplies for both his own and Wilkinson's divisions. When he received these orders, Hampton was convinced that they could not be executed and declined to comply, retreating instead to Plattsburgh. Before Hampton's reply could reach Wilkinson, the latter's own force was defeated at the Battle of Crysler's Farm on 11 November. Wilkinson nevertheless used Hampton's refusal to move on Cornwall (which he received by letter on 12 November) as a pretext to abandon his own advance, and the campaign to capture Montreal was called off. Hampton had already submitted his resignation the day before the battle of Chateauguay, in his reply to Armstrong's letter of 16 October. He was not employed again in the field. On the British side, the victorious troops at Chateauguay held their existing positions and endured much discomfort for several days before Indians reported that the Americans were retreating, which allowed them to retire to more comfortable billets. The hot-tempered de Salaberry was furious that Major General de Watteville and especially Sir George Prevost had arrived on the field too late to take part in the fighting but in time to submit their own dispatches claiming the victory for themselves. He considered resigning his commission but was later officially thanked by the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. He and Lieutenant Colonel MacDonnell were made Companions of the Bath after the war for their parts in the battle. Sir George Prevost's dispatch, which claimed that 300 Canadians had put 7,500 Americans to flight nevertheless contributed to the battle becoming legendary in Canadian folklore. Legacy Eight currently active regular battalions of the United States Army (1-3 Inf, 2-3 Inf, 4-3 Inf, 1-5 Inf, 2-5 Inf, 1-6 Inf, 2-6 Inf and 4-6 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of several of American infantry regiments (the old 1st, 4th, 25th and 29th Infantry Regiments) that took part in the Battle of the Chateauguay. Six regiments of the Canadian Army carry the Battle Honour CHATEAUGUAY to commemorate the history and heritage of units that fought at the Battle. They are: The Royal 22e Régiment, the Canadian Grenadier Guards, the Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada, Les Voltigeurs de Québec, Les Fusiliers du St-Laurent and Le Régiment de la Chaudière. The site of the battle was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1920. Mohawk warriors who took part in the battle A list of Warriors receiving medals entitled: "August 25, 1847 A list of soldier and Native Warriors was provided for the Military General Service Medals for the Battle of Detroit, 11 August 1812, the Battle of Chateauguay on 26 October 1813, the Battle of Crysler Farm, 11 November 1813." All the warriors from Kanesatake and Kahnawake mentioned who received medals at Chateauguay can be found in the 1786-1800 Kanesatake-Oka and Caughnawaga-Kahnawake parish registers or other census that took place during that period. The transcribed registers from the parish registers repertory are available at National Archives of Quebec in Montreal, and through the censuses mentioned. Those from Caughnawaga-Kahnawake were: Ducharme Dominique, Captain; Anaicha, Saro; Anontara, Saro; Arenhoktha, Saro; Arosin-Arosen, Wishe; Atenhara, Henias (Oka & Caughnawaga); Honenharakete, Roren; Kanewatiron, Henias; Karakontie, Arenne; Karenhoton, Atonsa; Kariwakeron, Sak; Katstirakeron, Saro; Maccomber Jarvise; Nikarakwasa, Atonsa; Sakahoronkwas, Triom; Sakoiatiiostha, Sose; Sakoratentha, Sawatis; Saskwenharowane, Saro; Sawennowane, Atona; Skaionwiio, Wishe; Taiakonentakete, Wishe; Tekanasontie, Martin; Tewasarasere, Roiir; Tewaserake, Henias; Thoientakon, Simon; Tiohakwente, Tier (Oka & Caughnawaga); Tiohatekon, Atonsa; Tseoherisen, Tier; Tsiorakwisin, Rosi. References Sources External links The Battle of the Chateauguay at The War of 1812 Website An Account of the Battle of the Chateauguay by William D. Lighthall, 1889, from Project Gutenberg Quebec Heritage Web site of the area Colonel Robert Purdy's account, in The Documentary History of the campaign upon the Niagara frontier. pp.129-133 Index to Parc Canada's website on the Battle of the Chateauguay Parc Canada's Map and timeline of the Battle Conflicts in 1813 Battles involving Canada Chateauguay Chateauguay National Historic Sites in Quebec History of Montérégie War of 1812 National Historic Sites of Canada 1813 in Lower Canada October 1813 events Le Haut-Saint-Laurent Regional County Municipality

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9ziers

Béziers

Béziers (; ) is a subprefecture of the Hérault department in the Occitanie region of Southern France. Béziers hosts the famous Feria de Béziers, centred on bullfighting, every August. A million visitors are attracted to the five-day event. The town is located on a small bluff above the river Orb, about from the Mediterranean coast and southwest of Montpellier. At Béziers, the Canal du Midi spans the river Orb as an aqueduct called the Pont-canal de l'Orb, claimed to be the first of its kind. History Béziers is one of the oldest cities in France. Research published in March 2013 shows that Béziers dates from 575 BC, making it older than Agde (Greek Agathe Tyche, founded in 525 BC) and a bit younger than Marseille (Greek Massalia, founded in 600 BC). The site has been occupied since Neolithic times, before the influx of Celts. Roman Betarra was on the road that linked Provence with Iberia. The Romans refounded the city as a new colonia for veterans in 36–35 BC and called it Colonia Julia Baeterrae Septimanorum. Stones from the Roman amphitheatre were used to construct the city wall during the 3rd century. Wine was exported to Rome. A dolia discovered in an excavation near Rome is marked "I am a wine from Baeterrae and I am five years old"; another simply "white wine of Baeterrae". It was conquered by the Muslims and remained part of the Islamic Iberia between 720 and 752. From the 10th to the 12th century, Béziers was the centre of a Viscountship of Béziers. The viscounts ruled most of the coastal plain around Béziers, including the town of Agde. They also controlled the major east–west route through Languedoc, which roughly follows the old Roman Via Domitia, with the two key bridges over the Orb at Béziers and over the Hérault at Saint-Thibéry. After the death of Viscount William around 990, the viscounty passed to his daughter Garsendis and her husband, count Raimond-Roger of Carcassonne (d. 1012). It was then ruled by their son Peter-Raimond (d. 1060) and his son Roger (d. 1067), both of whom were also Counts of Carcassonne. Roger died without issue and Béziers passed to his sister Ermengard and her husband Raimond-Bertrand Trencavel. The Trencavels ruled for the next 142 years, until the Albigensian Crusade, a formal crusade (holy war) authorised by Pope Innocent III. Massacre at Béziers Béziers was a Languedoc stronghold of Catharism, which the Catholic Church condemned as heretical and which Catholic forces exterminated in the Albigensian Crusade. Béziers was the first place to be attacked. The crusaders reached the town on 21 July 1209. Béziers' Catholics were given an ultimatum to hand over the heretics or leave before the crusaders besieged the city and to "avoid sharing their fate and perishing with them". However, many refused and resisted with the Cathars. The town was sacked the following day and in the bloody massacre no one was spared, not even Catholic priests and those who took refuge in the churches. One of the commanders of the crusade was the Papal legate Arnaud-Amaury (or Arnald Amalaricus, Abbot of Citeaux). When asked by a crusader how to tell Catholics from Cathars once they had taken the city, the abbot supposedly replied, "Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius" ("Kill them all, for the Lord knoweth them that are His"). (This oft quoted phrase is sourced from Caesarius of Heisterbach along with a story of all the heretics who desecrated a copy of the Gospels and threw it down from the town's walls.) Amalric's own version of the siege, described in his letter to Pope Innocent III in August 1209 (col. 139), states: While discussions were still going on with the barons about the release of those in the city who were deemed to be Catholics, the servants and other persons of low rank and unarmed attacked the city without waiting for orders from their leaders. To our amazement, crying "to arms, to arms!", within the space of two or three hours they crossed the ditches and the walls and Béziers was taken. Our men spared no one, irrespective of rank, sex or age, and put to the sword almost 20,000 people. After this great slaughter the whole city was despoiled and burnt ... The invaders burned the Cathedral of Saint Nazaire, which collapsed on those who had taken refuge inside. The town was pillaged and burnt. By some accounts, none were left alive – by others, there were a handful of survivors. (A plaque opposite the cathedral records the "Day of Butchery" perpetrated by the "northern barons".) Later Middle Ages Despite the massacre, the city was repopulated. A few parts of the Romanesque cathedral of St-Nazaire had survived the carnage, and repairs started in 1215. The restoration, along with that of the rest of the city, continued until the 15th century. Béziers became part of the royal domain in 1247. Rule of the city was for a long time divided among three powers: the Bishopric, which reached its apogee in the 16th and 17th centuries when it was held by the Bonsi family, allied to the Medici; the consuls, local magistrates created at the end of the 12th century; and finally the king, represented by a "Viguier for judicial affairs", and from the 17th century onwards by a sub-delegate of the Intendant. Béziers was not damaged in the Hundred Years' War. On 8 September 1381, a riot broke out at the seat of the municipal council, rioters setting the Town House on fire. The councillors tried to take refuge in the tower, but fire spread there as well, and they all died either by fire or in jumping from the tower to the square. Early modern times King Charles IX passed through the city during his royal tour of France (1564–1566), accompanied by the Court and the great men of the kingdom: his brother the Duke of Anjou, Henri of Navarre, and the cardinals of Bourbon and Lorraine. In 1551, Béziers became the seat of a seneschal, being removed from the jurisdiction of the seneschals of Carcassonne. The city served as a rear base during various wars of the modern period, especially those against the Habsburgs. It was only once directly threatened. During the War of the Spanish Succession, the British in 1710 landed at Sète and moved to within a few kilometres of Béziers, before being repulsed by the Duke of Roquelaure. Béziers was at the heart of the Montmorency Revolt in 1632. It was in Béziers that Gaston d'Orléans and Henri II de Montmorency, Governor of Languedoc, met at the beginning of the rebellion. It was also here that the king, by the Edict of Béziers (October 1632) abolished the privileges of the province. (They were restored in 1649.) During the 18th century, Béziers prospered, notably thanks to the cultivation of vines which enabled it to become an important centre for alcohol trading. French Revolution During the French Revolution, citizens of Béziers met in a revolutionary society created in May 1790 and numbering up to 400 members. It had several successive names: first, "The Literary and Patriotic Cabinet", a name still derived from the social life of the Ancien Régime; it then became "Society of the Friends of the Constitution and Liberty". Later becoming affiliated to the Jacobin Club of Paris, the Béziers organization was accordingly renamed the "Society of the Jacobins"; then, the abolition of the French monarchy precipitated two further changes of name: "Society of Brothers and Friends of the Republic" and then "Regenerated Society of the Jacobins, Friends of the Republic". From 1790 to 1800, Béziers was the chief town of the district of Béziers. The city did not take part in the Girondin ("Federalist") movement. Napoleon the Third In the repression following Louis Napoléon's coup d'état in 1851, troops fired on and killed Republican protesters in Béziers. Others were condemned to death or transported to Guiana, including a former mayor who died at sea attempting to escape from there. In the Place de la Révolution a plaque and a monument by Jean Antoine Injalbert commemorates these events. (Injalbert also designed the Fontaine du Titan in Béziers' Plâteau des Poètes park and the Molière monument in nearby Pézenas.) The Languedoc vine growers' revolt in Béziers While elsewhere in France, the area planted with vines was decreasing, it increased in the Departments of Aude, Gard, Hérault and the Pyrenees-Orientales. Together, these supplied some 40% of French wine production. Haut Languedoc, and more particularly the Biterrois and Béziers, proclaimed themselves to be "The World Capital of Wine" and grew rapidly. Great fortunes were made. Large landowners, coming from industry, finance or the liberal professions, gained possession of immense vineyards. There was also a growing foreign competition, with smuggled wines appearing on the market. The fraudsters remained unpunished. In 1892, the winegrowers of the Midi demanded "The restoration and enforcement of customs duties". But the market remained partly held by wines made from imported dried grapes (such as grapes from Corinth), and wines called "wet" (adulterated with water). Though the vintners attached great importance to this unfair competition, in fact it did not represent more than 5% of the market. On 12 May 1907, no less than 150,000 protesters gathered in Béziers with the declared aim of "Defending the Southern Viticulture". The crowd spilled into Paul-Riquet and the Champ-de-Mars. The slogans on the banners Proclaimed: "Victory or death! Enough of talking, the time has come for action! Death to fraudsters! Bread or death! Live by working or die fighting!". The demonstrators, who came from more than 200 communes, were joined by numerous Biterrois employees and shopkeepers. The event ended with speeches on the Place de la Citadelle, (now Place Jean-Jaurès). the Speakers included Marcelin Albert who issued an ultimatum to the government, demanding that it raise the price of wine, Ernest Ferroul who advocated tax refusal and the Béziers Mayor Émile Suchon, (close to Clemenceau), who took a stand in support of the winegrowers' struggle. There were some minor incidents during the dispersal of the demonstrators. On 16 May, the Béziers municipal council, of Radical and Socialist tendency, resigned. The pressure of the street continued. The police station and the town hall façade were set on fire. Alerted, Georges Clemenceau decided to launch a counterattack. The 17th regiment of line infantry, composed of reservists and conscripts, was on his orders transferred from Béziers to Agde on 18 June 1907. On the evening of 20 June, learning of the Narbonne shooting, about 500 soldiers of the 6th company of the 17th regiment mutinied, plundered the armory and headed for Béziers. They traveled about twenty kilometers by night. On 21 June, in the early morning, they arrived in town. They were warmly welcomed by the Biterrois, "fraternizing with the demonstrators, and peacefully opposing the armed forces". The soldiers sat down on the Allées Paul Riquet and the population offered them wine and food. The South was on the brink of insurrection. In Paulhan, the railway was taken out of commission by protesters who stopped a military convoy sent to quell the mutineers. In Lodève, the sub-prefect was taken hostage. The military authorities were not ready to accept this mutiny, apprehensive that the example of the 17th regiment would give similar ideas to other regiments in the region. In Paris, the Republic trembled, as Clemenceau had to face a vote of no confidence. However, he survived by letting the military command urgently negotiate with the mutineers. In the afternoon, after obtaining a guarantee that no sanctions will be imposed on them, the 17th soldiers put down their arms and marched to the station under escort, without any major incident. On 22 June, they returned by train to their barracks. Clemenceau announced the end of the mutiny and gained a parliamentary vote of confidence by 327 votes to 223. On 23 June, a law was finally passed, which repressed the massive chaptalisation of the wines. Negotiations and the scale of the movement prevented collective punishment: the mutineers of the 17th were assigned to Gafsa (Tunisia), a place where soldiers were often sent for "disciplinary companies", but these soldiers remained outside this framework, and were under ordinary military status. There was therefore no penal sanction for the revolt of the 17th, contrary to the legend that developed on this subject. However, during the First World War, haunted by their reputation as deserters, many of them were sent to the front line, particularly in the bloody assaults of 1914. The mutiny of soldiers of the 17th has remained in historical memory, especially with the words of Montéhus' anti-militarist song "Gloire au 17", with the refrain: "Salute, salute to you / Brave soldiers of the seventeenth...." Population The inhabitants of Béziers are known as Biterrois, after Baeterrae, the Roman name for the town. Attractions Saint-Nazaire Cathedral: Situated in the high part of town, it occupies a picturesque site, visible from afar when approaching Béziers on the road from Narbonne. A remarkable example of middle Gothic architecture from the 14th century, the vaulted nave, wide, reaches a height of . The total length is . The western rose window has a diameter of . The Plateau des Poètes (1867) : This vast English style (formal) park was laid out by landscape artists, the Bulher brothers. It contains numerous statues of poets and a monumental fountain of the Titan by Injalbert. The park connects the station with the allées Paul Riquet... The allées Paul Riquet where a large bronze statue by David d'Angers celebrates the creator of the Canal du Midi, Pierre-Paul Riquet. The same sculptor created the bas reliefs which decorate the neo-Classical façade of the Municipal Theatre (1844) at the top of the allées. At times of the Feria, festivities are centred in these alleys. Arenas: Béziers has two arenas, one dating from the Roman era whose structures and foundations have been preserved following major works in the Saint-Jacques district, and the other built in 1905 in the style of Spanish bullrings by Fernand Castelbon de Beauxhostes. The latter is one of the largest such structures in France (seating 13100). The arena hosts concerts and, every August, a bullfighting festival (the Féria). The Fine Arts Museum (musée des Beaux-Arts), founded in 1859, received in 1934 the legacy of Injalbert's widow and, in 1975, drawings and the art collection of Jean Moulin. Among the museum's works are canvasses by Hans Holbein, Sébastien Bourdon, Géricault, Vincent van Gogh, Chaïm Soutine and Henri Goetz. The musée Saint-Jacques, installed in a former barracks, has collections showing life in the Béziers region (Biterrois). Le Pont Vieux is a stone bridge crossing the Orb (Middles Ages). Le Cimetière Vieux (Old Cemetery), created in the 18th century, is a true open-air museum with numerous tombs and works of art by local sculptors, including Jean Magrou and Injalbert. Pierre-Paul Riquet's Canal du Midi (17th century) Béziers installations: the Pont-canal de l'Orb canal aqueduct; the Fonserannes staircaise locks; the hapless Fonserannes "water slope"; and the Fonserannes lock continuation (now also hors service) to the River Orb. Other sites and monuments include: Garden de la Plantade The Cordier or Bagnols mill Saint-Jacques Church The Saint-Aphrodise Church Church of the Madeleine Saint Jude Church Church of the Immaculate Conception and its glazed tile roof The Capnau quarter Island of Tabarka, on the Orb The Municipal Theatre (19th century) The Art Nouveau former Théâtre des Variétés The market hall (end of the 19th century) The Saint-Jean-d'Aureilhan estate The Domaine de Bayssan Chapelle du Jardin Notre-Dame (18th century) Chapelle des Pénitents Bleus (18th century) Other sights in the area include the Oppidum d'Ensérune archaeological site and the Étang de Montady, a marsh drained in 1247 to create a field and Irrigation system which is visible from the Oppidum d'Ensérune. Economy Béziers is a principal centre of the Languedoc viticulture and wine making industries. Transport Road: The A9 autoroute between Italy and Spain skirts Béziers. The final link in the A75 autoroute between Pézenas and the A9 was completed in December 2010 and provides direct links to Clermont-Ferrand and Paris. Rail: The Gare de Béziers is a railway station with connections to Toulouse, Montpellier, Bordeaux, Marseille, Paris, Barcelona and several regional destinations. TGV trains stop in Béziers, but the tracks between Montpellier and Spain are not yet high speed tracks. Air: Béziers Cap d'Agde Airport (previously Béziers-Agde-Vias Airport), owned by the Chamber of commerce and Industry, provides connections to destinations in northern Europe. Following an extension to the runway which was completed in March 2007, Ryanair began flights to and from Bristol Airport in March 2008, and later to London Stansted and London Luton Airport. Current (Jan. 2013) destinations from this airport with Ryanair are Bristol, London Luton Airport, Paris Beauvais, Oslo Rygge, Manchester, Edinburgh, Weeze Airport and Stockholm Skavsta, while Flybe serves Southampton. Canal: Primarily used today by trip boats and plaisanciers, the Canal du Midi is still used commercially to carry Languedoc wine to Bordeaux for blending. The canals locks have a maximum length of 30m, slightly less than the 38.5m adopted under the later Frecinet standard. Although parts of the River Orb are navigable, they river is interrupted by a number of impassable weirs. Sport Béziers' rugby union team is AS Béziers Hérault, the football team is AS Béziers (2007) who play in Ligue 2. Notable people Jedaiah ben Abraham Bedersi (1270–1340), poet, philosopher and physician Abraham Bedersi was a Provençal Jewish poet from the 13th-century Pierre-Paul Riquet (1609 or 1604–1680), engineer and canal-builder responsible for the construction of the Canal du Midi Paul Pellisson (1624–1693), author Jean Barbeyrac (1674?–1744), jurist Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan (1678–1771), geophysicist Jean-Henri-Nicolas Bouillet (1729–1790), physician and Encyclopédiste, mayor of Béziers from 1787 to 1790 Pierre Jean Porro (1750–1831), guitarist, composer and music publisher Joseph-Henri baron de Jessé (1755–1794), nobleman and president of the National Constituent Assembly Jean Gailhac (1802–1890), priest, educator and founder of the Religious of the Sacred Heart of Mary Agénor Azéma de Montgravier (1805–1863), archeologist and Chef d'escadron in the Artillery Jean Antoine Ernest Constans (1833–1913), statesman Jean Antoine Injalbert (1845–1933), sculptor Valentin Duc (1858–1915), operatic tenor Gustave Fayet (1865–1925), artist, art collector, owner of Abbaye de Fontfroide Jean Magrou (1869–1945), sculptor Henri Fescourt (1880–1946), film director Mario Cazes (1890–1972), composer, conductor and violinist Jean Moulin (1899–1943), a hero of the French Resistance in the Second World War Edgar Faure (1908–1988), statesman Gabriel Bacquier (1924-2020), baritone Christian Metz (1931–1993), film theorist Jean-Pierre Escalettes (b. 1935), former president of the French Football Federation (2005–2010) Elisabeth Daynès (b. 1960), sculptor Damien Comolli (b. 1972), football director Julien Rodriguez (b. 1978), Olympique de Marseille footballer Jérémy Clément (b. 1984), Saint-Étienne footballer Aurélie Kamga (b. 1985), athlete Alexandra Rosenfeld (b. 1986), Miss France 2006, Miss Europe 2006 Richard Gasquet (b. 1986), French tennis player Thomas Heurtel (b 1989), basketball player Amale (b 1993), wrestler Cultural references The Kate Mosse novels Labyrinth and The Winter Ghosts works of fiction, draw on the history of Carcassonne, Béziers and the Cathars. Alan Tunbridge commemorated the Cathars in his song "Massacre at Béziers". Parts of the town, especially the cathedral, figure prominently in François Truffaut's film Une belle fille comme moi. Twinned towns Béziers is twinned with: Heilbronn, Germany, since 1965 Anping (Tainan), Taiwan Chiclana de la Frontera, Spain, since 1993 Stavropol, Russia, since 1982 Stockport, United Kingdom, since 1972 Maaloula, Syria, since 2014 Gallery See also Guillaume Bottazzi, painter of a mural, Les Muriers Blancs, on eight façades of two buildings in Béziers Communes of the Hérault department Occitania Septimania References Sources External links Official tourist office website for visiting Béziers (In English) Official website city of Béziers. Website of Béziers and Biterrois Photos "Festa d'Oc History of Béziers Béziers Congrès 30s BC establishments Communes of Hérault Languedoc Subprefectures in France

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forfar

Forfar

Forfar (, ) is the county town of Angus, Scotland and the administrative centre for Angus Council, with a new multi-million pound office complex located on the outskirts of the town. As of 2021, the town has a population of 16,280. The town lies in Strathmore and is situated just off the main A90 road between Perth and Aberdeen, with Dundee (the nearest city) being 13 miles (21 km) away. It is approximately 5 miles (8 km) from Glamis Castle, seat of the Bowes-Lyon family and ancestral home of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, and where the late Princess Margaret, younger sister of Queen Elizabeth II, was born in 1930. Forfar dates back to the temporary Roman occupation of the area, and was subsequently held by the Picts and the Kingdom of Scotland. During the Scottish Wars of Independence, Forfar was occupied by English forces before being recaptured by the Scots and presented to Robert the Bruce. Forfar has been both a traditional market town and a major manufacturing centre for linen and jute. Today the main activities are agriculture and tourism around scenic Strathmore. The local glens are visited by hill-walkers, and there are ski-slopes in the mountains. The town is home to a number of local sporting teams, including the League Two football club, Forfar Athletic. The Forfar bridie, a Scottish meat pastry snack, is traditionally identified with the town. Etymology The genesis of the toponym Forfar is uncertain. One suggestion is that the name is Gaelic and means "a cold point", involving, fuar meaning "cold, chilly", and bhar meaning "a point". History During one of the Roman invasions of modern-day Scotland, the Romans established a major camp at Battledykes, approximately 3 miles (5 km) north of Forfar; this camp was analysed to have held 50,000 to 60,000 men. From Battledykes northward the Romans established a succession of camps including Stracathro, Raedykes and Normandykes. During the Middle Ages, a "claimant" to the throne, the daughter of the leader of the Meic Uilleim, who were descendants of King Duncan II, had her brains dashed out on Forfar market cross in 1230 while still an infant. During the First War of Scottish Independence, the castle of Forfar was held by the English. After Robert the Bruce's victory over the Earl of Buchan, Philip, the Forester of Platane, together with some of his friends raised ladders against the wall and, climbing over, surprised the garrison and slew them. He then yielded the castle to Bruce, who rewarded him and gave instructions for its demolition. The Meffan Museum is in the heart of the town. It was built by a daughter of the Provost Meffan as a bequest in 1898. It is home of the Forfar story. It is also an art gallery and a meeting place for local speakers, summer clubs for children and groups. The story of Forfar takes you from the history of the little cobbler shops to the burning of the witch Helen Guthrie. There is also a good selection of Pictish stones found in and around Forfar and Kirriemuir. The Large Class I Pictish stone, with a rare carving of a flower, is called the Dunnichen Stone. It was found in the early 19th century when a farmer from the East Mains of Dunnichen was ploughing. It was initially displayed at a church in the vicinity, then at Dunnichen House. In 1966 it was relocated at St Vigeans and finally moved to Dundee museum in 1972. After the Meffan Institute had been renovated it was brought to Forfar on a long-term loan where it is displayed alongside the Kirriemuir Sculptured Stones. There is also a canoe, excavated from Forfar Loch, that dates back to the 11th century (one of two that were found). Like other parts of Angus, Forfar was home to a very successful textile industry during and after the Industrial Revolution. In the late 18th century the firm of William Don & Co. (later William and John Don & Co) was founded in the town. The firm originally bought and sold webs of linen which were woven in local cottages, although it also operated a small weaving shed. In 1865 the firm merged with A J Buist, a Dundee based firm, and began construction of St James Works in Forfar. The partnership also operated mills in Dundee and later built Station Works in Forfar, which contained some 300 looms. Workers housing was also built by the firm in Forfar. Don Brothers, Buist & Company Ltd, as the firm was known from 1904, built another works in Forfar, at Strang Street, in 1929. In 1960 it merged with another Dundee firm, Low Brothers & Co (Dundee) Ltd, eventually becoming Don & Low (Holdings) Ltd. By the 1980s the Don & Low group was the United Kingdom's biggest polypropylene textile extrusion and weaving unit. The firm retains premises in Forfar, mainly producing woven and non-woven polypropylene industrial textile products and plastic food packaging. In 1958 Don Brothers, Buist & Co Ltd acquired a controlling interest in another Forfar based-textile firm, Moffat & Son Ltd, who operated Haugh Works in South Street. Another important Forfar textile firm was J & A Craik & Company, Linen and Jute Manufacturers, which was based at the Manor Works. Craiks was started in 1863 when James Craik obtained land in Forfar to build the Manor Works and the company survived until 1981, the year in which it became part of the Low and Bonar group. Craiks also owned Forfar Fabrics Ltd, incorporated in 1965, which amalgamated with Low & Bonar Textiles Limited in 1981. The jute manufacturers, John Lowson, Jnr & Co Ltd, also operated in Forfar, operating out of Victoria Works. In 1911 more than 20% of workers in Forfar were employed in the jute industry. Employment levels in this industry generally dramatically declined in other parts of Angus, including Dundee, during the next four decades. Notably in Dundee, the centre of the British jute industry, more than 40.4% of the working population had worked in the jute industry in 1911, but by 1951 this had fallen to just 18.5%. In Forfar, however this trend was not followed as percentage of the workforce employed in the jute industry had actually risen to 24.4% by 1951. In the town there is a metal plaque to General Sikorski and the Polish troops commemorating the visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth to the town on 7 March 1941. The metal plaque is located on a wall on Market Street below the Sheriff Court building. It was here on 7 March 1941 that the Royal couple, along with General Sikorski, took the salute in the march past of the Polish troops. The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh visited the town and surrounding area in 2004 (the first time in around 30 years) and again in 2011. HRH Prince Charles, the Duke of Rothesay, visited the town in April 2012 to take the salute of the Black Watch during the regiment's homecoming parade, marking its return from a six-month tour of duty in Afghanistan. Governance Forfar is a parish, town and former royal burgh. The meeting place of the burgh was the Forfar Town and County Hall. It is the county town of Angus, which was officially known as Forfarshire from the 18th century until 1928. The town is represented within Angus Council by the Forfar & District ward, from which four councillors are elected. The members elected from this ward are, as of 2021; Lynne Devine (Scottish National Party), Braden Davy (Scottish Conservative and Unionist), Colin Brown (Independent) and Ian McLaren (Independent). Transport Road The town is located just off the main A90 Dundee to Aberdeen road which since 1987 has bypassed the town, but once passed through it. Rail The town was served by Forfar railway station which ran goods and passenger lines until 3 September 1967 when it closed for passenger transport as part of the Beeching cuts. A goods line from Perth continued until 1982. The station was located on the main line of the Caledonian Railway from Glasgow Buchanan Street to Aberdeen, which was the furthest north link in the chain of the West Coast Main Line from London Euston. Lines also went to Dundee, Arbroath, Brechin and Kirriemuir. The station has been demolished and replaced by a small housing estate. However, a major locomotive shed remains and is in use for vehicle body manufacture. Some bridges and cuttings still survive but the site of the goods station, which was also the town's original railway station before the one near the County Buildings was built, is now mainly residential properties. The nearest stations still open are in Dundee, Carnoustie and Arbroath, which are all around away. Bus There are Stagecoach Strathtay bus services to Dundee, Arbroath, Kirriemuir, Brechin and other places. Climate As with most of the British Isles, Forfar has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb). The nearest weather station to Forfar is located around 3 miles (5 km) north of Forfar, and is above sea level. Local sport Football The town is home to semi-professional football club Forfar Athletic, who are members of the Scottish Professional Football League and currently play in League Two and two SJFA clubs, Forfar West End, and Forfar United, who both currently play in the Midlands Football League. Forfar Athletic's ground, Station Park, also plays host to matches featuring Dundee United Reserves. Youth and Women's Football is also available in the town, with Forfar Boys F.C (boys only), Lochside Boys F.C (boys only) and Forfar Farmington F.C (boys, girls and women's) All the clubs have SFA Quality Mark Award at some level. Rugby league Forfar has a National League rugby league team, the Strathmore Silverbacks, which shares Inchmacoble Park as its home ground with the local rugby union team. Rugby union Rugby Union is represented in the town by Strathmore Rugby Football Club, who play their home games at Inchmacoble Park, beside Forfar Loch. The club has men's and ladies' teams. Golf The Forfar Golf Club, founded in 1871, has the 4th oldest 18 hole course in the world and is the very first club to have an 18 hole course from inception and inauguration. The course was designed by Tom Morris Snr, and in 1926 alterations recommended by 5 time Open Championship winner James Braid were implemented. The letter with Braid's recommendations is on display in the Clubhouse. The Forfar Golf Club has also hosted the Scottish PGA Championship twice in its history, once in 1932 and again in 1966. Cricket Strathmore Cricket Club, founded in 1862, has played at Lochside Park since 1873. Others sports and facilities The town has a swimming pool and a separate dedicated leisure centre. There is also a newly built skatepark near the leisure centre. Forfar also has an ice rink which was built in the early 1990s and this is home to the local curling club. There are 3 bowling clubs in Forfar, Forfar Bowling Club, Canmore Bowling Club and Forfar Indoor Bowling Club. Both Forfar Bowling Club and Canmore Bowling Club are outdoor bowling greens. Forfar Loch is home to Forfar Sailing Club. Angus Gliding Club operates at Roundyhill, between Glamis and Kirriemuir. Education Forfar has three primary schools: Whitehills Primary School on Service Road. Whitehills contains a Gaelic Medium Unit where pupils are educated exclusively through the medium of Scottish Gaelic. The head teachers are Coureen Peters & Elaine Gallon (acting). Strathmore Primary School on St James' Road. The head teacher is Jennifer Garnes. Langlands Primary School on Glamis Road. The school reopened in May 2009 after the original buildings were demolished and an extensive period of rebuilding and landscaping. The head teacher is Karen Tough. There is one secondary school in the town: Forfar Academy on Taylor Street, one of the largest schools in Angus with a roll of around 1,200 pupils. In 2007, the Forfar-Carnoustie Schools Project made major changes to schools in Forfar, with closure of the following primary schools: Chapelpark Primary School on Academy Street (the former Forfar Academy) opened in 1967 and was active for 40 years before closing in 2007. The pupils were re-located to Strathmore Primary and Whitehills Primary. The building continued in use as a school, initially by Whitehills Primary until their new school was completed in early 2008. It was then home to Langlands Primary, until the new school on that site was completed in May 2009. Some locals believe it would have made a great library/museum, but in spring of 2016 it was decided that it would be turned into an apartment block, it was completed in the summer of 2018. Kirkriggs Primary School in St. James' Road was closed in 2007. Pupils were re-located to Langlands until the new school on this site (Strathmore Primary) was completed in early 2008. Wellbrae Primary School closed in 2007. Pupils were sent to Chapelpark Primary School and later to Whitehills Primary School. The play areas of Wellbrae were all concrete. In 2016, it burned to the ground in an arson attack. Healthcare The local community hospital, the Whitehills Health and Community Care Centre, was built on the site of the old Whitehills Hospital building (the former hospital for infectious diseases) and opened in Spring 2005. The new hospital replaced Forfar Infirmary, formerly the town's main hospital, as well as Whitehills Hospital. The Infirmary has since been completely demolished. The Fyfe-Jamieson maternity hospital closed some time ago; it was across the road from the Forfar Academy, but the site has since been built over with houses. Places of worship Forfar has three Church of Scotland congregations: East and Old Church, originally the parish kirk, with a tall slender spire, with steeple clock overlooking the town centre. It is a category B listed building and was refurbished in early 2017. The church is situated in the town centre and offers a mixture of traditional and contemporary worship. Lowson Memorial Church, off Montrose Road. This is a category A listed church in late Scots Gothic style built in 1914 by A Marshall Mackenzie, who also designed Crathie Kirk. The church contains notable stained glass windows by Douglas Strachan. The church serves the east side of Forfar, and provides a mix of traditional and contemporary styles of worship. St Margaret's Church, in the West High Street, originally a Free Kirk. It had been decided (by a Church of Scotland arbiter) that the East and Old Parish Church would close, and the congregation would be moving to St. Margaret's Church. This was brought back for discussion at Angus Presbytery due to a large vote against this decision. Now the East and Old and St Margaret's are to remain individual churches as they have always have been. The East & Old Church is built on the site of the original place of worship that some of the monks of Restenneth Priory built hundreds of years before the one today. The adjoining graveyard has famous 'residents' such as botanist George Don, quite a few scholars and a man who blamed the witches of Forfar for poisoning him after ill words were exchanged between them. The steeple is a focal point of Forfar, visible when entering the town from any direction. Although abutting the East & Old building, it is owned by the 'Town' and is not formally part of the church property; it is all but certain to be retained following any disposal of the church building. The town also has churches of other denominations, including: St John the Evangelist Scottish Episcopal Church, East High Street, designed by Sir R Rowand Anderson and consecrated in 1881. Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, later to become Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, was confirmed in this church. St Fergus Roman Catholic Church. Forfar Community Church at Wellbraehead on part of the old school site. There is a Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's witnesses Other items of interest The town is traditionally identified with the Forfar Bridie, a meat pastry snack. A recipe for the Forfar bridie was also featured in "Maw Broon's Cookbook". Another feature of the town is the Forfar Loch Country Park, which is visited by locals as a walking venue. It is said that the Forfar Loch extended over much more of Forfar in the 1800s, going as far up as Orchardbank and Wellbrae. A drainage project brought the water level down. In about the same time period the loch was used to dump raw sewage; thankfully this practice is no longer continued: it is now treated sewage. The town holds many events throughout the year such as the bi-annual Forfar Mara-Fun, which raises money for charity, and the annual Forfar Food Festival highlighting some of the local food. There is also a monthly farmers' market. Forfar is also home to the Strathmore Mineral Water Co., Ltd., a bottled mineral water producer now run by AG Barr. The company's products are shipped worldwide. Forfar is also known for the "coo o Forfar". A householder left a tub of beer in the doorway to cool, and a passing cow drank it. When the owner of the cow was charged for the beer, a baillie ruled that if the beer was drunk at the doorway it was "deoch an doras" or "stirrup cup", to charge for which would be an insult to Scots hospitality. This became a byword: "Be like the coo o Forfar, an tak a stannin drink". Public services Forfar and the surrounding area is supplied with water by Scottish Water from Lintrathen and Backwater reservoirs in Glen Isla. Electricity distribution is by Scottish Hydro Electric plc, part of the Scottish and Southern Energy group. Waste management is handled by Angus Council. From June 2014, there has been a comprehensive recycling service in place, succeeding the more limited kerbside recycling scheme introduced in 2005. Recyclable waste (encompassing paper, card, cans, plastics and glass) is now collected fortnightly, on alternate weeks with non-recyclable waste, with households having separate bins for each purpose. (Garden and food waste are also collected for separate processing.) Roughly two-thirds of non-recyclable material is sent to landfill at Angus Council's site at Lochhead, Forfar and the remainder sent for incineration (with energy recovery) outside the council area. A recycling centre is located at Queenswell Road. Items accepted include, steel and aluminium cans, cardboard, paper, electrical equipment, engine oil, fridges and freezers, garden waste, gas bottles, glass, liquid food and drinks cartons, plastic bottles, plastic carrier bags, rubble, scrap metal, shoes and handbags, spectacles, textiles, tin foil, wood and yellow pages. Angus council publishes details of where and how each product is processed. There are also glass banks at the Abbeygate and Tesco car parks. The Angus Council area had a recycling rate of 34.7% in 2007/08. Healthcare is supplied in the area by NHS Tayside. The nearest hospitals with accident and emergency departments are Arbroath Infirmary and Ninewells Hospital, Dundee. Primary Health Care in Forfar is supplied by several practices, based at Ravenswood Surgery on New Road, Academy Medical Centre in Academy Street and Lour Road Group Practice. Forfar, along with the rest of Scotland is served by the Scottish Ambulance Service. As from April 2013, law enforcement is provided by Police Scotland and Forfar is served by Scottish Fire and Rescue Service. Notable people Patrick Abercromby (16561716), antiquarian and physician Eilley Bowers, in her time, one of the richest women in the United States, and owner of the Bowers Mansion, one of the then-largest houses in the western United States. She was a Scottish farmer's daughter who emigrated, after converting to the LDS Church as a teenager. Willie Brown (19282017), footballer. James Cook, BBC journalist Caroline Doig (19382019), paediatric surgeon and the first woman to be elected to the council of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. George Duncan (18841965), Church of Scotland minister Peter Ritchie Calder (1906–1982), socialist writer, journalist, and academic Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex was additionally created Earl of Forfar in 2019 James Simpson Fleming FRSE (1828–1899), banking lawyer Kathryn Findlay, architect David Ireland (colonel), Colonel in the United States Army during American Civil War. Commanded the 137th New York Infantry Regiment during crucial battles such as the Battle of Gettysburg. Born in Forfar Very Rev Dr John Ker minister of Forfar 1745 to 1781, Moderator in 1776 George Langlands, footballer (primarily Dundee F.C.) Jack Lorimer, well known comedian and father of Max Wall David McLean (18901967), footballer, played for both Celtic and Rangers, ended his career at Forfar Athletic George McLean (18981970), footballer, younger brother of David, also finished his career with Forfar Athletic A. S. Neill (18831973), educator David W. Potter, sports author Ian Read, CEO of Pfizer Enn Reitel, actor Bon Scott, rock n' roll singer from the band AC/DC. David Taylor (19542014), former Joint General Secretary of UEFA and Chief Executive of the Scottish Football Association (SFA). Joseph Wedderburn (18821948), mathematician, modern algebra, born in Forfar Prince Edward, Earl of Forfar. HRH visited the town in June 2019 after being granted the title in March of the same year. He was presented with an Earl of Forfar tartan Freedom of the Town The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Town of Forfar. Individuals HM Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother: 1956. Military Units The Black Watch: 1956. References External links Local Community Website for Forfar, Angus Photographs of Forfar on the Geograph web site History of the town and photographs County towns in Scotland Towns in Angus Royal burghs

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald%20Boland

Gerald Boland

Gerald Boland (25 May 1885 – 5 January 1973) was an Irish Fianna Fáil politician who served as Minister for Justice from 1939 to 1948 and 1951 to 1954, Minister for Lands from 1936 to 1939, Minister for Posts and Telegraphs from 1933 to 1936 and Government Chief Whip from 1932 to 1933. He served as a Senator from 1961 to 1969 and a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Roscommon constituency from 1923 to 1961. Boland was active during the Irish revolutionary period, fighting in both the Irish War of Independence and the Irish Civil War, the latter of which saw the death of his brother Harry Boland. Following the wars, Boland was amongst those who lead Republicans out of Sinn Féin and into Fianna Fáil following a split over abstentionism. When Fianna Fáil came to power in 1932, Boland became a perennial member of the cabinet, most notably as Ireland's longest-serving Minister for Justice. Despite being socially liberal in his own views and a committed Irish republican, as Minister for Justice he was frequently asked by the government to enforce hardline policies against Irish citizens in order to prevent the Irish Republican Army from drawing the Irish state into World War II. Early life Born in Manchester, Gerald Boland was the son of James Boland and Kate Boland (née Woods). He was the second child and eldest son among three sons (including Harry Boland) and two daughters of the couple. His family on both sides were staunch Irish Nationalists; his father had been a Fenian in his younger days, a devout follower of Charles Stewart Parnell, and later a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB). His father also had ties to the Irish National Invincibles, and his association with them caused him to have to flee to New York City for a time. After his national school education Boland attended the O'Brien Institute in Fairview, Dublin. He left school at fifteen and became an apprentice fitter at Broadstone Station. Instead of attending to his studies to secure an engineering diploma, Boland took Irish language and history classes at night. In spite of this, he passed his engineering exams. Revolutionary years Boland was enrolled in the IRB along with his younger brothers Harry in 1904, following in the footsteps of his father James, uncle Jack. Gerald and his brothers Harry and Ned subsequently joined the Irish Volunteers when that organisation was established in 1913, serving in the same company as Arthur Griffith. When news broke out of the Easter Rising in 1916 Boland immediately left his job in Crooksling, however, he was bitterly disappointed when he found out that the order was countermanded. When the rebellion began in earnest on Easter Monday, he made his way to Jacob's Mill where he fought under Thomas MacDonagh. Following the official surrender, Boland was arrested and interned at Frongoch internment camp in Wales, where he came into contact with other notable revolutionary leaders, including his brother Harry's friend Michael Collins. Boland was released after a general amnesty in December 1916, however, he remained involved in revolutionary circles, although he declined to rejoin the IRB, believing the organisation was no longer needed. He was arrested and imprisoned in Belfast from May to December 1918 for practising military drills in the Dublin Mountains. Meanwhile, a number of his colleagues secured their release by winning seats in the 1918 general election. During the War of Independence, Boland commanded the Third Battalion, No. 2 (South Dublin) Brigade of the IRA and was known as 'Trotsky' for his left-wing views. He and his brothers were opposed to the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921. Boland briefly commanded the 3rd South Dublin Brigade in the Blessington, County Wicklow, but was captured early on in Irish Civil War in July 1922 and ended up spending two years in prison. On the outside, his brother Harry was killed in August 1922 when two National Army officers attempted to arrest him at the Grand Hotel in Skerries, Dublin. Political career Beginnings Following the end of the Civil War, Boland helped to build up Sinn Féin as the main Republican party. While still imprisoned, he was selected to stand for Dáil Éireann as the TD for Roscommon, Harry's old seat, for the 1923 general election, in which he was successful. Boland was amongst those in Kilmainham Gaol who went on hunger strike in October 1923. The hunger strike did not result in his release and Boland credits his practice of Yoga with keeping him alive at that time. Boland was eventually released from the custody of the state in July 1924. Upon his release, Boland became secretary of Sinn Féin and stood on the executive of the party. Sinn Féin to Fianna Fáil Boland was amongst the first in Sinn Féin to call for an end of the party's abstentionism from Dail Eireann, believing it to be a political dead end. Party leader Éamon de Valera proposed that the party abandon this policy and take their seats in the Dáil if changes were made to the oath of allegiance to the British monarch. His proposal was defeated and de Valera and his supporters, including Boland, left Sinn Féin. Shortly after this split, a new party emerged called Fianna Fáil, with de Valera acting as leader and the other disillusioned Republican TDs joining. Boland was vital in transferring many members from Sinn Féin to Fianna Fáil. Fianna Fáil briefly also had an abstentionist policy but in 1927 a new law forced Fianna Fáil TDs to take the oath of allegiance and take their seats in the Dáil. Fianna Fáil dismissed the Oath as "an empty formula". Boland worked alongside Seán Lemass in building up Fianna Fáil's grassroots support and organisation, with Boland giving particular attention to the party's rural apparatus. In the September 1927 general election Fianna Fáil came within four seats of the ruling Cumann na nGaedheal party. The latter formed a coalition of sorts with the Farmers' Party and returned to government. In cabinet Following the 1932 general election, Fianna Fáil formed a new government. Boland was appointed Government Chief Whip, a position which allowed him to attend cabinet meetings but not vote at them. Fianna Fáil remained in power with an increased mandate following the 1933 general election and Boland was promoted to the position of Minister for Posts and Telegraphs. In spite of being the Minister in charge of the postal service, Boland did not own a telephone until some time later. During his tenure, the postal service made considerable progress. It was also during this time that the Post Office became a paying concern. During his time as minister, Boland oversaw a major expansion of the telephone service in Ireland, improvements in the transmission capacity of Radio Éireann, and construction of new provincial post offices and a new central postal sorting office. Boland was acting minister of Justice briefly for a time when P. J. Ruttledge was ill. It was during this time that Boland declared the Irish Republican Army a proscribed organisation. A cabinet reshuffle in 1936 saw Boland become Minister for Lands, before later taking on responsibility for Fisheries. As Minister for Lands Boland introduced a land act in 1939 which reformed land distribution. The act broadened the criteria by which the state could take control over undeveloped land while offering the tenant of the land more favourable terms of compensation. Boland was critical of Lemass' policy of centralising industrial development in Dublin, he instead wished to see a more decentralised economy based around food production. The differing viewpoint caused a rift between Boland and Lemass, but despite this Boland favoured Lemass's policy of state intervention in the economy over Seán MacEntee's more Laissez-faire approach. In 1937 Boland was highly vocal during the drafting of a new constitution of Ireland by Fianna Fáil against any word which would have given the Catholic Church special status, something heavily considered at the time. Boland declared that if the constitution elevated the position of the Catholic Church above others, it would be sectarian, anti-republican, and a hindrance to any prospects of Irish reunification. As a compromise, the term ‘special relationship’ was used in the final version of the draft. Minister for Justice The outbreak of World War II in 1939, known as the Emergency in Ireland, resulted in a number of new cabinet appointments and Boland became Minister for Justice. He took over at a time when the IRA had once again declared war against the British state and had begun their Sabotage Campaign. Boland was charged with the task of crushing the organisation and preventing the IRA from drawing the Irish state into conflict with the UK. Although Boland always considered himself a Republican, he took a hardline against the IRA and used his powers to order the internment of hundreds of IRA members before introducing military courts and special criminal courts. In 1940, a number of imprisoned IRA members went on hunger strike, Boland, however, refused to grant their release. Two of the men eventually died, one of whom was the nephew of one of Boland's Fianna Fáil colleagues. Tony D'Arcy died as a result of a 52 day Hunger-strike (16 April 1940) at the age of 32 and Jack McNeela died three days later (19 April 1940) after 55 days on hunger strike. These deaths sparked reprisals by the IRA on the Garda Síochána. Boland subsequently introduced tougher measures by setting up a military court with the death penalty with no provision for appeal except for a review by the government. In all, twelve men were found guilty with six of them facing death and the remaining six having their sentences changed to imprisonment. Amongst those executed was Charlie Kerins, an acting Chief of Staff of the IRA. As Minister of Justice, Boland was also asked to enforce policies of wartime censorship, however, finding the idea of the state censorship distasteful he established a censorship board to avoid accusations of bias. During the Emergency, Boland was also responsible for the detention of several foreign agents in pursuit of Ireland's strict policy of neutrality. During this time some 500 individuals were interned and 600 were sentenced under the newly introduced Offences against the State Act, 1939. By 1943 the IRA were in disarray, particularly as Chief of Staff after Chief of Staff was arrested and imprisoned, leaving the organisation without leadership. Boland and Fianna Fáil felt their hardline was backed by the electorate following strong returns for the party at the 1944 general election. In 1947, Boland was amongst four leading Fianna Fáil figures (including de Valera) of being involved in the "Locke's Distillery Scandal", an accusation brought by Oliver J. Flanagan that foreign businessmen were bribing members of Fianna Fáil in order to gain the right to purchase the distillery. A tribunal of inquiry found no evidence to support the claims, but nonetheless event tainted the public's view of Fianna Fáil. Second term as Minister of Justice By 1948, Fianna Fáil had been in government for an uninterrupted 16 years. With World War II finally over, the electorate sought change and a fresh start. Arising to meet this desire was the new political party Clann na Poblachta. Led by Seán MacBride, this new party sought to kick off a new post-war political era in Ireland, and to do this meant removing Fianna Fáil from power. Many in Clann na Poblachta had Republican backgrounds and in some ways the party could be partially described as an organic reaction to Fianna Fáil and Boland's hardline stance during the war years. Many in political circles, including inside Fianna Fáil, thought Clann na Poblachta could be a new force to reckon with. However, de Valera always held a reputation for being cunning in selecting the dates of general elections, and he once again cemented that notion when he called for a general election in early 1948, before Clann na Poblachta was completely ready to contest a national election. At the 1948 general election Clann na Poblachta and other Fianna Fáil opponents did well, but not as well as expected. In order to remove Fianna Fáil from government, every single party in the Dáil and a number of independents had to form the unwieldy "First Inter-Party Government". The coalition saw Clann na Poblachta forced to work with Fine Gael, considered the traditional "enemy" of Irish Republicanism. By 1951 the coalition collapsed and Fianna Fáil returned to government following that year's election, with Boland re-appointed Minister for Justice. Later years Boland did not seek ministerial office in 1957 when Fianna Fáil returned to power after its defeat in 1954. However, his son, Kevin, was appointed to the cabinet as Minister for Defence. By this stage, Boland was beginning to be seen as an ageing warhorse, with his base in Roscommon started to slip and Fianna Fáil unhappy that Boland was able to get a Fianna Fáil running mate elected alongside himself. At the 1961 general election, Boland was defeated for the first time in fourteen general election campaigns. In spite of losing his Dáil seat, he subsequently secured election to Seanad Éireann. Four years later in 1965, he returned to the Seanad, this time as a nominee by the Taoiseach Seán Lemass. In 1970, the outbreak of the Arms Crisis saw Kevin Boland resign as a Minister and as Secretary of Fianna Fáil in protest at the government's policy on Northern Ireland and in response to the sackings of Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney from the cabinet over allegations they had arranged for weapons to be provided to the Provisional IRA. Gerald Boland, in a similar protest, resigned as a vice-president and as a trustee of Fianna Fáil, although he remained a member of the party. He also articulated his loss of confidence in the leadership of Taoiseach Jack Lynch. Death Gerald Boland died in Dublin at the age of 87 on 5 January 1973. His wife, Annie Boland, predeceased him in 1970. He was survived by his three daughters and four sons. See also Families in the Oireachtas List of members of the Oireachtas imprisoned during the Irish revolutionary period References 1885 births 1973 deaths Gerald Burials at Glasnevin Cemetery Early Sinn Féin TDs Fianna Fáil TDs Fianna Fáil senators Government Chief Whip (Ireland) Members of the 4th Dáil Members of the 5th Dáil Members of the 6th Dáil Members of the 7th Dáil Members of the 8th Dáil Members of the 9th Dáil Members of the 10th Dáil Members of the 11th Dáil Members of the 12th Dáil Members of the 13th Dáil Members of the 14th Dáil Members of the 15th Dáil Members of the 16th Dáil Members of the 10th Seanad Members of the 11th Seanad Ministers for Justice (Ireland) Nominated members of Seanad Éireann Parliamentary Secretaries of the 7th Dáil Politicians from Dublin (city) People from Manchester

262964

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin%20Boland

Kevin Boland

Kevin Boland (15 October 1917 – 23 September 2001) was an Irish Fianna Fáil politician who served as Leader of Aontacht Éireann from 1971 to 1976, Minister for Social Welfare from 1961 to 1966 and 1969 to 1970, Minister for Local Government from 1966 to 1970 and Minister for Defence from 1957 to 1961. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1957 to 1970. He is one of eight TDs appointed as a Minister at the beginning of their first term in the Dáil. Early life and career Boland was born in Dublin in 1917. He attended St. Joseph's C.B.S. in Fairview, leaving in 1933. He was the son of Gerald Boland, a founder-member of Fianna Fáil, and the nephew of Harry Boland. Despite this, the young Boland failed to get elected to Dáil Éireann on his first two attempts, standing in the Dublin County constituency at the 1951 general election and again at the 1954 general election. Double success followed at the 1957 general election, when he was not only elected to the 16th Dáil but was appointed to the cabinet as Minister for Defence on his very first day in the Dáil. This was due to the retirement of his father who had served in every Fianna Fáil government since 1932. The Defence portfolio was largely considered a safe and uncontroversial position, so Boland made only a small impact. As a Minister, he displayed a fáinne (gold ring) on the lapel of his jacket, which indicated that he was able and willing to speak the Irish language. He frequently conducted his governmental business in Irish, which he was very good at; he had won awards for it in school. In 1961, he was moved from Defence to become the Minister for Social Welfare. He remained there until the retirement in 1966 of the Taoiseach, Seán Lemass, when Fianna Fáil faced the first leadership contest in its history. He was then appointed Minister for Local Government which post he held until he left government in 1970. The leadership race immediately erupted as a two-horse battle between Charles Haughey and George Colley. Both of these men epitomised the new kind of professional politician of the 1960s. Things changed when Neil Blaney indicated his interest in running. Boland supported him in his campaign, as both men hailed from the republican and left wing of the party. There was talk at one point of Boland himself entering the leadership race. In the end Jack Lynch was chosen as a compromise, and he became the new Taoiseach. Boland was appointed as Minister for Local Government in the new government. Arms Crisis In 1969, events in Northern Ireland caused political chaos over the border in Ireland. It was the start of The Troubles in Northern Ireland and Fianna Fáil's policy with regard to the North was coming into question. One crisis meeting was held after another, in which the possibility of decisive action was discussed. The "hawks" in the cabinet urged a symbolic invasion of Northern Ireland to protect nationalists near the border, and to draw international attention, while the "doves", who ultimately prevailed, urged caution. These cabinet meetings were heated events. On one occasion Boland was alleged to have been so angry that he resigned not only his cabinet position but also his Dáil seat and went home to his farm in County Dublin to make hay. The resignations were rejected by the Taoiseach, Jack Lynch, after a calming-down period. In what became known as the Arms Crisis two ministers, Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney, were sacked from the government in May 1970, for allegedly being involved in a plot to import arms for Republicans in the North. Boland resigned in solidarity with them and in protest about the government's position on the North. Later that year his criticism of the Taoiseach (whom Boland and many others within the Party maintained had authorized the arms importation) led to his expulsion from the Fianna Fáil party. Boland resigned as a TD on 4 November 1970. One of Boland's most famous incidents took place at the Fianna Fáil Ardfheis in 1971. Just before Jack Lynch's speech Boland stormed a nearby podium, interrupting Patrick Hillery in the middle of his speech. Boland openly defied the party leadership and his opponents, holding his arms wide open and shouting to the crowd, "Come on up and put me down." While there was a lot of booing and clapping in an effort to drown him out, many of his supporters started cheering and chanting "We want Boland." An enraged Patrick Hillery grabbed his microphone and famously replied, "If you want a fight you can have it … You can have Boland, but you can't have Fianna Fáil." At this point the government supporters went ecstatic with cheering and Boland was carried out of the hall. Political decline and retirement Boland founded his own political party, Aontacht Éireann (Irish Unity) in 1971. It won very little support and Boland himself failed to be elected to the Dáil in 1973, which effectively ended his political career. Boland and his colleagues resigned from the party in 1976 after it was taken over by a number of far-right individuals. He remained an outspoken critic of the Republic's Northern Ireland policy, particularly the Sunningdale Agreement. He made one last attempt to reclaim a Dáil seat, standing unsuccessfully in the Dublin South-West constituency at the 1981 general election. He then retired from public life completely. In 1996, he sued the Irish Independent for libel after a 28 January 1993 article incorrectly stated that he had appeared before the court in the Arms Trial in 1970 and had been dismissed as a Minister by Taoiseach Jack Lynch. He was awarded £75,000 in damages. Kevin Boland died in Dublin on 23 September 2001. Books Boland wrote a series of political books, including his self-published autobiography, Up Dev!: See also Families in the Oireachtas Arms Crisis References 1917 births 2001 deaths Kevin Fianna Fáil TDs Members of the 16th Dáil Members of the 17th Dáil Members of the 18th Dáil Members of the 19th Dáil Politicians from Dublin (city) Ministers for Defence (Ireland) Ministers for Social Affairs (Ireland)

262966

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendan%20Corish

Brendan Corish

Brendan Corish (19 November 1918 – 17 February 1990) was an Irish Labour Party politician who served as Tánaiste and Minister for Health from 1973 to 1977, Leader of the Labour Party, Minister for Social Welfare from 1954 to 1957 and from 1973 to 1977, Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Defence and Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Local Government from 1948 to 1951. He was a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1948 to 1982. Early and personal life He was born at William Street in Wexford town. His father, Richard Corish, a well-known trade union official and Sinn Féin member, had been elected to the Second Dáil shortly after the birth of his son and later joined the Labour Party, serving as a local and national politician until his death in 1945. His mother was Catherine Bergin. He was educated locally at Wexford CBS and, in his youth, was a member of the 1st Wexford Scout troop (Scouting Ireland). At the age of nineteen, he joined the clerical staff of Wexford County Council. He was married to Phyllis, and they had three sons. He spent several years playing Gaelic football for the Wexford county team. Political career Corish was elected to Dáil Éireann as a Labour Party candidate in the Wexford by-election in 1945, necessitated by the death of his father who was the sitting TD. He took a seat on the fractured opposition benches, as Fianna Fáil's grip on power continued. He retained his seat at the 1948 general election in which Fianna Fáil was returned as the largest party in the Dáil once again. However, Fine Gael, the Labour Party, the National Labour Party, Clann na Poblachta, Clann na Talmhan and a number of Independent candidates all came together to form the first inter-party government. Corish was appointed Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministers for Defence and Local Government. When the Second Inter-party Government was formed after the 1954 general election, Corish was appointed Minister for Social Welfare. In 1960 Corish succeeded William Norton as Labour Party leader. He introduced new policies which made the party more socialist in outlook and described the party program as Christian socialist. However, the party moved carefully because 'socialism' was still considered a dirty word in 1960s Ireland. Corish claimed that Ireland would be 'Socialist in the Seventies'. To a certain extent he was right because Fine Gael and the Labour Party formed a coalition government between 1973 and 1977. Corish became Tánaiste and Minister for Health and Social Welfare. In 1977, the Taoiseach Liam Cosgrave called a general election, and Fianna Fáil was returned to power in a landslide victory. Corish resigned as leader of the Labour Party, having signalled his intent to do so before the election. He was succeeded as party leader by Frank Cluskey. Corish retired from politics completely at the February 1982 general election. Death Brendan Corish died on 17 February 1990 in Wexford at the age of 71. Works The New Republic (February 1968) References 1918 births 1990 deaths Irish Christian socialists Irish sportsperson-politicians Labour Party (Ireland) TDs Leaders of the Labour Party (Ireland) Members of the 12th Dáil Members of the 13th Dáil Members of the 14th Dáil Members of the 15th Dáil Members of the 16th Dáil Members of the 17th Dáil Members of the 18th Dáil Members of the 19th Dáil Members of the 20th Dáil Members of the 21st Dáil Members of the 22nd Dáil Ministers for Health (Ireland) Ministers for Social Affairs (Ireland) Parliamentary Secretaries of the 13th Dáil Politicians from County Wexford Presidential appointees to the Council of State (Ireland) Tánaistí People from Wexford, County Wexford Wexford inter-county Gaelic footballers

262977

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant%20Nieuwenhuys

Constant Nieuwenhuys

Constant Anton Nieuwenhuys (21 July 1920 – 1 August 2005), better known as Constant, was a Dutch painter, sculptor, graphic artist, author and musician. Early period Constant was born in Amsterdam on 21 July 1920 as the first son of Pieter Nieuwenhuijs and Maria Cornelissen. Their second son, Jan Nieuwenhuys, was born a year later. Both sons became artists although their parents had no apparent interest in art. As a young child Constant drew passionately and showed great talent. He read literature with a special preference for poetry and played musical instruments. During his teenage years he learned to sing and to read music while in the church choir at the Ignatius Gymnasium, a prestigious Jesuit school in Amsterdam. In his later years, greatly inspired by gypsy music, he only played improvised music. He played guitar, violin and at 45 years of age also mastered playing the cimbalon. Constant painted his first oil painting, De Emmaüsgangers, at age sixteen. It depicted the revelation of Jesus to two of his followers in Emmaus. With no money to buy materials he painted this painting on a jute sugar bag with pigments he had bought from a house painter. Many of Constant's early drawings and paintings are religiously inspired, due to his Jesuit schooling. Yet at the age of twenty Constant turned his back on Catholicism. After one year studying at the Kunstnijverheidsschool (Arts and Crafts School), Constant attended the Rijksakademie voor Beeldende Kunst (State Academy of Fine Arts) from 1939 to 1941. This education in craftmanship was put to use especially during his "New Babylon" period, when Constant built many constructions and models. Constant lived and worked in Bergen from 1941 to 1943. Through the Bergense School he was introduced to the work of Paul Cézanne, which impacted him deeply, as evident in Zelfportret (Self Portrait), 1942. On 13 July 1942 he married Matie van Domselaer, the daughter of the composer Jakob van Domselaer. The city of Bergen was evacuated by the Germans in 1943 and so Constant and Matie moved back to Amsterdam. During this period Constant went into hiding and refrained from registering at the Kulturkammer (Nazi Chamber of Culture) to avoid the Arbeitseinsatz (labour supply for the Germans). Because of this he was unable to conventionally exercise his craft or to buy art supplies. To paint Constant used tablecloths and bed linen and had to rinse them out to start again. During the war Constant's brother in law, Jaap van Domselaer, moved into the apartment to hide from the 'Arbeitseinsatz.' He introduced Constant to Plato, Spinoza, Descartes, Kant, Hegel and Marx. Especially the latter provided great inspiration to Constant regarding his later ideas on art and society. During the winter famine of 1944 Constant's first son, Victor Nieuwenhuys, was born. After the war, Constant, his wife and son moved back to Bergen only to return to Amsterdam in 1946 where they lived in an apartment across from the zoo Artis. When the war ended Constant was able to expand and grow as an artist after years of captivity and limitations. He liberated himself artistically and experimented with multiple techniques of art-making. He was inspired by Cubism, especially by Georges Braque. In 1946 his daughter Martha was born, followed by his daughter Olga in 1948. CoBrA In 1946 Constant travelled to Paris for the first time where he met the young Danish painter Asger Jorn. The friendship between Jorn and Constant later formed the basis for the avant-garde movement CoBrA. July 1948 Constant founded Reflex with Corneille, Karel Appel and his brother Jan Nieuwenhuys. The first edition of the magazine Reflex was published with a manifesto written by Constant. For Constant art had to be experimental. He had deducted this from the French word 'expérience' and believed that art springs from experience of the artist and is continuously changing. In the manifesto he stated that the process of creation is more important to the experimental artist than the work itself; it is a means to reach spiritual and mental enrichment. Also, the work of experimental artists is a mirror image of changes in the general perception of beauty. Constant, Corneille and Appel, three totally different characters and artists, were united in their quest for innovation. They exhibited their work together and were often seen together in the European art scene. The wanderlust of the three is especially notorious. Later in the year 1948 on the terrace of café Notre Dame in Paris the Experimentele Groep in Holland linked up with Christian Dotremont and Joseph Noiret from Belgium and Asger Jorn from Denmark to form CoBrA, a name which was made by Dotremont, formed by the first letters of their hometowns: Copenhagen, Brussels and Amsterdam. The members opposed aesthetics in painting and bourgeois art in general. Constant had already outlined their ideas in his manifesto in Reflex magazine. This manifesto contains another of his famous quotes: "A painting is not a structure of colours and lines, but an animal, a night, a cry, a man, or all of these together". Constant was productive during the CoBrA period. White Bird (1948), Ladder (1949) and Scorched Earth I (1951) are some of his noted works from this period. At this time CoBrA published bulletin additional artists from several different disciplines joined their ranks. In 1948 Constant, together with poet Gerrit Kouwenaar, published a poetry album Goede Morgen Haan. Additionally there were two large CoBrA exhibitions, one in Amsterdam in 1949 and one in Liège in 1951. The director of the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam (Municipal Museum of Amsterdam), Willem Sandberg, was very supportive of young artists and fully supported the CoBrA group by giving them seven large rooms to exhibit their work in. Most of the CoBrA works had been fairly small due to their lack of money and so Sandberg gave the artists an advance to create some larger works in the week before the exhibition. Constant, Corneille, Appel and Eugène Brands created several large pieces of art that have become iconic for the movement. The architect Aldo van Eyck was commissioned to shape the exhibition. The works of art as well as the way they were presented give rise to harsh critique from press and public. A critic from Het Vrije Volk wrote: "Geklad, geklets en geklodder in het Stedelijk Museum" ("Smirch, twaddle and mess in the Municipal Museum"). The CoBrA artists were considered scribblers and con artists. In the Liège exhibition in 1951, even larger than the Stedelijk exhibition, the CoBrA group dissolved itself and with its tenth edition bulletin publication. As Christian Dotremont, the international secretary, stated in Museum News in 1962 the group would rather "mourir en beauté" (die in beauty) than become a regular artist interest group. Situationist International After CoBrA Constant's work became more abstract. Back in Amsterdam in the summer of 1952 he developed an interest in spatial architecture and three-dimensional works. With Aldo van Eyck, whom he met during his CoBrA time, he created a space for the exhibition 'Man and House' at the Urban Museum Amsterdam from 1952-1953. In 1954 he worked on a project with Gerrit Rietveld. Together they created a model house for warehouses de Bijenkorf. In 1952 Constant received a scholarship from the Arts Council of Great Britain to study in London for three months. There he met, amongst others, Henry Moore, Anthony Hill, Kenneth Martin, Ben Nicholson, Barbara Hepworth, Roger Hilton and Victor Pasmore. He found the art climate in London very welcoming. As opposed to Paris, Constant felt that art was judged more objectively. At that time Constant lived near Kensington Gardens and as he walked through the bombed city every day he started to wonder how people live and how cities should be built. His stay in London raised his awareness of how the constructions that surround us influence us. He felt that the constructions of his time were mostly practical, immensely dull and provided no room to develop playful and creative lifestyles. In the summer of 1956 Asger Jorn invited Constant to Alba, Piedmont, Italy, for a congress dedicated to 'Industry and the Fine Arts' initiated by 'Mouvement pour un Bauhaus Imaginiste' (International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus). At this congress Constant presented his lecture Demain la poésie logera la vie in which he pleaded for a free architecture which could stimulate a creative lifestyle rather than impede it.In 1952 Debord had founded the Lettrist International for which he was a writer, filmmaker and strategic activist. The 'Lettrist International' were also at the Alba congress and they pleaded for a unitary urbanism (the synthesis of art and technology). Later that year Constant visited Debord in Alba, which proved to be an inspiration for both. Debord wanted to establish an even more radical movement which would totally abandon the arena of fine art while solely focusing on questions of psychogeography, a total dissolution of boundaries between art and life. In 1957 he and Asger Jorn brought together the International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus and the Lettrist International by establishing Situationist International. They specifically denied their status as an art movement. Constant did not join SI at that time. He objected to the SI on the ground that the movement seemed to be established mainly by artists who have their own interest at heart more than a common goal. When SI openly pleaded for 'unitary urbanism', as defined by Constant and Debord, Constant joined. An intensive correspondence between him and Debord followed. Constant wrote several theoretical articles for the French SI journal and staged events at several museums in Paris as well as the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, where he showed his New Babylon series in 1959. The success of the New Babylon show in 1959 prompted SI to plan a group exhibition there in April–May 1960. This exhibition would never take place. Disagreements in the group resulted in a split and several expulsions. In 1960 Constant left the group for the same reason he initially objected to joining. By 1961 no one remained of the original artistic core or tendency except Debord himself. though members more allied to the SI's political tendency remained. New Babylon Back in Amsterdam after his stay in London, Nieuwenhuys started to focus mainly on architecture and the urban environment. The focal point of his work was finding out what potential added value art can provide in intensifying daily life, in which there is room for creative expression. He abandoned painting to work solely on his New Babylon project from 1956 to 1974. With New Babylon Nieuwenhuys envisioned a "world wide city for the future" where land is owned collectively, work is fully automated and the need to work replaced with a nomadic life of creative play. New Babylon is inhabited by homo ludens, who, freed from labor, will not have to make art, for he can be creative in the daily practice of his life. In Nieuwenhuys' own words: The project of New Babylon only intends to give the minimum conditions for a behaviour that must remain as free as possible. Any restriction of the freedom of movement, any limitation with regard to the creation of mood and atmosphere, has to be avoided. Everything has to remain possible, all is to happen, the environment has to be created by the activity of life, and not inversely. The New Babylon project consisted of a series of models, constructions, maquettes, collages, drawings, graphics and texts expressing Constant's theories of urban development and social interaction. A few examples of spatial constructions for which he used modern materials like stainless steel, aluminum and perspex are Het Ruimtecircus (1956) (Spatial Circus) and Het Zonneschip (1956) (Sunvessel). In 1974 the New Babylon project officially came to an end with a large exhibition in the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. Because he lacked room to store the vast collection of constructions, maquettes, maps and structures he sold them all to the museum. In 1999 Constant's New Babylon: City for Another Life, opened at the Drawing Center in New York. It was his first solo exhibition in the United States and was curated by Mark Wigley. There was a symposium conducted in conjunction with the exhibition. According to the Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas, Nieuwenhuys has made a lot of architects think with his New Babylon: "He was an example of courage". Colorism Constant returned to painting, watercoloring and graphics in 1969. Until the mid-1970s, the subjects of his imaginary world New Babylon still crowded his work. However, more and more, he was inspired by contemporary and political issues, including such things as the Vietnam War, African famine and Kosovo refugees. Marxism was a strong influence. Rudi Fuchs said in his foreword to the Catalogue of Constant Paintings in 1995: "there are people who consider Constant's later work as a return to tradition. I, however, do not share this opinion. Because I consider his later development from the 1970s as greater penetration into the garden of painting." In the tradition of the Venetian Renaissance painters, Titian and Tintoretto, Constant applied himself to the technique of colorism. Following this technique the artist doesn't make use of charcoal or pencil sketches but applies colour directly on the canvas with the paintbrush, constructing soft transitions instead of sharp contours. The most important feature of this technique is the way light is expressed in the painting by integrating it into the colour. This technique is laborious. The painting comes to life layer by layer. Constant painted with oil on canvas and every layer he applied then needed to dry. In this period Constant produced a mere three to four paintings per year. Public space In 1949 Constant decorated a garden wall in Tibirkelunde, Sjelland, Denmark. In 1963 The Gate of Constant was placed at the entry of a sports park in the west side of Amsterdam. Constant designed the forty-foot-high concrete structure as a commission for the Municipality of Amsterdam. For almost three decades the structure adorned the entry in anonymity until Rita Doets, a former employee of the municipality, left money in her legacy to construct an information sign next to the gate. Constant's widow, Trudy Nieuwenhuijs, was present at the inauguration. In 1966 Constant designed a fountain for the Kooiplein in Leiden. For years the structure didn't function and slowly withered. When the square was redesigned in 1999, the fountain was repaired. New equipment made sure that the shoppers were not bothered by the water. Death Constant died on 1 August 2005 and was survived by his son and his three daughters, and by his widow and her daughter. Films Gyromorphosis (1958), 7 min - In Gyromorphosis, film maker Hy Hirsh strives to display the kinetic qualities of the New Babylon structures of Constant Nieuwenhuys. One by one he puts parts of the structures in motion and films the details with colored lighting having them overlap each other, appear and disappear. He creates a sensation of acceleration and suspense suggested by the work itself. Accompanying Simon Vinkenoog to Constant's New Babylon (1962), 15 min - Lies Westenburg visits Constant at his studio with writer Simon Vinkenoog. Simon Vinkenoog and Constant discuss the ideas behind the New Babylon project. Constant oder der Weg nach New Babylon (1968), 55 min - For ten years Constant worked on his New Babylon project as a reaction to the architectural and social reality. Film maker Carlheinz Caspari follows Constant and his visions. Cobra, a revolt against order (1986), 50 min - Documentary by Jan Vrijman about the meaning and influence of the COBRA group, then and now. Constant, Avant le Départ (2005), 82 min - Constant died in the summer of 2005. Thomas Doebele and Maarten Schmidt filmed the artist during the last months of his life. They followed him and his dog, Tikus, on their daily stroll to the artist's studio, where he finished his last painting Le Piège. New Babylon de Constant (2005), 13 min - New Babylon visually captured by Constant's son Victor Nieuwenhuijs and Maartje Seyfert. Exhibitions This is an incomplete list of Constant's exhibitions over the years: 1940 at the Aalderink art gallery in Amsterdam (together with Hans Wiesman, first exhibition for Constant) 1947 Santee Landweer art gallery in Amsterdam (first solo exhibition for Constant) 1953 For a spatial colorisme in the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam Constant with Aldo van Eijck 1956 XXVIII Esposizione Biennale Internazionale d'Arte, Venice 1959 II. Documenta, Kassel 1959 Constant. Constructions and models Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam 1961 Niw (sic!) Babylon in the Stedelijk Museum Schiedam 1964 4. Documenta, Kassel 1964 Académie Royale, Kopenhagen 1964–1965 '45-'85 Gemeentemuseum Den Haag 1966 New Babylon at the Biennale of Venice (Constant represented the Netherlands) 1967 New Babylon in Kunstnernes Hus, Oslo 1974 New Babylon, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag 1974–1975 Constant. An illustration of freedom [drawings 1945-74], Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam 1978 Constant. Paintings 1969-77, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam 1980 Constant. Paintings 1940-1980, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag 1985 Work from the period 1975-1985, Centraal Museum in Utrecht 1985 Arbeiten auf Papier 1948-1985, in Kultur-historischen Museum der Stadt Bielefeldt 1986 Constant 1945-1983, Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn 1993 Constant. Drawings, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag 1994 Constant. Models / Constructions, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag 1994–1995 Constant. Œuvreprijs 1994, Chabot Museum, Rotterdam 1996 Constant: paintings 1948-1995, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam & Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum Ålborg 1997 Situacionistes. Art, politica, urbanisme, Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona (MACBA) 1998 Constant, etchings and lithographs, Museo de Bellas Artes de Caracas, Venezuela 1998–1999 Constant - New Babylon, Witte de With (Centrum voor hedendaagse kunst), Rotterdam 1999 Another City for Another Life: Constant's New Babylon, The Drawing Center, New York 2001 Constant, une rétrospective, Musée Picasso Antibes 2002 Constant. New Babylon, Documenta 11, Platform 5, Kassel Hauptbahnhof 2004 Constant graphic, Cobra Museum 2005–2006 Tribute to Constant, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag 2006 Play! The art of play, Cobra Museum 2008–2009 Constant. In his studio, Stedelijk Museum Schiedam 2009 Time as Matter. MACBA collection. New Acquisitions, Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona 2009 Intensely Dutch, Art Gallery of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia 2011 Klee und Cobra. Ein Kinderspiel, Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, Switzerland 2012 Klee and Cobra. A Child's Play'', Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebaek and Cobra Museum Public collections Constant's artworks can be found in the following public collections. Dutch museums Amsterdam Museum (formerly known as Amsterdam's Historical Museum) Bonnefanten Museum, Maastricht Centraal Museum, Utrecht Cobra Museum for modern art, Amstelveen Gemeentemuseum Den Haag Groninger museum Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo Museum Boijmans van Beuningen, Rotterdam Rijksmuseum – Rijksprentenkabinet, Amsterdam Rijksmuseum Twenthe, Enschede Stadsgalerij Heerlen Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam Stedelijk Museum Schiedam Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven European museums Centre Georges Pompidou, Musée National dʼart moderne, Paris, France FRAC - le fonds régional dʼart contemporain et architecture de recherche - Orléans, France Krefelder Kunstmusea, Kaiser Wilhelm Museum, Krefeld, Germany Kunstmuseum Bochum, Bochum, Germany Kunsthalle in Emden, Germany Kunsten Museum of Modern Art Aalborg/Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum, Denmark Lehmbruck-Museum, Duisburg, Germany MACBA, Spain Museum Jorn, Silkeborg, Denmark Staatliche Museen, Neue Nationalgalerie, Berlin, Germany Tate Gallery, London Tate Modern, London Museums outside Europe MoAFL, Museum of Art Fort Lauderdale, US SFMOMA, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, US Awards This is a list of awards granted to Constant. 1960 Sikkens Award (together with Aldo van Eyck) 1966 Premio Cardazzo at the Venice Biennale 1971 Royal decoration of 'Knight of the Order of Orange-Nassau' (refused) 1974 David Röell Award for his work as a draughtsman 1985 Singer Award for his entire body of work 1991 Resistance Award of the Foundation Artist Resistance 1942-1945 1994 Oeuvre Award from Foundation Fund for Fine Arts, Design & Engineering Further reading This list does not include Constant's own writings. Klee and Cobra. A Child's Play. Michael Baumgartner en Kirsten Degel, Ludion, Amsterdam, 2012 Constant. The late period. Trudy van der Horst, BnM publishers, 2008 In Girum Imus Nocte et Consumimur Igni. The Situationist International (1957–1972). JRP|Ringier, Zürich, 2006 Constant. Grafics. Waanders uitgevers/Editions Cercle d'Art, Zwolle/Paris, 2004 CoBrA. The color of freedom. The Schiedam collection. NAi publishers, Rotterdam, 2003 Après nous la Liberté. Constant and the artistic avant-garde in 1946-1960. Marcel Hummelink, academic thesis privately published, 2002 The Activist Drawing Retracing. Situationist Architectures from Constant's New Babylon to Beyond. Edited by Catherine de Zegher and Mark Wigley, The Drawing Center, New York, 2001 Constant. Une rétrospective. Musée Picasso, Antibe, 2001 Constant. L'atelier d'Amsterdam. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 2000 The Child in Cobra. Cobra Museum for modern art, Amstelveen, 2000 Constant's New Babylon. The hyper-architecture of desire. Mark Wigley, Zero, Rotterdam, 1998 The A of COBRA in word en image. 50 years Cobra. Jaski Art Gallery, Amsterdam, 1998 Cobra. Copenhague. Bruxelles. Amsterdam. Art éxperimental 1948-1951. Musée cantonal des Beaux-Arts et Hirmer Verlag, Munich, 1997 Constant. Schilderijen/Paintings 1948-195. Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, 1996 Constant. Aquarellen/Watercolors 1975-1995. Haags Gemeentemuseum, 1996 Constant. Les Aquarelles. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 1994 Cobra. Richard Miller, Nouvelles Éditions Françaises, Paris, 1994 Constant. Les trois escpaces. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 1992 New Babylon. Constant. Art et Utopie. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 1992 Documents Relatifs À La Fondation De L'Internationale Situationiste 1948-1957. Éditions Allia, Paris, 1985 Cobra 1948-1951. Éditions Jean-Michel Place, Paris, 1980 Cobra. History, foreplay and meaning of a movement in art after the second world war. Willemijn Stokvis, De Bezige Bij, Amsterdam, 1980 References External links website bij Constant's son and his film 'New Babylon de Constant', bio with photos management foundation Stichting "Fondation Constant" with bio and photos Constants works and photos at 'not bored' a situationist site Interview with Constant, 2003 Constants works at Tate Galery Constant texts on New Babylon a situationist site 1920 births 2005 deaths Painters from Amsterdam Situationists 20th-century Dutch painters Dutch male painters Dutch contemporary artists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Sesame%20Street

History of Sesame Street

The preschool educational television program Sesame Street was first aired on public television stations on November 10, 1969, and reached its 52nd season in 2021. The history of Sesame Street has reflected changing attitudes to developmental psychology, early childhood education, and cultural diversity. Featuring Jim Henson's Muppets, animation, live shorts, humor and celebrity appearances, it was the first television program of its kind to base its content and production values on laboratory and formative research, and the first to include a curriculum "detailed or stated in terms of measurable outcomes". Initial responses to the show included adulatory reviews, some controversy and high ratings. By its 40th anniversary in 2009, Sesame Street was broadcast in over 120 countries, and 20 independent international versions had been produced. It has won eleven Grammys and over 150 Emmys in its history—more than any other children's show. The show was conceived in 1966 during discussions between television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and Carnegie Corporation vice president Lloyd Morrisett. Their goal was to create a children's television show that would "master the addictive qualities of television and do something good with them", such as helping young children prepare for school. After two years of research, the newly formed Children's Television Workshop (CTW) received a combined grant of $8 million from the Carnegie Corporation, the Ford Foundation and the U.S. federal government to create and produce a new children's television show. By the show's tenth anniversary in 1979, nine million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily, and several studies showed it was having a positive educational impact. The cast and crew expanded during this time, including the hiring of women in the crew and additional minorities in the cast. In 1981, the federal government withdrew its funding, so the CTW turned to other sources, such as its magazine division, book royalties, product licensing and foreign income. During the 1980s, Sesame Streets curriculum expanded to include topics such as relationships, ethics and emotions. Many of the show's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff, cast and crew, most notably the death of Will Lee—who played Mr. Hooper—and the marriage of Luis and Maria. In recent decades, Sesame Street has faced societal and economic challenges, including changes in the viewing habits of young children, more competition from other shows, the development of cable television and a drop in ratings. After the turn of the 21st century, the show made major structural adaptations, including changing its traditional magazine format to a narrative format. Because of the popularity of the Muppet Elmo, the show incorporated a popular segment known as "Elmo's World". In late 2015, in response to "sweeping changes in the media business", HBO began airing first-run episodes of Sesame Street. Episodes became available on PBS stations and websites nine months after they aired on HBO. As of its 50th anniversary in 2019, Sesame Street has produced over 4,500 episodes, 35 TV specials, 200 home videos, and 180 albums. Its YouTube channel had almost 5 million subscribers, and the show had 24 million followers on social media. Background In the late 1960s, 97% of all American households owned a television set, and preschool children watched an average of 27 hours of television per week; programs created for them were widely criticized for being too violent and for reflecting commercial values. Producer Joan Ganz Cooney called children's programming a "wasteland", and she was not alone in her criticism. Many children's television programs were produced by local stations, with little regard for educational goals, or cultural diversity. As writer David Borgenicht stated, the use of children's programming as an educational tool was "unproven" and "a revolutionary concept". According to children's media experts Edward Palmer and Shalom M. Fisch, children's television programs of the 1950s and 1960s duplicated "prior media forms". For example, they tended to show simple shots of a camera's-eye view of a location filled with children, or they recreated storybooks with shots of book covers and motionless illustrated pages. The hosts of these programs were "insufferably condescending", though one exception was Captain Kangaroo, created and hosted by Bob Keeshan, which author Michael Davis described as having a "slower pace and idealism" that most other children's shows lacked. Early childhood educational research had shown that when children were prepared to succeed in school, they earned higher grades and learned more effectively. Children from low-income families had fewer resources than children from higher-income families to prepare them for school. Research had shown that children from low-income, minority backgrounds tested "substantially lower" than middle-class children in school-related skills, and that they continued to have educational deficits throughout school. The field of developmental psychology had grown during this period, and scientists were beginning to understand that changes in early childhood education could increase children's cognitive growth. Because of these trends in education, along with the great societal changes occurring in the United States during this era, the time was ripe for the creation of a show like Sesame Street. Pre-production (1966–1969) Beginnings Since 1962, Cooney had been producing talk shows and documentaries at educational television station WNDT, and in 1966 had won an Emmy for a documentary about poverty in America. In early 1966, Cooney and her husband Tim hosted a dinner party at their apartment in New York; experimental psychologist Lloyd Morrisett, who has been called Sesame Street's "financial godfather", and his wife Mary were among the guests. Cooney's boss, Lewis Freedman, whom Cooney called "the grandfather of Sesame Street", also attended the party, as did their colleague Anne Bower. As a vice-president at the Carnegie Corporation, Morrisett had awarded several million dollars in grants to organizations that educated poor and minority preschool children. Morrisett and the other guests felt that even with limited resources, television could be an effective way to reach millions of children. A few days after the dinner party, Cooney, Freedman, and Morrisett met at the Carnegie Corporation's offices to make plans; they wanted to harness the addictive power of television for their own purposes, but did not yet know how. The following summer, despite Cooney's lack of experience in the field of education, Morrisett hired her to conduct research on childhood development, education and media, and she visited experts in these fields across the United States and Canada. She researched their ideas about the viewing habits of young children and wrote a report on her findings. Cooney's study, titled "The Potential Uses of Television for Preschool Education", spelled out how television could be used to help young children, especially from low-income families, prepare for school. The focus on the new show was on children from disadvantaged backgrounds, but Cooney and the show's creators recognized that in order to achieve the kind of success they wanted, it had to be equally accessible to children of all socio-economic and ethnic backgrounds. At the same time, they wanted to make the show so appealing to inner-city children that it would help them learn as much as children with more educational opportunities. Cooney proposed that public television, even though it had a poor track record in attracting inner-city audiences, could be used to improve the quality of children's programming. She suggested using the television medium's "most engaging traits", including high production values, sophisticated writing, and quality film and animation, to reach the largest audience possible. In the words of critic Peter Hellman, "If [children] could recite Budweiser jingles from TV, why not give them a program that would teach the ABCs and simple number concepts?" Cooney wanted to create a program that would spread values favoring education to nonviewers—including their parents and older siblings, who tended to control the television set. To this end, she suggested that humor directed toward adults be included, which, as Lesser reported, "may turn out to be a pretty good system in forcing the young child to stretch to understand programs designed for older audiences". Cooney also believed cultural references and guest appearances by celebrities would encourage parents and older siblings to watch the show together. Development As a result of Cooney's proposal, the Carnegie Corporation awarded her a $1 million grant in 1968 to establish the Children's Television Workshop (CTW) to provide support to the creative staff of the new show. Morrisett, who was responsible for fundraising, procured additional grants from the United States federal government, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, and the Ford Foundation for the CTW's initial budget, which totaled $8 million; obtaining funding from this combination of government agencies and private foundations protected the CTW from economic pressures experienced by commercial networks. Sesame Street was an expensive program to produce because the creators decided they needed to compete with other programs that invested in professional, high quality production. The producers spent eighteen months preparing the new show, something unprecedented in children's television. The show had a budget of $28,000 per episode. After being named executive director of the CTW, Cooney began to assemble a team of producers: Jon Stone was responsible for writing, casting, and format; David Connell took over animation and volume; and Samuel Gibbon served as the show's chief liaison between the production staff and the research team. Stone, Connell, and Gibbon had worked on Captain Kangaroo together, but were not involved in children's television when Cooney recruited them. At first, Cooney planned to divide the show's production of five episodes a week among several teams, but she was advised by CBS vice-president Mike Dann to use only one. This production team was led by Connell, who had gained experience producing many episodes in a short period of time, a process called "volume production", during his eleven years working on Captain Kangaroo. The CTW hired Harvard University professor Gerald S. Lesser to design the show's educational objectives and establish and lead a National Board of Advisers. Instead of providing what Lesser called "window dressing", the Board actively participated in the construction of educational goals and creative methods. At the Board's direction, Lesser conducted five three-day curriculum planning seminars in Boston and New York City in summer 1968. The purpose of the seminars was to ascertain which school-preparation skills to emphasize in the new show. The producers gathered professionals with diverse backgrounds to obtain ideas for educational content. They reported that the seminars were "widely successful", and resulted in long and detailed lists of possible topics for inclusion in the Sesame Street curriculum; in fact, the seminars produced more suggested educational objectives than could ever be addressed by one television series. Instead of focusing on the social and emotional aspects of development, the producers decided to follow the suggestions of the seminar participants and emphasize cognitive skills, a decision they felt was warranted by the demands of school and the wishes of parents. The objectives developed during the seminars were condensed into key categories: symbolic representation, cognitive processes, and the physical and social environment. The seminars set forth the new show's policy about race and social issues and provided the show's production and creative team with "a crash course" in psychology, child development, and early childhood education. They also marked the beginning of Jim Henson's involvement in Sesame Street. Cooney met Henson at one of the seminars; Stone, who was familiar with Henson's work, felt that if they could not bring him on board, they should "make do without puppets". The producers and writers decided to build the new show around a brownstone or an inner-city street, a choice Davis called "unprecedented". Stone was convinced that in order for inner-city children to relate to Sesame Street, it needed to be set in a familiar place. Despite its urban setting, the producers decided to avoid depicting more negativity than what was already present in the child's environment. Lesser commented, "[despite] all its raucousness and slapstick humor, Sesame Street became a sweet show, and its staff maintains that there is nothing wrong in that". The new show was called the "Preschool Educational Television Show" in promotional materials; the producers were unable to agree on a name they liked and waited until the last minute to make a decision. In a short, irreverent promotional film shown to public television executives, the producers parodied their "naming dilemma". The producers were reportedly "frantic for a title"; they finally settled on the name that they least disliked: Sesame Street, inspired by Ali Baba's magical phrase, although there were concerns that it would be too difficult for young children to pronounce. Stone was one of the producers who disliked the name, but, he said, "I was outvoted, for which I'm deeply grateful". The responsibility of casting for Sesame Street fell to Jon Stone, who set out to form a cast where white actors were in the minority. He did not begin auditions until spring 1969, several weeks before five test shows were due to be produced. He filmed the auditions, and Palmer took them into the field to test children's reactions. The actors who received the "most enthusiastic thumbs up" were cast. For example, Loretta Long was chosen to play Susan when the children who saw her audition stood up and sang along with her rendition of "I'm a Little Teapot". Stone reported that casting was the only aspect that was "just completely haphazard". Most of the cast and crew found jobs on Sesame Street through personal relationships with Stone and the other producers. Stone hired Bob McGrath (an actor and singer best known at the time for his appearances on Mitch Miller's sing-along show on NBC) to play Bob, Will Lee to play Mr. Hooper, and Garrett Saunders to play Gordon. Use of research in production Sesame Street was the first children's television program that used a curriculum with clear and measurable outcomes, and was the first to use research in the creation of the show's design and content. Research in Sesame Street had three functions: to test if the show was appealing to children, to discover what could be done to make the show more appealing, and to report to the public and the investors what impact the show had on its young viewers. Ten to fifteen percent of the show's initial budget of $8 million was devoted to research, and researchers were always present in the studio during the show's filming. A "Writer's Notebook" was developed to assist writers and producers in translating the research and production goals into televised material; this connected the show's curriculum goals and its script development. The Muppet characters were created to fill specific curriculum needs: Oscar the Grouch, for example, was designed to teach children about their positive and negative emotions. Lesser called the collaboration between researchers and producers, as well as the idea of using television as an educational tool, the "CTW model". Cooney agreed, commenting, "From the beginning, we—the planners of the project—designed the show as an experimental research project with educational advisers, researchers, and television producers collaborating as equal partners". The producers of Sesame Street believed education through television was possible if they captured and sustained children's attention; this meant the show needed a strong appeal. Edward Palmer, the CTW's first Director of Research and the man Cooney credited with building the CTW's foundation of research, was one of the few academics in the late 1960s researching children's television. He was recruited by the CTW to test if the curricula developed in the Boston seminars were reaching their audience effectively. Palmer was also tasked with designing and executing the CTW's in-house research and with working with the Educational Testing Service (ETS). His research was so crucial to Sesame Street that Gladwell asserted, "... without Ed Palmer, the show would have never lasted through the first season". Palmer and his team's approach to researching the show's effectiveness was innovative; it was the first time formative research was conducted in this way. For example, Palmer developed "the distractor", which he used to test if the material shown on Sesame Street captured young viewers' attention. Two children at a time were brought into the laboratory; they were shown an episode on a television monitor and a slide show next to it. The slides would change every seven seconds, and researchers recorded when the children's attention was diverted away from the episode. They were able to record almost every second of Sesame Street this way; if the episode captured the children's interest 80–90% of the time, the producers would air it, but if it only tested 50%, they would reshoot. By the fourth season of the show, the episodes rarely tested below 85%. July 1969 test episodes During the production of Sesame Street's first season, producers created five one-hour episodes to test the show's appeal to children and examine their comprehension of the material. Not intended for broadcast, they were presented to preschoolers in 60 homes throughout Philadelphia and in day care centers in New York City in July 1969. The results were "generally very positive"; children learned from the shows, their appeal was high, and their attention was sustained over the full hour. However, the researchers found that although children's attention was high during the Muppet segments, their interest wavered during the "Street" segments, when no Muppets were on screen. This was because the producers had followed the advice of child psychologists who were concerned that children would be confused if human actors and Muppets were shown together. As a result of this decision, the appeal of the test episodes was lower than the target. The Street scenes, as Palmer described them, were "the glue" that "pulled the show together", so producers knew they needed to make significant changes. On the basis of their experience on Captain Kangaroo, Cannell, Stone, and Gibbon thought the experts' opinions were "nonsense"; Cooney agreed. Lesser called their decision to defy the recommendations of their advisers "a turning point in the history of Sesame Street". The producers reshot the Street segments; Henson and his coworkers created Muppets that could interact with the human actors, specifically Oscar the Grouch and Big Bird, who became two of the show's most enduring characters. In addition, the producers found Saunders' role as Gordon not to be as likable by children watching the show, resulting in the character being recast by Matt Robinson, who was initially the show's filmed segments producer. These test episodes were directly responsible for what Gladwell called "the essence of Sesame Street—the artful blend of fluffy monsters and earnest adults". Premiere and first season (1969–1970) Two days before the show's premiere, a thirty-minute preview entitled This Way to Sesame Street aired on NBC. The show was financed by a $50,000 grant from Xerox. Written by Stone and produced by CTW publicist Bob Hatch, it was taped the day before it aired. Newsday called the preview "a unique display of cooperation between commercial and noncommercial broadcasters". Sesame Street Season 1 premiered November 10, 1969. It was widely praised for its originality, and was well received by parents as well as children. The show reached only 67.6% of the nation, but earned a 3.3 Nielsen rating, meaning 1.9 million households and 7 million children watched it each day. In Sesame Street's first season, the ETS reported that children who watched the show scored higher in tests than less-frequent viewers. In November 1970, the cover of Time magazine featured Big Bird, who had received more fan mail than any of the show's human hosts. The magazine declared, "... It is not only the best children's show in TV history, it is one of the best parents' shows as well". An executive at ABC, while recognizing that Sesame Street was not perfect, said the show "opened children's TV to taste and wit and substance" and "made the climate right for improvement". Other reviewers predicted commercial television would be forced to improve its children's programming, something that did not substantially occur until the 1990s. Sesame Street won a Peabody Award, three Emmys, and the Prix Jeunesse award in 1970. President Richard Nixon sent Cooney a congratulatory letter, and Dr. Benjamin Spock predicted the program would result in "better-trained citizens, fewer unemployables in the next generation, fewer people on welfare, and smaller jail populations". Sesame Street was not without its detractors; there was little criticism of the show in the months following its premiere, but it increased at the end of its first season and beginning of the second season. In May 1970, a state commission in Mississippi voted to not air the show on the state's newly launched public television network, which at the time had only one station in Jackson. A member of the commission leaked the vote to The New York Times, stating that "Mississippi was not yet ready" for the show's integrated cast. A commercial television station in Jackson picked up the show instead. Cooney called the ban "a tragedy for both the white and black children of Mississippi". The state commission reversed its decision three weeks later after the vote made national news. The producers of Sesame Street made a few changes in its second season. Segments that featured children became more spontaneous and allowed more impromptu dialogue, even when it meant cutting other segments. Since federal funds had been used to produce the show, more segments of the population insisted upon being represented on Sesame Street; for example, the show was criticized by Hispanic groups for the lack of Latino characters in the early years of production. A committee of Hispanic activists, commissioned by the CTW in 1970, called Sesame Street "racist" and said the show's bilingual aspects were of "poor quality and patronizing". The CTW responded to these critics by hiring Hispanic actors, production staff, and researchers. By the mid-70s, Morrow reported that "the show included Chicano and Puerto Rican cast members, films about Mexican holidays and foods, and cartoons that taught Spanish words". While New York Magazine reported criticism of the presence of strong single women in the show, organizations like the National Organization for Women (NOW) expressed concerns that the show needed to be "less male-oriented". For example, members of NOW took exception to the character Susan, who was originally a housewife. They complained about the lack of, as Morrow put it, "credible female Muppets" on the show; Morrow reported that Henson's response was that "women might not be strong enough to hold the puppets over the long hours of taping". The show's producers responded by making Susan a nurse and by hiring a female writer. 1970s By the mid-1970s, Sesame Street, according to Davis, had become "an American institution". ETS conducted two "landmark" studies of the show in 1970 and 1971 which demonstrated Sesame Street had a positive educational impact on its viewers. The results of these studies led to the producers securing funding for the show over the next several years, and provided the CTW with additional ways to promote it. By the second season, Sesame Street had become so popular that the design of ETS' experiments to track the show's educational outcomes had to be changed: instead of comparing viewers with a control group of non-viewers, the researchers studied the differences among levels of viewing. They found that children who watched Sesame Street more frequently had a higher comprehension of the material presented. Producer Jon Stone was instrumental in guiding the show during these years. According to Davis, Stone "gave Sesame Street its soul"; without him "there would not have been Sesame Street as we know it". Frank Oz regarded Stone as "the father of Sesame Street", and Cooney considered Stone "the key creative talent on Sesame Street and "probably the most brilliant writer of children's material in America". Stone was able to recognize and mentor talented people for his crew. He actively hired and promoted women during a time when few women earned top production jobs in television. His policies provided the show with a succession of female producers and writers, many of whom went on to lead the boom in children's programming at Nickelodeon, the Disney Channel, and PBS in the 1990s and 2000s. One of these women was Dulcy Singer, who later became the first female executive producer of Sesame Street. After the show's initial success, its producers began to think about its survival beyond its development and first season and decided to explore other funding sources. The CTW decided to depend upon government agencies and private foundations to develop the show. This would protect it from the financial pressures experienced by commercial networks, but created problems in finding continued support. This era in the show's history was marked by conflicts between the CTW and the federal government; in 1978, the U.S. Department of Education refused to deliver a $2 million check until the last day of the CTW's fiscal year. As a result, the CTW decided to depend upon licensing arrangements, publishing, and international sales for its funding. Henson owned the trademarks to the Muppet characters: he was reluctant to market them at first, but agreed when the CTW promised that the profits from toys, books, and other products were to be used exclusively to fund the CTW. The producers demanded complete control over all products and product decisions; any product line associated with the show had to be educational, inexpensive, and not advertised during its airings. The CTW approached Random House to establish and manage a non-broadcast materials division. Random House and the CTW named Christopher Cerf to assist the CTW in publishing books and other materials that emphasized the curriculum. In 1980, the CTW began to produce a touring stage production based upon the show, written by Connell and performed by the Ice Follies. Shortly after the premiere of Sesame Street, the CTW was approached by producers, educators, and officials in other nations, requesting that a version of the show be aired in their countries. Former CBS executive Mike Dann left commercial television to become vice-president of the CTW and Cooney's assistant; Dann began what Charlotte Cole, vice president for the CTW's International Research department, called the "globalization" of Sesame Street. A flexible model was developed, based upon the experiences of the creators and producers of the original show. The shows came to be called "co-productions", and they contained original sets, characters, and curriculum goals. Depending upon each country's needs and resources, different versions were produced, including dubbed versions of the original show and independent programs. By 2016, 39 different coproductions have been created and produced, "each with its own local name, its own Muppets..., and its own educational objectives designed to meet the educational needs of local children". By its 50th anniversary in 2019, 150 million children viewed over 150 versions of Sesame Street in 70 languages. The New York Times reported in 2005 that income from the CTW's international co-productions of the show was $96 million. Sesame Street's cast expanded in the 1970s, better fulfilling the show's original goal of greater diversity in both human and Muppet characters. The cast members who joined the show were Sonia Manzano (Maria), who also wrote for the show, Northern Calloway (David), Alaina Reed (Olivia), Emilio Delgado (Luis), Linda Bove (Linda), and Buffy Sainte-Marie (Buffy). In 1973, Roscoe Orman became the third actor to play Gordon. New Muppet characters were introduced during the 1970s. Count von Count was created and performed by Jerry Nelson, who also voiced Mr. Snuffleupagus, a large Muppet that required two puppeteers to operate. Richard Hunt, who, in Jon Stone's words, joined the Muppets as a "wild-eyed 18-year-old and grew into a master puppeteer and inspired teacher", created Gladys the Cow, Forgetful Jones, Don Music, and the construction worker Sully. Telly Monster was performed by Brian Muehl; Marty Robinson took over the role in 1984. Frank Oz created Cookie Monster. Matt Robinson created the "controversial" (as Davis called him) character Roosevelt Franklin. Fran Brill, the first female puppeteer for the Muppets, joined the Henson organization in 1970, and originated the character Prairie Dawn. In 1975, Henson created The Muppet Show, which was filmed and produced in London; Henson brought many of the Muppet performers with him, so opportunities opened up for new performers and puppets to appear on Sesame Street. The CTW wanted to attract the best composers and lyricists for Sesame Street, so songwriters like Joe Raposo, the show's music director, and writer Jeff Moss were allowed to retain the rights to the songs they wrote. The writers earned lucrative profits, and the show was able to sustain public interest. Raposo's "I Love Trash", written for Oscar the Grouch, was included on the first album of Sesame Street songs, The Sesame Street Book & Record, recorded in 1970. Moss' "Rubber Duckie", sung by Henson for Ernie, remained on the Top-40 Billboard charts for seven weeks that same year. Another Henson song, written by Raposo for Kermit the Frog in 1970, "Bein' Green", which Davis called "Raposo's best-regarded song for Sesame Street", was later recorded by Frank Sinatra and Ray Charles. "Sing", which became a hit for The Carpenters in 1973, and "Somebody Come and Play", were also written by Raposo for Sesame Street. In 1977 the show became the first to have a depiction of breastfeeding on television. In 1978, Stone and Singer produced and wrote the show's first special, the "triumphant" Christmas Eve on Sesame Street, which included an O Henry-inspired storyline in which Bert and Ernie gave up their prized possessions—Ernie his rubber ducky and Bert his paper clip collection—to purchase each other Christmas gifts. Bert and Ernie were played by Frank Oz and Jim Henson, who in real life were, like the puppets they played, colleagues and friends. To Davis, this demonstrated the puppeteers' remarkable ability to play "puppetry's Odd Couple". In Singer's opinion, the special—which Stone also wrote and directed—demonstrated Stone's "soul", and Sonia Manzano called it a good example of what Sesame Street was all about. The special won Emmys for Stone and Singer in 1979, beating, among others, the independently produced A Special Sesame Street Christmas for CBS. By the show's tenth anniversary in 1979, nine million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily. Four out of five children had watched it over a six-week period, and 90% of children from low-income inner-city homes regularly viewed the show. 1980s In 1984, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) deregulated commercial restrictions on children's television. Advertising during network children's programs almost doubled, and deregulation resulted in an increase in commercially oriented programming. Sesame Street was successful during this era of deregulation despite the fact that the United States government terminated all federal funding of the CTW in 1981. By 1987, the show was earning $42 million per year from its magazine division, book royalties, product licensing, and foreign income—enough to cover two-thirds of its expenses. Its remaining budget, plus a $6 million surplus, was covered by revenue from its PBS broadcasts. According to Davis, Sesame Streets second decade was spent "turning inward, expanding its young viewers' world". The show's curriculum grew to include more "affective" teaching—relationships, ethics, and positive and negative emotions. Many of the show's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff, cast, and crew. In 1982, Will Lee, who had played Mr. Hooper since the show's premiere, died. For the 1983 season, the show's producers and research staff decided they would explain Mr. Hooper's death to their preschool audience, instead of recasting the role: the writer of that episode, Norman Stiles, said, "We felt we owed something to a man we respected and loved". They convened a group of psychologists, religious leaders, and other experts in the field of grief, loss, and separation. The research team conducted a series of studies before the episode to ascertain if children were able to understand the messages they wanted to convey about Mr. Hooper's death; the research showed most children did understand. Parents' reactions to the episode were, according to the CTW's own reports, "overwhelmingly positive". The episode, which won an Emmy, aired on Thanksgiving Day in 1983 so parents could be home to discuss it with their children. Author David Borgenicht called the episode "poignant"; Davis called it "a landmark broadcast" and "a truly memorable episode, one of the show's best". Caroll Spinney, who played Big Bird and who drew the caricatures prominently used in the episode, reported the cast and crew were moved to tears during filming. In the mid-1980s, Americans were becoming more aware of the prevalence of child abuse, so Sesame Streets researchers and producers decided to "reveal" Mr. Snuffleupagus in 1985. "Snuffy" had never been seen by any of the adults on the show and was considered Big Bird's "imaginary friend". The show's producers were concerned about the message being sent to children; "If children saw that the adults didn't believe what Big Bird said (even though it was true), they would be afraid to talk to adults about dramatic or disturbing things that happened to them". For the 1988 and 1989 seasons, the topics of love, marriage, and childbirth were addressed when the show presented a storyline in which the characters Luis and Maria fall in love, marry, and have a child named Gabi. Sonia Manzano, the actress who played Maria, had married and become pregnant; according to the book Sesame Street Unpaved, published after the show's thirtieth anniversary in 1999, Manzano's real-life experiences gave the show's writers and producers the idea. Before writing began, research was done to gain an understanding of what previous studies had revealed about preschoolers' understanding of love, marriage, and family. The show's staff found that at the time that there was very little relevant research done about children's understanding of these topics, and no books for children had been written about them. Studies done after the episodes about Maria's pregnancy aired showed that as a result of watching these episodes, children's understanding of pregnancy increased. 1990s Davis called the 1990s a "time of transition on Sesame Street". Several people involved in the show from its beginnings died during this period: Jim Henson in 1990 at the age of 53 "from a runaway strep infection gone stubbornly, foolishly untreated"; songwriter Joe Raposo from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma fifteen months earlier; long-time cast member Northern Calloway of cardiac arrest in January 1990; puppeteer Richard Hunt of AIDS in early 1992; CTW founder and producer David Connell of bladder cancer in 1995; director Jon Stone of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in 1997; and writer Jeff Moss of colon cancer in 1998. By the early 1990s, Sesame Street was, as Davis put it, "the undisputed heavyweight champion of preschool television". Parade Magazine reported in 2019 that the show's music had been honored with 11 children's Grammys. The show's dominance however, was challenged for the first time by another PBS television show for preschoolers, Barney & Friends, causing Sesame Street's ratings to decline. The producers of Sesame Street responded, at the show's twenty-fifth anniversary in 1993, by expanding and redesigning the show's set, calling it "Around the Corner". With Michael Loman as the new executive producer of the show, new human and Muppet characters were introduced, including Zoe (performed by Fran Brill), baby Natasha and her parents Ingrid and Humphrey, and Ruthie (played by comedian Ruth Buzzi). The "Around the Corner" set was dismantled in 1997. Zoe, one of the few characters that survived, was created to include another female Muppet on the show, to break stereotypes of girls, and to provide female viewers with a positive role model. According to Davis, she was the first character developed on the show by marketing and product development specialists, who worked with the researchers at the CTW. (The quest for a "break-out" female Muppet character continued into 2006 with the creation of Abby Cadabby, who was created after nine months of research.) In 1998, for the first time in the show's history, Sesame Street pursued funding by accepting corporate sponsorship. Consumer advocate Ralph Nader urged parents to protest the move by boycotting the show. For Sesame Streets 30th anniversary in 1999, its producers researched the reasons for the show's lower ratings. For the first time since the show debuted, the producers and a team of researchers analyzed Sesame Street content and structure during a series of two-week-long workshops. They also studied how children's viewing habits had changed since the show's premiere. They found that although Sesame Street was produced for three- to five-year-olds, children began watching it at a younger age. Preschool television had become more competitive, and the CTW's research showed the traditional magazine format was not the best way to attract young children's attention. The growth of home videos during the 1980s and the increase of thirty-minute children's shows on cable had demonstrated that children's attention could be sustained for longer periods of time, but the CTW's researchers found that their viewers, especially the younger ones, lost attention in Sesame Street after 40 to 45 minutes. Beginning in 1998, a new 15-minute segment shown at the end of each episode, "Elmo's World", used traditional elements (animation, Muppets, music, and live-action film), but had a more sustained narrative. "Elmo's World" followed the same structure each episode, and depended heavily on repetition. Unlike the realism of the rest of the show, the segment took place in a stylized crayon-drawing universe as conceived by its host. Elmo, who represented the three- to four-year-old child, was chosen as host of the closing segment because he had always tested well with this segment of their audience. He was created in 1980 and originally performed by Brian Muehl, and later Richard Hunt, but did not become what his eventual portrayer, Kevin Clash, called a "phenomenon" until Clash took over the role in 1985. Eventually, Elmo became, as Davis reported, "the embodiment" of Sesame Street, and "the marketing wonder of our age" when five million "Tickle Me Elmo" dolls were sold in 1996. Clash believed the "Tickle Me Elmo" phenomenon made Elmo a household name and led to the "Elmo's World" segment. 2000s In 2000, the Children's Television Workshop changed its name to Sesame Workshop to better reflect its entry into non-television and interactive media. In 2002, Sesame Streets producers went further in changing the show to reflect its younger demographic by fundamentally changing the show's structure, which had relied on "Street scenes" interrupted by live-action videos and animation. The target age for Sesame Street shifted downward, from four years to three years, after the show's 33rd season. As co-executive producer Arlene Sherman stated, "We basically deconstructed the show". The producers expanded upon the "Elmo's World" by changing from a magazine format to a narrative format, which made the show easier for young children to navigate. Sherman called the show's new look "startlingly different". Following its tradition of addressing emotionally difficult topics, Sesame Street's producers chose to address the attacks of 9/11 during this season on its premiere episode, which aired February 4, 2002. This episode, as well as a series of four episodes that aired after Hurricane Katrina in 2005, were used in Sesame Workshop's Community Outreach program. In 2006, the United States Department of State called Sesame Street "the most widely viewed children's television show in the world". Over half of the show's international co-productions were made after 2001; according to the 2006 documentary The World According to Sesame Street, the events of 9/11 inspired the producers of these co-productions. In 2003, Takalani Sesame, a South African co-production, elicited criticism in the United States when its producers created Kami, the first HIV-positive Muppet, whose purpose was educating children in South Africa about the epidemic of AIDS. The controversy, which surprised Sesame Workshop, was short-lived and died down after Kofi Annan and Jerry Falwell praised the Workshop's efforts. By 2006, Sesame Street had won more Emmy Awards than any other children's show, including winning the outstanding children's series award for twelve consecutive years—every year the Emmys included the category. By 2009, the show had won 118 Emmys throughout its history, and was awarded the Outstanding Achievement Emmy for its 40 years on the air. The 2008–2009 recession, which led to budget cuts for many nonprofit arts organizations, severely affected Sesame Street; in spring 2009, Sesame Workshop had to lay off 20% of its staff. By the show's 40th anniversary, it was ranked the fifteenth most popular children's show on television. When the show premiered in 1969, 130 episodes a year were produced; in 2009, because of rising costs, twenty-six episodes were made. According to the Hollywood Reporter, corporate funding "dried up" and DVD sales "bottomed up". Also by 2009, Sesame Workshop started a new website containing a large library of classic and more recent free video clips, as well as a series of podcasts. Starting in 2009, the producers of Sesame Street took steps to bring back older viewers; it was also successful in increasing its audience viewership among 3- to 5-year-olds by the end of the 40th season. In 2012, the show's 43rd season, Elmo's World was replaced with Elmo the Musical, which was targeted at the program's older viewers. 2010s In 2014, in response to increased online and mobile viewing and to the increase in competition from other preschool programs, Sesame Workshop and PBS began producing, airing, and streaming a half-hour version of the program. The hour-long version continued to air on PBS in the mornings and the new version, which consisted of fewer segments, aired in the afternoons, when more children watched television. PBS also began to stream full-length episodes on its website, mobile app, and Roku channel. Also in 2014, Sesame Workshop began an online streaming subscription service called Sesame Go, which aired both old and new episodes of the show. In late 2015, as part of a five-year programming and development deal, it was announced that premium television service HBO would air first-run episodes of Sesame Street. Episodes became available on PBS stations and websites nine months after they aired on HBO. The move came after "sweeping changes in the media business". Sesame Street was operating at a loss of $11 million in 2014; according to the Hollywood Reporter in 2019, it was one of the reasons for the move to HBO the following year. The deal allowed Sesame Workshop to produce more episodes, about 35 new episodes per season, compared to the 18 episodes per season it aired previously, and provided the opportunity to create a spinoff series with the Sesame Street Muppets and a new educational series. Steve Youngwood, SW's Chief Operating Officer, called the move "one of the toughest decisions we ever made". According to The New York Times, the move "drew an immediate backlash". Critics claimed that it favored privileged children over less-advantaged children and their families, the original focus of the show. They also criticized choosing to air first-run episodes on HBO, a network with adult dramas and comedies. In 2017, in response to the changing viewing habits of toddlers, the show's producers decreased its length of episodes presented on all platforms from one hour to thirty minutes, focused on fewer characters, reduced the pop culture references "once included as winks for their parents", and focused "on a single backbone topic". In April 2017, Sesame Street introduced Julia, the first Muppet with autism. Her puppeteer, Stacey Gordon, is the mother of an autistic son. The character had already been featured in digital and printed storybooks since 2015. As of its 50th anniversary in 2019, Sesame Street has produced over 4,500 episodes, 35 TV specials, 200 home videos, and 180 albums. Its YouTube channel had almost 5 million subscribers, and the show had 24 million followers on social media. As part of its 50th anniversary PR campaign, Sesame Street conducted a traveling show, featuring some Muppets, between February and December 2019. The "unofficial slogan" of the show's anniversary was "50 Years and Counting", which Underwood called "a nod that we are still going strong". 2020s CNN has aired a few town hall segments with Sesame Street characters to help children deal with tough times during the COVID-19 pandemic and Black Lives Matter. References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Borgenicht, David (1998). Sesame Street Unpaved. New York: Hyperion Publishing. Clash, Kevin; Gary Brozek and Louis Henry Mitchell (2006). My Life as a Furry Red Monster: What Being Elmo Has Taught Me About Life, Love and Laughing Out Loud. New York: Random House. Davis, Michael (2008). Street Gang: The Complete History of Sesame Street. New York: Viking Press. Finch, Christopher (1993). Jim Henson: The Works: the Art, the Magic, the Imagination. New York: Random House. Fisch, Shalom M.; Rosemarie T. Truglio, Eds. (2001). "G" is for Growing: Thirty Years of Research on Children and Sesame Street. Mahweh, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. Cooney, Joan Ganz, "Foreword", pp. xi–xiv. Truglio, Rosemarie T.; Shalom M. Fisch, "Introduction", pp. xv–xxi. Palmer, Edward; Shalom M. Fisch, "The Beginnings of Sesame Street Research", pp. 3–24. Lesser, Gerald S.; Joel Schneider, "Creation and Evolution of the Sesame Street Curriculum", pp. 25–38. Fisch, Shalom M.; Lewis Bernstein, "Formative Research Revealed: Methodological and Process Issues in Formative Research", pp. 39–60. Truglio, Rosemarie T.; et al., "The Varied Role of Formative Research: Case Studies from 30 Years", pp. 61–82. Mielke, Keith W., "A Review of Research on the Educational and Social Impact of Sesame Street", pp. 83–97. Gikow, Louise A. (2009). Sesame Street: A Celebration—Forty Years of Life on the Street. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers. . Gladwell, Malcolm (2000). The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. New York: Little, Brown, and Company. Hellman, Peter. (November 23, 1987). "Street Smart: How Big Bird & Co. Do It". In New York Magazine, Vol. 20, No. 46, pp. 48–53. Lesser, Gerald S. (1974). Children and Television: Lessons From Sesame Street. New York: Vintage Books. Morrow, Robert W. (2006). Sesame Street and the Reform of Children's Television. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. O'Dell, Cary (1997). Women Pioneers in Television: Biographies of Fifteen Industry Leaders. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. . Whitburn, Joel (2004). The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits, 8th edition. New York: Billboard Books. External links Text of Cooney's proposal "The Potential Uses of Television in Preschool Education" 1970 Time Magazine cover (featuring Big Bird) Sesame Street Sesame Street

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%206ths

The 6ths

The 6ths is a band created by Stephin Merritt, also the primary songwriter and instrumentalist behind The Magnetic Fields, The Gothic Archies, and Future Bible Heroes. One story has it that the band was conceived when Merritt, observing that there was no tribute album dedicated to him, decided to make one himself. In the group, Merritt writes and plays songs which are then sung by other artists—a different artist on each track. It has so far produced two well-received albums and many different collaborations. Releases The two albums the band released to date are Wasps' Nests in 1995 (Factory Too via London Records) and Hyacinths and Thistles in 1999. Wasps' Nests was preceded by a 7" vinyl single of album track "Heaven in a Black Leather Jacket" in 1993 on Merge Records that contains a B-side, "Rot in the Sun", sung by Merritt himself. The song was also later included on Merritt's Obscurities compilation in 2011. The names of both albums, as well as the name of the band, are deliberate tongue-twisters. The words are chosen for their abundance of s and th sounds; sixths alone packs one th and three s sounds into one syllable. The band's website refers to the 6ths as "every lisper's nightmare". The list of singers on Wasps' Nests includes many notable mid-90s indie-rockers, including Barbara Manning, Mary Timony, Dean Wareham (Galaxie 500, Luna, Dean & Britta), Lou Barlow, Chris Knox (Tall Dwarfs), Robert Scott (The Bats, The Clean), Georgia Hubley (Yo La Tengo), and Mark Robinson. Some of the more notable artists appearing on Hyacinths and Thistles are Bob Mould, Sally Timms (The Mekons), Sarah Cracknell (Saint Etienne), Neil Hannon (The Divine Comedy), Gary Numan, Marc Almond, Momus, Clare Grogan (Altered Images), Melanie, Miss Lily Banquette (Combustible Edison), Katharine Whalen (Squirrel Nut Zippers) and the accomplished toy piano player Margaret Leng Tan. The album also features an improbable duet of singer Odetta accompanied by Lemony Snicket author Daniel Handler on accordion. "Falling out of Love (with You)" from Wasps' Nests was featured on the popular 90's children's show The Adventures of Pete and Pete. Two songs from Hyacinths and Thistles, "You, You, You, You, You" and "As You Turn To Go", are featured in the movie Pieces of April and its accompanying soundtrack by Stephin Merritt. "You, You, You, You, You" was featured in Google's 2016 pixel ad. Their song "Night Falls Like a Grand Piano" was covered by South African group Wonderboom on their 2003 album Tell Someone Who Cares. Discography Albums Wasps' Nests (1995) Hyacinths and Thistles (2000) Singles "Heaven in a Black Leather Jacket" b/w "Rot in the Sun" (7" single) (1993) References External links Official website at The House of Tomorrow Musical groups from New York (state) Factory Records artists Merge Records artists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her%20Majesty%27s%20Inspectorate%20of%20Education

Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education

Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education (HMIe) was an executive agency of the Scottish Government, responsible for the inspection of public and independent, primary and secondary schools, as well as further education colleges, community learning, Local Authority Education Departments and teacher education. HMIe and Learning and Teaching Scotland were merged in 2011 to create Education Scotland. History The first HM Inspector of Schools (HMI) was appointed in 1840. The rationale for the first appointments of HMI linked inspection to "the improvement of elementary education" and charged HMI to say "what improvements in the apparatus and internal management of schools, in school management and discipline, and in the methods of teaching have been sanctioned by the most extensive experience". The particular focus in Scotland on combining inspection with self-evaluation has been central to the drive to raise educational standards. HMIe was headed by Her Majesty's Senior Chief Inspector of Education. Its remit was far wider than its English counterpart, the Office for Standards in Education. HMIe's equivalent in Wales, Estyn, had a similar remit, including adult education. Following the Scotland Act 1998 the Inspectorate was made an Executive Agency of the Scottish Government in 2001, and HMIe was answerable to the Scottish Ministers for the running of the Inspectorate and the whole inspection system in Scotland. In 2003 it employed 178 staff who were based in Edinburgh, Inverness, Glasgow and Dundee. A policy to disperse public sector jobs then led to the relocation of the headquarters from Edinburgh to Livingston, West Lothian along with the opening of new offices in Dunbartonshire and Ayrshire. On 14 October 2010 the Cabinet Secretary for Education announced that HMIe would be brigaded with Learning and Teaching Scotland into a new executive agency of the Scottish Government to be known as the Scottish Education Quality and Improvement Agency. This was later renamed Education Scotland, and came into existence on 30 June 2011. Senior Chief Inspector 1999 to 2002: Bill Clark Senior Chief Inspector in 2009: Graham Donaldson Senior Chief Inspector 2010 to 2017: Dr Bill Maxwell Senior Chief Inspector from December 2017: Gayle Gorman Remit HMIe was charged with inspecting the quality of education in pre-school centres, primary schools, secondary schools, special schools, community learning and development, further education colleges, initial teacher education, residential educational provision and the education functions of local authorities and services for children. Following the passing of the Standards in Scotland’s Schools etc. 2000 Act the focus of HMIe shifted to how this legislation is being implemented. It brought new statutory powers to inspect the education functions of local authorities. See also Education Scotland Education in the United Kingdom Education in Scotland References External links Education in Scotland Educational administration Executive agencies of the Scottish Government Public bodies of the Scottish Government 1840 establishments in Scotland Organisations based in West Lothian

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleneagles%20Agreement

Gleneagles Agreement

In the Gleneagles Agreement, in 1977, Commonwealth Presidents and Prime Ministers agreed, as part of their support for the international campaign against apartheid, to discourage contact and competition between their sportsmen and sporting organisations, teams or individuals from South Africa. The agreement was unanimously approved by the Commonwealth of Nations at a meeting at Gleneagles, Perthshire, Scotland. The Gleneagles Agreement reinforced their commitment, embodied in the Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles (1971), to oppose racism. This commitment was further strengthened by the Declaration on Racism and Racial Prejudice, adopted by Commonwealth leaders in Lusaka in 1979. The Commonwealth was a relevant body to impose a sporting ban on South Africa because several of the sports most popular among white South Africans are dominated by Commonwealth member states, for example cricket and rugby union. See also Sporting boycott of South Africa during the apartheid era Rugby union and apartheid 1981 Springbok Tour South African rebel tours Halt All Racist Tours South Africa national rugby union team South Africa cricket team References External links International opposition to apartheid in South Africa History of the Commonwealth of Nations History of Perth and Kinross Commonwealth sports competitions Events associated with apartheid Politics and sports 1977 in politics 1977 in sports 1977 in Scotland 1977 in international relations South Africa–United Kingdom relations Rugby union and apartheid

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie%20Andrew

Leslie Andrew

Brigadier Leslie Wilton Andrew, (23 March 1897 – 8 January 1969) was a senior officer in the New Zealand Military Forces and a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award of the British Commonwealth for gallantry "in the face of the enemy". He received the decoration for his actions during the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917. Andrew joined the New Zealand Expeditionary Force as a private in 1915, having gained military experience while serving with the Territorial Force. He saw action on the Western Front from September 1916 to early 1918, and ended the war as an officer in England. He remained in the military after the cessation of hostilities, and joined the New Zealand Staff Corps. He held staff and administrative positions in New Zealand and, while on an officer exchange program, British India. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, Andrew was appointed commander of the 22nd Battalion, which he led during the Battles of Greece and Crete as well as the early part of the North African Campaign. For a short period in late 1941 he commanded an infantry brigade of the 2nd New Zealand Division, and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership. He returned to New Zealand in 1942 and commanded the Wellington Fortress Area for the remainder of the war. He retired from the military in 1952 with the rank of brigadier, and died in 1969 aged 71. Early life Leslie Wilton Andrew was born on 23 March 1897 in Ashhurst in the Manawatu region of New Zealand, the son of William Andrew, headmaster of a local school, and his wife, Frances Hannah. He grew up in Wanganui, where his father had moved his family having taken up a position in the area, and was educated at Wanganui Collegiate School. After leaving school in 1913 he worked for a solicitor and was later employed by the New Zealand Railways Department as a clerk. Andrew participated in the cadet program while at school and later joined the Territorial Force. By 1915, he had been promoted to sergeant and had sat the necessary exams to become a commissioned officer in the Territorials. First World War Andrew volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) in October 1915, when he was 18. As only men between the ages of 20 to 40 could volunteer for service with the NZEF, he falsified his age to ensure that he would be eligible for duty overseas. A member of the 12th Reinforcements, he embarked for the Western Front via Egypt on 1 May 1916. In France, he was posted to B Company, 2nd Battalion, Wellington Infantry Regiment, with the rank of private. Andrew's arrival at the front coincided with the start of the Somme Offensive. He participated in the Battle of Flers-Courcelette, which began on 15 September, and was wounded. Promoted to corporal in January 1917, he took part in the Battle of Messines the following June. During the early phase of the Battle of Passchendaele, Andrew's battalion was engaged in fighting around the village of La Basseville, a few kilometres southwest of Messines. Originally captured by the New Zealanders prior to the battle on 26 July, the village had been re-taken by the Germans the next day. Under cover of an artillery barrage, the Wellingtons began an advance towards the village. Andrew was tasked with leading two sections to destroy a machine-gun post. During the advance, he noticed a nearby machine-gun post that was holding up the advance of another platoon. On his own initiative, he promptly diverted his force and removed the newly spotted threat with a flanking attack. He then led his men to the original objective. Despite continuous gunfire, he and his men captured the machine-gun post. While most of his men withdrew with the gun, Andrew and another man continued to scout further forward. Coming across another machine-gun post, the two men destroyed it before returning to their lines with information on the increasing numbers of Germans in the area. During his foray, Andrew received a flesh wound to his back. Andrew was awarded the Victoria Cross (VC) for his leadership and bravery at La Basseville. The VC, instituted in 1856, was the highest gallantry award that could be bestowed on a soldier of the British Empire. The citation read as follows: Aged 20, the youngest recipient in the NZEF to receive the VC, Andrew was promoted to sergeant the day after the action at La Basseville. He was presented with his VC by King George V in a ceremony at Buckingham Palace on 31 October 1917. Andrew continued to serve on the Western Front until he was sent to England for officer training. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in March 1918, and was posted to Sling Camp, the main training facility for the NZEF, as an instructor. He was still in England when the war ended. Interwar period While in England, Andrew met Bessie Ball, of Nottingham, and they were married on 12 November 1918, the day after the Armistice. The couple had five children; one died in infancy. Discharged from the NZEF on his return to New Zealand in August 1919, Andrew opted to become a professional soldier and joined the New Zealand Staff Corps despite a poor assessment of his administrative skills by a senior officer. He served in staff positions for the next several years. From 1927 to 1929 he served with the Highland Light Infantry, then based in British India, on an officer exchange program. On his return to New Zealand he was appointed adjutant of the 1st Wellington Regiment. In 1937, having been promoted to captain, Andrew led the New Zealand contingent sent to London for the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. While there, he returned to Buckingham Palace, where he had been presented with the VC, this time as commander of the New Zealand guard at the palace on 11 May 1937. Returning to staff duties in New Zealand, he was assistant adjutant and quartermaster general of the Central Military District. Second World War Following the outbreak of the Second World War, Andrew, a major at the time, was seconded to the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF). In early 1940, having been promoted to lieutenant colonel, he was appointed commander of 22nd Battalion, which was then forming at Trentham Military Camp near Wellington. He trained his new command hard, and quickly earned the nickname of February due to his habit of issuing 28-day detentions for any breaches in discipline. In May 1940, the battalion sailed aboard the Empress of Britain as part of a convoy transporting the 5th Infantry Brigade, 2nd New Zealand Division, to the Middle East. The invasion of Holland and Belgium prompted the diversion of the convoy to England. Arriving in June, the battalion, along with the rest of the brigade, formed a mobile reserve for XII Corps, which was tasked with defending England from a possible invasion. In March 1941 it travelled for Egypt and then to Greece. Andrew led the battalion through the subsequent Battle of Greece, during which it saw little action apart from air raids and two minor engagements with the 2nd Panzer Division on 15 and 16 April at Mount Olympus. Battle of Crete Evacuated to Crete on 25 April 1941, the 5th Brigade was tasked with the defence of the Maleme airfield. At this stage, 22nd Battalion was regarded as the best of the battalions of the brigade so Andrew was ordered to hold the strategically important Point 107, the dominant hill overlooking the airfield. Forced to disperse the companies of his battalion widely to cover his positions, he closely oversaw the defensive arrangements and ensured sufficient ammunition for his men. On 20 May 1941, the opening day of the Battle of Crete, 22nd Battalion was heavily bombed and strafed, and Andrew was lightly wounded. In the battalion's war diary he noted the bombing was worse than the artillery barrages of Passchendaele and the Somme. German paratroopers began landing in the area, including near his headquarters, and fighting took place at close quarters. Andrew soon lost communications with his forward companies but these were able to drive off the German attackers and hold their positions. The lack of contact with the companies to his front was a concern to Andrew as was the increasing presence of Germans to his rear. He requested support from the adjacent 23rd Battalion but this was refused by his brigade commander, Brigadier James Hargest. Andrew used his battalion reserve to mount a counterattack with the help of two Matilda tanks but this failed. Following this, he advised Hargest that he might have to withdraw from Point 107; "If you must you must" was the reply. Accordingly Andrew withdrew the remaining units that he was able to contact. As it happened, most of his forward companies remained intact and, after finding they had been abandoned, were able to withdraw from Point 107. The withdrawal to the positions of the 21st and 23rd Battalions came as a major surprise to Hargest, but instead of ordering an immediate counterattack, he directed Andrew take overall command of the defences of 5th Brigade and conceded the airfield was lost. Once senior commanders became aware of the situation, they ordered that it be rectified. Despite a counterattack to recapture the airfield mounted in the evening of 21 May and into the next morning, Maleme airfield remained in the hands of the Germans. This was a significant factor in the German forces becoming established on Crete as it enabled much needed reinforcements to be landed by aircraft. Andrew and the surviving elements of his battalion were withdrawn from the area to Sphakia and, after acting as a defensive cordon, evacuated from Crete. North Africa In Egypt, where the 2nd New Zealand Division was being rebuilt after the losses of Greece and Crete, Andrew and Hargest gave evidence in an inquiry on the conduct of the fighting on Crete. Officially, 5th Brigade was held blameless. Andrew remained as commander of 22nd Battalion during the early phases of the North African Campaign. At one point during the efforts to lift the siege of Tobruk, his battalion was surrounded at Menastir and fought off elements of the 21st Panzer Division. His leadership during this time was later recognised with a Mention in Despatches. When Hargest, still commanding 5th Brigade, was captured on 27 November 1941, Andrew was given temporary command of the brigade the next day. He led the brigade up until 8 December 1941, including a period, from 1 to 3 December, when it was besieging Bardia and fighting off German attempts to relieve the town. He reverted to command of the battalion on 9 December 1941 but was later rewarded with the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership of the brigade. He relinquished command of 22nd Battalion in February 1942 and returned to New Zealand in response to a need for experienced officers to oversee development of home defences after the entry of Japan into the war. Later life Back in New Zealand, Andrew was promoted to full colonel and appointed commander of the Wellington Fortress Area. He was formally discharged from the 2NZEF in October 1943, reverting to the regular army thereafter. He continued leading the Wellington Fortress Area for the rest of the war. In the immediate postwar period, he commanded the New Zealand contingent for the 1946 Victory Parade in London, and the following year attended the Imperial Defence College. He was promoted to brigadier in 1948 and appointed commander of the Central Military District. He continued in this appointment until his retirement from the military in 1952. He was later invited to run for Parliament but declined. In 1953, Andrew was awarded the Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal. Andrew died on 8 January 1969 at Palmerston North hospital after a brief illness. Survived by his wife and four children, he was buried with full military honours in a ceremony at Levin RSA Cemetery, in Levin. His funeral was attended by three fellow VC recipients, including Reverend Keith Elliott, a former soldier of the 22nd Battalion, who also provided a reading. A barracks at Linton Army Camp is named after him; in Belgium, in the village of Warneton, just south of La Basseville, there is a commemorative plaque in his memory. On 31 July 2017, the 100-year anniversary of the action at La Basseville that earned him the VC, a plaque in Andrew's memory was unveiled at the Wellington railway station. Legacy In 1953, the book Crete, one of the volumes of the Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War, written by Dan Davin and edited by Howard Kippenberger, the latter a friend and fellow battalion commander in the 2NZEF who was present at Crete, was published. In it, Andrew was criticised for his handling of the action at Maleme that ultimately led to the loss of Crete. In private correspondence to Davin, Kippenberger expressed the view that Andrew should have fought his battalion to the last man. Andrew took offence at the public criticism and his relations with Kippenberger would be distant and cool thereafter. As a result Andrew was also reluctant to contribute to the official history of the 22nd Battalion, implying to its author that Kippenberger would distort events as he believed he had with the Crete book. Andrew did have his supporters, including former soldiers of the 22nd Battalion, and Bernard Freyberg, the overall commander on Crete, did not blame Andrew for the loss of the island. The lethargic and indecisive conduct of his brigade commander, James Hargest, in the early stages of the fighting on the island was also a significant factor in Maleme airfield falling to the Germans. VC Andrew's Victoria Cross was displayed at the National Army Museum in Waiouru. In December 2007 it was one of nine VCs among 96 medals stolen from the museum. On 16 February 2008, New Zealand Police announced that all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ$300,000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess. Notes Footnotes Citations References External links Burial location of Leslie Andrew "Wellington, New Zealand" 1897 births 1969 deaths New Zealand brigadiers New Zealand military personnel of World War II New Zealand World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross People educated at Whanganui Collegiate School People from Manawatū-Whanganui New Zealand military personnel of World War I Alumni of the Royal College of Defence Studies

262991

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth-rate

Fourth-rate

In the rating system of the Royal Navy used to categorize sailing warships in the 18th century, a fourth-rate was a ship of the line with 46 to 60 guns mounted. They were phased out of ship of the line service during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, as their usefulness was declining; though they were still in service, especially on distant stations such as the East Indies. Fourth-rates took many forms, initially as small two decked warships, later as large frigates razéed from the initial two deck warships, and occasionally even heavily armed merchant ships such as HMS Calcutta. Small two decked warships A fourth-rate was, in the British Royal Navy during the first half of the 18th century, a ship of the line mounting from 46 up to 60 guns. While the number of guns stayed in the same range until 1817, after 1756 the ships of 50 guns and below were considered too weak to stand in the line of battle, although the remaining 60-gun ships were still classed as fit to be ships of the line. However, the 50-gun ship continued to be used largely during the Seven Years' War, and during the time of the American Revolution a whole new group of 50-gun ships was constructed, not for the battlefleet, but to meet the needs of combat in the shallow waters off North America where the larger ships found it difficult to sail. 50-gun ships were also suitable as convoy escorts and for service on foreign stations, where larger enemy vessels were unlikely to be encountered. Some saw service as flagships since, as two-deckers, they were able to accommodate a flag officer and his retinue, and they also had the physical presence of a flagship. Their usefulness was declining, however, and during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars few 50s were built, although several remained in service, especially on distant stations such as the East Indies. The 60-gun ships were also dying out, superseded initially by the 74-gun third-rates, although by 1793 there were still four 60-gun ships left in harbour service. Some fourth-rates did remain in active service even during the Napoleonic Wars, especially in the shallow North Sea, where the Royal Navy's main opponents were the Baltic powers and the Dutch, whose own fleet consisted mainly of 50- to 64-gun ships (e.g. the 56-gun Delft). However, HMS Leander, 50 guns, was with Horatio Nelson at the Battle of the Nile. As late as 1807, fourth-rates were active in combat zones, illustrated by the fatal incident between HMS Leopard (50 guns), and the US frigate Chesapeake (38 guns), an incident which nearly led to war. Large frigates and spar-decked frigates American 44-gun frigates Constitution, United States and President were never in operational use armed with fewer than 50 guns including carronades, and were generally seen as equivalent to fourth-rates. The larger British 24-pounder frigates such as the later 1813 Leander and Newcastle, were of similar firepower to those big American 44s. The latter were launched (or razéed – i.e. converted by cutting down by one deck from existing smaller third-rate 74-gun two-deckers) during the last years of the Napoleonic War and the War of 1812 and were classed as fourth-rates in Royal Naval service under the revised rating system. This convention continued into the 19th century. Any of these later large fourth-rate frigates threw a close-range broadside (including from their heavy carronades) far superior to the earlier two-decker 50s or even to third-rate 64s. Merchant conversions Some ships of commerce such as the East Indiamen were heavily armed to protect themselves from pirates and privateers, effectively making them equivalent to fourth-rate ships of the line. The Royal Navy also converted some East Indiamen into fourth-rates for convoy duty, such as HMS Calcutta. Bibliography Archibald, E.H.H. The Fighting Ship of the Royal Navy, 897–1984, New York (1987). Rodger, N.A.M. The Command of the Ocean, a Naval History of Britain 1649–1815, London (2004). . Bennett, G. The Battle of Trafalgar, Barnsley (2004). . Winfield, Rif, British Warships in the Age of Sail: 1603–1714, Barnsley (2009) ; British Warships in the Age of Sail: 1714–1792, Barnsley (2007) ; British Warships in the Age of Sail: 1793–1817, (2nd edition) Barnsley (2008). ; British Warships in the Age of Sail: 1817–1863, Barnsley (2014) . Winfield, Rif, The 50-Gun Ship (Chatham Publishing, 1997) . 4th-rate

262992

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malet%20Lambert%20%28priest%29

Malet Lambert (priest)

Joseph Malet Lambert (1853–1931) was vicar of St. John's parish, Hull, UK, later elevated to Dean of Hull, Canon of York, and Archdeacon of the East Riding within the Church of England. He was active in social reform and the municipal affairs of Hull, including housing, sanitation and education, yet allowed a child in his care to be beaten and neglected to such a point that the child was taken into care. Biography Malet Lambert was born in Hull in 1853, the son of Joseph Lambert and his second wife, Jane Hudson Malet, of Cork. His mother died when he was young. When he was 11 years old, his father remarried to Rachel Wilson, the daughter of Thomas Wilson, a Hull shipping-line owner. He attended Pocklington Grammar School and later entered his father's ship-broking business in the High Street. Eventually he entered Trinity College, Dublin, graduating with a first rank honors BA in Natural Science 1879. In that same year he was ordained, becoming curate at Tadcaster. In 1881 he became vicar of Newland, Hull, a position he held for the next three decades. Soon after he was instrumental in creating the parish of St. Augustine's, serving the recently built area of The Avenues, and other new urban developments; the district was taken out of his own parish. During his encumbancy the church was expanded with the addition of a chancel (1893), and a north aisle (1902), as well as having the vaults filled in, the nave extended, and other alterations. In February 1882 he married Miss Rose Harrison, eldest daughter of Arthur Harrison of Northgate House, Cottingham. He received an M.A. in 1883, Bachelor of Laws in 1884 and Doctor of Laws in 1885. In the 1880s Malet Lambert was involved in the 'Hull Sanitary Association', a body set up to improve sewage, refuse, and disease treatment in Hull, and was instrumental in instigated an investigation into the housing conditions of the poor. He also became involved in, a member of the Hull School Board, later becoming its chairman. In 1894 Malet Lambert became Rural dean of Hull. In 1900 he became Canon of York and in 1917, Archdeacon of the East Riding. In the early years the beginning of the 20th century, Lambert and his wife were charged with cruelty and neglect of a ten-year-old female child in their care. The child, who had been taken in to be trained as a servant, was presented to a visiting doctor by concerned servants of the house - the child was ascertained to be malnourished by a doctor, weighing aged 11. In addition to the malnutrition of the child she was said to have been keep secret from visitors by Mrs. Lambert, beaten with a stick and poker by Mrs. Lambert, who had instructed her cook to do the same. The contradictions of the Lambert's treatment of their charge, and Malet Lambert's so-called philanthropic work were noted at the trial, as was the differences in well being of the child and the Lambert's own offspring. The child was taken into the care of a workhouse, where she made a rapid recovery. In 1927 Lambert became the first chairman of the council of the newly established University College (Hull) (see Hull University). Lambert died 17 April 1931. Positions held Vicar of St John's Church, Newland (1881–1912) Canon of York (1900–1931) Archdeacon of the East Riding (1917–1931) First Chairman of the Council of Hull University College (1927–1931) Chairman of Hull Higher Education Committee (1905–1931) Published works See also Malet Lambert School Notes References Sources External links 1853 births 1931 deaths People from Kingston upon Hull Archdeacons of the East Riding 19th-century English Anglican priests 20th-century English Anglican priests

262994

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocklington

Pocklington

Pocklington is a market town and civil parish situated at the foot of the Yorkshire Wolds in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. The 2011 Census recorded its population as 8,337. It is east of York and northwest of Hull. The town's skyline is marked by the 15th-century west tower of All Saints' parish church. Pocklington is at the centre of the ecclesiastical Parish of Pocklington, which also includes the hamlet of Kilnwick Percy and outlying farms and houses. History Pocklington gets its name via the Old English "Poclintun" from the Anglian settlement of Pocel's (or Pocela's) people and the Old English word "tun" meaning farm or settlement, but though the town's name can only be traced back to around 650 AD, the inhabitation of Pocklington as a site is thought to extend back a further 1,000 years or more to the Bronze Age. Pocklington appears on the 14th-century Gough Map, the oldest route map in Great Britain. In the Iron Age Pocklington was a major town of the Parisi tribe. In 2017, a Celtic warrior's grave, dated to about BC 320 to 174, was discovered at a housing development under construction. After archeologists had completed a very long excavation project, the site was found to include a bronze shield, remains of a chariot and the skeletons of ponies. The shield's boss bears a resemblance to the Wandsworth shield boss (circa BC 350 to 150), in the British Museum. One design element on the extremely well preserved Pocklington shield, a scalloped border, "is not comparable to any other Iron Age finds across Europe, adding to its valuable uniqueness", commented Paula Ware, managing director at MAP Archaeological Practice Ltd, in late 2019. Horses were rarely included in Iron Age burials, making the find particularly significant. "The discoveries are set to widen our understanding of the Arras (Middle Iron Age) culture and the dating of artefacts to secure contexts is exceptional," according to Paula Ware. By the time of the Domesday Book in 1086, it was the second largest settlement in Yorkshire after York itself. Pocklington developed through the Middle Ages while many similar places fell into dramatic decline. Pocklington owed much of its prosperity in the Middle Ages to the fact that it was a local centre for the trading of wool and lay on the main road to York, an important national centre for the export of wool to the continent. Wool was England's main export in the earlier Middle Ages. Town heraldry The town's coat of arms shield is based on that of the Dolman family, founders of Pocklington School. The arms were granted to the town council in 1980. The crown at the base of the shield is the emblem of the saints, and along with the gold cross, symbolises the town's historic connection with Paulinus of York and the Archbishop of York. The town's motto is "Service with Freedom". Governance Pocklington is under East Riding of Yorkshire Council, a unitary authority. The town is part of the Pocklington Provincial Ward and returns three councillors to the council. Since 2001, Pocklington has been part of the East Yorkshire Parliamentary Constituency. The seat is currently held by Greg Knight for the Conservative Party. Pocklington's Town Council consists of thirteen elected councillors and is responsible for the cemetery, allotments, the Croft play-park and the Arts Centre. The Mayor of Pocklington is elected annually by the members of the town council. The town council has a policy of naming all new streets using the surnames of the war dead who served at RAF Pocklington. This has given rise to the names Strother Close, Waite Close, Garrick Drive, Turnbull Close and Harper Close. There is some controversy surrounding the policy as a local resident believes that war heroes from Pocklington and nearby Barmby Moor should also be honoured in this way. Town twinning Pocklington is twinned with: Le Pays de Racan, France (Official) Trendelburg, Germany (unofficial) Geography Pocklington is a spring line settlement at the foot of the Yorkshire Wolds. The rocks underlying this area were deposited on the bed of a tropical ocean. When the land rose, the chalk wolds were formed from the exoskeletons of micro-organisms covering the sea floor. The landscape around Pocklington therefore varies from flat arable land primarily devoted to agriculture to the south and west, and grassy, chalk hills and dry valleys to the north and east. A lot of the more level farming country was, from the Middle Ages onwards, reclaimed from marshland. Pocklington is bisected by the largely culverted Pocklington Beck, a small brook that feeds into the Pocklington Canal. The beck and canal are usually good fishing grounds but a sewerage overflow in 2003 killed thousands of fish and severely damaged the ecosystem, from which it is now recovered. Demography According to the 2011 UK census, Pocklington parish had a population of 8,337, an increase on the 2001 UK census figure of 7,632. The civil parish is not very ethnically diverse, with the 2001 UK census reporting 98.4% of the 7,632 inhabitants being white. The East Riding of Yorkshire has a higher than average level of Christian belief and a much lower rate of observance for other faiths and those of no faith. This can be attributed to the aforementioned lack of ethnic diversity in the area. Entertainment and culture Pocklington Arts Centre (formerly the Oak House Cinema) opened in 2000 and offers "a mixed programme of film, music, drama, dance, lectures, workshops and exhibitions". Previous performers at the arts centre include the comedians Jenny Eclair, Clive James, Dave Gorman and Barry Cryer and the musicians Midge Ure and Steve Harley (in 2-man (2002), 3-man (2010, 2012, 2014 (twice), 2018–2019) and 4-man (2003) electro-acoustic sets only, no full rock band (i.e. Cockney Rebel shows). The centre also puts on "second screenings" of recently released films. The TV presenter Victoria Coren Mitchell used the name of the Pocklington Arts Centre for her Ormerod hoax. In a tribute to Munich's traditional Oktoberfest, Pocklington also hosts its own annual Pocktoberfest. Unlike the original on which it is based, Pocktoberfest is pared down to a single-issue event: beer. In the 2006 event, 19 casks (or about 452 litres) of ale were consumed. Organiser of the 2012 Pocktoberfest, Clare Saunders, arranged for brewers from Germany. Italy, France, Belgium and the Netherlands to attend the festival, which is sponsored by C & N Wines and Swirlz Ice Cream Emporium. Pocklington celebrates an annual Flying Man Festival with a multitude of themed events from 12 to 14 May, in memory of the showman Thomas Pelling, the "Flying Man of Pocklington", who, with a pair of homemade wings, tried to fly from the top of the local church, and was killed when he hit one of the church's buttresses. Sport Pocklington RUFC rugby team is based on Burnby Lane. The first rugby game in Pocklington was held on West Green on Wednesday 12 November 1879 between Pocklington Town and District and Pocklington Grammar School. The first Pocklington rugby club Pocklington F.C. was formed in 1885. The current club, formed in 1928, plays in the North Premier and also hosts the traditional "Good Friday Sevens" tournament – Yorkshire's longest-established sevens tournament launched in 1958 and Pocklington's premier sporting event, which sees local, county-based and even international teams compete. The town also has a council-run Francis Scaife Sports Centre, which includes a 20-metre swimming pool and gym. The town also has swimming, football and cricket clubs. Kilnwick Percy Golf Club – locally known as the KP – lies just outside of Pocklington and offers luxury hotel rooms and lodges in addition to its championship golf course. In 2007, Michael Woods, a Pocklingtonian, made his debut for Chelsea. Pocklington Town A.F.C. run four Saturday football teams with the first team competing in the Humber Premier League. There is also an U19s team and girls' team. In the 2012–13 season the club's 1st team won the highest level trophy in the club's history by winning the Whitehead's Fish & Chips Humber League Cup at North Ferriby United's Rapid Solicitors Stadium. The club had floodlights installed during July 2008, allowing the club to make progress in the football league pyramid. Pocklington Tennis Club, which has 6 astro-turf style courts and plays in both the York & District Tennis League and the Driffield & District Lawn Tennis League, is located on West Green. Pocklington is a control point at the quadrennial London-Edinburgh-London long-distance bicycle event. Media Pocklington has a local weekly newspaper, the Pocklington Post, owned by Johnston Press. A full-time community radio station, Vixen FM, based in nearby Market Weighton, broadcasts to the town. Also in the area is Beverley FM which serves Beverley and all of its surrounding areas, including Pocklington. A Pocklington-based community radio station, West Wolds Radio, went on air in November 2015 but closed in September 2016. Education Pocklington School Woldgate School and Sixth Form College Religion Churches in Pocklington include: The Church of England parish church of All Saints, nicknamed the Cathedral of the Wolds. The Grade I listed building is 12th- and 13th-century and has a 15th-century west tower. Pocklington Christian Fellowship, formerly Pocklington Pentecostal Church, meets in the former Ebenezer Independent Chapel built for Dissenters in 1807. Pocklington Methodist Church, whose red brick Neoclassical building was completed in 1864 as a Wesleyan Methodist Church. The Roman Catholic church of SS Mary and Joseph, whose Gothic Revival brick building was completed in 1863 to replace a chapel dating from 1807. There are no non-Christian houses of worship in Pocklington, but Kilnwick Percy Hall, just outside Pocklington, is now a large residential Buddhist Centre called Madhyamaka Kadampa Meditation Centre. It runs regular Buddhist meditation classes. Freemasonry Pocklington has its own Masonic Hall which is situated on the Mile. It is home to several lodges and orders including: Beacon Lodge No. 4362 Old Pocklingtonian Lodge No. 7867 - formed by former pupils of Pocklington School but membership is no longer restricted to those with a connection to the school. Beacon Chapter No. 4362 Transport Car Pocklington lies on the A1079 road, the main arterial route between the cities of York and Hull. Bus Pocklington is served by a number of bus routes provided by East Yorkshire Motor Services who have a depot in the town centre. York Pullman also serve the town with their route X36 service 6 days a week. Air Pocklington Airfield has three concrete and tarmac runways of , sufficient in length to take RAF bombers during the Second World War, but in September 1946 the airfield was closed. Although the site remains in use with gliders - and occasionally hot air balloonists - a lot of the concrete runway surface has gone, and the control tower is not in operation. It is therefore classified as "limited flying". The airfield is now wholly owned by the Wolds Gliding Club. The nearest commercial airport is Humberside Airport, another former RAF airfield. Rail Pocklington was once part of the rail network, with a railway station dating back to 1847. This was closed as a result of the Beeching Report in November 1965. There is a small but vocal pressure group that is trying to get the railway station and line re-opened. The City of York Local Transport Plan for 2006 notes that: "work has recently been undertaken by East Riding of Yorkshire Council to examine the feasibility of reopening the former direct York – Pocklington - Beverley line that closed in 1965... given the unavailability of funding for such a scheme at present and the extensive time required for any reinstatement of a rail line, the scheme remains a longer-term aspiration." The Minsters Rail Campaign is campaigning to re-open the railway line between Beverley and York (with stops at Stamford Bridge, Pocklington and Market Weighton). The re-opened railway would skirt the southern edge of the town as the former alignment has since been developed. In 2006, the issue of re-opening the line has been raised in Parliament and, although still prohibitively expensive, was otherwise considered favourably. However, in 2013, East Riding of Yorkshire Council decided that the line could not be funded at that time. The old railway building, designed by George Townsend Andrews, was saved from demolition due to its interesting architecture. It now serves both as a bus shelter, and also a sports hall for nearby Pocklington School. Boat The Pocklington Canal, previously in commercial use in the 19th century by barges, is now navigable as far as Bielby Basin. Full restoration of the canal is one of the aims of the Pocklington Canal Amenity Society, which was formed in 1969. Notable people Alphabetically: Paul Banks, guitarist in Britpop band Shed Seven Matt Brash, celebrity vet, Zoo Vet at Large (TV series) Thomas Cooke, 19th-century scientific instrument maker, born in nearby Allerthorpe Adrian Edmondson, comedian, The Young Ones and Bottom Richard Herring, comedian, was born in Pocklington Ralph Ineson, comedian and actor in The Office and Game of Thrones Joseph Malet Lambert, 19th-century author and social reformer William Richardson (astronomer) (1797–1872), astronomer born in Pocklington George Herbert Stancer, cyclist, cycling journalist and administrator Sir Tom Stoppard OM, CBE, playwright Joseph Terry (1793–1850), founder of Joseph Terry & Sons, confectioner and industrialist Rob Webber, Sale Sharks and England rugby union player William Wilberforce, 18th-century anti-slavery campaigner Michael Woods, footballer, fourth youngest to ever play for Chelsea. References Bibliography Wainwright, Martin "Pollution kills fish in waterways", The Guardian, 4 June 2003, retrieved 31 October 2006. Staff Writer "Terry's factory to close in 2005", The BBC, 22 June 2004, retrieved 31 October 2006. Denison, Simon "One-upmanship in Roman Yorkshire", British Archaeology, No 30, December 1997, retrieved 31 October 2006. Staff Writer "Ancient bones may be Iron Age", The Evening Press, 11 September 2004, retrieved 31 October 2006. Pocklington Town Council "Pocklington's connection with HMS Volage", Pocklington Town Council website, 31 August 2006, retrieved 31 October 2006. Captain Grahame R. Hicks, CIOSH EnvDip "Objection to Dunnington traffic lights", Action Access A1079 website, 2 September 2006, retrieved 31 October 2006. Pocklington Town Council "Pocklington Town Council" , Pocklington Town Council website, 31 August 2006, retrieved 31 October 2006. Staff Writer "German visitors build ties with Pocklington", Pocklington Post, 12 April 2005, retrieved 31 October 2006. Staff Writer "Erasure of Town Heritage", Pocklington Post, 13 May 2005, retrieved 31 October 2006. Staff Writer "Message in a bottle", Pocklington Post, 22 August 2005, retrieved 31 October 2006. Bolton, Tim "Pocklington RUFC: History", Pocklington RUFC website, 2004, retrieved 31 October 2006. Nicholls "Pocklington Methodist Church", Pocklington RUFC website, 28 October 2006, retrieved 31 October 2006. Staff Writer "Raise a glass to success", Pocklington Post, 16 October 2006, retrieved 31 October 2006. Hinson, Colin (tr.) "Pocklington", Pigot's National Commercial Directory for 1828-29, 9 August 2003, retrieved 31 October 2006. Hinson, Colin (tr.) "Pocklington Parish", The National Gazetteer of Great Britain and Ireland 1868, 8 August 2006, retrieved 31 October 2006. Visit East Yorkshire "Welcome to the Wolds", Visit East Yorkshire, 2006, retrieved 31 October 2006. Staff Writer "Filming of new video", Pocklington Post, 20 August 2003, retrieved 31 October 2006. Arundel, Chris "The Beverley to York Railway", BBC, 2006, retrieved 31 October 2006. Staff Writer "Ancient Yorkshire men copy Roman style", Yorkshire Post (Leeds), 15 September 1997, retrieved 1 November 2006. Halkon, Peter, Dr. "A Roman villa near Pocklington", Britannia, No. 30, 1998, retrieved 1 November 2006. Domesday Book "Pocklington, Yorkshire", National Archives, retrieved 1 November 2006. Macalister, Terry "Put a beet in your tank", The Guardian, 21 June 2006, retrieved 1 November 2006. Staff Writer "Historical document found in attic", Pocklington Post, 10 July 2003, retrieved 1 November 2006. Staff Writer "Wild about town canal named in top ten", Pocklington Post, 31 July 2006, retrieved 1 November 2006. External links Pocklington Town Council Civil parishes in the East Riding of Yorkshire Market towns in the East Riding of Yorkshire Towns in the East Riding of Yorkshire

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1917%20Pulitzer%20Prize

1917 Pulitzer Prize

The Pulitzer Prizes were first presented in 1917. The prizes were given for American journalism and literary works published in 1916. There were initially four categories; others that had been specified in Joseph Pulitzer's request were phased in over the next few years. The winners were selected by the Trustees of Columbia University, on advice from juries of appointed experts. Journalism awards A prize of $1,000 was awarded for reporting, and $500 for editorial writing. Because of an insufficient number of candidates, prizes were not issued in the three other journalism categories (public service, newspaper history, and most suggestive paper on development of the Columbia School of Journalism). Editorial Writing: New York Tribune, for "The Lusitania Anniversary", an editorial article on the first anniversary of the sinking of (no author was named, but the editorial was written by Frank H. Simonds). Reporting: Herbert Bayard Swope, New York World, for articles which appeared October 10, October 15 and from November 4 daily to November 22, 1916, inclusive, entitled, "Inside the German Empire." Letters awards A prize of $2,000 was awarded for the best book on American history, and $1,000 for the best American biography. Prizes for the best novel and best drama were not awarded, as the jurors did not find a deserving winner. Biography or Autobiography: Laura E. Richards and Maud Howe Elliott assisted by Florence Howe Hall, Julia Ward Howe (Houghton). History: Jean Jules Jusserand, With Americans of Past and Present Days (Scribner) References Further reading External links Pulitzer Prizes by year Pulitzer Prize, 1917 Pulitzer Prize, 1917

263006

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal

Anal

Anal may refer to: Related to the anus related to the anus of animals Anal fin, in fish anatomy Anal vein, in insect anatomy Anal scale, in reptile anatomy related to the human anus Anal sex, a type of sexual activity involving stimulation of the anus Anal stage, a term used by Sigmund Freud to describe the development during the second year of life Anal expulsive, people who have a carefree attitude Anal retentive, a person overly uptight or distressed over ordinarily minor problems Places Anal Island, an island of the Marshall Islands Añal, New Mexico, a ghost town Other uses Anāl Naga, an ethnic group of northeast India and Myanmar Anal language, the Sino-Tibetan language they speak Ammonal, or ANAL, an explosive made from ammonium nitrate (AN) and aluminium (AL) powder All Nippon Air Line, a 2008 boys love manga Anal Arasu, Indian fight master/action choreographer See also IANAL, a colloquial acronym for "I am not a lawyer" Annal Annales (disambiguation) Annual (disambiguation) Antal (disambiguation) Language and nationality disambiguation pages

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenagoras

Athenagoras

Athenagoras may refer to: Athenagoras of Ephesus (6th century BC), a Greek tyrant of Ephesus Athenagoras of Syracuse (5th century BC), a statesman and military leader in Syracuse during the Sicilian Expedition Athenagoras of Macedon (2nd–3rd century BC), a general serving Philip V and Perseus Saint Athenagoras of Athens a.k.a. Saint Athenagorus the Apologist (2nd century AD), early Christian philosopher Patriarch Athenagoras (1886–1972), Patriarch of Constantinople Athenagoras (Fell), a 1682 biography of Athenagoras of Athens by British theologian John Fell

263009

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream%20of%20the%20Red%20Chamber

Dream of the Red Chamber

Dream of the Red Chamber (Honglou Meng) or The Story of the Stone (Shitou Ji) is a novel composed by Cao Xueqin in the middle of the 18th century. One of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, it is known for its psychological scope, and its observation of the world view, aesthetics, life-styles, and social relations of 18th-century China. The intricate strands of its plot depict the rise and decline of a family much like Cao’s own and, by extension, of the dynasty itself. Cao depicts the power of the father over the family, but the novel is intended to be a memorial to the women he knew in his youth: friends, relatives and servants. At a more profound level, the author explores religious and philosophical questions, and the writing style includes echoes of the plays and novels of the late Ming, as well as poetry from earlier periods. Cao apparently began composing it in the 1740s and worked on it until his death in 1763 or 1764. Copies of his uncompleted manuscript circulated in Cao's social circle, under the title Story of a Stone in slightly varying versions of eighty chapters. It was not published until nearly three decades after Cao's death, when Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan (), edited the first and second printed editions under the title Dream of the Red Chamber in 1791–92, adding 40 chapters. It is still debated whether Gao and Cheng composed these chapters themselves and the extent to which they did or did not represent Cao's intentions. Their 120 chapter edition became the most widely circulated version. The title has also been translated as Red Chamber Dream and A Dream of Red Mansions. "Redology" is the field of study devoted to the novel. Language The novel is composed in written vernacular (baihua) rather than Classical Chinese (wenyan). Cao Xueqin was well versed in Chinese poetry and in Classical Chinese, having written tracts in the semi-wenyan style, while the novel's dialogue is written in the Beijing Mandarin dialect, which was to become the basis of modern spoken Chinese. In the early 20th century, lexicographers used the text to establish the vocabulary of the new standardised language and reformers used the novel to promote the written vernacular. History Textual history The textual history of Dream of the Red Chamber is involved and complex, and has long been the subject of debate and conjecture. It is known with certainty that Cao Xueqin, a member of an eminent family that had served the Qing dynasty emperors but whose fortunes had begun to decline, began writing Dream of the Red Chamber in the 1740s. By the time of his death in 1763 or 1764, Cao had completed the novel's first 80 chapters and may have made early drafts of the remaining chapters. The first 80 chapters circulated during Cao's lifetime in hand-copied manuscripts, first among his personal friends and a growing circle of aficionados, then eventually on the open market where they sold for large sums of money. The first printed version, published by Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E in 1791, contains edits and revisions not authorized by the author. It is possible that Cao destroyed the last chapters or that at least parts of Cao's original ending were incorporated into the 120 chapter Cheng-Gao versions, with Gao E's "careful emendations" of Cao's draft. "Rouge" versions Up until 1791, the novel circulated in hand-copied manuscripts. Even amongst some 12 independent surviving manuscripts, small differences in some characters, rearrangements and possible rewritings cause the texts to vary a little. The earliest manuscripts end abruptly at the latest at the 80th chapter. The earlier versions contain comments and annotations in red or black ink from unknown commentators. These commentators' remarks reveal much about the author as a person, and it is now believed that some of them may even be members of Cao Xueqin's own family. The most prominent commentator is Zhiyanzhai, who revealed much of the interior structuring of the work and the original manuscript ending, now lost. These manuscripts, the most textually reliable versions, are known as "Rouge versions" (zhī běn ). The early 80 chapters brim with prophecies and dramatic foreshadowings that give hints as to how the book would continue. For example, it is obvious that Lin Daiyu will eventually die in the course of the novel; that Baoyu and Baochai will marry; that Baoyu will become a monk. A branch of Redology, known as tànyì xué (), is focused on recovering the lost manuscript ending, based on the commentators' annotations in the Rouge versions, as well as the internal foreshadowings in the earlier 80 chapters. Several early manuscripts are still extant. At the present, the "Jiaxu manuscript" (dating to 1754) is held in the Shanghai Museum, the "Jimao manuscript" (1759) is held in the National Library of China, and the "Gengchen manuscript" (1760) is held in the library of Peking University. Beijing Normal University and the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences both also held manuscripts of the novel that predate the first printed edition of 1791. Cheng–Gao versions In 1791, Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan brought out the novel's first printed edition. This was also the first "complete" edition of The Story of the Stone, which they printed as the Illustrated Dream of the Red Chamber ( ). While the original Rouge manuscripts have eighty chapters, the 1791 edition completed the novel in 120 chapters. The first 80 chapters were edited from the Rouge versions, but the last 40 were newly published. In 1792, Cheng and Gao published a second edition correcting editorial errors of the 1791 version. In the 1791 prefaces, Cheng claimed to have put together an ending based on the author's working manuscripts. The debate over the last 40 chapters and the 1791–92 prefaces continues to this day. Many modern scholars believe these chapters were a later addition. Hu Shih, in his Studies on A Dream of the Red Chamber (1921) argued that these chapter were written by Gao E, citing the foreshadowing of the main characters' fates in Chapter 5, which differs from the ending of the 1791 Cheng-Gao version. However, during the mid-20th century, the discovery of a 120 chapter manuscript that dates well before 1791 further complicated the questions regarding Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan's involvement—whether they simply edited or actually wrote the continuation of the novel. Though it is unclear if the last 40 chapters of the discovered manuscript contained the original works of Cao, Irene Eber found the discovery "seems to confirm Cheng and Gao's claim that they merely edited a complete manuscript, consisting of 120 chapters, rather than actually writing a portion of the novel". The book is usually published and read in Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E's 120 chapter version. Some modern editions, such as Zhou Ruchang's, do not include the last 40 chapters. In 2014, three researchers using data analysis of writing styles announced that "Applying our method to the Cheng–Gao version of Dream of the Red Chamber has led to convincing if not irrefutable evidence that the first 80 chapters and the last 40 chapters of the book were written by two different authors." In 2020, Zhang Qingshan, the president of the academic organization Society of the Dream of the Red Chamber, stated that although the authorship of the novel's last 40 chapters remains uncertain, it is unlikely Gao E was the one who wrote them. Plot summary In the novel's frame story, a sentient Stone, left over when the goddess Nüwa mended the heaven aeons ago, wants to enjoy the pleasures of the "red dust" (the mundane world). The Stone begs a Taoist priest and a Buddhist monk to take it with them to see the world. The Stone, along with a companion (in Cheng-Gao versions they are merged into the same character), is then given a chance to learn from human existence, and enters the mortal realm, reborn as Jia Baoyu ("Precious Jade") – thus "The Story of the Stone." The novel provides a detailed, episodic record of life in the two branches of the wealthy, aristocratic Jia () clan—the Rongguo House () and the Ningguo House ()—who reside in large, adjacent family compounds in the capital. The capital, however, is not named, and the first chapter insists that the dynasty is indeterminate. The ancestors of the two families were made Chinese nobility and given imperial titles, and as the novel begins the two houses are among the most illustrious families in the city. One of the Jia daughters is made a Royal Consort, and to suitably receive her, the family constructs the Daguanyuan, a lush landscaped garden, the setting for much of subsequent action. The novel describes the Jias' wealth and influence in great naturalistic detail, and charts the Jias' fall from the height of their prestige, following some thirty main characters and over four hundred minor ones. Eventually the Jia clan falls into disfavor with the Emperor, and their mansions are raided and confiscated. As the carefree adolescent male heir of the family, Baoyu in this life has a special bond with his sickly cousin Lin Daiyu, who shares his love of music and poetry. Baoyu, however, is predestined to marry another cousin, Xue Baochai, whose grace and intelligence exemplify an ideal woman, but with whom he lacks an emotional connection. The romantic rivalry and friendship among the three characters against the backdrop of the family's declining fortunes form the central story. Characters Dream of the Red Chamber contains an extraordinarily large number of characters: nearly 40 are considered major characters, and there are over 400 additional ones. The novel is also known for the complex portraits of its many women characters. According to Lu Xun in the appendix to A Brief History of Chinese Fiction, Dream of the Red Chamber broke every conceivable thought and technique in traditional Chinese fiction; its realistic characterization presents thoroughly human characters who are neither "wholly good nor wholly bad", but who seem to inhabit part of the real world. The names of the characters present a challenge to the translator, since many of them convey meaning. David Hawkes left the names of the masters, mistresses, and their family members in pinyin, Jia Zheng and Lady Wang, for instance; translated the meanings of the servants's names, (such as Aroma and Skybright); and put the names of the Daoists and Buddhists into Latin (Sapientia); and those of actors and actresses into French). Jia Baoyu and the Twelve Beauties of Jinling Jia Baoyu () The main protagonist is about 12 or 13 years old when introduced in the novel. The adolescent son of Jia Zheng and his wife, Lady Wang, and born with a piece of luminescent jade in his mouth (the Stone), Baoyu is the heir apparent to the Rongguo House. Frowned on by his strict Confucian father, Baoyu reads Zhuangzi and Romance of the Western Chamber on the sly, rather than the Four Books of classic Chinese education. Baoyu is highly intelligent, but dislikes the fawning bureaucrats who frequent his father's house. A sensitive and compassionate individual, he has a special relationship with many of the women in the house. Lin Daiyu () Jia Baoyu's younger first cousin and his true love. She is the daughter of Lin Ruhai (), a Yangzhou scholar-official governing salt, and Lady Jia Min (), Baoyu's paternal aunt. She is an image of spirituality and intelligence in Chinese classical literature: divinely beautiful, sentimental, sarcastic, and with a high level of self-esteem. She also suffers from a respiratory ailment. The novel proper starts in Chapter 3 with Daiyu's arrival at the Rongguo House shortly after the death of her mother. In the frame story of the novel, Daiyu is the reincarnation of the Fairy Crimson Pearl, and the purpose of her mortal birth is to repay Baoyu with tears for watering her in his previous incarnation as the Deity Shenying in the heavens. Sickly and prone to fits of jealousy, Daiyu is nevertheless an extremely talented and accomplished poet. Xue Baochai () Jia Baoyu's other first cousin. The only daughter of Aunt Xue (}), sister to Baoyu's mother, Baochai is a foil to Daiyu. Where Daiyu is unconventional and sincere, Baochai is worldly-wise and very tactful: a model Chinese feudal maiden. The novel describes her as beautiful and ambitious. Baochai has a round face, fair skin, large eyes, and, some would say, a more voluptuous figure in contrast to Daiyu's slender willowy daintiness. Baochai carries a golden locket with her which contains words given to her in childhood by a Buddhist monk. Baochai's golden locket and Baoyu's jade contain inscriptions that appear to complement one another perfectly in the material world. Her marriage to Baoyu is seen in the book as predestined. Jia Yuanchun () Baoyu's elder sister by about a decade. Originally one of the ladies-in-waiting in the imperial palace, Yuanchun later becomes an Imperial Consort, having impressed the Emperor with her virtue and learning. Her illustrious position as a favorite of the Emperor marks the height of the Jia family's powers. Despite her prestigious position, Yuanchun feels imprisoned within the imperial palace, and dies at the age of forty. The name of four sisters together "Yuan-Ying-Tan-Xi" is a homophone with "Supposed to sigh". Jia Tanchun () Baoyu's younger half-sister by Concubine Zhao. Extremely outspoken, she is almost as capable as Wang Xifeng. Wang Xifeng herself compliments her privately, but laments that she was "born in the wrong womb", since concubine children are not respected as much as those by first wives. She is also a very talented poet. Tanchun is nicknamed "Rose" for her beauty and her prickly personality. She later marries into a military family on the South Sea far away from home. Shi Xiangyun () Jia Baoyu's younger second cousin. Grandmother Jia's grandniece. Orphaned in infancy, she grows up under her wealthy paternal uncle and aunt who treats her unkindly. In spite of this Xiangyun is openhearted and cheerful. A comparatively androgynous beauty, Xiangyun looks good in men's clothes (once she put on Baoyu's clothes and Grandmother Jia thought she was a man), and loves to drink. She is forthright and without tact, but her forgiving nature takes the sting from her casually truthful remarks. She is well educated and as talented a poet as Daiyu or Baochai. Her young husband dies shortly after their marriage. She vows to be a faithful widow for the rest of her life. Miaoyu (; Hawkes/Minford translation: Adamantina) A young nun from Buddhist cloisters of the Rong-guo house. Although beautiful and learned, she is aloof, haughty, unsociable, and has an obsession with cleanliness. The novel says she was compelled by her illness to become a nun, and shelters herself under the nunnery to dodge political affairs. Her fate is not known after her abduction by bandits. Jia Yingchun () Second female family member of the generation of the Jia household after Yuanchun, Yingchun is the daughter of Jia She, Baoyu's uncle and therefore his elder first cousin. A kind-hearted, weak-willed person, Yingchun is said to have a "wooden" personality and seems rather apathetic toward all worldly affairs. Although very pretty and well-read, she does not compare in intelligence and wit to any of her cousins. Yingchun's most famous trait, it seems, is her unwillingness to meddle in the affairs of her family. Eventually Yingchun marries an official of the imperial court, her marriage being merely one of her father's desperate attempts to raise the declining fortunes of the Jia family. The newly married Yingchun becomes a victim of domestic abuse and constant violence at the hands of her cruel, abusive husband. Jia Xichun () Baoyu's younger cousin from the Ningguo House, but brought up in the Rongguo House. A gifted painter, she is also a devout Buddhist. She is the young sister of Jia Zhen, head of the Ningguo House. At the end of the novel, after the fall of the house of Jia, she gives up her worldly concerns and becomes a Buddhist nun. She is the second youngest of Jinling's Twelve Beauties, described as a pre-teen in most parts of the novel. Wang Xifeng (), alias Sister Feng. Baoyu's elder cousin-in-law, young wife to Jia Lian (who is Baoyu's paternal first cousin), niece to Lady Wang. Xifeng is hence related to Baoyu both by blood and marriage. A handsome woman, Xifeng is capable, clever, humorous, and, at times, vicious and cruel. Undeniably the most worldly woman in the novel, Xifeng is in charge of the daily running of the Rongguo household and wields economic as well as political power within the family. Xifeng keeps both Lady Wang and Grandmother Jia entertained with her jokes and chatter. By playing the role of the perfect filial daughter-in-law, she rules the household with an iron fist. Xifeng can be kind-hearted toward the poor and helpless or cruel enough to kill. She makes a fortune by investing in loan sharking rather than maintaining the family estate and brings about the downfall of the family. She dies soon after the family assets are seized by the government. Jia Qiaojie () Wang Xifeng's and Jia Lian's daughter. She is a child through much of the novel. After the fall of the house of Jia, in the version of Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan, she marries the son of a wealthy rural family introduced by Granny Liu and goes on to lead a happy, uneventful life in the countryside. Li Wan () Baoyu's elder sister-in-law, widow of Baoyu's deceased elder brother, Jia Zhu (). Her primary task is to bring up her son Lan and watch over her female cousins. The novel portrays Li Wan, a young widow in her late twenties, as a mild-mannered woman with no wants or desires, the perfect Confucian ideal of a proper mourning widow. She eventually attains high social status due to the success of her son at the Imperial Exams, but the novel sees her as a tragic figure because she wasted her youth upholding the strict standards of behavior. Qin Keqing (;a homophone with "look down upon love") Daughter-in-law to Jia Zhen. Of all the characters in the novel, the circumstances of her life and early death are amongst the most mysterious. Apparently a very beautiful and flirtatious woman, she carried on an affair with her father-in-law and dies before the second quarter of the novel. Her bedroom is bedecked with priceless artifacts belonging to extremely sensual women, both historical and mythological. In her bed, Bao Yu first travels to the Land of Illusion where he has a sexual encounter with Two-In-One, who represents Xue Baochai and Lin Daiyu. Two-in-One's name is also Keqing, making Qin Keqing also a significant character in Bao Yu's sexual experience. The original twelve songs hint that Qin Keqing hanged herself. The Twelve Beauties of Jinling Portraits of the main female characters of the novel Dream of the Red Chamber, as they are known as the Twelve Beauties of Jinling, by an anonymous artist of the Qing dynasty, collection of the Posner Center of Carnegie Mellon University. Other main characters Grandmother Jia (), née Shi. Also called the Matriarch or the Dowager, the daughter of Marquis Shi of Jinling. Grandmother to both Baoyu and Daiyu, she is the highest living authority in the Rongguo house and the oldest and most respected of the entire clan, yet also a doting person. She has two sons, Jia She and Jia Zheng, and a daughter, Min, Daiyu's mother. Daiyu is brought to the house of the Jias at the insistence of Grandmother Jia, and she helps Daiyu and Baoyu bond as childhood playmates and, later, kindred spirits. She distributes her savings among her relatives after the seizure of their properties by the government shortly before her death. Jia She () The elder son of the Dowager. He is the father of Jia Lian and Jia Yingchun. He is a treacherous and greedy man, and a womanizer. He is jealous of his younger brother whom his mother favors. He is later stripped of his title and banished by the government. Jia Zheng () Baoyu's father, the younger son of the Dowager. He is a disciplinarian and Confucian scholar. Afraid his one surviving heir will turn bad, he imposes strict rules on his son, and uses occasional corporal punishment. He has a wife, Lady Wang, and one concubine: Zhao. He is a Confucian scholar who tries to live life as an upright and decent person, but out of touch with reality and a hands-off person at home and in court. Jia Lian () Xifeng's husband and Baoyu's paternal elder cousin, a notorious womanizer whose numerous affairs cause much trouble with his jealous wife, including affairs with men that are not known by his wife. His pregnant concubine (Second Sister You) eventually dies by his wife's engineering. He and his wife are in charge of most hiring and monetary allocation decisions, and often fight over this power. He is a cad with a flawed character but still has a conscience. Xiangling (; Hawkes/Minford translation: Caltrop) – the Xues' maid, born Zhen Yinglian (, a homophone with "deserving pity"), the kidnapped and lost daughter of Zhen Shiyin (, a homophone with "Hiding the truth"), the country gentleman in Chapter 1. Her name is changed to Qiuling () by Xue Pan's spoiled wife, Xia Jingui () who is jealous of her and tries to poison her. Xue Pan makes her the lady of the house after Jingui's death. She soon dies while giving birth. Ping'er (; Hawkes/Minford translation: Patience) Xifeng's chief maid and personal confidante; also concubine to Xifeng's husband, Jia Lian. Originally Xifeng's maid in the Wang household, she follows Xifeng as part of her dowry when Xifeng marries into the Jia household. She handles her troubles with grace, assists Xifeng capably and appears to have the respect of most of the household servants. She is also one of the very few people who can get close to Xifeng. She wields considerable power in the house as Xifeng's most trusted assistant, but uses her power sparingly and justly. She is supremely loyal to her mistress, but more soft-hearted and sweet-tempered. Xue Pan () Baochai's older brother, a dissolute, idle rake who was a local bully in Jinling. He was known for his amorous exploits with both men and women. Not particularly well educated, he once killed a man over a servant-girl (Xiangling) and had the manslaughter case hushed up with money. Granny Liu () A country rustic and distant relation to the Wang family, who provides a comic contrast to the ladies of the Rongguo House during two visits. She eventually rescues Qiaojie from her maternal uncle, who wanted to sell her. Lady Wang () A Buddhist, primary wife of Jia Zheng. Daughter of one of the four most prominent families of Jinling. Because of her purported ill-health, she hands over the running of the household to her niece, Xifeng, as soon as the latter marries into the Jia household, although she retains overall control over Xifeng's affairs so that the latter always has to report to her. Although Lady Wang appears to be a kind mistress and a doting mother, she can in fact be cruel and ruthless when her authority is challenged. She pays a great deal of attention to Baoyu's maids to make sure that Baoyu does not develop romantic relationships with them. Aunt Xue (), née Wang Baoyu's maternal aunt, mother to Pan and Baochai, sister to Lady Wang. She is kindly and affable for the most part, but finds it hard to control her unruly son. Hua Xiren (; Hawkes/Minford translation: Aroma) Baoyu's principal maid and his unofficial concubine. While she still has standing as the Dowager's maid, the Dowager gave her to Baoyu so, in practice, Xiren is his maid. Considerate and forever worried about Baoyu, she is the partner of his first adolescent sexual encounter in the real world in Chapter 5. After Baoyu's disappearance, she unknowingly marries actor Jiang Yuhan, one of Baoyu's friends. Qingwen (; Hawkes/Minford translation: Skybright) Baoyu's personal maid. Brash, haughty and the most beautiful maid in the household, Qingwen is said to resemble Daiyu very strongly. Of all of Baoyu's maids, she is the only one who dares to argue with Baoyu when reprimanded, but is also extremely devoted to him. She is disdainful of Xiren's attempt to use her sexual relation with Baoyu to raise her status in the family. Lady Wang later suspected her of having an affair with Baoyu and publicly dismisses her on that account; angry at the unfair treatment and of the indignities and slanders that attended her as a result, Qingwen dies of an illness shortly after leaving the Jia household. Yuanyang (; Hawkes/Minford translation: Faithful) The Dowager's chief maid. She rejects a marriage proposal (as concubine) to the lecherous Jia She, Grandmother Jia's eldest son and commits suicide right after the Dowager's death. Mingyan (; Hawkes/Minford translation: Tealeaf) Baoyu's page boy. Knows his master like the back of his hand. Zijuan (; Hawkes/Minford translation: Nightingale) Daiyu's faithful maid, ceded by the Dowager to her granddaughter. She later becomes a nun to serve Jia Xichun. Xueyan (; Hawkes/Minford translation: Snowgoose) Daiyu's other maid. She came with Daiyu from Yangzhou, and comes across as a young, sweet girl. She is asked to accompany the veiled bride Baochai to trick Baoyu into believing that he is marrying Daiyu. Concubine Zhao () A concubine of Jia Zheng. She is the mother of Jia Tanchun and Jia Huan, Baoyu's half-siblings. She longs to be the mother of the head of the household, which she does not achieve. She plots to murder Baoyu and Xifeng with black magic, and it is believed that her plot cost her own life. Notable minor characters Qin Zhong (, a homophone with "great lover") – His elder sister is Qin Keqing, Baoyu's nephew's wife, and so he is technically a generation younger than Baoyu. Both he and Qin Keqing are the adopted children of Qin Ye(). The two boys enroll in the Jia clan's school together and he becomes Baoyu's best friend. The novel leaves open the possibility that things might have gone beyond innocent friendship. Qin Zhong and the novice Zhineng (, "Intelligent"; "Sapientia" in the Hawkes translation) fall in love but Qin Zhong dies soon after from a combination of his father's severe beating, sexual exhaustion, grief and remorse. One commentator writes that Qin Zhong is a pun for qingzhong (passion incarnate), and that his sister Qinshi initiates Baoyu into heterosexual relations in his dream and Qin Zhong initiates him into homosexual ones. – Jia Lan () – Son of Baoyu's deceased older brother Jia Zhu and his virtuous wife Li Wan. Jia Lan is an appealing child throughout the book and at the end succeeds in the imperial examinations to the credit of the family. Jia Zhen () – Head of the Ningguo House, the elder branch of the Jia family. He has a wife, Lady You, a younger sister, Jia Xichun, and many concubines. He is extremely greedy and the unofficial head of the clan, since his father has retired. He has an adulterous affair with his daughter-in-law, Qin Keqing. Lady You () – Wife of Jia Zhen. She is the sole mistress of the Ningguo House. Jia Rong () – Jia Zhen's son. He is the husband of Qin Keqing. An exact copy of his father, he is the Cavalier of the Imperial Guards. Second Sister You () – Jia Lian takes her in secret as his lover. Though a kept woman before she was married, after her wedding she becomes a faithful and doting wife. Because of Wang Xifeng's intrigue, she finally kills herself by swallowing a large piece of gold. Lady Xing () – Jia She's wife. She is Jia Lian's stepmother. Jia Huan () – Son of Concubine Zhao. He and his mother are both reviled by the family, and he carries himself like a kicked dog. He shows his malignant nature by spilling candle wax, intending to blind his half-brother Baoyu. Sheyue (; Hawkes/Minford translation: Musk) — Baoyu's main maid after Xiren and Qingwen. She is beautiful and caring, a perfect complement to Xiren. Qiutong () — Jia Lian's other concubine. Originally a maid of Jia She, she is given to Jia Lian as a concubine. She is a very proud and arrogant woman. Sister Sha () – A maid who does rough work for the Dowager. She is guileless but amusing and caring. In the Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan version, she unintentionally informs Daiyu of Baoyu's secret marriage plans. Themes The opening chapter of the novel describes a great stone archway and on either side a couplet is inscribed: As one critic points out, the couplet signifies "not a hard and fast division between truth and falsity, reality and illusion, but the impossibility of making such distinctions in any world, fictional or actual." This theme is further reflected in the name of the main family, Jia (, pronounced jiǎ), which is a homophone with the character jiǎ , meaning false or fictitious; this is mirrored the surname of the other main family, Zhen (, pronounced zhēn), a homophone for the word "real" (). It is suggested that the novel is both a realistic reflection and a fictional or "dream" version of Cao's own family. Early Chinese critics identified its two major themes as those of romantic love, and of the transitoriness of earthly material values, as outlined in Buddhist and Taoist philosophies. Later scholars echoed the philosophical aspects of love and its transcendent power as depicted in the novel. One remarked that the novel is a remarkable example of the "dialectic of dream and reality, art and life, passion and enlightenment, nostalgia and knowledge." The novel also vividly depicts Chinese material culture, such as medicine, cuisine, tea culture, festivities, proverbs, mythology, Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, filial piety, opera, music, architecture, funeral rites, painting, classic literature and the Four Books. Among these, the novel is particularly notable for its grand use of poetry. Since the establishment of Cao Xueqin as the novel's author, its autobiographical aspects have come to the fore. Cao Xueqin's clan was similarly raided in real life, and suffered a steep decline. Marxist interpretation starting in the New Culture Movement saw the novel as exposing feudal society's corruption and emphasized the clashes between the classes. Since the 1980s, critics have embraced the novel's richness and aesthetics in a more multicultural context. In the title Hóng lóu Mèng (, literally "Red Chamber Dream"), "red chamber" can refer to the sheltered chambers where the daughters of a prominent family reside. It also refers to Baoyu's dream in chapter five, set in a "red chamber", a dream where the fates of many of the characters are foreshadowed. "Mansion" is one of the definitions of the Chinese character "" (lóu), but the scholar Zhou Ruchang writes that in the phrase hónglóu it is more accurately translated as "chamber". Reception and influences in modern era In the late 19th century, Hong Lou Meng influence was so pervasive that the reformer Liang Qichao attacked it along with another classic novel Water Margin as "incitement to robbery and lust", and for smothering the introduction of Western style novels, which he regarded as more socially responsible. The eminent scholar Wang Guowei, however, achieved a new method of literary interpretation in an innovative and path-breaking 1904 essay which invoked the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer. Wang called the novel "the tragedy of tragedies", in contrast to the prosperous endings in most earlier drama and fiction. Wang further proclaims the novel as "[W]orthy of being considered as the one great masterpiece in the realm of Chinese art." In the early 20th century, although the New Culture Movement took a critical view of the Confucian classics, the scholar Hu Shih used the tools of textual criticism to put the novel in an entirely different light, as a foundation for national culture. Hu and his students, Gu Jiegang and Yu Pingbo, first established that Cao Xueqin was the work's author. Taking the question of authorship seriously reflected a new respect for fiction, since the lesser forms of literature had not been traditionally ascribed to particular individuals. Hu next built on Cai Yuanpei's investigations of the printing history of the early editions to prepare reliable reading texts. The final, and in some respects most important task, was to study the vocabulary and usage of Cao's Beijing dialect as a basis for Modern Mandarin. In the 1920s, scholars and devoted readers developed Hongxue, or Redology into both a scholarly field and a popular avocation. Among the avid readers was the young Mao Zedong, who later claimed to have read the novel five times and praised it as one of China's greatest works of literature. The influence of the novel's themes and style are evident in many modern Chinese prose works. The early 1950s was a rich period for Redology with publication of major studies by Yu Pingbo. Zhou Ruchang, who as a young scholar had come to the attention of Hu Shih in the late 1940s, published his first study in 1953, which became a best seller. But in 1954 Mao personally criticized Yu Pingbo for his "bourgeois idealism" in failing to emphasize that the novel exposed the decadence of "feudal" society and the theme of class struggle. In the Hundred Flowers Campaign, Yu came under heavy criticism but the attacks were so extensive and full of quotations from his work that they spread Yu's ideas to many people who would not otherwise have known of their existence. During the Cultural Revolution, the novel initially came under fire, though it quickly regained its prestige in the following years. Zhou Ruchang resumed his lifework, eventually publishing more than sixty biographical and critical studies. In 2006, Zhou, who had long distrusted Gao E's editions, and the novelist Liu Xinwu, author of popular studies of the novel, joined to produce a new 80 chapter version which Zhou had edited to eliminate the Cheng-Gao emendations. Liu completed an ending that was supposedly more true to Cao's original intent. The novel continues to be influential on contemporary Chinese poets such as Middle Generation's An Qi, who paid homage to it in her poem To Cao Xueqin. Translations and reception in the West It is a major challenge to translate Cao's prose, which utilizes many levels of colloquial and literary language and incorporates forms of classic poetry that are integral to the novel. A 2014 study concluded that the work is a "challenge even to the most resourceful of translators, and the process of rendering it into another language is bound to involve more translation problems, techniques, and principles than the process of rendering any other literary work." The first recorded attempt at translating the novel into English was done by the noted Protestant missionary and sinologist Robert Morrison (1782–1834) in 1812 when he translated part of chapter four of the novel for the purpose of having it published in the second volume of his 1812 book Horae Sinicae (this book was never published). In 1816, Morrison did publish a translation of a conversation from chapter 31 in his Chinese language textbook Dialogues and Detached Sentences in the Chinese Language. In 1819, a short excerpt from chapter 3 was translated by the famous British diplomat and sinologist John Francis Davis (1795–1890) and published in the London Journal Quarterly Review. Davis also published a poem from chapter 3 of the novel in 1830 in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society. In 1842, Karl Gützlaff published an article "Hung Lau Mung, or Dreams in the Red Chamber" in the sixth volume of the "Chinese Repository". In this article, some passages of the original work was translated and criticized. However, some critical misunderstandings exist in this paper. The next translation into English was a literal translation of selected passages prepared for foreigners learning Chinese published by the Presbyterian Mission Press of Ningbo in 1846. Edward Charles Bowra of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs published a translation of the first eight chapters in 1868 and H. Bencraft Joly of the first fifty-six chapters in 1892. The Reverend E.J. Eitel reviewed Joly's translation and condemned the novel, saying that Chinese read it "because of its wickedness." Herbert Giles, who John Minford called "one of the more free-thinking British consular officers," took a more favorable view and wrote a twenty-five page synopsis in 1885 that is still a "useful guide." Giles further highlighted it in his A History of Chinese Literature in 1901. In the early 20th century, Elfrida Hudson published a short introduction of the masterpiece titled as "An old, old story" in 1938 on "The China Journal". An abridged translation by Wang Chi-Chen which emphasized the central love story was published in 1929, with a preface by Arthur Waley. Waley said that in the passages which recount dreams "we feel most clearly the symbolic or universal value" of the characters. "Pao Yu", Waley continued, stands for "imagination and poetry" and his father for "all those sordid powers of pedantry and restriction which hamper the artist". In a 1930 review of Wang's translated version, Harry Clemons of The Virginia Quarterly Review wrote "This is a great novel", and along with the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, it "ranks foremost" among the novels of classic Chinese literature. Although Clemons felt "meaning was only fragmentarily revealed" in the English translated prose and that "many of the incidents" and "much of the poetry" were omitted, he nevertheless thought "at any rate the effort to read The Dream of the Red Chamber is eminently worth making." In 1958 Wang published an expansion on his earlier abridgement, though it was still truncated at 60 chapters. The stream of translations and literary studies in the West grew steadily, building on Chinese language scholarship. The 1932 German translation by Franz Kuhn was the basis of an abridged version, The Dream of the Red Chamber, by Florence and Isabel McHugh published in 1958, and a later French version. Bramwell Seaton Bonsall, completed a translation in the 1950s, Red Chamber Dream, a typescript of which is available on the web. Critic Anthony West wrote in The New Yorker in 1958 that the novel is to the Chinese "very much what The Brothers Karamazov is to Russian and Remembrance of Things Past is to French literature" and "it is beyond question one of the great novels of all literature." Kenneth Rexroth in a 1958 review of the McHugh translation, describes the novel as among the "greatest works of prose fiction in all the history of literature", for it is "profoundly humane". The respected and prolific team Gladys Yang and Yang Hsien-yi translated the first complete and literal English version, A Dream of Red Mansions (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 3 volumes, 1978–1980). The second complete English translation to be published was by David Hawkes some century and a half after the first English translation. Hawkes was already a recognised redologist and had previously translated Chu Ci when Penguin Classics approached him in 1970 to make a translation which could appeal to English readers. After resigning from his professorial position, Hawkes published the first eighty chapters in three volumes (1973, 1977, 1980). The Story of the Stone (1973–1980), the first eighty chapters translated by Hawkes and last forty by his son-in-law John Minford consists of five volumes and 2,339 pages of actual core text (not including Prefaces, Introductions and Appendices). The word count of the Penguin Classics English translation is estimated as 845,000 words. In a 1980 review of the Hawkes and Minford translation in The New York Review of Books, Frederic Wakeman, Jr. described the novel as a "masterpiece" and the work of a "literary genius". Cynthia L. Chennault of the University of Florida stated that "The Dream is acclaimed as one of the most psychologically penetrating novels of world literature." The novel and its author have been described as among the most significant works of literature and literary figures of the past millennium. Extracts from the Hawkes translation were published as The Dream of the Red Chamber (New York: Penguin, Penguin 1960s Classics Series, 1996. .) Some scholars have given views on whether the best English translation is the Yangs' translation or the Hawkes and Minford translation. A number of characters in the novel have names that sound like the words for their personality traits, and some characters' names serve as allusions. Hawkes opted to convey the communicative function of characters' names rather than prioritizing lexical equivalence; for example, Huo Qi is homonymous with "the beginning of catastrophe", and Hawkes makes "Calamity" the English name for that character. The translator sometimes uses Italian/Sanskrit terms when Western Christian culture lacks a term for a concept. Gladys Yang and Yang Hsien-yi wrote a literal translation, informing readers of names' meanings through annotations instead. Zhu Jian-chun argued that Hawkes’ choice to simply translate certain names that are puns makes the author’s intentions clearer, and that the Yangs' choice of transliteration leaves the meaning more elusive, even if the transliterated names are more believable as character names. Zhu questioned the Yangs' translation of "Dao Ren" as "reverend". According to Barry Lee Reynolds and Chao-Chih Liao, the Yangs' version contains more faithful translations of religious expressions but is also less readable to English language readers. Xuxiang Suo argued, “Hawkes successfully conveyed the original textual information to foreign readers with smooth and beautiful English, but the loss of Chinese culture-loaded information is inevitable. Mr. Yang mostly adopted the way of literal translation, trying his best to keep the true and idiomatic Chinese style and national tint." The sinologist Oldřich Král also undertook a Czech translation of the entire novel, Sen v červeném domě (Prague: Odeon, three volumes, 1986–1988). Slovak sinologist and philosopher Marina Čarnogurská translated into Slovak whole four volumes of the novel, Sen o Červenom pavilóne (Bratislava: Petrus, 2001-2003. ). In 2014, an abridged English translation of Dream by writer Lin Yutang resurfaced in a Japanese library. Lin's translation, about half the length of the original, is reportedly not a literal one. Sequels and continuations Owing to its immense popularity, numerous sequels and continuations to the novel have been published, even during the Qing era. There are currently more than thirty recorded sequels or continuations to the novel, including modern ones. Modern (post-1949) continuations tend to follow after the eightieth chapter, and include those by Zhang Zhi, Zhou Yuqing, Hu Nan and Liu Xinwu. Adaptations At least fourteen cinematic adaptations of the Dream of the Red Chamber have been made, including the 1944 film directed by Bu Wancang, the Hong Kong Shaw Brothers adaptation starring Sylvia Chang and Brigitte Lin, and the 1988 film directed by Xie Tieli () and Zhao Yuan (). This last film took two years to prepare and three years to shoot, and remains, at 735 minutes, the longest Chinese film ever made. In 1981, Jiangsu Song and Dance Troupe premiered a dance drama version of Dream of the Red Chamber. A reworked version was performed in 1982 in Beijing by China Opera and Dance Drama Theatre featuring lead dancer Chen Ailian. At least ten television adaptations have been produced (excluding numerous Chinese opera adaptations), and they include the renowned 1987 television series, which is regarded by many within China as being a near-definitive adaptation of the novel. It was initially somewhat controversial as few Redologists believed a TV adaptation could do the novel full justice. Producer and director Wang Fulin's decision in employing non-professional young actors was vindicated as the TV series gained enormous popularity in China. The series' success owes much to composer Wang Liping (). He set many of the novel's classical verses to music, taking as long as four years to deliberate and complete his compositions. Other television versions include a 1996 Taiwanese series and a 2010 version directed by Fifth Generation director Li Shaohong. Unlike the other great Chinese novels, particularly Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Journey to the West, the Dream of the Red Chamber has received little attention in the gaming world, with only two Chinese language visual novels having been released as of 2017. Hong Lou Meng and Hong Lou Meng: Lin Daiyu yu Bei Jingwang () were both released by Beijing Entertainment All Technology (). The latter one was released on 8 January 2010, and it is an extended version of the first game, with the main heroines of the game fully voiced and additional CG+endings. An English-language opera based on the novel in two acts was composed by Chinese American composer Bright Sheng, with libretto by Sheng and David Henry Hwang. The three-hour opera had its world premiere on 10 September 2016, by the San Francisco Opera. For their 2020 album, Transience of Life, the American art-rock band Elysian Fields set several poems from the novel to music. See also References Citations Works cited and further reading Chen Weizhao (), Hongxue Tongshi (, "A History of Redology"). Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2005. . Annotated bibliography of Western and Chinese language books and articles (subscription required). C.T. Hsia, Ch VII, "The Dream of the Red Chamber," in The Classic Chinese Novel: A Critical Introduction (1968; rpr. Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University, Cornell East Asia Series, 1996. ), pp. 245–297. Zaifu Liu, Yunzhong Shu, Reflections on Dream of the Red Chamber (Amherst, N.Y.: Cambria Press, 2008). Andrew H. Plaks, Archetype and Allegory in the "Dream of the Red Chamber" (Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press, 1976). Reprinted: (Ann Arbor: U.M.I. Books on Demand, Reprint, 1993). Articles on the nature, content, and history of the novel. . Shih-Ch'ang Wu, On the Red Chamber Dream: A Critical Study of Two Annotated Manuscripts of the 18th Century (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1961). Chi Xiao, The Chinese Garden as Lyric Enclave: A Generic Study of the Story of the Stone (Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Chinese Studies Publications 2001). Anthony Yu, "Dream of the Red Chamber," in Barbara Stoller Miller, ed., Masterworks of Asian Culture (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe), pp. 285–299. ; reprinted in Ying-shih Yü, with the editorial assistance of Josephine Chiu Duke and Michael S. Duke, Chinese History and Culture Volume 2 Seventeenth Century Through Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), pp. 134-151. Translation of a Qing dynasty commentary showing a traditional interpretation. Ruchang Zhou, Edited by Ronald R. Gray, Mark S. Ferrara, Between Noble and Humble: Cao Xueqin and the Dream of the Red Chamber (New York: Peter Lang, 2009). Translated by Liangmei Bao and Kyongsook Park. . External links Bryan Van Norden, Guide to Reading Story of the Stone/Dream of the Red Chamber. Zhang Xiugui, CliffsNotes. Summary and notes. Richard Smith (Rice University) Dream of the Red Chamber Outline of Vol I of Story of the Stone, with comments. Article on China Central Television Program about Red Chamber – China Daily. Raymond Zhou. 12 November 2005. Dream of the Red Chamber 紅樓夢 Chinese text with embedded Chinese-English dictionary Dream of the Red Chamber: Afterlives, University of Minnesota. Eight sections of an on-line course, including "The Text of the Novel; "Nineteenth Century Responses"; "Twentieth and Twenty-first Century Responses"; "The Social World of the Dream"; Describes the book conservation work. 18th-century Chinese novels Chinese novels adapted into films Chinese novels adapted into television series Family saga novels Novels adapted into operas Novels set in Imperial China Philosophical novels Qing dynasty novels

263018

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenagoras%20of%20Athens

Athenagoras of Athens

Athenagoras (; ; c. 133 – c. 190 AD) was a Father of the Church, an Ante-Nicene Christian apologist who lived during the second half of the 2nd century of whom little is known for certain, besides that he was Athenian (though possibly not originally from Athens), a philosopher, and a convert to Christianity. Athenagoras' feast day is observed on 24 July in the Eastern Orthodox Church. History In his writings he styles himself as "Athenagoras, the Athenian, Philosopher, and Christian". There is some evidence that he was a Platonist before his conversion, but this is not certain. A convert to Christianity, Athenagoras went to Alexandria and taught at what would become its celebrated Christian academy. Work and writings Although his work appears to have been well-known and influential, mention of him by other early Christian apologists, notably in the extensive writings of Eusebius, is strangely absent. It may be that his treatises, circulating anonymously, were for a time considered as the work of another apologist, or there may have been other circumstances now lost. There are only two mentions of him in early Christian literature: several accredited quotations from his Apology in a fragment of Methodius of Olympus (died 312) and some untrustworthy biographical details in the fragments of the Christian History of Philip of Side (c. 425). Philip of Side claims that Athenagoras headed the Catechetical School of Alexandria (which is probably incorrect and contradicted by Eusebius) and notes that Athenagoras converted to Christianity after initially familiarizing himself with the Scriptures in an attempt to controvert them. From the rhythm of his sentences, and the arrangement of his material, it can be surmised that he attended a school of rhetoric. His writings bear witness to his erudition and culture, his power as a philosopher and rhetorician, his keen appreciation of the intellectual temper of his age, and his tact and delicacy in dealing with the powerful opponents of his religion. Thus his writings are credited by some later scholars as having had a more significant impact on their intended audience than the now better-known writings of his more polemical and religiously-grounded contemporaries. Of his writings, there have been preserved but a few: his Embassy (πρεσβεία) for the Christians (more usually called by the Latin titled Legatio Pro Christianis or simply the Legatio and often referred to as the Apology), and a treatise titled the Resurrection of the Dead a.k.a. On the Resurrection of the Body. Legatio Pro Christianis The Embassy for the Christians, the date of which is fixed by internal evidence as late in 176 or 177, was a carefully written plea for justice to the Christians made by a philosopher, on philosophical grounds, to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, whom he flatters as conquerors, "but above all, philosophers". The Apology is an early attempt use Neoplatonic ideas to interpret Christian belief for Greek and Roman cultures. He first complains of the illogical and unjust discrimination against the Christians and of the calumnies they suffer, and then meets the charge of atheism (a major complaint directed at the Christians of the day was that by disbelieving in the Roman gods, they were showing themselves to be atheists). This first strongly-reasoned argument for the unity of God in Christian literature is supplemented by an able exposition of the Trinity. Assuming then the defensive, he justifies the Christian abstention from worship of the national deities by arguing that it is absurd and indecent, quoting at length the pagan poets and philosophers in support of his contention. Finally, he meets the charges of immorality by exposing the Christian ideal of purity, even in thought, and the inviolable sanctity of the marriage bond. In refuting the charge of cannibalism Athenagoras states that Christians detest all cruelty and murder, refusing to attend contests of gladiators and wild beasts and holding that women who use drugs to bring on abortion commit murder for which they will have to give an account to God. On the Resurrection of the Dead The treatise on the Resurrection of the Dead, the first complete exposition of the doctrine in Christian literature, was written later than the Apology, to which it may be considered as an appendix. The writer brings to the defence of the doctrine the best that contemporary philosophy could adduce. After meeting the objections common to his time, he seeks to prove the possibility of a resurrection in view either of the power of the Creator, or of the nature of our bodies. To exercise such powers is neither unworthy of God nor unjust to other creatures. He argues that the nature and end of man demand a perpetuation of the life of body and soul. Although he clearly teaches the immortality of the soul and of the resurrection body, he argues that the soul is unconscious between death and resurrection: "[T]hose who are dead and those who sleep are subject to similar states, as regards at least the stillness and the absence of all sense of the present or the past, or rather of existence itself and their own life." See also Notes References Esp. pp. 105–109. Attribution External links Apologetics of Athenagorus, Basil, Clement 133 births 190 deaths 2nd-century Christian mystics 2nd-century Christian saints 2nd-century Greek people Christian anti-Gnosticism Christian apologists Church Fathers Greek Christian mystics Saints of Roman Athens

263021

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smile%20from%20the%20Streets%20You%20Hold

Smile from the Streets You Hold

Smile from the Streets You Hold is the second studio album by John Frusciante. It was released on August 26, 1997, on Birdman Records, while Frusciante was addicted to drugs and was no longer performing with Red Hot Chili Peppers. The record is an amalgamation of songs from various periods of time, mainly extras not included on Frusciante's debut Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T-Shirt (1994); included, however, are several tracks recorded in 1993, 1994, 1996 and "A Fall Thru the Ground" from 1988. Recording Many songs from Smile from the Streets You Hold were recorded when Frusciante was still with the Chili Peppers and are from the same period as his previous solo album, Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T-Shirt. One of the earliest songs to be recorded is "A Fall Thru the Ground", which was recorded in 1988. In a 1997 interview with Guitar Player, Frusciante claimed to have maintained active communication with the spirit world during the album's recording phase: Actor River Phoenix, a good friend of Frusciante and the rest of the Chili Peppers, is posthumously featured on two tracks, "Height Down" (originally titled "Soul Removal"), and "Well I've Been" (originally titled "Bought Her Soul"). Both songs were supposed to be released on Niandra LaDes and Usually Just a T-Shirt, but were pulled by request of Phoenix's family after Phoenix's death. "Life's A Bath" was recorded in late 1993 while Frusciante was living in a rental home after his former house was damaged in a fire. The previously mentioned "Height Down" and "Well, I've Been" were recorded in spring 1993 at Frusciante's former home. "I May Again Know John", "Enter A Uh", "Nigger Song" & the second part of "Smile From The Streets You Hold" were recorded in late 1994 while Frusciante was living in New York City. "More", "I Can't See Until I See Your Eyes", and "Estress" were recorded to a cassette on a boombox in 1996. Frusciante's poor health is apparent in his voice. Release Frusciante had Smile from the Streets You Hold and Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T-Shirt removed from record stores in 1998 after rejoining the Red Hot Chili Peppers because he felt uncomfortable with them being available to the public. He is quoted as saying that he released Smile from the Streets You Hold for drug money. Niandra Lades was eventually re-issued and in the early 2000s, Frusciante stated he will one day re-release Smile from the Streets You Hold. There is also a second print of Smile from the Streets You Hold available. The songs on the second print are much lower in sound quality and have frequent hiss and hum, most notable in "Nigger Song" which obscures the recording somewhat. It has been speculated that the original release had had the recordings professionally mastered, but the second release used Frusciante's untampered tapes by mistake. The title song "Smile from the Streets You Hold", is split in two separate tracks. During a 2001 solo performance, Frusciante said the song was about a friend, with the first half written while the person was alive and the second part being written after their death. Fans have speculated that the song may be about River Phoenix, although this has never been confirmed. The second print also includes an extended version of "Life's a Bath". Another notable difference between the 17-track version and the 18-track version is that on the former, John can be heard taking a hit from a bong on "For Air". Reception Reviewing the album for Pitchfork, James Wisdom wrote: "Smile For The Streets You Hold would easily have to be the easiest CD to hate that I've ever heard, but hidden between the disturbingly twisted and tortured vocals there are a few gems ... It's fringe – way, way out there. I'm giving it a 0% because you'll have to call this one on your own, sorry." Track listing References John Frusciante albums 1997 albums Birdman Records albums

263027

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel%20behavior

Travel behavior

Travel behavior is the study of what people do over space, and how people use transport. Questions studied The questions studied in travel behavior are broad, and are probed through activity and time-use research studies, and surveys of travelers designed to reveal attitudes, behaviors and the gaps between them in relation to the sociological and environmental impacts of travel. How many trips do people make? Where do they go? (What is the destination?) What mode do they take? Who accompanies whom? When is the trip made? What is the schedule? What is the sequence or pattern of trips? What route choices do people make? Why do people travel? (Why can't people stay at home and telecommute or teleshop?) To what degree are people aware of the environmental and climate impacts of their travel choices? To what degree and how do people rationalize the environmental and climate impacts causes by their travel? Where changes in travel behavior would be beneficial to society, how might those changes be promoted? Other behavioral aspects of traveling, such as letting people get off before entering a vehicle, queueing behavior, etc. (See for example Passenger behavior in Shanghai) Data These questions can be answered descriptively using a travel diary, often part of a travel survey or travel behavior inventory. Large metropolitan areas typically only do such surveys once every decade, though some cities are conducting panel surveys, which track the same people year after year. Such repeated surveys are useful because they yield different answers than surveys at a single point in time. That data is generally used to estimate transportation planning models, so that transport analysts can make predictions about people who haven't been surveyed. This is important in forecasting traffic, which depends on future changes to road networks, land use patterns, and policies. Some years ago it was recognized that behavioral research was limited by data, and a special data set was developed to aid research: The Baltimore Disaggregate Data Set which is the result an in depth survey, ca. 1977. Its title indicates today’s emphasis on disaggregated rather than aggregated data. This particular data set is believed lost. A small program to preserve and make available on the web these travel behavior surveys, the Metropolitan Travel Survey Archive, is now under way at the University of Minnesota. There is also the National Personal Transportation Survey (later National Household Travel Survey), conducted every five years or so, but with much less spatial detail. Today, the best source of information about travel behavior is a Household Travel Survey. In this type of data collection the sampling unit is the household and all its members because people interact the most with other people with whom they share a residence. Data on household characteristics, person characteristics, and a daily diary constitute the Household Travel Survey. The diary can be a trip diary (in which a person records every trip made in a day), or a place-based diary (in which a person record every location visited, the trips made to reach these location and the activities completed), or a time use diary (in which a person everything he/she does in day). Examples include the National Household Travel Survey, the California Household Travel Survey, The Puget Sound Travel Survey. Data from these surveys can be found at https://www.nrel.gov/transportation/secure-transportation-data/. Travel behavior and activity analysis Analysis of travel behavior from the home can answer the question: How does the family participate in modern society. Consider two non-observable extremes. At one extreme we have the non-specialized household. It does everything for itself, and no travel is required. Ultimate specialization is the other extreme; travel is required for all things. Observed households are somewhere in between. The “in between” position of households might be thought of as the consequence of two matters. There is social and economic structure – the organization of society. To participate in this society, the household specializes its occupations, education, social activities, etc. The extent to which members of the household specialize turns on their attributes and resources. Moore (1964) has observed that increasing specialization in all things is the chief feature of social change. Considering social changes, one might observe that 100 years ago things were less specialized compared to today. So we would expect lots of change in household travel over the time period. Data are not very good, but the travel time aspect of what’s available seems contrary to the expectation, travel hasn’t changed much. For instance, the time spent on the journey to work may have been stable for centuries (the travel budget hypothesis). Here are some travel time comparisons from John Robinson (1986). Most travel behavior analysis concerns demand issues and do not touch very much on supply issues. Yet when we observe travel from a home, we are certainly observing some sort of market clearing process – demand and supply are matched. History of travel behavior analysis Analytic work on travel behavior can be dated from Liepmann (1945). Liepmann obtained and analyzed 1930s data on worker travel in England. Many of the insights current today were found by Liepmann: time spent, ride sharing, etc. Most academics date modern work from advances in mode choice analysis made in the 1970s. This created much excitement, and after some years an International Association for Travel Behaviour Research emerged. There are about 150 members of the Association; it holds a conference every three years. The proceedings of those conferences yield a nice record of advances in the field. The proceedings also provide a record of topics of lasting interest and of changing priorities. Mode choice received priority early on, but in the main today’s work is not so much on theory as it is on practice. Hagerstrand (1970) developed a time and space path analysis, often called the time-space prism. Gender difference in travel patterns On November 18–20, 2004, Transportation Research Board (TRB) held its third conference in Chicago, Illinois, with an interest in advancing the understanding of women’s issues in transportation. One of the presented studies, conducted by Nobis et al., revealed that the gender difference in travel patterns is linked to employment status, household structure, child care, and maintenance tasks. They found that travel patterns of men and women are much similar when considering single families; the differences are greater once males and females are compared in multi-person households without children; and are the highest once they live in households with children. Over the past two decades numerous studies have been conducted on travel behavior showing gender as an influential factor in travel decision making. See also Hypermobility Metropolitan Travel Survey Archive Prof. Stefan Gössling, sustainable travel expert Travel survey Willingness to pay References External links https://web.archive.org/web/20110530124709/http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/scienceresearch/social/climatechangetransportchoices/ http://www.dft.gov.uk/data/release/10036 Consumer behaviour Human geography Transportation planning Travel

263028

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davao%20del%20Sur

Davao del Sur

Davao del Sur (; ) is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital is Digos City. Davao City is the largest city in terms of area and population within the province's jurisdiction, yet it is administratively independent of the province; as such, Davao City is only grouped for geographical and statistical purposes. The province is bounded by Davao del Norte to the north, Davao Occidental to the south-east, North Cotabato and Sultan Kudarat to the west, South Cotabato and Sarangani to the south-west, and the Davao Gulf to the east. History The beginnings of both Davao Region and Davao del Sur were associated with the foundation of Davao, which was the first town to be founded in southern Mindanao in 1848, following the conquest of the area by José Uyanguren of the Basque province of Gipuzkoa, Spain (Guipúzcoa in Spanish). In 1849, Nueva Guipúzcoa province was founded in the region conquered by Uyanguren in what is now Davao Region, with Davao, then called Nueva Vergara, as the provincial capital. Uyanguren became the provincial governor, but he failed in his efforts to develop Nueva Guipúzcoa. Thirty-six years after the foundation of Davao, the town of Santa Cruz was founded on October 5, 1884. It is the first town to be founded south of Davao and is now the oldest in the province. The Spanish administration in the Philippines ended in 1898 following the defeat of the Spaniards during the Spanish–American War. In the early 1900s, waves of immigrants from the Visayas, Luzon, and as well as from Japan began to live in the region, centered mainly in Davao. The region began to boom in economic growth as agricultural business proliferated in the region. As part of the "food bowl" of what is now the province of Davao del Sur, otherwise known as the Padada Valley, the agricultural area south of the town of Santa Cruz, which is known as Digos that time, lured many migrants, majority of whom came from the Visayas and Ilocos regions to settle permanently in the area. Before World War II, an enterprising American by the name of N.E. Crumb leased and transformed the place into an abaca plantation. This became the hub of economic activity in the locality during those days. In 1942, during the start of the World War II in the Pacific, the first waves of invading Japanese units landed and entered the province of southern Davao. In 1945, the liberation of southern Davao by United States and Philippine Commonwealth troops was supported by Davaoeño guerrilla fighters. In 1967, Davao Province was divided into three provinces, one of them being Davao del Sur; the town of Digos was made its capital and would become a suburban city for the next 33 years. On October 28, 2013, along with the Barangay Elections, a plebiscite was held to create a new province Davao Occidental, formed out of the southern part of Davao del Sur, covering the municipalities of the 2nd district of the province, namely Don Marcelino, Jose Abad Santos, Santa Maria, Sarangani and Malita (which was designated as the provincial capital) by virtue of Republic Act 10360 enacted on July 23, 2013, and the majority of votes cast were "Yes", ratifying the province. In 2015, the National Competitiveness Council, ranked the province as the most competitive province in the country. Geography Davao del Sur covers a total area of occupying the southwestern section of the Davao Region in Mindanao. When Davao City is included for geographical purposes, the province's land area is . The province is bounded by Davao del Norte to the north; Davao Occidental to the south-east; North Cotabato and Sultan Kudarat to the west; South Cotabato and Sarangani to the south-west ; and the Davao Gulf to the east. The province is composed of sandy beaches and outlying islands, agricultural plains and valleys, rainforests, swamps, rolling hills and mountains, including the Philippines' highest peak, Mount Apo, which is at above sea level. Administrative divisions Davao del Sur comprises 9 municipalities and 1 component city, all encompassed by a lone legislative district. Davao City, although part of the province for geographical and statistical purposes, is governed independently from the province. Climate The province enjoys a mild, pleasant climate all year round. Because of its topographical characteristics and geographical location, it is rarely visited by typhoons. There is no pronounced wet or dry season. The coolest months are from November to February with an average temperature of . during the peak summer months from March to May, temperatures average but may rise as high as . Demographics The population of Davao del Sur in the was people, with a density of . When Davao City is included for geographical purposes, the province's population is 2,265,579 people, with a density of . Davao del Sur is an ethnic mix of Visayans (mostly Cebuanos), Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans with a number of indigenous ethnic groups scattered across the province. The Cebuano language, with Davaoeño as its regional variant, is the main language of the province, although Tagalog and English are also widely spoken and used in government functions and publications. Since the late 20th century, a linguistic phenomenon has developed in the Metro Davao area whereby locals have either shifted to Tagalog or significantly mix Tagalog terms and grammar into their Cebuano speech, a term informally coined as Bisalog. Religion Christianity in the form of Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion in the province followed by more than 80% of the people. The remaining faiths are Islam and other Christians such as Aglipayan, Baptists, Iglesia ni Cristo, Church of Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormons) Seventh-day Adventist, other Evangelical Christians and Jehovah's Witnesses. Indigenous groups Moro peoples The major Moro ethnic group is the Kagan tribe, an Islamized group related to the Tagacaolos, Mandaya, Mansaka, and Kalagan, since Davao del Sur was once part of Sultanate of Maguindanao. Lumad peoples The Bagobo people live in an area that extends from Davao del Sur and South Cotabato to the foot of Mount Apo and Davao City all the way to the land bordered by the Davao and Pulangi rivers and up to northern Cotabato and southeast Bukidnon. Numbering about 80,000, their traditional costume is woven from abaca fiber and heavily ornamented with beads, shells, metal discs, embroidery and brightly colored geometric applique. Though Bagobos have the most stunning costumes among the Davao ethnic groups, they wear them only on special occasions. Like the Mandayas and Mansakas, they shave their eyebrows to a thin line and file and blacken their teeth. Bagobo smiths cast little bells which are attached to pouches, bracelets, jackets, anklets and inlaid metal boxes. The Tagacaolo people number about 23,000 and occupy the area between the western shores of the gulf and the slopes of Mount Apo. This is one of the tribes which resisted Muslim conversion and maintained a highland animistic culture. The Kalagan people are part Islamized and part Chistianized and related to the Tagacaolos. Numbering only about 7,000, they live along the shores of the Davao Gulf. The Mangguangan people now number only 3,000. They can be found in Davao del Sur and Davao del Norte. In both groups, women generally wear handwoven abaca tube skirts, embroidered blue cotton tops and heavy jewellery. Men sport wide blue or white fringed and embroidered trousers and a loose shirt. Red is a color only for a headman ("bagani") and for women of high status. Aeta people Aeta people live in some areas of Davao City all the way to Davao del Norte, Compostela Valley and Bukidnon. They are related to the Manobos of Cotabato and include sub-groups such as the Talaingod of the Kapalong forests in Davao del Norte and the Matigsalug. Numbering about 222,000, Ata men wear long-sleeved shirts, carry spears, hunt, log and grow crops. Their womenfolk wear native blouses, "malong" skirts and accessories of brass bracelets and bead necklaces. Mandaya and Mansaka are culturally related groups who are highly musical - playing the five string bamboo guitar, two-string lute, violin, flute, gong, drum and bamboo Jew's harp. They are also excellent silversmiths crafting breastplates, jewellery, daggers and knives. The Mandayas are famous for their colorful abaca fiber weaves embroidered with tribal motifs. Economy Art and culture The colorful artistic heritage of Davao stems from the rich culture of its tribes. For the Bagobos, aesthetics is the meticulous carving of weapons; the elaborate decoration of inlaid metal boxes with bells; and the ornamentation of their abaca fiber dress with embroidery, shells, beads and metal discs. The Mandayas, on the other hand, have a solid tradition in weaving. To produce their famed coarse textured cloth, abaca fiber is colored with earth dyes and woven on a backstrap loom. The final product is embroidered with bright-colored threads in geometric patterns. Some elements of tribal folklore are also included in the designs. The Mansakas, together with the Mandayas, are also expert silversmiths. They craft weapons, breastplates and dress accessories. Much of its people are Christians. Davao is also a harmonious blend of Christian and Muslim cultures. However, its most stunning cultural aspect is definitely its ethnic art which encompasses music, dance, religious ritual, dress and ornamentation. Government Governor: Marc Douglas Cagas IV Vice Governor: John Tracy Cagas Representative: Lone District of Davao del Sur Mercedes "Didi" Cagas See also Nueva Guipuzcoa Revolt References External links Davao City Travel and Tourism Guide Provinces of the Philippines Davao Region States and territories established in 1967 1967 establishments in the Philippines

263031

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davao

Davao

Davao may refer to: Cities and metropolitan areas Davao City, an independent highly urbanized city in the Davao Region of Mindanao island, Philippines Metro Davao, the metropolitan area centered on Davao City Regions and provinces Davao (province) (1914–1967), a defunct/former province in the Philippines Davao Region, an administrative region in the Philippines succeeding the former Davao province, containing the present provinces of: Davao de Oro Davao del Norte Davao del Sur Davao Occidental Davao Oriental Hubs of transportation Francisco Bangoy International Airport (DVO), Davao City's main airport Port of Davao, Davao City's main seaport Water bodies Davao Gulf, Mindanao, Philippines Davao River, Mindanao, Philippines

263033

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadoluhisar%C4%B1

Anadoluhisarı

Anadoluhisarı (), known historically as Güzelce Hisar ("the Beauteous Castle") is a medieval fortress located in Istanbul, Turkey on the Anatolian (Asian) side of the Bosporus. The complex is the oldest surviving Turkish architectural structure built in Istanbul, and further gives its name to the neighborhood around it in the city's Beykoz district. History Anadoluhisarı was built between 1393 and 1394 on the commission of the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I, as part of his preparations for a siege on the then-Byzantine city of Constantinople. Constructed on an area of , the fortress is situated at the narrowmost point of the Bosporus, where the strait is a mere wide. The site is bound by Göksu () creek to the south, and was previously home to the ruins of a Roman temple dedicated to Uranus. Erected primarily as a watch fort, the citadel has a tall, quadratic main tower within the walls of an irregular pentagon, with five watchtowers at the corners. Constantinople was blockaded from 1394 on, but Bayezid's campaign was first interrupted by the Crusade of Nicopolis, and then ended with his defeat at the Battle of Ankara. An 11-year civil war followed, which ended with the ascent of Mehmed I to the throne. His grandson, Sultan Mehmed II reinforced the fortress with a two-meter-thick wall and three additional watchtowers, and added further extensions, including a warehouse and living quarters. As part of his plans to launch a renewed military campaign to conquer Constantinople, Mehmed II further built a sister structure to Anadoluhisarı across the Bosphorus called Rumelihisarı, and the two fortresses worked in tandem in 1453 to throttle all maritime traffic along the Bosphorus, thus helping the Ottomans achieve their goal of making the city of Constantinople (later renamed Istanbul) their new imperial capital. After the Ottoman conquest of the city, Anadoluhisarı served as a customs house and military prison, and after several centuries, fell into disrepair. After the fall of the Ottomans and the 1923 establishment of the Republic of Turkey, the newly-created Turkish Ministry of Culture tended to and ultimately restored the site in 1991–1993. Today, Anadoluhisarı lends a picturesque appearance to its corner of the Bosphorus alongside the timber yalı homes that define the neighborhood, and functions as a historical site, although it is not open to the public. Gallery See also Rumelihisarı Yedikule Fortress Fall of Constantinople Ottoman architecture Bosphorus Notes External links Pictures of the fortress References Architectural Museum (in Turkish) Principals of Ottoman fort architecture (in Turkish) Buildings and structures completed in 1394 Archaeological sites in the Marmara Region Bosphorus Castles in Istanbul Province Forts in Turkey Museums in Istanbul Ottoman fortifications

263035

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calder%20Memorial%20Trophy

Calder Memorial Trophy

The Calder Memorial Trophy is an annual award given "to the player selected as the most proficient in his first year of competition in the National Hockey League (NHL)." It is named after Frank Calder, the first president of the NHL. Serving as the NHL's Rookie of the Year award, this version of the trophy has been awarded since its creation for the 1936–37 NHL season. The voting is conducted by members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association at the conclusion of each regular season to determine the winner. History The Calder Memorial Trophy is named in honour of Frank Calder, the former President of the National Hockey League (NHL) from its inception in 1917 to his death in 1943. Although Rookie of the Year honors were handed out beginning in 1932–33, the Calder Trophy was first presented at the conclusion of the 1936–37 NHL season. After Calder's death in 1943 the trophy was renamed the Calder Memorial Trophy. In 1991, goaltender Ed Belfour won the Calder having previously appeared in 32 games with the Chicago Blackhawks over the 1988–89 and 1989–90 seasons. Belfour was eligible for the award because nine of those appearances came during the 1990 Stanley Cup playoffs, and the other 23 appearances were made during the 1988–89 season. The nine playoff games did not count towards the regular season eligibility requirements. The trophy has been won the most times by rookies from the Toronto Maple Leafs, who have won it on ten occasions, with the most recent being Auston Matthews in 2017. The voting is conducted at the end of the regular season by members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association, and each individual voter ranks their top five candidates on a 10–7–5–3–1 points system. Three finalists are named and the trophy is awarded at the NHL Awards ceremony after the playoffs. Winners See also List of National Hockey League awards List of NHL players List of NHL statistical leaders References Calder Trophy history at NHL.com Calder Trophy profile at Legends of Hockey.net National Hockey League trophies and awards Awards established in 1933 Rookie player awards

263036

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Glen%20Wardrop

John Glen Wardrop

John Glen Wardrop (1922–1989), born in Warwick, England, was an English mathematician and transport analyst who developed what became known as Wardrop's first and second principles of equilibrium in the field of traffic assignment. He studied at Downing College, Cambridge, and worked in Operational Research at British Bomber Command during the Second World War. He then helped to set up, and later headed, the Traffic Section of the Road Research Laboratory near Slough (Part of the Directorate of Scientific and Industrial Research within the UK Civil Service) where he published his work on equilibrium. He subsequently followed Dr Reuben Smeed to University College London, becoming Reader Emeritus in Traffic Studies. Wardrop equilibria In studies about traffic assignment, network equilibrium models are commonly used for the prediction of traffic patterns in transportation networks that are subject to congestion. The idea of traffic equilibrium originated as early as 1924, with Frank Knight. The concepts are related to the idea of Nash equilibrium in game theory developed separately. However, in transportation networks, there are many players, making the analysis complex. In 1952, Wardrop stated two principles that formalize different notions of equilibrium, and introduced the alternative behaviour postulate of the minimization of the total travel costs: Wardrop's first principle of route choice, now known as "user equilibrium", "selfish Wardrop equilibrium" or just "Wardrop equilibrium", which is identical to the notion postulated by Knight, became accepted as a sound and simple behavioural principle to describe the spreading of trips over alternate routes because of congested conditions. It states that the journey times in all routes actually used are equal and less than those that would be experienced by a single vehicle on any unused route. The traffic flows that satisfy this principle are usually referred to as "user equilibrium" (UE) flows, since each user chooses the route that is the best. Specifically, a user-optimized equilibrium is reached when no user may lower his transportation cost through unilateral action. A variant is the stochastic user equilibrium (SUE), in which no driver can unilaterally change routes to improve his/her perceived, rather than actual, travel times. Wardrop's second principle, now known as "system optimal" or "social Wardrop equilibrium" states that at equilibrium, the average journey time is at a minimum. That implies that all users behave cooperatively in choosing their routes to ensure the most efficient use of the whole system. For example, this would be the case if an omnipotent central authority could command them all which routes to take. Traffic flows satisfying Wardrop's second principle are generally deemed system optimal (SO). Economists and modellers have argued that it can be achieved with marginal cost road pricing, or by a central routing authority dictating route choices. The potential fall in efficiency from social to selfish equilibria is an example of the price of anarchy. Wardrop did not provide algorithms for solving Wardrop equilibria, he simply defined them as desiderata. The first mathematical model of network equilibrium was formulated by Beckmann, McGuire and Winsten in 1956. As with Nash equilibria, simple solutions to selfish equilibrium can be found through iterative simulation, with each agent assigning its route given the choices of the others. This is very slow computationally. The Frank–Wolfe algorithm improves on this by exploiting dynamic programming properties of the network structure, to find solutions with a faster form of iteration. Creating new and faster algorithms for both selfish and social Wardrop equilibria remains an active research topic in the 2010s. References Obituary, John Glen Wardrop Transportation 16 pp. 1-2 (1989) English economists Game theorists 1989 deaths 1922 births

263040

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Knight

Frank Knight

Frank Hyneman Knight (November 7, 1885 – April 15, 1972) was an American economist who spent most of his career at the University of Chicago, where he became one of the founders of the Chicago School. Nobel laureates Milton Friedman, George Stigler and James M. Buchanan were all students of Knight at Chicago. Ronald Coase said that Knight, without teaching him, was a major influence on his thinking. F.A. Hayek considered Knight to be one of the major figures in preserving and promoting classical liberal thought in the twentieth century. Paul Samuelson named Knight (along with Harry Gunnison Brown, Allyn Abbott Young, Henry Ludwell Moore, Wesley Clair Mitchell, Jacob Viner, and Henry Schultz) as one of the several "American saints in economics" born after 1860. Life and career Knight (B.A., Milligan College, 1911; B.S. and A.M., Tennessee, 1913; Ph.D., Cornell, 1916) was born in 1885 in McLean County, Illinois, the son of Julia Ann (Hyneman) and Winton Cyrus Knight. After his early study at the University of Tennessee, most of his academic career was spent at the University of Chicago, where he was the Morton D. Hall Distinguished Service Professor of Social Science and Philosophy. Knight was one of the world's leading economists, having made significant contributions to many problems of both economic theory and social philosophy. He is best known for his Risk, Uncertainty and Profit, a monumental study of the role of the entrepreneur in economic life. In 1950 he was president of the American Economic Association and in 1957 the recipient of its coveted Francis A. Walker Award, given "not more frequently than once every five years to the living (American) economist who in the judgment of the awarding body has during his career made the greatest contribution to economics." His ashes are interred in the crypt of First Unitarian Church of Chicago. Knight is best known as the author of the book Risk, Uncertainty and Profit (1921), based on his Ph.D. dissertation at Cornell University. In that book, he carefully distinguished between economic risk and uncertainty. Situations with risk were those where the outcomes were unknown but governed by probability distributions known at the outset. He argued that these situations, where decision making rules such as maximising expected utility can be applied, differ in a deep way from "uncertain" ones, in which not only the outcomes, but even the probability models that governed them, were unknown. Knight argued that uncertainty gave rise to economic profits that perfect competition could not eliminate. While most economists now acknowledge Knight's distinction between risk and uncertainty, the distinction has not resulted in much theoretical modelling or empirical work. However, the Knightian concept of uncertainty has been recognized in a variety of works: John Maynard Keynes discussed it at length in his Treatise on Probability; Armen Alchian relied on it for discussing market behavior in his seminal paper Uncertainty, Evolution and Economic Theory; Paul Davidson incorporated it as an essential element in the Post Keynesian school of economics he co-founded; and G.L.S. Shackle explored the methodological consequences of Knight's and Keynes's fundamental uncertainty in his Epistemics and Economics. A more model-oriented contribution is the "Markets from Networks" model developed by sociologist Harrison White from 2002. Knight also famously debated A. C. Pigou about social costs. He also contributed to the argument for toll roads. He said that rather than congestion justifying government tolling of roads, privately owned roads would set tolls to reduce congestion to its efficient level. In particular, he developed the argument that forms the basis of analysis of traffic equilibrium, which has since become known as Wardrop's Principle: Knight was a co-founder and vice president of the Mont Pelerin Society of like-minded economists. Knight was raised Christian, but later became an atheist. Major publications "The Concept of Normal Price in Value and Distribution", 1917, QJE. "Cassel's Theoretische Sozialökonomie", 1921, JPE. "Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit", 1921 "Ethics and the Economic Interpretation", 1922, QJE (repr. in 1999, I) "The Ethics of Competition", 1923, QJE (repr. in 1999, I) "Business Management: Science or Art?", 1923 Journal of Business. "Some Fallacies in the Interpretation of Social Cost", 1924, QJE (repr. in 1999, I) "The Limitations of Scientific Method in Economics", 1924, in Tugwell, editor, Trend of Economics (repr. in 1999, I) "Fact and Metaphysics in Economic Psychology", 1925, AER (repr. in 1999, I) "A Note on Professor Clark's Illustration of Marginal Productivity", 1925, JPE. "Economic Psychology and the Value Problem", 1925, QJE. "Economics at its Best: Review of Pigou", 1926, AER. "Historical and Theoretical Issues in the Problem of Modern Capitalism", 1928, Journal of Econ & Business History (repr. in 1956 & 1999, I) "A Suggestion for Simplifying the Statement of the General Theory of Price", 1928, JPE. "Freedom as Fact and Criterion", 1929, Int J of Ethics "Statics and Dynamics: Some queries regarding the mechanical analogy in economics", 1930, ZfN (repr. in 1956 & 1999, I) "Professor Fisher's Interest Theory: A case in point", 1931, JPE. "Modern Economic Society Further Considered", 1932, JPE. "The Newer Economics and the Control of Economic Activity", 1932, JPE (repr. in 1999, I) The Economic Organization, 1933. "Capitalistic Production, Time and the Rate of Return", 1933, in Essays in Honor of Gustav Cassel (repr. in 1999, I) "The Nature of Economic Science in Some Recent Discussion", 1934, AER. "Social Science and the Political Trend", 1934, Univ of Toronto Quarterly "Common-Sense of Political Economy: Wicksteed Reprinted", 1934, JPE (repr. in 1956) The Ethics of Competition and Other Essays, 1935. "The Ricardian Theory of Production and Distribution", 1935, Canadian JE (repr. in 1956 & 1999, I) "A Comment on Machlup", 1935, JPE. "Professor Hayek and the Theory of Investment", 1935, EJ. "The Theory of Investment Once More: Mr. Boulding and the Austrians", 1935, QJE. "Some Issues in the Economics of Stationary States", 1936, AER. "The Place of Marginal Economics in a Collectivist System", 1936, AER. "The Quantity of Capital and the Rate of Interest", 1936, JPE (repr. in 1999, I) "Pragmatism and Social Action: Review of Dewey", 1936, Int J of Ethics "Note on Dr. Lange's Interest Theory", 1937, RES. "Unemployment: and Mr. Keynes's revolution in economic theory", 1937, Canadian JE (repr. in 1999, I) "On the Theory of Capital: In reply to Mr. Kaldor", 1938, Econometrica. "Bertrand Russell on Power", 1939, Ethics. "The Ethics of Liberalism", 1939, Economica. "Socialism: The Nature of the Problem", 1940, Ethics (repr. in 1999, II) "'What is Truth' in Economics", 1940, JPE (repr. in 1956 & 1999, I) "The Significance and Basic Postulates of Economics: a rejoinder", 1941, JPE "Religion and Ethics in Modern Civilization", 1941, J of Liberal Religion "The Meaning of Democracy: its politico-economic structure and ideals", 1941, J of Negro Education "Social Science", 1941, Ethics (repr. in 1956) "The Business Cycle, Interest and Money: A methodological approach", 1941, REStat (repr. in 1956 & 1999, II) "Professor Mises and the Theory of Capital", 1941, Economica. "The Role of the Individual in the Economic World of the Future", 1941, JPE. "Anthropology and Economics", 1941, JPE. "Science, Philosophy and Social Procedure", 1942, Ethics "Fact and Value in Social Science", 1942, in Anshen, editor, Science and Man "Some Notes on the Economic Interpretation of History", 1942, Studies in the History of Culture (repr. in 1999, II) "Social Causation", 1943, American Journal of Sociology (repr. in 1956) "Diminishing Returns Under Investment", 1944, JPE. "Realism and Relevance in the Theory of Demand", 1944, JPE (repr. in 1999, II) "The Rights of Man and Natural Law", 1944, Ethics (repr. in 1999, II) "Human Nature and World Democracy", 1944, American J of Sociology. "Economics, Political Science and Education", 1944, AER The Economic Order and Religion, with T.W. Merriam, 1945. "Immutable Law in Economics: Its reality and limitations", 1946, AER. "The Sickness of Liberal Society", 1946, Ethics (repr. in 1999, II) "Salvation by Science: The gospel according to Professor Lundberg", 1947, JPE (repr. in 1956) Freedom and Reform: Essays in economics and social philosophy, 1947. "Free Society: Its basic nature and problem", 1948, Philosophical Review (repr. in 1956) "The Role of Principles in Economics and Politics", 1951, AER (repr. in 1956 & 1999, II) "Institutionalism and Empiricism in Economics", 1952, AER. On the History and Methods of Economics: Selected essays, 1956, . Intelligence and Democratic Action, 1960. "Methodology in Economics", 1961, Southern EJ "Abstract Economics as Absolute Ethics", 1966, Ethics. "Laissez Faire: Pro and con", 1967, JPE (repr. in 1999, II) "The Case for Communism: From the Standpoint of an Ex-liberal." (published posthumously) in Research in the History of Economic Thought and Methodology, edited by Warren J. Samuels, archival supplement 2 (1991): 57–108. Selected Essays by Frank H. Knight, Volume 1: "What is Truth" in Economics?, (ed. by Ross B. Emmett), 1999, Selected Essays by Frank H. Knight, Volume 2: Laissez Faire: Pro and Con, (ed. by Ross B. Emmett), 1999, Awards 1957, Francis A. Walker Medal by the American Economic Association 1961, Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement References Sources Burgin, Angus (November 2009). "The Radical Conservatism of Frank H. Knight," Modern Intellectual History, 6:513–38. Emmett, Ross B. (1999). "Introduction", in Selected Essays by Frank H. Knight, 2 vols., (ed. by Ross Emmett). Emmett, Ross B. (2009). "Did the Chicago School Reject Frank Knight?", in Frank Knight and the Chicago School in American Economics, . Kasper, Sherryl (2002). The Revival of Laissez-Faire in American Macroeconomic Theory: A Case Study of Its Pioneers. ch. 2. Stigler, G. (1985). "Frank Hyneman Knight", University of Chicago Press – Center for the Study of the Economy and the State, Working Papers Series, Working Paper No. 37. White, Harrison C. (2002). Markets from Networks: Socioeconomic Models of Production, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. External links The Frank H. Knight Page Guide to the Frank Hyneman Knight Papers 1908-1979 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center 1885 births 1972 deaths American atheists Economists from Illinois Cornell University alumni American former Christians Historians of economic thought University of Chicago faculty University of Tennessee alumni Presidents of the American Economic Association 20th-century American economists

263044

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Alfredsson

Daniel Alfredsson

Daniel Alfredsson (; born 11 December 1972) is a Swedish former professional ice hockey player. He spent 18 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL), 17 with the Ottawa Senators and his 18th with the Detroit Red Wings. Alfredsson was the long-time captain of the Senators, serving from 1999 to 2013. With the Senators, Alfredsson usually played on the first line, which was formerly nicknamed the "CASH" or 'Pizza' line with centre Jason Spezza and left winger Dany Heatley, before Heatley's trade to the San Jose Sharks. He had traditionally been the fourth forward on the ice in the role of pointman on Ottawa's powerplay. He was one of the league's top two-way players, and he holds the Senators' franchise records for goals (426), assists (682) and points (1,108) with 1,178 games played. He had played for Sweden internationally 14 times, including the 2006 gold medal and 2014 silver medal-winning Olympic teams. He was the 75th player to reach 1,000 career points in the NHL, doing so after scoring three goals in a win over the Buffalo Sabres on 22 October 2010. Alfredsson holds an Honorary Degree from Carleton University. Playing career Ottawa Senators (1994–2013) Drafted 133rd overall in the sixth round of the 1994 NHL Entry Draft, Alfredsson was a serendipitous pick by the Ottawa Senators. He had been overlooked by many NHL scouts, but one man in Ottawa's front office, John Ferguson, saw the potential and pushed management for his selection. Though largely unheralded entering his first NHL training camp, he would go on to win the Calder Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year in his first NHL season in 1995–96 and was the Senators' representative at the 1996 NHL All-Star Game. In 1996–97, he improved on his rookie totals and played in the All-Star Game again. He finished second in team scoring, contributing to the Senators' first modern qualification to the Stanley Cup playoffs. Alfredsson missed the beginning of the 1997–98 season due to a contract dispute. On 24 August 1997, he demanded a trade from the Senators after the five-year contract offered to him was worth $1 million less annually than that teammate Alexei Yashin received per season. Alfredsson eventually signed a new contract on 12 October worth $14 million over four years. After missing the first five games of the season, he was greeted by a standing ovation in his first game back in Ottawa. Alfredsson would later be named the Senators' representative at the All-Star Game for the third consecutive season. During that season, Alfredsson would play in only 55 games, due to the earlier contract dispute and a late season ankle injury. The Senators qualified for the playoffs again and defeated the New Jersey Devils, but lost to the surging Washington Capitals in the second round; Alfredsson scored 7 goals in 11 playoff games. In the 1998–99 season, Alfredsson missed 24 games due to an injury and was limited to only 11 goals. The club once again qualified for the playoffs, and Alfredsson hoped to have a good post-season, but was limited to one goal and three points in a sweep at the hands of the Buffalo Sabres. The next season, he was named captain of the Senators after Alexei Yashin was stripped of the captaincy for refusing to honour his contract. After two somewhat disappointing seasons, Alfredsson's scoring totals improved, with 21 goals and 59 points in 57 games. In the 2000 playoffs, the Senators met the Toronto Maple Leafs in the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals. The Senators would lose the inaugural "Battle of Ontario", although Alfredsson contributed three goals in the six-game series. In 2000–01, Alexei Yashin returned to the Ottawa lineup but the team captaincy remained with Alfredsson, who would score 24 goals and 70 points in 68 games. The Senators again met the Maple Leafs in the first round of the 2001 playoffs, and Alfredsson was limited to one goal in a four-game series sweep by Toronto. In 2001–02, Alfredsson set a personal best with 37 goals and 71 points in 78 games. In the 2002 playoffs, the Senators once again met the now arch-rival Maple Leafs in the second round, where they lost in seven games. Alfredsson led the team in playoff scoring with 7 goals and 13 points in 12 games. Alfredsson signed a new two-year contract prior to the 2002–03 season. He increased his scoring totals, finishing with 27 goals and 78 points. The club won the Presidents' Trophy that season as the NHL's top regular season team, despite the organization filing for bankruptcy protection, and qualified for the Eastern Conference Finals before losing to the eventual Stanley Cup champion New Jersey Devils. Alfredsson scored 4 goals and 8 points in 18 games. In 2003–04, Alfredsson finished the season with 32 goals and 80 points in 78 games. The club lost in the first round of the 2004 playoffs to Toronto, and Alfredsson was limited to one goal and three points in the seven-game series. Mid-season, Alfredsson signed a new five-year contract with the Senators. Like many NHL players, Alfredsson played for a European team during the 2004–05 NHL lockout. He returned to Sweden to play for Frölunda HC, the team he had played for prior to beginning his NHL career. He played on an all-NHL line with P. J. Axelsson and Samuel Påhlsson, helping the club win the Swedish championship. Alfredsson was a major contributor during the playoffs, scoring 12 goals and 18 points in 13 games. On 5 October 2005, the opening night of the 2005–06 NHL season, the Senators played the Maple Leafs, with the newly acquired Dany Heatley playing on the top line with Jason Spezza and Brandon Bochenski. The Senators were down by a goal with five minutes remaining in the third period, when Alfredsson, replacing Bochenski on the top line, scored the tying goal. This line combination would remain intact and became known as the "CASH line". Later in the same game, Heatley and Alfredsson scored the first goals in a regular season NHL shootout when they scored against Maple Leafs goaltender Ed Belfour for a 3–2 victory. With Alfredsson scoring in the shootout, he became the first captain in the NHL history to do so. Alfredsson and Heatley's sticks were subsequently sent to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Alfredsson capped off the 2005–06 regular season with a career-high 103 points (43 goals and 60 assists) tied for first on the Senators alongside Heatley. Perhaps the best game of his NHL career took place on 3 November 2005 against the longtime rival Buffalo Sabres, in which he scored a then career-high four goals and six points. After a disappointing 2006 playoffs, Alfredsson became the subject of trade rumours from the beginning of the 2006–07 season. Because of his poor play to start the 2006–07 season, Alfredsson considered retirement in November 2006. However, after switching to using teammate Chris Kelly's used skates, his performance improved, scoring in the next four games, and ending the season with 29 goals and 58 assists. Alfredsson, notably picky about his skates, would continue to use Kelly's freshly broken-in states until the latter was traded to the Boston Bruins in 2011. On 23 December 2006, against the Philadelphia Flyers, Alfredsson scored his 600th career point, scoring two goals and adding an assist. In the 2007 playoffs, Alfredsson was the Senators' leading scorer with 14 goals and 22 points in 20 games. His leadership and strong play helped the Senators as they advanced past the Pittsburgh Penguins, the New Jersey Devils and the Buffalo Sabres advancing to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in modern franchise history. He became the first European-born-and-raised captain to lead his team to the finals. When presented with the Prince of Wales Trophy, he posed while touching the trophy, which many hockey players consider a form of bad luck. Alfredsson was arguably Ottawa's best player in the 2007 Stanley Cup Finals, which the Senators ultimately lost to the Anaheim Ducks in a five-game series. In a controversial incident in game four, an Alfredsson slap shot hit Ducks captain Scott Niedermayer at the end of the second period, leading to speculation that Alfredsson intended to injure Niedermayer. Alfredsson dismissed the notion, saying that he had glanced up at the clock to see if he had time to move in for a better shot, and then quickly fired in the heat of an important game. Along with the rest of the Senators, Alfredsson's 2007–08 season was marked by highs and lows. On 24 January 2008, he scored three goals and four assists in an 8–4 victory over the Tampa Bay Lightning, setting the Senators' record for most points in one game. It vaulted him into the NHL scoring lead at the All-Star break. He was named NHL Player of the Week and the week's First Star. Alfredsson and his linemates, Heatley and Spezza, were named to the Eastern Conference All-Star Game roster, although Heatley would not play due to injury. Injuries reduced Alfredsson's playing time and effectiveness in the latter half of the season. First, Alfredsson suffered a hip pointer injury, and on 3 April 2008, Mark Bell of the Maple Leafs hit him with a shoulder that left Alfredsson on the ice, unable to get up for several minutes. He missed the final game of the regular season and the beginning of the 2008 playoffs; he had played in every modern Senators playoff game up to that point. On 14 April 2008, with the Senators trailing 2–0 in their playoff series to the Pittsburgh Penguins, Alfredsson made his return in Game 3 of the series, four weeks earlier than initially expected. He was welcomed with a lengthy standing ovation at Scotiabank Place. However, the Senators gave up four unanswered goals (three in the third period) to lose the game 4–1. The Senators lost game four 3–1. Afterwards, in an interview on CBC, he admitted that he had been playing with a ruptured medial collateral ligament (MCL). In October 2008, Alfredsson underwent arthroscopic surgery on his right knee to remove a bone chip and returned less than a week later. On 30 October 2008, Alfredsson signed a new four-year contract with Ottawa worth $21.6 million. The contract, intended to allow Alfredsson to finish his playing career with the Senators, included a no-movement clause. The 2008–09 season was a disappointing one for both Alfredsson and the Senators. The team failed to make the 2009 playoffs, and Alfredsson registered only 24 goals and 74 points in 79 games. On 8 July 2009, Alfredsson became the longest-serving active captain in the NHL, as former Montreal Canadiens captain Saku Koivu signed with the Anaheim Ducks and former Colorado Avalanche captain Joe Sakic announced his retirement. The 2009–10 season saw Alfredsson's point total dip again as he scored only 20 goals and had 71 points in 70 games. On 6 April, Alfredsson reached an important milestone, playing in his 1,000th regular season NHL game. Even though the Senators lost to Pittsburgh in the first round of the 2010 playoffs, Alfredsson still scored two goals and added six assists to lead the team in scoring (tied with Matt Cullen). He later admitted that he had been bothered by a sports hernia since February, which could explain his reduced effectiveness in the last weeks of the season and the playoffs. During the 2010–11 season, Alfredsson recorded his 1,000th career NHL point in a victory over the Buffalo Sabres on 22 October 2010. At season's end, Alfredsson underwent back surgery and was released from hospital the same day. At a 14 June 2011 news conference introducing new Senators' head coach Paul MacLean, Alfredsson stated that the surgery went well and that he was moving around fine. Alfredsson began the 2011–12 season healthy, but was diagnosed with a concussion for the first time in his career after receiving a blow to the head from New York Rangers forward Wojtek Wolski on 29 October 2011. He returned on 11 November after missing five games, in a game against the Buffalo Sabres. On 30 December 2011, against the Calgary Flames, Alfredsson scored his 400th career goal, the game winner in overtime. Widely assumed to be a candidate to be moved to a Stanley Cup contender at the 2012 NHL trade deadline, Ottawa's strong play resulted in Alfredsson not being placed on the trade market. "I was just really happy we didn't have to make that decision", said Alfredsson of the possibility of leaving Ottawa. At the 2012 NHL All-Star Game held at Scotiabank Place, Alfredsson was captain of "Team Alfredsson", scoring twice within one minute and 31 seconds in a 12–9 loss to "Team Chara". In the first round of the 2012 playoffs, Alfredsson and the Senators were eliminated by the first-place New York Rangers in seven games. Speculation was rampant during early summer of 2012 that Alfredsson would announce his retirement, but on 31 July, he confirmed that he would be returning for his 17th season with the Senators. The lockout-shortened 2012–13 season was a successful one for Alfredsson and the Senators. The team made the 2013 playoffs despite losing several key players to injury for extended periods, and defeated the rival Montreal Canadiens in the first round. Alfredsson was third in team scoring during the regular season with 10 goals and 16 assists in 47 games, and he led the Senators in scoring through the playoffs with 4 goals and 10 points in 10 games. At season's end, there was again speculation that Alfredsson might announce his retirement. On 28 June 2013, Senators general manager Bryan Murray confirmed that he had been informed by agent J. P. Barry that Alfredsson "is committed to play next year for the Senators". While Alfredsson negotiated a new contract with Ottawa, Boston Bruins' general manager Peter Chiarelli reached out to him in an attempt to gauge his interest in signing with Boston. Chiarelli attempted to convince Alfredsson that Boston could be a good destination for an older player looking to win a Stanley Cup prior to retirement. Detroit Red Wings (2013–2014) On 5 July 2013, after 17 seasons with the Senators, Alfredsson signed a one-year, $5.5 million contract with the Detroit Red Wings. Alfredsson's Ottawa teammates were taken aback by the news. Alfredsson phoned Chris Phillips so that he would not hear the news at the same time as everyone else; Phillips said he was shocked. Marc Methot said many teammates were caught off guard. "We all were pretty adamant that he was going to return because he is grounded in this city (Ottawa) and so well-loved that everyone figured something would work out", said Methot. Ex-Senators' head coach Jacques Martin, at the time a hockey analyst on TVA Sports, compared Alfredsson's departure to Ray Bourque's decision to move to the Colorado Avalanche from the Boston Bruins to win a Stanley Cup. Alfredsson confirmed a day later that his decision to leave Ottawa was motivated by a desire to win a Stanley Cup prior to retirement. "I had not won a Stanley Cup and that’s a big priority for me," Alfredsson said. He later explained that his departure from Ottawa was due to a contract impasse, though Senators' general manager Bryan Murray had expected Alfredsson to remain in Ottawa. Alfredsson returned to Ottawa for the first time with the Red Wings on 1 December 2013, and was greeted with a video tribute and loud cheers from the home crowd. He also scored an empty net goal in the Red Wings victory. The 41-year-old recorded 18 goals and 49 points during his only season with the Red Wings during the 2013–14 season. Back problems kept Alfredsson from attending training camp and starting the 2014–15 season. On 27 November 2014, Alfredsson announced to Swedish press that he had retired as a player. Return to Senators (2014) On 4 December 2014, Alfredsson signed a one-day contract to officially retire as a member of the Ottawa Senators. Alfredsson took part in the pre-game warm-ups and took the ceremonial face-off as the Senators faced the New York Islanders, a game the Senators lost 2–1. During Alfredsson's career with the Senators, he played in 1,178 games, had 426 goals, 682 assists and 1,108 points, all franchise records. Chris Phillips broke Alfredsson's games-played record two months later. On 29 December 2016, Alfredsson became the first player in modern Senators' history to have his jersey number retired. International play Alfredsson has participated in 14 international tournaments for Sweden: 1995 World Championships (silver medal) 1996 World Championships 1996 World Cup of Hockey 1998 Winter Olympics 1999 World Championships (bronze medal) 2001 World Championships (bronze medal) 2002 Winter Olympics 2004 World Championships (silver medal) 2004 World Cup of Hockey 2005 World Championships 2006 Winter Olympics (alternate captain, gold medal) 2010 Winter Olympics (alternate captain) 2012 World Championships (captain) 2014 Winter Olympics (alternate captain, silver medal) At the 2006 Olympics, Alfredsson set personal highs in goals (5), assists (5) and points (10) and played on the second line with Mats Sundin and Henrik Zetterberg. After an injury to Peter Forsberg, Alfredsson took Forsberg's spot as the alternate captain, along with Captain Sundin and defenseman Nicklas Lidström. Alfredsson was named captain of Sweden for the first time at the 2012 IIHF World Championship. Post-playing career After retiring as a player, Alfredsson joined the Ottawa Senators as senior advisor of hockey operations. Alfredsson and the Senators did not agree to a new contract for the 2018 season. Personal life Alfredsson married long-time girlfriend Birgitta (née Backman) on 31 July 2004. They are the parents of four sons, Hugo, Loui, Fenix and William Erik. The family resides in Ottawa and Särö, Sweden. Alfredsson's parents are Hasse and Margareta Alfredsson. Alfredsson's younger brother Henric Alfredsson played with the Ontario Hockey League's Ottawa 67's as a 19-year-old during their 1999 Memorial Cup-winning season. Henric decided to stay in Ottawa after his junior hockey career with the 67's was complete and now works for the Ottawa Police Service. On 5 March 2015, Alfredsson was presented with the key to the city by Ottawa Deputy Mayor Bob Monette; Mayor Jim Watson was recuperating from a broken pelvis suffered in a snowmobiling accident and was unavailable. The key to the city is the city's highest honour, reserved only for the people who make the greatest impact on Ottawa residents. The honour was in recognition not only of Alfredsson's accomplishments with the Senators, but also for his off-ice leadership and advocacy with the Ottawa Senators Foundation, the Royal Ottawa Foundation for Mental Health and the Boys and Girls Club of Ottawa. Alfredsson officially became a Canadian citizen at a special ceremony at the 2016 World Cup of Hockey on 20 September 2016. Career statistics Regular season and playoffs Bold indicates led league International Awards International NHL Outside of ice hockey On 7 June 2016 Alfredsson received an honorary degree from Carleton University for his outstanding contributions to Canadian hockey and, in particular, his commitment to the community through philanthropic efforts that include mental health awareness and advocacy for equality of athletes, regardless of their sexual orientation. On 25 November 2016, he was awarded the Meritorious Service Cross by Governor General David Johnston. Records and achievements Records Holds the Senators record for regular season goals, assists and points. Holds the Senators record for highest +/- rating in a season, set in 2006–07 with +42. Holds the Senators record for most points in a regular season game, set in 2007–08, with 3 goals and 4 assists for 7 points. Holds the Senators playoff records for most games played, goals, assists and points. Milestones Scored the 300th goal of his career on 10 November 2007. Recorded the 500th assist of his career on 24 January 2008. Played in his 1000th NHL game (all with the Ottawa Senators) on 6 April 2010 against the Florida Panthers. Reached the 1,000-point milestone with a hat-trick against the Buffalo Sabres on 22 October 2010. Scored his 400th career goal in OT against the Calgary Flames on 30 December 2011. Nominations Finished 2nd in Lady Byng Memorial Trophy voting in 2003–04. Finished 3rd in Selke Trophy voting as the best defensive forward in 2005–06. Finished 4th in Lady Byng Memorial Trophy voting as the NHL's most gentlemanly player in 2005–06. Finished in the top 3 in voting for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy in 2011–2012. Other Scored the first shootout goal in NHL history during the 2005–06 season. Led the Swedish Gold Medal-winning Olympic hockey team in scoring (with 5 goals and 5 assists in 8 games played) during the 2006 Winter Olympics in Torino, Italy. 10 April 2010 was officially declared as "Daniel Alfredsson Day" in Ottawa, in honour of his 1,000th NHL game. Was the first European-born and trained captain to lead his team to the Stanley Cup Finals in 2007. Improved his point totals for six consecutive seasons from 1998–99 to 2005–06 inclusive, a franchise record. Appears on the cover of the Swedish version of the EA Sports NHL 09 video game. Won the first major award in modern Senators history when he was awarded the Calder Memorial Trophy in 1995–96. He has played in 119 of the playoff games of the modern Senators. He led the league in goals during the 2006–07 playoffs and tied linemates Jason Spezza and Dany Heatley with 22 points to lead the league in playoff scoring. Daniel Alfredsson became the first player in modern Senators history to have his jersey number retired in December 2016. See also List of Swedes in sports List of NHL players with 1000 games played List of NHL players with 1000 points Notes and references External links Ottawa Senators.com - Career Notes Q & A with Alfredsson (2000) 1972 births Living people Calder Trophy winners Detroit Red Wings players Frölunda HC players Ice hockey players at the 1998 Winter Olympics Ice hockey players at the 2002 Winter Olympics Ice hockey players at the 2006 Winter Olympics Ice hockey players at the 2010 Winter Olympics Ice hockey players at the 2014 Winter Olympics IIHF Hall of Fame inductees Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics Medalists at the 2014 Winter Olympics National Hockey League All-Stars National Hockey League players with retired numbers Naturalized citizens of Canada Olympic gold medalists for Sweden Olympic ice hockey players of Sweden Olympic medalists in ice hockey Olympic silver medalists for Sweden Ottawa Senators draft picks Ottawa Senators players Sportspeople from Gothenburg Swedish expatriate ice hockey people Swedish expatriate sportspeople in Canada Swedish expatriate sportspeople in the United States Swedish ice hockey right wingers

263047

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Alphonse%20Forel

François-Alphonse Forel

François-Alphonse Forel (February 2, 1841 – August 7, 1912) was a Swiss physician and scientist who pioneered the study of lakes, and is thus considered the founder, and the Father of limnology. Limnology is the study of bodies of fresh water and their biological, chemical, and physical features. Childhood and Family Forel was born in Morges, Switzerland on Lake Geneva. His father, François Marie Etienne Forel (1765-1865) was a well-respected historian and a jurist and was a strong influence in Forel's life. From a young age, François-Alphonse Forel became involved in some of archaeological studies of his father's colleagues. Several of Forel's family members were also respected scholars and scientists. Education Forel began his education at the Collège de Morges. Eventually, he left Morges for secondary school in Geneva at the Gymnase de Genève. There, he studied the natural sciences and medicine. Then he attended university at Académie de Genève where he obtained a Bachelor of Letters and a Bachelor of Physical and Natural Sciences. When he turned 18, he left his home country to attend the Académie de Montpellier in Montpellier, France. He studied at the university for two years and spent a portion of time after that, studying medicine on his own in Paris, France. Later, he moved to Germany and studied at the University of Würzburg. In the year 1865 when Forel was 24 year old, he obtained a doctorate degree in Medicine and Obstetrics. Work and Professional Life Shortly after obtaining his doctoral decree, Forel returned to Lake Geneva in Switzerland. There, he began his own study of the lake which encompassed zootomy, physics, chemistry, biology, natural history, and even economics. In 1869, he became a science professor at the University of Lausanne (then known as the Academy of Lausanne) which was located near his home at Lake Geneva. He taught histology, anatomy, and physiology. But his real love was the lake; his investigations of biology, chemistry, water circulation, and sedimentation, and most importantly their interactions, established the foundation of a new discipline. He named his activity limnology in analogy with oceanography ("limnography" could have been confused with the limnograph, which measures water level in lakes). In his chief work, Le Léman was published in three volumes between 1892 and 1904. The volumes covered a range of topics including the definition of limnology, as well as the geographic settings, geology, climatology, hydrology and bathymetry of lake systems. The Monograph then went on to describe lacustrine hydraulics, seiches, waves and currents, temperature stratification, optics, acoustics and chemistry. This was cemented by his publication of a handbook on the topic. He discovered the phenomenon of density currents in lakes, and explained seiches, the rhythmic oscillations observed in enclosed waters. He is also known for his work on the optical phenomenon the Fata Morgana which can be seen when looking out across Lake Geneva among other places. In collaboration with Wilhelm Ule, developed the Forel-Ule scale, used to evaluate the color of a body of water. In a totally different field, in cooperation with the Italian seismologist Michele Stefano de Rossi, he developed the Rossi–Forel scale to describe the intensity of an earthquake. End of Life & Legacy By the time of his death in 1912, he had amassed a total of 288 academic publications. So wide was his knowledge that he was referred to as "the Faraday of Lakes" in his obituary in Nature Magazine. He was well regarded by the Scottish scientific community, visiting at least once, and also being elected as an honorary fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. The Institute F.-A. Forel of the University of Geneva is named after Forel. Foreltinden, a mountain at Spitsbergen, Svalbard, is named after him. Forel (station) in Maule, Chile is named after him after he lived close to the station. The submersible F.-A. Forel (PX-28) is named after him and has been used to make scientific measurements in Lake Geneva. References External links 1841 births 1912 deaths People from Morges Swiss limnologists Hydrologists University of Lausanne faculty

263051

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason%20Spezza

Jason Spezza

Jason Rocco Anthony Spezza (born June 13, 1983) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre for the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League (NHL). After beginning his major junior career at the early age of 15 in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL), Spezza was selected second overall in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft by the Ottawa Senators, eventually serving as their team captain following the departure of Daniel Alfredsson. Playing in the American Hockey League (AHL) in 2004–05 due to the NHL lockout, he won the Les Cunningham Award as league MVP with the Binghamton Senators. In 2005–06, Spezza set an Ottawa Senators franchise record with 71 assists, while hitting the 90-point mark for the first of two times in his NHL career. Internationally, Spezza has represented Canada at three World Junior Championships and two World Championships. When he made his World Junior debut in 2000, he became the third 16-year-old in history to make the team, behind Wayne Gretzky and Eric Lindros. Early life Jason Rocco Anthony Spezza was born on June 13, 1983, in Mississauga, Ontario. He was born to Italian parents Rino and Donna Spezza along with twin siblings Michelle and Matthew, an ice hockey goaltender who most recently played for the Flint Generals of the International Hockey League (IHL). Growing up in the Toronto area, he watched the Toronto Maple Leafs, but has cited Mario Lemieux as his favourite player as a child. Spezza attended St. Michael's College School. At age one, Spezza won a baby contest and began his youth modelling career. The victory resulted in Spezza becoming the poster boy for Baby, a Broadway musical that played at Toronto's O'Keefe Centre in the summer of 1984. At age five, Spezza was chosen for a Minute Maid commercial. Two years later, he modelled clothing for stores Woolco and Kmart. Playing career Junior Spezza played for the Toronto Marlboros in 1997, recording 114 points in 54 games. At age 15, Spezza began his major junior career in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) with the Brampton Battalion in 1998–99, under a rule permitting the then-underage player to play on his hometown team. He scored at more than a point-per-game pace as an underaged player with 71 points in 67 games. He subsequently became the youngest player ever to participate in an OHL All-Star game at age 15. After one season with the Battalion, he was required to enter the OHL Priority Draft and was selected by the expansion Mississauga IceDogs in the team's second season in 1999–2000. He recorded 61 points in 52 games that season before requesting a trade and subsequently being dealt 15 games into the 2000–01 season to the Windsor Spitfires. Spezza went on to record an OHL career-high 116 points in 66 games that season. Entering the 2001 NHL Entry Draft having been named the Top CHL Prospect, Spezza was drafted second overall by the Ottawa Senators, after Ilya Kovalchuk was selected by the Atlanta Thrashers. The second overall pick originally belonged to the New York Islanders but was traded to Ottawa (along with Zdeno Chára and Bill Muckalt) in exchange for Alexei Yashin on the day of the Draft. During the summer of 2001, Spezza passed on an invitation to the Canadian junior team's summer camp because he said he wanted to prepare for his first NHL camp. After one more OHL season split between the Spitfires and the Belleville Bulls, resulting in a 105-point season, Spezza began his professional career in the American Hockey League (AHL). He signed his first professional contract with the Senators, a multi-year deal, on September 5, 2001. Professional Ottawa Senators (2002–2014) Following Spezza's fourth OHL season in 2001–02, he was assigned to the Senators' AHL affiliate the Grand Rapids Griffins for the 2002 Calder Cup playoffs, where he made his professional debut, playing in three playoff games and scoring one goal. He made his NHL debut the next season in 2002–03 with Ottawa, playing in 33 games and recording 21 points, and scored his first NHL goal on October 29, 2002, in a 2–1 loss against the Philadelphia Flyers. However, he played the majority of the season in the AHL with Ottawa's new affiliate, the Binghamton Senators, and was called-up regularly to replace injured Ottawa players. He also competed in three Stanley Cup playoff games with Ottawa during his rookie season, helping the team in its 2003 playoff run to the Eastern Conference Finals. In his playoff debut on May 21, 2003, Spezza assisted on the game-winning goal in Game 3. The Senators came within one game of the Finals, losing to the eventual Stanley Cup champion New Jersey Devils. Spezza played his first full NHL season with the Senators in 2003–04 and scored 22 goals and 55 points in 78 games. However, due to the subsequent NHL lockout, Spezza returned to the AHL in 2004–05. Scoring 117 points with Binghamton, he outscored Michael Cammalleri of the Manchester Monarchs by eight points to capture the John B. Sollenberger Trophy as the league's leading scorer. Spezza was also awarded the Les Cunningham Award as league MVP. With NHL play set to resume in 2005–06, Spezza returned to Ottawa. Having traded centres Radek Bonk and Todd White during the off-season, the Senators started Spezza on the first line between Dany Heatley and rookie Brandon Bochenski, who was Spezza's linemate in Binghamton. After captain Daniel Alfredsson replaced Bochenski on the top line (Bochenski was soon thereafter traded), the trio, nicknamed the "CASH" and "Pizza" line. Wingers Alfredsson and Heatley both finished tied for fourth in league scoring with 103 points, while Spezza tallied 90 points despite an injury-shortened 68-game season. His 71 assists established a team single-season record and was second in the league behind Joe Thornton of the San Jose Sharks (96 assists). In the 2006 playoffs, the Senators defeated the Tampa Bay Lightning in the first round, but fell to the Buffalo Sabres in five games. Spezza added 14 points in 10 playoff games. During the summer of 2006, Spezza underwent successful back surgery. The following season, he continued on the same pace with Heatley and Alfredsson before suffering another injury. He managed a career-high 34 goals and finished with 87 points in 67 games. On May 19, 2007, he scored a goal and an assist as the Senators defeated the Buffalo Sabres in the Eastern Conference Final four games to one. Ottawa moved to the Stanley Cup Final against the Anaheim Ducks, but lost in five games in large part because the Spezza–Heatley–Alfredsson line failed to perform against Samuel Påhlsson's checking line, backed by star defencemen Scott Niedermayer and Chris Pronger. Spezza finished the 2007 playoffs with a franchise-record 22 points, tied with linemates Alfredsson and Heatley. Beginning the 2007–08 season in the final year of his contract, on November 2, 2007, Spezza signed a new seven-year, $49 million contract with the Senators effective from the 2008–09 season through to the 2014–15 season. Late that season, on February 9, 2008, Spezza scored his first NHL hat-trick during a 6–1 Senators victory over the Montreal Canadiens. Spezza contributed to all of his team's goals for a career-high six-point game. He finished the season tying his career-high in goals with 34 and establishing a new personal mark for points with 92. However, the Senators failed to advance past the first round following their Stanley Cup run the previous season, falling to the Pittsburgh Penguins in four games. The 2008–09 season was a disappointing one for both Spezza and the Senators. Though he managed to remain injury-free and played in all of his team's 82 games for the first time in his NHL career, his point production decreased. Spezza managed 73 points in 82 games, and while still respectable, the numbers were his lowest totals since his first full NHL season in 2003–04. The team struggled all season long and would miss the playoffs for the first time since 1995–96. Despite missing 22 games due to injury in the 2009–10 season, Spezza still managed to score 23 goals and pick-up 34 assists for 57 points in 60 games to finish second on the team in scoring. In the first round of the 2010 playoffs, the Senators lost to the Pittsburgh Penguins four games to two. Spezza finished with one goal and six assists for seven points in the six games. He also led the team in shots on goal with 24. However, Spezza's poor defensive play and costly turnovers in that series resulted in him being booed by fans at Scotiabank Place, and the following off-season was rife with speculation that he would be traded. Spezza himself admitted that he would not object to a trade from Ottawa. Ultimately, no trade occurred. On December 26, 2010, in a 3–1 win over the Pittsburgh Penguins, Spezza was checked from behind into the boards by Penguins defenceman Kris Letang. Letang received a two-minute penalty for boarding and Spezza was expected to miss four-to-six weeks due to a consequent shoulder injury. At the end of the 2010–11 season, Spezza was named an interim alternate captain for Ottawa after the team traded away Mike Fisher. In 2011–12, Spezza was named as a permanent alternate captain for the Senators. He remained injury-free and finished fourth in league scoring, earning consideration for the Hart Memorial Trophy. Spezza was ultimately not a finalist for the award, finishing sixth in voting. Spezza spent time with Rapperswil-Jona Lakers of the Swiss National League A during the 2012–13 NHL lockout and returned to the Senators once a resolution had been negotiated. He registered two goals and three assists in five games before a back injury sidelined him. The Senators announced on January 31, 2013, that Spezza would be out of the Ottawa line-up for a minimum of two months (and possibly longer) as he required surgery for a herniated disc in his back. The injury occurred in a game against the Pittsburgh Penguins on January 27. Spezza ultimately missed the remainder of the regular season and the first round of the 2013 playoffs. He returned to action on May 19, 2013, for the third game of Ottawa's Eastern Conference Semi-final series against Pittsburgh. On September 14, 2013, Spezza was named the eighth captain in Senators' franchise history, replacing long-time teammate Daniel Alfredsson, who joined the Detroit Red Wings as a free agent on July 5, 2013. After the conclusion of his first season as the Senators captain in 2013–14, it was revealed by Senators general manager Bryan Murray that Spezza had requested a trade from the Senators. At the 2014 NHL Entry Draft, a potential trade to the Nashville Predators was negotiated by Murray but rejected by Spezza as the Predators were one of the teams listed in his limited contractual no-trade clause. Dallas Stars (2014–2019) On July 1, 2014, Spezza was traded to the Dallas Stars (along with Ludwig Karlsson) in exchange for Alex Chiasson, Alex Guptill, Nick Paul and a second-round pick in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft. On November 21, Spezza signed a four-year contract with Dallas (effective from the 2015–16 season through to the 2018–19 season) worth an annual average value of $7.5 million. He recorded 17 goals and 45 assists in 82 games in his first season with the Stars, as they missed the 2015 playoffs. His offensive production improved the following season, scoring 33 goals in 75 games as the Stars qualified for the 2016 playoffs as the top seed in the Western Conference. On October 30, 2018, in a 4–1 win over the Montreal Canadiens, Spezza played in his 1,000th career NHL game. Toronto Maple Leafs (2019–present) On July 1, 2019, as a free agent, Spezza signed a one-year, $700,000 contract for the 2019–20 season with the Toronto Maple Leafs, the team he supported as a child. On signing, Spezza said, "Just to have a chance to put on a Leaf jersey is going to be pretty special for me." However, Spezza was scratched for Toronto's opening night game against his former team, the Ottawa Senators, in a highly criticized move by Toronto's head coach Mike Babcock. Spezza made his debut with the Maple Leafs in the following game on October 5, against the Columbus Blue Jackets. On October 5, 2020, Spezza signed a one-year, $700,000 extension with the Maple Leafs. On January 17, 2021, the Maple Leafs placed Spezza on waivers after 3 games for salary cap reasons. Spezza's agent indicated that Spezza would retire if claimed by another team. Ultimately, he went unclaimed and cleared waivers to remain with the Maple Leafs. Two and a half weeks later, Spezza would go on to record his eighth career hat trick in a 7–3 victory over the Vancouver Canucks on February 4. On June 16, 2021, Spezza re-signed with the Maple Leafs to a one-year contract extension worth league minimum again, $750,000. Spezza's deal was seen as another hometown discount for the salary cap strapped club, stating "if I could take less, I would" to help the team win. Spezza continuted his strong play in a depth role before being suspended six games on December 8 for a hit to the head of Winnipeg Jets defender Neal Pionk that occurred three days prior after Pionk injured teammate Rasmus Sandin with a knee-on-knee hit. Spezza, who had a reputation as a clean player that had never been suspended or fined once in his 19 seasons in the NHL appealed the decision, with NHL commissioner Gary Bettman reducing the suspension to four games on December 17. International play As a junior, Spezza represented Canada's national junior team three consecutive years. He made his debut at the 2000 World Junior Championships, becoming just the third 16-year-old to make the team in Team Canada history, after Wayne Gretzky and Eric Lindros (this feat was also accomplished the same year by defenceman Jay Bouwmeester and Sidney Crosby in 2004). Spezza contributed 2 assists in 7 games as Canada captured a bronze medal. He returned in 2001 for a second consecutive bronze medal, while improving to three goals and three assists. Spezza made it to the gold medal game with Canada in his third and final World Junior appearance in 2002, but lost to Russia to earn the silver. As a member of the Senators, Spezza was made a reserve for Canada at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, but did not play. He would make his men's debut for Canada at the 2008 World Championships, being named to the team along with Senators linemate Dany Heatley. He earned a silver medal, losing to Russia in the gold medal game. With the Senators failing to make the NHL playoffs the following year, Spezza again represented Canada at the 2009 World Championships. He won another silver medal, losing to Russia in the gold medal game for the second consecutive year. Spezza, along with Finland's Niko Kapanen and fellow Canadian Steven Stamkos, finished the tournament tied for first in goals scored with seven. Despite his success with the national team in the two previous World Championships, as well as being named a reserve for the 2006 Olympic team, Spezza was left off Canada's initial summer camp roster in preparation for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. However, after veteran Joe Sakic announced his retirement and Ryan Getzlaf declared that he required more time to recover from injury, Spezza was invited to fill in one of the vacant spots. As the 2012–13 NHL lockout continued, Spezza was named to Canada's roster for the 2012 Spengler Cup held in Davos, Switzerland. Spezza joined fellow NHL stars John Tavares, Tyler Seguin, Patrice Bergeron, Ryan Smyth and Matt Duchene in the Canadian line-up, helping Canada defeat host team HC Davos to capture its first Spengler Cup title since 2007. At the 2015 World Championships, where Canada won the gold medal for the first time since 2007 with a perfect 10–0 record, Spezza was named best forward and a member of the all-star team; he was the tournament's leading scorer. Off the ice Community programs Spezza participates in numerous activities outside of hockey, especially the "Spelling with Spezza" program. Winners received a poster of Spezza and a pair of tickets to an Ottawa Senators' home game. The program recognizes the importance of spelling. Spezza visited selected classes registered for the program. In his last season with the Senators, over 600 classes in the Ottawa-Gatineau area participated in Spelling with Spezza. He also contributes to Ronald McDonald House Charities. Personal life Spezza wed his girlfriend, Jennifer Snell, in Ottawa on July 25, 2009. The ceremony took place at Notre Dame Cathedral Basilica and the reception was held across the street at the National Gallery of Canada. Many of his then-current and past teammates were in attendance, including Ray Emery, Antoine Vermette, Brendan Bell, Chris Phillips and Chris Neil, as well as Senators owner Eugene Melnyk. The couple have four daughters. Spezza and his family resided in the west-end of Ottawa during his tenure with the Senators, but sold the home when he was traded to Dallas. Endorsements Spezza was on the cover of the NHL 2K8 video game for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Xbox and the Xbox 360 video game consoles. Career statistics Regular season and playoffs Bold indicates led league International Awards and achievements Selected to the OHL First All-Rookie Team in 1999. Selected to the OHL Third All-Star Team in 2001, and 2002. Winner of the OHL Top Draft Prospect Award in 2001. Selected as the CHL Top Draft Prospect in 2001. Selected to the AHL All-Rookie Team in 2003. Winner of the Les Cunningham Award (AHL MVP) in 2005. Winner of the John B. Sollenberger Trophy (AHL leading scorer) in 2005. Selected to the AHL First All-Star Team in 2005. Played in 2008 and 2012 NHL All-Star Games 2012 Spengler Cup champion References External links 1983 births Living people Belleville Bulls players Binghamton Senators players Brampton Battalion players Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in Switzerland Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in the United States Canadian ice hockey centres Canadian people of Italian descent Dallas Stars players Grand Rapids Griffins players Ice hockey people from Ontario Mississauga IceDogs players National Hockey League All-Stars National Hockey League first round draft picks Ottawa Senators draft picks Ottawa Senators players SC Rapperswil-Jona Lakers players Sportspeople from Mississauga Toronto Maple Leafs players Windsor Spitfires players

263052

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FHM

FHM

FHM (For Him Magazine) is a British multinational men's lifestyle magazine that was published in several countries. Its master edition contained features such as the FHM 100 Sexiest Women in the World, which has featured models, actresses, musicians, TV presenters, and reality stars. The final printed issue of British FHM was produced in December 2015, after which the magazine moved to a digital-only platform, with updated daily content on topics such as dating tips, style advice, viral news, life hacks, sports and entertainment. High-profile people who have been published in the magazine include top models Rosie Huntington-Whiteley, Anne Vyalitsyna, Miranda Kerr, Candice Swanepoel, Irina Shayk and Emily Ratajkowski. History The magazine began publication in 1985 in the UK under the name For Him Magazine and changed its title to FHM in May 1992, although the full For Him Magazine continued to be printed on the spine of each issue. The first woman to appear on the cover was Gina Davies in February 1993. The trend towards female cover stars grew over the following year, with both Naomi Campbell and Andie MacDowell appearing. Circulation expanded to newsagents as a quarterly by the Spring of 1987 and then monthly in 1994. EMAP Consumer Media bought the magazine in 1994 and it subsequently went on to dominate the UK men's market and began to expand internationally, being published in 32 countries including India. On 17 November 2015, British FHM announced their intention to suspend publication alongside that of fellow men's magazine ZOO, leaving the publication available via its website at FHM.com. In August 2016, under the guidance of BauerXcel Media, a property of Bauer Media Group, Nick Dimengo took over as the senior editor of FHM.com. FHM 100 Sexiest Women in the World Each of FHMs international editions publish yearly rankings for the sexiest women alive based on public and editorial voting through the magazine's website. Dates of magazine issues, winners, ages of winners at the time of selection, and pertinent comments are listed below. The data below refer only to the British edition (the rankings for the international editions vary widely, with many top-ranking women in some editions not appearing at all in others). FHM International FHM was published in the following territories. See also The Girls of FHM List of men's magazines References External links 1985 establishments in the United Kingdom 2016 disestablishments in the United Kingdom Bauer Group (UK) Defunct magazines published in the United Kingdom Magazines established in 1985 Magazines disestablished in 2016 Men's magazines published in Canada Men's magazines published in Indonesia Men's magazines published in South Africa Men's magazines published in Turkey Men's magazines published in the United Kingdom Monthly magazines published in the United Kingdom Multilingual magazines Quarterly magazines published in the United Kingdom

263057

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsarist%20Russia

Tsarist Russia

Tsarist Russia may refer to: Grand Duchy of Moscow (1480–1547) Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721) Russian Empire (1721–1917)

263061

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafet%20El%20Roman

Rafet El Roman

Rafet Yaşdut (born 25 August 1968), better known by his stage name Rafet El Roman, is a Turkish pop singer. He holds German citizenship. Biography When El Roman's parents moved to Germany in 1970, he lived with his grandmother until he was 7 years old at Uzunköprü. After he finished first grade at primary school in the village, he was sent to his parents in Germany. He completed his education in Germany. He speaks German, English, Italian and Turkish. He started writing his first lyrics at 16 years old. In 1984 he contacted Stefan Somogyfoki from Midnight Entertainment and in 1987 he played the leading role in the fantasy movie Defender. At this time he learned a lot about film making and acting. Also, he started to co-direct his own fighting scenes in movies. Everyone could see his talent for acting and the art of making movies. At this time he started to write his first songs "Benimlen" and "Seni Seviyorum". He gave his first stage performances in 1988. In 1992, he was voted "Best of the Year" by Saarlaendischer Rundfunk Radio. In 1994, he was awarded with Media Artist Award in Frankfurt Cultural Festival. In August 1995, he returned to Turkey and released his first solo album. The album Gençliğin Gözyaşı (The Tears of the Youth) sold over one million having hits like "Sorma Neden", "Seni Seviyorum" and "Amerika". In October 1997, he released his second album En Güzel Günler Senin Olsun (Have The Most Beautiful Days). In 1998, he released his first solo album in Europe. In 1998, he played in the film Propaganda with major stars of the Turkish cinema history such as Kemal Sunal and Metin Akpınar. In May 1999, he had a huge success with his third album Hayat Hüzünlü (Sorrowful Life). In 2000, Rafet El Roman vocalized the song Bir Gol Daha (One More Goal) with Mehmet Ali Erbil for the Turkey national football team's Euro 2000 campaign. In 2000, he was the principal actor in the cinema film Offside (Dar Alanda Kısa Paslaşmalar) with co-star Müjde Ar. In 2001, with his own lyrics and song, he sang a duet with Aşkın Nur Yengi titled "Peşindeyim" (I Am in the Pursue of You). He released the fourth album Hanimeli (Lonicera) in January 2001 and his fifth album 5 Nr. Aşk (Love Nr. 5) in April 2002. He released his 6th album, Sürgün (Exile), in the summer of 2004 and this album sold the best. The album had been one of the favorite albums of 2004 with many hit songs. In summer 2005, he released the seventh album Kalbimin Sultanı (The Sultan of My Heart) in honour of his 10th Year. The album became the top seller after initial release. He received the MÜ-YAP "Golden Butterfly", POPSAV "The Most Successful Pop Singer of the Year" awards. In summer 2006, he released the album Gönül Yarası (Heart Pain). Rafet El Roman aims to introduce new names to the music market with his music production company "RER" established in 2000. Also, it is among the greatest desires of Rafet El Roman to be a scenarist and director of his own film. Personal life He has two daughters with former wife, beauty contest winner Tuğba Altıntop. The couple divorced in 2003. They received wide interest in the media with the custody battle over their daughters. He also has a son with his former partner Yeşim Eryıldız. In 2014, he married his second wife Ceren Kaplakarslan in Germany. The two got divorced in August 2017. Discography Albums Singles 2000 - Peşindeyim (feat. Aşkın Nur Yengi) 2012 - Senden Sonra 2014 - Adımla Seslendi 2015 - Şipşak 2016 - Suç Bende mi 2016 - Teşekkürler Türkiyem 2017 - Sen Olmazsan (feat. Hülya Avşar) 2018 - Özledim 2018 - Unuturum Elbet (feat. Derya) 2019 - Bağışla Beni (feat. Faridam) 2019 - Bahçede Yeşil Çınar (feat. Ayşe Nur Keskin) 2019 - Anlamazdın (Fikret Şeneş Şarkıları) (2019) 2019 - Seveni Suçlama 2020 - Paramparça (feat. Burak King) 2020 - Öldüğün Gün İnanırsın (Kitaplara İnanmayan) 2021 - İki Dakika (feat. Nur Usta) 2021 - Bağışla Beni 2021 - Şubat (feat. Ayten) 2022 - Milyon Yara Filmography 1999 – Propaganda (Adem) (1999) 2000 – Dar Alanda Kısa Paslaşmalar (Serkan) (2000) 2002 – Asayiş Berkemal (Berkemal) (2002) 2007 – Senin Uğruna (Kemal) (2007) References External links 1968 births Living people Turkish pop musicians People from Havsa German people of Turkish descent

263064

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Baltimore%20Sun

The Baltimore Sun

The Baltimore Sun is the largest general-circulation daily newspaper based in Maryland and provides coverage of local and regional news, events, issues, people, and industries. Founded in 1837, it is currently owned by Tribune Publishing. The Baltimore Sun's parent company, Tribune Publishing, was acquired by Alden Global Capital, which operates its media properties through Digital First Media, in May 2021. History The Sun was founded on May 17, 1837, by printer/editor/publisher/owner Arunah Shepherdson Abell (often listed as "A. S. Abell") and two associates, William Moseley Swain, and Azariah H. Simmons, recently from Philadelphia, where they had started and published the Public Ledger the year before. Abell was born in Rhode Island, became a journalist with the Providence Patriot and later worked with newspapers in New York City and Boston. The Abell family and descendants owned The Sun until 1910, when the local Black and Garrett families invested in the paper at the suggestion of former rival owner/publisher of The News, Charles H. Grasty, and they, along with Grasty gained a controlling interest; they retained the name A. S. Abell Company for the parent publishing company. That same year The Evening Sun was established under reporter, editor/columnist H.L. Mencken (1880–1956). From 1947 to 1986, The Sun was the owner and founder of Maryland's first television station, WMAR-TV (channel 2), which was a longtime affiliate of CBS until 1981, when it switched to NBC. The station was sold off in 1986, and is now owned by the E. W. Scripps Company, and has been an ABC affiliate since 1995. A. S. Abell also owned several radio stations, but not in Baltimore itself (holding construction permits for WMAR sister AM/FM stations, but never bringing them to air). The newspaper opened its first foreign bureau in London in 1924. Between 1955 and 1961, it added four new foreign offices. As Cold War tensions grew, it set up shop in Bonn, West Germany, in February 1955. (The bureau later moved to Berlin.) Eleven months later, The Sun opened a Moscow bureau, becoming one of the first U.S. newspapers to do so. A Rome office followed in July 1957, and in 1961, The Sun expanded to New Delhi. At its height, The Sun ran eight foreign bureaus, giving rise to its boast in a 1983 advertisement that "The Sun never sets on the world." The paper was sold by Reg Murphy in 1986 to the Times-Mirror Company of the Los Angeles Times. The same week, a 115 year old rivalry ended. The oldest paper in the city, the News American, a Hearst paper since the 1920s, but with roots to 1773, folded. A decade later in 1997, The Sun acquired the Patuxent Publishing Company, a local suburban newspaper publisher that had a stable of 15 weekly papers and a few magazines in several communities and counties. In the 1990s and 2000s, The Sun began cutting back its foreign coverage. In 1995 and 1996, the paper closed its Tokyo, Mexico City and Berlin bureaus. Two more—Beijing and London—fell victim to cost-cutting in 2005. The final three foreign bureaus—Moscow, Jerusalem, and Johannesburg, South Africa—fell a couple of years later. All were closed by 2008, as the Tribune Co. streamlined and downsized the newspaper chain's foreign reporting. Some material from The Suns foreign correspondents is archived at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. In the 21st century, The Sun, like most legacy newspapers in the United States, has suffered a number of setbacks in the competition with Internet and other sources, including a decline in readership and ads, a shrinking newsroom staff, and competition in 2005 from The Baltimore Examiner, a free daily that lasted two years to 2007, along with a similar Washington publication of a small chain recently started by new owners that took over the old Hearst flagship paper, the San Francisco Examiner. In 2000, the Times-Mirror company was purchased by the Tribune Company of Chicago. In 2014, it transferred its newspapers, including The Sun, to Tribune Publishing. On September 19, 2005, and again on August 24, 2008, The Baltimore Sun as the paper now titled itself, introduced new layout designs. Its circulation was 195,561 for the daily edition and 343,552 on Sundays. On April 29, 2009, the Tribune Company announced that it would lay off 61 of the 205 staff members in the Sun newsroom. On September 23, 2011, it was reported that the Baltimore Sun would be moving its web edition behind a paywall starting October 10, 2011. The Baltimore Sun is the flagship of the Baltimore Sun Media Group, which also produces the b free daily newspaper and more than 30 other Baltimore metropolitan-area community newspapers, magazines and Web sites. BSMG content reaches more than one million Baltimore-area readers each week and is the region's most widely read source of news. On February 20, 2014, The Baltimore Sun Media Group announced that they would buy the alternative weekly City Paper. In April, the Sun acquired the Maryland publications of Landmark Media Enterprises. In February 2021, as part of the planned merger between Tribune Publishing and Alden Global Capital, Tribune announced that Alden had reached a non-binding agreement to sell The Sun to the Sunlight For All Institute, a nonprofit backed by businessman and philanthropist Stewart W. Bainum Jr. The deal is contingent on the approval of the merger by Tribune shareholders. In February, 2022, the editorial board of The Sun published a lengthy apology for its racism over its 185–year history, including specific offenses such as accepting classified ads for selling enslaved people and publishing editorials that promoted racial segregation and disenfranchisement of Black voters. Editions From 1910 to 1995 there were two distinct newspapers—The Sun in the morning and The Evening Sun in the afternoon—each with its own separate reporting and editorial staff. The Evening Sun was first published in 1910 under the leadership of Charles H. Grasty, former owner of the Evening News, and a firm believer in the evening circulation. For most of its existence, The Evening Sun led its morning sibling in circulation. In 1959, the afternoon edition's circulation was 220,174, compared to 196,675 for the morning edition. However, by the 1980s, cultural, technological and economic shifts in America were eating away at afternoon newspapers' market share, with readers flocking to either morning papers or switching to nightly television news broadcasts. In 1992, the afternoon paper's circulation was 133,800. By mid-1995, The Evening Suns readership—86,360—had been eclipsed by The Sun—264,583. The Evening Sun ceased publication on September 15, 1995. Daily After a period of roughly a year during which the paper's owners sometimes printed a two-section product, The Baltimore Sun now has three sections every weekday: News, Sports and alternating various business and features sections. On some days, comics and such features as the horoscope and TV listings are printed in the back of the Sports section. After dropping the standalone business section in 2009, The Sun brought back a business section on Tuesdays and Sundays in 2010, with business pages occupying part of the news section on other days. Features sections debuting in 2010 included a Saturday "Home" section, a Thursday "Style" section and a Monday section called "Sunrise." The sports article written by Peter Schmuck is published only on weekdays. Sunday The Sunday Sun for many years was noted for a locally produced rotogravure Maryland pictorial magazine section, featuring works by such acclaimed photographers as A. Aubrey Bodine. The Sunday Sun dropped the Sunday Sun Magazine in 1996 and now only carries Parade magazine weekly. A quarterly version of the Sun Magazine was resurrected in September 2010, with stories that included a comparison of young local doctors, an interview with actress Julie Bowen and a feature on the homes of a former Baltimore anchorwoman. Newsroom managers plan to add online content on a more frequent basis. baltimoresun.com The company introduced its website in September 1996. A redesign of the site was unveiled in June 2009, capping a six-month period of record online traffic. Each month from January through June, an average of 3.5 million unique visitors combined to view 36.6 million Web pages. Sun reporters and editors produce more than three dozen blogs on such subjects as technology, weather, education, politics, Baltimore crime, real estate, gardening, pets and parenting. Among the most popular are Dining@Large, which covers local restaurants; The Schmuck Stops Here, a Baltimore-centric sports blog written by Peter Schmuck; Z on TV, by media critic David Zurawik; and Midnight Sun, a nightlife blog. A Baltimore Sun iPhone app was released September 14, 2010. In 2018, in response to the European cookie law, baltimoresun.com began blocking visitors with European IP addresses rather than go to the effort of obtaining permission-requesting software, with the result that many European visitors (and those from some non-European countries) must visit the site via proxies, potentially muddling the website's analytics. b In 2008, the Baltimore Sun Media Group launched the daily paper b to target younger and more casual readers, ages 18 to 35. It was in tabloid format, with large graphics, creative design, and humor in focusing on entertainment, news, and sports. Its companion website was bthesite.com. The paper transitioned from daily to weekly publication in 2011. It ceased publication entirely in August 2015, more than a year after the Baltimore Sun Media Group acquired City Paper. Contributors The Baltimore Sun has been home to many notable journalists, including reporter, essayist, and language scholar H.L. Mencken, who had a forty-plus-year association with the paper. Other notable journalists, editors, photographers and cartoonists on the staff of Sun papers include Rafael Alvarez, Linda Carter Brinson, Richard Ben Cramer, Russell Baker, A. Aubrey Bodine, John Carroll, James Grant, Turner Catledge, Edmund Duffy, Thomas Edsall, John Filo, Jon Franklin, Jack Germond, Mauritz A. Hallgren, Price Day, Phil Potter, David Hobby, Brit Hume, Gwen Ifill, Gerald W. Johnson, Kevin P. Kallaugher (KAL), Murray Kempton, Frank Kent, Tim Kurkjian, Laura Lippman, William Manchester, Lee McCardell, sportscaster Jim McKay, Kay Mills, Robert Mottar, Reg Murphy, Thomas O'Neill, Drew Pearson, Ken Rosenthal, Louis Rukeyser, Dan Shaughnessy, David Simon, Michael Sragow, John Steadman, Jules Witcover, and William F. Zorzi. The paper has won 16 Pulitzer Prizes. Facilities The first issue of The Sun, a four-page tabloid, was printed at 21 Light Street in downtown Baltimore in the mid-1830s. A five-story structure, at the corner of Baltimore and South streets, was built in 1851. The "Iron Building", as it was called, was destroyed in the Great Baltimore Fire of 1904. In 1906, operations were moved to Charles and Baltimore streets, where The Sun was written, published and distributed for nearly 50 years. In 1950, the operation was moved to a larger, modern plant at Calvert and Centre streets. In 1979, ground was broken for a new addition to the Calvert Street plant to house modern pressroom facilities. The new facility commenced operations in 1981. In April 1988, at a cost of $180 million, the company purchased of land at Port Covington and built "Sun Park". The new building houses a satellite printing and packaging facility, as well as the distribution operation. The Suns printing facility at Sun Park has highly sophisticated computerized presses and automated insertion equipment in the packaging area. To keep pace with the speed of the presses and Automated Guided Vehicles; "intelligent" electronic forklifts deliver the newsprint to the presses. On Sunday, January 30, 2022, The Baltimore Sun newspaper was printed for the last time at its Sun Park facility. It was reported that The Sun's printing operations would be moved to a printing facility in Wilmington, Delaware. In 1885, The Sun constructed a building for its Washington Bureau at 1317 F Street, NW. The building is on the National Register. Controversies The paper became embroiled in a controversy involving the former governor of Maryland, Robert L. Ehrlich Jr. (R). Ehrlich had issued an executive order on November 18, 2004, banning state executive branch employees from talking to Sun columnist Michael Olesker and reporter David Nitkin, claiming that their coverage had been unfair to the administration. This led The Sun to file a First Amendment lawsuit against the Ehrlich administration. The case was dismissed by a U.S. District Court judge, and The Sun appealed to the 4th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, which upheld the dismissal. The same Olesker was forced to resign on January 4, 2006, after being accused of plagiarism. The Baltimore City Paper reported that several of his columns contained sentences or paragraphs that were extremely similar (although not identical) to material previously published in The Washington Post, The New York Times, and The Sun. Several of his colleagues both in and out of the paper were highly critical of the forced resignation, taking the view that the use of previously published boilerplate material was common newsroom practice, and Olesker's alleged plagiarism was in line with that practice. Between 2006 and 2007, Thomas Andrews Drake, a former National Security Agency executive, allegedly leaked classified information to Siobhan Gorman, then a national security reporter for The Sun. Drake was charged in April 2010 with 10 felony counts in relation to the leaks. In June 2011, all 10 original charges were dropped, in what was widely viewed as an acknowledgement that the government had no valid case against the whistleblower, who eventually pleaded to one misdemeanor count for exceeding authorized use of a computer. Drake was the 2011 recipient of the Ridenhour Prize for Truth-Telling. Entering an ongoing controversy labeled as racist attacks by Donald Trump against congressional members who had criticized him that had begun to include numerous attacks against Baltimore Congressman Elijah Cummings and was naming him personally responsible for the presence of rodents in Baltimore neighborhoods, on July 27, 2019, The Baltimore Sun responded with an editorial entitled, "Better to have a few rats than to be one". Portrayal in The Wire The Baltimore Sun was featured in the American crime drama television series The Wire in 2008 (season 5), which was created by former Sun reporter David Simon. Like all of the institutions featured in The Wire, the Sun is portrayed as having many deeply dysfunctional qualities while also having very dedicated people on its staff. The season focuses on the role of the media in affecting political decisions in City Hall and the priorities of the Baltimore Police Department. Additionally, the show explores the business pressures of modern media through layoffs and buyouts occurring at the Sun, on the orders of the Tribune Company, the Suns corporate owner. One storyline involves a troubled Sun reporter named Scott Templeton, and his escalating tendency to sensationalize and falsify stories. The Wire portrays the managing editors of the Sun as turning a blind eye to the protests of a concerned line editor, in the managing editors' zeal to win a Pulitzer Prize. The show insinuates that the motivation for this institutional dysfunction is the business pressures of modern media, and working for a flagship newspaper in a major media market like The New York Times or The Washington Post is seen as the only way to avoid the cutbacks occurring at the Sun. Season 5 was The Wires last. The finale episode, "-30-", features a montage at the end portraying the ultimate fate of the major characters. It shows Templeton at Columbia University with the senior editors of the fictional Sun, accepting the Pulitzer Prize, with no mention being made as to the aftermath of Templeton's career. Alma Gutierrez is shown being exiled to the Carroll County bureau past the suburbs. News partnership In September 2008, The Baltimore Sun became the newspaper partner of station WJZ-TV, owned and operated by CBS; the partnership involves sharing content and story leads, and teaming up on stories. WJZ promotes Baltimore Sun stories in its news broadcasts. The Sun promotes WJZ's stories and weather team on its pages. See also :Category:The Baltimore Sun people List of newspapers in Maryland List of newspapers in the United States by circulation Media in Baltimore References Further reading Merrill, John C. and Harold A. Fisher. The world's great dailies: profiles of fifty newspapers (1980) pp 73–80 External links Baltimore Sun Archives at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County Baltimore Sun online archives (1837 to present) Rasmussen, Frederick N. "Sun vignette has been greeting readers since 1837," The Baltimore Sun, Monday, May 17, 2010. Telling Our Stories (memories of former employees) “Baltimore Sun, 150 Years Of,” 1987-05-17, Maryland Public Television, The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia, American Archive of Public Broadcasting Final Sun Park press run on January 30, 2022 | PHOTOS Baltimore Sun Media prints in Sun Park for last time on January 30, 2022 | VIDEO 1837 establishments in Maryland Newspapers published in Baltimore Newspapers established in 1837 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service winners Pulitzer Prize-winning newspapers Tribune Publishing Pulitzer Prize for Local Reporting winners

263075

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet

Tet

Tet or TET may refer to: Vietnam Tết or Tết Nguyên Đán, the Vietnamese new year, Lunar new year Tet Offensive, a military campaign during the Vietnam War that began in 1968 Tet 1969 Geography Têt (river) in Roussillon, France Tét, a town in Hungary Tét District, a district in northwestern Hungary Character, symbol, abbreviation, or acronym Tet or teth, tēth, or Ṭāʾ, a Semitic abjad character tet, the ISO 639-2 code for Tetum Equal temperament, abbreviated as 12-TET, 19-TET, and so on Teacher Eligibility Test, a teachers' entrance test Tet methylcytosine dioxygenase 1, or TET1, an enzyme Tetrachloride Tetrahedron Tetralogy of Fallot Art, entertainment, and media Tet (Morris Louis painting), a 1958 painting Tet, enormous tetrahedral space station from the 2013 film Oblivion TET (TV channel), a Ukrainian TV channel Tet, a god in the light novel No Game No Life The name of Latvian telecommunications provider Lattelecom since April 2019 Other uses Chingozi Airport, Tete, Mozambique, with IATA code TET TET, a Finnish work practice program Tet Garcia (born 1940), Governor of Bataan, The Philippines Tet Wada (born 1973), Japanese-American actor Trans Euro Trail, Offroad Tracks in Europe See also TETS (disambiguation)

263077

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Southern%20Indiana

University of Southern Indiana

The University of Southern Indiana (USI) is a public university just outside of Evansville, Indiana. Founded in 1965, USI enrolls 9,750 dual credit, undergraduate, graduate and doctoral students in more than 130 areas of study. USI offers programs through the College of Liberal Arts, Romain College of Business, College of Nursing and Health Professions and the Pott College of Science, Engineering, and Education. USI is a member of the American Association of State Colleges and Universities. It is also a Carnegie Foundation Community Engaged University which offers continuing education and special programs to more than 15,000 participants annually through outreach and engagement. Beginning with the 2022-2023 school year, USI athletic teams will participate in Division I of the NCAA as a member of the Ohio Valley Conference. The teams are known as the Screaming Eagles. Previously, USI participated in Division II as a member of the Great Lakes Valley Conference. The university is home to an extensive student life, with more than 140 student organizations. USI is classified among "M1 – Master's Colleges and Universities: Larger programs." History The University of Southern Indiana began as a regional campus of Indiana State University, opening on September 15, 1965. In 1967, Southern Indiana Higher Education, Inc., (SIHE) raised nearly $1 million to acquire 1,400 acres for the Mid-America University Center. Groundbreaking was held June 22, 1968. Since September 1969, the University has occupied 330 acres, mostly donated by SIHE. The first buildings constructed were the Science Center and the Wright Administration Building. Slowly the school built facilities, as funding became available during the Indiana State University-Evansville period. On April 16, 1985, ISU-Evansville became an autonomous four-year institution, the University of Southern Indiana. Governor Robert D. Orr, an Evansville native, signed the newly independent school's charter. Since gaining its independence, USI's growth has continued to where it is now the fastest growing comprehensive university in the state. The university established student housing, diversified the programs offered, and enrollment has more than doubled since gaining its independence. In October 2006, the university completed a master plan that provides the framework to double the size of the school and support a campus of over 20,000 students. The master plan features key planning principles to guide the university and help it create a cohesive campus as it continues to grow. Academics Academic Units USI offers over 70 undergraduate majors, 13 master's programs, and two doctoral programs as of the fall 2018 semester. Divisions of the University include the Romain College of Business, College of Liberal Arts, College of Nursing and Health Professions, Pott College of Science, Engineering, and Education, University Division, and Division of Outreach and Engagement. Each college is led by a dean who reports to the provost and vice president for Academic Affairs. USI employs 652 full-time faculty, lecturers, and academic administrators, and 239 part-time faculty. The university is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission and carries several discipline-specific accreditations as well, including from the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education, and ABET. The New Harmony Theatre The New Harmony Theatre is a professional theatre operating in nearby New Harmony, Indiana under an agreement with Actors' Equity Association, the union of professional actors and stage managers in the United States. In fall 2007, USI Theatre partnered with The New Harmony Theatre on The Repertory Project, which allows top Theatre students to perform with Equity actors. Student actors and stage managers involved in The Repertory Project earn points toward joining the union, a membership that is considered the “gold standard” for theatre professionals. Historic Southern Indiana Historic Southern Indiana (HSI) is an outreach organization dedicated to preserving, enhancing, and promoting the abundant historical, natural, and recreational resources of southern Indiana. As a community outreach program of the University of Southern Indiana, HSI hosts workshops, produces publications, conducts visitor research, and facilitates and coordinates with many groups and agencies with the goal of creating a sense of regional identity and pride. The Heritage Area contains numerous sites of historical significance, including Vincennes, Corydon, New Harmony, Madison, and Abraham Lincoln's boyhood home. Forests, caves, rivers, and lakes offer scenic beauty and recreational activities. Center for Communal Studies The USI Center for Communal Studies is a clearinghouse for information, a research facility, and a sponsor of activities related to historic and contemporary intentional communities. The center encourages and facilitates meetings, classes, scholarships, publications, networking and public interest in communal groups past and present, here and abroad. The center archives contain primary and secondary materials on more than 100 historic communes and several hundred collective, cooperative, and co-housing communities founded since 1965. Noted communal scholars have donated their private collections and their extensive research notes and papers to the center archives. Center for Applied Research The Center for Applied Research (CAR) works with businesses and organizations throughout the region to conduct research, consulting, and other applied projects. Southwest Indiana STEM (SwISTEM) Resource Center The Southwest Indiana STEM Resource Center offers a free-equipment lending service to K-12 public, private, and parochial school educators as well as informal educators in a seventeen-county region in southwest Indiana. Teacher professional development as well as an extensive line-up of K-12 student outreach activities are offered throughout the calendar year. Rankings Online graduate degree nursing program was ranked 15th in the categories of Admissions Selectivity and Faculty Credentials and Training in the 2012 U.S. News & World Report rankings. Students taking the Certified Management Accountant exam from the University of Southern Indiana had a pass rate of over 90% in 2018, one of only 4 schools nationally to cross this threshold. Student life Enrollment Total USI enrollment is 11,033 for the 2017 fall semester, which includes students in undergraduate and graduate degree programs and 2,016 students enrolled in USI's College Achievement Program (CAP) classes in 27 high schools across Indiana. Students at USI represent 90 Indiana counties, 39 states and 70 countries. Out of state enrollment, including international students, makes up approximately 17% of the student population, and minority and international students comprise more than 14%. More than 40,000 students have graduated since 1971. About 74% of USI's graduates remain in Indiana. The university serves an additional 16,000 persons annually through comprehensive noncredit programs of short duration. Housing Nearly all students who live on campus (with the exception of some freshmen who are housed in modern suite-style facilities) are assigned apartments with full kitchens. USI's four Residence Halls (Newman, Governor's, O'Bannon, and Ruston), located on the South side of campus, are freshmen-only modern suites. The apartments, located on the Northeastern side of campus, accommodate all other campus residents (including freshmen). Greek life Fraternities: Tau Kappa Epsilon (Since 1970) Sigma Tau Gamma (Since 1973-1999, re-chartered in 2013) Lambda Chi Alpha (Since 1981) Kappa Alpha Order (Since 2003) Sigma Pi (Since 2007) Alpha Phi Alpha (Since 2017) Sororities: Alpha Sigma Alpha (Since 1972) Delta Zeta (Since 1975) Gamma Phi Beta (Since 1998) Alpha Sigma Tau (Since 2012) Alpha Kappa Alpha (Since 2013) Delta Sigma Theta (Since 1973, re-activated 2015) Sigma Sigma Sigma (re-colonized 2015) Gamma Phi Omega (since 2019) Former Fraternities and Sororities: Sigma Alpha Epsilon (1982-1984) Alpha Sigma Phi (1994-2014, removed for low membership) Phi Delta Theta (1986-2017, removed for hazing and alcohol violations) Campus USI's campus, located on 1400 acres (5.7 km2) of land west of Evansville, is accessed by University Parkway off of the Lloyd Expressway (IN-62). It is marked at the center by University Center East and West, which houses conference space, campus dining, offices and the campus store and by Reflection Lake to the west. The campus is connected to Burdette Park by the 3-mile, paved USI-Burdette Trail, and multiple lakeside and forest trails are available to the public through the Bent Twig Outdoor Education Center. South of the University Center is the Quad, an open-air lawn flanked by David L. Rice Library (completed in 2006) and academic buildings for the College of Liberal Arts and Romain College of Business. Academic buildings for the College of Nursing and Health Professions and Pott College, as well as university administration and forum classrooms, are located north of University Center. The total number of classrooms has more than doubled since the opening of the campus in 1967. Recent additions to the campus include the Business and Engineering Center (opened in 2010), the Applied Engineering Center (2013), the Performance Center (2014) and the Griffin Center (2016). Athletics and Recreation USI Basketball and Volleyball games are located in Screaming Eagles Arena, which opened on campus in 2019. Additionally, students have access to the Physical Activities Center, which also houses training facilities for student athletes. An aquatic center featuring a competition-length pool, as well as expansions and renovations to the Physical Activities Center, are currently under construction Baseball, softball and soccer games all take place on campus. USI students and faculty also have access to the Recreation, Fitness and Wellness Center. Historic New Harmony In cooperation with the Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites, USI manages programs and properties in Historic New Harmony, site of two historic communal societies of the early 19th century, the Harmony Society and the Robert Owen/William Maclure communal experiment. Media USI is home to the Southern Indiana Review, a national literary journal. Stories published in the Southern Indiana Review have been anthologized in the Best American Short Stories and the Best American Essays. The university contains within it three media outlets including the award-winning radio station, The Spin/WSWI, the student-run television station SETV12 Access UWSI, and the two-time "Division II Newspaper of the Year" student newspaper, The Shield. All programs are completely student-run entities within the campus that deal with student and community related topics and discussions. Athletics The athletic teams of USI are known as the Screaming Eagles. The university competes at the NCAA Division II level as members of the Great Lakes Valley Conference. USI sponsors 17 varsity intercollegiate sports. The school has won four NCAA national championships (men's basketball, 1995; baseball, 2010 and 2014; softball, 2018), finished three times as the national finalist (men's basketball, 1994 and 2004; and women's basketball 1997), and earned two third-place finishes (men's cross country, 1982; baseball, 2007). The men's and women's cross country/track teams have produced five individual national championships since 1997. The NCAA II Softball National Championship in 2018 marked the first softball team in Indiana to win an NCAA championship. The national championship in baseball in 2010 marked the first GLVC member and university in the state of Indiana to win such a title, repeating in 2014 to become the first NCAA II program to win multiple team titles. The men's basketball NCAA II National Championship in 1995 garnered 3.9 million viewers watching them on CBS Sports. On February 7, 2022, the university's board of trustees unanimously approved the athletics program to seek membership at the NCAA Division I level. On February 9, USI announced that it had accept an offer to become a member of the Ohio Valley Conference beginning on July 1, 2022. USI boasts a strong academic record as well, with 228 Academic All-GLVC athletes in 2021-22 and 35 Academic All-America honors. Student athletes maintain an average GPA of 3.29 and are retained at a high percentage. Men's sports Baseball Basketball Cross country Golf Soccer Tennis Track and field Women's sports Basketball Cross country Golf Soccer Softball Tennis Track and field Volleyball Notable alumni Kevin Brown, professional baseball player. Played from 1996 to 2002 with the Blue Jays, Brewers, Rangers and Red Sox. Dale Carter, inducted into the Country Radio Hall of Fame 2011. Brad Ellsworth (Democrat), former member of the United States House of Representatives in the 110th Congress, Indiana's 8th congressional district and former Sheriff of Vanderburgh County, Indiana. Stan Gouard, basketball player and current USI coach. Darin Mastroianni, professional baseball player for the Minnesota Twins. Drafted in 16th round of the 2007 MLB Player Draft by the Toronto Blue Jays. Zach Payne, member of the Indiana House of Representatives Vince Russo, former booker for WCW and WWF; former booker for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling; briefly held WCW's World Heavyweight Championship. Runs a well known professional wrestling podcast. Jeff Schulz, professional baseball player. Played for the Kansas City Royals and the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1989. Jamar Smith, professional basketball player. Signed by the Boston Celtics and assigned to the Maine Red Claws. Robert Titzer, author and inventor of the book series Your Baby Can Read. David Claspell, author of the book Dave’s Practical Guide to Doing Things the Right Way. References External links Official athletics website The Shield University of Southern Indiana Student Newspaper Education in Vanderburgh County, Indiana Buildings and structures in Vanderburgh County, Indiana Southwestern Indiana University of Southen Indiana Educational institutions established in 1965 Sports in Evansville, Indiana Tourist attractions in Vanderburgh County, Indiana 1965 establishments in Indiana

263078

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trouton%E2%80%93Noble%20experiment

Trouton–Noble experiment

The Trouton–Noble experiment was an attempt to detect motion of the Earth through the luminiferous aether, and was conducted in 1901–1903 by Frederick Thomas Trouton and H. R. Noble. It was based on a suggestion by George FitzGerald that a charged parallel-plate capacitor moving through the aether should orient itself perpendicular to the motion. Like the earlier Michelson–Morley experiment, Trouton and Noble obtained a null result: no motion relative to the aether could be detected. This null result was reproduced, with increasing sensitivity, by Rudolf Tomaschek (1925, 1926), Chase (1926, 1927) and Hayden in 1994. Such experimental results are now seen, consistent with special relativity, to reflect the validity of the principle of relativity and the absence of any absolute rest frame (or aether). The experiment is a test of special relativity. The Trouton–Noble experiment is also related to thought experiments such as the "Trouton–Noble paradox," and the "right-angle lever" or "Lewis–Tolman paradox". Several solutions have been proposed to solve this kind of paradox, all of them in agreement with special relativity. Trouton–Noble experiment In the experiment, a suspended parallel-plate capacitor is held by a fine torsion fiber and is charged. If the aether theory were correct, the change in Maxwell's equations due to the Earth's motion through the aether would lead to a torque causing the plates to align perpendicular to the motion. This is given by: where is the torque, the energy of the condenser, the angle between the normal of the plate and the velocity. On the other hand, the assertion of special relativity that Maxwell's equations are invariant for all frames of reference moving at constant velocities would predict no torque (a null result). Thus, unless the aether were somehow fixed relative to the Earth, the experiment is a test of which of these two descriptions is more accurate. Its null result thus confirms Lorentz invariance of special relativity. However, while the negative experimental outcome can easily be explained in the rest frame of the device, the explanation from the viewpoint of a non-co-moving frame (concerning the question, whether the same torque should arise as in the "aether frame" described above, or whether no torque arises at all) is much more difficult and is called "Trouton–Noble paradox," which can be solved in several ways (see Solutions below). Right-angle lever paradox The Trouton–Noble paradox is essentially equivalent to a thought experiment called "right angle lever paradox", first discussed by Gilbert Newton Lewis and Richard Chase Tolman in 1909. Suppose a right-angle lever with endpoints abc. In its rest frame, the forces towards ba and towards bc must be equal to obtain equilibrium, thus no torque is given by the law of the lever: where is the torque, and the rest length of one lever arm. However, due to length contraction, ba is longer than bc in a non-co-moving system, thus the law of the lever gives: It can be seen that the torque is not zero, which apparently would cause the lever to rotate in the non-co-moving frame. Since no rotation is observed, Lewis and Tolman thus concluded that no torque exists, therefore: However, as shown by Max von Laue (1911), this is in contradiction with the relativistic expressions of force, which gives When applied to the law of the lever, the following torque is produced: Which is principally the same problem as in the Trouton–Noble paradox. Solutions The detailed relativistic analysis of both the Trouton–Noble paradox and the right-angle lever paradox requires care to correctly reconcile, for example, the effects seen by observers in different frames of reference, but ultimately all such theoretical descriptions are shown to give the same result. In both cases an apparent net torque on an object (when viewed from a certain frame of reference) does not result in any rotation of the object, and in both cases this is explained by correctly accounting, in the relativistic way, for the transformation of all the relevant forces, momenta and the accelerations produced by them. The early history of descriptions of this experiment is reviewed by Janssen (1995). Laue current The first solution of the Trouton–Noble paradox was given by Hendrik Lorentz (1904). His result is based on the assumption that the torque and momentum due to electrostatic forces are compensated by the torque and momentum due to molecular forces. This was further elaborated by Max von Laue (1911), who gave the standard solution for these kind of paradoxes. It was based on the so-called "inertia of energy" in its general formulation by Max Planck. According to Laue, an energy current connected with a certain momentum ("Laue current") is produced in moving bodies by elastic stresses. The resulting mechanical torque in the case of the Trouton–Noble experiment amounts to: and in the right-angle lever: which exactly compensates the electromagnetic torque mentioned above, thus no rotation occurs on both cases. Or in other words: The electromagnetic torque is actually necessary for the uniform motion of a body, i.e., to hinder the body to rotate due to the mechanical torque caused by elastic stresses. Since then, many papers appeared which elaborated on Laue's current, providing some modifications or re-interpretations, and included different variants of "hidden" momentum. Reformulations of force and momentum Other authors were unsatisfied with the idea that torques and counter-torques arise only because different inertial frames are chosen. Their aim was to replace the standard expressions for momentum and force and thus equilibrium by manifestly Lorentz covariant ones from the outset. So when there is no torque in the rest frame of the considered object, then there are no torques in other frames as well. This is in analogy to the 4/3 problem of the electromagnetic mass of electrons, where similar methods were employed by Enrico Fermi (1921) and Fritz Rohrlich (1960): In the standard formulation of relativistic dynamics the hyperplanes of simultaneity of any observer can be used, while in the Fermi/Rohrlich definition the hyperplane of simultaneity of the object's rest frame should be used. According to Janssen, deciding between Laue's standard model and such alternatives is merely a matter of convention. Following this line of reasoning, Rohrlich (1966) distinguished between "apparent" and "true" Lorentz transformations. For example, a "true" transformation of length would be the result of a direct application of the Lorentz transformation, which gives the non-simultaneous positions of the endpoints in another frame. On the other hand, length contraction would be an example of an apparent transformation, since the simultaneous positions of the endpoints in the moving frame must be calculated in addition to the initial Lorentz transformation. Furthermore, Cavalleri/Salgarelli (1969) distinguished between "synchronous" and "asynchronous" equilibrium conditions. In their view, synchronous consideration of forces should only be used for the object's rest frame, while in moving frames the same forces should be considered asynchronously. Force and acceleration A solution without compensating forces or redefinitions of force and equilibrium was published by Richard C. Tolman and Paul Sophus Epstein in 1911. A similar solution was re-discovered by Franklin (2006). They alluded to the fact that force and acceleration do not always have the same direction, that is, the relation of mass, force and acceleration has tensor character in relativity. So the role played by the concept of force in relativity is very different from that of Newtonian mechanics. Epstein imagined a massless rod with endpoints OM, which is mounted at point O, and a particle with rest mass m is mounted at M. The rod encloses the angle with O. Now a force towards OM is applied at M, and equilibrium in its rest frame is achieved when . As already shown above, these forces have the form in a non-co-moving frame: Thus . So the resultant force does not directly point from O to M. Does this lead to a rotation of the rod? No, because Epstein now considered the accelerations caused by the two forces. The relativistic expressions in the case, where a mass m is accelerated by these two forces in the longitudinal and transverse direction, are: , where . Thus . Thus no rotation occurs in this system as well. Similar considerations are also to be applied to the right-angle lever and Trouton–Noble paradox. So the paradoxes are resolved, because the two accelerations (as vectors) point to the center of gravity of the system (condenser), although the two forces do not. Epstein added, that if one finds it more satisfying to re-establish the parallelism between force and acceleration with which we are accustomed in Newtonian mechanics, one has to include a compensating force, which formally corresponds to Laue's current. Epstein developed such a formalism in the subsequent sections of his 1911 paper. See also History of special relativity References Further reading History Michel Janssen, "A comparison between Lorentz's ether theory and special relativity in the light of the experiments of Trouton and Noble, Ph.D. thesis (1995). Online: TOC, pref., intro-I, 1, 2, intro-II, 3, 4, refs. Textbooks American Journal of Physics European Journal of Physics Journal of Physics A Nuovo Cimento Foundations of Physics External links Kevin Brown, "Trouton-Noble and The Right-Angle Lever at MathPages. Michel Janssen, "The Trouton Experiment and E = mc2," Einstein for Everyone course at UMN (2002). Aether theories Physics experiments 1901 in science 1902 in science 1903 in science Physical paradoxes

263087

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MFO

MFO

MFO may refer to: Organisations Maison Française d'Oxford, a French research institute based in Oxford, England Multinational Force and Observers, an international peacekeeping force; or the related medal Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon, a defunct Swiss manufacturing company, merged into Brown, Boveri & Cie in 1967 Mathematisches Forschungsinstitut Oberwolfach (Mathematical Research Institute of Oberwolfach), in Germany MrFixitOnline, a prominent gaming site focusing on online games, notably Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings that specialized in expert strategy and high caliber tournaments, in operation from ~2000 - 2006. Multi-family office, organisations which protect and grow the wealth of several families by providing full growth and philanthropic investment advice. Entertainment MFÖ, a Turkish band My Family Online, a website/forum for hit BBC One sitcom, My Family Science In immunology, Multi Function Oxidase Mixed-function oxidase Other MFO, IATA airport code of Manguna Airport in Papua New Guinea Marine Fuel Oil

263088

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Harley%20%26%20Cockney%20Rebel

Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel

Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel are an English glam rock band from the early 1970s. Their music covers a range of styles from pop to progressive rock. Over the years they have had five albums in the UK Albums Chart and twelve singles in the UK Singles Chart. Career Steve Harley grew up in London's New Cross area and attended Haberdashers' Aske's Hatcham Boys' School. His musical career began in the late 1960s when he was busking (with John Crocker aka Jean-Paul Crocker) and performing his own songs, some of which were later recorded by him and the band. After an initial stint as a music journalist, the original Cockney Rebel was formed when Harley hooked up with his former folk music partner, Crocker (fiddle / mandolin / guitar) in 1972. Crocker had just finished a short stint with Trees and they advertised and auditioned drummer Stuart Elliott, bassist Paul Jeffreys, and guitarist Nick Jones. This line-up played one of the band's first gigs at the Roundhouse, Chalk Farm, London on 23 July 1972, supporting The Jeff Beck Group. Nick was soon replaced by guitarist Pete Newnham but Steve felt that the Cockney Rebel sound did not need an electric guitar and they settled on the combination of Crocker's electric violin and the Fender Rhodes piano of keyboardist Milton Reame-James to share the lead. The band was signed to EMI after playing five gigs. Their first single, "Sebastian", was an immediate success in Europe, although it failed to score in the UK Singles Chart. Their debut album, The Human Menagerie, was released in 1973. Although the album was not a commercial success, the band attracted a growing following in London. Harley himself was much written about in the musical press, and the other members began to consider themselves regarded and treated as sidemen rather than co-equals, so there was tension in the band even as they were having a big hit with their second single, "Judy Teen". In May 1974, the British music magazine, NME reported that Cockney Rebel were to undertake their first British tour, with the highlight of the itinerary being a gig at London's Victoria Palace Theatre on 23 June. There then followed the album The Psychomodo. A Live at the BBC album from 1995 included material recorded during a 1974 BBC Radio 1 broadcast. Following the European single "Psychomodo", a second single from the album, "Mr. Soft", was also a hit. "Tumbling Down" was also issued in America as a promotional single. By this time the problems within the band had already reached a head, and all the musicians, with the exception of Elliott, quit at the end of a successful UK tour, leaving the band to become session musicians. The original keyboardist, Milton Reame-James, recalled in 2010 that the original band 'said goodbye on the steps of Abbey Road studios and were never to meet up again.' Crocker continued to write songs and perform, forming a duet with his brother. After a brief period with Be-Bop Deluxe in 1974, Reame-James and Jeffreys formed the band Chartreuse in 1976. Harley's next appearance on BBC Television's Top of the Pops was supported by session musicians and Francis Monkman, and B. A. Robertson. The band's single "Big Big Deal" was issued in 1974 and was almost immediately withdrawn. From then on, the band was a band in name only, being more or less a Harley solo project. In 1974, a further album, The Best Years of Our Lives was released, produced by The Beatles' recording engineer, Alan Parsons. This included the track "Make Me Smile (Come Up and See Me)" which would go on to be a UK number one single in February 1975, and the band's biggest selling hit. It sold over one million copies globally. Amongst the backing vocalists on the act's only No. 1 was the future chart-topper, Tina Charles. Changing the band name from Cockney Rebel to Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel for the No. 1 hit, the degeneration was rapid. In a television interview recorded in 2002, Harley described how the lyrics are vindictively directed at the former band members who, he felt, had abandoned him – a fact not obvious in the apparently happy chorus. , for whose band Jeffreys and had departed, confirms this story. One more single from the album, "Mr. Raffles (Man, It Was Mean)" made the Top 20, and the following album Timeless Flight was a top 20 success, although both singles "Black or White" and "White, White Dove" failed to chart. After 1975, Harley struggled to match the success of "Make Me Smile" and faded from fame, and Cockney Rebel eventually disbanded. The band had a surprise Top 10 in the summer of 1976 with a cover version of "Here Comes the Sun". This was followed by the Top 50 single "(I Believe) Love's a Prima Donna" and the album Love's a Prima Donna. After the band's split, Harley provided vocals on The Alan Parsons Project song, "The Voice" on 1977's I Robot. Harley released two failed solo albums in the late 1970s; 1978's Hobo with a Grin which featured the two singles "Roll the Dice" and "Someone's Coming", and 1979's The Candidate. He made a minor comeback as a solo artist in the UK Singles Chart with "Freedom's Prisoner" from the latter album. After a brief appearance in the 1980s with a song from Andrew Lloyd Webber's The Phantom of the Opera, the 1982 single "I Can't Even Touch You" was released by Harley under the band name, whilst the 1983 minor hit single "Ballerina (Prima Donna)" was also credited to the band on both sides of the vinyl release, although not on the sleeve, where Harley was solely credited. In 1986, Harley released two singles on RAK; "Irresistible" and "Heartbeat Like Thunder". Harley began touring again with his old Cockney Rebel songs in the late 1980s and 1990s. Cockney Rebel's original bassist, Paul Jeffreys, was one of those who died in the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988. He was with his bride on their honeymoon. In April 1990, Harley and several former members of Cockney Rebel Mark II reformed as Raffles United, and played four consecutive nights in a pub in Sudbury, London. In 2007 Harley revealed that these concerts were, in effect, used as Pop Idol style auditions for new band members, in particular a new bassist, lead guitarist and pianist (Stuart Elliott and Barry Wickens were already signed as drummer and violinist respectively, and as of 2020 they continue to perform these roles in the band), as well as backing singers/percussionists pending a tour in late 1990/early 1991, after the success of 1989's 'Come Back, All Is Forgiven' tour. Harley has released several solo albums since – Yes You Can in 1992 (including the singles "Irresistible" and "Star for a Week (Dino)"), Poetic Justice in 1996, and most recently, The Quality of Mercy in 2005 (which included the singles "A Friend for Life" and "The Last Goodbye"), the first since the 1970s to be released with the Cockney Rebel name. He has dubbed his current touring band 'Cockney Rebel Mark III'. Two of the bigger hits appeared in UK television advertisements in the 1990s: "Make Me Smile" for Carlsberg Lager in 1995, prompting the track's return to the UK Top 40; and "Mr Soft" for Trebor Softmints between 1987 and 1994. "Make Me Smile" was used again in a 2005 advertisement for Marks & Spencer. It was also used on the soundtrack of the 1997 film, The Full Monty and the 1998 glam rock film Velvet Goldmine, in the latter's case being used in the end credits. From 1999 to 2008, Harley presented a show on BBC Radio 2 called Sounds of the 70s. In 2006, EMI released a CD box set compilation album spanning Harley's Cockney Rebel and solo work, titled The Cockney Rebel – A Steve Harley Anthology. On 25 July 2007, they performed in Warsaw, Poland and on 28 July 2007 in Saint Petersburg, Russia, in both cases opening The Rolling Stones' concerts. In 2007, the song Make Me Smile was used by the Norwegian national lottery Norsk Tipping in a popular TV commercial in Norway. Original keyboardist, Reame-James, has since joined with James Staddon, Phil Beer and Robbie Johnson to create 'Banana Rebel', who have released a CD Top Banana, available from their website. In 2010, Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel began touring again setting concert dates for England, Ireland, and Northern Ireland. This was done following the release of the new studio album Stranger Comes to Town. In October 2012, the remastered four-disc box-set anthology compilation album Cavaliers: An Anthology 1973–1974 was released, chronicling the recording career of the original Cockney Rebel line-up. On 24 November 2012 the band including the Orchestra of the Swan and a choir performed the band's first two albums The Human Menagerie and The Psychomodo in their entirety for the first time. A live double-CD and DVD was released in October 2013 of this performance, titled Birmingham. In 2016, the newly reestablished Chrysalis Records, now owned by Blue Raincoat Music, announced that it had acquired the Cockney Rebel catalogue. Harley was one of the artists who appeared on the label's first release, a charity single of The Rolling Stones' "You Can't Always Get What You Want" credited to Friends of Jo Cox in tribute to Jo Cox, a Labour Party MP who had been assassinated earlier that year. In 2018, "Make Me Smile" was used again in an advert for Viagra, the first one of its kind to air on UK television. Harley often jokes at his live concerts and in interviews that his 1974 single, "Mr Soft", may have been more appropriate given the nature of the advert. In 2020, however, the contract with Pfizer ended, and changed to BMW starting in April 2021. Harley has long driven the manufacturer's 7-Series model. After the success of 1998 and 1999's respective 'Stripped To The Bare Bones' and 'Stripped Again' tours, Harley would continue to tour in an acoustic format. Firstly with Jim Cregan and a selection of other members of Cockney Rebel, depending on the exact date of the show, in 2002. This format produced 2003's 'Acoustic and Pure: Live' album. With the exception of the 2015 reunion, which was in the full band format, Cregan would next join Harley for 2 acoustic shows in March 2020, which otherwise featured Harley performing alone. In 2003 and 2004, the 5-piece acoustic line-up that played 2004's 'Anytime! (A Live Set)' album was put together, featuring Lascelles on percussion, Gladwell on lead guitar, Wickens on violin/guitar, and Anderson on double bass. In 2005 and 2006, this format was used in Holland and Belgium while promoting 2005's 'The Quality Of Mercy' album, and these shows are notable for featuring significant rearrangements of some of the songs from the album, which were never played during concerts in England. These shows were played without Anderson. Between 2010 and 2019 these concerts were revived as a 3-man line-up, with Harley alongside Wickens and Lascelles (this time on keyboards and percussion, as per his role in the full rock band shows). These shows were originally marketed as the '3-man acoustic show' before being renamed to 'Acoustic Trio' in 2016. The shows in 2010 were marketed as an 'Acoustic Set', as they were the first acoustic shows since 2004. This format was phased out in 2020 - in order to promote Harley's new album 'Uncovered'- in favour of a revived 4-man line-up, though with David Delarre on lead guitar, and Oli Hayhurst on double bass, with Harley and Wickens reprising their roles. The COVID-19 pandemic delayed most of the shows on this tour - with only the first 9 played as planned. Two shows were however played in late-September 2020, both in the acoustic trio format, though Hayhurst accompanied the trio on the second of these shows. In addition, Harley held an online Q and A session via Zoom Videoconferencing in mid-December 2020. On 23 October 2020, "Make Me Smile" was featured on Melbourne, Australia radio station 'ABC Radio Melbourne's Friday Revue' as part of 'Song Pause Day' - a tribute to songs with a pause. In the aftermath of the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic, Harley's live shows would eventually resume in August 2021. The line-up for the full rock band shows will consist of Harley, Wickens, Lascelles, Gladwell, Elliott, and Harada. The 2021 shows mark the first time this line-up has toured together (having only previously played festivals in 2016), as well as Gladwell's full-time return to the band, having stood in sporadically for Paul Cuddeford on a handful of occasions between 2017 and 2020. The set-lists for the 2021 shows featured many songs that had not been played live for many years, including much material from Harley's 1992 album Yes You Can. Fans have commented that the set-lists used for the 2021 tour are amongst Harley's best ever, along with the November-December 2004 Anytime! In The Autumn tour, again notable for featuring a great deal of rarely-played tracks. Personnel Current members Steve Harley – vocals, guitars (1972–present) Stuart Elliott – drums, percussion (1972–present) Barry Wickens – violin, guitar, backing vocals (1984–1992, 1999–present) Robbie Gladwell – guitars, backing vocals (1988–present) Adam Houghton – drums (1996–present) James Lascelles – keyboard, piano, percussion, backing vocals (2000–present) Kuma Harada – electric bass guitar (2016–present) Paul Cuddeford – guitar, backing vocals (2017–present) David Delarre – acoustic guitar, backing vocals (2020–present) Oli Hayhurst – double bass (shows titled 'Steve Harley Acoustic Band'), electric bass guitar (some full rock band shows) (2020–present) Former members John Crocker – violin, mandolin, guitar (1972–1974) Paul Jeffreys – bass (1972–1974; died 1988) Pete Newnham – guitar (1972) Milton Reame-James – keyboards (1972–1974) Jim Cregan – guitar (1974–1976) George Ford – bass (1974–1977; died 2007) Francis Monkman – keyboards (1974) Duncan Mackay – keyboards (1974–1977) Lindsey Elliott – percussion (1975-1976) Ian Nice (Steve Harley's younger brother) - Keyboards (1983-1997) Bill Dyer - Bass (1992-1996, 2014, 2021) Nick Pynn - violin, mando-cello, mandolin, dulcimer, percussion, acoustic 6-string and 12-string guitar (1990–1999) Lincoln Anderson – bass (2001–2014; died 2014) Marty Prior – electric & double bass, backing vocals (2014–2016) Mona Lisa Twins (Mona and Lisa Wagner) - percussion, guitar (2015 & 2017 (full band), 2016 (acoustic sets)) In November 2015, Mackay, Cregan, and Elliott regrouped for the first time since 1976, along with Wickens and Prior, for a 16-date UK tour commemorating the 40th anniversary of the release of the 1975 album, 'The Best Years Of Our Lives'. The set used on this tour consisted of a selection of recordings from Harley and the band's career during the first half, and the 'Best Years Of Our Lives' album in its entirety during the second. The version of 'Make Me Smile' played as track six in the second set is significant because it was a rarely-heard acoustic solo by Harley. In other words, Harley played the song as it was originally intended to be released, before the CEO of EMI stepped in and asked him to change it to a pop song. Discography Cockney Rebel The Human Menagerie (1973) The Psychomodo (1974) Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel studio discography The Best Years of Our Lives (1975) Timeless Flight (1976) Love's a Prima Donna (1976) The Quality of Mercy (2005) See also List of songs recorded by Steve Harley List of glam rock artists List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart List of performers on Top of the Pops List of Peel sessions References External links Steve Harley official website BBC website The Crocker Brothers website Paul Jeffreys website Milton Reame-James website Banana Rebel website Official site at Chrysalis Records English rock music groups English glam rock groups Musical groups established in 1972 EMI Records artists Parlophone artists Chrysalis Records artists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantenna

Cantenna

A cantenna (a portmanteau blending the words can and antenna) is a homemade directional waveguide antenna, made out of an open-ended metal can. Cantennas are typically used to increase the range (or discovery) of Wi-Fi networks. Construction The cylinder portion of the can may consist of metal-coated paperboard. Although some designs are based on a Pringles potato chips can, this tube is too narrow to increase the 2.4 GHz signal by a useful amount, although at 5 GHz it would be about the right size. However, a cantenna can be made from various cans or tubes of an appropriate diameter. Some designs include a pole mount to elevate the cantenna. At 2.4 GHz, losses can occur if the cable from the cantenna to the Wi-Fi circuitry is too long. A more efficient cantenna can be made by minimising this length or connecting the cantenna directly to the Wi-Fi circuitry. Use Cantennas are typically used for extending a wireless local area network (WLAN). The tiny design makes them ideal for mobile applications such as wardriving. Cantennas can be used to increase cell phone range, improve reception, and decrease noise. A cantenna can be used as a satellite dish feed horn. The 5.5 GHz cantenna dimensions are almost perfect in that they make a good fit for the standard TV satellite dish. The resulting setup is a low-cost high-quality high-gain antenna. Such setups are widely used in wireless community networks for long-distance links. Cantennas may be used with other RF devices such as wireless security cameras. See also WokFi WarXing References External links Extend your wireless network by building a Wi-Fi cantenna Amateurlogic Episode 3 (Construction details for a more efficient cantenna) Waveguide Can-tenna Youtube video on How To Build A low loss Cantenna Cantenna Calculator Wireless networking Radio frequency antenna types Antennas (radio)

263092

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian

Croatian

Croatian may refer to: Croatia Croatian language Croatian name Croatian people, people from Croatia, or of Croatian descent Croatian citizen (disambiguation) See also Croatan (disambiguation) Croatia (disambiguation) Croatoan (disambiguation) Hrvatski (disambiguation) Serbo-Croatian (disambiguation) Language and nationality disambiguation pages

263101

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunzhi%20Emperor

Shunzhi Emperor

The Shunzhi Emperor (Fulin; 15 March 1638 – 5 February 1661) was Emperor of the Qing dynasty from 1644 to 1661, and the first Qing emperor to rule over China proper. A committee of Manchu princes chose him to succeed his father, Hong Taiji (1592–1643), in September 1643, when he was six years old. The princes also appointed two co-regents: Dorgon (1612–1650), the 14th son of the Qing dynasty's founder Nurhaci (1559–1626), and Jirgalang (1599–1655), one of Nurhaci's nephews, both of whom were members of the Qing imperial clan. From 1643 to 1650, political power lay mostly in the hands of Dorgon. Under his leadership, the Qing Empire conquered most of the territory of the fallen Ming dynasty (1368–1644), chased Ming loyalist regimes deep into the southwestern provinces, and established the basis of Qing rule over China proper despite highly unpopular policies such as the "hair cutting command" of 1645, which forced Qing subjects to shave their forehead and braid their remaining hair into a queue resembling that of the Manchus. After Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650, the young Shunzhi Emperor started to rule personally. He tried, with mixed success, to fight corruption and to reduce the political influence of the Manchu nobility. In the 1650s, he faced a resurgence of Ming loyalist resistance, but by 1661 his armies had defeated the Qing Empire's last enemies, seafarer Koxinga (1624–1662) and the Prince of Gui (1623–1662) of the Southern Ming dynasty, both of whom would succumb the following year. The Shunzhi Emperor died at the age of 22 of smallpox, a highly contagious disease that was endemic in China, but against which the Manchus had no immunity. He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye, who had already survived smallpox, and who reigned for sixty years under the era name "Kangxi" (hence he was known as the Kangxi Emperor). Because fewer documents have survived from the Shunzhi era than from later eras of the Qing dynasty, the Shunzhi era is a relatively little-known period of Qing history. "Shunzhi" was the name of this ruler's reign period in Chinese. This title had equivalents in Manchu and Mongolian because the Qing imperial family was Manchu and ruled over many Mongol tribes that helped the Qing to conquer the Ming dynasty. The emperor's personal name was Fulin, and the posthumous name by which he was worshipped at the Imperial Ancestral Temple was Shizu (Wade–Giles: Shih-tsu; Chinese: 世祖). Historical background In the 1580s, when China was ruled by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), a number of Jurchen tribes lived northeast of Ming territory in the region that is now known as China's Northeast, or "Manchuria". In a series of campaigns from the 1580s to the 1610s, Nurhaci (1559–1626), the leader of the Jianzhou Jurchens, unified most Jurchen tribes under his rule. One of his most important reforms was to integrate Jurchen clans under flags of four different colors—yellow, white, red, and blue—each further subdivided into two to form an encompassing social and military system known as the Eight Banners. Nurhaci gave control of these Banners to his sons and grandsons. Around 1612, Nurhaci renamed his clan Aisin Gioro ("golden Gioro" in the Manchu language), both to distinguish his family from other Gioro lines and to allude to an earlier dynasty that had been founded by Jurchens, the Jin ("golden") dynasty that had ruled northern China from 1115 to 1234. In 1616 Nurhaci formally announced the foundation of the "Later Jin" dynasty, effectively declaring his independence from the Ming. Over the next few years he wrested most major cities in Liaodong from Ming control. His string of victories ended in February 1626 at the siege of Ningyuan, where Ming commander Yuan Chonghuan defeated him with the help of recently acquired Portuguese cannon. Probably wounded during the battle, Nurhaci died a few months later. Nurhaci's son and successor Hong Taiji (1592–1643) continued his father's state-building efforts: he concentrated power into his own hands, modeled the Later Jin's government institutions on Chinese ones, and integrated Mongol allies and surrendered Chinese troops into the Eight Banners. In 1629 he led an incursion to the outskirts of Beijing, during which he captured Chinese craftsmen who knew how to cast Portuguese cannon. In 1635 Hong Taiji renamed the Jurchens the "Manchus", and in 1636 changed the name of his polity from "Later Jin" to "Qing". After capturing the last remaining Ming cities in Liaodong, by 1643 the Qing were preparing to attack the struggling Ming dynasty, which was crumbling under the combined weight of financial bankruptcy, devastating epidemics, and large-scale bandit uprisings fed by widespread starvation. Becoming emperor When Hong Taiji died on 21 September 1643 without having named a successor, the fledgling Qing state faced a possibly serious crisis. Several contenders—namely Nurhaci's second and eldest surviving son Daišan, Nurhaci's fourteenth and fifteenth sons Dorgon and Dodo (both born to the same mother), and Hong Taiji's eldest son Hooge—started to vie for the throne. With his brothers Dodo and Ajige, Dorgon (31 years old) controlled the Plain and Bordered White Banners, Daišan (60) was in charge of the two Red Banners, whereas Hooge (34) had the loyalty of his father's two Yellow Banners. The decision about who would become the new Qing emperor fell to the Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers, which was the Manchus' main policymaking body until the emergence of the Grand Council in the 1720s. Many Manchu princes argued that Dorgon, a proven military leader, should become the new emperor, but Dorgon refused and insisted that one of Hong Taiji's sons should succeed his father. To recognize Dorgon's authority while keeping the throne in Hong Taiji's descent line, the members of the council named Hong Taiji's ninth son, Fulin, as the new emperor, but decided that Dorgon and Jirgalang (a nephew of Nurhaci who controlled the Bordered Blue Banner) would act as the five-year-old child's regents. Fulin was officially crowned emperor of the Qing dynasty on 8 October 1643; it was decided that he would reign under the era name "Shunzhi." Because the Shunzhi reign is not well documented, it constitutes a relatively little-known period of Qing history. Dorgon's regency (1643–1650) A quasi emperor On 17 February 1644, Jirgalang, who was a capable military leader but looked uninterested in managing state affairs, willingly yielded control of all official matters to Dorgon. After an alleged plot by Hooge to undermine the regency was exposed on 6 May of that year, Hooge was stripped of his title of Imperial Prince and his co-conspirators were executed. Dorgon soon replaced Hooge's supporters (mostly from the Yellow Banners) with his own, thus gaining closer control of two more Banners. By early June 1644, he was in firm control of the Qing government and its military. In early 1644, just as Dorgon and his advisors were pondering how to attack the Ming, peasant rebellions were dangerously approaching Beijing. On 24 April of that year, rebel leader Li Zicheng breached the walls of the Ming capital, pushing the Chongzhen Emperor to hang himself on a hill behind the Forbidden City. Hearing the news, Dorgon's Chinese advisors Hong Chengchou and Fan Wencheng (范文程; 1597–1666) urged the Manchu prince to seize this opportunity to present themselves as avengers of the fallen Ming and to claim the Mandate of Heaven for the Qing. The last obstacle between Dorgon and Beijing was Ming general Wu Sangui, who was garrisoned at Shanhai Pass at the eastern end of the Great Wall. Himself caught between the Manchus and Li Zicheng's forces, Wu requested Dorgon's help in ousting the bandits and restoring the Ming. When Dorgon asked Wu to work for the Qing instead, Wu had little choice but to accept. Aided by Wu Sangui's elite soldiers, who fought the rebel army for hours before Dorgon finally chose to intervene with his cavalry, the Qing won a decisive victory against Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass on 27 May. Li's defeated troops looted Beijing for several days until Li left the capital on 4 June with all the wealth he could carry. Settling in the capital After six weeks of mistreatment at the hands of rebel troops, the Beijing population sent a party of elders and officials to greet their liberators on 5 June. They were startled when, instead of meeting Wu Sangui and the Ming heir apparent, they saw Dorgon, a horseriding Manchu with his shaved forehead, present himself as the Prince Regent. In the midst of this upheaval, Dorgon installed himself in the Wuying Palace (), the only building that remained more or less intact after Li Zicheng had set fire to the palace complex on 3 June. Banner troops were ordered not to loot; their discipline made the transition to Qing rule "remarkably smooth." Yet at the same time as he claimed to have come to avenge the Ming, Dorgon ordered that all claimants to the Ming throne (including descendants of the last Ming emperor) should be executed along with their supporters. On 7 June, just two days after entering the city, Dorgon issued special proclamations to officials around the capital, assuring them that if the local population accepted to shave their forehead, wear a queue, and surrender, the officials would be allowed to stay at their post. He had to repeal this command three weeks later after several peasant rebellions erupted around Beijing, threatening Qing control over the capital region. Dorgon greeted the Shunzhi Emperor at the gates of Beijing on 19 October 1644. On 30 October the six-year-old monarch performed sacrifices to Heaven and Earth at the Altar of Heaven. The southern cadet branch of Confucius' descendants who held the title Wujing boshi 五經博士 and the sixty-fifth generation descendant of Confucius to hold the title Duke Yansheng in the northern branch both had their titles reconfirmed on 31 October. A formal ritual of enthronement for Fulin was held on 8 November, during which the young emperor compared Dorgon's achievements to those of the Duke of Zhou, a revered regent from antiquity. During the ceremony, Dorgon's official title was raised from "Prince Regent" to "Uncle Prince Regent" (Shufu shezheng wang 叔父攝政王), in which the Manchu term for "Uncle" (ecike) represented a rank higher than that of imperial prince. Three days later Dorgon's co-regent Jirgalang was demoted from "Prince Regent" to "Assistant Uncle Prince Regent" (Fu zheng shuwang 輔政叔王). In June 1645, Dorgon eventually decreed that all official documents should refer to him as "Imperial Uncle Prince Regent" (Huang shufu shezheng wang 皇叔父攝政王), which left him one step short of claiming the throne for himself. One of Dorgon's first orders in the new Qing capital was to vacate the entire northern part of Beijing to give it to Bannermen, including Han Chinese Bannermen. The Yellow Banners were given the place of honor north of the palace, followed by the White Banners east, the Red Banners west, and the Blue Banners south. This distribution accorded with the order established in the Manchu homeland before the conquest and under which "each of the banners was given a fixed geographical location according to the points of the compass." Despite tax remissions and large-scale building programs designed to facilitate the transition, in 1648 many Chinese civilians still lived among the newly arrived Banner population and there was still animosity between the two groups. Agricultural land outside the capital was also marked off (quan 圈) and given to Qing troops. Former landowners now became tenants who had to pay rent to their absentee Bannermen landlords. This transition in land use caused "several decades of disruption and hardship." In 1646, Dorgon also ordered that the civil examinations for selecting government officials be reestablished. From then on they were held regularly every three years as under the Ming. In the very first palace examination held under Qing rule in 1646, candidates, most of whom were northern Chinese, were asked how the Manchus and Han Chinese could be made to work together for a common purpose. The 1649 examination inquired about "how Manchus and Han Chinese could be unified so that their hearts were the same and they worked together without division." Under the Shunzhi Emperor's reign, the average number of graduates per session of the metropolitan examination was the highest of the Qing dynasty ("to win more Chinese support"), until 1660 when lower quotas were established. To promote ethnic harmony, in 1648 an imperial decree formulated by Dorgon allowed Han Chinese civilians to marry women from the Manchu Banners, with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. Only later in the dynasty were these policies allowing intermarriage rescinded. Conquest of China Under the reign of Dorgon—whom historians have variously called "the mastermind of the Qing conquest" and "the principal architect of the great Manchu enterprise"—the Qing subdued almost all of China and pushed loyalist "Southern Ming" resistance into the far southwestern reaches of China. After repressing anti-Qing revolts in Hebei and Shandong in the Summer and Fall of 1644, Dorgon sent armies to root out Li Zicheng from the important city of Xi'an (Shaanxi province), where Li had reestablished his headquarters after fleeing Beijing in early June 1644. Under the pressure of Qing armies, Li was forced to leave Xi'an in February 1645, and he was killed—either by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organized for self-defense in this time of rampant banditry—in September 1645 after fleeing though several provinces. From newly captured Xi'an, in early April 1645 the Qing mounted a campaign against the rich commercial and agricultural region of Jiangnan south of the lower Yangtze River, where in June 1644 a Ming imperial prince had established a regime loyal to the Ming. Factional bickering and numerous defections prevented the Southern Ming from mounting an efficient resistance. Several Qing armies swept south, taking the key city of Xuzhou north of the Huai River in early May 1645 and soon converging on Yangzhou, the main city on the Southern Ming's northern line of defense. Bravely defended by Shi Kefa, who refused to surrender, Yangzhou fell to Manchu artillery on 20 May after a one-week siege. Dorgon's brother Prince Dodo then ordered the slaughter of Yangzhou's entire population. As intended, this massacre terrorized other Jiangnan cities into surrendering to the Qing. Indeed, Nanjing surrendered without a fight on 16 June after its last defenders had made Dodo promise he would not hurt the population. The Qing soon captured the Ming emperor (who died in Beijing the following year) and seized Jiangnan's main cities, including Suzhou and Hangzhou; by early July 1645, the frontier between the Qing and the Southern Ming had been pushed south to the Qiantang River. On 21 July 1645, after Jiangnan had been superficially pacified, Dorgon issued a most inopportune edict ordering all Chinese men to shave their forehead and to braid the rest of their hair into a queue identical to those of the Manchus. The punishment for non-compliance was death. This policy of symbolic submission helped the Manchus in telling friend from foe. For Han officials and literati, however, the new hairstyle was shameful and demeaning (because it breached a common Confucian directive to preserve one's body intact), whereas for common folk cutting their hair was the same as losing their virility. Because it united Chinese of all social backgrounds into resistance against Qing rule, the hair cutting command greatly hindered the Qing conquest. The defiant population of Jiading and Songjiang was massacred by former Ming general Li Chengdong (李成東; d. 1649), respectively on 24 August and 22 September. Jiangyin also held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days. When the city wall was finally breached on 9 October 1645, the Qing army led by Ming defector Liu Liangzuo (劉良佐; d. 1667) massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. These massacres ended armed resistance against the Qing in the Lower Yangtze. A few committed loyalists became hermits, hoping that for lack of military success, their withdrawal from the world would at least symbolize their continued defiance against foreign rule. After the fall of Nanjing, two more members of the Ming imperial household created new Southern Ming regimes: one centered in coastal Fujian around the "Longwu Emperor" Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tang—a ninth-generation descendant of Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang—and one in Zhejiang around "Regent" Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu. But the two loyalist groups failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were. In July 1646, a new Southern Campaign led by Prince Bolo sent Prince Lu's Zhejiang court into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime in Fujian. Zhu Yujian was caught and summarily executed in Tingzhou (western Fujian) on 6 October. His adoptive son Koxinga fled to the island of Taiwan with his fleet. Finally in November, the remaining centers of Ming resistance in Jiangxi province fell to the Qing. In late 1646 two more Southern Ming monarchs emerged in the southern province of Guangzhou, reigning under the era names of Shaowu () and Yongli. Short of official costumes, the Shaowu court had to purchase robes from local theater troops. The two Ming regimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a small Qing force led by Li Chengdong captured Guangzhou, killed the Shaowu Emperor, and sent the Yongli court fleeing to Nanning in Guangxi. In May 1648, however, Li mutinied against the Qing, and the concurrent rebellion of another former Ming general in Jiangxi helped Yongli to retake most of south China. This resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. New Qing armies managed to reconquer the central provinces of Huguang (present-day Hubei and Hunan), Jiangxi, and Guangdong in 1649 and 1650. The Yongli emperor had to flee again. Finally on 24 November 1650, Qing forces led by Shang Kexi captured Guangzhou and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people. Meanwhile, in October 1646, Qing armies led by Hooge (the son of Hong Taiji who had lost the succession struggle of 1643) reached Sichuan, where their mission was to destroy the kingdom of bandit leader Zhang Xianzhong. Zhang was killed in a battle against Qing forces near Xichong in central Sichuan on 1 February 1647. Also late in 1646 but further north, forces assembled by a Muslim leader known in Chinese sources as Milayin () revolted against Qing rule in Ganzhou (Gansu). He was soon joined by another Muslim named Ding Guodong (). Proclaiming that they wanted to restore the Ming, they occupied a number of towns in Gansu, including the provincial capital Lanzhou. These rebels' willingness to collaborate with non-Muslim Chinese suggests that they were not only driven by religion. Both Milayin and Ding Guodong were captured and killed by Meng Qiaofang (孟喬芳; 1595–1654) in 1648, and by 1650 the Muslim rebels had been crushed in campaigns that inflicted heavy casualties. Transition and personal rule (1651–1661) Purging Dorgon's clique Dorgon's unexpected death on 31 December 1650 during a hunting trip triggered a period of fierce factional struggles and opened the way for deep political reforms. Because Dorgon's supporters were still influential at court, Dorgon was given an imperial funeral and was posthumously elevated to imperial status as the "Righteous Emperor" (yi huangdi 義皇帝). On the same day of mid-January 1651, however, several officers of the White Banners led by former Dorgon supporter Ubai arrested Dorgon's brother Ajige for fear he would proclaim himself as the new regent; Ubai and his officers then named themselves presidents of several Ministries and prepared to take charge of the government. Meanwhile, Jirgalang, who had been stripped of his title of regent in 1647, gathered support among Banner officers who had been disgruntled during Dorgon's rule. In order to consolidate support for the emperor in the two Yellow Banners (which had belonged to the Qing monarch since Hong Taiji) and to gain followers in Dorgon's Plain White Banner, Jirgalang named them the "Upper Three Banners" (shang san qi 上三旗; Manchu: dergi ilan gūsa), which from then on were owned and controlled by the emperor. Oboi and Suksaha, who would become regents for the Kangxi Emperor in 1661, were among the Banner officers who gave Jirgalang their support, and Jirgalang appointed them to the Council of Deliberative Princes to reward them. On 1 February, Jirgalang announced that the Shunzhi Emperor, who was about to turn thirteen, would now assume full imperial authority. The regency was thus officially abolished. Jirgalang then moved to the attack. In late February or early March 1651 he accused Dorgon of usurping imperial prerogatives: Dorgon was found guilty and all his posthumous honors were removed. Jirgalang continued to purge former members of Dorgon's clique and to bestow high ranks and nobility titles upon a growing number of followers in the Three Imperial Banners, so that by 1652 all of Dorgon's former supporters had been either killed or effectively removed from government. Factional politics and the fight against corruption On 7 April 1651, barely two months after he seized the reins of government, the Shunzhi Emperor issued an edict announcing that he would purge corruption from officialdom. This edict triggered factional conflicts among literati that would frustrate him until his death. One of his first gestures was to dismiss grand academician Feng Quan (馮銓; 1595–1672), a northern Chinese who had been impeached in 1645 but was allowed to remain in his post by Prince Regent Dorgon. The Shunzhi Emperor replaced Feng with Chen Mingxia (ca. 1601–1654), an influential southern Chinese with good connections in Jiangnan literary societies. Though later in 1651 Chen was also dismissed on charges of influence peddling, he was reinstated in his post in 1653 and soon became a close personal advisor to the sovereign. He was even allowed to draft imperial edicts just as Ming Grand Secretaries used to. Still in 1653, the Shunzhi Emperor decided to recall the disgraced Feng Quan, but instead of balancing the influence of northern and southern Chinese officials at court as the emperor had intended, Feng Quan's return only intensified factional strife. In several controversies at court in 1653 and 1654, the southerners formed one bloc opposed to the northerners and the Manchus. In April 1654, when Chen Mingxia spoke to northern official Ning Wanwo (寧完我; d. 1665) about restoring the style of dress of the Ming court, Ning immediately denounced Chen to the emperor and accused him of various crimes including bribe-taking, nepotism, factionalism, and usurping imperial prerogatives. Chen was executed by strangulation on 27 April 1654. In November 1657, a major cheating scandal erupted during the Shuntian provincial-level examinations in Beijing. Eight candidates from Jiangnan who were also relatives of Beijing officials had bribed examiners in the hope of being ranked higher in the contest. Seven examination supervisors found guilty of receiving bribes were executed, and several hundred people were sentenced to punishments ranging from demotion to exile and confiscation of property. The scandal, which soon spread to Nanjing examination circles, uncovered the corruption and influence-peddling that was rife in the bureaucracy, and that many moralistic officials from the north attributed to the existence of southern literary clubs and to the decline of classical scholarship. Chinese style of rule During his short reign, the Shunzhi Emperor encouraged Han Chinese to participate in government activities and revived many Chinese-style institutions that had been either abolished or marginalized during Dorgon's regency. He discussed history, classics, and politics with grand academicians such as Chen Mingxia (see previous section) and surrounded himself with new men such as Wang Xi (王熙; 1628–1703), a young northern Chinese who was fluent in Manchu. The "Six Edicts" (Liu yu 六諭) that the Shunzhi Emperor promulgated in 1652 were the predecessors to the Kangxi Emperor's "Sacred Edicts" (1670): "bare bones of Confucian orthodoxy" that instructed the population to behave in a filial and law-abiding fashion. In another move toward Chinese-style government, the sovereign reestablished the Hanlin Academy and the Grand Secretariat in 1658. These two institutions based on Ming models further eroded the power of the Manchu elite and threatened to revive the extremes of literati politics that had plagued the late Ming, when factions coalesced around rival grand secretaries. To counteract the power of the Imperial Household Department and the Manchu nobility, in July 1653 the Shunzhi Emperor established the Thirteen Offices (), or Thirteen Eunuch Bureaus, which were supervised by Manchus, but manned by Chinese eunuchs rather than Manchu bondservants. Eunuchs had been kept under tight control during Dorgon's regency, but the young emperor used them to counter the influence of other power centers such as his mother the Empress Dowager and former regent Jirgalang. By the late 1650s eunuch power became formidable again: they handled key financial and political matters, offered advice on official appointments, and even composed edicts. Because eunuchs isolated the monarch from the bureaucracy, Manchu and Chinese officials feared a return to the abuses of eunuch power that had plagued the late Ming. Despite the emperor's attempt to impose strictures on eunuch activities, the Shunzhi Emperor's favorite eunuch Wu Liangfu (吳良輔; d. 1661), who had helped him defeat the Dorgon faction in the early 1650s, was caught in a corruption scandal in 1658. The fact that Wu only received a reprimand for his accepting bribes did not reassure the Manchu elite, which saw eunuch power as a degradation of Manchu power. The Thirteen Offices would be eliminated (and Wu Liangfu executed) by Oboi and the other regents of the Kangxi Emperor in March 1661 soon after the Shunzhi Emperor's death. Frontiers, tributaries, and foreign relations In 1646, when Qing armies led by Bolo had entered the city of Fuzhou, they had found envoys from the Ryūkyū Kingdom, Annam, and the Spanish in Manila. These tributary embassies that had come to see the now fallen Longwu Emperor of the Southern Ming were forwarded to Beijing, and eventually sent home with instructions about submitting to the Qing. The King of the Ryūkyū Islands sent his first tribute mission to the Qing in 1649, Siam in 1652, and Annam in 1661, after the last remnants of Ming resistance had been removed from Yunnan, which bordered Annam. Also in 1646 sultan Abu al-Muhammad Haiji Khan, a Moghul prince who ruled Turfan, had sent an embassy requesting the resumption of trade with China, which had been interrupted by the fall of the Ming dynasty. The mission was sent without solicitation, but the Qing agreed to receive it, allowing it to conduct tribute trade in Beijing and Lanzhou (Gansu). But this agreement was interrupted by a Muslim rebellion that engulfed the northwest in 1646 (see the last paragraph of the "Conquest of China" section above). Tribute and trade with Hami and Turfan, which had aided the rebels, were eventually resumed in 1656. In 1655, however, the Qing court announced that tributary missions from Turfan would be accepted only once every five years. In 1651 the young emperor invited to Beijing the Fifth Dalai Lama, the leader of the Yellow Hat Sect of Tibetan Buddhism, who, with the military help of Khoshot Mongol Gushri Khan, had recently unified religious and secular rule in Tibet. Qing emperors had been patrons of Tibetan Buddhism since at least 1621 under the reign of Nurhaci, but there were also political reasons behind the invitation. Namely, Tibet was becoming a powerful polity west of the Qing, and the Dalai Lama held influence over Mongol tribes, many of which had not submitted to the Qing. To prepare for the arrival of this "living Buddha," the Shunzhi Emperor ordered the building of the White Dagoba (baita 白塔) on an island on one of the imperial lakes northwest of the Forbidden City, at the former site of Qubilai Khan's palace. After more invitations and diplomatic exchanges to decide where the Tibetan leader would meet the Qing emperor, the Dalai Lama arrived in Beijing in January 1653. The Dalai Lama later had a scene of this visit carved in the Potala Palace in Lhasa, which he had started building in 1645. Meanwhile, north of the Manchu homeland, adventurers Vassili Poyarkov (1643–1646) and Yerofei Khabarov (1649–1653) had started to explore the Amur River valley for Tzarist Russia. In 1653 Khabarov was recalled to Moscow and replaced by Onufriy Stepanov, who assumed command of Khabarov's Cossack troops. Stepanov went south into the Sungari River, along which he exacted "yasak" (fur tribute) from native populations such as the Daur and the Duchers, but these groups resisted because they were already paying tribute to the Shunzhi Emperor ("Shamshakan" in Russian sources). In 1654 Stepanov defeated a small Manchu force that had been despatched from Ningguta to investigate Russian advances. In 1655 another Qing commander, the Mongol Minggadari (d. 1669), defeated Stepanov's forces at fort Kumarsk on the Amur, but this was not enough to chase the Russians. In 1658, however, Manchu general Šarhūda (1599–1659) attacked Stepanov with a fleet of 40 or more ships that managed to kill or capture most Russians. This Qing victory temporarily cleared the Amur valley of Cossack bands, but Sino-Russian border conflicts would continue until 1689, when the signature of the Treaty of Nerchinsk fixed the borders between Russia and the Qing. Continuous campaigns against the Southern Ming Though the Qing under Dorgon's leadership had successfully pushed the Southern Ming deep into southern China, Ming loyalism was not dead yet. In early August 1652, Li Dingguo, who had served as general in Sichuan under bandit king Zhang Xianzhong (d. 1647) and was now protecting the Yongli Emperor of the Southern Ming, retook Guilin (Guangxi province) from the Qing. Within a month, most of the commanders who had been supporting the Qing in Guangxi reverted to the Ming side. Despite occasionally successful military campaigns in Huguang and Guangdong in the next two years, Li failed to retake important cities. In 1653, the Qing court put Hong Chengchou in charge of retaking the southwest. Headquartered in Changsha (in what is now Hunan province), he patiently built up his forces; only in late 1658 did well-fed and well-supplied Qing troops mount a multipronged campaign to take Guizhou and Yunnan. In late January 1659, a Qing army led by Manchu prince Doni took the capital of Yunnan, sending the Yongli Emperor fleeing into nearby Burma, which was then ruled by King Pindale Min of the Toungoo dynasty. The last sovereign of the Southern Ming stayed there until 1662, when he was captured and executed by Wu Sangui, the former Ming general whose surrender to the Manchus in April 1644 had allowed Dorgon to start the Qing conquest of China. Zheng Chenggong ("Koxinga"), who had been adopted by the Longwu Emperor in 1646 and ennobled by Yongli in 1655, also continued to defend the cause of the Southern Ming. In 1659, just as the Shunzhi Emperor was preparing to hold a special examination to celebrate the glories of his reign and the success of the southwestern campaigns, Zheng sailed up the Yangtze River with a well-armed fleet, took several cities from Qing hands, and went so far as to threaten Nanjing. When the emperor heard of this sudden attack he is said to have slashed his throne with a sword in anger. But the siege of Nanjing was relieved and Zheng Chenggong repelled, forcing Zheng to take refuge in the southeastern coastal province of Fujian. Pressured by Qing fleets, Zheng fled to Taiwan in April 1661 but died that same summer. His descendants resisted Qing rule until 1683, when the Kangxi Emperor successfully took the island. Personality and relationships After Fulin came to rule on his own in 1651, his mother the Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang arranged for him to marry her niece, but the young monarch deposed his new Empress in 1653. The following year Xiaozhuang arranged another imperial marriage with her Khorchin Mongol clan, this time matching her son with her own grand-niece. Though Fulin also disliked his second empress (known posthumously as Empress Xiaohuizhang), he was not allowed to demote her. She never bore him children. Starting in 1656, the Shunzhi Emperor lavished his affection on Consort Donggo, who, according to Jesuit accounts from the time, had first been the wife of another Manchu noble. She gave birth to a son (the Shunzhi Emperor's fourth) in November 1657. The emperor would have made him his heir apparent, but he died early in 1658 before he was given a name. The Shunzhi Emperor was an open-minded emperor and relied on the advice of Johann Adam Schall von Bell, a Jesuit missionary from Cologne in the Germanic parts of the Holy Roman Empire, for guidance on matters ranging from astronomy and technology to religion and government. In late 1644, Dorgon had put Schall in charge of preparing a new calendar because his eclipse predictions had proven more reliable than those of the official astronomer. After Dorgon's death Schall developed a personal relationship with the young emperor, who called him "grandfather" (mafa in Manchu). At the height of his influence in 1656 and 1657, Schall reports that the Shunzhi Emperor often visited his house and talked to him late into the night. He was excused from prostrating himself in the presence of the emperor, was granted land to build a church in Beijing, and was even given imperial permission to adopt a son (because Fulin worried that Schall did not have an heir), but the Jesuits' hope of converting the Qing sovereign to Christianity was crushed when the Shunzhi Emperor became a devout follower of Chan Buddhism in 1657. The emperor developed a good command of Chinese that allowed him to manage matters of state and to appreciate Chinese arts such as calligraphy and drama. One of his favorite texts was "Rhapsody of a Myriad Sorrows" (Wan chou qu 萬愁曲), by Gui Zhuang (歸莊; 1613–1673), who was a close friend of anti-Qing intellectuals Gu Yanwu and Wan Shouqi (萬壽祺; 1603–1652). "Quite passionate and attach[ing] great importance to qing (love)," he could also recite by heart long passages of the popular Romance of the Western Chamber. Death and succession Smallpox In September 1660, Consort Donggo, the Shunzhi Emperor's favourite consort, suddenly died as a result of grief over the loss of a child. Overwhelmed with grief, the emperor fell into dejection for months, until he contracted smallpox on 2 February 1661. On 4 February 1661, officials Wang Xi (王熙, 1628–1703; the emperor's confidant) and Margi (a Manchu) were called to the emperor's bedside to record his last will. On the same day, his seven-year-old third son Xuanye was chosen to be his successor, probably because he had already survived smallpox. The emperor died on 5 February 1661 in the Forbidden City at the age of twenty-two. The Manchus feared smallpox more than any other disease because they had no immunity to it and almost always died when they contracted it. By 1622 at the latest, they had already established an agency to investigate smallpox cases and isolate sufferers to avoid contagion. During outbreaks, royal family members were routinely sent to "smallpox avoidance centers" (bidousuo 避痘所) to protect themselves from infection. The Shunzhi Emperor was particularly fearful of the disease, because he was young and lived in a large city, near sources of contagion. Indeed, during his reign at least nine outbreaks of smallpox were recorded in Beijing, each time forcing the emperor to move to a protected area such as the "Southern Park" (Nanyuan 南苑), a hunting ground south of Beijing where Dorgon had built a "smallpox avoidance center" in the 1640s. Despite this and other precautions—such as rules forcing Chinese residents to move out of the city when they contracted smallpox—the young monarch still succumbed to that illness. Forged last will The emperor's last will, which was made public on the evening of 5 February, appointed four regents for his young son: Oboi, Soni, Suksaha, and Ebilun, who had all helped Jirgalang to purge the court of Dorgon's supporters after Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650. It is difficult to determine whether the Shunzhi Emperor had really named these four Manchu nobles as regents, because they and Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang clearly tampered with the emperor's testament before promulgating it. The emperor's will expressed his regret about his Chinese-style ruling (his reliance on eunuchs and his favoritism toward Chinese officials), his neglect of Manchu nobles and traditions, and his headstrong devotion to his consort rather than to his mother. Though the emperor had often issued self-deprecating edicts during his reign, the policies his will rejected had been central to his government since he had assumed personal rule in the early 1650s. The will as it was formulated gave "the mantle of imperial authority" to the four regents, and served to support their pro-Manchu policies during the period known as the Oboi regency, which lasted from 1661 to 1669. After death Because court statements did not clearly announce the cause of the emperor's death, rumors soon started to circulate that he had not died but in fact retired to a Buddhist monastery to live anonymously as a monk, either out of grief for the death of his beloved consort, or because of a coup by the Manchu nobles his will had named as regents. These rumors seemed not so incredible because the emperor had become a fervent follower of Chan Buddhism in the late 1650s, even letting monks move into the imperial palace. Modern Chinese historians have considered the Shunzhi Emperor's possible retirement as one of the three mysterious cases of the early Qing. But much circumstantial evidence—including an account by one of these monks that the emperor's health greatly deteriorated in early February 1661 because of smallpox, and the fact that a concubine and an Imperial Bodyguard committed suicide to accompany the emperor in burial—suggests that the Shunzhi Emperor's death was not staged. After being kept in the Forbidden City for 27 days of mourning, on 3 March 1661 the emperor's corpse was transported in a lavish procession to Jingshan 景山 (a hillock just north of the Forbidden City), after which a large amount of precious goods were burned as funeral offerings. Only two years later, in 1663, was the body transported to its final resting place. Contrary to Manchu customs at the time, which usually dictated that a deceased person should be cremated, the Shunzhi Emperor was buried. He was interred in what later came to be known as the Eastern Qing Tombs, 125 kilometers (75 miles) northeast of Beijing, one of two Qing imperial cemeteries. His tomb is part of the Xiao () mausoleum complex (known in Manchu as the Hiyoošungga Munggan), which was the first mausoleum to be erected on that site. Legacy The fake will in which the Shunzhi Emperor had supposedly expressed regret for abandoning Manchu traditions gave authority to the nativist policies of the Kangxi Emperor's four regents. Citing the testament, Oboi and the other regents quickly abolished the Thirteen Eunuch Bureaus. Over the next few years, they enhanced the power of the Imperial Household Department, which was run by Manchus and their bondservants, eliminated the Hanlin Academy, and limited membership in the Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers to Manchus and Mongols. The regents also adopted aggressive policies toward the Qing's Chinese subjects: they executed dozens of people and punished thousands of others in the wealthy Jiangnan region for literary dissent and tax arrears, and forced the coastal population of southeast China to move inland in order to starve the Taiwan-based Kingdom of Tungning run by descendants of Koxinga. After the Kangxi Emperor managed to imprison Oboi in 1669, he reverted many of the regents' policies. He restored institutions his father had favored, including the Grand Secretariat, through which Chinese officials gained an important voice in government. He also defeated the rebellion of the Three Feudatories, three Chinese military commanders who had played key military roles in the Qing conquest, but had now become entrenched rulers of enormous domains in southern China. The civil war (1673–1681) tested the loyalty of the new Qing subjects, but Qing armies eventually prevailed. Once victory had become certain, a special examination for "eminent scholars of broad learning" (Boxue hongru 博學鴻儒) was held in 1679 to attract Chinese literati who had refused to serve the new dynasty. The successful candidates were assigned to compile the official history of the fallen Ming dynasty. The rebellion was defeated in 1681, the same year the Kangxi Emperor initiated the use of variolation to inoculate children of the imperial family against smallpox. When the Kingdom of Tungning finally fell in 1683, the military consolidation of the Qing regime was complete. The institutional foundation laid by Dorgon, and the Shunzhi and Kangxi emperors allowed the Qing to erect an imperial edifice of awesome proportion and to turn it into "one of the most successful imperial states the world has known." Ironically, however, the prolonged Pax Manchurica that followed the Kangxi consolidation made the Qing unprepared to face aggressive European powers with modern weaponry in the nineteenth century. Family Although only nineteen empresses and consorts are recorded for the Shunzhi Emperor in the Aisin Gioro genealogy made by the Imperial Clan Court, burial records show that he had at least thirty-two of them. Twelve bore him children. There were two empresses in his reign, both relatives of his mother the empress dowager. After the 1644 conquest, imperial consorts and empresses were usually known by their titles and by the name of their patrilineal clan. Eleven of the Shunzhi Emperor's 32 spouses bore him a total of fourteen children, but only four sons (Fuquan, Xuanye, Changning, and Longxi) and one daughter (Princess Gongque) lived to be old enough to marry. Unlike later Qing emperors, the names of the Shunzhi Emperor's sons did not include a generational character. Before the Qing court moved to Beijing in 1644, Manchu women used to have personal names, but after 1644 these names "disappear from the genealogical and archival records." Only after their betrothal were imperial daughters given a title and rank, by which they then became known. Although five of the Shunzhi Emperor's six daughters died in infancy or childhood, they all appear in the Aisin Gioro genealogy. Empress Consort Jing, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (靜妃 博爾濟吉特氏), first cousin, personal name Erdeni Bumba (額爾德尼布木巴) Empress Xiaohuizhang, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (孝惠章皇后 博爾濟吉特氏; 5 November 1641 – 7 January 1718), personal name Alatan Qiqige (阿拉坦琪琪格) Empress Xiaoxian, of the Donggo clan (孝獻皇后 董鄂氏; 1639 – 23 September 1660) Prince Rong of the First Rank (榮親王; 12 November 1657 – 25 February 1658), fourth son Empress Xiaokangzhang, of the Tunggiya clan (孝康章皇后 佟佳氏; 1638 – 20 March 1663) Xuanye, the Kangxi Emperor (聖祖 玄燁; 4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722), third son Consort Consort Dao, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (悼妃 博爾濟吉特氏; d. 7 April 1658), first cousin Consort Zhen, of the Donggo clan (貞妃 董鄂氏; d. 5 February 1661) Consort Ke, of the Shi clan (恪妃 石氏; d. 13 January 1668) Consort Gongjing, of the Hotsit Borjigit clan (恭靖妃 博爾濟吉特氏; d. 20 May 1689) Consort Shuhui, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (淑惠妃 博爾濟吉特氏; 1642 – 17 December 1713), first cousin once removed Consort Duanshun, of the Abaga Borjigit clan (端順妃 博爾濟吉特氏; d. 1 August 1709) Consort Ningque, of the Donggo clan (寧愨妃 董鄂氏; d. 11 August 1694) Fuquan, Prince Yuxian of the First Rank (裕憲親王 福全; 8 September 1653 – 10 August 1703), second son Concubine Mistress, of the Ba clan (巴氏) Niuniu (牛鈕; 13 December 1651 – 9 March 1652), first son Third daughter (30 January 1654 – April/May 1658) Fifth daughter (6 February 1655 – January 1661) Mistress, of the Chen clan (陳氏; d. 1690) First daughter (22 April 1652 – November/December 1653) Changning, Prince Gong of the First Rank (恭親王 常寧; 8 December 1657 – 20 July 1703), fifth son Mistress, of the Yang clan (楊氏) Princess Gongque of the Second Rank (和碩恭愨公主; 19 January 1654 – 26 November 1685), second daughter Married Na'erdu (訥爾杜; d. 1676) of the Manchu Gūwalgiya clan in February/March 1667 Fourth daughter (9 January 1655 – March/April 1661) Mistress, of the Nara clan (那拉氏) Sixth daughter (11 November 1657 – March 1661) Mistress, of the Tang clan (唐氏) Qishou (奇授; 3 January 1660 – 12 December 1665), sixth son Mistress, of the Niu clan (鈕氏) Longxi, Prince Chunjing of the First Rank (純靖親王 隆禧; 30 May 1660 – 20 August 1679), seventh son Mistress, of the Muktu clan (穆克圖氏) Yonggan (永幹; 23 January 1661 – 15 January 1668), eighth son Ancestry In popular culture Portrayed by Jung Yun-seok in the 2013 JTBC TV series Blooded Palace: The War of Flowers. Portrayed by an unknown actor in The Mr. Peabody & Sherman Show episode "Sherman Exchange Program". See also Chinese emperors family tree (late) Chronology of the Shunzhi reign List of emperors of the Qing dynasty Explanatory notes References Citations Works cited Main studies . . . In two volumes. Other works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2-volume set). . . . . . . . . Qingshi gao 清史稿 ["Draft History of Qing"]. Edited by Zhao Erxun 趙爾巽 et al. Completed in 1927. Citing 1976–77 edition by Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, in 48 volumes with continuous pagination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External links 1638 births 1661 deaths 17th-century Chinese monarchs Child rulers from Asia Deaths from smallpox Infectious disease deaths in China People from Shenyang Qing dynasty emperors Qing dynasty Buddhists Chinese Buddhist monarchs Bannermen Hong Taiji's sons

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional%20scaffolding

Instructional scaffolding

Instructional scaffolding is the support given to a student by an instructor throughout the learning process. This support is specifically tailored to each student; this instructional approach allows students to experience student-centered learning, which tends to facilitate more efficient learning than teacher-centered learning. This learning process promotes a deeper level of learning than many other common teaching strategies. Instructional scaffolding provides sufficient support to promote learning when concepts and skills are being first introduced to students. These supports may include resource, compelling task, templates and guides, and/or guidance on the development of cognitive and social skills. Instructional scaffolding could be employed through modeling a task, giving advice, and/or providing coaching. These supports are gradually removed as students develop autonomous learning strategies, thus promoting their own cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning skills and knowledge. Teachers help the students master a task or a concept by providing support. The support can take many forms such as outlines, recommended documents, storyboards, or key questions. Essential features There are three essential features of scaffolding that facilitate learning. The first feature is the interaction between the learner and the expert. This interaction should be collaborative for it to be effective. The second is that learning should take place in the learner's zone of proximal development. To do that the expert needs to be aware of the learner's current level of knowledge and then work to a certain extent beyond that level. The third feature of scaffolding is that the scaffold, the support and guidance provided by the expert, is gradually removed as the learner becomes more proficient. The support and guidance provided to the learner are compared to the scaffolds in building construction where the scaffolds provide both "adjustable and temporal" support to the building under construction. The support and guidance provided to learners facilitate internalization of the knowledge needed to complete the task. This support is weaned gradually until the learner is independent. Effective scaffolding For scaffolding to be effective teachers need to pay attention to the following: The selection of the learning task: The task should ensure that learners use the developing skills that need to be mastered. The task should also be engaging and interesting to keep learners involved. This task should be neither too difficult nor too easy for the learner. The anticipation of errors: After choosing the task, the teacher needs to anticipate errors the learners are likely to commit when working on the task. Anticipation of errors enables the scaffolder to properly guide the learners away from ineffective directions. The application of scaffolds during the learning task: Scaffolds could be organized in "simple skill acquisition or they may be dynamic and generative". The consideration of emotional issues: Scaffolding is not limited to a cognitive skill and can also support emotional responses (affect). For example, during a task the scaffolder (expert) might need to manage and control for frustration and loss of interest that could be experienced by the learner. Encouragement is also an important scaffolding component. Theory of scaffolding Scaffolding theory was first introduced in the late 1950s by Jerome Bruner, a cognitive psychologist. He used the term to describe young children's oral language acquisition. Helped by their parents when they first start learning to speak, young children are provided with informal instructional formats within which their learning is facilitated. A scaffolding format investigated by Bruner and his postdoctoral student Anat Ninio whose scaffolding processes are described in detail is joint picture-book reading (Ninio & Bruner, 1978). By contrast, bed-time stories and read alouds are examples of book-centered parenting events (Daniels, 1994) without scaffolding interaction. Scaffolding is inspired by Lev Vygotsky's concept of an expert assisting a novice, or an apprentice. Scaffolding is changing the level of support to suit the cognitive potential of the child. Over the course of a teaching session, one can adjust the amount of guidance to fit the child's potential level of performance. More support is offered when a child is having difficulty with a particular task and, over time, less support is provided as the child makes gains on the task. Ideally, scaffolding works to maintain the child's potential level of development in the zone of proximal development (ZPD). An essential element to the ZPD and scaffolding is the acquisition of language. According to Vygotsky, language (and in particular, speech) is fundamental to children's cognitive growth because language provides purpose and intention so that behaviors can be better understood. Through the use of speech, children are able to communicate to and learn from others through dialogue, which is an important tool in the ZPD. In a dialogue, a child's unsystematic, disorganized, and spontaneous concepts are met with the more systematic, logical and rational concepts of the skilled helper. Empirical research suggests that the benefits of scaffolding are not only useful during a task, but can extend beyond the immediate situation in order to influence future cognitive development. For instance, a recent study recorded verbal scaffolding between mothers and their 3- and 4-year-old children as they played together. Then, when the children were six years old, they underwent several measures of executive function, such as working memory and goal-directed play. The study found that the children's working memory and language skills at six years of age were related to the amount of verbal scaffolding provided by mothers at age three. In particular, scaffolding was most effective when mothers provided explicit conceptual links during play. Therefore, the results of this study not only suggest that verbal scaffolding aids children's cognitive development, but that the quality of the scaffolding is also important for learning and development. A construct that is critical for scaffolding instruction is Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The zone of proximal development is the field between what a learner can do on their own (expert stage) and the most that can be achieved with the support of a knowledgeable peer or instructor (pedagogical stage) (Ellis & Worthington, 1994). Vygotsky was convinced that a child could be taught any subject efficiently using scaffolding practices by implementing the scaffolds through the zone of proximal development. Students are escorted and monitored through learning activities that function as interactive conduits to get them to the next stage. Thus the learner obtains new understandings by building on their prior knowledge through the support delivered by more capable individuals (Raymond, 2000). Several peer-reviewed studies have shown that when there is a deficiency in guided learning experiences and social interaction, learning and development are obstructed (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking, 2000). Moreover, several things influence the ZPD of students, ranging from the collaboration of peers to technology available in the classroom (Ebadi, Khatib, and Shabani, 2010) In writing instruction, support is typically presented in verbal form (discourse). The writing tutor engages the learner's attention, calibrates the task, motivates the student, identifies relevant task features, controls for frustration, and demonstrates as needed (Rodgers, 2004). Through joint activities, the teacher scaffolds conversation to maximize the development of a child's intrapsychological functioning. In this process, the adult controls the elements of the task that are beyond the child's ability, all the while increasing the expectations of what the child is able to do. Speech, a critical tool to scaffold thinking and responding, plays a crucial role in the development of higher psychological processes (Luria, 1979) because it enables thinking to be more abstract, flexible, and independent (Bodrova & Leong, 1996). From a Vygotskian perspective, talk and action work together with the sociocultural fabric of the writing event to shape a child's construction of awareness and performance (Dorn, 1996). Dialogue may range from casual talk to deliberate explanations of features of written language. The talk embedded in the actions of the literacy event shapes the child's learning as the tutor regulates his or her language to conform to the child's degrees of understanding. Clay (2005) shows that what may seem like casual conversational exchanges between tutor and student actually offer many opportunities for fostering cognitive development, language learning, story composition for writing, and reading comprehension. Conversations facilitate generative, constructive, experimental, and developmental speech and writing in the development of new ideas (Smagorinsky, 2007). In Vygotsky's words, "what the child is able to do in collaboration today he will be able to do independently tomorrow" (Vygotsky, 1987, p. 211). Some ingredients of scaffolding are predictability, playfulness, focus on meaning, role reversal, modeling, and nomenclature. Levels and types in the educational setting According to Saye and Brush, there are two levels of scaffolding: soft and hard (2002). An example of soft scaffolding in the classroom would be when a teacher circulates the room and converses with his or her students (Simon and Klein, 2007). The teacher may question their approach to a difficult problem and provide constructive feedback to the students. According to Van Lier, this type of scaffolding can also be referred to as contingent scaffolding. The type and amount of support needed is dependent on the needs of the students during the time of instruction (Van Lier, 1996). Unfortunately, applying scaffolding correctly and consistently can be difficult when the classroom is large and students have various needs (Gallagher, 1997). Scaffolding can be applied to a majority of the students, but the teacher is left with the responsibility to identify the need for additional scaffolding. In contrast with contingent or soft scaffolding, embedded or hard scaffolding is planned in advance to help students with a learning task that is known in advance to be difficult (Saye and Brush, 2002). For example, when students are discovering the formula for the Pythagorean Theorem in math class, the teacher may identify hints or cues to help the student reach an even higher level of thinking. In both situations, the idea of "expert scaffolding" is being implemented (Holton and Clarke, 2006): the teacher in the classroom is considered the expert and is responsible for providing scaffolding for the students. Reciprocal scaffolding, a method first coined by Holton and Thomas, is a method that involves a group of two or more collaboratively working together. In this situation, the group can learn from each other's experiences and knowledge. The scaffolding is shared by each member and changes constantly as the group works on a task (Holton and Clarke, 2006). According to Vygotsky, students develop higher-level thinking skills when scaffolding occurs with an adult expert or with a peer of higher capabilities (Stone, 1998). Conversely, Piaget believes that students discard their ideas when paired with an adult or student of more expertise (Piaget, 1928). Instead, students should be paired with others who have different perspectives. Conflicts would then take place between students allowing them to think constructively at a higher level. Technical scaffolding is a newer approach in which computers replace the teachers as the experts or guides, and students can be guided with web links, online tutorials, or help pages (Yelland and Masters, 2007). Educational software can help students follow a clear structure and allows students to plan properly (Lai and Law, 2006). Directive and supportive scaffolding Silliman and Wilkinson (1994) distinguish two types of scaffolding: 'supportive scaffolding' that characterises the IRF (Initiation-Response-Follow-up) pattern; and 'directive scaffolding' that refers to IRE (Initiation-Response-Evaluation). Saxena (2010) develops these two notions theoretically by incorporating Bhaktin's (1981) and vanLier's (1996) works. Within the IRE pattern, teachers provide 'directive scaffolding' on the assumption that their job is to transmit knowledge and then assess its appropriation by the learners. The question-answer-evaluation sequence creates a predetermined standard for acceptable participation and induces passive learning. In this type of interaction, the teacher holds the right to evaluate and asks 'known-information' questions which emphasise the reproduction of information. The nature and role of the triadic dialogue have been oversimplified and the potential for the roles of teachers and students in them has been undermined (Nassaji and Wells, 2000). If, in managing the talk, teachers apply 'constructive power' (Saxena, 2009) and exploit students' responses as occasions for joint exploration, rather than simply evaluating them, then the classroom talk becomes dialogic (Nystrand, 1997). The pedagogic orientation of this talk becomes 'participation orientation', in contrast to 'display/assessment orientation' of IRE (van Lier, 1996). In this kind of pattern of interaction, the third part of the triadic dialogue offers 'follow-up' and teachers' scaffolding becomes 'supportive'. Rather than producing 'authoritative discourse' Bakhtin's (1981), teachers constructs 'internally persuasive discourse' that allows 'equality' and 'symmetry' (van Lier, 1996:175), wherein the issues of power, control, institutional managerial positioning, etc. are diffused or suspended. The discourse opens up the roles for students as the 'primary knower' and the 'sequence initiator' (Nassaji and Wells, 2000), which allows them to be the negotiator and co-constructor of meaning. The suspension of asymmetry in the talk represents a shift in the teacher's ideological stance and, therefore, demonstrates that supportive scaffolding is more than simply a model of instruction (Saxena, 2010: 167). The role of guidance Guidance and cognitive load Learner support in scaffolding is known as guidance. While it takes on various forms and styles, the basic form of guidance is any type of interaction from the instructor that is intended to aid and/or improve student learning. While this a broad definition, the role and amount of guidance is better defined by the instructor's approach. Instructionists and constructionists approach giving guidance within their own instructional frameworks. Scaffolding involves presenting learners with proper guidance that moves them towards their learning goals. Providing guidance is a method of moderating the cognitive load of a learner. In scaffolding, learners can only be moved toward their learning goals if cognitive load is held in check by properly administered support. Traditional teachers tend to give a higher level of deductive, diadactic instruction, with each piece of a complex task being broken down. This teacher-centered approach, consequently, tends to increase the cognitive load for students. Constructivist instructors, in contrast, approach instruction from the approach of guided discovery with a particular emphasis on transfer. The concept of transfer focuses on a learner's ability to apply learned tasks in a context other than the one in which it was learned. This results in constructivist instructors, unlike classical ones, giving a higher level of guidance than instruction. Amount of guidance Research has demonstrated that higher level of guidance has a greater effect on scaffolded learning, but is not a guarantee of more learning. The efficacy of higher amount of guidance is dependent on the level of detail and guidance applicability. Having multiple types of guidance (i.e. worked examples, feedback) can cause them to interact and reinforce each other. Multiple conditions do not guarantee greater learning, as certain types of guidance can be extraneous to the learning goals or the modality of learning. With this, more guidance (if not appropriate to the learning) can negatively impact performance, as it gives the learner overwhelming levels of information. However, appropriately designed high levels of guidance, which properly interact with the learning, is more beneficial to learning than low levels of guidance. Context of guidance Constructivists pay close attention to the context of guidance because they believe instruction plays a major role in knowledge retention and transfer. Research studies demonstrate how the context of isolated explanations can have an effect on student-learning outcomes. For example, Hake's (1998) large-scale study demonstrated how post-secondary physics students recalled less than 30% of material covered in a traditional lecture-style class. Similarly, other studies illustrate how students construct different understandings from explanation in isolation versus having a first experience with the material. A first, experience with the material provides students with a "need to know", which allows learners to reflect on prior experiences with the content, which can help learners construct meaning from instruction. Worked examples are guiding tools that can act as a "need to know" for students. Worked examples provide students with straightforward goals, step-by-step instructions as well as ready-to-solve problems that can help students develop a stronger understanding from instruction. Timing of guidance Guiding has a key role in both constructivism and 'instructivism'. For instructivists, the timing of guidance is immediate, either at the beginning or when the learner makes a mistake, whereas in constructivism it can be delayed. It has been found that immediate feedback can lead to working memory load as it does not take in consideration the process of gradual acquisition of a skill, which also relates to the amount of guidance being given. Research on intelligent-tutoring systems suggests that immediate feedback on errors is a great strategy to promote learning. As the learner is able to integrate the feedback from short-term memory into the overall learning and problem solving task; the longer the wait on feedback, the harder it is for the learner to make this integration. Yet, in another study it was found that providing feedback right after the error can deprive the learner of the opportunity to develop evaluative skills. Wise and O'Neill bring these two, seemingly contradictory findings, and argue that it does not only prove the importance of the role of feedback, but that points out a timing feature of feedback: immediate feedback in the short term promotes more rapid problem solving, but delaying feedback can result in better retention and transfer in the long term. Constructivism and guidance Constructivism views knowledge as a "function of how the individual creates meaning from his or her own experiences". Constructivists advocate that learning is better facilitated in a minimally guided environment where learners construct important information for themselves. According to constructivism, minimal guidance in the form of process or task related information should be provided to learners upon request and direct instruction of learning strategies should not be used because it impedes the natural processes learners use to recall prior experiences. In this view, for learners to construct knowledge they should be provided with the goals and minimal information and support. Applications that promote constructivist learning require learners to solve authentic problems or "acquire knowledge in information-rich settings". An example of an application of constructivist learning is science instruction, where students are asked to discover the principles of science by imitating the steps and actions of researchers. Instructivism and guidance Instructionism are educational practices characterized for being instructor-centered. Some authors see instructionism as a highly prescriptive practice that mostly focuses on the formation of skills, that is very product-oriented and is not interactive; or that is a highly structured, systematic and explicit way of teaching that gives emphasis to the role of the teacher as a transmitter of knowledge and the students as passive receptacles. The 'transmission' of knowledge and skills from the teacher to the student in this context is often manifested in the form of drill, practice and rote memorization. An 'instructionist', then, focuses on the preparation, organization and management of the lesson making sure the plan is detailed and the communication is effective. The emphasis is on the up-front explicit delivery of instruction. Instructionism is often contrasted with constructivism. Both of them use the term guidance as means to support learning, and how it can be used more effectively. The difference in the use of guidance is found in the philosophical assumptions regarding the nature of the learner, but they also differ in their views around the quantity, the context and the timing of guidance. An example of application of instructionism in the classroom is direct instruction. Applications Instructional scaffolding can be thought of as the strategies that a teacher uses to help learners bridge a cognitive gap or progress in their learning to a level they were previously unable to accomplish. These strategies evolve as the teachers evaluate the learners initial level of ability and then through continued feedback throughout the progression of the task. In the early studies, scaffolding was primarily done in oral, face- to-face learning environments. In classrooms, scaffolding may include modelling behaviours, coaching and prompting, thinking out loud, dialogue with questions and answers, planned and spontaneous discussions, as well as other interactive planning or structural assistance to help the learner bridge a cognitive gap. This can also include peer mentoring from more experienced students. These peers can be referred to as MKOs. "MKO" stands for More Knowledgeable Other. The "MKO" is a person who has a higher understanding of an idea or concept and can bridge this cognitive gap. This includes teachers, parents, and as stated before, peers. MKOs are central part of the process of learning in the ZPD, or Zone of Proximal Development. An MKO may help a student using scaffolding, with the goal being that the student can eventually lead themselves to the answer on their own, without the help of anyone else. The MKO may use a gradual reduction of assistance in order to facilitate this, as described earlier. There are a wide variety of scaffolding strategies that teachers employ. One approach to looking at the application of scaffolding is to look at a framework for evaluating these strategies. This model was developed based on the theoretical principles of scaffolding to highlight the use of scaffolding for educational purposes. It highlights two components of an instructors use of scaffolding. The first is the instructors intentions and the second refers to the means by which the scaffolding is carried out. Scaffolding intentions: These groups highlight the instructors intentions for scaffolding Scaffolding means: These groups highlight the ways in which the instructor scaffolds Any combination of scaffolding means with scaffolding intention can be construed as a scaffolding strategy, however, whether a teaching strategy qualifies as good scaffolding generally depends upon its enactment in actual practice and more specifically upon whether the strategy is applied contingently and whether it is also part of a process of fading and transfer of responsibility. Examples of scaffolding: Instructors can use a variety of scaffolds to accommodate different levels of knowledge. The context of learning (i.e. novice experience, complexity of the task) may require more than one scaffold strategy in order for the student to master new content. The following table outlines a few common scaffolding strategies: Scaffolding mediated by technology When we teach students who are not physically present in the classroom, instructors need to adapt to the environment and their scaffolding needs to be adjusted to fit this new learning medium. It can be challenging to find a way to adjust the verbal and visual elements of scaffolding to construct a successful interactive and collaborative learning environment for distance learning. The recent spread of technology used in education has opened up the learning environment to include AI-based methods, hypermedia, hypertext, collaborative learning environments, and web-based learning environments. This challenges traditional learning design conceptions of scaffolding for educators. A recent review of the types of scaffolding used in online learning identified four main types of scaffolding: conceptual scaffolding: helps students decide what to consider in learning and guide them to key concepts procedural scaffolding: helps students use appropriate tools and resources effectively strategic scaffolding: helps students find alternative strategies and methods to solve complex problems metacognitive scaffolding: prompts students to think about what they are learning throughout the process and assists students reflecting on what they have learnt (self-assessment). This is the most common research area and is thought to not only promote higher order thinking but also students ability to plan ahead. Reingold, Rimor and Kalay have listed seven mechanisms of metacognitive scaffolding that encourage students' metacognition in learning. These four types are structures that appropriately support students' learning in online environments. Other scaffolding approaches that were addressed by the researchers included: technical support, content support, argumentation template, questioning and modelling. These terms were rarely used, and it was argued that these areas had unclear structure to guide students, especially in online learning, and were inadequately justified. As technology changes, so does the form of support provided to online learners. Instructors have the challenge of adapting scaffolding techniques to this new medium, but also the advantage of using new web-based tools such as wikis and blogs as platforms to support and discuss with students. Benefits in online learning environments As the research in this area progresses, studies are showing that when students learn about complex topics with computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) without scaffolding they demonstrated poor ability to regulate their learning, and failure to gain a conceptual understanding of the topic. As a result, researchers have recently begun to emphasize the importance of embedded conceptual, procedural, strategic, and metacognitive scaffolding in CBLEs. In addition to the four scaffolding guidelines outlined, recent research has shown: scaffolding can help in group discussions. In a recent study, a significant increase in active participation and meaningful negotiations was found within the scaffolded groups as opposed to the non-scaffolded group. metacognitive scaffolding can be used to encourage students in reflecting and help build a sense of a community among learners. Specifically, Reingold, Rimor and Kalay recommend using metacognitive scaffolding to support students working on a common task. They believe this can support learners to experience their work as part of a community of learners. Downfalls in online learning environments An online learning environment warrants many factors for scaffolding to be successful, this includes basic knowledge of the use of technology, social interactions and reliance on student's individual motivation and initiative for learning.  Collaboration is key to instructional scaffolding and can be lost without proper guidance from an instructor creating and initiating an online social space.   The instructor's role in creating a social space for online interaction has been found to increase student's confidence in understanding the content and goals of the course.  If an instructor does not create this space a student misses out on critical-thinking, evaluating material and collaborating with fellow students to foster learning.  Even with instructors implementing a positive social space online, a research study found that students perceptions of incompetence to other classmates is not affected by positive online social spaces but found this to be less of a problem in face-face courses.   Due to the distance learning that encompasses an online environment, self-regulation is essential for scaffolding to be effective, a study has shown that procrastinators are at a disadvantage in online distance learning and are not able to be scaffolded in the same degree as if there was an in-person instructor.   Students who had more desire to master the content than to receive higher grades were more successful in the online courses.  A study by Artino and Stephens found that graduate students were more motivated in online course than undergraduate students but suggests academic level may contribute to the amount of technological support that is needed for positive learning outcomes, finding that undergraduate students needed less support than graduate students when navigating an online course. See also Notes References Belland, Brian., Glazewski, Krista D., and Richardson, Jennifer C. (2008). A scaffolding framework to support the construction of evidence-based arguments among middle school students. Education Tech Research Dev., 56, 401–422. Beed, P., Hawkins, M., & Roller, C. (1991). Moving learners towards independence: the power of scaffolded instruction. The Reading Teacher, 44(9), 648–655 Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (1998). Scaffolding emergent writing in the zone of proximal development. Literacy Teaching and Learning, 3(2), 1–18. Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, and Experience & School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Cazden, C. B. (1983). Adult assistance to language development: Scaffolds, models, and direct instruction. In R. P. Parker & F. A. Davis (Eds.), Developing literacy:Young children's use of language (pp. 3–17). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Clay, M. M. (2005). Literacy lessons designed for individuals: Teaching procedures. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Cox, B. E. (1994). Young children's regulatory talk: Evidence of emerging metacognitive control over literary products and processes. In R. B. Ruddell, M. R. Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and process of reading (pp. 733–756). Newark, DE: IRA. Dorn, L. (1996). A Vygotskian perspective on literacy acquisition: Talk and action in the child's construction of literate awareness. Literacy Teaching and Learning: An International Journal of Early Reading and Writing, 2(2), 15–40. Dyson, A. H. (1983). The role of oral language in early writing process. Research in the Teaching of English, 17(1), 1–30. Dyson, A. H. (1991). Viewpoints: The word and the world - reconceptualizing written language development or do rainbows mean a lot to little girls? Research in the Teaching of English, 25, 97–123. Ebadi, Saman, Khatib, Mohamad, and Shabani, Karim (2010). Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development: Instructional Implications and Teacher's Professional Development. English Language Teaching, 3(4), 241-245. Ellis, E., & Worthington, L. (1994). Research Synthesis on Effective Teaching Principles and the Design of Quality Tools for Educators. University of Oregon. Retrieved October 25, 2013, from http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/ellisressynth.pdf Hoffman, B., & Ritchie, D. (1997). The problems with problem based learning. Instructional Science 25(2) 97–115. Holton, Derek, and Clark, David (2006). Scaffolding and metacognition. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 37, 127–143. Johnson, G. (2009). Instructionism and Constructivism: Reconciling Two Very Good Ideas. International Journal of Special Education, 24(3), 90–98. Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research and Development, 39 (3), 5–14. Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.). (1996). Handbook of research for educational communications and technology. New York: Simon & Schuster. Lai, Ming and Law, Nancy (2006). Peer scaffolding of knowledge building through collaborative groups with differential learning experiences. J. Educational Computing Research, 35, 123–144. Lajoie, Sussane (2005). Extending the scaffolding metaphor. Instructional Science, 33, 541–557. Luria, A. R. (1983). The development of writing in the child. In M. Martlew (Ed.), The psychology of written language: Developmental and educational perspectives (pp. 237–277). New York: Wiley. Ninio, A. and Bruner, J. (1978). The achievement and antecedents of labelling. Journal of Child Language, 5, 1–15. Palincsar, A. S. (1986). The role of dialogue in providing scaffolded instruction. Educational Psychologist, 21(1 & 2), 73–98. Raymond, E. (2000). Cognitive Characteristics. Learners with Mild Disabilities (pp. 169–201). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, A Pearson Education Company. Rodgers, E. M. (2004). Interactions that scaffold reading performance. Journal of Literacy Research, 36(4), 501–532. Rosenshine, B., & Meister, C. (1992). The use of scaffolds for teaching higher-level cognitive strategies. Educational Leadership, 49(7), 26–33. Sawyer, R. Keith. (2006). The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences. New York: Cambridge University Press. Simons, Krista D., and Klein, James D. (2007). The impact of scaffolding and student achievement levels in a problem-based learning environment. Instructional Science, 35, 41–72. Smagorinsky, P. (2007). Vygotsky and the social dynamic of classrooms. English Journal, 97(2), 61–66. Teale, W. H. & Sulzby, E. (Eds.). (1986). Emergent literacy: Writing and reading. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech. In L. S. Vygotsky, Collected works (vol. 1, pp. 39–285) (R. Rieber & A. Carton, Eds; N. Minick, Trans.). New York: Plenum. (Original works published in 1934, 1960). Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wertsch, J. V. & Stone, C. (1984). A social interactional analysis of learning disabilities remediation. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17(4), 194–199. Wise, A. F., & O'Neill, D. K. (2009). Beyond More Versus Less: A Reframing of the Debate on Instructional Guidance. In S. Tobias & T. M. Duffy (Eds.), Constructivist Instruction: Success or Failure? (pp. 82–105). New York: Routledge. Wood, D., & Wood, H. (1996). Vygotsky, tutoring and learning. Oxford Review of Education, 22(1), 5–16. Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1978). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89–100. Wood, D. J., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 17(2), 89–100. Yelland, Nicola, and Masters, Jennifer (2007). Rethinking scaffolding in the information age. Computers and Education, 48, 362–382. Educational practices

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Tettius

Tettius was a nomen used in ancient Rome. Tettius Julianus, general 1st century Tettius Facundus, consul 336 Ancient Roman nomina

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Chernenko (surname)

Chernenko (; ), is a surname of Ukrainian origin. Notable persons with the surname include: Konstantin Chernenko (1911–1985), leader of Soviet Union from 1984 to 1985 Anna Chernenko (1913–2010), wife of Konstantin Chernenko Albert Chernenko (1935–2009), Russian philosopher and son of Konstantin Chernenko Elena Chernenko, minister of finance of Pridestrovian Moldavian Republic Anastasiya Chernenko (born 1990), Ukrainian triathlete Yevhen Chernenko (1934-2007), Ukrainian archaeologist See also Cerna (surname) Chernyaev Ukrainian-language surnames

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Titinius

Titinius was a nobleman of ancient Rome. He was a friend of Gaius Cassius Longinus and one of the conspirators in the assassination of Julius Caesar. Later at the battle of Phillipi, he took his own life because Cassius killed himself (Cassius thought Titinius had died). Titinius also appears as a character in the play Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare. Titinius may also refer to: Marcus Titinius, tribune 450 BC Lucius Titinius Pansa Saccus, consular tribune 400 BC, 396 BC Marcus Titinius, magister equitum 302 BC Gaius Titinius Gadaeus, bandit in slave revolt used by Gaius Marius Marcus Titinius, commander in the time of Marius Titinius, poet, earliest known composer of tabernariae, survived Terence, only fragments extant Gnaeus Octavius Titinius Capito, official and writer 2nd century Ancient Roman soldiers Suicides in Italy

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Blackwardine

Blackwardine is a village in Herefordshire, England (at ), in the parish of Ford and Stoke Prior. It is the site of a Romano-British settlement known as Black Caer Dun. A golden bracelet and ring have been found here, as well as many human remains. An 1885 account notes "broken pieces of pottery were thickly scattered about and in one part of the railway cutting near the surface some 40 or of charred material 18 inches thick were observed." Blackwardine is where Alfred Watkins first developed his theory of Ley lines on 30 June 1921. The place was excavated the same year. References External links Photos of Blackwardine and surrounding area on geograph History of Herefordshire Villages in Herefordshire Ley lines

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Titius

Titius may refer to: 1998 Titius, a main belt asteroid Titius (crater), a 2.7 km-deep lunar crater Titius river in Antiquety, Latin name for Krka river in Croatia People with the surname Johann Daniel Titius (1729–1796), German astronomer Marcus Titius (1st century), Roman politician

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daimler%20Company

Daimler Company

The Daimler Company Limited ( ), prior to 1910 The Daimler Motor Company Limited, was an independent British motor vehicle manufacturer founded in London by H. J. Lawson in 1896, which set up its manufacturing base in Coventry. The company bought the right to the use of the Daimler name simultaneously from Gottlieb Daimler and Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft of Cannstatt, Germany. After early financial difficulty and a reorganisation of the company in 1904, the Daimler Motor Company was purchased by Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA) in 1910, which also made cars under its own name before the Second World War. In 1933, BSA bought the Lanchester Motor Company and made it a subsidiary of Daimler Company. Daimler was awarded a Royal Warrant to provide cars to the British monarch in 1902; it lost this privilege in the 1950s after being supplanted by Rolls-Royce. Daimler occasionally used alternative technology: the Knight engine which it further developed in the early twentieth century and used from 1909 to 1935, the worm gear final drive fitted from 1909 until after the Second World War, and their patented fluid flywheel used in conjunction with a Wilson preselector gearbox from 1930 to the mid-1950s. Daimler tried to widen its appeal in the 1950s with a line of smaller cars at one end and opulent show cars at the other, stopped making Lanchesters, had a highly publicised removal of their chairman from the board, and developed and sold a sports car and a high-performance luxury saloon and limousine. BSA sold Daimler to Jaguar Cars in 1960 and Jaguar briefly continued Daimler's line adding a Daimler variant of its Mark II sports saloon. Jaguar was then merged into the British Motor Corporation in 1966 and British Leyland in 1968. Under these companies, Daimler became an upscale trim level for Jaguar cars except for the 1968–1992 Daimler DS420 limousine, which had no Jaguar equivalent despite being fully Jaguar-based. When Jaguar Cars was split off from British Leyland in 1984 it retained the Daimler company and brand. Ford bought Jaguar Cars in 1990 and under Ford it stopped using the Daimler marque in 2009 when the last X358 Daimler models were discontinued. The X351 Jaguar XJ took its place and there was no Daimler variant. Jaguar Cars remained in its ownership, and from 2000 accompanied by Land Rover, until they sold both Jaguar and Land Rover to Tata Motors in 2008, who formed Jaguar Land Rover as a subsidiary holding company for them. In 2013, Jaguar Cars was merged with Land Rover to form Jaguar Land Rover Limited, and the rights to the Daimler car brand were transferred to the newly formed British multinational car manufacturer Jaguar Land Rover. Origin Simms and the Daimler engine Engineer Frederick Richard Simms was supervising construction of an aerial cableway of his own design for the Bremen Exhibition in 1889 when he saw tiny railcars powered by Gottlieb Daimler's motors. Simms, who had been born to English parents in Hamburg and raised by them there, became friends with Daimler, an Anglophile who had worked from autumn 1861 to summer 1863 at Beyer-Peacock in Gorton, Manchester. Simms introduced Daimler's motors to England in 1890 to power launches. In an agreement dated 18 February 1891, he obtained British and Empire rights for the Daimler patents. That month, Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft lent Simms a motorboat with a 2 hp engine and an extra engine. In June 1891 Simms had set up a London office at 49 Leadenhall Street and founded Simms & Co consulting engineers. In May 1892, the motorboat, which Simms had named Cannstatt, began running on the Thames from Putney. After demonstrating a motor launch to The Honourable Evelyn Ellis, Simms's motor launch business grew rapidly, but became endangered when solicitor Alfred Hendriks was found to have been illegally taking money from the company. Hendriks severed his connections with Simms & Co. in February 1893. Simms' Daimler-related work was later moved into a new company, The Daimler Motor Syndicate Limited, which was formed on 26 May 1893. Simms plans to make cars Following the success of Daimler-powered Peugeots and Panhards at the 1894 Paris–Rouen competition, Simms decided to open a motor car factory, On 7 June 1895 Simms told the board of the Daimler Motor Syndicate that he intended to form The Daimler Motor Company Limited to acquire the British rights to the Daimler patents and to manufacture Daimler engines and cars in England. That month, he arranged for the syndicate to receive a ten percent (10%) commission on all British sales of Daimler-powered Panhard & Levassor cars. At the same meeting Simms produced the first licence to operate a car under the Daimler patents. It was for a  hp Panhard & Levassor that had been bought in France by The Honourable Evelyn Ellis, who had three Daimler motor launches moored by his home at Datchet. On 3 July, after Ellis bought the licence, the car was landed at Southampton and driven by Ellis to Micheldever near Winchester where Ellis met Simms and they drove together to Datchet. Ellis later drove it on to Malvern. This was the first long journey by motorcar in Britain. Simms later referred to the car as a "Daimler Motor Carriage". Later in 1895 Simms announced plans to form The Daimler Motor Company Limited and to build a brand-new factory, with delivery of raw materials by light rail, for 400 workmen making Daimler engines and motor carriages. Simms asked his friend Daimler to be consulting engineer to the new enterprise. Works premises at Eel Pie Island on the Thames where the Thames Electric and Steam Launch Company, owned by Andrew Pears of Pears Soap fame, had been making electrically powered motor launches, were purchased to be used to service Daimler-powered motor launches. Simms sells out to Lawson Investor Harry John Lawson had set out to use the British Motor Syndicate to monopolise motor car production in Britain by taking over every patent he could. As part of this goal, Lawson approached Simms on 15 October 1895, seeking the right to arrange the public flotation of the proposed new company and to acquire a large shareholding for his British Motor Syndicate. Welcomed by Simms, the negotiations proceeded on the basis that this new company should acquire The Daimler Motor Syndicate Limited as a going concern, including the name and patent rights. In order that the Daimler licences could be transferred from Simms to the new company, all the former partners would have to agree to the transfer. By this time, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach had withdrawn from Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft's business to concentrate on cars and engines for them. Simms offered to pay DMG £17,500 for the transfer and for a licence for Daimler and Maybach's Phénix engine, which DMG did not own. Simms therefore insisted that the transfer be on the condition that Daimler and Maybach rejoined DMG. This was agreed in November 1895 and the Daimler-Maybach car business re-merged with DMG's. Daimler was appointed DMG's General Inspector and Maybach chief Technical Director. At the same time Simms became a director of DMG but did not become a director of the London company. According to Gustav Vischer, DMG's business manager at the time, Simms getting Daimler to return to DMG was "no mean feat". The sale of Daimler Motor Syndicate to Lawson's interests was completed by the end of November 1895. The shareholders of the Syndicate had made a profit of two hundred percent (200%) on their original investment. Independent (1896–1910) From starting to stability On 14 January 1896 Lawson incorporated The Daimler Motor Company Limited. A prospectus was issued on 15 February. The subscription lists opened on 17 February and closed, oversubscribed, the next day. The Daimler Motor Company Limited bought The Daimler Motor Syndicate Limited from Lawson's British Motor Syndicate as a going concern. Simms was appointed consulting engineer to the new business but was not to be on the board of directors, possibly because he had become a director of the Cannstatt firm. One of the duties assigned to Simms was to find a suitable location for the factory. Simms found the Trusty Oil Engine Works, a company in receivership whose six-acre site at Cheltenham included a foundry, a machine shop, and testing facilities. Simms recommended buying the works immediately since, with ready facilities and the availability of skilled workers, they could start up in a very short time. Instead, at the first statutory meeting of the company, held while Simms was overseas, Lawson persuaded the board to buy a disused four-storey cotton mill in Coventry which was owned by Lawson's associate Ernest Terah Hooley. Despite Simms' later protest and pleas to sell the mill and buy the Trusty Oil Engine Works, Daimler stayed with the mill as the site of Britain's first automobile factory. Delayed delivery of machines kept the factory unfinished throughout 1896 and into 1897. During 1896 Daimler sold imported cars from companies for which Lawson held the licences. Cannstatt supplied engine parts but the delivery of working drawings were delayed for months. Four experimental cars were built in Coventry and a Panhard van was dismantled and reverse engineered. Some Daimler engines, with details redesigned by works manager J. S. Critchley, were also made in 1896. The first car left the works in January 1897, fitted with a Panhard engine, followed in March by Daimler-engined cars. The first Coventry Daimler-engined product made its maiden run in March 1897. By mid-year they were producing three of their own cars a week and producing Léon Bollée cars under licence. Lawson claimed to have made 20 cars by July 1897 making the Daimler Britain's first motor car to go into serial production, an honour that is also credited to Humber Motors who had also displayed, but in their case their production models, at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1896. The Daimlers had a twin-cylinder, 1526 cc engine, mounted at the front of the car, four-speed gearbox and chain drive to the rear wheels. Because of Daimler's financial difficulty in July 1897 Daimler began asking Lawson's Great Horseless Carriage Company to settle its accounts with them. In the same month, they refused to send working drawings of their 4 hp motor frame to DMG in Canstatt. Lack of co-operation with the Canstatt firm caused Simms to resign as Daimler's consulting engineer that month. Also in July 1897, the company sold their launch works at Eel Pie Island at a loss of seven £700 or more. Ongoing difficulties with the Great Horseless Carriage Company and the British Motor Syndicate caused Lawson to resign from Daimler's board on 7 October 1897. He was replaced as chairman by Henry Sturmey, who at the time was five days into a motor tour in his personal Daimler from John O'Groats to Land's End. On arriving at Land's End on 19 October, Sturmey became the first person to make that journey in a motor car. Gottlieb Daimler resigned from the board of the Daimler Motor Company in July 1898 having never attended a board meeting. Sturmey opposed the appointment of a proposed successor who, according to Sturmey, held no shares and knew nothing about the automobile business. A committee was brought in to investigate the activities of the board and the company. The committee summed up the management of the business as being inefficient and not energetic and suggested that it be reorganised and run by a paid managing director. When Evelyn Ellis and another board member did not run for re-election, they were replaced by E. H. Bayley and Edward Jenkinson, with Bayley replacing Sturmey as chairman. Sturmey resigned in May 1899 after Bayley and Jenkinson had reorganised the business. Simms, as a director of DMG, proposed a union between the Daimler Motor Company in Coventry and DMG in Cannstatt in mid-1900 but the reorganised company was not interested in the merger and turned the offer down. Persistent financial troubles caused Daimler to be reorganised again in 1904. The previous company was wound up and a new company was formed to acquire the old one and pay its debts and winding-up costs. Under the chairmanship of Sir Edward Jenkinson, Daimler hired American electrical engineer Percy Martin as works manager and socialite Undecimus Stratton as the head of the London depot, and promoted Ernest Instone to general manager. Jenkinson was succeeded in 1906 by Edward Manville, a consulting electrical engineer. Royal patronage Known as Britain's oldest car manufacturers, Daimler was first associated with royalty in 1898 when the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII, was given a ride on a Daimler by John Douglas-Scott-Montagu later known as Lord Montagu of Beaulieu. Scott-Montagu, as a member of parliament, also drove a Daimler into the yard of the Palace of Westminster, the first motorised vehicle to be driven there. Daimler had sold the Prince of Wales a mail phaeton in early 1900. In 1902, upon buying another Daimler, King Edward VII awarded Daimler a royal warrant as suppliers of motor cars. Undecimus Stratton met E. G. Jenkinson, the chairman of Daimler, in 1903 when Jenkinson's Daimler was stranded by the roadside. Upon seeing the stranded motorist, Stratton stopped his Daimler and offered assistance. Jenkinson was impressed by Stratton and by his motoring knowledge. At the time, Jenkinson was looking to replace the head of Daimler's London depot, a particularly sensitive position because of the royal cars. Taking the position, Stratton soon found himself having to select better royal chauffeurs and mechanics. He quickly became an occasional motoring companion to the King. In 1908, through Stratton's Royal connections, Daimler was awarded a "Royal Appointment as suppliers of motor cars to the Court of Spain" by King Alfonso XIII and a Royal Warrant as "Motor Car Manufacturer to the Court of Prussia" by Kaiser Wilhelm II. Stratton also sold Daimlers to the Sultan of Johor. In 1911, he spent some weekends at Sandringham tutoring the new Prince of Wales on the workings and driving of an automobile. Stratton went into partnership with Daimler's commercial manager Ernest Instone in 1921. Stratton and Instone took charge of the Daimler showrooms at 27 Pall Mall, naming the business Stratton-Instone. Stratton died in July 1929 after a brief illness. His successors and Instone bought out Daimler's interest in 1930 and renamed the business Stratstone Limited. The following summer the future King Edward VIII rented Stratton's house at Sunningdale from his widow. Every British monarch from Edward VII to Elizabeth II has been driven in Daimler limousines. In 1950, after a persistent transmission failure on the King's car, Rolls-Royce was commissioned to provide official state cars and as Daimlers retired they were not replaced by Daimlers. The current official state car is either one of a pair which were specially made for the purpose by Bentley, unofficial chauffeured transport is by Daimler. Her Majesty's own car for personal use is a 2008 Daimler Super Eight but she is also seen to drive herself in other smaller cars. Fluted radiator Since 1904, the fluted top surface to the radiator grille has been Daimler's distinguishing feature. This motif developed from the heavily finned water-cooling tubes slung externally at the front of early cars. Later, a more conventional, vertical radiator had a heavily finned header tank. Eventually these fins were echoed on a protective grille shell and, even later, on the rear licence plate holder. Sleeve-valve engines Attracted by the possibilities of the "Silent Knight" engine Daimler's chairman contacted Charles Yale Knight in Chicago and Knight settled in England near Coventry in 1907. Daimler bought rights from Knight "for England and the colonies" and shared ownership of the European rights, in which it took 60%, with Minerva of Belgium. Daimler contracted Dr Frederick Lanchester as their consultant for the purpose and a major re-design and refinement of Knight's design took place in great secrecy. Knight's design was made a practical proposition. When unveiled in September 1908 the new engine caused a sensation. "Suffice it to say that mushroom valves, springs and cams, and many small parts, are swept away bodily, that we have an almost perfectly spherical explosion chamber, and a cast-iron sleeve or tube as that portion of the combustion chamber in which the piston travels." The Royal Automobile Club held a special meeting to discuss the new engine, still silent but no longer "Wholly Knight". The Autocar reported on "its extraordinary combination of silence, flexibility and power." Daimler stopped making poppet-valve engines altogether. Under the observation of the Royal Automobile Club (RAC), two Daimler sleeve-valve engines were put through severe bench, road, and track tests and, upon being dismantled, showed no visible wear, earning Daimler the 1909 Dewar Trophy. Sales outran the works' ability to supply. Daimler's sleeve valve engines idle silently but they left a slight haze of oil smoke trailing behind them. These engines consumed oil at a rate of up to an Imperial gallon every 450  miles, oil being needed to lubricate the sleeves particularly when cold. However, by the standards of their day they required very little maintenance. Daimler kept their silent sleeve-valve engines until the mid-1930s. The change to poppet valves began with the Fifteen of 1933. First fatal motor accident in the United Kingdom A Daimler 6 hp was involved in the first motor accident in the UK to be recorded as having involved the death of the driver. A young engineer was killed in 1899 when the rim of a rear wheel of the car he was driving collapsed under heavy braking in a turn on a sloping road in Harrow on the Hill. The driver and his four passengers were thrown from the car. One of the passengers fractured his skull in the accident and died in hospital three days later. Under BSA (1910–1960) Acquisition by BSA Under an agreement dated 22 September 1910 the shareholders of The Daimler Motor Company Limited "merged their holdings with those of the Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA) group of companies," receiving five BSA shares in exchange for four ordinary Daimler shares and £1 5s plus accrued dividend for each £1 preference share. This deal was engineered by Dudley Docker, deputy-chairman of BSA, who was famous for previous successful business mergers. Daimler, a manufacturer of motor vehicles, had a payroll of 4,116 workmen and 418 staff immediately before the merger. BSA produced rifles, ammunition, military vehicles, bicycles, motorcycles and some BSA-branded cars. The chairman of the combined group was Edward Manville, who had been chairman of the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders – founded by Simms – since 1907. However the merger was not a great success. By 1913 Daimler had a workforce of 5,000 workers which made only 1,000 vehicles a year. Commercial Division In 1911 Daimler had plans to create The Premier Motor Omnibus Company (running Daimler buses) and appoint Frank Searle (ex London General Omnibus Company) as the managing director. However plans had to be scrapped at the last moment, and instead the Daimler managing director, Percy Martin, created the Daimler commercial division, with Frank Searle as its head. Daimler had been involved with various commercial vehicle designs for some time, and this brought vans, trucks, buses, tractors and railcars under the same division head. All vehicles used the Daimler sleeve-valve petrol engines, many using the 105 hp 15.9 L sleeve-valve straight-six engine. New product announcements followed rapidly, with the 36 hp tractor launched at the June 1911 Norwich Agricultural Show, and its larger 105 hp version (a joint project with William Foster & Co.) following in January 1912 (mainly destined for the South American market). Both used Daimler sleeve-valve engines, the larger 6-cylinder tractor having a small BSA starter engine. Main article Foster-Daimler tractor. In January 1912, new commercial vehicles included a 1-ton delivery van, lorries from 2 ton to 5 ton and a 40 hp omnibus. Buses and trucks were able to use the same chassis and engines and, as was common practice for commercial vehicles, then have bespoke bodywork fitted. The Metropolitan Electric Tramways ordering 350 double-decker buses in 1912 and engines were sold to the London General Omnibus Company (LGOC). The bus models were the 13 foot wheelbase CB (same chassis as the 4 ton truck) and the 12 foot wheelbase CC, both with 40hp engines. With the onset of WW1 CC chassis production was stopped and CB production was ramped up for trucks for the military. A half-ton delivery van was based on a 12 hp chassis similar to a car chassis. The railcar project utilised 2 of the large six-cylinder engines. Daimler had created a railcar in 1904, and though it went into service briefly it was hardly a success. The new project in 1911 was of advanced design with the drive engines charging accumulators which could be used to provide a power boost, or to drive the vehicle in the event of engine failure. The bodywork was completed in 1913. The war interrupted the testing though it fared well, although it wasn't a commercial success and in 1921 the railcar project was dropped. There was a close link between the Associated Equipment Company (AEC) and Daimler commercial division. Daimler secured sole marketing rights for any AEC chassis other than those required by AEC's owner (the London General Omnibus Company), and in exchange AEC were to fit Daimler engines in their chassis. This agreement was made in 1912, and continued until AEC war service vehicles had to have the Tylor engine fitted. In the late 1920s AEC and Daimler commercial division formed the Associated Daimler Company to build commercial vehicles. The association was dissolved in 1928 with each company retaining manufacture of its original products. Royal transport By 1914 Daimlers were used by royal families including those of Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Sweden, Japan, Spain, and Greece; "its list of owners among the British nobility read like a digest of Debrett;" the Bombay agent supplied Indian princes; the Japanese agent, Okura, handled sales in Manchuria and Korea. World War I work During World War I, the military took the normal production cars, lorries, buses and ambulances together with a scout army vehicle and engines used in ambulances, trucks, and double-decker buses. Special products included aero-engines and complete aircraft, tank and tractor engines and munitions. The first aircraft engine manufactured by Daimler was the 80 hp Gnome Monosoupape rotary. With no drawings available to them, Daimler's Gnome engines were reverse-engineered from an engine delivered to them on 7 August 1914. Daimler later built the RAF 1 and 1a air-cooled V8s, the RAF 4 and 4a V12s, the Le Rhone rotary, and the Bentley BR2 rotary alongside other manufacturers. Production of RAF 4 engines gave Daimler experience in building V12 engines which would be appreciated when they later designed and built "Double-Six" V12 engines for their large cars. Daimler trained air force mechanics at its works and its training methods became the standard for all manufacturers instructing RAF mechanics. Having its own body shop, Daimler had the woodworking ability to build complete aircraft. By the end of 1914, they had built 100 units of the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c. These were followed by the BE12 and RE8. Daimler purchased an open field beside their Radford factory, cleared the site, and made it available to the Government, who turned it into the main RAF testing ground for aircraft built in the Coventry district. Although Daimler tooled up for production of the Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.4 bomber the aircraft was cancelled due to poor performance. The last wartime aircraft produced was the Airco DH.10 Amiens bomber when they were building 80 aeroplanes a month. Before the war, Daimler had been making 105 hp engines for the Foster-Daimler tractor which was manufactured by William Foster & Co. in a joint venture with Daimler for the South American market. These tractors were developed into artillery tractors to haul howitzers. Production of the artillery tractors began on 3 December 1914. These engines were later used for the first British tanks ever built, the prototypes "Little Willie" and "Mother" and later in the production Mark I tank. One major difficulty for the tanks was the fine oil haze above their Daimler engines which the enemy quickly learned meant tanks were operating nearby if out of sight. The early tanks weighed up to 28 tons. They were all Daimler powered. The Mark IV tank - the first major improvement in design - had uprated engines delivering 125 hp; these engines had aluminium pistons and are believed to have been designed by W. O. Bentley while he was working on the Bentley BR1 rotary engine in Coventry. Daimler made more twelve-inch (305 mm) shell casings than any other private business in the country, with a peak production of more than 2000 casings a day. Each was machined from a 990 lb forging down to a finished weight of 684 lb. Civil aviation After the Armistice it was decided that Daimler Hire should extend its luxury travel services to include charter aircraft through a new enterprise, Daimler Air Hire. Following the take-over of Airco and its subsidiaries in February 1920 services included scheduled services London-Paris as well as "Taxi Planes" to "anywhere in Europe". In 1922, under the name of Daimler Airway services extended to scheduled flights London to Berlin and places between. Frank Searle, managing director of Daimler Hire and its subsidiaries moved with his deputy Humphery Wood into the new national carrier Imperial Airways at its formation on 1 April 1924. Searle and Wood and their Daimler Airway machines formed the core of Imperial Airways operations. Lanchester acquisition and badging The bulk of Daimler's shareholding in its subsidiary Daimler Hire Limited was sold to the Thomas Tilling Group in 1930. and, in January 1931, Daimler completed the purchase of The Lanchester Motor Company Limited. The new Lanchester 15/18 model introduced in 1931 was fitted with Daimler's fluid flywheel transmission. Although at first they produced separate ranges of cars with the Daimler badge appearing mainly on the larger models, by the mid-1930s the two were increasingly sharing components leading to the 1936 Lanchester 18/Daimler Light 20 differing in little except trim and grille. This marketing concept already employed with their BSA range of cars continued to the end of Lanchester and BSA car production. Some very important customers, including the Duke of York and at least two Indian princes, were supplied with big Daimler limousines with Lanchester grilles. The Daimler range was exceptionally complex in the 1930s with cars using a variety of six- and eight-cylinder engines with capacities from 1805 cc in the short lived 15 of 1934 to the 4624 cc 4.5-litre of 1936. Review of BSA management before the Second World War The divisiveness of the Daimler board did not end with the BSA takeover, but continued into the board of BSA. Despite this, Daimler prospered until the late 1920s, increasing its profits and its reputation. Along with an apprenticeship programme that was among the best in the British industry at the time, they attracted a large number of pupils out of public schools. During the First World War, Daimler's labour force grew from 4,000 to 6,000 men. The acquisition of Airco in February 1920 was a financial disaster for the BSA group. Percy Martin had been strongly in favour of the purchase, including Airco's extensive production facilities near London, and no one thought to examine Airco's true circumstances, leading to liabilities in excess of £1.3 million. All dividends were passed from 1920 to 1924. By 1930 the BSA Group's primary activities were BSA motorcycles and Daimler vehicles. However, all the quality car businesses experienced financial difficulties in the late 1920s. Daimler's situation seemed particularly serious. Sales fell sharply in 1927–1928, a period of losses ensued and no dividends were paid between 1929 and 1936. The sleeve valve engine was outdated, Daimler's production methods had become old-fashioned, they had an extravagantly large range of products. Their bankers noted the decreasing sales volume, the poor performance for price and the need for up-to-date machine tool equipment. Stratton-Instone's dominance of distribution was removed and other outlets arranged. The interests in Singer and the Daimler Hire business were sold and Lanchester bought. The in-house bodywork department was closed and by the spring of 1931 car production ceased, only commercial vehicle production and aero engine work kept Daimler in business. Laurence Pomeroy joined Damler in late 1926, at first working on commercial vehicles but from 1928 he worked at the products of the main Daimler operation. Pomeroy introduced redesigned poppet valve engines with the Daimler Fifteen in September 1932, developed new models of Daimlers, and recommended what became the September 1932 introduction of the small BSA and Lanchester Tens with poppet valve engines to help Daimler survive the depression. According to Martin, these actions rescued the business from total collapse in 1932. In 1934, the Pomeroy-designed poppet-valve Straight-Eights replaced the Daimler Double-Six sleeve-valve V12s without controversy or embarrassment, thereby being a personal triumph for Pomeroy. Management shift From before the merger of Daimler into the BSA group the core of Daimler's management was formed by chairman Edward Manville, works manager Percy Martin, and sales manager Ernest Instone, who left Daimler in 1921 to start auto dealer Stratton-Instone, and was responsible for Daimler sales in England and Wales thereafter. Instone died in 1932, Manville died in 1933, and Martin, who in January 1934 replaced Alexander Roger, Manville's replacement, as chairman, retired in 1935. In May 1936 Laurence Pomeroy was fired as managing director of Daimler with immediate effect. Daimler was not paying dividends and the 1936 BSA shareholders' meetings were stormy. Attempted solutions had included the Lanchester acquisition and the introduction of smaller cars, the lower-priced 10 hp Lanchester and its matching but six-cylinder stable-mate the Daimler Fifteen (later DB17 and DB18) introduced in the early thirties. This particular product line as the Lanchester Fourteen and Daimler Conquest was to run through to almost the very end. Edward H. W. Cooke attempted a revival and from 1937 introduced saloons with a freshness of design new to Daimler. The new products had successes in competitions and rallies. His policy was proved sound but another war, post-war austerity and yet more boardroom battles, this time in public, seemed to put an end to Daimler's once-proud business. Daimler's semi-automatic transmissions Daimler started testing the "Fluidrive" system in a bus chassis in 1928. This system, patented by Harold Sinclair in 1926, applied Hermann Föttinger's fluid flywheel to replace the clutch in the transmission systems of road vehicles. Daimler was initially interested in the fluid flywheel for use in commercial vehicles, but Martin decided to develop the system for use in passenger cars as well. Martin and Pomeroy originally intended to use the fluid flywheel with a conventional gearbox. Their consultant, Frederick Lanchester, warned them that putting a car with that combination on the market would be "a terribly big gambling risk," and an accident in March 1929 where a Double-Six 30 with a prototype transmission damaged a garage in Devon after Pomeroy left it idling while in gear may have shown the nature of this risk. By October 1930, when Daimler introduced the fluid flywheel on their new Light Double-Six for an extra £50, it was used with the self changing gearbox developed by W. G. Wilson. Martin and the Daimler Company patented their refinements to Sinclair's system in 1930. By November 1933 the combination of fluid flywheel and Wilson preselector gearbox was used in all Daimler vehicles, "ranging from 10 h.p. passenger cars to double-deck omnibuses" according to the chairman's report to the shareholders at their Annual General Meeting that month. According to the same report, "more than 11,000 vehicles" were using the transmission by that time. Daimler would continue to develop and use these transmissions until 1956, when Borg-Warner fully automatic units were offered initially as an alternative but later as standard. The Lanchester Sprite, a 1.6 L car with a unit body and Hobbs fully automatic gearbox, was shown at the British International Motor Show at Earls Court in 1954. Problems with the transmission and other systems were never fully sorted out, and the Sprite was discontinued about two years later with only thirteen being built. Second World War work During the Second World War, Daimler turned again to military production. A four-wheel-drive scout car, known to the Army as the Dingo had a 2.5-litre engine and the larger Daimler Armoured Car powered by a 4.1-litre engine and armed with a 2-pounder gun were produced, both with six-cylinder power units, fluid flywheels and epicyclic gearboxes. These military vehicles incorporated various innovative features including disc brakes on all four wheels. The Dingo was designed by parent company BSA and took the name "Dingo" from an unsuccessful competitor submitted by Alvis. During the war Daimler built more than 6,600 Scout Cars and some 2,700 Mk I and Mk II Armoured Cars. Daimler also provided tank components, including epicyclic gearboxes for 2,500 Crusader, Covenanter and Cavalier tanks. They built 74,000 Bren gun, initially at a workshop in their Coventry factory and, after the workshop was destroyed in the April 1941 raid, at a boot and shoe factory in Burton-on-Trent. Instead of building complete aircraft as they had in World War I, Daimler built aircraft components, including 50,800 Bristol radial aero-engines—Mercury, Hercules and Pegasus—with full sets of parts for 9,500 more of these engines, propeller shafts for Rolls-Royce aero-engines, and 14,356 gun-turrets for bombers including their Browning machine guns. In all, Daimler produced more than 10 million aircraft parts during the war. All this production is Daimler's alone excluding BSA's other involvements. Daimler's peak workforce, 16,000 people, was reached in this period. The original Sandy Lane plant, used as a government store, was destroyed by fire during intensive enemy bombing of Coventry, but there were by now 'shadow factories' elsewhere in the city including one located at Brown's Lane, Allesey. In 1952, Jaguar moved to Brown's Lane which became the principal Jaguar car plant for several decades. The factory has since been closed but areas retained for smaller Jaguar operations and housing together with development of industrial buildings. The Daimler Radford plant has become a large housing estate. After that war Daimler produced the Ferret armoured car, a military reconnaissance vehicle based on the innovative 4.1-litre-engined armoured car they had developed and built during the war, which has been used by over 36 countries. Postwar decline Winston Churchill campaigned for the 1945 and 1950 general elections in the DB18 two-door drophead coupé he had ordered in 1939. The government ordered new limousines for the commanding officers of the occupying forces. New straight-eights were supplied to the former colonies for the planned royal tours. The first Daimler limousines to be delivered after the war went to embassies and consulates in Europe and to the Lieutenant-Governors of Jersey and Guernsey. These were Straight-Eights built largely from pre-war stock. The first post-war model was the Eighteen, a development of the pre-war Fifteen using the Scout Car's 2.5 L engine with a new high-compression cylinder head. The model used curved glass in its side windows which were framed by chromed metal channels instead of the thick pillars that were usual at the time. Because of ongoing restrictions on steel, many of the Eighteen's body panels were made from aluminium. The first post-war Lanchester, the Ten, looked like an enlarged Ford Prefect and its body was made in the same factory, Briggs Motor Bodies on the Ford Dagenham site. Despite the austerity of the times, Daimler celebrated the 1946 golden jubilee of the founding of the business was with a luncheon at the Savoy, at which they announced the pricing of the Daimler Eighteen and the Lanchester Ten. Production of large eight-seat limousines, the six-cylinder DE 27 and the eight-cylinder DE36, began in March 1946. These were among the first series-built cars with electrically operated windows. They were also the first Daimler cars since 1909 to use bevel gear final drive instead of Daimler's usual worm final drive, and the DE 36 was the last straight-eight automobile to be manufactured in Britain. The DE 27 chassis was also used in the Daimler Ambulance with bodies by Barker and Hooper. Foreign monarchs, including the Queen of the Netherlands, the King of Thailand, The Aga Khan (and Prince Aly Khan), the Emperor of Ethiopia, the Prince of Monaco, and the King of Afghanistan, re-ordered to replenish their fleets. Then in June 1947 the purchase tax was doubled on cars costing more than £1,000, with home market sales already having been restricted to cars for "essential purposes". Petrol remained rationed; initially ten gallons a month, the monthly ration was increased to fifteen gallons in July 1946, but was reduced again late in the summer of 1947. Princess Elizabeth took her -litre coupé, a 21st -birthday gift from her father, to Malta, where her new husband was stationed. The King took delivery of a new open tourer straight-eight in March 1949. In the commodities boom caused by the 1950 Korean War Australasian woolgrowers reported the new electrically operated limousine-division to be 'just the thing' if over-heated sheepdogs licked the back of a driver's ears. A DE 27 limousine given to HRH Princess Elizabeth by the Royal Air Force as a wedding present was traded for a Rolls-Royce when its transmission failed. Until the early 1950s the British aristocracy, like British royalty, preferred Daimlers because they saw Rolls-Royces as "flashy". Rolls-Royce built the straight-eight Phantom IV solely for royalty and heads of state. Former Daimler customers, including British royals and the Aga Khan, switched to the Phantom IV, while the Emperor of Ethiopia and the King and Queen of Greece ordered coachbuilt six-cylinder Silver Wraiths. Consorts discounted Sir Bernard Docker, chairman of the parent company, took the extra responsibility of Daimler's managing director in January 1953 when James Leek was unable to continue through illness. Car buyers were still waiting for the new (Churchill) government's easing of the 'temporary' swingeing purchase tax promised in the lead up to the snap-election held during the 1951 Earl's Court Motor Show. Lady Docker told her husband to rethink his marketing policies. 3-litre Regency production was stopped. In the hope of keeping 4,000+ employed the Consort price was dropped from 4 February 1953 to the expected new tax-inclusive level. Stagnation of all the British motor industry was relieved by the reduction of purchase tax in the April 1953 budget. Daimler announced the introduction of the moderately sized Conquest in May (apparently developed in just four months from the four-cylinder Lanchester 14 or Leda with a Daimler grille). Daimler and Lanchester (there were no more BSA cars) struggled after the War, producing too many models with short runs and limited production, and frequently selling too few of each model, while Jaguar seemed to know what the public wanted and expanded rapidly. Daimler produced heavy, staid, large and small luxury cars with a stuffy, if sometimes opulent image. Jaguar produced lower quality cars at a remarkably low price, designed for enthusiasts. The BSA group's leadership of the world's motorcycle market was eventually lost to Japanese manufacturers. Lady Docker's Daimlers Sir Bernard Docker was the managing director of BSA from early in WWII, and married Norah, Lady Collins in 1949. Nora was twice-widowed and wealthy in her own right. This was her third marriage. She had originally been a successful dance hall hostess. Lady Docker took an interest in her husband's companies and became a director of Hooper, the coachbuilders. Daughter of an unsuccessful Birmingham car salesman Lady Docker could see that the Daimler cars, no longer popular with the royal family, were in danger of becoming an anachronism in the modern world. She took it upon herself to raise Daimler's profile, but in an extravagant fashion, by encouraging Sir Bernard to produce show cars. [[File:1955 Daimler DK 400 'Golden Zebra' Coupé p2.JPG|thumb|left|[[Daimler DK400|Golden Zebra]] 2-dr coupé by Hooper']] The first was the 1951 "Golden Daimler", an opulent touring limousine, in 1952, "Blue Clover", a two-door sportsmans coupe, in 1953 the "Silver Flash" based on the 3-litre Regency chassis, and in 1954 "Stardust", redolent of the "Gold Car", but based on the DK400 chassis as was what proved to be her Paris 1955 grande finale, a 2-door coupé she named "Golden Zebra", the "last straw" for the Tax Office and now on permanent display at The Hague. At the same time Lady Docker earned a reputation for having rather poor social graces when under the influence, and she and Sir Bernard were investigated for failing to correctly declare the amount of money taken out of the country on a visit to a Monte Carlo casino. Sir Bernard was instantly dumped "for absenteeism" by the Midland Bank board without waiting for the court case.Sir B. Docker Fined £50. No Serious Breach of Regulations The Times, Saturday, 28 February 1953; pg. 3; Issue 52558 Norah drew further attention. She ran up large bills and presented them to Daimler as business expenses but some items were disallowed by the Tax Office. The publicity attached to this and other social episodes told on Sir Bernard's standing as some already thought the cars too opulent and vulgar for austere post-war Britain. To compound Sir Bernard's difficulty, the royal family shifted allegiance to Rolls-Royce. By the end of 1960 all the State Daimlers had been sold and replaced by Rolls-Royces. Turner's engines Jack Sangster sold his motorcycle companies Ariel and Triumph to BSA in 1951 and joined their board. In 1956 Sangster was elected chairman, defeating Sir Bernard 6 votes to 3. After a certain amount of electioneering by the Dockers an extraordinary shareholders' meeting backed the board decision and Bernard and Norah left buying a brace of Rolls-Royces as they went registering them as ND5 and BD9. Many important European customers turned out to have been Docker friends and did not re-order Daimler cars. Sangster promptly made Edward Turner head of the automotive division which as well as Daimler and Carbodies (London Taxicab manufacturers) included Ariel, Triumph, and BSA motorcycles. Turner designed the lightweight hemi head Daimler 2.5 & 4.5 Litre V8 Engines. The small engine was used to power a production version of an apprentice's exercise, the very flexible Dart and the larger engine installed in the Majestic Major, a relabelled Majestic. Under Sangster Daimler's vehicles became a little less sober and more performance oriented. The Majestic Major proved an agile high-speed cruiser on the new motorways. Bill Boddy described the SP250 as unlikely to stir the memories of such ghosts as haunt the tree-lined avenues near Sandringham, Balmoral and Windsor Castle. The two excellent Turner V8 engines disappeared with British Leyland's first rationalisation, the larger in 1968 and the smaller a year later. Buses 1911–1973 A significant element of Daimler production was bus chassis, mostly for double deckers. Daimler had been interested in the commercial vehicle market from 1904. In 1906, it produced, using the Auto-Mixte patents of Belgian Henri Pieper, a petrol-electric vehicle and on 23 May 1906 registered Gearless Motor Omnibus Co. Limited. It was too heavy. Following the introduction of Daimler-Knight sleeve-valve engines re-designed for Daimler by Dr Frederick Lanchester Lanchester also refined the Gearless design and it re-emerged in 1910 as the KPL (Knight-Pieper-Lanchester) omnibus, an advanced integral petrol electric hybrid. The KPL bus had four-wheel brakes and steel unitary body/chassis construction. Failure to produce the KPL set bus design back twenty years. Introduction of the KPL was stopped by a patent infringement action brought by London General Omnibus's associate Tilling-Stevens in early May 1911 when just twelve KPL buses had been built. This was just after Daimler had poached LGOC's Frank Searle and announced him to be general manager of its new London bus service which would be using its new KPL type to compete directly with LGOC. Some of LGOC's vehicles used Daimler engines. With the collapse of Daimler's plans, Searle, an engineer and designer of the LGOC X-type and AEC B-type bus, instead joined Daimler's commercial vehicle department. Reverting to (before LGOC) omnibus salesman, Searle rapidly achieved some notable sales. 100 to Metropolitan Electric Tramways and 250 to LGOC's new owner, London Underground. First Searle designed for Daimler a 34-seater with gearbox transmission (the KPL used electric motors each side), very like the B-Type and it was introduced by Daimler in early 1912. The main difference from what became the AEC B-Type was the use of Daimler's sleeve-valve engine. In June 1912 what had been LGOC's manufacturing plant was hived off as AEC. Between 1913 and 1916 AEC built some Daimler models under contract and Daimler sold all AEC vehicles which were surplus to LGOC needs. After war service, now Colonel Searle, moved to Daimler Hire Limited and its involvement in aviation. The Searle models were developed after World War I, but, from 1926 to 1928, Daimler entered into a joint venture, with AEC vehicles being badged as Associated Daimler, or ADC's. Daimler's CO chassis became the main model in the 1930s, followed by a similar, but heavier, CW 'austerity' model produced during the Second World War (100 with the Gardner 5LW engine (CWG5), the rest with the AEC 7.7-litre engine – CWA6) and in post-war years, production worked through the Daimler CV to the long-running Daimler CR Fleetline, built from 1960 to 1980 (CVG5 and CVG6 had been a common type of bus in Hong Kong between 1950 and 1988 and Fleetline had also become a major type of bus in Hong Kong until 1995). Small numbers of single deck vehicles were also built. Many British bus operators bought substantial numbers of the vehicles and there were also a number built for export. The standard London double-decker bus bought from 1970 to 1978 was the Daimler Fleetline. Daimler buses were fitted with proprietary diesel engines, the majority by the Gardner company, of Eccles, Lancashire, although there were a few hundred Daimler diesels built in the 1940s & 1950s, and the Leyland O.680 was offered as an option on the Fleetline (designated CRL6) after the merger with Leyland. The bus chassis were also fitted with bodywork built by various outside contractors, as is standard in the British bus industry, so, at a casual glance, there is no real identifying feature of a Daimler bus, apart from the badges (Front engined Daimler buses retained the distinctive fluted radiator grille top). The last Daimler Fleetline was built at the traditional Daimler factory in Radford, Coventry, in 1973. After that date, the remaining buses were built at the Leyland factory in Farington, Lancashire, the final eight years of Fleetline production being badged as Leylands. The last Fleetline built was bodied by Eastern Coach Works in 1981. During that Jaguar-owned period 1960–1968, Daimler became the second-largest (after Leyland) double-decker bus manufacturer in Britain, with the "Fleetline" model. At the same time, Daimler made trucks and motorhomes. BMH merged with the Leyland Motor Corporation to give the British Leyland Motor Corporation in 1968. Production of Daimler buses in Coventry ceased in 1973 when production of its last bus product (the Daimler Fleetline) was transferred to Leyland plant in Farington. Daimler stayed within BLMC and its subsequent forms until 1982, at which point Jaguar (with Daimler) was demerged from BL as an independent manufacturer. Daimler Freeline 1951 to 1964 Daimler Fleetline 1960 to 1983 Daimler Roadliner 1962 to 1972 Owned by Jaguar Cars (1960-1966) In May 1960, the Daimler business was purchased from BSA by Jaguar Cars for £3.4 million. William Lyons was looking to expand manufacture, wanted the manufacturing facilities and had to decide what to do with the existing Daimler vehicles. Jaguar had been refused planning permission for a new factory in the area in which it wanted it to be. Daimler had shrunk to representing just 15% of BSA group turnover in 1959–1960 and BSA wished to dispose of its motoring interests. Jaguar stated publicly that it would continue production of the existing range of Daimler, that it would continue normal research and development for future Daimler products, and that it would expand Daimler markets in Britain and overseas. Jaguar put a Daimler 4.5 L V8 in a Mark X and tested it at the Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA). With an inefficient prototype exhaust, the car went up to 135 mph on MIRA's banked track, faster than the production Mark X. Jaguar discontinued the six-cylinder Majestic in 1962 and the SP250 in 1964, but Daimler's core product, the old-fashioned, heavy but fast 4.5 L V8 Majestic Major, was continued throughout Jaguar's independent ownership of Daimler. In 1961, Daimler introduced the DR450, a long-wheelbase limousine version of the Majestic Major. The DR450 also continued in production beyond the end of Jaguar's independent ownership of Daimler. 864 examples of the long-wheelbase DR450 were sold, as opposed to 1180 examples of the Majestic Major saloon. The 4.5-litre saloon and limousine were the last Daimlers not designed by Jaguar. Jaguar-based Daimlers Apart from the DR450 limousine, new models under Lyons control were the result of negotiations between Lyons and the executives of Daimler distributor Stratstone Ltd. In exchange for a small Daimler in the tradition of the Consort and the Conquest, Stratstone gave up their Volkswagen franchise. Lyons' response was the 2.5 V8, a more luxurious Jaguar Mark 2 with the V8 engine from the SP250, automatic transmission, different badges, and a grille with a fluted top. Despite the obvious Jaguar heritage, motor journalist S. C. H. Davis wrote of the car's "marked character" and claimed, "This is not a Jaguar with a Daimler radiator grille and name plate. It can stand on its own." While the 2.5 V8, later renamed the V8-250 under new ownership, became the most popular car Daimler ever produced, it was not enough to establish brand loyalty. Unlike Jaguar, whose wide range of models allowed sixty percent (60%) of new Jaguars to be sold in exchange for Jaguars, few customers traded old 2.5 V8s for new ones. Most 2.5 V8 buyers were trading up from the bigger Ford, Wolseley, or Rover cars. James Smillie, chairman of Stratstone, made Lyons aware of this situation in 1965. Lyons responded by preparing a Daimler-ised version of the upcoming Jaguar 420 and presenting it to Smillie and Stratstone managing director John Olley. Lyons asked the Stratstone executives what it should be called; Smillie suggested "Sovereign" while Olley suggested "Royale". Despite Lyons stating his preference for "Royale" at the meeting, the company decided on "Sovereign" two months later. The Sovereign was launched in October 1966 to fill the gap between the 2.5 V8 and the Majestic Major. Owned by BMH (1966–1968) Jaguar was taken over by British Motor Corporation (BMC) in 1966 and a few months later BMC was renamed British Motor Holdings (BMH).90PC OF JAGUAR TAKE BMC The Times, Wednesday, 14 September 1966; pg. 18; Issue 56736 Lyons' reasons and reactions Though Jaguar had diversified by adding, after Daimler, Guy trucks and Coventry-Climax to their group they remained dependent on Pressed Steel for bodies. Once BMC had taken control of Pressed Steel Lyons felt compelled to submit to the BMC takeover. Lyons remained anxious to see that Jaguar maintained its own identity and came to resent the association with British Leyland. He was delighted by Sir John Egan's accomplishments and by the new independence arranged in 1984. End of Daimler brand in the United States BMH's dealer network in the United States stopped importing Daimlers in 1967, claiming that there was insufficient funds in the group advertising budget to market all of BMH's brands in the US. Owned by British Leyland (1968–1984) Daimler DS420 Limousine The Daimler DS420 Limousine was introduced in 1968 to replace their Daimler DR450 and BMC's Vanden Plas Princess. The DS420 used a Jaguar Mk X unitary carcass with a restyled roof and a floor pan extended by 21 inches behind the front seat and strengthened. The extension of the Mark X unit bodies was done by Motor Panels, a subsidiary of Rubery Owen. The floor pan with mechanicals was available to coachbuilders as a rolling chassis for use with specialised bodywork, usually as hearses; Startin of Birmingham built more than 300 DS420-based hearses. Finishing from the bare metal, including final assembly and trimming the interior, was done by Vanden Plas, who had earlier made the Princess for BMC. The DS420 was withdrawn from production in 1992. From 1986 it had been the last production automobile to use the William Heynes, designed Jaguar XK6 engine. The last DS420-based Startin hearse was delivered on 9 February 1994 to Mr. Slack, a funeral director in Cheshire. Though based entirely on Jaguar components, the DS420 was unique to Daimler. These limousines, wedding and funeral cars (and the hearses made by independent coachbuilders) are now the Daimlers most remembered. Daimler Sovereign, Daimler Double-Six These were the first series of vehicles that were badge-engineered Jaguars (XJ Series), but given a more luxurious and upmarket finish. For example, the Daimler Double-Six was a Jaguar XJ-12, the Daimler badge and fluted top to its grille and boot handle being the only outward differences from the Jaguar, with more luxurious interior fittings and extra standard equipment marking it out on the inside. Chairmen One strategy to sell Daimlers was through fleet sales of Jaguars to boards of directors; Jaguar would offer to include a more prestigious Daimler for the chairman. From 1972 to 1974 the chairman of Jaguar Cars was Lofty England, who began his career in the automotive industry as a Daimler apprentice from 1927 to 1932. Fluted grilles in Continental Europe and the US The Daimler name was dropped in Europe in the 1980s, while Jaguar adopted the Sovereign designation. This caused a great demand for imported Daimler parts as "conversion kits" to convert Jaguars into Daimlers. Deducing from this "conversion kit" market that there was still a demand for Daimler cars, Jaguar Cars returned the Daimler brand to Europe at the end of 1985. Meanwhile, in the United States, Jaguar marketed the "Vanden Plas" with Daimler fluted grilles and licence plate housings. Owned by Jaguar Cars (1984–1989) If Jaguar was not to follow Daimler into becoming just another once iconic brand it needed immense amounts of capital to develop new models and build and equip new factories. This was beyond the ability of the BMH—now British Leyland—Group. It was decided to market the Jaguar business by first obtaining a separate London Stock Exchange listing to fix a price then ensuring any successful bid for all the listed shares in the whole business would be from a bidder with, or with access to, the necessary capital. That bidder proved to be Ford. 1984 produced a record group output of 36,856 cars but less than 5% were badged Daimler. Two years later Daimler's share had reached 11.5%, and would have been almost 23% if the Vanden Plas sold in the US were included. When the new XJ40 came into production in 1986, the Series III was kept in production a further six years to 1992 to carry the big Double Six engines. Owned by Ford (1989–2007) Ford Motor Company paid £1.6 billion to buy Jaguar in 1989 and with it the right to use the Daimler name. In 1992, Daimler (Ford) stopped production of the DS420 Limousine, the only model that was a little more than just a re-badged Jaguar. When Ford bought Jaguar in 1990, the British press showed a coloured computer-generated image of a proposed 'new' Daimler car – not merely a rebadged Jaguar XJ. At least one related project has been documented. Daimler remained the flagship Jaguar product in every country except the US, where the top Jaguar is known as the "XJ Vanden Plas" — Jaguar may have feared that the American market would confuse Jaguar Daimler with Daimler AG. Century Daimler's centenary was celebrated in 1996 by the production of a special edition: 100 Double Six and 100 straight-six cars, each with special paint and other special finishes including electrically adjustable rear seats. The single 2-door 4-seater convertible built in 1996 to commemorate Daimler's centenary and called Daimler Corsica was based on the Daimler Double-Six saloon. The prototype, which lacked an engine, had all the luxury features of the standard saloon but a shorter wheelbase. Painted "Seafrost" it was named after a 1931 Daimler Double-Six with a body by Corsica. Jaguar Daimler Heritage Trust have commissioned it to operate as a fully functional road-legal car and it is on display at The Collection Centre at the British Motor Museum at Gaydon, Warwickshire, England. Daimler Super V8 1997 saw the end of production of the Double Six. It was superseded by the introduction of a (Jaguar) V8 engine and the new car was given the model name Mark II XJ. The engine was the only significant change from the previous XJ40. The replacement for the Double Six was the supercharged Super V8, the supercharger to compensate for the loss of one-third of the previous engine's capacity. Daimler Super Eight After a three-year break a new Daimler, the Super Eight, was presented in July 2005. It had a new stressed aluminium monocoque/chassis-body with a 4.2 L V8 supercharged engine which produced and a torque rating of at 3500 rpm. This car was derived from the Jaguar XJ (X350). Owned by Tata (2007–present) At the end of 2007 (the formal announcement was delayed until 25 March 2008), it became generally known that India's Tata Group had completed arrangements to purchase Jaguar (including Daimler) and Land Rover. Tata had spoken to the press of plans to properly relaunch England's oldest car marque. In July 2008 Tata Group, the current owners of Jaguar and Daimler, announced they were considering transforming Daimler into "a super-luxury marque to compete directly with ultra luxury companies like Bentley and Rolls-Royce". An application to register the Daimler name as a trademark in the US was rejected in 2009. Current statusThe Daimler Company Limited, now The Daimler Motor Company Limited, is still registered as active and accounts are filed each year though it is currently marked "non-trading". Until 20 December 1988 its name was The Daimler Company Limited. Before 5 October 2007, Jaguar, while still controlled by Ford, reached agreement to permit then de-merging DaimlerChrysler to extend its use of the name Daimler''. The announcement of this agreement was delayed until the end of July 2008 and made by Jaguar's new owner, Tata. By 2007, Jaguar's use of the Daimler brand was limited to one model, the Super Eight, which was to be the last Daimler model to be produced. In 2009, Jaguar lost the right to trademark the Daimler name in the United States. See also List of Daimler cars Critchley Light car List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom The German company: Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (1890-1926) Daimler-Benz (1926-1998) after the merger with Benz Daimler AG (2007–present) after divesting Chrysler (DaimlerChrysler from 1998 to 2007) The Daimler licensee in Austria: Austro-Daimler (1899-1934) Steyr-Daimler-Puch (1934-2003) Footnotes References Notes Bibliography External links English brands Cars powered by Knight engines Automotive transmission makers Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers 1960 mergers and acquisitions Jaguar Land Rover

263142

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronove

Ronove

In demonology, Ronove is a Marquis and Great Earl of Hell, commanding twenty legions of demons. He teaches art, rhetoric, languages, and gives good and loyal servants and the favour of friends and foes. He is depicted as a monster holding a staff, without detailing his appearance. He is also described as taker of old souls; often coming to earth to harvest souls of decrepit humans and animals near death. It is also spelled Ronové and Ronwe. See also The Lesser Key of Solomon Sources S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: . Goetic demons

263144

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forneus

Forneus

In demonology, Forneus is a Great Marquis of Hell, and has twenty-nine legions of demons under his rule. He teaches Rhetoric and languages, gives men a good name, and makes them be loved by their friends and foes. He is depicted as a great sea monster. He causes men to have a good name and to have the knowledge and understanding of tongues. He makes one beloved by his foes as well as of his friends. He is partly of the Order of Thrones, and partly of that of Angels. His name seems to come from "fornus" (oven). He can take many different forms but mainly prefers his human form. See also The Lesser Key of Solomon Sources S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: . Goetic demons

263145

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foras

Foras

Foras or Forrasis, in demonology, is a powerful President of Hell, being obeyed by twenty-nine legions of demons. He teaches logic and ethics in all their branches, the virtues of all herbs and precious stones, can make a man witty, eloquent, invisible (invincible according to some authors), and live long, and can discover treasures and recover lost things. He is depicted as a strong man. His name seems to derive from Latin foras (out, outside). See also The Lesser Key of Solomon References Sources S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: . Goetic demons

263146

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forcas

Forcas

Forcas may refer to one of the two demons depicted in Ars Goetia and Pseudomonarchia Daemonum: Foras (Forcas, Forras, Forracis), President of Hell, commanding 29 legions of demons; Furcas (Forcas), Knight of Hell, commanding 20 legions of demons.

263148

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furcas

Furcas

In demonology, Furcas (also spelled Forcas) is a Knight of Hell (the rank of Knight is unique to him), and rules 20 legions of demons. He teaches Philosophy, Astronomy (Astrology to some authors), Rhetoric, Logic, Chiromancy and Pyromancy. Furcas is depicted as a strong old man with white hair and long white beard, who rides a horse while holding a sharp weapon (pitch fork). The etymology of his name may be derived from the Latin word furca, meaning fork, or from Greco-Roman also meaning a sepulchre (tomb). References Sources S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: . Goetic demons

263149

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaap

Gaap

Gaap (also Tap, Coap, Taob, Goap) is a demon that is described in demonological grimoires such as the Lesser Key of Solomon, Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, and the Munich Manual of Demonic Magic, as well as Jacques Collin de Plancy's Dictionnaire Infernal, These works describe Gaap as a prince in human form who incites love. The Munich Manual also says that "Taob" also provides medical care for women, transforms them to make it easier to get to a lover, renders them infertile, and rules twenty-five legions of spirits. The other sources instead describe Gaap as a president, giving him the power to teach philosophy and liberal arts, make others invisible, steal familiars from other magicians, make men stupid, and carry men between kingdoms; in addition to ruling sixty-six legions of demons. Johann Weyer also connects Gaap to necromancers, and states that he was first called upon by Noah's son Ham, along with Beleth. He was of the order of potestates. Gaap (or Goap) is also one of the four cardinal spirits, of the south in the Lesser Key of Solomon, the west in the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum. In the Livre des Esperitz, Gaap (as Caap) is still a prince, but appears as a knight, brings gold and silver anywhere, and rules twenty legions of spirits. Accomplished occultist Carroll "Poke" Runyon treats Gaap and Coap as different entities, although they were historically the same figure. According to Thomas Rudd, Gaap is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Ieuiah. See also Amaymon is also one of the four cardinal spirits, of the east in the Lesser Key of Solomon. Ziminiar is also one of the four cardinal spirits, of the north in the Lesser Key of Solomon. Corson is also one of the four cardinal spirits, of the west in the Lesser Key of Solomon. References Goetic demons

263151

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trencavel

Trencavel

The Trencavel was an important noble family in Languedoc between the 10th and 13th centuries. The name "Trencavel" began as a nickname and later became the family's surname. The name may derive from the Occitan words for "Nutcracker" (trenca avelana). The name was traditionally restricted in actual use only to those family members named Raymond, but the last Trencavel viscount, Raymond II, preferred the surname over his given name and adopted it for his charters. The first well-known member of the family was Ato I, viscount of Albi in the early 10th century. He was followed by five generations of viscounts of Albi in direct father-to-son descent. During this same period the family came to dominate the episcopacy of Languedoc. Each of the viscounts from Ato II on had a younger brother named Frotarius (or Frothaire) who was a bishop, be it of Albi, Cahors, or Nîmes. History In 1069, the three daughters of Peter II of Carcassonne sold the Counties of Carcassonne, Razès, the Béziers and Agde to Raymond Berengar I of Barcelona for 4,000 mancusos. By marriage to Ermengard, daughter of Peter II, Raymond Bernard, son of Bernard Ato III, became viscount of Carcassonne. He had already acquired Nîmes. By 1070, he was viscount of Béziers. His son Bernard Ato IV was viscount of Albi, Béziers, Carcassonne, Nîmes, and Razès. He thus held all the lands of the counts of Carcassonne, but never assumed the comital title. Bernard Ato was formally proclaimed viscount after the death of his mother in 1101. Division The sons of Ato IV divided their inheritance. The eldest, Roger I, took Albi, Carcassonne, and Razès, but had no children. The second, Raymond I took Béziers and Agde. The youngest, Bernard Ato V, inherited Nîmes and married Guilhelma, daughter of William VI of Montpellier. In 1132, Roger and Raymond agreed that in the event of Roger's death without heirs, Carcassonne would pass to Raymond. In 1150, Roger died and his three viscounties all passed to Raymond. After a series of disputes, the viscounty of Agde was divided between Raymond and Bernard Ato, with the latter holding the title. The elder branch of Béziers-Albi-Carcassonne-Razès and the younger of Nîmes-Agde were to remain sister separate for the remainder of the family's existence. The practical capital of the elder branch was Béziers. During this period considerable urban unrest emerged as the growing cities tried to assert their independence. Raymond I was killed during one such revolt in Béziers. There was also revolts in Carcassonne in 1107 and 1120–1124, during which four years the Trencavel were expelled from the city. The Trencavel's lands in the centre of Languedoc gave them considerable power in the 11th and 12th centuries. The counts of Barcelona and Toulouse both had large territories to the east and west, and valued a potential alliance with a family that stood in the middle. For the most part, the Trencavels allied with Barcelona against Toulouse. But as a result of the Albigensian Crusade, the last Trencavels lost their lands and titles. Decline Roger II, son of Raymond I, inherited his father's four viscounties. His sister son, Raymond Roger, also held them, but was captured after the fall of Carcassonne to the Crusaders. He died in prison at the end of 1209. Meanwhile, Bernard Ato VI, son of Bernard Ato V, ceded his rights as viscount of Nîmes and Agde to the Crusading leader Simon de Montfort in 1214. Raymond Roger's son, Raymond II, formally ceded his titles in 1210, though he reclaimed Carcassonne in 1224, only to lose it to Louis VIII of France in 1226. He continued to call himself viscount until 1247, when he once again formally ceded his rights, this time to Louis IX, and symbolically broke his vicecomital seals, after several failed attempts to recover his patrimony. He and his sons are the last known Trencavels, ruling only the castle of Limoux. Raymond II's granddaughter was living at Cesseras in 1332, but the family disappears thereafter. List of ruling members Sources Notes Occitan nobility French noble families

263153

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elemental

Elemental

An elemental is a mythic being that is described in occult and alchemical works from around the time of the European Renaissance, and particularly elaborated in the 16th century works of Paracelsus. According to Paracelsus and his subsequent followers, there are four categories of elementals, which are gnomes, undines, sylphs, and salamanders. These correspond to the four Empedoclean elements of antiquity: earth, water, air, and fire, respectively. Terms employed for beings associated with alchemical elements vary by source and gloss. History The Paracelsian concept of elementals draws from several much older traditions in mythology and religion. Common threads can be found in folklore, animism, and anthropomorphism. Examples of creatures such as the Pygmy were taken from Greek mythology. The elements of earth, water, air, and fire, were classed as the fundamental building blocks of nature. This system prevailed in the Classical world and was highly influential in medieval natural philosophy. Although Paracelsus uses these foundations and the popular preexisting names of elemental creatures, he is doing so to present new ideas which expand on his own philosophical system. The homunculus is another example of a Paracelsian idea with roots in earlier alchemical, scientific, and folklore traditions. Paracelsus In his 16th-century work A Book on Nymphs, Sylphs, Pygmies, and Salamanders, and on the Other Spirits, Paracelsus identified mythological beings as belonging to one of the four elements. Part of the Philosophia Magna, this book was first printed in 1566 after Paracelsus' death. He wrote the book to "describe the creatures that are outside the cognizance of the light of nature, how they are to be understood, what marvellous works God has created". He states that there is more bliss in describing these "divine objects" than in describing fencing, court etiquette, cavalry, and other worldly pursuits. The following is his archetypal being for each of the four elements: Gnome, being of earth Undine, being of water Sylph, being of air Salamander, being of fire The concept of elementals seems to have been conceived by Paracelsus in the 16th century, though he did not in fact use the term "elemental" or a German equivalent. He regarded them not so much as spirits but as beings between creatures and spirits, generally being invisible to mankind but having physical and commonly humanoid bodies, as well as eating, sleeping, and wearing clothes like humans. Paracelsus gave common names for the elemental types, as well as correct names, which he seems to have considered somewhat more proper, "recht namen". He also referred to them by purely German terms which are roughly equivalent to "water people," "mountain people," and so on, using all the different forms interchangeably. His fundamental classification scheme on the first page of Tractatus II of the Book on Nymphs is based on where the elementals live, and he gives the following names: Of the names he used, gnomus, undina, and sylph are all thought to have appeared first in Paracelsus' works, though undina is a fairly obvious Latin derivative from the word unda meaning "wave." In De Meteoris he referred to the elementals collectively as Sagani. He noted that undines are similar to humans in size, while sylphs are rougher, coarser, longer, and stronger. Gnomes are short, while salamanders are long, narrow, and lean. The elementals are said to be able to move through their own elements as human beings move through air. Gnomes, for example, can move through rocks, walls, and soil. Sylphs are the closest to humans in his conception because they move through air like we do, while in fire they burn, in water they drown, and in earth, they get stuck. Paracelsus states that each one stays healthy in its particular "chaos," as he terms it, but dies in the others. Paracelsus conceived human beings to be composed of three parts, an elemental body, a sidereal spirit, and an immortal divine soul. Elementals lacked this last part, the immortal soul. However, by marriage with a human being, the elemental and its offspring could gain a soul. Other authors and beliefs In his influential De Occulta Philosophia, published in 1531-33, several decades before the publication of Paracelsus' Philosophia Magna, Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa also wrote of four classes of spirits corresponding to the four elements. However, he did not give special names for the classes: "In like manner they distribute these into more orders, so as some are fiery, some watery, some aerial, some terrestrial." Agrippa did however give an extensive list of various mythological beings of this type, although without clarifying which belongs to which elemental class. Like Paracelsus, he did not use the term "elemental spirit" per se. A 1670 French satire of occult philosophy, Comte de Gabalis, was prominent in popularizing Paracelsus' theory of elementals. It particularly focused on the idea of elemental marriage discussed by Paracelsus. In the book, the titular "Count of Kabbalah" explains that members of his order (to which Paracelsus is said to belong) refrain from marriage to human beings in order to retain their freedom to bestow souls upon elementals. Comte de Gabalis used the terms sylphide and gnomide to refer to female sylphs and gnomes (often "sylphid" and "gnomid" in English translations). Male nymphs (the term used instead of the Paracelsian "undine") are said to be rare, while female salamanders are rarely seen. The Rosicrucians claimed to be able to see such elemental spirits. To be admitted to their society, it was previously necessary for the eyes to be purged with the Panacea or "Universal Medicine," a legendary alchemical substance with miraculous curative powers. As well, glass globes would be prepared with one of the four elements and for one month exposed to beams of sunlight. With these steps the initiated would see innumerable beings immediately. These beings, known as elementals, were said to be longer lived than man but ceased to exist upon death. However, if the elemental were to wed a mortal, they would become immortal. This exception seemed to work in reverse when it came to immortals, though, for if an elemental were to wed an immortal being, the immortal would gain the mortality of the elemental. One of the conditions of joining the Rosicrucians however, was a vow of chastity in hopes of marrying an elemental. Comparison with Jainism In Jainism, there is a superficially similar concept within its general cosmology, the ekendriya jiva, "one-sensed beings" with bodies (kaya) that are composed of a single element, albeit with a 5-element system (earth, water, air, fire, and plant), but these beings are actual physical objects and phenomena such as rocks, rain, fires and so on which are endowed with souls (jiva). In the Paracelsian concept, elementals are conceived more as supernatural humanoid beings which are much like human beings except for lacking souls. This is quite the opposite from the Jain conception which rather than positing soulless elementals is positing that physical objects have some type of soul and that what are commonly considered inanimate objects have this particular type of soul. Twentieth century In contemporary times there are those who study and practice rituals to invoke elementals. These include Wiccans, and followers of nature-based religions. Art and entertainment Elementals became popular characters in Romantic literature after Paracelsus. Even by the 17th century, elemental spirits after the Paracelsian concept appeared in works by John Dryden and in the Comte de Gabalis. Alexander Pope cited Comte de Gabalis as his source for elemental lore in his 1712 poem The Rape of the Lock. Fouqué's wildly popular 1811 novella Undine is one of the most influential literary examples. Another example is the DC Comics superhero team The Elementals, composed of the characters Gnome, Sylph, Salamander, and Undine. Elementals related to the four classical elements appeared in the fiction of Michael Moorcock, notably his 1972 novel Elric of Melniboné, and a variant appeared in the 1970s Dungeons and Dragons role-playing game. The concept has since been expanded on in numerous other fantasy, computer and trading card games. See also Aether Classical elements Sigil Tattva Jainism Sources References External links Collected Works of Paracelsus V. 14 at the University of Braunschweig (German) Quartets

263154

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermot%20Morgan

Dermot Morgan

Dermot John Morgan (31 March 1952 – 28 February 1998) was an Irish comedian and actor. He was best known for his role as Father Ted Crilly in the Channel 4 sitcom Father Ted. Early life Morgan was born in Dublin, the son of Hilda "Holly" (née Stokes) and artist and sculptor Donnchadh Morgan. His father died young of an aneurysm, leaving Holly with four children: Dermot, Paul, Denise, and Ruth, the last of whom died in childhood. Morgan was educated at Oatlands College in Stillorgan and University College Dublin (UCD), where he studied English literature and philosophy. During his time there, he honed his comic skills; he also fronted a country and Irish band called Big Gom and the Imbeciles, a kind of 'tribute' act to Big Tom and The Mainliners, a major Irish band of the era. After graduation, he worked as an English teacher at St Michael's College in Ailesbury Road before quitting to become a full-time performer. Career Father Trendy and The Live Mike Morgan made his debut in the media on the Morning Ireland radio show produced by Gene Martin, whose sister Ella was the mother of one of Morgan's friends. It was through this contact that Morgan made the break into radio and eventually television. Morgan came to prominence as part of the team behind the highly successful RTÉ television show The Live Mike, presented by Mike Murphy. Between 1979 and 1982 Morgan played a range of comic characters who appeared between segments of the show. Morgan lampooned the rampant Modernism within the Post-Vatican II Roman Catholic Church in Ireland by creating Father Trendy, a wishy-washy, trying-to-be-cool hippie-priest (modelled after Father Brian D'Arcy). Father Trendy always wore an Elvis-style haircut and, sometimes, a leather jacket. He was also given to drawing ludicrous parallels between religious life and secular hobbies in two-minute 'sermons' to the camera. Morgan's other characters included a bigoted GAA member who waved his hurley around while verbally attacking his pet hates. Morgan also lampooned both the Wolfe Tones and the clichés of Irish rebel songs, which he said: "always have lots of blood and guts and thunder in them". He then sang a rebel song of his own, a parody of Thomas Osborne Davis' song "A Nation Once Again", about the martyrdom of Fido, a dog who saves his IRA master by eating a hand grenade during a search of the house by the Black and Tans during the Irish War of Independence. When the dog farts and the grenade detonates, the British commented: "It must have been something he ate." The song climaxed with the words: "I hope that I shall live to see Fido an Alsatian once again." As a singer: Mr Eastwood Morgan released a comedy single, Thank You Very Very Much, Mr. Eastwood, in December 1985. It was a take on the fawning praise that internationally successful Irish boxer Barry McGuigan gave his manager, Barney Eastwood, at the end of successive bouts. The single 'featured' lines by McGuigan, Ronald Reagan, Bob Geldof and Pope John Paul II, and was the Christmas number one in the Irish singles chart in 1985. Scrap Saturday Morgan's biggest Irish broadcasting success occurred in the late 1980s on the Saturday morning radio comedy show Scrap Saturday, in which Morgan, co-scriptwriter Gerard Stembridge, Owen Roe and Pauline McLynn mocked Ireland's political, business and media establishment. The show's treatment of the relationship between the ever-controversial Taoiseach Charles Haughey and his press secretary PJ Mara proved particularly popular, with Haughey's dismissive attitude towards Mara and the latter's adoring and grovelling attitude towards his boss winning critical praise. Morgan pilloried Haughey's propensity for claiming a family connection to almost every part of Ireland he visited by referring to a famous advertisement for Harp beer, which played on the image of someone returning home and seeking friends. The Haughey/Mara "double act" became the star turn in a series that mocked both sides of the political divide, from Haughey and his advisors to opposition Fine Gael TD Michael Noonan as Limerick disk jockey "Morning Noon'an Night". When RTÉ axed the show in the early 1990s a national outcry ensued. Morgan lashed the decision, calling it "a shameless act of broadcasting cowardice and political subservience". An RTÉ spokesman said: "The show is not being axed. It's just not being continued!" In 1991, Morgan received a Jacob's Award for his contribution to Scrap Saturday from the Irish national newspaper radio critics. Father Ted Already a celebrity in Ireland, Morgan got his big break in Britain with Channel 4's Irish sitcom Father Ted, which ran for three series from 1995 to 1998. Writers Graham Linehan and Arthur Mathews auditioned many actors for the title role, but Morgan's enthusiasm won him the part. Father Ted focuses on the misadventures of three morally dubious Irish Catholic priests, whose transgressions have caused them to be exiled to the fictional Craggy Island, off the coast of County Galway. BAFTA Award In 1996, Father Ted won a BAFTA award for Best Comedy. The same year Morgan also won a British Comedy Award for Top TV Comedy Actor, and McLynn was awarded Top TV Comedy Actress. In 1999, Father Ted won a second BAFTA for Best Comedy, with Morgan being awarded Best Comedy Performance posthumously. Unreleased works Morgan said in an interview with Gay Byrne on The Late Late Show in 1996 that he was writing a screenplay entitled Miracle of the Magyars, based on a real-life incident in the 1950s when the Archbishop of Dublin forbade Catholics from attending a football match between the Republic of Ireland and Yugoslavia on religious and spiritual grounds. Yugoslavia won the match 4–1. Morgan planned to use Hungary as the opposing side to the Republic of Ireland – hence the title. At the time of his death in 1998, he had completed the screenplay but the film was never made. Morgan's first project after Father Ted was to be Re-united, a sitcom about two retired footballers sharing a flat in London. According to former manager John Fischer, Morgan was scripting the programme and planned to take the part of "an Eamon Dunphy-type who had gone on to work in journalism, but had ended up living with an old football pal". Mel Smith was in talks for the role of the friend. Morgan had been commissioned to write a drama series for the BBC. Personal life Morgan was married to Susanne Garmatz, a German woman from Hamburg, with whom he had two sons. He later began a relationship with Fiona Clarke, with whom he had another son. Although he had been raised as a Catholic and had briefly considered becoming a priest during childhood, Morgan was an atheist who was vocally critical of the Catholic Church. He supported Irish football club Shamrock Rovers FC and English football club Chelsea FC. Death Prior to location filming on the third and final series of Father Ted, Morgan underwent a mandatory medical examination in which he was found to have high blood pressure, and was prescribed medication. One day after recording the series' final episode, Morgan suffered a heart attack while hosting a dinner party at his home in London's Hounslow area, at which the Scottish musician Jim Diamond was present. He was rushed to hospital, but died soon afterwards. Morgan's sister Denise said, "He wasn't feeling great at the end of the meal and I went to the bedroom with him. He had a heart attack and I didn't recognise it. From my limited training in first aid, I wasn't sure exactly what was happening. The symptoms didn't match what the books said. I said to him 'I think you are okay' and we went back to the table. He apologised for having left the room and the next thing he just collapsed. We tried to resuscitate him but it didn't work." Father Ted co-star Frank Kelly said, "Dermot's mind was mercurial. I think he was a kind of comedic meteor. He burned himself out." Despite Morgan's atheism, a Catholic Requiem Mass was offered for him at St Therese's Church, in the South Dublin suburb of Mount Merrion. The Mass was attended by Irish president Mary McAleese, her predecessor Mary Robinson, and many of the Irish political and religious leaders who had been the targets of his satire in Scrap Saturday. His body was cremated at Glasnevin Cemetery, and his ashes were buried in the family plot at Deans Grange Cemetery. Legacy In December 2013, a documentary, Dermot Morgan – Fearless Funnyman, aired on RTÉ One. A wax statue of Morgan was erected by his sons in the national wax museum in Dublin. Appearances Television The Live Mike (1979–1982) Father Ted (1995–98) Have I Got News for You (1996–97; episodes 11.02 and 14.03) Shooting Stars (1 episode, 1996) That's Showbusiness (1 episode, 1996) Radio Scrap Saturday (1989–1991) Film Taffin (1988) The First Snow of Winter (1998, voice in UK Version) References External links 1952 births 1998 deaths 20th-century Irish male actors Alumni of University College Dublin Best Comedy Performance BAFTA Award (television) winners Burials at Deans Grange Cemetery Critics of the Catholic Church Father Ted Former Roman Catholics Irish atheists Irish comedy musicians Irish former Christians Irish impressionists (entertainers) Irish male comedians Irish male television actors Irish satirists Irish schoolteachers Irish expatriates in England Jacob's Award winners People educated at Oatlands College Radio personalities from the Republic of Ireland People from Stillorgan

263155

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleton%20%28undead%29

Skeleton (undead)

A skeleton is a type of physically manifested undead often found in fantasy, gothic and horror fiction, and mythical art. Most are human skeletons, but they can also be from any creature or race found on Earth or in the fantasy world. Myth and folklore Animated human skeletons have been used as a personification of death in Western culture since the Middle Ages, a personification perhaps influenced by the valley of the dry bones in the Book of Ezekiel. The Grim Reaper is often depicted as a hooded skeleton holding a scythe (and occasionally an hourglass), which has been attributed to Hans Holbein the Younger (1538). Death as one of the biblical horsemen of the Apocalypse has been depicted as a skeleton riding a horse. The Triumph of Death is a 1562 painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depicting an army of skeletons raiding a town and slaughtering its occupants. "The Boy Who Wanted the Willies" is a Brothers Grimm fairy tale in which a boy named Hans joins a circle of dancing skeletons. In Japanese folklore, Mekurabe are rolling skulls with eyeballs who menace Taira no Kiyomori. Mexico Figurines and images of skeletons doing routine things are common in Mexico's Day of the Dead celebration, where skulls symbolize life and their familiar circumstances invite levity. Highly-decorated sugar-skull candy has become one of the most recognizable elements of the celebrations. They are known in Mexico as calacas, a Mexican Spanish term simply meaning "skeleton". The moderns association between skeleton iconography and the Day of the Dead was inspired by La Calavera Catrina, a zinc etching created by Mexican cartoonist José Guadalupe Posada in the 1910s and published posthumously in 1930. Initially a satire of Mexican women who were ashamed of their indigenous origins and dressed imitating the French style, wearing heavy makeup to make their skin look whiter, it later became a more general symbol of vanity. During the 20th Century, the Catrina entrenched itself in the Mexican consciousness and became a national icon, often depicted in folk art. Modern fiction Literature The animated skeleton features in some Gothic fiction. One early example is in the short story "Thurnley Abbey" (1908) by Perceval Landon, originally published in his collection Raw Edges. It is reprinted in many modern anthologies, such as The 2nd Fontana Book of Great Ghost Stories and The Penguin Book of Horror Stories. An anthropomorphic depiction of Death which looks like a skeleton in a black robe appears in almost all volumes of Terry Pratchett's fantasy series Discworld, including five novels where he is the lead character. Film and TV Undead skeletons have been portrayed in fantasy films such as The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958), The Black Cauldron (1985), Army of Darkness (1992), The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993), and Corpse Bride (2005). An extended battle scene against an army of skeletal warriors was produced by animator Ray Harryhausen for Jason and the Argonauts (1963) and is remembered as one of the most sophisticated and influential visual effects sequences of its day. Games Animated skeletons have been used and portrayed extensively in fantasy role-playing games. In a tradition that goes back to the pen-and-paper game Dungeons & Dragons, the basic animated skeleton is commonly employed as a low-level undead enemy, typically easy for a player to defeat in combat. Thus, in games which make use of them, such enemies often appear relatively early in the gameplay and are considered a suitable opponent for novice players. In these contexts, they are commonly armed with medieval weapons and sometimes wear armor. Scott Baird from Screen Rant called skeletons stereotypical as a combat encounter for beginning characters, and believes that has "bled over to most video game RPGs". Some games also introduce higher-level variants with heightened resilience or combat skills as well as the ability to cast spells or communicate, as well as even less powerful versions, like tiny skeletons, which Baird ranked among the weakest monsters in D&D. He found those disappointing as "there is no fun in a combat encounter that ends with stomping on some little skeletons". In the PlayStation action-adventure series MediEvil, the protagonist is an animated skeleton knight named Sir Daniel Fortesque. In the 1999 cult classic Planescape: Torment, Morte is a character who joins the protagonist on his quest and is essentially a sentient, levitating human skull with intact eyeballs who cracks wise and fights by biting. In the 2009 Minecraft video game, skeletons appear as bow-wielding monsters that shoot players with their bows and burn under the sunlight unless they wear helmets. Sometimes the skeletons spawn with enchanted bows or a random piece of armor, or random full armor, or without bow, and they can pick melee weapons. In Halloween, they can spawn wearing carved pumpkin or Jack O' Lantern on their heads. In the video game Fable III, there exist a race of antagonal characters called "hollow men" which are featured throughout the game. A duo of animated skeleton brothers plays an important role in the role-playing game Undertale. Named Sans and Papyrus, the brothers' dialogue text is printed in Comic Sans and Papyrus fonts, respectively. Following a poll taken during their Kickstarter campaign, Larian Studios added a playable skeleton race in their 2017 RPG Divinity: Original Sin II, as well as an ancient skeletal character named Fane. Following the first game, the skeletons were re-added in Minecraft Dungeons, a 2020 dungeon crawler game released by Mojang Studios as the guards of The Nameless One, the king of the undead. In this form, they are equipped with glaives, shields, and iron helmets and chestplates, and are referred to as Skeleton Vanguards. They also spawn as their original bow-wielding form, sometimes wearing iron helmet. The Legend of Zelda series features an enemy called Stalfos, armed skeletons who serve as regular enemies and occasionally as minibosses. Variations such as Stalkids and Stalblins also appear in various games in the series. See also Death (personification) Gashadokuro Mummy (undead) Santa Muerte La Calavera Catrina Skull art The Skeleton Dance Revenant Zombie References Corporeal undead Personifications of death Skeletons Undead Supernatural legends

263156

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouzo

Ouzo

Ouzo (, ) is a dry anise-flavored aperitif that is widely consumed in Greece. It is made from rectified spirits that have undergone a process of distillation and flavoring. Its taste is similar to other anise liquors like pastis, sambuca, rakı and arak. History Ouzo has its roots in tsipouro, which is said to have been the work of a group of 14th-century monks on Mount Athos. One version of it was flavored with anise. This version eventually came to be called ouzo. Modern ouzo distillation largely took off at the beginning of the 19th century following Greek independence. The first ouzo distillery was founded in Tyrnavos in 1856 by Nikolaos Katsaros, giving birth to the famous ouzo Tyrnavou. When absinthe fell into disfavor in the early 20th century, ouzo was one of the products whose popularity rose to fill the gap; it was once called "a substitute for absinthe without the wormwood". In 1932, ouzo producers developed a method of distillation using copper stills that is now the standard method of production. One of the largest producers of ouzo today is Varvayanis (Βαρβαγιάννης), located in the town of Plomari in the southeast portion of the island of Lesbos, while in the same town Pitsiladi (Πιτσιλαδή), a variety of high-quality ouzo, is also distilled. Ouzo is usually mixed with water, becoming cloudy white, sometimes with a faint blue tinge, and served with ice cubes in a small glass. Ouzo can also be drunk straight from a shot glass. Ouzo is often served with a small plate of a variety of appetizers called mezes, usually small fresh fish, fries, olives, and feta cheese. Ouzo can be described to have a similar taste to absinthe which is licorice-like, but smoother. On October 25, 2006, Greece won the right to label ouzo as an exclusively Greek product. The European Union now recognizes ouzo, as well as the Greek drinks tsipouro and tsikoudia, as products with a Protected Designation of Origin, which prohibits European makers other than Greece and Cyprus from using the name. There is an ouzo museum in Plomari, Lesvos. Name The origin of the name "ouzo" is disputed. A popular derivation is from the Italian "uso Marsiglia"— for use in Marseille—stamped on selected silkworm cocoons exported from Tyrnavos in the 19th century. According to anecdote, this designation came to stand for "superior quality", which the spirit distilled as ouzo was thought to possess. During a visit to Thessaly in 1896, the late professor Alexander Philadelpheus delivered to us valuable information on the origins of the word "ouzo", which has come to replace the word "tsipouro". According to the professor, tsipouro gradually became ouzo after the following event: Thessaly exported fine cocoons to Marseilles during the 19th century, and in order to distinguish the product, outgoing crates would be stamped with the words "uso Marsiglia"—Italian for "to be used in Marseille". One day, the Ottoman Greek consulate physician, named Anastas (Anastasios) Bey, happened to be visiting the town of Tyrnavos and was asked to sample the local tsipouro. Upon tasting the drink, the physician immediately exclaimed: "This is uso Marsiglia, my friends"—referring to its high quality. The term subsequently spread by word of mouth, until tsipouro gradually became known as ouzo. —The Times of Thessaly, 1959 However, the major Greek dictionaries derive it from the Turkish word üzüm 'grape'. Preparation Ouzo production begins with distillation in copper stills of 96% alcohol by volume (ABV) rectified spirit. Anise is added, sometimes with other flavorings such as star anise, fennel, mastic, cardamom, coriander, cloves, and cinnamon. The flavoring ingredients are often closely guarded company "recipes", and distinguish one ouzo from another. The result is a flavored alcoholic solution known as flavored ethyl alcohol, or more commonly as ouzo yeast—μαγιά ούζου in Greek—the term for "yeast" being used by Greeks metaphorically to denote that it serves as the starting point for ouzo production. The ouzo yeast is then distilled. After several hours of distillation, a flavored distillate of approximately 80% ABV is produced. The spirit at the beginning of the distillation (heads) and end (tails) is usually removed to avoid light and heavy alcohols and aromatics. The heads and tails are usually mixed and distilled again. The product of this second distillation can be used to produce a different quality ouzo. This technique of double-distillation is used by some distillers to differentiate their products. Makers of high-quality "100% from distillation" ouzo proceed at this stage with water dilution, bringing the ouzo to its final ABV. But most producers combine the "ouzo yeast" with less expensive ethyl alcohol flavored with 0.05 percent natural anethole, before water dilution. Greek law dictates that in this case the ouzo yeast cannot be less than 20 percent of the final product. Sugar may be added before water dilution, which is done mostly with ouzo from Southern Greece. The final ABV is usually between 37.5 and 50 percent; the minimum allowed is 37.5 percent. Ouzo production itself does not involve fermentation. Aperitif drink In modern Greece, ouzeries (the suffix -erie is imported from French, like in Boulangerie or Pâtisserie) can be found in nearly all cities, towns, and villages. These café-like establishments serve ouzo with mezedes—appetizers such as octopus, salad, sardines, calamari, fried zucchini, and clams, among others. It is traditionally slowly sipped (usually mixed with water or ice) together with mezedes shared with others over a period of several hours in the early evening. In other countries, it is tradition to have ouzo in authentic Greek restaurants as an aperitif, served in a shot glass and deeply chilled before the meal is started. No water or ice is added but the drink is served very cold, enough to make some crystals form in the drink as it is served. Ouzo can colloquially be referred to as a particularly strong drink, the cause of this being its sugar content. Sugar delays ethanol absorption in the stomach, and may thus mislead drinkers into thinking that they can drink more as they do not feel tipsy early on. Then the cumulative effect of ethanol appears and the drinker becomes inebriated rather quickly. This is why it is generally considered poor form to drink ouzo "dry hammer" ("ξεροσφύρι", xerosfýri, an idiomatic expression that means "drinking alcohol without eating anything") in Greece. The presence of food, especially fats or oils, in the upper digestive system, prolongs the absorption of ethanol and ameliorates alcohol intoxication. Cocktails Ouzo is not used in many mainstream cocktail drinks, although in Cyprus it does form the basis of a cocktail called an Ouzini. Appearance Ouzo is a clear liquid. However, when water or ice is added, ouzo turns a milky-white colour. This is because anethole, the essential oil of anise, is completely soluble in alcohol at approximately 38% ABV and above, but not in water. Diluting the spirit causes it to separate, creating an emulsion whose fine droplets scatter the light. This process is called louching and is also seen while preparing absinthe. Drinks with a similar flavour Similar aperitifs include sambuca from (Italy), pastis from (France), oghi (from Armenia), rakı from Turkey, and arak (from the Levant). Its aniseed flavour is also similar to the anise-flavoured liqueur of anís (Spain) and the stronger spirits of absinthe (France and Switzerland). Aguardiente (Latin America), made from sugar cane, is also similar. The Italian drink Pallini Mistra, named after the Greek city of Mystras in the Peloponnese is a version of ouzo made in Rome that closely resembles Greek and Cypriot ouzo. In Bulgaria and North Macedonia, the similar beverage is called mastika (), a name that is shared by the distinct Greek liquor mastika which is flavored with mastic crystals. Most commonly it is consumed as an aperitif, usually poured over ice to release its aroma and flavors, and enjoyed with meze. Containing 43–45% alcohol, it has a hot taste, not unlike that of brandy, and is usually made from grapes. In North Macedonia, mastika has traditionally been made in the Strumica area. See also Greek food products Cuisine of Greece Rakı References External links OUZO: more than 600 labels of ouzo and 200 distilleries. Ouzo Barbayanni | Greek Ouzo Liquor Plomari Lesvos Greece Greek distilled drinks Cypriot cuisine Anise liqueurs and spirits Greek products with protected designation of origin

263158

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gremlin

Gremlin

A gremlin is a mischievous folkloric creature that causes malfunctions in aircraft or other machinery. Depictions of these creatures vary. Often, they are described or depicted as animals with spiky backs; large, strange eyes; and small, clawed frames featuring sharp teeth. Since World War II, different fantastical creatures have been referred to as gremlins, bearing varying degrees of resemblance to the originals. The term "gremlin", denoting a mischievous creature that sabotages aircraft, originates in Royal Air Force (RAF) slang among the British pilots stationed in Malta, the Middle East, and India in the 1920s, with the earliest recorded printed use being in a poem published in the journal Aeroplane in Malta on 10 April 1929. Later sources have sometimes claimed that the concept goes back to World War I, but there is no print evidence of this. Origins in aviation Although their origin is found in myths among airmen, claiming that the gremlins were responsible for sabotaging aircraft, John W. Hazen states that "some people" derive the name from the Old English word gremian, "to vex", while Carol Rose, in her book Spirits, Fairies, Leprechauns, and Goblins: An Encyclopedia, attributes the name to a portmanteau of Grimm's Fairy Tales and Fremlin Beer. An early reference to the gremlin is in aviator Pauline Gower's 1938 novel The ATA: Women with Wings, where Scotland is described as "gremlin country", a mystical and rugged territory where scissor-wielding gremlins cut the wires of biplanes when unsuspecting pilots were about. An article by Hubert Griffith in the servicemen's fortnightly Royal Air Force Journal dated 18 April 1942, also chronicles the appearance of gremlins, although the article states the stories had been in existence for several years, with later recollections of it having been told by Battle of Britain Spitfire pilots as early as 1940. This concept of gremlins was popularized during World War II among airmen of the UK's RAF units, in particular the men of the high-altitude Photographic Reconnaissance Units (PRU) of RAF Benson, RAF Wick and RAF St Eval. The flight crews blamed gremlins for otherwise inexplicable accidents which sometimes occurred during their flights. Gremlins were also thought at one point to have enemy sympathies, but investigations revealed that enemy aircraft had similar and equally inexplicable mechanical problems. As such, gremlins were portrayed as being equal opportunity tricksters, taking no sides in the conflict, and acting out their mischief from their own self-interest. In reality, the gremlins were a form of "buck passing" or deflecting blame. This led folklorist John Hazen to note that "the gremlin has been looked on as new phenomenon, a product of the machine age – the age of air". Some experts believe this form of "passing the buck" was important to the morale of pilots. Author and historian Marlin Bressi stated, "Gremlins, while imaginary, played a very important role to the airmen of the Royal Air Force. Gremlin tales helped build morale among pilots, which, in turn, helped them repel the Luftwaffe invasion during the Battle of Britain during the summer of 1940. The war may have had a very different outcome if the R.A.F. pilots had lost their morale and allowed Germany's plans for Operation Sea Lion (the planned invasion of the U.K.) to develop. In a way, it could be argued that gremlins, troublesome as they were, ultimately helped the Allies win the war." Bressi also noted: "Morale among the R.A.F. pilots would have suffered if they pointed the finger of blame at each other. It was far better to make the scapegoat a fantastic and comical creature than another member of your own squadron." Examples of Gremlins can be seen in the IBCC Digital Archive. Popularization by Roald Dahl Author Roald Dahl is credited with getting the gremlins known outside the Royal Air Force. He would have been familiar with the myth, having carried out his military service in 80 Squadron of the Royal Air Force in the Middle East. Dahl had his own experience in an accidental crash-landing in the Western Desert. In January 1942, he was transferred to Washington, D.C. as Assistant Air attaché at the British Embassy. It was there that he wrote his first children's novel, The Gremlins, in which "Gremlins" were tiny men who lived on RAF fighters. In the same novel, Dahl called the wives of gremlins "Fifinellas", their male children "Widgets", and their female children "Flibbertigibbets". Dahl showed the finished manuscript to Sidney Bernstein, the head of the British Information Service, who came up with the idea to send it to Walt Disney. The manuscript arrived in Disney's hands in July 1942, and he considered using it as material for a live action/animated full-length feature film, offering Dahl a contract. The film project was changed to an animated feature and entered pre-production, with characters "roughed out" and storyboards created. Disney managed to have the story published in the December 1942 issue of Cosmopolitan Magazine. At Dahl's urging, in early 1943, a revised version of the story, again titled The Gremlins, was published as a picture book by Random House. (It was later updated and re-published in 2006 by Dark Horse Comics). The 1943 publication of The Gremlins by Random House consisted of 50,000 copies, with Dahl ordering 50 copies for himself as promotional material for himself and the upcoming film, handing them out to everyone he knew, including the British ambassador in Washington Lord Halifax, and the US First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt who read it to her grandchildren. The book was considered an international success with 30,000 more sold in Australia but initial efforts to reprint the book were precluded by a wartime paper shortage. Reviewed in major publications, Dahl was considered a writer-of-note and his appearances in Hollywood to follow up with the film project were met with notices in Hedda Hopper's columns. The film project was reduced to an animated short and eventually cancelled in August 1943, when copyright and RAF rights could not be resolved. But thanks mainly to Disney, the story had its share of publicity, which helped in introducing the concept to a wider audience. Issues #33–41 of Walt Disney's Comics and Stories published between June 1943 and February 1944 contained a nine-episode series of short silent stories featuring a Gremlin Gus as their star. The first was drawn by Vivie Risto, and the rest of them by Walt Kelly. This served as their introduction to the comic book audience as they are human gremlins who lived in their own village as little flying human people. While Roald Dahl was famous for making gremlins known worldwide, many returning Air Servicemen swear they saw creatures tinkering with their equipment. One crewman swore he saw one before an engine malfunction that caused his B-25 Mitchell bomber to rapidly lose altitude, forcing the aircraft to return to base. Folklorist Hazen likewise offers his own alleged eyewitness testimony of these creatures, which appeared in an academically praised and peer-reviewed publication, describing an occasion he found "a parted cable which bore obvious tooth marks in spite of the fact that the break occurred in a most inaccessible part of the plane". At this point, Hazen states he heard "a gruff voice" demand, "How many times must you be told to obey orders and not tackle jobs you aren't qualified for? – This is how it should be done." Upon which Hazen heard a "musical twang" and another cable was parted. Critics of this idea state that the stress of combat and the dizzying heights caused such hallucinations, often believed to be a coping mechanism of the mind to help explain the many problems aircraft faced whilst in combat. In media Film In 1943, Bob Clampett directed Falling Hare, a Merrie Melodies cartoon featuring Bugs Bunny. With Roald Dahl's book and Walt Disney's proposed film being the inspiration, this short has been one of the early Gremlin stories shown to cinema audiences in which multiple gremlins featured, even with Falling Hare only having one gremlin giving Bugs grief. It features Bugs Bunny in conflict with a gremlin at an airfield. The Bugs Bunny cartoon was followed in 1944 by Russian Rhapsody, another Merrie Melodies short showing Russian gremlins sabotaging an aircraft piloted by Adolf Hitler. The gremlin in "Falling Hare" even has a color scheme that reflects one that was used on U.S. Army Air Forces training aircraft of the time, using dark blue (as on such an aircraft's fuselage) and a deep orange-yellow color (as used on the wings and tail surfaces). The 1944 romantic comedy Johnny Doesn't Live Here Any More had animated gremlins with an uncredited Mel Blanc providing the voice. The 1981 animated film Heavy Metal contains a segment titled "B-17" had creatures referred to as "Gremlins" in which the sole surviving pilot of a battle weary aircraft is ravaged by the reanimated corpses of his fellow crew. The 1984 film Gremlins, produced by Steven Spielberg and directed by Joe Dante, is loosely inspired by Roald Dahl's characters, featuring evil and destructive monsters which mutate from small furry creatures. Murray Futterman, a WWII veteran calls the creatures "Real Gremlins". A sequel followed in 1990, called Gremlins 2: The New Batch. In Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa (2008), Alex sees Mort (mistaking him for a gremlin) messing with the engine and falling off the aircraft. In The movie franchise Hotel Transylvania the gremlins are seen as guests of the monster hotel built by Count Dracula. A batlike gremlin appears in the 2020 film Shadow in the Cloud. The film starts with a depiction of gremlins in WW II circa posters as a creative scapegoat used by airmen to deflect negligence in maintenance and responsibility towards their aircraft. However, once the protagonist boards the aircraft, she finds out that an actual gremlin is sabotaging the aircraft. The creature in its physical appearance looked like a cross between an overgrown bat with large razor-sharp claws and a monkey with a long tail adept at accessing machinery, nuts and bolts. The gremlin sabotages the aircraft by taking out an engine, attacking the protagonist in the lower turret and another crew member in the upper turret. Television A 1963 episode of The Twilight Zone, "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet" directed by Richard Donner and based on the short story of the same name by Richard Matheson, featured a gremlin attacking an airliner. In the original television episode, the gremlin appears as a stocky ape-like creature which inspects the aircraft's wing with the curiosity of an animal and then proceeds to damage the wing. William Shatner plays a passenger named Bob Wilson (just recovered from a mental breakdown) who sees the Gremlin (played by Nick Cravat) on the aircraft's wing as he tries to warn the stewardess and other airplane staff members about it. Upon realizing that the Gremlin's work on the wing would cause the airplane to crash, Bob steals a sleeping police officer's revolver and causes a breach in the auxiliary exit to shoot the Gremlin. When the airplane lands, Bob is removed from the aircraft on a stretcher in a straitjacket. Rod Serling narrates that Bob Wilson's conviction will not be long as the final scene shows that the Gremlin left evidence of Bob's claim in the form of a damaged wing. This episode was remade as a segment of Twilight Zone: The Movie (1983) with John Lithgow playing a similar character called John Valentine. John Valentine (who is depicted as suffering from aviatophobia) sees the gremlin and tries to warn the people on the airplane as the gremlin intentionally damages the wing. After stealing an airplane security guard's gun and breaking open his window, John opens fire on the gremlin which defends itself by breaking the gun and flies away when the airplane nears the airport. John is taken away in a straitjacket as the maintenance crew discovers unexplained damages and claw marks on the wing to the surprise of the passengers nearby. The 1975 Doctor Who serial "The Ark In Space" is set on a supposedly impervious, yet now decrepit space station. In it, the Doctor's companion Harry Sullivan explains the station's fate, saying, "Gremlins can get into everything, old girl. First law of the sea." A gremlin makes an appearance in a Halloween special of The Simpsons (original airdate: 28 October 1993) paralleling The Twilight Zones "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet", (the segment is even named "Terror at 5½ Feet") in which the gremlin (with its vocal effects provided by Frank Welker) attempts to destroy the wheel of Bart Simpson's school bus. Bart ends up using a flare gun to get it off the bus only for it land on Ned Flanders' car. Bart is taken away in a straitjacket and later sees the gremlin outside of the ambulance holding Ned's severed but still living head. The Eek! The Cat episode "The Eex Files" (original airdate: 5 November 1994) starts out with Eek on an aircraft beside a man claiming to see someone outside on the wing. Of course when he looks, there is no one there. At the end of the episode, Eek is dropped off by an alien on the wing of the aircraft and meets the gremlin, then promptly offers to help him "find his wallet". The final scene shows the half-crazed man looking out the window and "spazzing out" when he sees them both tearing up the wing. A Tiny Toon Adventures special titled "Night Ghoulery" (original airdate: 25 August 1995) includes a spoof of Night Gallery, with Babs Bunny presenting in Rod Serling's style. It has a segment named "Gremlin on a Wing", which parodies "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet", with Plucky Duck in William Shatner's place, accompanied by Hamton J. Pig in an aircraft, and a gremlin similar to that which appeared in the Bugs Bunny short Falling Hare. In the Johnny Bravo episode "The Man Who Cried Clown" (original airdate: 8 December 1997), which is part of "The Zone Where Normal Things Don't Happen Very Often," Johnny sees an evil clown on the wing of the aircraft and is having difficulty convincing the pilots and anyone of its existence which even included a cameo by someone resembling William Shatner who quotes "Oh no you don't! I'm not falling for that again." When he catches and beats up the clown in the airplane's restroom, he is confronted and informed by a pilot that the clown in question and another clown were needed to keep the aircraft in balance during flight. The pilots and some nearby people beat up Johnny and make him take the incapacitated clown's place. At the end of episode 9 of Muppets Tonight, Miss Piggy sees a gremlin outside of her airplane window. William Shatner is seen sitting next to her as he claims that he has been complaining about the gremlin for years, but nobody does anything about it. The Real Ghostbusters episode "Don't Forget the Motor City" (original airdate: 3 December 1987) has the Ghostbusters traveling to Detroit to battle gremlins who are sabotaging a factory run by a fictional analog of General Motors. In Danger Mouse, the gremlin is illogical. In Cast a Deadly Spell, a 1991 HBO television film, gremlins are said to have been "brought back from the pacific" to the United States in World War II and are seen damaging cars and houses. A gremlin appears in the Are You Afraid of the Dark? episode "The Tale of the Curious Camera" (March 2, 1994). After getting his portraits back from the basketball team, Matt finds that he didn't show up in the photos. To make it up to him, the photographer gives him an antique camera because it has apparently chosen him. Matt soon learns that anything or anyone he takes a picture of will have something bad happen to it whether he wants it or not. It is discovered that a gremlin inhabits the camera. In the Thomas The Tank Engine & Friends episode "Gordon and the Gremlin" (original airdate: 16 September 1998), gremlins are blamed for Gordon's fire not lighting and problems with the turntable. In the Extreme Ghostbusters episode "Grease" (original airdate: 25 September 1997), the Ghostbusters have to capture a gremlin that was damaging New York's machines, while at the same time the FBI believes them to be the cause of the sabotage. In So Weird (1999), the gang stop at a town called "Simplicity" where gremlins are destroying everything mechanical. In the fiction of the episode, gremlins were the original inventors and were upset with humans for taking their technology for granted. The gremlins are only appeased by the gang re-writing a locally based tech conglomerate's jingle to be about simple living. In the cartoon series American Dragon: Jake Long, the episode "Jake Takes the Cake" (original airdate: 26 August 2005) features gremlins who mess with any type of mechanical devices and cause a lot of trouble until they are put to sleep and captured. The 2013 entry for the Kamen Rider series titled Kamen Rider Wizard features a Phantom known as Gremlin. His human name Sora is Japanese for "sky" fitting his namesake's origin of being involved in flight malfunctions. He also wields a pair of swords modeled after scissor blades, reflecting the claims that gremlins use scissors to cut wires in biplanes. The Ben 10 alien, Juryrigg, looks very similar to a Gremlin. Juryrigg's main powers consists of being able to break down and modify machines. The 2010 Super Sentai series, Tensou Sentai Goseiger featured the antagonistic cryptid-themed monster group Yuumajuu. One of their members is the bratty Waraikozou of the Gremlin, who has the secondary theme of flea. Like stereotypical gremlins, Waraikozou is capable of destroying mechanical objects. Radio On 21 December 1942, CBS aired "Gremlins", a whimsical story written by Lucille Fletcher, on an episode of Orson Welles's patriotic radio series Ceiling Unlimited. U.S. Army Air Forces officers discuss their experiences with the irritating creatures, and conclude that feeding them transforms them into an asset rather than a hindrance to aviation. On Dec 3, 2021, Tasgeel Podcasts produced a Gremlin influenced short audio film "The Trip". Music On Robert Calvert's 1974 concept album Captain Lockheed and the Starfighters, the Song of the Gremlin and the Song of the Gremlin Part 2, describing how gremlins sabotage all man's attempts to fly. Literature The 1947 novel by Roald Dahl, Sometime Never: A Fable for Supermen, had the Gremlin leader as the protagonist of the second half of the book. He is described as leading an ancient nature-loving race away from the wars between humans and trying to let his race survive the destruction of humanity. The first issue of the Monster in My Pocket comic book series has Gremlin prominently among the good monsters. He is able to create fire from his fingertips. In the second through fourth issues, this power is given to Hobgoblin, and Gremlin is never seen again. In the micro-series of the My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic comic book series, there is a species called Cloud Gremlins, which cast a spell in Ponyville. In the end, they are defeated by Rainbow Dash. In the ‘’Paladin Prophecy’’, the main character is attacked while on a plane, by creatures he calls “gremlins” Card games In the 2016 released set of Magic: The Gathering, Kaladesh, Gremlins (portrayed as four-armed, human-sized mammals with anteater-like snouts) appear on the technologically progressive plane and destroy the artifacts and inventions of many people on the plane, and are considered a public safety hazard. This was the first gremlin card in Magic since Gremlin Mine printed in the 2011 set New Phyrexia. Prior to that, the earliest gremlin card was Phyrexian Gremlins printed in the 1994 Antiquities set. In the Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game, the cards "Feral Imp", "Des Feral Imp" and "King of the Feral Imps" are based on gremlins. Video games In 1984, the video game Gremlins was released as a tie-in to the film of the same name. In 1990, Gremlins 2: The New Batch was released, also a tie-in to the film of the same name. Gremlin is the boss of stage four, "Towering Catastrophe" in the 1992 Monster in My Pocket video game. He rides a crane hook onto the screen, throws three round objects, then rides off the screen, and can come and go from the top or either sioe of the screen. Apart from always initially appearing from the top, his direction is randomised. He himself must be dodged, although the hook itself passes behind the player. If the final blow is struck while the crane is in motion, Gremlin is flung farther off the crane. As with the other bosses, he seeks a rematch near the end of the game. Othar than the playable characters, Vampire and the Monster (of Frankenstein), the 14 monsters explicitly established as on the "good" side led by Vampire (which was said to outnumber the "evil" side led by Warlock) are all omitted from the game except for Gremlin and Hobgoblin, who both appear as enemies to the good monsters in stage four. In the Epic Mickey games (2010, 2012), Gremlins assist Mickey Mouse after he releases them. In Spiral Knights (2011), Gremlins serve as an enemy faction and multiple different enemies. In the 2016 video game XCOM 2, the Specialist soldier class utilises drones called GREMLINs for a range of actions in combat. In Pokémon Sword and Shield, Impidimp and Morgrem are Dark/Fairy type Pokémon based on the gremlin. In Dwarf Fortress, the gremlins are small intelligent underground creatures that can cause great disorder by playing with levers. Other gremlins Gremlin Americanus: A Scrap Book Collection of Gremlins by artist and pilot Eric Sloane may predate the Roald Dahl publication. Published in 1942 by B.F. Jay & Co, the central characters are characterized as "pixies of the air" and are friends of both RAF and USAAF pilots. The gremlins are mischievous and give pilots a great deal of trouble, but they have never been known to cause fatal accidents but can be blamed for any untoward incident or "bonehead play", qualities that endear them to all flyers. See also Ssh! Gremlins by H.W. illustrated by Ronald Neighbour ("Neb" of the Daily Maily), published by H. W. John Crowther Publication, England, in 1942. This booklet featured numerous humorous illustrations describing the gremlins as whimsical but essentially friendly folk. According to "H.W.", contrary to some reports, gremlins are a universal phenomenon and by no means only the friends of flying men. See also Fearsome critters folkloric creatures that arose contemporaneously with that of the gremlin Femlins, female gremlins featured in Playboy magazine Fifinella Froggy the Gremlin, a character on an American TV show in the 1950s Gremlin Graphics, the now defunct video games studio Gremlins, a 1984 dark fantasy black comedy monster film, and the 1990 science fantasy comedy-drama sequel Gremlins 2: The New Batch Jinn Machine Elf AMC Gremlin References Notes Citations Bibliography Carson, Rick. Taming Your Gremlin: A Surprisingly Simple Method for Getting Out of Your Own Way. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Quill, 2003. . Conant, Jennet. The Irregulars: Roald Dahl and the British Spy Ring in Wartime Washington. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008. . Dahl, Flight Lieutenant Roald. The Gremlins: The Lost Walt Disney Production. Milwaukie, Oregon: Dark Horse Books, 2006 (reprint and updated copy of 1943 original publication). . De La Rue, Keith. "Gremlins." delarue.net, updated 23 August 2004. Retrieved: 11 October 2010. Donald, Graeme. Sticklers, Sideburns & Bikinis: The Military Origins of Everyday Words and Phrases. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2008. . Gower, Pauline. The ATA: Women with Wings. London: J. Long, limited, 1938. "Gremlins." Fantastic Fiction, a British online book site/biography source. Retrieved: 11 October 2010. Hazen, John W. "Gremlin." Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1972. . Merry, Lois K. Women Military Pilots of World War II: A History with Biographies of American, British, Russian and German Aviators. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company Inc., 2010. . Sasser, Sanford, Jr., ed. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aviation and Space, Volume 6. Los Angeles: A.F.E. Press, 1971, p. 1094. . Smith, Ronald L. Horror Stars on Radio: The Broadcast Histories of 29 Chilling Hollywood Voices. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company Inc., 2010'. . Sturrock, Donald. Storyteller: The Authorized Biography of Roald Dahl. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010. . External links Gremlins, Sea Bats, Fobbits and Goanna Farms An Article on Wartime Myths Gremlins at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. The Inducks' list of Gremlin appearances in Disney comics English folklore English legendary creatures Fairies Fantasy creatures Goblins In-jokes Technology folklore

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsipouro

Tsipouro

Tsipouro () is an un-aged brandy from Greece and in particular Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, and the island of Crete (where Cretans call it tsikoudia). Tsipouro is a strong distilled spirit containing 40–45% alcohol by volume and is produced from either the pomace (the residue of the wine press) or from the wine after the grapes and juice have been separated. It comes in two types, pure and anise-flavoured, and is usually not aged in barrels, although barrel aged versions do exist. History According to tradition, the first production of tsipouro was the work of Greek Orthodox monks in the 14th century on Mount Athos in Macedonia, Greece. Method of production Ripe dark grapes are passed through crusher/destemmers. The mass is left to settle for a few days, just enough to get fermentation started. Formerly, wine would be collected and only the solid residue would be used for tsipouro in an attempt to get the most out of the plant. Today some producers use the whole of the pulp, without taking out the must for wine production. This results to a superior product, called “apostagma”, sold at approximately twice the price of tsipouro. In the next stage, the mass is fed into distillation units, where temperature and pressure are closely monitored. The first and last distinct batches (the 'head' and the 'tail') are discarded. Only the intermediate batch (known as the 'heart') is kept to make tsipouro. This process is repeated to obtain doubly distilled tsipouro, which might be superior. Finally, the distillate is left to settle and mature in stainless steel tanks. It can also be aged in wooden barrels to give 'aged tsipouro', a relatively new beverage that can be compared to whiskey. Serving Depending on the time of year, tsipouro is used either as refreshment or as a hot beverage, and depending on the time of day, it replaces the drinking of coffee or wine. Tsipouro and tsikoudia, like all alcoholic beverages in Greece, are generally consumed at social gatherings. According to Greek manufacturers, the best way to enjoy tsipouro is straight from the freezer. Some people prefer to either dilute with water or add ice. Tsipouro is usually served in shot glasses with meze (a small side dish) such as nuts, dried fruit, raisins, cheese, olives, seafood, meat, halva, or paximadi (rusk). In 2006, Greece filed a request for tsipouro to be recognized as a PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) product, which was granted later that year. Relation to ouzo Anise-flavoured tsipouro is also available, produced especially in Macedonia and Thessaly. Anise-flavoured tsipouro and ouzo have almost identical taste but vary enormously in their method of production. The alcohol used to produce ouzo is 96% ABV rectified spirit (ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin) and therefore does not retain the flavours of the primary distilled products, whereas the lower degree of distillation of tsipouro allows it to retain the aroma of the pomace. See also Tsikoudia (Crete) Komovica (North Macedonia/Serbia) Rakiya (Bulgaria) Raki (Turkey) Arak (Lebanon) Grappa (Italy) Orujo (Spain) Zivania (Cyprus) References External links CHRIS Distillery Est. 1895 with production of traditional Greek Tsipouro like Tsipouro the Simple and Stathopoulos Tsipouro Anise liqueurs and spirits Pomace brandies Greek distilled drinks Byzantine cuisine Greek Macedonian cuisine Greek inventions Greek products with protected designation of origin

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat%20128

Fiat 128

The Fiat 128 is a transverse front-engine, front wheel drive small family car manufactured and marketed by Fiat from 1969 to 1985 as a two- or four-door sedan, three- or five-door station wagon as well as two- or three-door coupé. The 128 running gear and engine, reconfigured for a mid-engined layout, were used in the Fiat X1/9 sports car. Named European Car of the Year in 1970, over three million were manufactured. The 128 was noted for its innovative front-engine, front-drive layout, which enabled an especially large interior volume and ultimately became the predominant front engine/drive layout, worldwide. In 2012 automotive journalist Jamie Kitman called the 128 a "pioneer of the small cars we drive today." Development With engineering by Dante Giacosa and engine design by Aurelio Lampredi, the 128 was noted for its relatively roomy passenger and cargo volume — enabled by a breakthrough innovation to the front-engine, front-drive layout which became the layout "adopted by virtually every other manufacturer in the world" for front-wheel drive. Giorgetto Giugiaro noted that in 1970, Volkswagen completely dismantled a Fiat 128, recognizing it as the reference for their forthcoming Golf. Fiat promoted in its advertising that mechanical features consumed only 20% of the vehicle's volume and that Enzo Ferrari drove a 128 as his personal vehicle." Fiat built an entirely new plant in Rivalta, north-west of Turin, specifically to manufacture the new 128. In all, 2,776,000 sedans and wagons were built in Italy, plus 330,800 coupés and 3Ps. Front drive innovation Front-wheel drive had previously been introduced to small, inexpensive cars by BMC, firstly with the Mini in 1959 and then with the larger 1100/1300 series in 1962. During the mid-1960s, Fiat set about designing a new car to compete with the latter. The BMC design of Alec Issigonis had the transmission and engine sharing a single oil sump — despite disparate lubricating requirements — and located the engine's radiator at the side of the engine, away from the flow of fresh air and drawing heated rather than cool air over the engine. The layout often required the engine to be removed to service the clutch. The Fiat 128's arrangement had numerous differences. As engineered by Dante Giacosa, it featured a transverse-mounted engine with unequal-length drive shafts and an innovative clutch release mechanism — an arrangement which Fiat had strategically tested on a previous production model for a full five years, the Primula from its less market-critical subsidiary, Autobianchi. The layout enabled the engine and gearbox to be located side by side without sharing lubricating fluid while orienting an electrically controlled cooling fan toward fresh air flow. By using the Primula as a test-bed, Fiat was able to sufficiently resolve the layout's disadvantages, including uneven side-to-side power transmission, uneven tire wear and potential torque steer, the tendency for the power of the engine alone to steer the car under heavy acceleration. The compact and efficient layout — a transversely-mounted engine with transmission mounted beside the engine driving the front wheels through an offset final-drive and unequal-length driveshafts — subsequently became common with competitors and arguably an industry standard. The layout was sufficiently flexible that Fiat reconfigured the 128 drive-train as a mid-engined layout for the Fiat X1/9. Design The all new 1.1 litre Fiat SOHC engine, engineered by noted engine designer Aurelio Lampredi, featured an iron block mated to an aluminum head along with a belt-driven single overhead camshaft producing 49 hp. The 128 was styled similarly to the 124 and 125 and featured rack-and-pinion steering, Pirelli 145R13 Cinturato or 145R13 Michelin ZX radial tyres, front disc brakes, independent rear suspension with a transverse leaf spring, and a strut-type front suspension with integral anti-roll bar. Initially, the 128 was available as a two-door or four-door sedan. At the 1970 Turin Motor Show a three-door station wagon model called "Familiare" was added to the line-up. The car was only available with a 1116 cc engine on launch, though the two-door-only 128 Rally edition launched in 1971 used a 1,290 cc unit. Also in 1971, the Sport Coupé, an all-new coupé body on a shortened 128 platform, was unveiled at the Turin Show. On launch it was available with both existing 128 engines. The 128 range underwent a facelift in 1972, featuring a revised grille. 1974 saw the launch of the 128 Special, which used the Rally engine in a four-door sedan body. In 1975 the 128 3P (3-door) Berlinetta replaced the Sport Coupé. In 1976, the range received new bumpers, rectangular headlights, tail lights and dashboard as well as modifications to the engines. At this time, the wagon was also renamed the "Panorama". Production of all 128s except that of the base 1,100 cc powered model ended in 1979 after the introduction of the Fiat Ritmo/Strada in 1978. In 1980 production of the small three-door station wagon Panorama was dropped from the range and 128 production finally ended in 1985. Road test The British "Motor" magazine tested a Fiat 128 in April 1970, shortly after its UK launch. The car had a top speed of and accelerated from 0- in 15.5 seconds. An "overall" fuel consumption of was recorded. This put it fractionally behind the contemporary Morris 1300 on maximum speed but usefully ahead on acceleration. The two were closely matched on fuel economy, where both were outrun by the Ford Escort 1300 Super also included in the comparison, here in its four-door version. The Fiat's £876 manufacturer's recommended price was not too far above the Morris 1300's £830 and the Escort's £838. The testers commended the Fiat's interior space and excellent performance. Wind and road noise were low, but engine noise was not. The 128 went on sale on the UK market around the same time as the Rootes Group's Hillman Avenger, and shortly before the Vauxhall Viva was transformed from its second generation to its third generation. The market leader in this sector at the time was British Leyland's 1100 and 1300 range. Sales of imported cars in the UK were in the first stages of a sharp rise in their market share at the beginning of the 1970s, with Fiat and likes of Datsun, Renault and Volkswagen being particularly successful. Variants 128 Rally The Fiat 128 Rally was a sporty, 1.3-litre-engined version of the 128 two-door saloon, introduced at the 41st Geneva Motor Show in March 1971 and produced up to 1974. Compared to the regular 128's 1,116 cc four-cylinder engine, the Rally's type 128 AR engine had been bored out 6 mm to 86 mm—while keeping the 55.5 mm stroke—for a total displacement of . There was also a twin-choke Weber 32 DMTR carburettor, revised valve timing and a slightly higher 8.9:1 compression ratio. Engine output was now at 6,200 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm. Other mechanical improvements were the addition of a vacuum servo, an engine protection plate, better tyres, new gear ratios for the 4-speed transmission, a higher capacity battery and an alternator in place of the dynamo). A number of exterior features set the Rally apart from other 128s. At the front there was a black radiator grille, carrying the round Fiat emblem typical of the marque's sports cars; split bumpers joined by a tubular steel bar; and halogen headlamps and bumper-mounted auxiliary lamps. At the rear dual round tail lamps replaced the square ones found on the regular two-door 128. "Rally" badging on the bonnet and boot lid and stripes along the side sills completed the sporty look. The interior was upholstered in black leatherette, and the dashboard housed upgraded instrumentation: a tachometer was standard equipment, and water temperature and oil pressure gauges took the place of the ashtray, relocated to the centre console. Front sports seats with headrests and a two-spoke sports steering wheel replaced the standard items. In October 1972 Fiat introduced several updates to the whole 128 saloon and Familiare range, including the 128 Rally. In particular the Rally received new upholstery (leatherette with cloth seat centres) and a black plastic protection to the front bumper tube. 128 Coupé and 3P At the 53rd Turin Motor Show of November 1971 Fiat introduced the 128 Coupé, also called 128 Sport, a 2-door, 4-seat coupé based on a shortened 128 chassis. It was produced until 1975, but in latter years sales were dropping off considerably in favor of the mid-engined X1/9. Since Fiat had to pay a commission to Bertone for every X1/9, it was decided to provide some internal competition in the form of the updated hatchback coupé 128 3P. "3P" stands for Tre Porte, or "Three Doors" in Italian. The 128 3P used the existing design back to the B-pillar, with some detail modifications to the grille and headlights. The Coupé version was available with two different engines (1100 and 1300) and in two different trim levels (S and SL) for a total of four variants. In its base "S" trim, the coupé had single rectangular front headlamps, and wheels and hubcaps from the saloon. The pricier "SL" (for Sport Lusso) was distinguished by quadruple round headlamps, a specific grille, steel sport wheels without hubcaps, chromed window surround trim, door handles and fuel cap, and black decorative striping along the sills and across the tail panel. Inside it gained a leatherette-wrapped steering wheels, perforated leatherette upholstery, extended four-gauge instrumentation, loop pile carpeting and black headlining. The two engines were developed from the units found in the 128 saloon and 128 Rally respectively, and both were fitted with twin-choke carburettors and a two-piece exhaust manifold. The 1100 (1,116 cc) produced at 6,000 rpm and at 3,800 rpm, while the 1300 (1,290 cc) produced at 6,600 rpm and at 3,800 rpm. Top speed was over and respectively. Compared with the 128 saloon, the coupé had a shorter wheelbase (at ), and tracks 20 mm wider at the front and 45 mm narrower at the rear. Suspension was the familiar all-independent 128 layout—save for the front anti-roll bar, which had been replaced by radius rods. The braking system consisted of discs at the front and drums at the rear; it was made more efficient by fitting smaller diameter front discs and the front and the vacuum servo first used on the 128 Rally. Licensed production Argentina In Argentina, the 128 was produced from 1971 to 1990 by Sevel Argentina as a four-door sedan or five-door wagon, the Fiat 128 Rural, the latter unique to Argentina. Several trims and versions were available, including the IAVA sport series. In 1983 the car received a facelift with new headlamps, tail lamps and front grille, which was marketed as the Fiat Super Europa. Colombia In Colombia, the Fiat 128 was produced by "Compañía Colombiana Automotriz" in Bogota between 1973 - 1980. Was only offered as a 4-door sedan. Between 1973 and 1978, it was marketed as Fiat 128 L, with a 1,300 cm³ 4-cylinder engine. Starting in 1978, a version with a 1,100-cubic-centimeter engine called the Fiat 128 San Remo was also offered. Egypt Until 2009, CKD kits from Zastava were manufactured by Egypt's Nasr car company as the Nasr 128. Poland The 128 was manufactured in Poland as the Zastava 1100p by FSO between 1971 to 1976. Serbia The 128 formed the basis of the Zastava 128 (four-door sedan) and Zastava 101 (three-door and five-door hatchbacks) ranges of cars manufactured by the "Zastava Automobili" company in Serbia. The 128-based Zastavas were available throughout Europe in the '70s. In Britain, three variants were offered: a three-door hatchback (Zastava Yugo 311/313), four-door saloon (Zastava Yugo 411/413) and a five-door hatchback (Zastava Yugo 511/513). As one of the Serbian automaker's most affordable models, production ended in November 2008. South Africa For South Africa only, a pickup version was also developed by Fiat in Italy to contest that country's popular "bakkie" category. It entered production in 1978. It could handle a payload of and was based on the station wagon model. As per dealer demands, the fuel tank was enlarged to . Spain In Spain, SEAT manufactured its own version of a 128 berlinetta coupé, called SEAT 128 3P. it was available with two engine options, the 1.2L and the more powerful and well-known 1430 engine from the SEAT 1430. Was marketed as "Three Times SEAT" in order to underline its triple combination ability of sportiness, versatility and design. The SEAT 128 never enjoyed great commercial success, however. 31,893 128s were made between 1976 - 1980. Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, the Fiat 128 was manufactured by the Upali Motor Company until 1978. This car was commonly known as the Upali Fiat in Sri Lanka. Cars developed from FIAT 128 Fiat X1/9 The Fiat X1/9 is a two-seater mid-engined sports car designed by Bertone and manufactured by Fiat from 1972–1982 and subsequently by Bertone from 1982–1989. Designed around the Fiat SOHC engine and transmission from the front wheel drive Fiat 128, the X1/9 relocated the transverse drive train and suspension assembly from the front of the 128 to the rear of the passenger cabin, directly in front of the rear axle, giving a mid-engined layout. With a transverse engine and gearbox in a mid-mounted, rear-wheel drive configuration, the X1/9 was noted for its balanced handling. Moretti 128 The Moretti Motor Company of Turin, Italy produced the Fiat 128-based Moretti 128 in coupé and cabriolet versions. Built in the plants of via Monginevro in a semi-handmade way (these custom-built cars were not assembled in a chain) and in a very limited number (less than a hundred), it cost about 1,500,000 lire in 1969. The interior was very neat and could be customized with many accessories (sports steering wheel, electric windows, leather upholstery ...). In 1975, the two models underwent a slight restyling (new black bumpers, wider) and equipped with the 1290 cm3 - 60 HP engine of the contemporary Special sedan. Sears XDH-1 Sears XDH-1 is an experimental electric car built for Sears, Roebuck and Company by their DieHard battery supplier Johnson Controls (Globe Union) in 1977 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of its DieHard brand of car batteries. The car was a Fiat 128 Coupé equipped with 20 DieHard (12-inch deep cycle marine) batteries, and an electric motor. References Notes Bibliography External links Fiat 128 enthusiasts' site Zastava Skala 55 presentation (in Serbian) 128 1970s cars 1980s cars Cars introduced in 1969 Compact cars Sedans Station wagons Coupés

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counts%20and%20dukes%20of%20Anjou

Counts and dukes of Anjou

The Count of Anjou was the ruler of the County of Anjou, first granted by Charles the Bald in the 9th century to Robert the Strong. Ingelger and his son, Fulk the Red, were viscounts until Fulk assumed the title of Count of Anjou. The Robertians and their Capetian successors were distracted by wars with the Vikings and other concerns and were unable to recover the county until the reign of Philip II Augustus, more than 270 years later. Ingelger's male line ended with Geoffrey II. Subsequent counts of Anjou were descended from Geoffrey's sister Ermengarde and Count Geoffrey II of Gâtinais. Their agnatic descendants, who included the Angevin kings of England, continued to hold these titles and property until the French monarchy gained control of the area. In 1360, the Count was raised to a Dukedom becoming known as Duke of Anjou, subsequently leading the Duchy of Anjou. The title was held by Philip V of Spain before his accession in 1700. Since then, some Spanish legitimist claimants to the French throne have borne the title even to the present day, as does a nephew of the Orléanist pretender. Counts of Anjou Robertian dynasty The Robertians, or Robertian dynasty, comprised: House of Ingelger House of Anjou In 1204, Anjou was lost to king Philip II of France. It was re-granted as an appanage for Louis VIII's son John, who died in 1232 at the age of thirteen, and then to Louis's youngest son, Charles, later the first Angevin king of Sicily. Capetian dynasty House of Anjou In 1290, Margaret married Charles of Valois, the younger brother of king Philip IV of France. He became Count of Anjou in her right. House of Valois In 1328, Philip of Valois ascended the French throne and became King Philip VI. At this time, the counties of Anjou, Maine, and Valois returned to the royal domain. On 26 April 1332, Philip granted the county to his eldest son, John: Following John's ascension to the throne as John II in 1350, the title again returned to the royal domain. Dukes of Anjou The dukes contributed greatly to social reform in the 1300s and 1400s. First creation: 1360–1481 – House of Valois-Anjou On the death of Charles IV, Anjou returned to the royal domain. Second creation: 1515–1531 – House of Savoy Third creation: 1566–1576 – House of Valois-Angoulême Fourth creation: 1576–1584 – House of Valois-Angoulême Fifth creation: 1608–1626 – House of Bourbon Sixth creation: 1640–1660 – House of Orléans Seventh creation: 1668–1671 – House of Bourbon 8th creation: 1672 – House of Bourbon 9th creation: 1683–1700 – House of Bourbon 10th creation: 1710–1715 – House of Bourbon 11th creation: 1730–1733 – House of Bourbon 12th creation: 1755–1795 – House of Bourbon Dukes of Anjou without legal creation 1883–present – House of Bourbon After the death of Henry, Count of Chambord, only the descendants of Philip V of Spain remained of the male line of Louis XIV. The most senior of these, the Carlist claimant to the Spanish throne, became the eldest of the Capetians. Some of them used the courtesy title of Duke of Anjou, as shown below: At the death of Alfonso Carlos in 1936, the Capetian seniority passed to the exiled King of Spain, Alfonso XIII. In 1941, Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia, succeeded his father Alfonso XIII (Alphonse I of France according to the Legitimists) as the heir male of Louis XIV and therefore as the Legitimist claimant to the French throne. He then adopted the title of Duke of Anjou. 2004–present – House of Bourbon-Orléans On December 8, 2004, Henry, Count of Paris, Duke of France, Orléanist Pretender to the French throne, granted the title Duke of Anjou to his nephew Charles-Philippe. Because he doesn't recognize his cousin's courtesy title, in his view the title was available since 1824. References External links Titles of the counts and dukes of Anjou in the 11-16th centuries from contemporary documents with bibliography Anjou Anjou Anjou

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s%20Daily

People's Daily

The People's Daily () is the largest newspaper group in China. The paper is an official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). In addition to its main Chinese-language edition, it has editions in English, Spanish, Japanese, French, Russian, Portuguese, Arabic, Tibetan, Kazakh, Uyghur, Zhuang, Mongolian, and other minority languages in China. The newspaper provides direct information on the policies and viewpoints of the CCP. History The paper was established on 15 June 1948 and was published in Pingshan, Hebei, until its offices were moved to Beijing in March 1949. Ever since its founding, the People's Daily has been under direct control of the Party's top leadership. Deng Tuo and Wu Lengxi served as editor-in-chief from 1948 to 1958 and 1958–1966, respectively, but the paper was in fact controlled by Mao's personal secretary Hu Qiaomu. During the Cultural Revolution, the People's Daily was one of the few sources of information from which either foreigners or Chinese could figure out what the Chinese government was doing or planning to do. During this period, an editorial in the People's Daily would be considered an authoritative statement of government policy, was studied and reproduced nationwide, and analyzed globally for insight into the Party's plans. The most important editorials were jointly published by People's Daily, People's Liberation Army Daily and Red Flag, from 1967 to 1978, so called "Two newspapers and one journal" (), directly representing the highest voice of CCP. Newspaper articles in the People's Daily are often not read for content so much as placement. A large number of articles devoted to a political figure, idea, or geographic focus is often taken as a sign that the mentioned official or subject is rising. Editorials in the People's Daily are regarded both by foreign observers and Chinese readers as authoritative statements of official government policy. Distinction is made between editorials, commentaries, and opinions. Although all must be government approved, they differ sharply on the amount of official authoritativeness they contain by design – from the top. For example, although an opinion piece is unlikely to contain views opposed to those of the government, it may express a viewpoint, or it may contain a debate that is under consideration and reflect only the opinions of the writer: an editorial trial balloon to assess internal public opinion. By contrast, an official editorial, which is rather infrequent, means that the government has reached a final decision on an issue. During the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, the People's Daily editorial of 26 April, which condemned "unlawful parades and demonstrations," marked a significant moment in the newspaper's history. The editorial increased tension between the government and protesters, and top CCP leaders argued about whether to revise it. An article that compiles the most important editorials was released by the People's Daily during the student movement. Since the mid-1990s, the People's Daily has faced a decline of governmental subsidies combined with increasing competition from international news sources and Chinese tabloids. As part of its effort to modernize, it began an online edition in 1997, and the web bulletin forums, such as the Strengthening Nation Forum in the Chinese edition. An analysis of the wording of all the issues of the People's Daily from 1995 to 2000 was used in the writing of The First Series of Standardized Forms of Words with Non-standardized Variant Forms. The People's Daily is also responsible for the publication of the nationalistic tabloid Global Times. In 2020, the United States Department of State designated the People's Daily a foreign mission, thereby requiring it to disclose more information about its operations in the U.S. Overseas editions The People's Daily also maintains a multilingual internet presence; and established the People's Daily Online (人民网) in 1997. The website of People's Daily includes content in Arabic, French, Russian, Spanish, Japanese and English. In comparison to the original Chinese version, the foreign-language version offers less in-depth discussion of domestic policies and affairs and more editorials about China's foreign policies and motives. The People's Daily in recent years has been expanding its publicity on overseas social media platforms. It has millions of followers on its Facebook page and its accounts on Instagram, Twitter and YouTube. However, an unusually high proportion of its followers are virtually inactive and are likely to be fake users, according to a study by the Committee to Protect Journalists. According to a 2021 report by The Washington Post, the People's Daily Online provides overseas public opinion monitoring outside of the Great Firewall for various police, judicial, and CCP organizations. Writing practices The People's Daily employs "writing task groups" () of various staff to compose editorial pieces to signal the significance of certain pieces or their relationship to the official views of the CCP. These groups are published under "signatures" (i.e., pen names: 署名 shǔmíng) that may correspond with the topic and weight of a piece, and what specific government or CCP body is backing it, often with homophonous references to their purpose. List of presidents Zhang Panshi () Hu Qiaomu () Fan Changjiang () Deng Tuo () Wu Lengxi () Chen Boda () Hu Jiwei () Qin Chuan () Qian Liren () Gao Di () Shao Huaze () Bai Keming () Xu Zhongtian () Wang Chen () Zhang Yannong () Yang Zhengwu () Li Baoshan () Tuo Zhen () Reactions A 2013 study of the People's Daily coverage of the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak reported that it "regurgitated triumph and optimism" and framed the outbreak as an "opportunity to showcase China's scientific achievements, and the strength of national spirits, as well as the wise leadership of the party and effective measures to protect the lives of ordinary citizens." In February 2020, the People's Daily published an article stating that the novel coronavirus "did not necessarily originate in China." In March 2020, the online insert of the People's Daily, distributed by The Daily Telegraph, published an article stating that Traditional Chinese medicine "helps fight coronavirus." In May 2020, the People's Daily stated that the novel coronavirus had "multiple origins." In November 2020, the People's Daily published a claim that COVID-19 was "imported" into China. In January 2021, the People's Daily inaccurately attributed deaths in Norway to the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. In 2021, ProPublica and The New York Times reported that the People's Daily was part of a coordinated state propaganda campaign to deny human rights abuses in Xinjiang. The Onion parody In November 2012, American satire news site The Onion published an article where it declared North Korean leader Kim Jong-un as the 'Sexiest Man Alive for 2012'. In response, People's Daily republished the article with 55-page photo spread of Kim and tongue-in-cheek quotes from The Onion. They later took down the article from its site after realizing that it was a parody. The Onion later updated their article about Kim stating; "For more coverage on The Onion's Sexiest Man Alive 2012, Kim Jong-Un, please visit our friends at the People's Daily in China, a proud Communist subsidiary of The Onion, Inc." See also Xinhua News Agency and China News Service Xinwen Lianbo, the news program of China Central Television Global Times Media of the People's Republic of China People's Daily during the 1989 Student Movement Qiushi Reference News Rodong Sinmun, North Korean counterpart Strengthening Nation Forum Yang Gang, deputy chief editor who committed suicide during the Anti-Rightist Movement References Further reading Merrill, John C. and Harold A. Fisher. The world's great dailies: profiles of fifty newspapers (1980) pp 264–72 Wu Guoguang. "Command Communication: The Politics of Editorial Formulation in the People's Daily". China Quarterly 137:194–211. External links Chinese-language newspapers (Simplified Chinese) Communism in China Chinese Communist Party newspapers Multilingual news services Newspapers published in Beijing Publications established in 1948 1948 establishments in China Daily newspapers published in China Chinese propaganda organisations Disinformation operations

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhua%20News%20Agency

Xinhua News Agency

Xinhua News Agency (English pronunciation: ), or New China News Agency, is the official state press agency of the People's Republic of China. Xinhua is the largest and most influential media organization in China, as well as the largest news agency as measured by the number of worldwide correspondents. Xinhua is a ministry-level institution subordinate to the State Council and is the highest ranking state media organ in the country alongside the People's Daily. He Ping, President of Xinhua, is a member of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. Xinhua is a publisher as well as a news agency, and it operates more than 170 foreign news bureaus worldwide and maintains 31 bureaus in China, one for each province, autonomous region and directly administered municipality, in addition to a military bureau. Xinhua is a major channel for the distribution of information related to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and Chinese central government. Its headquarters in Beijing are strategically located close to the central government's headquarters at Zhongnanhai. Xinhua tailors its pro-CCP message to the nuances of each audience. Xinhua has faced criticism for spreading state propaganda, disinformation, and for criticizing people, groups, or movements critical of the CCP. History The predecessor to Xinhua was the Red China News Agency (), founded in November 1931 as the Chinese Soviet Zone of Ruijin, Jiangxi province. It mostly republished news from its rival Central News Agency (CNA) for party and army officials. The agency got its name of Xinhua in November 1935, at the end of the Long March, in which the Chinese Red Army retreated from Jiangxi to Shaanxi. By the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Xinhua's Reference News translated CNA news from the Kuomintang, and also international news from agencies like TASS and Havas. Xinhua first started using letterpress printing in 1940. During the Pacific War the agency developed overseas broadcasting capabilities and established its first overseas branches. It began broadcasting to foreign countries in English from 1944. In 1949, Xinhua followed a subscription model instead of its previous limited distribution model. In the direct aftermath of the Chinese Civil War, the agency represented the People's Republic of China in countries and territories with which it had no diplomatic representation, such as British Hong Kong. In 1956, Xinhua began reporting on anti-Marxist and other opinions critical of the CCP. In 1957, Xinhua switched from a journal format to a newspaper format. The agency was described by media scholars as the "eyes and tongue" of the CCP, observing what is important for the masses and passing on the information. A former Xinhua director, Zheng Tao, noted that the agency was a bridge between the CCP, the government and the people, communicating both the demands of the people and the policies of the Party. In 2018, the United States Department of Justice directed Xinhua's U.S. branch to register as a foreign agent under the Foreign Agents Registration Act. In 2020, the United States Department of State designated Xinhua and other state-owned media outlets a foreign mission. Xinhua registered in the US as a foreign agent in May 2021. Reach Xinhua delivers its news across the world in eight languages: Chinese, English, Spanish, French, Russian, Portuguese, Arabic, and Japanese, as well as news pictures and other kinds of news. It has made contracts to exchange news and news pictures with more than eighty foreign news agencies or political news departments. Xinhua is also responsible for handling, and in some cases, censoring reports from foreign media destined for release in China. By 2010, the agency had begun converging its news and electronic media coverage and increasing its English coverage through its wire service. The same year, Xinhua acquired commercial real estate on New York's Times Square and started an English-language satellite news network. Xinhua has paid other media outlets such as The Washington Post, The New York Times, and The Wall Street Journal to carry its inserts, branded as "China Watch" or "China Focus". Internal media The Chinese media's internal publication system, in which certain journals are published exclusively for government and party officials, provides information and analysis which are not generally available to the public. The State values these internal reports because they contain much of China's most sensitive, controversial, and high-quality investigative journalism. Xinhua produces reports for the "internal" journals. Informed observers note that journalists generally like to write for the internal publications because they can write less polemical and more comprehensive stories without making the omissions of unwelcome details commonly made in the media directed to the general public. The internal reports, written from a large number of countries, typically consist of in-depth analyses of international situations and domestic attitudes towards regional issues and perceptions of China. The Chinese government's internal media publication system follows a strict hierarchical pattern designed to facilitate party control. A publication called Reference News—which includes translated articles from abroad as well as news and commentary by Xinhua reporters—is delivered by Xinhua personnel, rather than by the national mail system, to officials at the working level and above. A three-to-ten-page report called Internal Reference (Neibu Cankao) is distributed to officials at the ministerial level and higher. One example was the first reports on the SARS outbreak by Xinhua which only government officials were allowed to see. The most classified Xinhua internal reports are issued to the top dozen or so party and government officials. Headquarters and regional sectors The Xinhua headquarters is located in Beijing, strategically located in close proximity to Zhongnanhai, which houses the headquarters of the CCP, the General Secretary, and the State Council. The Xinhua News Agency established its first overseas affiliate in 1947 in London, with Samuel Chinque as publisher. Now it distributes its news in Asia, Middle East, Latin America, Africa through more than 150 affiliates, with regional headquarters in Hong Kong, Moscow, Cairo, Brussels, New York City, Mexico City and Nairobi, plus a United Nations bureau. Hong Kong Xinhua's branch in Hong Kong was not just a press office, but served as the de facto embassy of the PRC in the territory when it was under British administration. It was named a news agency under the special historic conditions before the territory's sovereignty was transferred from Britain to China, because the People's Republic did not recognise British sovereignty over the colony, and could not set up a consulate on what it considered to be its soil. Despite its unofficial status, the directors of the Xinhua Hong Kong Branch included high-ranking former diplomats such as Zhou Nan, former Ambassador to the United Nations and Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, who later negotiated the Sino-British Joint Declaration on the future of Hong Kong. His predecessor, Xu Jiatun, was also vice-chairman of the Hong Kong Basic Law Drafting Committee, before fleeing to the United States in response to the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, where he went into exile. It was authorized by the special administrative region government to continue to represent the central government after 1997, and it was renamed "The Liaison Office of the Central People's Government in the Hong Kong SAR" on January 18, 2000, retaining branch chief Jiang Enzhu as inaugural director. The State Council appointed Gao Siren (高祀仁) as the director in August 2002. After the Liaison Office was established, Xinhua Agency was reconstituted as a bona fide press office. Cairo Xinhua opened its Middle East Regional Bureau in Cairo, Egypt in 1985. In November 2005, Xinhua News Agency opened a new office building alongside the Nile River in Cairo's Maadi district. Vientiane Xinhua opened a bureau in Vientiane, Laos, in 2010. Criticisms and controversies Overview Political bias, censorship, and disinformation In 2005, Reporters Without Borders called Xinhua "The World's Biggest Propaganda Machine", pointing out that Xinhua's president held the rank of a minister in the government. The report stated that the news agency was "at the heart of censorship and disinformation put in place" by the government. In a 2007 interview with The Times of India, then Xinhua president Tian Congming affirmed the problem of "historical setbacks and popular perceptions". Newsweek criticized Xinhua as "being best known for its blind spots" regarding controversial news in China, although the article acknowledges that "Xinhua's spin diminishes when the news doesn't involve China". During the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak, Xinhua was slow to release reports of the incident to the public. However, its reporting in the aftermath of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake was seen as more transparent and credible as Xinhua journalists operated more freely. After the Beijing Television Cultural Center fire, the vice president of the CCP's China International Publishing Group stated that quantity of media exposure would not necessarily help perceptions of China. Rather, he said, media should focus on emphasizing Chinese culture "to convey the message that China is a friend, not an enemy". Xinhua has criticized perceived foreign media bias and inaccurate reporting, citing an incident during the 2008 Tibetan unrest when media outlets used scenes of Nepalese police arresting Tibetan protesters as evidence of Chinese state brutality with commentary from CNN'''s Jack Cafferty calling the Chinese "goons and thugs". CNN later apologized for the comments, but Richard Spencer of The Sunday Telegraph defended what he conceded was "biased" media coverage of the riots, blaming Chinese authorities for not allowing foreign media access to Tibet during the conflict. Historical events 1968 industrial espionage allegations During the May 68 events in France, Xinhua and PRC embassy press office staff were reported to exploit civil unrest to undertake industrial espionage at French factories. 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre Xinhua staff struggled to find the "right line" to use in covering the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. Although more cautious than People's Daily in its treatment of sensitive topics during that period – such as how to commemorate reformist CCP leader Hu Yaobang's April 1989 death and then ongoing demonstrations in Beijing and elsewhere – Xinhua gave some favorable coverage to demonstrators and intellectuals supportive of the movement. Conflict between journalists and top editors over the censorship of stories about the Tiananmen Square crackdown lasted for several days after the military's dispersal of demonstrators on June 4, with some journalists going on strike and demonstrating inside the agency's Beijing headquarters. Government oversight of the media increased after the protests – top editors at the agency's bureaux in Hong Kong and Macau were replaced with appointees who were pro-Beijing. 2011 Bob Dechert emails In 2011, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reported on leaked "flirtatious" emails sent by Canada's Conservative MP and parliamentary secretary to the minister of justice Bob Dechert to married Xinhua Toronto correspondent Shi Rong, which prompted both sexual harassment and security breach allegations from opposition members. Dechert apologized, while the Chinese embassy in Ottawa responded to the matter by saying that it is "in no position to comment on domestic disputes and privacy of those involved." 2012 Mark Bourrie resignation and espionage allegations In 2012, Xinhua's Ottawa correspondent Mark Bourrie resigned after Ottawa bureau chief Zhang Dacheng allegedly requested him to report on the Dalai Lama for Xinhua's internal media, which Bourrie felt amounted to gathering intelligence for China. Zhang denied the allegation, telling the Canadian Press that Xinhua's policy is to "cover public events by public means" and his bureau's job is to cover news events and file the stories to Xinhua's editing rooms, who would then decide which stories would be published. Bourrie, who had a press pass providing him access to the Parliament of Canada, had previously tried to consult the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) in 2009 on the matter of writing for Xinhua, but was ignored by CSIS. 2014 Song Bin suicide On 7 pm, April 28, 2014, vice-president and chief editor of Xinhua's Anhui provincial branch Song Bin was found dead in the newsroom in an apparent suicide. The author for some award-winning reports on social and economic issues, the senior editor had been battling depression before ending his own life. 2017 Doklam standoff During the 2017 China–India border standoff, Xinhua's English-language new media program The Spark released a satirical video named the "Seven Sins of India" on August 16, 2017, in which presenter Di'er Wang spoke of Indians having "thick skin" and "pretending to sleep" on the matter of the border dispute. Wang stated that India was physically threatening Bhutan, and compared India to a "robber who breaks into a house and does not leave". An actor in the video portraying "India" with a turban, beard and accent sparked allegations of racism and anti-Indian sentiment. The video was criticised on Twitter and by Indian and Western media. 2018 Devumi allegations In January 2018, The New York Times published an investigative report on social media promotions, alleging that the US-based company Devumi was providing "Twitter followers and retweets to celebrities, businesses and anyone who wants to appear more popular or exert influence online." The article alleged an unnamed Xinhua editor bought "hundreds of thousands of followers and retweets on Twitter". 2019 Hong Kong protests In 2019, Xinhua was criticized for perceived bias in its portrayal of the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests as violent and illegitimate, which led Twitter to ban it and other state-sponsored media outlets from ad purchases. Cooperation with Associated Press In November 2018, Xinhua News Agency and the Associated Press (AP) of the United States signed an memorandum of understanding to expand cooperation. Some lawmakers in the US congress asked the AP to release the text of its memorandum of understanding with Xinhua. In response, AP spokeswoman Lauren Easton told The Washington Post'' that AP's agreement with Xinhua is to allow it to operate inside China and has no bearing on AP's independence. Xinhua has no access to AP's sensitive information and no influence over AP's editorial decisions. COVID-19 In 2020, Xinhua was one of several Chinese state media agencies reported to have been disseminating propaganda, targeted advertisements and social media posts, and news that showed the Chinese government in a better light. See also Central News Agency (Taiwan) China News Service China Securities Journal China Xinhua News Network Corporation Media of the People's Republic of China Propaganda in China References External links Xinhua News Xicheng District Chinese propaganda organisations Communist propaganda Disinformation operations State media Organizations listed as a U. S. foreign agent

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgetto%20Giugiaro

Giorgetto Giugiaro

Giorgetto Giugiaro (; born 7 August 1938) is an Italian automobile designer. He has worked on supercars and popular everyday vehicles. He was born in Garessio, Cuneo, Piedmont. Giugiaro was named Car Designer of the Century in 1999 and inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 2002. In addition to cars, Giugiaro designed camera bodies for Nikon, Navigation promenade of Porto Santo Stefano, in 1983, the organ of the cathedral of Lausanne (composed of about 7000 pipes) in 2003, and developed a new pasta shape "Marille" He also designed several watch models for Seiko, mainly racing chronographs, as well as office furniture for Okamura Corporation. Influence on design Giugiaro's earliest cars, like the Alfa Romeo 105/115 Series Coupés, often featured tastefully arched and curving shapes, such as the De Tomaso Mangusta, Iso Grifo, and Maserati Ghibli. In the late 1960s, Giugiaro made increasingly angular designs, culminating in the "folded paper" era of the 1970s. Straight-lined designs such as the BMW M1, Lotus Esprit S1, and Maserati Bora followed. He changed again during the early 1990s, introducing a more curvy approach with his Lamborghini Calà, Maserati Spyder, and Ferrari GG50. Giugiaro is widely known for the DMC DeLorean. Notable in its own time for its unique design, the car was prominently featured in the Hollywood blockbuster movie series Back to the Future. His most commercially successful design was the Volkswagen Golf Mk1. In 1976, Giugiaro explored a new taxi concept with the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA), which became the 1978 Lancia Megagamma concept. Fiat had commissioned the 1978 concept from Italdesign, asking for a 4-meter length, high roof, high h-point, multi-functional, monospace design — but ultimately decided the concept was too risky for production. In retrospect the Megagamma was more influential than successful in its own right. It is considered the "conceptual birth mother of the MPV/minivan movement." it influenced design of such mini/compact MPVs as the Nissan Prairie (1981) and Fiat 500L (2011), as well as larger MPVs, including the Renault Espace and Chrysler minivans. Studios Fiat Special Vehicle Design (1955–1959) Bertone (1959–1965) Ghia (1965–1967) Italdesign Giugiaro (1967–2015) GFG Style (2015–present) Designs Automobiles Cameras Nikon EM (1979) F3 (1980) L35AF (1983) F4 (1988) F5 (1996) D2H (2003) F6 (2004) D3 (2007) D4 (2012) D800 (2012) Df (2013) Firearms Handguns Beretta Neos (2002) Submachine Guns Beretta CX4 Storm (2003) Shotguns Beretta UGB25 Xcel Trap 12 GA, 30" Motorcycles Ducati 860 GT (1975) Suzuki RE5 (1975) Derbi Predator (1998) TOMOS A5 Colibri (1989) moped MV Agusta 350 Ipotesi Other FIAT Ferroviaria/Alstom ETR 460 (Pendolino) train (1993) Nitro concept tractor (2013) Seiko Speedmaster wrist watch (1986) Seiko Macchina Sportiva wrist watch Deutz Fahr 6215 RCSHIFT tractor (2017) Navigation promenade of Porto Santo Stefano, Tuscany Marille Pasta Organ of the cathedral of Lausanne, composed of about 7000 pipes Molten basketball design (official game ball for FIBA) References External links Italdesign, Giugiaro's industrial design group Coachbuild.com Encyclopedia: Giugiaro Bontempi Minstrel BMW Designers An overview of automotive designers working for BMW. 1938 births Living people People from Garessio Italian automobile designers Italian industrial designers Italdesign Giugiaro Lamborghini people BMW designers Ferrari people Alfa Romeo people Maserati people

263171

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strengthening%20Nation%20Forum

Strengthening Nation Forum

The Strengthening Nation Forum () is a Chinese bulletin board on the website of the People's Daily, an official newspaper of the Chinese Communist Party. The purpose of the forum is for discussion on how to make China a stronger nation. The forum is somewhat remarkable being sponsored by an organ of the Chinese Communist Party yet having a relatively open amount of uninhibited discussion including sometimes extremely strong criticism of the People's Republic of China government. Scholars of the Chinese internet such as Peng Lan, argue that its creation to mobilize internet resistance to the bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade was a landmark moment in Chinese internet history, and the forum has been cited as being important in the development of online Chinese nationalism. With politically sensitive issues such as the July 1, 2003 demonstrations in Hong Kong against Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23, the amount of coverage and analysis within the forum is often more extensive than with the paper itself. After Zhao Ziyang's death on January 17, 2005, the forum was flooded with messages expressing condolence. These messages were promptly deleted by the moderators, as the government feared any mass mourning for the purged leader would cause civil unrest, and some posters responded by ridiculing the moderators. One person asked: "I could post messages in the morning, but why not in the evening?" See also Internet in the People's Republic of China Global Times Media in China Communications in China References External links People's Daily Strengthening Nation Forum Bulletin board systems Internet in China

263173

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double%20clutch%20%28technique%29

Double clutch (technique)

Double-clutching (also called double de-clutching outside of the United States) is a method of shifting gears used primarily for vehicles with an unsynchronized manual transmission, such as commercial trucks and specialty vehicles. While double clutching is not necessary in a vehicle that has a synchronized manual transmission, the technique can be advantageous for smoothly upshifting in order to accelerate and, when done correctly, it prevents wear on the synchronizers which normally equalize transmission input and output speeds to allow downshifting. With this method, instead of pushing the clutch in once and shifting directly to another gear, the driver first engages the transmission in neutral before shifting to the next gear. The clutch is depressed and released with each change. A related downshifting/rev-matching technique is heel-and-toe shifting, in which the throttle is blipped (i.e. momentarily opened during downshifting) by the driver's heel during braking. History Before the introduction of transmission synchronizers in the 1920s, double clutching was a technique required to prevent damage to an automobile's gearing during shifts. Due to the difficulty and most often unnecessary redundancy involved in the technique, coupled with the advent of synchronized gearing systems, it has largely fallen into disuse in light vehicles. However, many tractor units are still supplied with an unsynchronised gearbox which requires double-clutching technique to be used. Technique In a non-synchromesh gearbox with neutral between gears, a typical shift actually involves two gear changes, once into neutral, and again into the target gear. During any shift, disconnecting drive components via a clutch unloads the force from the opposing components from the engine and transmission. Using the clutch for each shift out of, and then into, each gear is double clutching or declutching. Due to the absence of a neutral spacing, double-clutching is impossible for sequential gear changes, as with a fully sequential gearbox used in motorcycles and racecars. The double-clutching technique involves the following steps: The accelerator (throttle) is released, the clutch pedal is pressed and the gearbox is shifted into neutral. The clutch pedal is then released, the driver matches the engine speed to the gear speed either using the throttle (accelerator) (when changing to a lower gear) or waiting for engine speed to decrease (when changing to a higher gear) to a level suitable for shifting into the next gear. At the moment when the revs between the input shaft (i.e. engine revs) and gear are closely matched, the driver then presses the clutch again and shifts into the next gear. The result should be a smooth gear change. Although double clutching is a testing requirement when obtaining a commercial driver's license in some jurisdictions, many truckers learn to shift gears without using the clutch. This is known as floating gears or float shifting, with the clutch needed only during starting and stopping. However, this is not recommended by non-synchro gearbox manufacturers such as Eaton as it will generally cause additional wear on the gears. This operation can be difficult to master, as it requires the driver to gauge the speed of the vehicle and throttle to the intended gear accurately; vehicle weight and road gradient are important factors as they influence the vehicle's acceleration or deceleration during the shift. Sometimes, truck drivers use the engine brake to help match the engine speed to the gear. The most common situation is with a loaded vehicle which has no split gears or half gears in the lower range, from gears 1–4. In this case, it is especially difficult and sometimes impossible to get from 1 to 2, and sometimes even from 2 to 3 while starting on a hill. The problem is that by the time the engine speed has dropped sufficiently to enable a shift into the higher gear, the vehicle will have slowed down too much or possibly even stopped, making the shift impossible. The engine brakes, which on some models can be set to different intensities (retarding variable numbers of engine cylinders) enable a shift by dropping the engine speed quickly enough to catch the higher gear before the vehicle has decelerated too much. This technique, sometimes called "jake shifting", requires high skill and much practice shifting without the clutch, and is usually not recommended among truck drivers because mistakes can cause damage to the transmission. Some authorities prohibit jake shifting. Theory The purpose of the double-clutch technique is to aid in matching the rotational speed of the input shaft being driven by the engine to the rotational speed of the gear the driver wishes to select. The output shaft in the transmission is directly driven by the rotating wheels, and each gear set is a different ratio, so in a five-speed transmission in fourth gear, one will have three lower gearsets not engaged spinning at three different, and faster, rates and one higher gear spinning at a slower rate than the input shaft. In order to shift down, fourth gear has to be disengaged, leaving no gears connected to the input shaft. This is neutral, and the input shaft and gears all need to be accelerated so the speed of the output shaft and the lower gear the operator wishes to select match speeds long enough for the dog clutch to lock them together. When the speeds are matched, the gear will engage smoothly and no clutch is required. If the speeds are not matched, the dog teeth on the collar will "clash" or grate as they attempt to fit into the holes on the desired gear. A modern synchromesh gearbox accomplishes this synchronization more efficiently. However, when the engine speed is significantly different from the transmission speed, the desired gear can often not be engaged even in a fully synchronized gearbox. An example is trying to shift into a gear while travelling outside the gear's speed or directional range, such as accidentally into first from near the top of second, or intentionally from reverse to a forward gear whilst still moving at speed. Double clutching, although (slightly) time consuming, eases gear selection when an extended delay or variance exists between engine and transmission speeds, and reduces wear on the synchronizers (or baulk rings), which are brass cone clutches themselves, and wear very slightly each time they are used to equalize the transmission revs with the output revs. References Driving techniques

263175

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hughes%20Airwest

Hughes Airwest

Hughes Airwest was an airline in the western United States, backed by Howard Hughes' Summa Corporation. The airline's original name was Air West. Hughes Airwest flew routes in the western U.S. and to several destinations in Mexico and Canada; its headquarters were on the grounds of San Francisco International Airport (SFO) in unincorporated San Mateo County, California. With distinctive all-yellow aircraft, the company slogan was Top Banana in the West; it was purchased by Republic Airlines on October 1, 1980. History On April 17, 1968, three "local service" airlines in the western U.S. merged to form Air West: Pacific Air Lines, which previously operated as Southwest Airways when it was founded in 1941, was based in San Francisco, flew along the coast and California's Central Valley, linking cities from Medford, Oregon, to southern California. Pacific operated Boeing 727-100s and Fairchild F-27s in 1968. Bonanza Air Lines routes reached west from its Phoenix base to southern California and north to Las Vegas, Reno, and Salt Lake City. Bonanza flew Douglas DC-9-10s and Fairchild F-27s in 1968, with a DC-9-30 on order, delivered after the merger. West Coast Airlines, based at Boeing Field in Seattle, served the Pacific Northwest, Idaho, Utah, Montana, and northern California. West Coast operated DC-9-10s, F-27s, and Piper Navajos in 1968. The initial Air West fleet included Boeing 727-100s, Douglas DC-9s, Fairchild F-27s, and Piper Navajos. The first new addition to the Air West fleet was a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30, which had been ordered by Bonanza Air Lines. Hungry for another adventure in the airline industry, TWA's former owner Howard Hughes sought the airline in 1968, and the $90 million deal was finalized in April 1970. Renamed Hughes Air West, its call sign became "Hughes Air," and the airline expanded to several cities in the western United States, Canada, and Mexico. With the new yellow paint scheme, unveiled in September 1971, the airline began calling itself Hughes Airwest, two words instead of the initial three. The airline participated in some movies in the 1970s, notably The Gauntlet with Clint Eastwood and Sondra Locke in 1977. Eastwood's character arrives in Las Vegas from Phoenix on the airline and when he phones the airport for flight departure times, Locke's character sarcastically called the airline, "Air Worst." Also in 1977, the airline was operating service from both Burbank (BUR) and Orange County (SNA) to Denver (DEN) via an interchange flight agreement with the original Frontier Airlines. Hughes Airwest would then subsequently introduce its own jet service to Denver from a number of cities in the western U.S. Like other local service airlines in the 1970s, Hughes Airwest eliminated many stops and opened longer routes. Service expanded to resorts in Mexico; domestic routes didn't reach east of Utah and Arizona until Denver, Des Moines, Milwaukee, and Houston Hobby Airport were added in 1978. When it ended F-27 turboprop flights in 1979, Hughes Airwest became an all-jet airline with 727-200s, DC-9-10s, and DC-9-30s. In September 1979, the airline was grounded for two months by a walkout by their ticket agents, reservations handlers, and office employees, who had been without a contract for over a year. During 1979, several airlines showed interest in buying Hughes Airwest, including Alaska and Allegheny, with the latter soon becoming USAir. The strike was resolved in late October and flights resumed in November. Four months later they were the target of a buyout by Republic Airlines, which was finalized on October 1, 1980, for $38.5 million. Minneapolis-based Republic had formed in July 1979 via the merger of North Central Airlines and Southern Airways, the first under airline deregulation. Republic was acquired by Northwest Airlines in 1986, which merged into Delta Air Lines in 2010. Corporate affairs The original headquarters were in two buildings in downtown San Mateo, California, on the San Francisco peninsula. Its new headquarters were located in San Mateo. The airline scheduled the move to a new headquarters from Thursday August 25, 1973, to August 28, 1973. The complex was on a hill overlooking San Mateo and San Francisco Bay. The airline relocated two departments from the offices at San Francisco International Airport: flight control and reservations. Livery Hughes Airwest's planes were recognizable by their banana-yellow fuselage and tail colors. Their airplanes were often dubbed "flying bananas" and the airline launched an advertising campaign with the catchphrase "Top Banana in the West." Most nicknames given to Hughes Airwest airplanes in aviation books and magazines have to do with bananas. Apart from their all-yellow scheme, the airplanes also featured a blue logo on the vertical stabilizer (tail) that resembled three diamonds connected (possibly a reference to the initials of Howard Hughes). The name Hughes Airwest, in stylized lettering, was featured unconventionally below the front passenger windows. This livery was devised by the southern California design firm of Mario Armond Zamparelli, following the crash of Flight 706 in June 1971, caused by a mid-air collision with a U.S. Marine Corps F-4B jet fighter near Duarte, California. In late 1971, the company launched a new marketing campaign which included new colors and repainted planes. The cabin windows also had a metallized PET film coating originally, but this proved too costly to maintain. Zamparelli also designed the uniforms of the flight attendants in the new colors, primarily in Sundance Yellow trimmed with Universe Blue.After the sale in October 1980 the all-yellow paint scheme was gradually replaced by Republic's white with blue and green trim, and the mallard "Herman the Duck." Fleet Air West and Hughes Airwest operated the following aircraft types at various times during their existence: Accidents and incidents Hughes Airwest Flight 706 On the evening of Sunday, June 6, 1971, Hughes Airwest Flight 706, a Douglas DC-9-31 collided in mid-air with a U.S. Marine Corps F-4B fighter over southern California near Duarte, killing all 49 people on the Hughes West airliner, and everyone except the radar intercept officer of the F-4. Flight 706 had departed Los Angeles, California, for Seattle, Washington, with five intermediate stops, the first in Salt Lake City. 1972 hijacking Two months after the celebrated hijacking by D. B. Cooper of Northwest Orient flight 305, Hughes Airwest was the target of a copycat hijacker in early 1972. After boarding Flight 800 at McCarran airport in Las Vegas in late morning on Thursday, January 20, 23-year-old Richard Charles LaPoint claimed he had a bomb while the plane was on the taxiway and demanded $50,000 cash, two parachutes, and a helmet. When these demands were met, 51 Reno-bound passengers and two flight attendants were released; the DC-9 departed eastward toward Denver, followed by two F-111 aircraft of the U.S. Air Force from nearby Nellis AFB. The parachutes were high-visibility and equipped with emergency locater devices. Without a coat and in cowboy boots, the hijacker bailed out from the lower aft door over the treeless plains of northeastern Colorado in mid-afternoon. He was apprehended a few hours later, with minor injuries and very cold. The plane, with two pilots and a flight attendant on board, landed safely at Denver's Stapleton airport at 2:55 p.m. MST. Facing potential death penalty charges for air piracy, the Vietnam veteran, a former U.S. Army paratrooper, was sentenced to forty years, but served less than eight and was released from a halfway house in 1979. He died at age 60 in New Hampshire in 2008. Destinations Air West in July 1968 This is a list of destinations taken from the Air West system timetable dated July 1, 1968 when the merger to form Air West became effective. Cities served with jets are noted in bold. Air West was operating Boeing 727-100, Douglas DC-9-10, and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 jets, as well as Fairchild F-27 turboprops and small Piper Navajo twin props at this time. The majority of the destinations on this list that did not have jet service were served with F-27 twin turboprops. ARIZONA: Grand Canyon (GCN) Kingman (IGM) Page (PGA) Phoenix (PHX): Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport - Hub Prescott (PRC) Tucson (TUS) Yuma (YUM) CALIFORNIA: IDAHO: Boise (BOI) - Hub Burley/Rupert (BYI) Idaho Falls (IDA) Lewiston (LWS) Pocatello (PIH) Twin Falls (TWF) Sun Valley/Hailey/Ketchum (SUN) MONTANA: Great Falls (GTF) Kalispell (FCA) NEVADA: Las Vegas (LAS): McCarran International Airport - Hub Reno (RNO) OREGON: UTAH: Cedar City (CDC) Salt Lake City (SLC): Salt Lake City International Airport - Hub WASHINGTON: CANADA: Calgary, Alberta (YYC): Calgary International Airport MEXICO: La Paz (LAP) Mazatlan (MZT) Puerto Vallarta (PVR) Guadalajara (GDL) Guaymas (GYM) Hughes Airwest in September 1980 In 1980, Hughes Airwest was an all-jet airline operating Boeing 727-200, Douglas DC-9-10, and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 aircraft. The timetable for September 1 lists service to: ARIZONA: Grand Canyon (GCN) Phoenix (PHX): Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport - Hub Tucson (TUS) CALIFORNIA: COLORADO: Denver (DEN): Stapleton International Airport IDAHO: Boise (BOI) - Hub Idaho Falls Lewiston Pocatello Twin Falls IOWA: Des Moines MONTANA: Kalispell NEVADA: Las Vegas (LAS): McCarran International Airport - Hub Reno OREGON: Eugene Klamath Falls Portland (PDX): Portland International Airport Redmond/Bend TEXAS: Houston (HOU): William P. Hobby Airport UTAH: Salt Lake City (SLC): Salt Lake City International Airport - Hub WASHINGTON: Pasco/Kennewick/Richland (Tri-Cities Airport) Seattle (SEA): Seattle-Tacoma International Airport - Hub Spokane Yakima WISCONSIN: Milwaukee CANADA: Calgary, Alberta (YYC): Calgary International Airport Edmonton, Alberta (YEG): Edmonton International Airport MEXICO: Manzanillo Mazatlan Puerto Vallarta See also List of defunct airlines of the United States References External links Hughes Airwest enthusiast site — hughesairwest.com Airlines established in 1968 Airlines disestablished in 1980 Defunct airlines of the United States Howard Hughes Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area 1980 disestablishments in California 1968 establishments in California

263183

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron%20Mackintosh

Cameron Mackintosh

Sir Cameron Anthony Mackintosh (born 17 October 1946) is a British theatrical producer and theatre owner notable for his association with many commercially successful musicals. At the height of his success in 1990, he was described as being "the most successful, influential and powerful theatrical producer in the world" by the New York Times. He is the producer of shows such as Les Misérables, The Phantom of the Opera, Mary Poppins, Oliver!, Miss Saigon, Cats, Half a Sixpence and Hamilton. Mackintosh was knighted in 1996 for services to musical theatre. Two of his productions, Les Misérables and The Phantom of the Opera, are the two longest-running musicals in West End history. In 2008, The Daily Telegraph ranked him number 7 in their list of the "100 most powerful people in British culture". In the Sunday Times Rich List of 2021, Mackintosh was estimated to have a net worth of £1.2 billion. Early life Mackintosh was born in Enfield, London, the son of Diana Gladys (née Tonna), a production secretary, and Ian Robert Mackintosh, a timber merchant and jazz trumpeter. His father was Scottish, and his mother, a native of Malta, was of Maltese and French descent. Mackintosh was raised in his mother's Roman Catholic faith and educated at Prior Park College in Bath. He first knew that he wanted to become a theatre producer after his aunt took him to a matinee of the Julian Slade musical Salad Days when he was eight years old. Theatrical career Mackintosh began his theatre career in his late teens, as a stagehand at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, and then became an assistant stage manager on several touring productions. He began producing his own small tours before becoming a London-based producer in the 1970s. His early London productions included Anything Goes in 1969 (which closed after only two weeks), The Card (1973), Side by Side by Sondheim (1976), My Fair Lady (1978), and Tomfoolery (1980). In 1981, he produced Andrew Lloyd Webber's Cats, then considered an unlikely subject for a musical. It became the hit of the season, and went on to become one of the longest running musicals on both sides of the Atlantic. After the success of Cats, he approached the French writing team Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil about bringing their musical Les Misérables (then a successful French concept album) to the London stage. The musical opened in 1985 at the Barbican, before transferring to the Palace Theatre. Les Misérables had a shaky start at the box office and a lukewarm critical reception before becoming a massive hit, largely by word-of-mouth and is now the longest running musical and second longest running London production. In 1986, Mackintosh produced Andrew Lloyd Webber's The Phantom of the Opera, which is one of the most commercially successful musicals of all time and has outgrossed record-breaking films such as Titanic and E.T. The original London production is still running and is the 3rd longest running production in London, along with the New York production, which is the longest-running Broadway musical of all time. He produced Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil's next musical Miss Saigon, which opened at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in the West End in September 1989. It was similarly successful, and the 1991 Broadway production achieved what was then the largest advance ticket sales in theatre history. Mackintosh has produced several other successful musicals, including Five Guys Named Moe (both in London in 1990 and on Broadway) and a revised London production of Stephen Sondheim's Follies in 1987. In 1995, Mackintosh produced the 10th anniversary concert of Les Misérables in London. Additionally he was responsible for presenting the West End transfers of the National Theatre revivals of Oklahoma! (1999), My Fair Lady (2001), and Carousel (1993). Mackintosh's less successful London productions include Moby Dick (1993) and Martin Guerre (1996). He produced the stage adaptation of John Updike's The Witches of Eastwick (2000) which, despite some positive reviews and a run of over 15 months, failed to replicate the worldwide success of his previous blockbusters. Mackintosh became a co-owner of the theatrical licensing company Music Theatre International in 1990. He started the theatre group Delfont Mackintosh Theatres in 1991. Disney Theatrical Productions president Thomas Schumacher met with Mackintosh in 2001 to discuss making Mary Poppins into a stage musical. Mackintosh's involvement in the development of the musical adaptation led to his producing both the 2004 West End and 2006 Broadway productions, at the Prince Edward Theatre and the New Amsterdam Theatre, respectively, along with Schumacher. He co-produced the London transfer of Avenue Q, which opened in the West End at the Noël Coward Theatre on 1 June 2006. In 1998, Mackintosh celebrated thirty years in show business with Hey, Mr. Producer!, a gala concert featuring songs from shows he had produced during his career. The concert was performed twice, on 7 and 8 June, with proceeds going to the Royal National Institute of Blind People and the Combined Theatrical Charities. Many celebrities took part, and the 8 June performance was attended by Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. In 2008–09, Mackintosh produced a revival of Lionel Bart's Oliver! at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane. The production was cast via the hit BBC television series I'd Do Anything. Jodie Prenger became the winner and was subsequently cast as Nancy in the production, with Rowan Atkinson as Fagin. The publicity and attention surrounding the production was unprecedented on the West End stage, and it was reported in January 2009 that the production was the fastest-selling show in West End history, with £15 million of pre-opening sales. In April 2010, Mackintosh staged a West End revival of the musical Hair in London's Gielgud Theatre. This production was transferred from Broadway, where a revival production was staged in 2009. In 2013, he worked with the Chichester Festival Theatre on a revival of Barnum, starring Christopher Fitzgerald. Due to the Theatre's refurbishment, it was performed in a giant tent 'Theatre in the Park' in July and August. Mackintosh has voiced interest in producing a Broadway revival of Barnum with American actor Neil Patrick Harris in the title role. On 27 January 2014, Mackintosh was the first British producer to be inducted into Broadway's American Theater Hall of Fame. On 3 May 2014, Mackintosh relaunched Miss Saigon at the Prince Edward Theatre in London, celebrating 25 years since its first launch. On 6 December 2017 Mackintosh began previews of Lin-Manuel Miranda's Broadway hit musical Hamilton in London. It premiered on 21 December 2017 at the Victoria Palace Theatre. Influence Mackintosh is notable as a producer for his transformation of the musical into a global, highly profitable brand, and was the first theatrical producer to recognise that both touring productions and worldwide productions (often in countries where musicals were seldom seen, such as the former eastern bloc countries in the early 90s) were potentially highly lucrative markets which could, collectively, match and even surpass the revenues generated from New York and London productions. Mackintosh has also had considerable success in bringing legitimate theatre directors (such as the Royal Shakespeare Company's Trevor Nunn and Nicholas Hytner) and technicians to the world of musical theatre. Mackintosh's Delfont Mackintosh group owns eight London theatres, the Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, the Novello, the Sondheim, the Gielgud, the Wyndham's, the Victoria Palace and the Noël Coward. Personal life Mackintosh was knighted in the 1996 New Year Honours for services to musical theatre. His partner is Australian-born theatre photographer Michael Le Poer Trench. They met at the opening night of a production of Oklahoma! in Adelaide, Australia in 1982. The couple live between homes in: London; Stavordale Priory in Charlton Musgrove, Somerset; and the Nevis Estate, on North Morar in the West Highlands. In 2006, Mackintosh was listed 4th on The Independent on Sundays Pink List, a list of the most influential "out-and-proud" gay men and women. He was also listed 4th in 2005. Mackintosh also topped The Stage 100 list in 2007 for the first time since 2000. The list recognises the most influential members of the performing arts community at the end of each year. He is a patron of The Food Chain, a London-based HIV charity. His younger brother, Robert Mackintosh, is also a producer. Laird of Nevis In 1994, Mackintosh bought the Nevis Estate, on North Morar, to the east of Mallaig in the West Highlands of Scotland, covering around . He has since been involved in a long-running dispute with a tenant crofter, over the land use on the estate. As the laird, Mackintosh wants to use the land for building holiday homes, but the crofter says the land is needed for grazing. Politics In 1998 Mackintosh was named in a list of the biggest private financial donors to the Labour Party, a decision he later claimed to regret, saying: "Labour really f****d it up. They were profligate at a time when we were doing well. That's why we have the problems we have now. They didn't save any money for a rainy day. It couldn't have been worse these last 12 years." In the 2015 British general election, Mackintosh donated £25,000 to the successful Conservative candidate for Somerton and Frome, David Warburton. In the 2016 EU Referendum, Mackintosh voted for the UK to leave the EU, stating that it was "not because I don't love Europe - I do huge amount of work in Europe and love Europeans - but there is something wrong with a system where the Fat Controller is not accountable". Production credits Anything Goes Salad Days The Card Godspell Side by Side by Sondheim Oliver! My Fair Lady Oklahoma! Tomfoolery Cats Little Shop of Horrors Song and Dance Abbacadabra The Boy Friend Les Misérables The Phantom of the Opera Follies Miss Saigon Five Guys Named Moe Moby Dick Putting It Together Carousel Martin Guerre The Fix Hey, Mr. Producer! Swan Lake The Witches of Eastwick Mary Poppins Just So Avenue Q The Sundowe Hair Betty Blue Eyes Barnum Kinky Boots Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street Half a Sixpence Hamilton References Further reading Hey, Mr. Producer! The Musical World of Cameron Mackintosh by Sheridan Morley and Ruth Leon, published in the UK by Weidenfeld & Nicolson and in the US by Back Stage Books, 1998. External links Cameron Mackintosh official website Delfont Mackintosh official website 1946 births English people of Scottish descent English billionaires English businesspeople English theatre managers and producers Knights Bachelor LGBT businesspeople from the United Kingdom LGBT people from England Living people People from Enfield, London People educated at Prior Park College Golden Globe Award-winning producers Conservative Party (UK) donors 21st-century LGBT people

263185

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish%20Renewal

Jewish Renewal

Jewish Renewal () is a recent movement in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and musical practices. Specifically, it seeks to reintroduce the "ancient Judaic traditions of mysticism and meditation, gender equality and ecstatic prayer" to synagogue services. It is distinct from the baal teshuva movement of return to Orthodox Judaism. Overview The term "Jewish Renewal" describes "a set of practices within Judaism that attempt to reinvigorate what it views as a moribund and uninspiring Judaism with mystical, Hasidic, musical and meditative practices drawn from a variety of traditional and untraditional, Jewish and other, sources. In this sense, Jewish renewal is an approach to Judaism that can be found within segments of any of the Jewish denominations". The term also refers to an emerging Jewish movement, the Jewish Renewal movement, which describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism's prophetic and mystical traditions". The Jewish Renewal movement incorporates social views such as egalitarianism, environmentalism and pacifism. Jewish Renewal rabbi Barbara Thiede writes: The movement's most prominent leader was Zalman Schachter-Shalomi. Other leaders, teachers and authors associated with Jewish Renewal include Arthur Waskow, Michael Lerner, Tirzah Firestone, Phyllis Berman, Shefa Gold, David Ingber, and Marcia Prager. Jewish Renewal brings kabbalistic and Hasidic theory and practice into a non-Orthodox, egalitarian framework, a phenomenon sometimes referred to as neo-Hasidism. Like Hasidic Jews, Renewal Jews often add to traditional worship ecstatic practices such as meditation, chant and dance. In augmenting Jewish ritual, some Renewal Jews borrow freely and openly from Buddhism, Sufism and other faiths. History Origins Jewish Renewal, in its most general sense, has its origins in the North American Jewish countercultural trends of the late 1960s and early 1970s. During this period, groups of young rabbis, academics and political activists founded experimental chavurot (singular: chavurah) or "fellowships" for prayer and study, in reaction to what they perceived as an over-institutionalized and unspiritual North American Jewish establishment. Initially the main inspiration was the pietistic fellowships of the Pharisees and other ancient Jewish sects. Also initially, some of these groups, like the Boston-area Havurat Shalom attempted to function as full-fledged communes after the model of their secular counterparts. Others formed as communities within the urban or suburban Jewish establishment. Founders of the havurot included the liberal political activist Arthur Waskow, Michael Strassfeld (who later became rabbi for a Conservative congregation and then moved on to serve a major Reconstructionist congregation), and Zalman Schachter-Shalomi. Although the leadership and ritual privileges were initially men-only, as in Orthodox Jewish practice, the second wave of American feminism soon led to the full integration of women in these communities. Havurot Apart from some tentative articles in Response and other Jewish student magazines, the early havurot attracted little attention in the wider North American Jewish community. Then, in 1973, Richard Siegel, and Michael and Sharon Strassfeld released The Jewish Catalog: A Do-It-Yourself Kit. Patterned after the Whole Earth Catalog, the book served both as a basic reference on Judaism and American Jewish life, as well as a playful compendium of Jewish crafts, recipes, meditational practices, and political action ideas, all aimed at disaffected young Jewish adults. The Jewish Catalog became one of the bestselling books in American Jewish history to that date and spawned two sequels. A much more widespread havurah movement soon emerged, including self-governing havurot within Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist synagogues. By 1980 an increasing number of havurot had moved away from strictly traditional Jewish worship practices, as members added English readings and chants, poetry from other spiritual traditions, percussion instruments, and overall a less formal approach to worship. In an interview (published in Zeek in 2012), scholar and folklorist Chava Weissler—who has been a "participant-observer" in both the Havurah movement and in Jewish Renewal—articulated her sense of the differences between Jewish Renewal and the Havurah movement as it evolved: B'nai Or / P'nai Or Zalman Schachter-Shalomi, a Hasidic-trained rabbi ordained in the Lubavitch movement, broke with Orthodox Judaism beginning in the 1960s, and founded his own organization, The B'nai Or Religious Fellowship, which he described in an article entitled "Toward an Order of B'nai Or". "B'nai Or" means "sons" or "children" of light, and was taken from the Dead Sea Scrolls material, where the "sons of light" battle the "sons of darkness". Schachter-Shalomi envisioned B'nai Or as a semi-monastic ashram-type community, based upon the various communal models prevalent in the 1960s and 1970s. This community never materialized as he envisioned it, but B'nai Or did produce a number of important leaders in the Renewal movement. It also produced the B'nai Or Newsletter, a quarterly magazine that presented articles on Jewish mysticism, Hasidic stories and Schachter-Shalomi's philosophy. The masthead of this publication read: "B'nai Or is a Jewish Fellowship established for the service of G-d through prayer, Torah, celebration, meditation, tradition, and mysticism. We serve as a center to facilitate people in the pursuit of Judaism as a spiritual way of life." Schachter-Shalomi was strongly influenced by Sufism of Islam and Buddhism, and translated some of the prayers into Hebrew. He also focused more on urban sustainable living than rural culture, and suggested for instance interconnected basements of houses in urban neighborhoods that would create collective space (especially for holidays), while providing the level of privacy secular life had encouraged. Some of these ideas have influenced urban economics. In 1985, after the first national Kallah (conference) gathering in Radnor, Pennsylvania, the name was changed from B'nai Or to P'nai Or ("Faces of Light") to reflect the more egalitarian perspective of the rising feminist movement. Together with such colleagues as Arthur Waskow, Schachter-Shalomi broadened the focus of his organization. In 1993 it merged with The Shalom Center, founded by Waskow, to become ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal. In 1979, Waskow had founded a magazine called Menorah, which explored and encouraged many creative ritual and social issues from a Jewish perspective. It was in this publication that Waskow coined the term "Jewish Renewal". In 1986, Menorah merged with The B'nai Or Newsletter to become New Menorah, now available online through ALEPH. The new version of the publication addressed Jewish feminism, the nuclear arms race, new forms of prayer, social justice, etc. Several of the early New Menorah issues explored gay rights, and became an important catalyst for opening this discussion in more mainstream synagogues. The executive-director of ALEPH said in 2016 that 50 Jewish Renewal communities had been established in the United States, Canada, Latin America, Europe and Israel. By this time, the beginnings of institutionalization were in place, in the form of the nonprofit organization ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal, the rabbinical association OHaLaH, and an increasingly formalized but non-accredited rabbinic ordination program. Renewal and the contemporary Jewish community Statistics on the number of Jews who identify themselves as "Renewal" are not readily available. However, the evidence of Renewal influence can be found throughout the spectrum of Jewish denominational affiliation and in many diverse other arenas of Jewish life. It is not uncommon for congregations that are not associated with the Reconstructionist movement to feature many Renewal influences. These include workshops on Jewish meditation and various Judaized forms of yoga which may be incorporated into religious services. Chanting" and "healing" services have become increasingly common. Many melodies and liturgical innovations have found their way into the Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist movements. Rabbis and Cantors trained by the ALEPH Ordination Program, the Jewish Renewal seminary, have begun to serve congregations with other affiliations and bring Renewal-informed influences to these environments. Jewish Renewal is "part of the burgeoning world of transdenominational Judaism—the growing number of synagogues, rabbis and prayer groups that eschew affiliation with a Jewish stream". Rabbi Marcia Prager wrote in 2005: Ordination training The ALEPH Ordination Program emerged out of ALEPH founder Reb Zalman's earlier project of training and ordaining an inner circle of students, many with extensive yeshiva backgrounds, to be inspiring progressive post-denominational community organizers and spiritual leaders. The ALEPH Ordination Program has grown to become the largest rigorous liberal Jewish seminary in North America, comprising a Rabbinic Program, a Rabbinic Pastor Program (training Jewish clergy specializing in pastoral care), a Cantorial Program, and the Hashpa'ah Program (training Jewish Spiritual Directors). Over 90 students are currently enrolled from varying denominational backgrounds in the US, Canada, Europe and Israel, who study both locally and through ALEPH courses and retreats. The rabbinic students undertake an academic program comprising a minimum of 60 graduate-level courses and practica covering a broad curriculum of rabbinic education. Cantorial students are masters of liturgy and nusach, traditional and contemporary Jewish music, western and non-western traditions, and also fulfill course requirements in Jewish history, philosophy, text, thought and practice. Rabbinic Pastors are specialists, trained to provide Jewish wisdom, spiritual direction, support, and counseling in chaplaincy and in congregational settings. The Hashpa'ah Program offers a three-year concentration in Jewish Studies and Jewish Spiritual Counseling and Guidance, leading to Certification as Mashpia/Spiritual Director. Since 1973, more than 200 Jewish Renewal spiritual leaders have been ordained through the ALEPH Ordination Program and/or its predecessor the B'nai Or/P'nai Or Ordination Program. The ALEPH Ordination Program combines low-residency and residential components. Semester-length seminars and courses are offered via live videoconference technology; winter and summer residential "retreats" are held of students and faculty for intensive sessions and practica. AOP offers both a Master of Divinity degree and Doctor of Ministry Degree in cooperation with New York Theological Seminary (NYTS). Criticism and response New Age Judaism Critics of Jewish Renewal claim that the movement emphasizes individual spiritual experience and subjective opinion over communal norms and Jewish textual literacy; Jewish Renewal is sometimes criticized as New Age, "touchy-feely" and stuck in the 1960s. The ALEPH website offers the following response: Mainstreaming Many Jewish Renewal techniques, ideas, and practices have become mainstream and are now familiar to Jews across the denominations, according to claims by the movement: Despite the prevalence of Renewal practices, ideas, and teachings across the denominational spectrum, Jewish Renewal is not always known or credited with having originated these teachings and ideas. "Our influence is penetrating much deeper into the mainstream, but without acknowledgement," said Rabbi Daniel Siegel. "There is still a lot of ignorance and prejudice toward us in other movements." Challenges Like all religious movements, the movement faces challenges today. Some within the Renewal community maintain that the movement has been more successful in providing occasional ecstatic "peak experiences" at worship services and spiritual retreats than in inculcating a daily discipline of religious practice. Others have observed a tension within the community between those who prefer to focus on liberal social activism on American, Middle East and global issues; and those who favor an emphasis on meditation, text study and worship. And as a summer 2017 article in The Forward notes, there are tensions within ALEPH that have led many of its recent and in particular younger leaders not directly associated with the movement's early years to walk away, preferring to pursue the renewal of Judaism outside that organization. These, together with the challenge of training and recruiting future generations of leaders, are among the issues facing Jewish Renewal today. See also Neo-Hasidism References Further reading Bader, Michael J. 1994. "Shame and Resistance to Jewish Renewal". Tikkun 9(6): 23. External links ALEPH Alliance for Jewish Renewal OHaLaH: The Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal Jewish-American history Jewish religious movements New religious movements

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsy%20%28musical%29

Gypsy (musical)

Gypsy: A Musical Fable is a 1959 musical with music by Jule Styne, lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, and a book by Arthur Laurents. Gypsy is loosely based on the 1957 memoirs of striptease artist Gypsy Rose Lee, and focuses on her mother, Rose, whose name has become synonymous with "the ultimate show business mother." It follows the dreams and efforts of Rose to raise two daughters to perform onstage and casts an affectionate eye on the hardships of show business life. The character of Louise is based on Lee, and the character of June is based on Lee's sister, the actress June Havoc. The musical contains many songs that became popular standards, including "Everything's Coming Up Roses", "Together (Wherever We Go)", "Small World", "You Gotta Get a Gimmick", "Let Me Entertain You", "All I Need Is the Girl", and "Rose's Turn". It is frequently considered one of the crowning achievements of the mid-twentieth century's conventional musical theatre art form, often called the book musical. Gypsy has been referred to as the greatest American musical by numerous critics and writers, among them Ben Brantley ("what may be the greatest of all American musicals...") and Frank Rich. Rich wrote that "Gypsy is nothing if not Broadway's own brassy, unlikely answer to King Lear." Theater critic Clive Barnes wrote that "Gypsy is one of the best of musicals..." and described Rose as "one of the few truly complex characters in the American musical." Background A musical based on the memoirs of Gypsy Rose Lee was a project of producer David Merrick and actress Ethel Merman. Merrick had read a chapter of Lee's memoirs in Harper's Magazine and approached Lee to obtain the rights. Jerome Robbins was interested, and wanted Leland Hayward as co-producer; Merman also wanted Hayward to produce her next show. Merrick and Hayward approached Arthur Laurents to write the book. As he relates, Laurents initially was not interested until he saw that the story was one of parents living their children's lives. Composers Irving Berlin and Cole Porter declined the project. Finally, Robbins asked Stephen Sondheim, who agreed to do it. Sondheim had worked with Robbins and Laurents on the musical West Side Story. However, Merman did not want an unknown composer, and wanted Jule Styne to write the music. Although Sondheim initially refused to write only the lyrics, he was persuaded by Oscar Hammerstein to accept the job. Synopsis Act I Rose and her two daughters, Baby June and Louise, play the vaudeville circuit around the United States in the early 1920s. Rose, the archetype of a stage mother, is aggressive and domineering, pushing her children to perform. While June is an extroverted, talented child star, the older girl, Louise, is shy. The kiddie act has one song, "May We Entertain You", that they sing over and over again, with June always as the centerpiece and Louise often as one of the "boys" ("Baby June and Her Newsboys"). Rose has big dreams for the girls but encounters setbacks, such as attempting to borrow money from her father ("Some People"). When Rose meets a former agent, Herbie, she persuades him to become their manager using her seductive and feminine wiles ("Small World"). The girls grow up, and June, now billed as Dainty June, and her act have a chance to perform for Mr. Goldstone of the Orpheum Circuit ("Mr. Goldstone, I Love You"). Meanwhile, Louise celebrates her birthday alone and asks her birthday present, a lamb, just how old she is this year ("Little Lamb"). After Rose rejects Herbie's marriage proposal, he considers leaving, but she asserts that he could never get away from her ("You'll Never Get Away From Me"). Now billed as "Dainty June and Her Farmboys", the act finally performs on the Orpheum Circuit ("Dainty June and Her Farmboys", “Broadway”). June is soon offered a place at a Performing Arts school after an audition. However, Rose turns this down, refusing to break up the act. Louise and June fantasize what life would be like if Rose were married and finished with show business ("If Momma Was Married"). A few months later, still on the road from show to show, Tulsa, one of the boys from the act, confides to Louise that he has been working on his own act ("All I Need Is the Girl"), and Louise fantasizes that she and he could do the act together. Shortly after this, June is missing, and she explains in a note that she has grown sick of her mother and the endless tour and has eloped with Tulsa, and they will do a new act. Rose is hurt, but then optimistically vows that she will make Louise a star, proclaiming that "Everything's Coming Up Roses". Act II Louise is now a young woman, and Rose has built a pale imitation of the Dainty June act for her. Using all girls, Rose and Herbie try valiantly to sell "Madame Rose's Toreadorables" to a fading vaudeville industry. However, they are still together ("Together, Wherever We Go"). With no vaudeville venues left, Louise and her second-rate act wind up accidentally booked at a burlesque house in Wichita, Kansas, as a means to deter police raids. Rose is anguished, as she sees what a booking in burlesque means to her dreams of success, but Louise persuades her that two weeks' pay for the new act is better than unemployment. As they are introduced to Louise, three of the strippers on the bill advise her on what it takes to be a successful stripper, a "gimmick," something that "makes your strip special" ("You Gotta Get a Gimmick"). Backstage, Rose proposes marriage to Herbie. He asks her to break up the act and let Louise have a normal life, and she reluctantly accepts, agreeing to marry the day after their show closes. On the last day of the booking, the star stripper in the burlesque show is arrested for solicitation. Desperate, Rose cannot resist the urge to give Louise another nudge toward stardom, and she volunteers Louise to do the strip tease as a last-minute replacement. Louise is sad at what she's being pushed to do for her mother's love and Herbie is disgusted at how low Rose has stooped and he finally walks out on her ("Small World" (Reprise)). Although reluctant, Louise goes on, assured by Rose that she needn't actually strip, but simply walk elegantly and tease by dropping a single shoulder strap. Shy and hesitant, she sings a titillating version of the old kiddie act song, "May We Entertain You?". She removes only her glove, but she speaks directly to her 'audience', which becomes her "gimmick" ("Let Me Entertain You" "(Gypsy Strip Tease)"). Louise becomes secure, always following her mother's advice to "Make 'em beg for more, and then don't give it to them!" The song becomes brasher and brassier, and more and more articles of clothing come off. Ultimately, Louise becomes a major burlesque star and does not need her mother any longer. Rose and Louise, who has become the sophisticated "Gypsy Rose Lee", have a bitter argument. Rose, feeling sad, useless and bitter, reveals that the true motivation for all her actions has been to live vicariously through her daughters, to chase the stardom she wanted for herself, not her children ("Rose's Turn"). She realizes that she has driven away June, Herbie, and now possibly Louise. She displays the talent that could have been under different circumstances, as the name "Rose" flashes in neon lights. After her admission to Louise, mother and daughter tentatively move toward reconciliation in the end. In the 1974 and 2008 Broadway revivals, although the final dialogue scene remains, there is not a happy ending, but rather a bleak, sad one as all hopes of reconciliation for Rose and Louise fall flat when Louise walks away, laughing sarcastically at Rose's new "dream." The audience is then left with a somber Rose, whose dream of her own lit up marquee slowly fades away to her unrealistic dreams. In the 2003 revival starring Bernadette Peters, the final dialogue scene remains, but leaves the ending open to more interpretation from the audience. Louise walks through the stage door, with Rose following behind. Rose then turns to face the audience, a look of sadness and longing on her face as she takes one last look at the empty stage. She pauses and slowly closes the door. In the 2015 West End revival starring Imelda Staunton, Louise begins to walk out, and Rose catches up after waking up to reality. Louise puts her arm around Rose as they exit together, giving the appearance that Louise is now taking care of Rose. Songs Act I "Overture" – Orchestra "May We Entertain You?" – Baby June and Baby Louise "Some People" – Rose "Some People" (Reprise) – Rose "Small World" – Rose and Herbie "Baby June and Her Newsboys" – Baby June and Newsboys "Mr. Goldstone, I Love You" – Rose, Herbie, Ensemble "Little Lamb" – Louise "You'll Never Get Away From Me" – Rose and Herbie "Dainty June and Her Farmboys" – June and Farmboys "Broadway" – June and Farmboys "If Momma Was Married" – June and Louise "All I Need Is the Girl" – Tulsa "Everything's Coming Up Roses" – Rose Act II "Entr'acte" - Orchestra "Madame Rose's Toreadorables" – Louise, Rose and the Hollywood Blondes "Together, Wherever We Go" - Rose, Herbie, and Louise "You Gotta Get a Gimmick" – Mazeppa, Electra, and Tessie Tura "Small World" (Reprise) – Rose "Let Me Entertain You" – Louise "Rose's Turn" – Rose "Finale" – Orchestra Notes on songs During the pre-Broadway tryout tour, several songs were cut, including a song for Herbie called "Nice She Ain't" (cut because it was given to Jack Klugman one week prior to opening and he could not memorize the keys and staging in time), and a song for Baby June and Baby Louise titled "Mama's Talkin' Soft". The latter song was cut partly because the staging required the little girls to stand on a platform elevated above the stage, which terrified the young actress playing Baby Louise and partly because the show was running too long. "Mama's Talkin' Soft" was later recorded by Petula Clark and released as a single in the UK in 1959. Other cut songs include "Mother's Day", a song for Baby June's act, "Smile, Girls", which involves Rose trying to teach the untalented girls to smile in order to make the act look good, "Who Needs Him?", which Rose sings to herself after Herbie leaves her, and "Three Wishes for Christmas", a burlesque number similar to one that would be performed at Minsky's Burlesque. Dramatic analysis In analyzing the character of Rose, Clive Barnes described her as "bossy, demanding, horrific". Rich described Rose as "a monster". Critic Walter Kerr commented that though Rose is a monster, she must be liked and understood. Patti LuPone describes Rose: "She has tunnel vision, she's driven, and she loves her kids.... And she is a survivor. I do not see her as a monster at all—she may do monstrous things, but that does not make a monster." Sondheim has said of the character: "The fact that she's monstrous to her daughters and the world is secondary... She's a very American character, a gallant figure and a life force." Sondheim also noted, "Yet the end of Gypsy is not entirely bleak. Louise comes out a star and forgives her mother. There is hope for her. Rose does confront who she is in 'Rose's Turn.' There is a catharsis. It's not Rodgers and Hammerstein, but you feel maybe the mother and daughter will come to an understanding and maybe triumph over Rose's craziness and Louise's bitterness." Brantley noted that Rose is a "mythic character". She is "[t]raditionally presented as an armored tank on autopilot, which finally crashes only minutes before the final curtain". Bernadette Peters' take on the character was different: "Rose was a woman who was traumatized by her own mother leaving her at an early age. I think that longing for acceptance is what fuels all her ambition. In the end, when she confronts herself in 'Rose's Turn', she realizes she has failed her daughter just as her own mother failed her...and that destroys Rose. There is a vulnerability to Rose that makes her human, not just some loud and cartoonish parody of a stage mother." Productions Original production The original Broadway production opened on May 21, 1959 at The Broadway Theatre, transferred to the Imperial Theatre, and closed on March 25, 1961 after 702 performances and two previews. The show was produced by David Merrick and directed and choreographed by Jerome Robbins. Ethel Merman starred as Rose, with Jack Klugman as Herbie and Sandra Church as Louise. Scenic and Lighting design were by Jo Mielziner and costumes were by Raoul Pène Du Bois. The orchestrations, including an overture, were supplied by Sid Ramin and Robert Ginzler. Critic Frank Rich has referred to Robbins' work as one of the most influential stagings of a musical in American theatrical history. The original production received eight Tony Award nominations, including Best Musical, Best Actress in a Musical, Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Best Scenic Design, Best Costume Design and Best Direction of a Musical, but failed to win any. When the show closed in March 1961, two national touring companies toured the US. The first company starred Merman and opened in March 1961 at the Rochester, New York Auditorium, and closed in December 1961 at the American, St. Louis, Missouri. The second national company starred Mitzi Green as Rose, followed by Mary McCarty. A young Bernadette Peters appeared in the ensemble and understudied Dainty June, a role she would play the following year in summer stock, opposite Betty Hutton's Rose. It opened in September 1961 at the Shubert Theatre, Detroit and closed in January 1962 at the Hanna, Cleveland, Ohio. 1973 London production In 1973, it was announced that Elaine Stritch would be starring in the first West End production of the show. However, when ticket sales proved to be unsuccessful, producers hired the more familiar Angela Lansbury (according to Craig Zadan, "The ...producers were not able to raise the required capital on Stritch's name, and the promise of a new production...became ominously distant"). The West End production opened at the Piccadilly Theatre on May 29, 1973. It was produced by Barry M. Brown and Fritz Holt, in association with Edgar Lansbury (Angela's brother) and directed by the show's author, Arthur Laurents, with choreography reproduced by Robert Tucker. The supporting cast featured Zan Charisse, Barrie Ingham, Debbie Bowen and Bonnie Langford. Lansbury left the London production in December 1973 to tour the show in the US and was succeeded by Dolores Gray. The production closed on March 2, 1974, after 300 performances. 1974 Broadway revival Prior to opening on Broadway, the Lansbury West End production had a 24-week tour of North America, starting in Toronto, and then travelling to many cities, including Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Washington, DC and Boston. The production opened on Broadway at the Winter Garden Theatre on September 23, 1974 for a planned limited engagement, and closed on January 4, 1975 after 120 performances and four previews. It was completely recast for the American tour and Broadway run with the exception of Bonnie Langford as baby June and Zan Charisse as Louise/Gypsy who played it in the West End with Ms. Lansbury. Maureen Moore (later Bernadette Peters' understudy as Rose in the 2003 revival) played the adult June, and Mary Louise Wilson was Tessie Tura. John Sheridan played Tulsa, for which he won the 1974-75 Theatre World Award. Angela Lansbury won the 1975 Tony Award. 1989 Broadway revival A second revival had pre-Broadway engagements starting at the Jackie Gleason Theater of the Performing Arts, Miami Beach, Florida, in May 1989, and Tampa in May, then The Muny, St. Louis, in June 1989, moving to the Los Angeles Music Center and Orange County Performing Arts Center, Costa Mesa, California in July 1989, and then the Kennedy Center in August and September 1989, with several other venues prior to Broadway. The production opened on Broadway on November 16, 1989, at the St. James Theatre, and then moved to the Marquis Theatre on April 18, 1991 and closed on July 28, 1991 after 476 performances and 23 previews. Laurents returned as director, with Tyne Daly as Rose, Jonathan Hadary as Herbie and Crista Moore as Louise. Linda Lavin (on July 30, 1990) and Jamie Ross replaced Daly and Hadary respectively, with Daly returning to the production at the Marquis Theatre from April 18, 1991 until closing. This production won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival and Daly won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her performance. Jule Styne, in a 1989 interview in connection with the California tryout, said: "About six months ago, Bette Midler wanted to buy it (Gypsy) for a movie. We wouldn't sell it. Because they'd only destroy it." USA Today reported that "Both Liza Minnelli and Bernadette Peters say they would love to play it, but they weren't even approached for this production." 2003 Broadway revival A new Broadway revival began previews on March 31, 2003 and opened on May 1, 2003 at the Shubert Theatre. The director was Sam Mendes, with choreography by Jerry Mitchell and costumes and sets by Anthony Ward. Bernadette Peters played the role of Rose. The New York Times described Peters as "a surefire box office draw who nonetheless may surprise some Gypsy aficionados...How will the ladylike Ms. Peters fit into the role of Rose, a part indelibly marked by its brassy, belting originator, Ethel Merman?...'One of the main reasons I wanted to do the piece was to cast someone as Rose that was closer to Rose as she really existed,' Mr. Mendes said. 'She was a tiny woman. And she was a charmer. And so is Bernadette.'" Laurents had talked to Mendes ("Roughly five years ago" according to The New York Times in 2003) about directing the revival, and Mendes said "he was surprised by the idea of casting Ms. Peters as Rose". Laurents notes of his suggestions on this production are in his 2009 book Mainly on Directing 'Gypsy', 'West Side Story' and Other Musicals. In a 2004 interview Laurents said that Peters' portrayal of Rose was "brilliant, original, totally unlike any of the others" while criticizing Mendes for the "physical production" which Laurents said "was misconceived and hurt the show more than people realized." Gypsy had begun previews with a virtually bare stage, but by opening night this had been changed to a minimalist set. The cast featured John Dossett as Herbie, Tammy Blanchard as Louise, Kate Reinders as June and David Burtka as Tulsa. The production was nominated for four Tony Awards, including Best Revival of a Musical and Best Actress in a Musical; it won none. In his review, Ben Brantley in The New York Times wrote that "the surprise coup of many a Broadway season...Working against type and expectation under the direction of Sam Mendes, Ms. Peters has created the most complex and compelling portrait of her long career...There have been many illustrious successors to Merman as Rose...Only Ms. Peters, however, can be said to have broken the Merman mold completely." Gypsy twice set new box office records for the Shubert Theatre. Its gross of $853,476 for the week of June 9–14, 2003 was the highest ever gross for a non-holiday week and the subsequent June 15–21, 2003 box office gross of $874,397 represented the highest gross for a show in Shubert history. However, The New York Times announced that Gypsy would close on February 28, 2004, stating: "Gypsy sold well for most of 2003. But by early January [2004], with tourists gone and local theatergoers staying inside during a brutal stretch of weather, the production's sales grew increasingly weak. More important, the show's advance sale, the main indicator of a production's staying power, began to shrink rapidly. It stood at less than $2 million yesterday." After an increase in the gross, the show's closing was postponed indefinitely, but Gypsy finally closed on May 30, 2004 after 451 performances and 33 previews. The production is believed to have recouped a little more than half of its $8 million investment. 2008 Broadway revival Patti LuPone first portrayed Rose in Gypsy at the Chicago Ravinia Festival in August 2006, directed by Lonny Price and accompanied by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. It began as a concert production but evolved into a full-fledged production featuring Jerome Robbins' original choreography (recreated by Bonnie Walker) and even a live lamb. Excitement was generated around LuPone playing the role of Rose and producers were eager to see Price's production, with the hope of moving it to New York. Jack Viertel, the artistic director of New York City Center Encores! saw the production and was so impressed that he contacted Arthur Laurents, requesting that he direct a new production of the show for a new summer "Encores!" program. From July 9 to 29, 2007, the show was presented at New York City Center with LuPone once again. Directed by Arthur Laurents, the production also featured Laura Benanti as Louise, Boyd Gaines as Herbie and Leigh Ann Larkin as June. Nancy Opel, Marilyn Caskey, and Alison Fraser played the strippers Mazeppa, Electra, and Tessie Tura (Lenora Nemetz assumed the role of Mazeppa / Miss Cratchitt for the Broadway transfer.) LuPone recounted in her memoirs that, when Laurents began directing this production, he based his direction initially on the 1989 revival, "because, I think that in Arthur's mind, the Tyne Daly Gypsy had been the last successful production." However, the cast "questioned Arthur relentlessly about...the scenes", and he "tossed the old prompt book out and freed" the actors to explore. The Encores! production was a success, and despite Ben Brantley's somewhat negative review of LuPone's performance in The New York Times, the show transferred to Broadway, where it opened at the St. James Theatre on March 27, 2008. Brantley gave the production a rave review, praising LuPone, Laurents and the rest of the cast, and describing the characterizations in the production: "You see, everyone's starved for attention in Gypsy. That craving, after all, is the motor that keeps showbiz puttering along. And Mr. Laurents makes sure that we sense that hunger in everyone.... I was so caught up in the emotional wrestling matches between the characters (and within themselves), that I didn't really think about the songs as songs.... There is no separation at all between song and character, which is what happens in those uncommon moments when musicals reach upward to achieve their ideal reasons to be." This production won numerous awards including the Tony Awards and Drama Desk Awards for LuPone, Gaines and Benanti. The show was originally scheduled to close in March 2009 on LuPone's final performance, but closed on January 11, 2009 due to decreases in ticket sales. Like the 2003 production, this revival also closed at a loss. The production played for 332 performances and 27 previews. On the eve before the final performance, LuPone made news when she stopped the show during the song "Rose's Turn" to scold a patron for taking illegal photographs during the performance. Patti LuPone performed in Gypsy before Broadway, stating she starred as Louise in a high-school production of the show when she was 13 years old. LuPone had voiced interest in heading the 2003 Broadway revival, but Arthur Laurents reportedly banned her from any future work with his involvement because she previously walked out on a production of Jolson Sings Again, written by Laurents, in 1995. LuPone and Laurents subsequently reconciled. 2015 West End revival Following a run at the Chichester Festival Theatre, which won the Critics' Choice Theatre Award for Best Musical in 2014, a West End revival of Gypsy opened at the Savoy Theatre on April 15, 2015, in a limited run through November 28. Directed by Jonathan Kent with choreography by Stephen Mear and set and costume design by Anthony Ward, the production starred Imelda Staunton as Rose, Peter Davison as Herbie, Lara Pulver as Louise, Gemma Sutton as June, Dan Burton as Tulsa, Anita Louise Combe as Tessie Tura, Louise Gold as Mazzeppa and Julie Legrand as Electra. The London production was nominated for eight Laurence Olivier Awards at the 2016 ceremony, winning four, including Best Actress in a Musical (Staunton) and Best Musical Revival, the most awards won by a single production in that year. It also won Best Musical Production and Best Performance in a Musical (for Staunton) at the UK Theatre Awards in 2015. Staunton also won Best Musical Performance at the Evening Standard Awards in 2015. The production was also filmed and broadcast on BBC Four over the 2015 Christmas/New Year period and was first broadcast on PBS' Great Performances in the United States in 2016. Other productions Other notable productions of Gypsy include: 1992 Argentina The production opened at the Teatro Astral in Buenos Aires, directed by Víctor García Peralta. Mabel Manzotti starred. The cast included Sandra Guida (as Gypsy), along with Eleonora Wexler and Ambar La Fox. 1998 Mexico 1977 Marga Lopez as Rose; Claudia Islas as Louise. Enrique Gómez Vadillo, director. Also Raúl Ramírez and Eduardo Alcaraz. The production opened at the Teatro Silvia Pinal in Mexico City, produced and directed by Silvia Pinal (legendary Luis Buñuel's Viridiana muse). Pinal and her daughter, the rock singer Alejandra Guzmán starred. Guzmán was replaced by Irán Castillo. 1998 Paper Mill Playhouse Betty Buckley, Deborah Gibson and Lenny Wolpe starred at the Paper Mill Playhouse in Millburn, New Jersey. Laura Bell Bundy played June. It was rumored to be Broadway bound, but this did not materialize. 2001 Estonian production The production opened at the Theatre Vanemuine in Tartu, directed by Mare Tommingas. The cast included Silvi Vrait as Rose and the production would enjoy a successful run of performances from 2001 through 2003. 2005 Shaw Festival This production ran in rep at the Shaw Festival, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario starring Nora McLellan as Rose and Julie Martell as Louise. Martell understudied Tammy Blanchard in the 2003 Broadway revival. Also, Kate Hennig, who has appeared on Broadway as Ms. Wilkinson in Billy Elliot, played Ms. Cratchitt as well as understudying and playing Rose at certain scheduled performances. 2007 North American tour Gypsy was presented by Phoenix Entertainment with Kathy Halenda starring as Rose and Missy Dowse as Louise. The production was directed by Sam Viverto and assisted by Aja Kane. Principal casting also included Ruby Lewis as June, Rachel Abrams as Mazeppa, Claire Norden as Baby June, Loriann Freda as Tessie Tura, Nick Hamel as Herbie, and Maria Egler as Electra. The tour ended in May 2008. 2010 Brazil The first Brazilian production opened at Teatro Villa-Lobos, Rio de Janeiro, starring Totia Meirelles as Rose, Renata Ricci as June, and Eduardo Falcão as Herbie. Later the production was transferred to Teatro Alfa, São Paulo. 2010 Czech Republic The very first production of the musical Gypsy in Joseph Kajetan Tyl's Theatre in Pilsen was short-lived, no more than 18 performances. 2011 Lyric Stage From September 9 to 18, Lyric Stage in Irving, Texas produced the musical. The production featured a 39 piece orchestra and full original orchestrations that had not been heard since 1961 when the original production closed. It also featured an acoustic guitar part, which had been removed prior to the Boston tryout due to pit size. The production, directed by Len Pluger and Music Directed by Jay Dias, starred Sue Mathys as Rose, Ashton Smalling as Dainty June (she has previously been Baby June at Ravinia in 2006) and Caitlin Carter as Tessie Tura, with local performers Mary McElree as Louise and Sonny Franks as Herbie. 2011 Bristol Riverside Theatre Tovah Feldshuh starred as Rose at the Bristol (PA) Riverside Theatre (BRT) production of Gypsy which opened on December 8, 2011 following two nights of previews. The production, directed by BRT artistic director Keith Baker, ran until January 15, 2012. 2012 Leicester Curve Theatre Gypsy opened in Leicester, UK for a six-week run in March 2012. Directed by Paul Kerryson and starring Australian musical theatre actor Caroline O'Connor as Rose. Among the cast were Victoria Hamilton-Barritt as Louise, David Fleeshman as Herbie, and Daisy Maywood as Dainty June. 2014 Connecticut Repertory Theatre (CRT), Storrs, Connecticut In July 2014, Leslie Uggams starred as Rose, directed by Vincent Cardinal (CRT, Artistic Director), with musical direction by David Williams. The production also featured Michael James Leslie as Pop, Scott Ripley as Herbie, Alanna Saunders as June, and Amandina Altomare as Louise. Uggams' appearance marks the first African-American woman to portray Rose in an Equity Production. 2014 Chichester Festival Theatre, UK In October 2014, Imelda Staunton starred as Rose in a production directed by Jonathan Kent. Lara Pulver performed as Louise, Kevin Whately as Herbie, Louise Gold as Mazeppa, Anita Louise Combe as Tessie Tura and Julie Legrand as Electra. The musical ran to 8 November. 2017 The Cape Playhouse In July and August 2017, The Cape Playhouse presented a celebrated revival of Gypsy that featured Julia Murney as Rose. The production, directed by Michael Rader, choreographed by Jason Sparks and with music direction by Garrett Taylor, broke box office records and featured Caroline Bowman as Louise, James Lloyd Reynolds as Herbie, Tess Soltau as June, Garett Hawe as Tulsa, Jennifer Cody as Tessie and Ms. Cratchit and Wally Dunn as Pop/Goldstone/Webber. 2018 Porchlight Music Theatre In October 2018, E. Faye Butler starred as Rose in a production directed by Michael Weber at Porchlight Music Theatre in Chicago. Daryn Whitney Harrell performed as Louise, Antonio "Tony" Garcia as Herbie, Aalon Smith as June, Dawn Bless as Mazeppa, Melissa Young as Tessie and Honey West as Electra. The production closed December 29, 2018 2019 Manchester Royal Exchange Theatre In November 2019, Jo Davies directed a production starring Ria Jones as Rose, Dale Rapley as Herbie, and Melissa Lowe as June. The production closed February 1, 2020. 2022 Alexandra Palace Theatre, London Film and TV versions Rosalind Russell, Karl Malden, and Natalie Wood starred in the 1962 Warner Bros. film adaptation of the musical. Russell won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for her portrayal of Rose. Gypsy was also adapted as 1993 television movie with Bette Midler playing Rose. Cynthia Gibb portrayed Louise and Jennifer Beck portrayed Dainty June. Bette Midler won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for TV; Michael Rafter won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Direction. This production was a rare example of a film or TV project in which some of the songs are sung live, and not lip synced to a prerecorded track. The 2015 London revival of Gypsy starring Imelda Staunton was recorded live at the Savoy Theatre during its run and broadcast on BBC Four on 27 December 2015. This recording was released on DVD in November 2016. Upcoming remake In January 2011, the New York Post reported that Barbra Streisand was in negotiations to produce, direct and star in a new film version of Gypsy. In an interview with the New York Post, Arthur Laurents said, "We've talked about it a lot, and she knows what she's doing. She has my approval." He said that he would not write the screenplay. In a clarifying statement and report, The New York Times wrote that Streisand would star, but would not produce or direct. Streisand's spokesperson confirmed that "there have been conversations". However, Frank Rizzo of courant.com reported on March 12, 2011, that the film with Streisand "is not going to happen, according to playwright-director Arthur Laurents, one of the rights holders to the work." But that was contradicted by an August 2011 report by USA TODAY that the plans for a film adaptation of Gypsy were still intact. "Before writer and director Arthur Laurents died at age 93 last May, there had been much talk about a movie version of Gypsy starring Streisand as Rose. 'We just have to find our team and a writer,' said Streisand. 'It's too bad, because I was looking forward to working with Arthur,' who directed Streisand in her Broadway debut. 'I had seen him a few months before that, and he seemed so strong and healthy. In March 2012, reports stated that Universal Pictures was pressing on with the new film. Streisand was still attached to produce and play Rose, with Joel Silver co-producing and Julian Fellowes scripting. Playbill reported in October 2015 that "Universal, which had been working with Streisand on the project, formally put Gypsy in turnaround, meaning it has decided not to develop the film any further. Streisand reportedly has been working with producer Joel Silver on the project, and they are now free to shop their Gypsy around to other studios." In April 2016, it was reported that Streisand was in advanced negotiations to star in and produce the film, which will be directed by Barry Levinson and distributed by STX Entertainment. In July 2016, it was reported that Richard LaGravenese had finished writing the script for the film and that production for the film was aiming to begin in early 2017. However, on August 3, 2016, it was reported that STX Entertainment "was withdrawing as distributor and co-financier of the film." In February 2019, it was reported that Amy Sherman-Palladino will write and direct the remake, Silver is still producing, with distribution by New Regency. Stage casts Principal casts and directors of the Broadway and West End stage productions of Gypsy (Original Broadway Cast and Revivals) (this list shows original cast only, not replacements): Recordings There are recordings of each of the Broadway and London productions, as well as the film and television productions. The original 1959 and revival 2003 cast albums each won the Grammy Award for Best Original Cast Show Album. The original Broadway cast album was Ethel Merman's first recording in the then-new stereophonic sound technology. Motion pictures recorded in stereo had been steadily made since 1953, and stereo was first used on magnetic tape in 1954, but it was not until 1958, a year before Gypsy opened, that it became possible to use this technology on records. The 1974 Broadway recording was not an actual recording of the Broadway revival, but a remix of the London Cast recording of 1973 with a new recording of "Some People". The 1989 Broadway cast recording was released in 1990. The 2003 Broadway cast recording featuring Peters was released August 19, 2003. The 2008 Broadway cast recording featuring LuPone was released August 28, 2008. The 2015 West End cast recording was recorded at Angel Recording Studios in London on 9 March 2015 and was released on 27 April 2015. Other performances The 2001 Royal Variety Performance featured Cilla Black, Paul O'Grady (in his Lily Savage persona), and Barbara Windsor singing "You Gotta Get a Gimmick". Awards and honors Original Broadway production 1974 Broadway revival 1989 Broadway revival 2003 Broadway revival 2008 Broadway revival 2015 London revival References External links Gypsy at sondheim.com Gypsy at sondheimguide.com Library of Congress essay on original cast album's inclusion into the "Christmas Shtick: Gypsy’s Long-Gone Stripper Tree Is Fondly Remembered" 1959 musicals Plays set in the 1920s Broadway musicals Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients Musicals by Jule Styne Musicals by Stephen Sondheim Musicals inspired by real-life events West End musicals Cultural depictions of actors Cultural depictions of dancers Cultural depictions of American women Biographical musicals Tony Award-winning musicals Backstage musicals United States National Recording Registry recordings

263189

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heel-and-toe%20shifting

Heel-and-toe shifting

Heel-and-toe shifting is an advanced driving technique used mostly in performance driving with a manual gearbox, although some drivers use it on the road in everyday conditions in the interest of effectiveness. It involves operating the throttle and brake pedals simultaneously with the right foot, while facilitating normal activation of the clutch with the left foot. It is used when braking and downshifting simultaneously (prior to entering a turn), and allows the driver to "blip" the throttle to raise the engine speed and smoothly engage the lower gear. (See synchronized transmission.) Usage Heel-and-toe shifting is used before entry into a turn while a vehicle is under braking, preparing the transmission to be in the optimal range of rpm to accelerate out of the turn. One benefit of downshifting before entering a turn is to eliminate the jolt to the drivetrain, or any other unwanted dynamics. The jolt will not upset the vehicle as badly when going in a straight line, but the same jolt while turning may upset the vehicle enough to cause loss of traction if it occurs after the turn has begun. Sporting vehicles are usually modified (if necessary) so that the heights of the brake and accelerator pedals are closely matched when the brake is sufficiently depressed, and the pedals are not too far apart to permit easy use of heel-and-toe. The name stems from pre-WW2 vehicles where the accelerator pedal was in the centre (between the clutch on the left and the foot brake to the right). The brake was able to be operated with the heel whilst the accelerator pedal could be simultaneously pressed with the toe. The technique is carried out in modern cars by operating the brake with the toe area, while rocking the foot across to the right to operate the throttle with the right side of the foot. With practice, it becomes possible to smoothly and independently operate both pedals with one foot. As the power band of most race cars is found high in the rev range, this technique can also be used to ensure that engine rpm does not drop below the power band of the car while under braking, by allowing a lower gear to keep the engine in the desired rev range. The importance of this is to avoid delay between the driver accelerating after the corner and when the car responds. This is especially true in turbocharged cars where not only is it important to maintain the required rev range for strong positive boost, but the 'blipping' of the accelerator can also be used to maintain turbine speeds and thus avoid turbo lag. This technique ensures that maximum power can be reached the instant the brake pedal is released and the accelerator fully depressed. Rowing is the technique of downshifting more than one gear along with the heel-and-toe technique to provide engine braking and smoother deceleration/braking while in the intermediate gears. This provides for maximum braking when going from a top gear to a much lower gear, and optimal engine RPM for exiting the corner. References Speed Secrets: Professional Race Driving Techniques by Ross Bentley - Secrets of Solo Racing: Expert Techniques for Autocrossing and Time Trials by Henry A. Watts - External links Edmunds HOW TO with photos Heel and toe shifting explained with illustrations YouTube instructional video Fundamental Skills of Heel-and-Toe Ayrton Senna's heel-and-toe braking technique Driving techniques

263191

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20moorhen

Common moorhen

The common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), also known as the waterhen or swamp chicken, is a bird species in the rail family (Rallidae). It is distributed across many parts of the Old World. The common moorhen lives around well-vegetated marshes, ponds, canals and other wetlands. The species is not found in the polar regions or many tropical rainforests. Elsewhere it is likely the most common rail species, except for the Eurasian coot in some regions. The closely related common gallinule of the New World has been recognized as a separate species by most authorities, starting with the American Ornithologists' Union and the International Ornithological Committee in 2011. Name The name mor-hen has been recorded in English since the 13th century. The word moor here is an old sense meaning marsh; the species is not usually found in moorland. An older name, common waterhen, is more descriptive of the bird's habitat. A "watercock" is not a male "waterhen" but the rail species Gallicrex cinerea, not closely related to the common moorhen. "Water rail" usually refers to Rallus aquaticus, again not closely related. The scientific name Gallinula chloropus comes from the Latin Gallinula (a small hen or chicken) and the Greek chloropus (khloros χλωρός green or yellow, pous πούς foot). Description The moorhen is a distinctive species, with dark plumage apart from the white undertail, yellow legs and a red frontal shield. The young are browner and lack the red shield. The frontal shield of the adult has a rounded top and fairly parallel sides; the tailward margin of the red unfeathered area is a smooth waving line. In the related common gallinule of the Americas, the frontal shield has a fairly straight top and is less wide towards the bill, giving a marked indentation to the back margin of the red area. The common moorhen gives a wide range of gargling calls and will emit loud hisses when threatened. A midsized to large rail, it can range from in length and span across the wings. The body mass of this species can range from . Habitat This is a common breeding bird in marsh environments, well-vegetated lakes and even in city parks. Populations in areas where the waters freeze, such as eastern Europe, will migrate to more temperate climates. In China, common moorhen populations are largely resident south of the Yangtze River, whilst northern populations migrate in the winter, therefore these populations show high genetic diversity. Behaviour Diet and feeding This species will consume a wide variety of vegetable material and small aquatic creatures. They forage beside or in the water, sometimes walking on lilypads or upending in the water to feed. They are often secretive, but can become tame in some areas. Despite loss of habitat in parts of its range, the common moorhen remains plentiful and widespread. Breeding The birds are territorial during breeding season, and will fight with other members of their species, as well as other water birds such as ducks, to drive them out of their territory. The nest is a basket built on the ground in dense vegetation. Laying starts in spring, between mid-March and mid-May in Northern hemisphere temperate regions. About 8 eggs are usually laid per female early in the season; a brood later in the year usually has only 5–8 or fewer eggs. Nests may be re-used by different females. Incubation lasts about three weeks. Both parents incubate and feed the young. These fledge after 40–50 days, become independent usually a few weeks thereafter, and may raise their first brood the next spring. When threatened, the young may cling to the parents' body, after which the adult birds fly away to safety, carrying their offspring with them. Status and population On a global scale – all subspecies taken together – the common moorhen is as abundant as its vernacular name implies. It is therefore considered a species of Least Concern by the IUCN. However, small populations may be prone to extinction. The population of Palau, belonging to the widespread subspecies G. c. orientalis and locally known as debar (a generic term also used for ducks and meaning roughly "waterfowl"), is very rare, and apparently the birds are hunted by locals. Most of the population on the archipelago occurs on Angaur and Peleliu, while the species is probably already gone from Koror. In the Lake Ngardok wetlands of Babeldaob, a few dozen still occur, but the total number of common moorhens on Palau is about in the same region as the Guam population: fewer than 100 adult birds (usually fewer than 50) have been encountered in any survey. The common moorhen is one of the birds (the other is the Eurasian coot, Fulica atra) from which the cyclocoelid flatworm parasite Cyclocoelum mutabile was first described. The bird is also parasitised by the moorhen flea, Dasypsyllus gallinulae. Subspecies Five subspecies are today considered valid; several more have been described that are now considered junior synonyms. Most are not very readily recognizable, as differences are rather subtle and often clinal. Usually, the location of a sighting is the most reliable indication as to subspecies identification, but the migratory tendencies of this species make identifications based on location not completely reliable. In addition to the extant subspecies listed below, an undescribed form from the Early Pleistocene is recorded from Dursunlu in Turkey. Life cycle References External links (Common) Moorhen species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds Common Gallinule Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Common Moorhen Information - Gallinula chloropus - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter Madeira Birds – Moorhen breeding in Madeira Island Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.7 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze common moorhen common moorhen Birds of Africa Birds of Eurasia Birds of the Canary Islands Birds of the Gulf of Guinea Common moorhen Common moorhen Articles containing video clips

263193

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left-foot%20braking

Left-foot braking

Left-foot braking is the technique of using the left foot to operate the brake pedal in an automobile, leaving the right foot dedicated to the throttle pedal. It contrasts with the practice of using the left foot to operate the clutch pedal, leaving the right foot to share the duties of controlling both brake and gas pedals. At its most basic purpose, left-foot braking can be used to decrease the time spent moving the right foot between the brake and throttle pedals, and can also be used to control load transfer. It is most commonly used in auto racing (simultaneous gas and brake keeps turbo pressure and reduces turbo lag). Racing and rallying Karts, many open wheelers, and cars that are equipped with automatic transmissions, or semi-automatic transmissions with paddle-shifters (as used in motorsports such as Formula One) have no foot-operated clutch, and allow, or sometimes even require the driver to use their left foot to brake. One common race situation that requires left-foot braking is when a racer is cornering under power. If the driver does not want to lift off the throttle, potentially causing trailing-throttle oversteer, left-foot braking can induce a mild oversteer situation, and help the car "tuck", or turn-in better. Mild left-foot braking can also help reduce understeer. In rallying left-foot braking is very beneficial, especially to front-wheel drive vehicles. It is closely related to the handbrake turn, but involves locking the rear wheels using the foot brake (retarding actually, to reduce traction, rarely fully locking – best considered a misapplication), which is set up to apply a significant pressure bias to the rear brakes. The vehicle is balanced using engine power by use of the gas pedal, operated by the right foot. The left foot is thus brought into play to operate the brake. It is not as necessary to use this technique with rear-wheel drive and four-wheel drive rally vehicles because they can be easily turned rapidly by using excess power to the wheels and the use of opposite lock steering, however the technique is still beneficial when the driver needs to decelerate and slide at the same time. In rear wheel drive, left foot braking can be used when the car is at opposite lock and about to spin. Using throttle and brake will lock the front tires but not the rears, thus giving the rears more traction and bringing the front end around. Finnish rally legend Flying Finn Rauno Aaltonen used left-foot braking as a driving style in rallying when he competed for Saab in the 1950s. In restrictor plate NASCAR events, drivers were known to left-foot-brake at times, particularly in heavy traffic situations. Rather than lift off the throttle, which could lose considerable power and speed (due to the restrictor plates), a mild tap of the brakes while the right foot was still planted flat on the gas, could help avoid contact and bump drafting. This technique should not be confused with heel-and-toe shifting, which is another driving technique. Switch-foot braking A left-foot braking technique where the driver will complete the heel-and-toe downshift using standard right-foot braking at which time they will switch to left-foot braking. This is most often used by drivers wishing to employ left-foot braking, but that must still use the left foot to operate the clutch. Throttle-braking A braking technique where the driver will combine the use of left-foot braking with throttle to dynamically control brake bias and remove engine braking. In a rear wheel drive vehicle, greater throttle usage while braking will counteract the rear braking force and move the brake bias forward. Road use Many commentators advise against the use of left-foot braking while driving on public roads. Critics of the technique suggest that it can cause confusion when switching to or from a vehicle with a manual transmission, and that it is difficult to achieve the necessary sensitivity to brake smoothly when one's left foot is accustomed to operating a clutch pedal. Most of the arguments are based on the difficulty of switching from automatic to manual cars, and do not apply to people who only drive automatic cars. However, some commentators do recommend left-foot braking as routine practice when driving vehicles fitted with an automatic transmission, when maneuvering at low speeds. Proponents of the technique note that in low-speed maneuvers, a driver of a vehicle with a manual transmission will usually keep a foot poised over the clutch pedal, ready to disengage power when the vehicle nears an obstacle. This means that disengagement is also possible in the event of malfunction such as an engine surge. However, the absence of a clutch pedal on a vehicle with automatic transmission means that there is no such safety override, unless the driver has a foot poised over the brake pedal. References Bibliography External links Left-foot braking technique explained Driving techniques

263196

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20gallinule

Common gallinule

The common gallinule (Gallinula galeata) is a bird in the family Rallidae. It was split from the common moorhen by the American Ornithologists' Union in July 2011. It lives around well-vegetated marshes, ponds, canals, and other wetlands in the Americas. The species is not found in the polar regions or many tropical rainforests. Elsewhere, the common gallinule is likely the most commonly seen rail species in much of North America, except for the American coot in some regions. Description and ecology The gallinule has dark plumage apart from the white undertail, yellow legs and a red frontal shield. The young are browner and lack the red shield. It has a wide range of gargling calls and will emit loud hisses when threatened. Measurements: Length: 12.6-13.8 in (32-35 cm) Weight: 10.9-16.1 oz (310-456 g) Wingspan: 21.3-24.4 in (54-62 cm) This is a common breeding bird in marsh environments and well-vegetated lakes. Populations in areas where the waters freeze, such as southern Canada and the northern USA, will migrate to more temperate climes. This species will consume a wide variety of vegetable material and small aquatic creatures. It forages beside or in the water, sometimes upending in the water to feed. Its wide feet allow it to hop about on lily pads. It is often secretive, but can become tame in some areas. Despite loss of habitat in parts of its range, the common gallinule remains plentiful and widespread. The common gallinule will fight to defend its territory. The nest is a basket built on the ground in dense vegetation. Laying starts in spring, between mid-March and mid-May in northern hemisphere temperate regions. About 8 eggs are usually laid per female early in the season; a brood later in the year usually has only 5–8 or even fewer eggs. Nests may be re-used by different females. Incubation lasts about three weeks. Both parents incubate and feed the young. These fledge after 40–50 days, become independent usually a few weeks thereafter, and may raise their first brood the next spring. When threatened, the young may cling to a parent's body, after which the adult birds fly away to safety, carrying their offspring with them. This species is parasitized by the moorhen flea, Dasypsyllus gallinulae. Subspecies Seven subspecies are today considered valid; others have been described that are now considered junior synonyms. Most are not very readily recognizable, as differences are rather subtle and often clinal. Usually, the location of a sighting is the most reliable indication as to subspecies identification, but the migratory tendencies of this species make identifications based on location not completely reliable. In addition to the extant subspecies listed below, there is a Pleistocene population known from fossils: the larger, stout and long-winged paleosubspecies G. g. brodkorbi is known from the Ichetucknee River deposits in Florida. It was originally described as a distinct species, but is probably the direct ancestor of some of today's common gallinules. The presence in the same deposits of fossils typical of the shorter-winged and more delicate G. g. cerceris suggests that G. g. brodkorbi was not ancestral to the Antillean (Florida) gallinule of our time but rather to the more northerly North American subspecies. References Further reading Dronen, Norman O.; Gardner, Scott L. & Jiménez, F. Agustín (2006): Selfcoelum limnodromi n. gen., n. sp. (Digenea: Cyclocoelidae: Cyclocoelinae) from the long-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus scolopaceus (Charadriiformes: Scolopacidae) from Oklahoma, U.S.A.. Zootaxa 1131: 49–58. PDF fulltext Olson, Storrs L. (1974): The Pleistocene Rails of North America. Condor 76(2): 169–175. DjVu fulltext PDF fulltext External links Common Gallinule Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Common Moorhen - Gallinula chloropus - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter common gallinule Birds of the Americas Birds of the Caribbean Birds of Hispaniola Birds of the Dominican Republic Birds of Haiti common gallinule

263198

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposite%20lock

Opposite lock

Opposite lock, also commonly known as counter-steering, is a colloquial term used to mean the steering associated with the deliberate use of oversteer to turn a vehicle rapidly without losing momentum. It is typified by the classic rallying style of rear-wheel drive cars, where a car travels around a bend with a large drift angle. The terms "opposite lock" and "counter-steering" refer to the position of the steering wheel during the maneuver, which is turned in the opposite direction to that of the bend. The technique works best on loose or wet surfaces where the friction between the tires and the road is not too high, but can also be used on asphalt or other surfaces with high friction if the vehicle has enough power to maintain speed. Before entry to the bend, the car is turned towards the bend slightly, but quickly, so as to cause a rotating motion that induces the rear of the car to slide outwards. Power is applied which applies further sideways movement. At the same time, opposite lock steering is applied to keep the car on the desired course. As the car reaches the bend it will have already turned through most of the needed angle, traveling sideways and losing some speed as a result. A smooth application of power at this point will accelerate the car into the bend and then through it, gradually removing the sideways component of travel. For front-wheel drive vehicles, there is much less natural tendency for the rear wheels to break traction because they are not transmitting power, so often such vehicles are set up with a strong bias to the rear brakes, allowing the driver to control traction using the brake pedal. The brake bias (front/rear) may be continually controllable by the driver using a hand lever. Left-foot braking is the favoured technique for using opposite lock in a front drive vehicle. Opposite lock can be a useful technique for saving a car from a loss of control such as an unintentional skid. A related technique is the handbrake turn, in which the rear wheels are deliberately locked in order to break the friction between the tires and the road, allowing the car to be spun around a very tight bend or junction, etc. See also Drifting (motorsport) Scandinavian flick References Driving techniques

263203

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andean%20goose

Andean goose

The Andean goose (Chloephaga melanoptera) is a member of the duck, goose and swan family Anatidae. It is also known as the wallata. It is in the shelduck subfamily Tadorninae. It is resident around lakes and marshes in the high Andes, usually well above . It is largely terrestrial and avoids swimming except in emergencies. This heavily built bird has a tiny pink bill and white plumage except for black in the wings and tail. The female is similar to the male except that it is smaller. The Andean goose is a grazing species, eating grasses. It nests on the ground in a bare scrape near water, laying 6–10 eggs. It is territorial in the breeding season, but otherwise forms small flocks. Based on a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2014, some authorities place this species together with the Orinoco goose in the resurrected genus Oressochen. Physiology and hemoglobin adaptation Andean geese have developed a mutation in their hemoglobin that has led to a vast increase in hemoglobin-oxygen affinity. More specifically, Hiebl et al. found that the Andean goose has developed mutations that lead to five amino-acid substitutions in the alpha-chain and five substitutions in the beta-chain of their hemoglobin. A particular substitution in the Andean goose beta-chain has led to the elimination of a Van der Waals interaction between the alpha-chain and the beta-chain. This has destabilized the T-state (the deoxygenated state of hemoglobin), which has led to a higher affinity for being in the R-state (oxygenated state of hemoglobin). Overall, this mutation increases the hemoglobin-oxygen affinity of the Andean goose. References Andean goose Andean goose Andean goose Andean goose

263209

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom%20cloud

Mushroom cloud

A mushroom cloud is a distinctive mushroom-shaped flammagenitus cloud of debris, smoke and usually condensed water vapor resulting from a large explosion. The effect is most commonly associated with a nuclear explosion, but any sufficiently energetic detonation or deflagration will produce the same effect. They can be caused by powerful conventional weapons, like thermobaric weapons, including the ATBIP and GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast. Some volcanic eruptions and impact events can produce natural mushroom clouds. Mushroom clouds result from the sudden formation of a large volume of lower-density gases at any altitude, causing a Rayleigh–Taylor instability. The buoyant mass of gas rises rapidly, resulting in turbulent vortices curling downward around its edges, forming a temporary vortex ring that draws up a central column, possibly with smoke, debris, condensed water vapor, or a combination of these, to form the "mushroom stem". The mass of gas plus entrained moist air eventually reaches an altitude where it is no longer of lower density than the surrounding air; at this point, it disperses, drifting back down (see fallout). The stabilization altitude depends strongly on the profiles of the temperature, dew point, and wind shear in the air at and above the starting altitude. Early accounts, origins of the term Although the term appears to have been coined at the start of the 1950s, mushroom clouds generated by explosions were being described centuries before the atomic era. A contemporary aquatint by an unknown artist of the 1782 Franco-Spanish attack on Gibraltar shows one of the attacking force's floating batteries exploding with a mushroom cloud, after the British defenders set it ablaze by firing heated shot. In 1798, Gerhard Vieth published a detailed and illustrated account of a cloud in the neighborhood of Gotha that was "not unlike a mushroom in shape". The cloud had been observed by legation counselor Lichtenberg a few years earlier on a warm summer afternoon. It was interpreted as an irregular meteorological cloud and seemed to have caused a storm with rain and thunder from a new dark cloud that developed beneath it. Lichtenberg stated to have later observed somewhat similar clouds, but none as remarkable. The 1917 Halifax Explosion produced one. The Times published a report on 1 October 1937 of a Japanese attack on Shanghai in China which generated "a great mushroom of smoke". During World War II, descriptions of mushroom clouds were relatively common. The atomic bomb cloud over Nagasaki, Japan was described in The Times of London of 13 August 1945 as a "huge mushroom of smoke and dust". On 9 September 1945, The New York Times published an eyewitness account of the Nagasaki bombing, written by William L. Laurence, the official newspaper correspondent of the Manhattan Project, who accompanied one of the three aircraft that made the bombing run. He wrote of the bomb producing a "pillar of purple fire", out of the top of which came "a giant mushroom that increased the height of the pillar to a total of 45,000 feet". Later in 1946, the Operation Crossroads nuclear bomb tests were described as having a "cauliflower" cloud, but a reporter present also spoke of "the mushroom, now the common symbol of the atomic age". Mushrooms have traditionally been associated both with life and death, food and poison, making them a more powerful symbolic connection than, say, the "cauliflower" cloud. Physics Mushroom clouds are formed by many sorts of large explosions under Earth's gravity, but they are best known for their appearance after nuclear detonations. Without gravity, or without a thick atmosphere, the explosive's by-product gases would remain spherical. Nuclear weapons are usually detonated above the ground (not upon impact, because some of the energy would be dissipated by the ground motions), to maximize the effect of their spherically-expanding fireball and blast wave. Immediately after the detonation, the fireball begins to rise into the air, acting on the same principle as a hot-air balloon. One way to analyze the motion, once the hot gas has cleared the ground sufficiently, is as a 'spherical cap bubble', as this gives agreement between the rate of rise and observed diameter. As it rises, a Rayleigh–Taylor instability is formed, and air is drawn upwards and into the cloud (similar to the updraft of a chimney), producing strong air currents known as "afterwinds", while, inside the head of the cloud, the hot gases rotate in a toroidal shape. When the detonation altitude is low enough, these afterwinds will draw in dirt and debris from the ground below to form the stem of the mushroom cloud. After the mass of hot gases reaches its equilibrium level, the ascent stops, and the cloud starts flattening to the characteristic mushroom shape, usually aided by surface growth due to the decaying turbulence. Nuclear mushroom clouds Nuclear detonations produced high above the ground might not create mushroom clouds with a stem. The heads of the clouds themselves consist of highly radioactive particles, primarily the fission products and other weapon debris aerosols, and are usually dispersed by the wind, though weather patterns (especially rain) can produce problematic nuclear fallout. Detonations significantly below ground level or deep below the water (for instance, nuclear depth charges) also do not produce mushroom clouds, as the explosion causes the vaporization of a huge amount of earth and water in these instances, creating a bubble which then collapses in on itself; in the case of a less deep underground explosion, this produces a subsidence crater. Detonations underwater but near the surface produce a pillar of water, which, in collapsing, forms a cauliflower-like shape, which is easily mistaken for a mushroom cloud (such as in the well-known pictures of the Crossroads Baker test). Underground detonations at low depth produce a mushroom cloud and a base surge, two different distinct clouds. The amount of radiation vented into the atmosphere decreases rapidly with increasing detonation depth. With surface and near-surface air bursts, the amount of debris lofted into the air decreases rapidly with increasing burst altitude. At burst altitudes of approximately 7meters/kiloton, a crater is not formed, and correspondingly lower amounts of dust and debris are produced. The fallout-reducing height, above which the primary radioactive particles consist mainly of the fine fireball condensation, is approximately 55meters/kiloton. However, even at these burst altitudes, fallout may be formed by a number of mechanisms. The distribution of radiation in the mushroom cloud varies with the yield of the explosion, type of weapon, fusion–fission ratio, burst altitude, terrain type, and weather. In general, lower-yield explosions have about 90% of their radioactivity in the mushroom head and 10% in the stem. In contrast, megaton-range explosions tend to have most of their radioactivity in the lower third of the mushroom cloud. At the moment of the explosion, the fireball is formed. The ascending, roughly spherical mass of hot, incandescent gases changes shape due to atmospheric friction and cools its surface by energy radiation, turning from a sphere to a violently rotating spheroidal vortex. A Rayleigh–Taylor instability is formed as the underneath cool air initially pushes the bottom fireball gases into an inverted cup shape. This causes turbulence and a vortex that sucks more air into its center, creating external afterwinds and cooling itself. The speed of its rotating slows down as it cools, and may stop entirely during later phases. The vaporized parts of the weapon and ionized air cool into visible gases, forming the early cloud; the white-hot vortex core becomes yellow, then dark red, then loses visible incandescence. With further cooling, the bulk of the cloud fills in as atmospheric moisture condenses. As the cloud ascends and cools, its buoyancy lessens, and its ascent slows. If the size of the fireball is comparable to the atmospheric density scale height, the whole cloud rise will be ballistic, overshooting a large volume of overdense air to greater altitudes than the final stabilization altitude. Significantly smaller fireballs produce clouds with buoyancy-governed ascent. After reaching the tropopause, the bottom of the region of strong static stability, the cloud tends to slow its ascent and spread out. If it contains sufficient energy, the central part of it may continue rising up into the stratosphere as an analog of a standard thunderstorm. A mass of air ascending from the troposphere to the stratosphere leads to the formation of acoustic gravity waves, virtually identical to those created by intense stratosphere-penetrating thunderstorms. Smaller-scale explosions penetrating the tropopause generate waves of higher frequency, classified as infrasound. The explosion raises a large amount of moisture-laden air from lower altitudes. As the air rises, its temperature drops, and its water vapour first condenses as water droplets, and later freezes as ice crystals. The phase changes release latent heat, heating the cloud and driving it to yet higher altitudes. A mushroom cloud undergoes several phases of formation. Early time, the first ≈20 seconds, when the fireball forms and the fission products mix with the material aspired from the ground or ejected from the crater. The condensation of evaporated ground occurs in first few seconds, most intensely during fireball temperatures between 3500–4100 K. Rise and stabilization phase, 20 seconds to 10 minutes, when the hot gases rise up and early large fallout is deposited. Late time, until about 2 days later, when the airborne particles are being distributed by wind, deposited by gravity, and scavenged by precipitation. The shape of the cloud is influenced by the local atmospheric conditions and wind patterns. The fallout distribution is predominantly a downwind plume. However, if the cloud reaches the tropopause, it may spread against the wind, because its convection speed is higher than the ambient wind speed. At the tropopause, the cloud shape is roughly circular and spread out. The initial color of some radioactive clouds can be colored red or reddish-brown, due to presence of nitrogen dioxide and nitric acid, formed from initially ionized nitrogen, oxygen, and atmospheric moisture. In the high-temperature, high-radiation environment of the blast, ozone is also formed. It is estimated that each megaton of yield produces about 5000 tons of nitrogen oxides. Yellow and orange hues have also been described. This reddish hue is later obscured by the white colour of water/ice clouds, condensing out of the fast-flowing air as the fireball cools, and the dark colour of smoke and debris sucked into the updraft. The ozone gives the blast its characteristic corona discharge-like smell. The droplets of condensed water gradually evaporate, leading to the cloud's apparent disappearance. The radioactive particles, however, remain suspended in the air, and the now-invisible cloud continues depositing fallout along its path. The stem of the cloud is gray to brown in a groundburst, as large amounts of dust, dirt, soil, and debris are sucked into the mushroom cloud. Airbursts produce white, steamy stems. Groundbursts produce dark mushroom clouds, containing irradiated material from the ground in addition to the bomb and its casing, and therefore produce more radioactive fallout, with larger particles that readily deposit locally. A higher-yield detonation can carry the nitrogen oxides from the burst high enough in atmosphere to cause significant depletion of the ozone layer. A double mushroom, with two levels, can be formed under certain conditions. For example, the Buster-Jangle Sugar shot formed the first head from the blast itself, followed by another one generated by the heat from the hot, freshly formed crater. The fallout itself may appear as dry, ash-like flakes, or as particles too small to be visible; in the latter case, the particles are often deposited by rain. Large amounts of newer, more radioactive particles deposited on skin can cause beta burns, often presenting as discolored spots and lesions on the backs of exposed animals. The fallout from the Castle Bravo test had the appearance of white dust and was nicknamed Bikini snow; the tiny white flakes resembled snowflakes, stuck to surfaces, and had a salty taste. 41.4% of the fallout from the Operation Wigwam test consisted of irregular opaque particles, slightly over 25% of particles with transparent and opaque areas, approximately 20% of microscopic marine organisms, and 2% of microscopic radioactive threads of unknown origin. Cloud composition The cloud contains three main classes of material: the remains of the weapon and its fission products, the material acquired from the ground (only significant for burst altitudes below the fallout-reducing altitude, which depends on the weapon yield), and water vapour. The bulk of the radiation contained in the cloud consists of the nuclear fission products; neutron activation products from the weapon materials, air, and the ground debris form only a minor fraction. Neutron activation starts during the neutron burst at the instant of the blast itself, and the range of this neutron burst is limited by the absorption of the neutrons as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere. Most of the radiation is created by the fission products. Thermonuclear weapons produce a significant part of their yield from nuclear fusion. Fusion products are typically non-radioactive. The degree of radiation fallout production is therefore measured in kilotons of fission. The Tsar Bomba, which produced 97% of its 50-megaton yield from fusion, was a very clean weapon compared to what would typically be expected of a weapon of its yield (although it still produced 1.5 megatons of its yield from fission), as its fusion tamper was made of lead instead of uranium-238; otherwise, its yield would have been 100 megatons with 51 of those from fission. Were it to be detonated at or near the surface, its fallout would comprise fully one-quarter of all the fallout from every nuclear weapon test, combined. Initially, the fireball contains a highly ionized plasma consisting only of atoms of the weapon, its fission products, and atmospheric gases of adjacent air. As the plasma cools, the atoms react, forming fine droplets and then solid particles of oxides. The particles coalesce to larger ones, and deposit on surface of other particles. Larger particles usually originate from material aspired into the cloud. Particles aspired while the cloud is still hot enough to melt them mix with the fission products throughout their volume. Larger particles get molten radioactive materials deposited on their surface. Particles aspired into the cloud later, when its temperature is low enough, do not become significantly contaminated. Particles formed only from the weapon itself are fine enough to stay airborne for a long time and become widely dispersed and diluted to non-hazardous levels. Higher-altitude blasts which do not aspire ground debris, or which aspire dust only after cooling enough and where the radioactive fraction of the particles is therefore small, cause a much smaller degree of localized fallout than lower-altitude blasts with larger radioactive particles formed. The concentration of condensation products is the same for the small particles and for the deposited surface layers of larger particles. About 100 kg of small particles are formed per kiloton of yield. The volume, and therefore activity, of the small particles is almost three orders of magnitude lower than the volume of the deposited surface layers on larger particles. For higher-altitude blasts, the primary particle forming processes are condensation and subsequent coagulation. For lower-altitude and ground blasts, with involvement of soil particles, the primary process is deposition on the foreign particles. A low-altitude detonation produces a cloud with a dust loading of 100 tons per megaton of yield. A ground detonation produces clouds with about three times as much dust. For a ground detonation, approximately 200 tons of soil per kiloton of yield is melted and comes in contact with radiation. The fireball volume is the same for a surface or an atmospheric detonation. In the first case, the fireball is a hemisphere instead of a sphere, with a correspondingly larger radius. The particle sizes range from submicrometer- and micrometer-sized (created by condensation of plasma in the fireball), through 10–500 micrometers (surface material agitated by the blast wave and raised by the afterwinds), to millimeter and above (crater ejecta). The size of particles together with the altitude they are carried to, determines the length of their stay in the atmosphere, as larger particles are subject to dry precipitation. Smaller particles can be also scavenged by precipitation, either from the moisture condensing in the cloud itself or from the cloud intersecting with a rain cloud. The fallout carried down by rain is known as rain-out if scavenged during raincloud formation, washout if absorbed into already formed falling raindrops. Particles from air bursts are smaller than 10–25 micrometers, usually in the submicrometer range. They are composed mostly of iron oxides, with smaller proportion of aluminium oxide, and uranium and plutonium oxides. Particles larger than 1–2 micrometers are very spherical, corresponding to vaporized material condensing into droplets and then solidifying. The radioactivity is evenly distributed throughout the particle volume, making total activity of the particles linearly dependent on particle volume. About 80% of activity is present in more volatile elements, which condense only after the fireball cools to considerable degree. For example, strontium-90 will have less time to condense and coalesce into larger particles, resulting in greater degree of mixing in the volume of air and smaller particles. The particles produced immediately after the burst are small, with 90% of the radioactivity present in particles smaller than 300 nanometers. These coagulate with stratospheric aerosols. Coagulation is more extensive in the troposphere, and, at ground level, most activity is present in particles between 300 nm and 1 µm. The coagulation offsets the fractionation processes at particle formation, evening out isotopic distribution. For ground and low-altitude bursts, the cloud contains also vaporized, melted and fused soil particles. The distribution of activity through the particles depends on their formation. Particles formed by vaporization-condensation have activity evenly distributed through volume as the air-burst particles. Larger molten particles have the fission products diffused through the outer layers, and fused and non-melted particles that were not heated sufficiently but came in contact with the vaporized material or scavenged droplets before their solidification have a relatively thin layer of high activity material deposited on their surface. The composition of such particles depends on the character of the soil, usually a glass-like material formed from silicate minerals. The particle sizes do not depend on the yield but instead on the soil character, as they are based on individual grains of the soil or their clusters. Two types of particles are present, spherical, formed by complete vaporization-condensation or at least melting of the soil, with activity distributed evenly through the volume (or with a 10–30% volume of inactive core for larger particles between 0.5–2 mm), and irregular-shaped particles formed at the edges of the fireball by fusion of soil particles, with activity deposited in a thin surface layer. The amount of large irregular particles is insignificant. Particles formed from detonations above, or in, the ocean, will contain short-lived radioactive sodium isotopes, and salts from the sea water. Molten silica is a very good solvent for metal oxides and scavenges small particles easily; explosions above silica-containing soils will produce particles with isotopes mixed through their volume. In contrast, coral debris, based on calcium carbonate, tends to adsorb radioactive particles on its surface. The elements undergo fractionation during particle formation, due to their different volatility. Refractory elements (Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm) form oxides with high boiling points; these precipitate the fastest and at the time of particle solidification, at temperature of 1400 °C, are considered to be fully condensed. Volatile elements (Kr, Xe, I, Br) are not condensed at that temperature. Intermediate elements have their (or their oxides) boiling points close to the solidification temperature of the particles (Rb, Cs, Mo, Ru, Rh, Tc, Sb, Te). The elements in the fireball are present as oxides, unless the temperature is above the decomposition temperature of a given oxide. Less refractory products condense on surfaces of solidified particles. Isotopes with gaseous precursors solidify on the surface of the particles as they are produced by decay. The largest, and therefore the most radioactive particles, are deposited by fallout in the first few hours after the blast. Smaller particles are carried to higher altitudes and descend more slowly, reaching ground in a less radioactive state as the isotopes with the shortest half-lives decay the fastest. The smallest particles can reach the stratosphere and stay there for weeks, months, or even years, and cover an entire hemisphere of the planet via atmospheric currents. The higher danger, short-term, localized fallout is deposited primarily downwind from the blast site, in a cigar-shaped area, assuming a wind of constant strength and direction. Crosswinds, changes in wind direction, and precipitation are factors that can greatly alter the fallout pattern. The condensation of water droplets in the mushroom cloud depends on the amount of condensation nuclei. Too many condensation nuclei actually inhibit condensation, as the particles compete for a relatively insufficient amount of water vapor. Chemical reactivity of the elements and their oxides, ion adsorption properties, and compound solubility influence particle distribution in the environment after deposition from the atmosphere. Bioaccumulation influences the propagation of fallout radioisotopes in the biosphere. Radioisotopes The primary fallout hazard is gamma radiation from short-lived radioisotopes, which represent the bulk of activity. Within 24 hours after the burst, the fallout gamma radiation level drops 60 times. Longer-life radioisotopes, typically caesium-137 and strontium-90, present a long-term hazard. Intense beta radiation from the fallout particles can cause beta burns to people and animals coming in contact with the fallout shortly after the blast. Ingested or inhaled particles cause an internal dose of alpha and beta radiation, which may lead to long-term effects, including cancer. The neutron irradiation of the atmosphere itself produces a small amount of activation, mainly as long-lived carbon-14 and short-lived argon-41. The elements most important for induced radioactivity for sea water are sodium-24, chlorine, magnesium, and bromine. For ground bursts, the elements of concern are aluminium-28, silicon-31, sodium-24, manganese-56, iron-59, and cobalt-60. The bomb casing can be a significant sources of neutron-activated radioisotopes. The neutron flux in the bombs, especially thermonuclear devices, is sufficient for high-threshold nuclear reactions. The induced isotopes include cobalt-60, 57 and 58, iron-59 and 55, manganese-54, zinc-65, yttrium-88, and possibly nickel-58 and 62, niobium-63, holmium-165, iridium-191, and short-lived manganese-56, sodium-24, silicon-31, and aluminium-28. Europium-152 and 154 can be present, as well as two nuclear isomers of rhodium-102. During the Operation Hardtack, tungsten-185, 181 and 187 and rhenium-188 were produced from elements added as tracers to the bomb casings, to allow identification of fallout produced by specific explosions. Antimony-124, cadmium-109, and cadmium-113m are also mentioned as tracers. The most significant radiation sources are the fission products from the primary fission stage, and in the case of fission-fusion-fission weapons, from the fission of the fusion stage uranium tamper. Many more neutrons per unit of energy are released in a thermonuclear explosion in comparison with a purely fission yield influencing the fission products composition. For example, the uranium-237 isotope is a unique thermonuclear explosion marker, as it is produced by a (n,2n) reaction from uranium-238, with the minimal neutron energy needed being about 5.9 MeV. Considerable amounts of neptunium-239 and uranium-237 are indicators of a fission-fusion-fission explosion. Minor amounts of uranium-240 are also formed, and capture of large numbers of neutrons by individual nuclei leads to formation of small but detectable amounts of higher transuranium elements, e.g. einsteinium-255 and fermium-255. One of the important fission products is krypton-90, a radioactive noble gas. It diffuses easily in the cloud, and undergoes two decays to rubidium-90 and then strontium-90, with half-lives of 33 seconds and 3 minutes. The noble gas nonreactivity and rapid diffusion is responsible for depletion of local fallout in Sr-90, and corresponding Sr-90 enrichment of remote fallout. The radioactivity of the particles decreases with time, with different isotopes being significant at different timespans. For soil activation products, aluminium-28 is the most important contributor during the first 15 minutes. Manganese-56 and sodium-24 follow until about 200 hours. Iron-59 follows at 300 hours, and after 100–300 days, the significant contributor becomes cobalt-60. Radioactive particles can be carried for considerable distances. Radiation from the Trinity test was washed out by a rainstorm in Illinois. This was deduced, and the origin traced, when Eastman Kodak found x-ray films were being fogged by cardboard packaging produced in the Midwest. Unanticipated winds carried lethal doses of Castle Bravo fallout over the Rongelap Atoll, forcing its evacuation. The crew of Daigo Fukuryu Maru, a Japanese fishing boat located outside of the predicted danger zone, was also affected. Strontium-90 found in worldwide fallout later led to the Partial Test Ban Treaty. Fluorescent glow The intense radiation in the first seconds after the blast may cause an observable aura of fluorescence, the blue-violet-purple glow of ionized oxygen and nitrogen out to a significant distance from the fireball, surrounding the head of the forming mushroom cloud. This light is most easily visible at night or under conditions of weak daylight. The brightness of the glow decreases rapidly with elapsed time since the detonation, becoming only barely visible after a few tens of seconds. Condensation effects Nuclear mushroom clouds are often accompanied by short-lived vapour clouds, known variously as "Wilson clouds", condensation clouds, or vapor rings. The "negative phase" following the positive overpressure behind a shock front causes a sudden rarefaction of the surrounding medium. This low pressure region causes an adiabatic drop in temperature, causing moisture in the air to condense in an outward moving shell surrounding the explosion. When the pressure and temperature return to normal, the Wilson cloud dissipates. Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a "Wilson cloud" because of its visual similarity to a Wilson cloud chamber; the cloud chamber uses condensation from a rapid pressure drop to mark the tracks of electrically charged subatomic particles. Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term "condensation cloud" in preference to "Wilson cloud". The same kind of condensation is sometimes seen above the wings of jet aircraft at low altitude in high-humidity conditions. The top of a wing is a curved surface. The curvature (and increased air velocity) causes a reduction in air pressure, as given by Bernoulli's Law. This reduction in air pressure causes cooling, and when the air cools past its dew point, water vapour condenses out of the air, producing droplets of water, which become visible as a white cloud. In technical terms, the "Wilson cloud" is also an example of the Prandtl–Glauert singularity in aerodynamics. The shape of the shock wave is influenced by variation of the speed of sound with altitude, and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds. Condensation rings around or above the fireball are a commonly observed feature. Rings around the fireball may become stable, becoming rings around the rising stem. Higher-yield explosions cause intense updrafts, where air speeds can reach . The entrainment of higher-humidity air, combined with the associated drop in pressure and temperature, leads to the formation of skirts and bells around the stem. If the water droplets become sufficiently large, the cloud structure they form may become heavy enough to descend; in this way, a rising stem with a descending bell around it can be produced. Layering of humidity in the atmosphere, responsible for the appearance of the condensation rings as opposed to a spherical cloud, also influences the shape of the condensation artifacts along the stem of the mushroom cloud, as the updraft causes laminar flow. The same effect above the top of the cloud, where the expansion of the rising cloud pushes a layer of warm, humid, low-altitude air upwards into cold, high-altitude air, first causes the condensation of water vapour out of the air and then causes the resulting droplets to freeze, forming ice caps (or icecaps), similar in both appearance and mechanism of formation to scarf clouds. The resulting composite structures can become very complex. The Castle Bravo cloud had, at various phases of its development, 4 condensation rings, 3 ice caps, 2 skirts, and 3 bells. See also Condensation cloud References Bibliography Glasstone, Samuel, and Dolan, Philip J. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons 3rd edn. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Defense and Energy Research and Development Administration, 1977. (esp. "Chronological development of an air-burst" and "Description of Air and Surface Bursts" in Chapter II) Vigh, Jonathan. Mechanisms by Which the Atmosphere Adjusts to an Extremely Large Explosive Event, 2001. External links Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapon Archive has many photographs of mushroom clouds DOE Nevada Site Office has many photographs of nuclear tests conducted at the Nevada Test Site and elsewhere Burning bulbs is a set of photographs by Kevin Tieskoetter, showing fine mushroom cloud structures generated by burning lightbulb filaments in air Nuclear weapons Vortices Explosions Cloud types de:Kernwaffenexplosion#Pilzwolke (Atompilz)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipper%20Gore

Tipper Gore

Mary Elizabeth "Tipper" Gore (née Aitcheson; born August 19, 1948) is an American social issues advocate, activist, photographer and author who was the second lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001. She is married to Al Gore, the 45th vice president of the United States, although they separated in 2010. In 1985, Gore co-founded the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC), which advocated for labeling of record covers of releases featuring profane language, especially in the heavy metal, punk, and hip hop genres of music. Throughout her decades of public life, she has advocated for placing advisory labels on music (leading critics to call her a censor), mental health awareness, women's causes, children's causes, LGBT rights, and reducing homelessness. Early life and education Born Mary Elizabeth Aitcheson in Washington, D.C., Tipper Gore is the daughter of John Kenneth "Jack" Aitcheson, Jr., a plumbing-supply entrepreneur and owner of J & H Aitcheson Plumbing Supply, and his first wife, Margaret Ann (née Carlson) Odom (who lost her first husband during World War II). She was given the nickname "Tipper" by her mother, from a lullaby her mother had heard. Gore grew up in Arlington, Virginia. Her mother and grandmother raised her after her parents divorced. She attended St. Agnes (now St. Stephen's & St. Agnes School), a private Episcopal school in Alexandria, Virginia, where she played basketball, softball and field hockey, and played the drums for an all-female band called The Wildcats. She met Al Gore at his senior prom in 1965. Although she came to the prom with one of his classmates, Gore and Tipper began to date immediately afterwards. When Al Gore began attending Harvard University, she enrolled in Garland Junior College (now part of Simmons College) and later transferred to Boston University receiving her B.A. in psychology in 1970. On May 19, 1970, she and Gore were married at the Washington National Cathedral. Gore pursued a master's degree in psychology from Vanderbilt University's George Peabody College, graduating in 1975. Career Gore worked part-time as a newspaper photographer for Nashville's The Tennessean and continued as a freelance photographer in Washington after her husband was elected to the U.S. Congress in 1976. Politics and activism Gore took an active role in her husband's political pursuits starting with his first campaign for the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee in 1976. Soon after her husband's election, Gore established a group to examine and write about social issues called the Congressional Wives Task Force. In 1984, Gore began volunteering in homeless shelters. Homelessness became a major cause for Gore, and she formed a group called Families for the Homeless to raise funds and awareness for the issue. Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) In 1985, Tipper Gore co-founded the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) with Sally Nevius, Pam Howar, and Susan Baker, wife of then–United States secretary of the treasury James Baker, because Gore heard her then 11-year-old daughter Karenna playing "Darling Nikki" by Prince. The group's goal was to increase parental and consumer awareness of music that contained explicit content through voluntary labeling albums with Parental Advisory stickers. Their coalition included the National PTA and the American Academy of Pediatrics. The PMRC had no members, merely founders, and all of the founders were wives of prominent politicians. According to an article by NPR, Gore went "before Congress to urge warning labels for records marketed to children." Gore explained that her purpose wasn't to put a "gag" on music, but to keep it safe for younger listeners by providing parents with information about the content of the songs. A number of individuals including Dee Snider of Twisted Sister, Jello Biafra of the Dead Kennedys, John Denver, Joey Ramone, and Frank Zappa criticized the group, arguing that it was a form of censorship. Gore's relationship with Snider was particularly antagonistic, with Snider accusing her of having a "dirty mind" for suggesting that his band's song "Under the Blade" contained sadomasochistic references, when the song in fact referred to medical surgery instead. In response to such criticism, NPR further stated that according to Gore, she "wasn't out to censor the objectionable material" and quoted her as stating that she is "a strong believer in the First Amendment" who is calling for greater "consumer information in the marketplace." The PMRC's efforts were successful and resulted in an agreement where recording labels voluntarily placed warning labels on music with violent or sexually explicit lyrics. 1990s to present In 1990, Gore founded the Tennessee Voices for Children to advance youth services for mental health and substance abuse. Gore also co-chaired the National Mental Health Association's Child Mental Health Interest Group. Gore campaigned during her husband's 1988 presidential bid and toured with him and Bill and Hillary Clinton during the presidential campaign of 1992. As second lady, Gore served as the mental health policy advisor to the president. Her goals were to diminish the stigma surrounding mental illness and to bring awareness to the need for affordable mental health care. In 1999, Gore hosted the first White House Conference on Mental Health. That same year, she launched the National Mental Health Awareness Campaign (NMHAC) to encourage Americans to seek treatment for mental illness. Gore has frequently spoken about her own experience with depression and treatment following the near-fatal injury of her son Albert. Along with her work in mental health, Gore was a part of several other initiatives during her time as second lady. She served as special advisor to the Interagency Council on the Homeless and as the national spokesperson for the "Back to Sleep" SIDS awareness campaign. In 1994, Gore visited a refugee camp and an orphanage in Zaire on a personal trip to provide aid in the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide. She stayed in a UNICEF camp and assisted doctors and aid workers. She made an official visit to Honduras in 1998 following Hurricane Mitch to volunteer, bring medical supplies, and survey the damage. Gore took part in campaigning for the reelection of President Clinton and Vice President Gore in 1996, and she was actively involved in her husband's presidential campaign in 2000, making her own campaign stops and media appearances. She also acted as an advisor and was a part of decisions including the hiring of Tony Coelho as chairman of the campaign and moving its headquarters to Nashville. In 2002, Gore was urged by her supporters to run for the vacant U.S. Senate seat her husband once held in Tennessee, which was being vacated by Fred Thompson; however, she declined. Gore has been a long-time advocate for the LGBT community. She represented the Clinton administration in the Washington, D.C. AIDS Walk in 1993 as one of the highest-ranking public officials ever to participate. She has continued to participate in such walks and, in 2013 she was an honorary chair of the Nashville AIDS Walk & 5K Run. She was a public opponent of California's Proposition 8 to ban same-sex marriage in 2008. In 2014, she created an exhibition of her photographs at the Wall Space Gallery to support the Pacific Pride Foundation that provides services to the HIV/AIDS and LGBT communities of Santa Barbara, California. As of 2012, she served as co-chair of the advisory board of the Diana Basehart Foundation which assists homeless and low-income people with animal care. Creative roles In high school, Gore was the drummer for an all-female band called the Wildcats. She has played drums with members of the Grateful Dead, and during the second night of the Spring 2009 Dead tour, Tipper Gore sat in playing drums during the closing song "Sugar Magnolia". In 2000, she appeared on stage at the Equality Rocks concert at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium to play to a crowd of 45,000 prior to the Millennium March on Washington. Later that year, she played with Willie Nelson during his set at Farm Aid. She played with Herbie Hancock at the 25th Thelonious Monk International Jazz Competition in 2012. A photographer since the 1970s, Gore has published several books of photography, her photos have been included in exhibits, and her prints have been sold by Mitchell Gold Co. stores. Personal life Gore has four children: Karenna Gore (born August 6, 1973), Kristin Gore (born June 5, 1977), Sarah LaFon Gore Maiani (born January 7, 1979), and Albert Arnold Gore III (born October 19, 1982); and several grandchildren. In June 2010, the Gores announced their marital separation, "a mutual and mutually supportive decision that we have made together following a process of long and careful consideration." In August 2012, The New York Times reported that both Gores were dating other people and have no plans to resume marriage, but that their "bond endures" and their relationship is friendly. "The couple reunites a few times a year, most recently in June, for summer family vacations and Christmases in the Gore family seat of Carthage, Tennessee," the newspaper reported. She has been dating Bill Allen, who is a former editor of National Geographic. Bibliography Tipper Gore is the author of a number of books, including: Raising PG Kids in an X-Rated Society, 1987, Picture This: A Visual Diary, 1996, Joined at the Heart: The Transformation of the American Family, 2002, , (with Al Gore) The Spirit of Family, 2002, (with Al Gore) She has also contributed to the following books: The Way Home: Ending Homelessness in America, 2000, From the Bottom of Our Hearts, 2002, (Foreword) References External links Tipper Gore Photography Official White House homepage (archived) Early version of official White House homepage, 1994 Biography—Frontline Biography "Tipper Gore and Family Values"—NPR Tipper Gore speaks at the Democratic National Convention, 1996 The Women Who Made Al Gore |- 1948 births 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American photographers 20th-century American women writers 21st-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American photographers 21st-century American women writers American women drummers American women activists American women non-fiction writers American women photographers Artists from Washington, D.C. Boston University College of Arts and Sciences alumni Tipper Gore LGBT rights activists from the United States Living people Peabody College alumni People from Arlington County, Virginia Second Ladies of the United States Tennessee Democrats Writers from Washington, D.C.

263212

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horlicks

Horlicks

Horlicks is a sweet malted milk hot drink powder developed by founders James and William Horlick. It was first sold as "Horlick's Infant and Invalids Food," soon adding "aged and travellers" to their label. In the early 20th century, it was sold as a powdered meal replacement drink mix. It was then marketed as a nutritional supplement and manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline (Consumer Healthcare) in the United Kingdom, Malaysia, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and Jamaica. It was previously in Kenya in the 2010s but was discontinued due to low sales. It is now produced by the Anglo-Dutch company Unilever through its Indian division. Horlicks in the UK is currently owned by Aimia Foods. On 3 December 2018, Unilever announced they were buying Horlicks Indian business for US$3.8 billion. The Horlicks UK business had already been sold in 2017 to Aimia Foods, a UK-based subsidiary of Cott Corporation. In Britain, Horlicks has been long associated with bedtime; however, it has been marketed as a breakfast drink in India. Ingredients The main ingredient in the United Kingdom formulation is a mixture of wheat flour and malted wheat (46%), followed by malted barley (26%). As of 2019, the other ingredients include dried whey, calcium carbonate, dried skimmed milk, sugar, palm oil, salt, Anti-Caking Agent (E551), and a mixture of vitamins and minerals. The palm oil used is non-hydrogenated and certified by the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil. The formulation may vary slightly depending upon the country. For instance, the Indian formulation does not contain oil, but does contain soy protein isolate. Advertising Dan Dare, Pilot of the Future serial sponsored by Horlicks in 1952 and heard Monday to Friday at 7:15 p.m. over Radio Luxembourg. In 1961, Horlicks ran a television advertising campaign that featured Scottish entertainer Billy Raymond and an actress. The theme of the advert was "Horlicks – the food drink of the night." Horlicks was the sponsor of the Lum and Abner Show from 1934 to 1937. Around the world India Horlicks came to India with the British Army; the end of World War I saw Indian soldiers of British Indian Army bringing it back with them as a dietary supplement. Punjab, Bengal and Madras Presidencies became early adopters of Horlicks and many well-to-do Indians took to drinking Horlicks as a family drink in early 1940s and 1950s. It became a sort of status symbol in upper middle class Indians and rich classes. The first flavour available in India, as in Britain, was malt. India, where it has traditionally been marketed as The Great Family Nourisher, is the largest market for Horlicks. The Indian formulation for Horlicks is slightly different from that used in most other countries, as there it is manufactured from buffalo milk rather than cows milk. In 2003, the brand underwent a revamp which led to the introduction of new flavours such as vanilla, toffee, chocolate, honey, and elaichi (cardamom). The current line-up of flavours include original (malt), chocolate and elaichi. with the latest offering Horlicks Kesar Badaam added recently to the portfolio, providing a more specialized taste offering to the consumers. In recent years, there has been an increase in the scope of the brand in India. By pushing it to newer segments of the market, Horlicks has become an umbrella brand for a wide variety of products ranging from the flagship malt drink to instant noodles, confectionery and breakfast cereal. Special formulations of the malted drink for young children (Junior Horlicks), breast-feeding mothers (Mother's Horlicks), women (Women's Horlicks) and adults (Lite Horlicks) exist. Horlicks biscuits were first launched in 1993, and an energy bar was launched in 2009, named Horlicks NutriBar. Also in late 2009, Foodles, a brand of instant noodles, was launched under the Horlicks umbrella. This was followed in 2011 by launches of Horlicks Gold, a premium variant of the malt drink (dubbed The Best Horlicks Ever), and Horlicks Oats, the first breakfast cereal product under the Horlicks brand. In 2010, Horlicks accounted for 85% of the revenue of GlaxoSmithKline in India. It is currently the most widely consumed packaged beverage in India, after bottled water. The biggest branding event is Horlicks Wizkids. This event started its way in 2003 and till now has reached approximately 25 million children in all India as well as in Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh. Ahaar Abhiyan is a Horlicks initiative to increase malnutrition-related awareness amongst mothers, families and communities. With the sale of every bottle of Horlicks, the company contributes ₹1 towards the initiative. The campaign attempts to raise awareness about proper nutrition amongst mothers of children aged between 3 and 6 years. Horlicks Wizkids is an interschool cultural and literary competition for children from class 1 to 12. The competition attracts students from India, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh. With more than 30 events in the field of arts, literature, painting and extra-curricular activities, Horlicks Wizkids is South Asia's largest interschool fiesta giving children an opportunity to showcase their talent on a global platform. The 2013 Edition of Horlicks Wizkids South Asia was held in Bangalore. It consisted of five days of rigorous training sessions, talent rounds, project presentations and other fun, learning and recreational activities. More than 100,000 students from over 1200 schools participated. Five students from Vizag, Jaipur, Delhi, Hyderabad and Bhubaneshwar earned the title of the Horlicks WizTeam 2013. The winners got an opportunity to go for a learning program to Germany and a cash award of ₹100,000 each. Hong Kong In Hong Kong, Horlicks is known better as a café drink than as a sleeping aid. It is served at cha chaan tengs as well as fast-food shops such as Café de Coral, Fairwood and Maxim's Express. It can be served hot or cold, and is usually sweetened with sugar. It is made with warm milk, and ice is added to it if a cold drink is desired. And as a reference to a Canadian Flour Factory, Wheat Germ added version was created for the then newly minted medical science: Nutrition. Southeast Asia In some Southeast Asian countries, such as the Philippines and Malaysia, Horlicks was also sold as milky-chocolate-flavoured discs in paper packets, which were then eaten as candy. Horlicks remains popular in Malaysia and Singapore where it packed under licence from SmithKline Beecham and sold in large glass and tin containers. It is also available in 1.5 kg refill packs. "Taller, stronger, sharper" is its slogan. South Africa Besides its use as a hot drink prepared with hot milk, Horlicks is also a popular ingredient in "honey and Horlicks" milkshakes in South Africa. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, Horlicks is produced by Aimia Foods. It is available in Traditional (prepared with hot milk), Light (prepared with hot water), and Light Chocolate (prepared with hot water). GlaxoSmithKline attempted a rebrand of the product in 2004 for younger consumers by redesigning the packaging and publicising its consumption at a number of trendy London venues such as the Groucho Club. The company also owned Horlicks Farms and Dairies, a cheese, dairy and cattle breeding station at "Hort Bridge", Ilminster, Somerset. (The cattle breeding centre provided an artificial insemination service to farmers). In 1958 it took over the Cheddar Valley Dairy, and by the early 1960s had retail rounds, depots, and shops at Burnham, Cheddar, Clevedon, Glastonbury, Nailsea, Taunton, and Weston-super-Mare. Company timeline 1869: William Horlick from Ruardean, Gloucestershire, emigrated to the United States. 1873: James Horlick, a pharmacist, joined his brother, William, in the US and together they founded the company J & W Horlicks in Chicago to manufacture a patented malted milk drink as an artificial infant food. 1875: Business moved to larger premises at Racine, Wisconsin, with an abundant supply of spring water. 1883: US patent 278,967 granted to William for first malted milk drink mixing powder with hot water. 1890: James returned to London to set up an office importing US-made product. 1906: Slough selected as site for new factory (see picture). 1908: Factory construction completed at a cost of £28,000. 1909–1910: Horlicks became popular as a provision for North Pole and South Pole expeditions by Robert Peary, Roald Amundsen, and Robert Falcon Scott. 1914: James made a baronet. World War I saw extensive use of Horlicks drink at home and at the front. 1921: Death of James led company to split, with William having responsibility for the Americas and the sons of James for the rest of the world. 1928: William Horlick High School founded just north of Horlicks' headquarters in Racine, Wisconsin. 1931: "Night Starvation" story developed to promote Horlicks as a bedtime drink. 1935: Richard E. Byrd named the Horlick Mountains on the edge of the Ross Ice Shelf after William, in appreciation of his support. A small factory opened in Australia for the local market, including New Zealand. Horlicks milky-chocolate-flavoured disks in paper packets, which were eaten as candy, were marketed in the USA via radio commercials touting the ease with which they could be taken to school by children.In the US, Horlicks Tablets were sold as a candy, offered in a glass bottle resembling an aspirin jar. In World War II the tablets were supplied to US, UK and other troops as an energy boosting treat, and included in lifeboat and liferaft rations, and aircrew escape kits. Today they are packaged in foil pouches, manufactured in Malaysia as Horlicks Malties. 1936: William Horlick died, aged 90. 1945: The US company was acquired by the UK Horlicks business. 1952: Horlicks was linked to the successful treatment of gastric ulcers and some forms of diabetes. 1960: Factory built in Punjab, India, to make Horlicks from buffalo milk. 1968: Factory built in West Punjab, to supply local demand (including present-day Bangladesh). 1969: Horlicks acquired by the Beecham Group. 1975–78: Factory construction and expansion in Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh. 1989: Beecham Group became SmithKline Beecham. 2000: SmithKline Beecham became GlaxoSmithKline. 2017: Horlicks in the UK acquired by Aimia Foods 2019: Horlicks in India acquired by Unilever See also List of hot beverages Malted milk Milo (drink) Ovaltine References External links Horlicks India website Chocolate Bourbon What Do Brits Mean by "Horlicks"? by Brendan I. Koerner Wisconsin's Malted Milk Story Unilever brands GlaxoSmithKline brands Drink brands English drinks Jamaican cuisine Barley-based drinks Malt-based drinks Wheat-based drinks Non-alcoholic drinks

263220

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department%20of%20Ancash

Department of Ancash

Ancash (; ) is a department and region in northern Peru. It is bordered by the departments of La Libertad on the north, Huánuco and Pasco on the east, Lima on the south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Its capital is the city of Huaraz, and its largest city and port is Chimbote. The name of the region originates from the Quechua word ('light, of little weight'), from ('blue') or from ('eagle'). Geography Ancash is a land of contrasts: it features two great longitudinal valleys, which combine the mountain characteristics of the Callejón de Huaylas (Alley of Huaylas) with the sylvan ones of the Alto Marañón. Kilometres of sandy beaches and the blue waters of the Pacific. The territory of the coast, high plateaux and Andean punas of the department are flat, while the rest of the territory, in the Andes, is very rough. In the west, there are slopes with strong declivity form narrow canyons with abrupt and deserted sides. The rough territory of the department is crossed by two mountain ranges: on the western side, the Cordillera Negra (Spanish for "black mountain range"), which has peaks without glaciers, and on the eastern side, the Cordillera Blanca ("white mountain range"), which has many peaks covered with snow and ice, such as the Huascarán and the Alpamayo. Between these two mountain ranges, the Santa River flows through the so-called Callejón de Huaylas. This valley narrows to form the Cañón del Pato ("duck canyon"). Also along the Pacific slopes, the Santa River has shaped a wide valley in the punas which narrows into the Cordillera Negra, where the Cañón del Pato canyon was formed. The snow-covered peak of Huascarán, the highest peak of Peru and second of the Americas, reaches a height of and contrasts with the deep trough of Chimbote found in the ocean west of Ancash. Remnants of glaciers created many lakes such as Llanganuco Lakes and Lake Parón. Following the Pan-American Highway north from Lima, the territory of the department begins just beyond the Fortress of Paramonga, between wide fields of sugarcane, and across the Fortaleza River, from Lima. Along the coast of Ancash, from the Fortaleza River to the Santa River, the Pacific exerts great influence. The Peruvian current and the El Niño current exert considerable and sometimes tragic effect on local lives and regional economies. Normally, the Peruvian current, also known as the Humboldt Current, brings cold water and large numbers of fish. With the development of the shoals of anchoveta, the Ancash ports and creeks became commercial fishing centers. During the 1950s, the bay of Chimbote was the top fishing port of the world. However, when warmer waters from the north, such as the current of El Niño, bring catastrophic rains to the coast and sea, the shoals of anchoveta disappear, leaving the fishing fleets plants paralysed, and flooding rivers cause serious damage to the lands and cities. The cycles of these two sea currents that affect Peru are hard to predict. Further north along the Pan-American highway, numerous islands and islets dot the sea near the coast. Most are home only to guano seabirds. From south to north, the most important islands include Tortuga Island (Turtle Island), La Viuda Island (The Widow Island), Isla Blanca (White Island) and Santa Island (Holy Island). The coastal region of Peru includes many peninsulas, creeks, warm bays and sand beaches, full of colour. Because of the lack of roads and difficult terrain, many of these are inaccessible by land. The most important beaches include Grande Beach, La Gramita Beach and Las Salinas Beach. Much of this coast is a monotonous stretch of huge sand deserts, a common denominator in all Peruvian coastal regions because of the influence of the Humboldt Current. Along the rivers, there are green valleys, cultivated mainly with sugarcane, rice and cotton. From south to north, the main rivers of the Ancash coast are the following: Huarmey, Culebras, Casma, Sechín, Nepeña, Lacramarca and Santa. Of these rivers, the only one with water year-round is the Santa River. Its sources are the glaciers and lakes of the Cordillera Blanca. The other rivers, as with most rivers of the Peruvian coast, are intermittent, depending on the highland rains or the advance of El Niño. History Between 400 and 600 BC, the first Peruvian civilization, known as Chavín, originated and flourished in this zone. The importance of this culture lies not only in its antiquity but in the history and culture it shares with other cultures along the Andean and Amazonian territories. As archaeologist Julio C. Tello put it, "Chavín was the mother of all the cultures that later bloomed in the old Peru." The name Chavín comes from the Quechua word Chawpin, which translates as center or headquarters. Tello believed that people came from the Amazonas, scaled the Andes, and developed the Chavín culture. During the Inca age, the population of the Santa valley was assimilated into the Inca empire by Pachacuti. The first Spaniards came to Huaylas attracted by the fame of the silver veins of the department. In time, the Spanish destroyed the Inca cities. It was during this time that Jerónimo de Alvarado founded the city of Huaraz. Though in the Colonial Age this city held little importance and its artistic and cultural life did not have much relevance, it became the headquarters for Simón Bolívar during his campaign to liberate Peru. The department of Ancash was created following the defeat of the Peru-Bolivia Confederation by the combined forces of the Peruvian restoration army and the Chilean army at the battle of Yungay in 1839. The 1970 Ancash earthquake devastated the department, killing more than 50,000 people and damaging 186,000 houses in one of the deadliest natural disasters in Peru. Today, most of the Ancash population is concentrated in the Callejón de Huaylas. Beginning in 2011, the department has been the site of an ongoing anti-mining protest over allegations of water contamination and public versus private rights to the natural resources of the zone. Clashes between protesters, mining company security, and the federal police have resulted in numerous deaths and injuries. Political division The department is divided into 20 provinces (provincias, singular: provincia), which comprise 166 districts (distritos, singular: distrito). Its capital is Huaraz. The provinces and their capitals are: Economy The economy of Ancash, the third largest in Peru, is largely made up of gold, copper and zinc mining. Its coast is rich in fishing resources and it is the most productive fishing region of Peru (Peru is the world's largest exporter of fish meal). Crops cultivated in Ancash include potatoes, wheat and barley. Demographics Languages According to the 2007 Peru Census, the language learnt first by most of the residents was Spanish (68.34%) followed by Quechua (31.36%). The Quechua variety spoken in Ancash is Ancash Quechua. The following table shows the results concerning the language learnt first in the Department of Ancash by province: Ethnicity Most of the population identifies Mestizo or Quechua. Religion Literacy As of 2017, 85.3% (923,542) of the population is literate and 14.7% (158,839) of the population is illiterate. Toponyms Many of the toponyms of the Department of Ancash originate from Quechua. In and around the Cordillera Blanca, in provinces like Huaylas and Yungay, these names are overwhelmingly predominant. Their Spanish-based orthography, however, is in conflict with the normalized alphabet of the language. According to Article 20 of Decreto Supremo No 004-2016-MC (Supreme Decree) which approves the Regulations to Law 29735, published in the state-owned newspaper El Peruano on 22 July 2016, adequate spellings of the toponyms in the normalised alphabets of the indigenous languages must progressively be proposed with the aim of standardizing the namings used by the National Geographic Institute (Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN). The National Geographic Institute realizes the necessary changes in the official maps of Peru. Contrarily to intentions to replace indigenous toponyms by other names like Santa Cruz or Contrahierbas, the Ministry of Culture proposes to the municipalities of the provinces to recover ancient indigenous toponyms and that these names should be spread by the local and communal authorities on posters and other signage. Tourism The geographical centre of Ancash, the Callejón de Huaylas, is an area of intense interest to tourists. This is due to its large variety of natural attractions, its sport and recreational facilities, and the nearby archaeological remains of the ancient cultures that once flourished there. The Cordillera Blanca offers an interesting attraction for tourists visiting Peru. Visitors also come to see the natural beauty of the area's glaciers and valleys and to enjoy the many lakes and thermal fountains. Ancash is sometimes referred to as the "Switzerland of Peru". There is the four mile high Huascarán, home to the Huascarán National Park. There is also the Alpamayo peak, considered one of the most beautiful in the world. Among archaeological sites of interest, Ancash has many vestiges of old cultures, including the Guitarrero Cave (10,000 BC), the pre-Columbian ruins of Chavín de Huantar, Hunsakay, Willkawayin, Sechín, and Pañamarka are also well-known. Tours There are a few tours in the Department of Ancash that will let us know the main touristic and historical places of the zone. Among the principal ones are: Huaraz – Recuay – Catac – Pachaqutu ravine and Pastururi. Yungay – Llankanuku – Vaquería – Waripampa – Santa Cruz and Caraz Caraz, Cañon del Pato Huaraz – Pitiq – Qillqay and Juanca Caraz, Puya Raimondi at Mirador de Huinchus Huaraz – Olleros – Yanashallash – Chavín de Huantar – Qiruqucha and Catac Caraz, Parun Lake Catac and Carpa Huaraz – Willkawayin and Llaqa ravine Chacas – Perlilla Chacas – Huari Pativilca-Caraz-Huallanca route The historical village Pativilca (Lima Region), where Simón Bolívar planned his expedition for the liberation of Peru, lies 202 kilometres (126 mi) north of Lima on the Pan-American Highway. At this point begins the highway that leads to the Callejón de Huaylas. This road is completely paved, although it often had to be repaired because of the extreme damage caused by the huaycos (flash floods) and the rains. The same problem affects most Peruvian roads, especially the ones in the mountains (Quechua natural region and rainforest Rupa-Rupa natural region). This highway is 287 kilometres (178 mi) long, with an extremely comfortable course, especially in the steep climbing stretches through the Cordillera Negra (Black Range) up to the summit of Conococha, 4,100 metres (13,451 ft) above sea level. From there, the road descends toward the Callejón de Huaylas. The trip Lima-Huaraz-Caraz of 468 kilometres (254 mi) takes seven hours by car. Modern buses spend eight hours over the same stretch. East of Pativilca, for about 20 kilometres (12 mi) the highway passes between wide fields planted with sugarcane in extensive fields, parallel to the Fortaleza River bed. At the town Huaricanga the road enters the department of Ancash. At this point, the highway begins a slow ascent of the first spurs of the Cordillera Negra. This stretch continues for about 50 kilometres (31 mi). The climb gets suddenly steeper beyond the towns Chasquitambo and Chaucayán, with many bends and serpentines. Cordillera Blanca This mountain range is composed by gigantic summits covered with snow, which are among the most beautiful of the world. The White mountain range is considered the highest tropical mountain range in the world. It borders the Callejón de Huaylas to the east. It has a length of . It has 35 peaks that are higher than 6,000 m and many other smaller ones, a real symphony of summits with different grades of difficulty in climbing. This mountain range was called White, not only for its eternal snow but also for the chemical constitution of its quartz and feldspar rocks. It has the highest summit in Peru and the fifth one in America after Aconcagua, Ojos del Salado, Bonete and Mercedario: Huascarán, whose south peak reaches 6768 msnm. Huascarán's north peak reaches 6655 m. Alpamayo whose height has been estimated in 5,947 m, has been considered as "the most beautiful snow mountain of the world". This statement was achieved by the distinguished Peruvian mountaineer César Morales Arnao who sent the photo of Alpamayo to the world contest of scenic beauty made in 1966 in Munich, Germany. Huandoy N reaches 6,395 m, Huantsán reaches 6410 m, Chopicalqui reaches 6354 m, Copa N reaches 6173 m, Artesonraju reaches 6025 m, Santa Cruz S reaches 6,259 m and Hualcán reaches 6,126 m. The beauty of the Cordillera Blanca is largely determined by the Cordillera Negra because this mountain range softens the winds that come from the Pacific Ocean. The Cordillera Negra, acting as a shield, avoids the thaw of the big glaciers from the Cordillera Blanca. The Cordillera Negra has rocky peaks with very little winter snowfall, reaching a maximum height of 5500 m. Its name comes from the comparison with the white snowy peaks of the Cordillera Blanca. Huascarán National Park The Huascarán National Park is one of the most outstanding conservation parks in Peru, due to its landscapes that are full of peaks, lakes, canyons, torrents and waterfalls. Inside its borders, it can be observed the whole Cordillera Blanca and seven peaks of more than 6000 m height. They constitute one of the main international focuses for climbers and mountaineers. It was stated as a National Park on July 1, 1975, with a surface of 340,000 ha and a length of . This National Park includes parts of the following provinces: Recuay, Huaraz, Carhuaz, Yungay, Huaylas, Pomabamba, Mariscal Luzuriaga, Huari, Corongo, Sihuas and Bolognesi. This park has also been listed as a biosphere reservation and as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The park territory is very uneven. It has snowy summits, which altitudes vary between 5000 and 6768 MSL. It also has gullies, that are deeply encased because of the fluvioglacial erosion, and a great number of lagoons. Inside the borders of the park, there are 663 glaciers that are distributed throughout 180 km, from the Tuku in the south up to the Champara in the north. Regarding its climate, there are two very well defined seasons: The dry season from April to September becoming worse between the months of June and August and the wet season from October to May whose highest rainfall is between January and March. Its flora is countless and beautiful, including important groups of Puya Raimondi. In its fauna, there are , spectacled bears, vicuñas, pumas, foxes, vizcachas, weasels, Andean mountain cats, opossums, hog-nosed skunks, etc. There is also a great number of birds, predominantly ducks, American coots and hummingbirds. Cordillera Negra The route Casma-Huaraz is not a very highly travelled road. The highway begins with a paved path that arrives up to Yaután. Then it quickly begins to ascend through an unpaved path by the sides of the Cordillera Negra, following the course of the Casma River. This route becomes more steep once it arrives to Pariacoto. Along the road, there are not important towns at all, except for Pira that offers some traveler's services. This route, extremely steep and narrow, goes between big abysses and gullies. It can be seen small rural districts with chacras (smallholdings) that have been sown with potatoes, wheat, barley and other food products. It can also be seen livestock and a lot of human activity. The gullies of the Cordillera Negra -that goes, simultaneously, with the Cordillera Blanca throughout 150 km- are gloomy and dark. Most of them are dry or their flow is scarce. From north to south, there are some hills like Rumicruz (5,020 m), Rocarre (5,187 m), Cerro Rico (5,015 m), and Chunta (4,810 m). The beauty of the Cordillera Blanca is largely determined by the Cordillera Negra because this mountain range soften the winds that come from the Pacific Ocean. The Cordillera Negra acts like a shield and avoids the thaw of the big glaciers that are located in the Cordillera Blanca. The Cordillera Negra has rocky peaks with very little winter snow, reaching a maximum height of 5,500 m. Its name comes from the comparison with the white snowy peaks of the Cordillera Blanca. Extreme sports Extreme sports in the Callejón de Huaylas and the Huascarán National Park: Mountaineering: The glaciers of the Cordillera Blanca constitute one of the most important world scenarios for ice climbing. Mountaineering can be practiced the whole year but the weather is best between the months of May and September. Trekking: The prehispanic paths offer excellent opportunities for trekking during the whole year. On the way, it can be observed varied flora, fauna, impressive snowy mountains, gullies and deep canyons, archaeological sites and several typical villages. There are several routes that last from one day to three weeks. Camping: It is a pleasant and a relaxing experience to spend the night under the moonlight, having as a unique companion: the stars and some constellations like Capricornus, Crux, Centaurus and others. This sport can be practiced at any time of the year. Canoeing: The Santa River has the technical characteristics and different difficulty grades for practicing river sports as canoeing, kayak and others. For example, there are some rapids between Anta and Caraz that are good for those who are just beginning to practice this sport. The lakes Llankanuku and Qiruqucha also offer some special characteristic for a boat ride. Cycling: The cyclists that ride on the highways and roads enjoy the practice of this sport by traveling inside and outside the Huascarán National Park. This sport can be practiced at any time of the year. The north area, near Caraz, offers the best rides, single tracks and down hill tracks. Rock climbing: The granite belt that goes round the glaciers of the Cordillera Blanca constitutes the suitable place for practicing this sport. There are walls from 100 m to 1000 m of height that have many kinds of technical difficulties to get through. There is an odd scenario for this sport called Rocódromo de Monterrey. Alpine skiing: It consists on slipping from the glaciers. The most favorable ones for practicing this sport are: Pastururi, Copa, Wallqan, Huascarán, Wallunarahu and Perlilla, the latter being recently discovered and promoted by the local government of the Asunción Province, with of moderate and steep slopes where competitions were held soon snowboarding and alpine skiing. These snowcapped mountains are ideal for practicing the slide on snow (also known as siquiesqui) and for making snowmen. Paragliding – Hang gliding: Along the Callejón de Huaylas there are several places that are favourable for the practice of these flight sports. They can be practiced at any time of the year. Horse riding: It is a sport of big emotions. It is practiced on bridle paths with Peruvian horses that were raised in the Callejón de Huaylas. Fishing: The rod fishing of trout can be practiced in rivers and lagoons of the Cordillera Blanca and Cordillera Negra at any time of the year. Santa River and the Cañón del Pato From Chimbote to Huallanca, there are approximately . This unpaved and very little travelled highway is a provisional line over the embankment of the old railroad. This railway and several tunnels were destroyed by the catastrophe of 1970. The highway, outside Chimbote, goes through the wide flat and fertile embankments of the Santa valley and it continuous its course up to Huallanca. From Chuquicara, the highway becomes narrower. The Chuquicara River is a major right-hand tributary of the Santa River. Its waters are black because they contain abundant coal sediments proceeding from the heights of Pallasca. From Huallanca, it is possible to travel through the Cañón del Pato. This canyon is one of the many canyons that are along the of the Santa River. The Santa River has its source in the lake Conococha. This river is the most important river in the coast, because its annual water mass is 6100 million m3. As centuries went by, it has formed a narrow pass of 2000 m of altitude in the Cordillera Negra. In this place, the waters turn into whirlpools and rapids before going out from a narrow gorge of 500 m that is called Cañón del Pato (Duck Canyon). This waterfall constitutes the source of hydroelectric energy in the power station of the Cañón del Pato, in Huallanca. From Huallanca, it is possible to enter to the Callejón de Huaylas by the highway that takes to Caraz. It is also a way to enter to the Callejón de Conchucos (Conchucos valley). Callejón de Conchucos The Callejón de Conchucos is a beautiful succession of valleys located to the east of the Cordillera Blanca. It is connected by a highway from Catac to Huallanca. There are eight provinces of the Ancash Region that cover the Callejón de Conchucos. They are Huari, Asunción, Antonio Raymondi, Mariscal Luzuriaga, Pomabamba, Sihuas, Corongo and Pallasca. This Callejón is located to the east of the Cordillera Blanca, that is to say, to the other side of the Callejón de Huaylas, before the Marañón River. The topography of the soil presents high summits, deep valleys and inhospitable punas, making it a rough zone, such as most of the highland in Peru. The northern provinces of Pallasca Province and Corongo Province have their own direct access towards Chimbote and the Callejón de Huaylas. The other provinces have a longitudinal highway of double entry, one from Huari Province and the other one from Huallanca District and Sihuas Province, joining Pomabamba Province, Mariscal Luzuriaga Province and Antonio Raymondi Province. Transportation Five main highways cross the department: The North Pan-American highway, that crosses the coast of Ancash longitudinally. Three east-west highways that connect the coast with the region of the highlands, most importantly the Callejón de Huaylas: Pativilca – Huaraz – Caraz – Huallanca Nepeña – Pamparumas – Caraz Huarmey – Aija – Recuay Casma – Huaraz Chimbote – Huallanca – Caraz One highway that crosses the Callejón de Conchucos (Conchucos Alley) longitudinally, to the east of the Cordillera Blanca. In addition, the region has a network of local roads. Additional facts Notable people Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo: physicist, engineer and mathematician See also Tourism in Peru References External links Ancash Region, Travel Ancash

263228

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbrake%20turn

Handbrake turn

The handbrake turn (also known as the bootlegger's turn) is a driving technique used to deliberately slide a car sideways, either for the purpose of quickly negotiating a very tight bend, or for turning around well within the vehicle's own turning circle. Technique The driver starts by using steering input to transfer weight to the outside tires; the handbrake is then used to lock the rear wheels, thus upsetting the adhesion between the tires and the road surface. With practice, the car can be placed accurately by releasing the handbrake and accelerating the vehicle. The technique is used in some forms of motorsport, for example rallying, autotesting, drifting and motorkhana. Many sports cars, especially UK makes such as MG and Triumph, as late as the early 1970s were offered with a fly-off handbrake option for competition purposes—the button on the end of the lever has to be pressed before the brake will lock on, which is the reverse of the normal arrangement—allowing for faster and more controlled application in a handbrake turn, and less liable to be accidentally locked on while doing such a maneuver. In a rear-wheel drive manual transmission vehicle, it is also necessary to operate the clutch to prevent the handbrake from stalling the engine. Physics involved In a normal turn, rear wheels follow the front ones because resistance to motion in the forward direction (in which the wheels turn) is significantly less than in the sideways direction. The latter provides the centripetal force that makes the rear end of the car follow the turn. When the driver locks the rear wheels with the handbrake, both directions offer the same resistance, so the rear end tends to keep moving in the existing direction (due to inertia) and thus slides out. Usage Handbrake turns are primarily a technique used to negotiate tight turns in motorsport but can also be used in certain other applications such as stunt or pursuit driving. For stunt purposes, parallel parking can be completed in a single motion using the handbrake. This technique is often demonstrated at car shows, demonstrating the vehicle's agility and the driver's control. In pursuit driving, the technique can be used for turning the car around in the width of two lanes without using a three-point maneuver (see bootleg turn), for example, to bewilder a pursuer. It can also be used to quickly negotiate tight corners. The handbrake turn has colloquially been called the bootlegger's turn in the US as it was reported to be used by bootleggers transporting illegally manufactured alcoholic drinks while escaping from the IRS. It has been reportedly used by boy racers on public roads as a manoeuvre to show off to their friends. Usage in drifting Whereas pulling the handbrake is the easiest way to start a drift, it is rarely used in circuit racing because it causes significant loss of speed at the exit of the corner. Racers use handbrake turning only to negotiate tight 180-degree bends that would otherwise require a three-point turn. It is commonly used in rallying. Dangers The handbrake turn is not recommended for novice racing drivers, as pulling the brake with too little or too much force will not lock the wheels correctly to allow the vehicle to negotiate the corner correctly. Like other methods of inducing a drift, the handbrake turn does pose a serious risk of the vehicle flipping over, and caution must be taken when performing the maneuver with a vehicle with a high center of gravity (such as an SUV). The basic danger lies in bad judgment of surroundings, resulting in the sliding vehicle hitting an obstacle (another vehicle, a guardrail or a tree), or bad judgment of speed, resulting in the vehicle driving off the road rather than sliding, or releasing the handbrake when the vehicle is moving sideways so that all tire forces are sideways. See also Drifting (motorsport) Left-foot braking Bootleg turn References External links How to do a handbrake turn Fifth Gear handbrake turning lesson Handbrake parking Handbrake turn practice for autocross/gymkhana Hazardous motor vehicle activities Driving techniques

263233

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand-waving

Hand-waving

Hand-waving (with various spellings) is a pejorative label for attempting to be seen as effective – in word, reasoning, or deed – while actually doing nothing effective or substantial. It is most often applied to debate techniques that involve fallacies, misdirection and the glossing over of details. It is also used academically to indicate unproven claims and skipped steps in proofs (sometimes intentionally, as in lectures and instructional materials), with some specific meanings in particular fields, including literary criticism, speculative fiction, mathematics, logic, science and engineering. The term can additionally be used in work situations, when attempts are made to display productivity or assure accountability without actually resulting in them. The term can also be used as a self-admission of, and suggestion to defer discussion about, an allegedly unimportant weakness in one's own argument's evidence, to forestall an opponent dwelling on it. In debate competition, certain cases of this form of hand-waving may be explicitly permitted. Hand-waving is an idiomatic metaphor, derived in part from the use of excessive gesticulation, perceived as unproductive, distracting or nervous, in communication or other effort. The term also evokes the sleight-of-hand distraction techniques of stage magic, and suggests that the speaker or writer seems to believe that if they, figuratively speaking, simply wave their hands, no one will notice or speak up about the holes in the reasoning. This implication of misleading intent has been reinforced by the pop-culture influence of the Star Wars franchise, in which mystically powerful hand-waving is fictionally used for mind control, and some uses of the term in public discourse are explicit Star Wars references. Actual hand-waving motions may be used either by a speaker to indicate a desire to avoid going into details, or by critics to indicate that they believe the proponent of an argument is engaging in a verbal hand-wave inappropriately. Spelling and history The spelling of the compound varies (both with regard to this idiom and the everyday human communication gesture of waving). While hand-waving is the most common spelling of the unitary present participle and gerund in this usage, and hand-wave of the simple present verb, hand wave dominates as the noun-phrase form. Handwaving and handwave may be preferred in some circles, and are well attested. "Hand waving" is mostly used otherwise, e.g. "she had one hand waving, the other on the rail", but is found in some dictionaries in this form. A more arch, mock-antiquarian construction is waving of [the] hands. Superlative constructions such as "vigorous hand-waving", "waved their hand[s] furiously", "lots of waving of hands", etc., are used to imply that the hand-waver lacks confidence in the information being conveyed, cannot convincingly express or defend the core of the argument being advanced. The descriptive epithet hand-waver has been applied to those engaging in hand-waving, but is not common. The opposite of hand-waving is sometimes called nose-following in mathematics . However it is spelled, the expression is also used in the original literal meaning of gesturing in a greeting, departing, excited, or attention-seeking manner by waving the hands, as in "friendly were the hand-waving crowds ..." (— Sinclair Lewis), which dates to the mid-17th century as a hyphenated verb and the early 19th century United States as a fully compounded verb. It is unclear when the figurative usage arose. The Oxford Dictionary of English lists it as "extended use", and it appears primarily in modern American dictionaries, some of which label it as "informal". In debate, generally Handwaving is frequently used in low-quality debate, including political campaigning and commentary, issue-based advocacy, advertising and public relations, tabloid journalism, opinion pieces, Internet memes, and informal discussion and writing. If the opponent in a debate or a commentator on an argument alleges hand-waving, it suggests that the proponent of the argument, position or message has engaged in one or more fallacies of logic, usually informal, and/or glossed over non-trivial details, and is attempting to challenges and deflect questions, as if swatting at flies. The distraction inherent in the sense of the term has become a key part of the meaning. The fallacies in question vary, but often include one of the many variants of argument to emotion, and in political discourse frequently involve unjustified assignment or transference of blame. Hand-waving is not itself a fallacy; the proponent's argument may incidentally be correct despite their failure to properly support it. A tertiary meaning refers to use of poorly-reasoned arguments specifically to impress or to persuade. The New Hacker's Dictionary (a.k.a. The Jargon File) observes: The implication that hand-waving is done with the specific intent to mislead has long been attached to the term, due to the use of literal waving of a hand – either natural-looking or showy, but never desperate – by illusionists to distract audiences and misdirect their attention from the mechanisms of the sleight-of-hand, gimmicked props or other trick being used in the performance. This meaning has become reinforced in recent decades by the influence of Star Wars (1977) and its sequels, in which the fictional Jedi mind trick involves a subtle hand wave with mystical powers – that only work on the weak-minded – to disguise reality and compel compliance. Consequently, there is an implication in current usage that a hand-waver may be craftily intending to deceive, and has a low opinion of the intelligence of the opponent or (especially) an audience or the general public. The labels "Jedi hand wave" and "Jedi mind trick" themselves are sometimes applied, in a tongue-in-cheek way, to this manipulation technique in public discourse; US Congressman Luke Messer's use of it in reference to President Barack Obama's 2016 State of the Union address generated headlines. In an unplanned debate or presentation, an off-the-cuff essay, or an informal discussion, the proponent may have little or no time for preparation. Participants in such exchanges may use the term in reference to their own arguments, in the same sense as an author admitting a minor plot flaw . When the proponents use the term, they are conceding that they know an ancillary point of or intermediate step in their arguments is poorly supported; they are suggesting that such details aren't important and do not affect their key arguments or conclusions, and that the hand-waved details should be excluded from current consideration. Examples include when they believe a statement is true but cannot prove it at that time, and when the sources upon which they are relying conflict in minor ways: "I'm hand-waving over the exact statistics here, but they all show at least a 20% increase, so let's move on". In formal debate competition, certain forms of hand-waving may sometimes be explicitly permitted. In policy debate, the concept of fiat allows a team to pursue a line a reasoning based on a scenario that is not presently true, if a judge is satisfied that the case has been that it could become true. In literary criticism By extension, handwaving is used in literary, film and other media criticism of speculative fiction to refer to a plot device (e.g., a scientific discovery, a political development, or rules governing the behavior of a fictional creature) that is left unexplained or sloppily explained because it is convenient to the story, with the implication that the writer is aware of the logical weakness but hopes the audience will not notice or will suspend disbelief regarding such a macguffin, deus ex machina, continuity error or plot hole. The fictional material "handwavium" (a.k.a. "unobtainium", among other humorous names) is sometimes referred to in situations where the plot requires access to a substance of great value and properties that cannot be explained by real-world science, but is convenient to solving, or central to creating, a problem for the characters in the story. Perhaps the best known example is the spice melange, a fictional drug with supernatural properties, in Frank Herbert's far-future science-fantasy epic, Dune. Hand-waving has come to be used in role-playing games to describe actions and conversations that are quickly glossed over, rather than acted out in full according to the rules. This may be done to keep from bogging down the play of the game with time-consuming but minor details. In mathematics (and formal logic, philosophy, theoretical science) In mathematics, and disciplines in which mathematics plays a major role, hand-waving refers to either absence of formal proof or methods that do not meet mathematical rigor. In practice, it often involves the use of unrepresentative examples, unjustified assumptions, key omissions and faulty logic, and while these may be useful in expository papers and seminar presentations, they ultimately fall short of the standard of proof needed to establish a result. The mathematical profession tends to be receptive to informed critiques from any listener, and a claimant to a new result is expected to be able to answer any such question with a logical argument, up to a full proof. Should a speaker apparently fail to give such an answer, anyone in the audience who can supply the needed demonstration may sometimes upstage the speaker. The objector in such a case might receive some measure credit for the theorem the hand-waver presented. The opposite of hand-waving in mathematics (and related fields) is sometimes called nose-following, which refers to the unimaginative development of a narrow line of reasoning that—while correct—can also end up making the subject dry and uninteresting. The rationale for this culture of hyper-critical scrutiny is suggested by a quote of G. H. Hardy: "[A mathematician's] subject is the most curious of all—there is none in which truth plays such odd pranks. It has the most elaborate and the most fascinating technique, and gives unrivalled openings for the display of sheer professional skill." In applied science and engineering Hand-waving arguments in engineering and other applied sciences often include order-of-magnitude estimates and dimensional analysis, especially in the use of Fermi problems in physics and engineering education. However, competent, well-intentioned researchers and professors also rely on explicitly declared hand-waving when, given a limited time, a large result must be shown and minor technical details cannot be given much attention—e.g., "it can be shown that is an even number", as an intermediary step in reaching a conclusion. Back-of-the-envelope calculations are approximate ways to get an answer by over-simplification, and are comparable to hand-waving in this sense. In business Hand-waving has been used to describe work-related situations where productivity is seemingly displayed, but deliverables are not produced, especially in the context of intentional engagement in busy work or pretend-work, vague claims of overwork or complications, impenetrably buzzword-laden rationalizations for delays or otherwise poor performance, and plausible-sounding but weak excuse-making and attention-deflecting tactics. In employment situations, as in political discourse, a hand-waving effort may seek to shift blame to other parties. Another use is in reference to fiscal problems, such as an inability to adequately explain accounting discrepancies or an avoidance of accountability for missing funds. See also List of logical fallacies Proof by example Proof by intimidation References External links "Proof by Handwaving", article at Everything2 "And then a miracle occurs", cartoon by Sidney Harris, published in American Scientist magazine "Proving almost anything", humor essay by James Lavin, IEEE Potentials February/March 1996, pp. 6–7. Mathematical terminology Rhetoric Hand gestures

263240

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreisau%20Circle

Kreisau Circle

The Kreisau Circle (German: Kreisauer Kreis, ) (1940–1944) was a group of about twenty-five German dissidents in Nazi Germany led by Helmuth James von Moltke, who met at his estate in the rural town of Kreisau, Silesia. The circle was composed of men and a few women from a variety of backgrounds, including those of noble descent, devout Protestants and Catholics, professionals, socialists and conservatives. Despite their differences, the members of the Kreisau Circle found common interest in their opposition to Hitler's regime on moral and religious grounds. At their meetings, the circle discussed how they would reorganize the German government after the end of the Third Reich. Although the circle did not promote violent overthrow of the regime, their planning was considered by the Nazis to be treasonous as it rested on the assumption that Germany would lose the war. The group began to falter after Helmuth von Moltke was arrested by the Gestapo in January 1944 and eventually came to an end when most of its members were arrested following Claus von Stauffenberg's attempt on Hitler's life on 20 July 1944. Intellectual background The members of the Kreisau Circle were heavily influenced by popular movements in Germany that followed World War I, most notably the German Youth Movement and German religious socialism. Although motivated by differing ideologies (the German Youth Movement in a return to nature and religious socialism in a return to Christian values), each faction inspired resistance to the Nazi regime by encouraging their followers to reconsider traditionally rigid political, social, and religious distinctions and engage in discourse with those who disagreed with them. These fundamental similarities created an environment that allowed for persons of a variety of backgrounds to meet and participate in intellectual resistance to the Third Reich. German Youth Movement The German Youth Movement was characterized by the creation of various youth organizations that emphasized a return to nature since 1896. For example, the Wandervogel, a youth movement that arose in the early 20th century, encouraged youth to reject their middle-class upbringings that overemphasized materialism. The movement stressed the importance of the individual and emboldened them to pursue their interests rather than follow traditional class expectations. Many members of the German youth groups were sent to war in 1914. Following great losses during the war, young men found themselves fascinated with Volkish ideology, the idea of reunification of the German people that transcended class distinctions. The preoccupation with the Volk made for an easy transition for some into Nazi ideology, but for others, such as Helmuth von Moltke, their roots in a youth movement that questioned the status quo led them to resist a regime that undermined the freedom which they sought through their youth organizations. Löwenberger Arbeitsgemeinschaften (Löwenberger Working Groups) An extension of the German Youth Movement, the Löwenberger Arbeitsgemeinschaften was an organization of college professors, youth movement leaders, unemployed workers, students, and farmers who came together to work in work camps and discuss social and political issues and solve the problems Silesia faced (i.e. high unemployment) in the aftermath of WWI. Between the days of 14 March and 1 April 1928, approximately one-hundred people from a variety of backgrounds came together for the first Silesian work camp. In the mornings, participants would partake in physical labour. This was followed by lecture courses, discussion groups, and leisure time. Two additional camps followed in 1929 and 1930. One participant described his time at the camps, "Representatives of the three social groups in the nation were able to achieve a common language that had proved beyond the grasp of the older generation. A group such as this, which formed a cross-section of the community, was capable of rising above class and party interests". The camp allowed participants to cooperate with people of different upbringings and discuss how they could work together for the common good of their community. This lesson that people of differing social classes and political views could collaborate successfully would greatly influence Helmuth James von Moltke in his construction of the Kreisau Circle, who himself was an important contributor to the Löwenberger movement. Religious Socialism in Germany Religious socialism in 20th century Germany also influenced members of the Kreisau Circle. This movement is notably characterized by the work of Paul Tillich, who sought to fashion socialism into an ideology that was complementary with Christian faith. He looked to create “socialist political forms that were rooted in a religious substance”. Tillich called this socialism “theonomous”. Tillich emphasized the importance of social justice which he defined as "the demand for a society in which it is possible for every individual and for every group to live meaningfully and purposefully, a demand for a meaningful society". Similarly to the youth movements, religious socialism challenged conventional political divisions. The movement asked followers not to focus on the differences between Christianity and socialism but rather see how the two could work together to create a better society. Prison chaplain Harald Poelchau, a member of the Kreisau Circle, was a close follower of Tillich, and other members such as , , Adolf Reichwein, and Adam von Trott zu Solz were also affiliated with religious socialism. Origins of the Circle The Kreisau Circle was officially formed in 1940 with the merging of the intellectual circles of Helmuth James Graf von Moltke and Peter Graf Yorck von Wartenberg. Moltke and Yorck were descendants of prominent Prussian nobility and therefore were initially favored by Hitler's regime. Helmuth von Moltke, for example, descended from Field Marshal von Moltke, who was a prominent military commander in the Bismarck era. The Nazis honored his family title by giving him a position in their High Command. Despite this special treatment, both men felt morally obliged to resist Hitler. In 1938, both men began to form separate social circles in which they discussed the problems of the Reich and their hopes for Germany's future. Moltke's circle, which included Einsiedel, was largely preoccupied with the sociological and economic problems that Germany would face after the Reich fell. Yorck's circle, which began to meet frequently at his home, focused mostly on the administrative questions of how the government should run after Hitler's regime had ended. In January 1940, Moltke was connected to Yorck through a mutual friend. They both agreed that the Third Reich's defeat was inevitable and that a new government would have to be prepared to take over in this event. The two valued their common desire to oppose the regime through intellectual means despite differences in political views. The circle was formed in November 1940, against the backdrop of Hitler's successes in France. Members The membership of the Kreisau Circle was varied, with affiliates ranging from conservatives to socialists, religious and non-religious, and all of the above. Although Freya von Moltke, Helmuth von Moltke, Peter von Yorck and Marion von Yorck were at the center of the circle, the group was more of a network of friends than a formal organization. Freya von Moltke said her husband and Yorck searched for, “people who objected, who were opposed to National Socialism and were trying to envisage a better Germany beyond National Socialism, which at the time seemed completely impossible”. Their differences were valued as Moltke and Yorck believed that debate would assist them to accomplish their common goal for a better Germany following “X-day”, or the day after the end of the Reich. Helmuth James Graf von Moltke The Kreisau Circle's most notable member was Helmuth James Graf von Moltke, who was considered to be the leader of the organization. Moltke was born on 11 March 1907 in Kreisau, Silesia to one of Prussia's best known military families. The Moltke household encouraged discussion and debate. For instance, although both of Moltke's parents were Christian Scientists, he became an Evangelical Christian at the age of 14. He attended university from 1925 to 1929 and studied law and political science. During this time, he became an important leader of the Lowenberger Arbeitsgemeinschaften. He also found himself drawn to the Schwarzwald Circle in 1929, which was an intellectual discussion group led by Eugenie Schwarzwald, where he met his future wife, Freya Deichmann. Later that year, Helmuth was forced to return home from school to Kreisau to manage his family's estate. He married Freya on 18 October 1931. In 1932, the Kreisau Estate had been stabilized, allowing Helmuth to resume his career in law in Berlin. He eventually opened his own private firm along with his colleague Karl von Lewinski to practice international law. In this occupation, Moltke assisted Jewish émigrés to escape the Nazi regime despite the obvious threat that this presented to his own safety. From 1935 to 1938, he spent time in England in hopes of joining the British bar. Although these plans were halted by the declaration of war in September 1939, it was during this time that Moltke gained many of his connections outside of Germany. He returned to Berlin and was drafted into the Abwehr, where he attempted to ensure adherence to international law. During this time, Moltke kept in contact with his friends from the Silesian work camps, such as Horst von Einsendel. They largely discussed sociological and economic consequences of the Third Reich. In January 1940, Moltke met Peter Graf Yorck von Wartenburg. By November 1940, the circles of Moltke and Yorck had merged to create the Kreisau Circle. Peter Graf Yorck von Wartenburg Peter Graf Yorck von Wartenburg was born on 13 November 1904 to a well-known family of Prussian nobles. The family emphasized the importance of scholarship and the arts and encouraged opposition to authority. Peter's father, Heinrich, called himself "His Majesty's most loyal opposition". Yorck studied law in Bonn and Breslau and during this time became critical of the failing republic. Following Kristallnacht in 1938 and a trip to Prague that made him realize the Nazis' imperialist intentions, Yorck became increasingly troubled with Hitler's regime and began to bring groups of dissenters to his home to discuss what was to be done after the fall of the Third Reich. Members of these initial groups would later become a part of the Kreisau Circle. Women in the Kreisau Circle The participation of women in the Kreisau Circle discussion was often limited to the presence of their husbands. Freya von Moltke, a founding participant, was cut off from the circle's correspondence following her husband Helmuth von Moltke's arrest. There are also no known female members who were not married to a male member. However, despite these limitations, women played an integral role in the Kreisau Circle. Margrit von Trotha, for example, utilized her skills as an economist to partake in the plans for Germany's future economy. In addition, in Marion Yorck von Wartenburg's memoirs, she refers to the circle as "our group", indicating that she was a part of the circle's membership and discourse. A known list of female members of the circle includes: Freya von Moltke (lawyer), Marion Yorck von Wartenburg (lawyer), Margrit von Trotha (economist), Rosemarie Reichwein (physician/therapist), and Irene Yorck von Wartenburg. Other Protestant members Additional Protestant members of the circle included Horst von Einsiedel, Carl-Dietrich von Trotha, Adolf Reichwein, Otto von der Gablentz, Theodor Steltzer, Adam von Trott, Hans-Bernd von Haeften, Harald Poelchau, and Eugen Gerstenmaier. Catholic members Catholic members included Hans Peters, Hans Lukaschek, Paulus Husen, Augustin Rösch, Lothar Konig, and Alfred Delp. Socialist members Socialists members included Carlo Mierendorff, Theodor Haubach, and Julius Leber. Proposals for the future The activities of the Kreisau Circle formed around the idea that the fall of the Third Reich was in the near future. The day after this day when the new government would need to take over was referred to as "Day X". This day would mark the beginning of a new Germany and the end of an historical era. Therefore, based on this assumption, the job of the Kreisau Circle was to prepare for this day. On 24 April 1941, the Kreisau Circle created a memorandum titled, Starting-point, Objectives and Tasks. In this text, the Circle expresses their belief that with the end of the Third Reich would also come the end of nationalism, racism, and party politics. Although a general consensus existed regarding the imminent fall of the Third Reich, the question of what this reformed Germany would look like remained up for debate. According to Freya von Moltke, some of the most pressing questions that the group sought to answer were, "How can I make democrats out of Germans who had not been able, really, to run a democracy properly?" and "How to build a new economy and whether it should be free or not free". In 1943, Moltke began to prepare formal drafts for a new German constitution to answer these questions. In a constitutional draft made on 9 August 1943, Moltke outlined a new Reich structure which would be self-governing and rest upon the, “natural divisions of the nation: family, municipality, and land”. All eligible voters, which Moltke defined as all persons over the age of 21 or have served in the military, would elect municipal and county representative assemblies. These county assemblies would then elect the land legislature, which would have the responsibility of electing those in the Reichstag. In the realm of culture and education, Moltke emphasized the importance of a renewed relationship with the German Evangelical Church and the German Catholic Church. Moltke and other members in the circle wanted a restoration of Christian values that they felt had been lost and led to Hitler's regime. With the return of Christian values, the group believed that greater acceptance and cooperation between all peoples would occur and lead to the political unification of the European continent. However, this is not to be mistaken for intolerance of other religions, as Moltke emphasizes that in this new government, "The freedom of [religious] faith and conscience is guaranteed". Moltke hoped this government would create a unified Germany where freedom and personal responsibility would be complementary to order and leadership. End of the Kreisau Circle Arrests in January 1944 In the autumn of 1943, Helmuth von Moltke learned from an informant that a Gestapo spy had discovered an anti-Nazi salon in Berlin and that there would be a round-up of all participants. Moltke warned his friend who had been present at the salon, Otto Kiep, of the round-ups. Kiep, former German Consul General in New York and member of the counterintelligence department under Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, failed to escape and was arrested in January 1944. The Gestapo later discovered that von Moltke had warned him of the arrests, and Helmuth himself was then arrested on 19 January 1944. This left the Kreisau Circle without one of its integral members. Freya von Moltke was also ousted from the group following Helmuth's arrest as the members were worried she would be interrogated. During this time, Yorck struggled to maintain cohesion of the group. However, this was not the death knell of the circle as the Gestapo was not yet aware of the resistance. Prior to the attempted assassination of Adolf Hitler, Helmuth von Moltke was treated fairly in prison and allowed to correspond with his wife Freya. 20 July 1944 attempt and executions On 20 July 1944 a group of dissidents attempted to assassinate Hitler with a bomb and failed. Claus von Stauffenberg, cousin of Peter Yorck, was among the leading figures in this attempt to create "Day-X". However, the bombing only injured Hitler and led to a series of apprehensions. Peter Yorck was arrested and executed on 8 August 1944 for his involvement. Although Moltke himself was not involved, his close association with Yorck proved fatal as he was also executed on 23 January 1945. These arrests and executions signaled the formal end of the activities of the Kreisau Circle. Legacy When "X-day" finally came in May 1945, none of the Kreisau Circle's proposals for Germany's future were implemented. Although their plans never came to fruition, the legacy of resistance established by the Kreisau Circle still remains important. The members of Kreisau came together, despite their individual differences, to fashion a Germany which was democratic, anti-racist, and internationalist. Those at the Kreisau Circle committed treason and sacrificed their lives for their belief of a fairer society where opposition was heard, and that if heard together these voices could fashion a better world. They were idealists in a totalitarian regime which threatened to extinguish any trace of resistance. Many of the surviving members of the circle continued to remain active after the war. For example, Marion Yorck received a judgeship in Berlin and Rosemarie Reichwein began her own physical therapy clinic. In addition, Freya von Moltke transformed the Kreisau estate into the Krzyzowa Foundation for Mutual Understanding in Europe on 10 July 1990. This foundation bases its work on the principles of the Kreisau Circle, and continues to look towards developing understanding between persons from different social, political, and cultural backgrounds. See also Solf Circle (Frau Solf Tea Party) :Category:Members of the Kreisau Circle Wolfenstein, a video game series which features members of the Kreisau Circle as a leading resistance faction against the Nazi regime References External links AIM25 archive of Kreisau Circle programmes at the British Library "Heroes of the moral resistance against Adolf Hitler", The Times, January 5, 2010 German resistance to Nazism People condemned by Nazi courts Politics of World War II World War II resistance movements

263244

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergotism

Ergotism

Ergotism (pron. ) is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus—from the Latin "club" or clavus "nail" and for "head", i.e. the purple club-headed fungus—that infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs. It is also known as ergotoxicosis, ergot poisoning, and Saint Anthony's fire. Signs and symptoms The symptoms can be roughly divided into convulsive symptoms and gangrenous symptoms. Convulsive Convulsive symptoms include painful seizures and spasms, diarrhea, paresthesias, itching, mental effects including mania or psychosis, headaches, nausea and vomiting. Usually the gastrointestinal effects precede central nervous system effects. Gangrenous The dry gangrene is a result of vasoconstriction induced by the ergotamine-ergocristine alkaloids of the fungus. It affects the more poorly vascularized distal structures, such as the fingers and toes. Symptoms include desquamation or peeling, weak peripheral pulses, loss of peripheral sensation, edema and ultimately the death and loss of affected tissues. Vasoconstriction is treated with vasodilators. Causes Historically, eating grain products, particularly rye, contaminated with the fungus Claviceps purpurea was the cause of ergotism. The toxic ergoline derivatives are found in ergot-based drugs (such as methylergometrine, ergotamine or, previously, ergotoxine). The deleterious side effects occur either under high dose or when moderate doses interact with potentiators such as erythromycin. The alkaloids can pass through lactation from mother to child, causing ergotism in infants. Identification of agent Dark-purple or black grain kernels, known as ergot bodies, can be identifiable in the heads of cereal or grass just before harvest. In most plants the ergot bodies are larger than normal grain kernels, but can be smaller if the grain is a type of wheat. Prevention Removal of ergot bodies is done by placing the yield in a brine solution; the ergot bodies float, while the healthy grains sink. Infested fields must be deep-plowed; ergot cannot germinate if buried more than one inch (2.5 cm) in soil and therefore will not release its spores into the air. Rotating crops using non-susceptible plants helps reduce infestations, since ergot spores live only one year. Crop rotation and deep tillage, such as deep mold-board ploughing, are important components in managing ergot, as many cereal crops in the 21st century are sown with a "no-till" practice (new crops are sown directly into the stubble from the previous crop to reduce soil erosion). Wild and escaped grasses and pastures can be mown before they flower to help limit the spread of ergot. Chemical controls can also be used but are not considered economical, especially in commercial operations, and germination of ergot spores can still occur under favorable conditions even with the use of such controls. History Epidemics of the disease were identified throughout history, though the references in classical writings are inconclusive. Rye, the main vector (route) for transmitting ergotism, was not grown much around the Mediterranean. When Fuchs separated references to ergotism from erysipelas and other afflictions in 1834, he found the earliest reference to ergotism in the Annales Xantenses for the year 857: "a great plague of swollen blisters consumed the people by a loathsome rot, so that their limbs were loosened and fell off before death". In the Middle Ages the gangrenous poisoning was known as "holy fire" or "Saint Anthony's fire", named after monks of the Order of St. Anthony, who were particularly successful at treating this ailment. According to Snorri Sturluson, in his Heimskringla, King Magnus II of Norway, son of King Harald Sigurtharson, who was the half-brother of Saint King Olaf Haraldsson, died from ergotism shortly after the Battle of Hastings. The 12th-century chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois recorded the mysterious outbreaks in the Limousin region of France, where the gangrenous form of ergotism was associated with the local Saint Martial. Likewise, an outbreak in Paris around 1129 was reported to be cured by the relics of Saint Genevieve, a miracle commemorated in the 26 November "Feast of the Burning Ones". The blight, named cockspur owing to the appearance of infected grains, was identified and named by Denis Dodart, who reported the relation between ergotized rye and bread poisoning in a letter to the French Royal Academy of Sciences in 1676 (John Ray mentioned ergot for the first time in English the next year). "Ergotism", in this modern sense, was first recorded in 1853. Notable epidemics of ergotism occurred into the 19th century. Fewer outbreaks have occurred since then owing to rye being carefully monitored in developed countries. However, a severe outbreak of something akin to ergot poisoning occurred in the French village of Pont-Saint-Esprit in 1951, resulting in five deaths. The outbreak and the diagnostic confusion surrounding it are vividly described in John Grant Fuller's book The Day of St Anthony's Fire. There is evidence of ergot poisoning serving a ritual purpose in the ritual killing of certain bog bodies. When milled, the ergot is reduced to a red powder, obvious in lighter grasses but easy to miss in dark rye flour. In less wealthy countries, ergotism still occurs; an outbreak in Ethiopia occurred in mid-2001 from contaminated barley. Whenever there is a combination of moist weather, cool temperatures, delayed harvest in lowland crops and rye consumption, an outbreak is possible. Poisonings due to consumption of seeds treated with mercury compounds are sometimes misidentified as ergotism. Simon Cotton of the Chemistry Department of Uppingham School, UK, said that there have been numerous cases of mass-poisoning due to consumption of mercury-treated seeds. Salem witchcraft accusations The convulsive symptoms from ergot-tainted rye may have been the source of accusations of bewitchment that spurred the Salem witch trials. This medical explanation for the theory of "bewitchment" was first propounded by Linnda R. Caporael in 1976 in an article in Science. In her article, Caporael argues that the convulsive symptoms, such as crawling sensations in the skin, tingling in the fingers, vertigo, tinnitus aurium, headaches, disturbances in sensation, hallucination, painful muscular contractions, vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as psychological symptoms, such as mania, melancholia, psychosis, and delirium, were all symptoms reported in the Salem witchcraft records. Caporael also states that there was an abundance of rye in the region, as well as climate conditions that could support the tainting of rye. In 1982, historian Mary Matossian raised Caporael’s theory in an article in American Scientist, in which she argued that symptoms of "bewitchment" resemble the ones exhibited in those afflicted with ergot poisoning. The hypothesis that ergotism could explain cases of bewitchment has been subject to debate and has been criticized by several scholars. Within a year of Caporael's article, historians Spanos and Gottlieb argued against the idea in the same journal. In Spanos and Gottlieb's rebuttal to Caporael's article, they concluded that there are several flaws in the explanation. For example, they argued that, if the food supply were contaminated, the symptoms would have occurred by household, not individual. However, historian Leon Harrier said that even if supplies were properly cooked, residents suffering stomach ulcers had a risk of absorbing the toxin through the stomach lining, offering a direct route to the bloodstream. Being chemically similar to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), ergot would not survive in the acidic environment of a typical human's stomach, especially in properly cooked food. But if some but not all residents were malnourished and suffering bleeding stomach ulcers, only they could be affected by ingesting contaminated grains, leaving the majority unaffected, explaining why ergotism was not previously recognized. Harrier argued that the numbers could have been larger, possibly including the entire town, but due to the trials on bewitchment and heresy, and the fear of being accused and subsequently executed, few could come forward while suffering legitimate medical conditions. Spanos and Gottlieb also state that ergot poisoning has additional symptoms not associated with the events in Salem and that the proportion of children afflicted was less than in a typical ergotism epidemic. Anthropologist H. Sidky noted that ergotism had been known for centuries before the Salem witch trials and argued that its symptoms would have been recognizable during the time of the Salem witch trials. In 2003 it was pointed out that ergots produced by different strains of Claviceps purpurea, and those growing in different soils, may produce different ergot alkaloid compositions. This may explain the different manifestations of ergotism in different outbreaks. For example, an alkaloid present in high concentrations in ergots from Europe east of the Rhine may have caused convulsive ergotism, while ergot from the west caused epidemics of gangrenous ergotism. See also Dancing plague of 1518 Great Fear of 1789 References External links Mass poisoning Neurological disorders Toxic effect of noxious substances eaten as food Witchcraft

263257

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20language

First language

A first language, native tongue, native language, or mother/father/parent tongue (also known as arterial language or L1) is a language or dialect that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. In some countries, the term native language or mother tongue refers to the language or dialect of one's ethnic group rather than one's first language. The first language of a child is part of that child's personal, social and cultural identity. Another impact of the first language is that it brings about the reflection and learning of successful social patterns of acting and speaking. Research suggests that while a non-native speaker may develop fluency in a targeted language after about two years of immersion, it can take between five and seven years for that child to be on the same working level as their native speaking counterparts. On 17 November 1999, UNESCO designated 21 February as International Mother Language Day. Definitions One of the more widely accepted definitions of native speakers is that they were born in a particular country (and) raised to speak the language or dialect of that country or region during the critical period of their development. The person qualifies as a "native speaker" of a language by being born and immersed in the language during youth, in a family in which the adults shared a similar language experience to the child. Native speakers are considered to be an authority on their given language because of their natural acquisition process regarding the language, as opposed to having learned the language later in life. That is achieved by personal interaction with the language and speakers of the language. Native speakers will not necessarily be knowledgeable about every grammatical rule of the language, but they will have good "intuition" of the rules through their experience with the language. The designation "native language", in its general usage, is thought to be imprecise and subject to various interpretations that are biased linguistically, especially with respect to bilingual children from ethnic minority groups. Many scholars have given definitions of 'native language' based on common usage, the emotional relation of the speaker towards the language, and even its dominance in relation to the environment. However, all three criteria lack precision. For many children whose home language differs from the language of the environment (the 'official' language), it is debatable which language is their "native language". Defining "native language" Based on origin: the language(s) or dialect one learned first (the language(s) or dialect in which one has established the first long-lasting verbal contacts). Based on internal identification: the language(s) one identifies with/as a speaker of; Based on external identification: the language(s) one is identified with/as a speaker of, by others. Based on competence: the language(s) one knows best. Based on function: the language(s) one uses most. In some countries, such as Kenya, India, Belarus, Ukraine and various East Asian and Central Asian countries, "mother language" or "native language" is used to indicate the language of one's ethnic group in both common and journalistic parlance ("I have no apologies for not learning my mother tongue"), rather than one's first language. Also, in Singapore, "mother tongue" refers to the language of one's ethnic group regardless of actual proficiency, and the "first language" refers to English, which was established on the island under the British Empire, and is the lingua franca for most post-independence Singaporeans because of its use as the language of instruction in government schools and as a working language. In the context of population censuses conducted on the Canadian population, Statistics Canada defines mother tongue as "the first language learned at home in childhood and still understood by the individual at the time of the census." It is quite possible that the first language learned is no longer a speaker's dominant language. That includes young immigrant children whose families have moved to a new linguistic environment as well as people who learned their mother tongue as a young child at home (rather than the language of the majority of the community), who may have lost, in part or in totality, the language they first acquired (see language attrition). According to Ivan Illich, the term "mother tongue" was first used by Catholic monks to designate a particular language they used, instead of Latin, when they were "speaking from the pulpit". That is, the "holy mother the Church" introduced this term and colonies inherited it from Christianity as a part of colonialism. J. R. R. Tolkien, in his 1955 lecture "English and Welsh", distinguishes the "native tongue" from the "cradle tongue". The latter is the language one learns during early childhood, and one's true "native tongue" may be different, possibly determined by an inherited linguistic taste and may later in life be discovered by a strong emotional affinity to a specific dialect (Tolkien personally confessed to such an affinity to the Middle English of the West Midlands in particular). Children brought up speaking more than one language can have more than one native language, and be bilingual or multilingual. By contrast, a second language is any language that one speaks other than one's first language. Bilingualism A related concept is bilingualism. One definition is that a person is bilingual if they are equally proficient in two languages. Someone who grows up speaking Spanish and then learns English for four years is bilingual only if they speak the two languages with equal fluency. Pearl and Lambert were the first to test only "balanced" bilinguals—that is, a child who is completely fluent in two languages and feels that neither is their "native" language because they grasp both so perfectly. This study found that balanced bilinguals perform significantly better in tasks that require flexibility (they constantly shift between the two known languages depending on the situation), they are more aware of the arbitrary nature of language, they choose word associations based on logical rather than phonetic preferences. Multilingualism One can have two or more native languages, thus being a native bilingual or indeed multilingual. The order in which these languages are learned is not necessarily the order of proficiency. For instance, if a French-speaking couple have a child who learned French first but then grew up in an English-speaking country, the child would likely be most proficient in English. Other examples are India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Kenya, Malaysia, Singapore, and South Africa, where most people speak more than one language. Defining "native speaker" Defining what constitutes a native speaker is difficult, and there is no test which can identify one. It is not known whether native speakers are a defined group of people, or if the concept should be thought of as a perfect prototype to which actual speakers may or may not conform. An article titled "The Native Speaker: An Achievable Model?" published by the Asian EFL Journal states that there are six general principles that relate to the definition of "native speaker". The principles, according to the study, are typically accepted by language experts across the scientific field. A native speaker is defined according to the following guidelines: The individual acquired the language in early childhood and maintains the use of the language. The individual has intuitive knowledge of the language. The individual is able to produce fluent, spontaneous discourse. The individual is communicatively competent in different social contexts. The individual identifies with or is identified by a language community. The individual does not have a foreign accent. See also Heritage language Child of deaf adult Human Speechome Project Third culture kids List of languages by number of native speakers Statistical learning in language acquisition Native speaker Father Tongue hypothesis Native Tongue Title References Language acquisition Sociolinguistics Identity (social science) Cultural heritage

263260

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bai%20Shouyi

Bai Shouyi

Bai Shouyi (; February 1909 – March 21, 2000), also known as Djamal al-Din Bai Shouyi, was a Chinese ethnologist, historian, social activist, and writer who revolutionized recent Chinese historiography and pioneered in relying heavily on scientific excavations and reports. A Marxist philosophically, his studies thus take a very class-centric view and reasoning. Born a son of a Hui merchant in Kaifeng, he became literate in Arabic from his mother and aunt. Bai argued for the need for increased awareness of Islam and Muslims by the Chinese population in general in 1937, since Muslims numbered 50 million in China alone and western works were the only works available for non-Muslim Chinese to study Muslims living right with them in China. He said Muslims in Western China could either stand as a "defensive wall" or "hinder ...national defence", depending on whether conduct to them was good or bad. He died in Beijing at the age of 91. See also Chinese history References Bai Shouyi et al. (2003). A History of Chinese Muslim. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. . Cover page. 1909 births 2000 deaths 20th-century Chinese historians Chinese ethnographers Chinese Muslims Historians from Henan Hui people Muslim historians People's Republic of China historians Republic of China historians Writers from Kaifeng