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263556

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Warrior

HMS Warrior

At least five ships and one shore establishment of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Warrior: was a 74-gun third-rate ship of the line launched in 1781. She became a receiving ship after 1818, a convict ship after 1840, and was broken up in 1857. was the Royal Navy's first ironclad ocean-going armoured battleship, and was launched in 1860. She became a depot ship in 1902, was renamed HMS Vernon III in 1904, and hulked as HMS Warrior in 1923. She was handed over for preservation as Warrior in 1979, and is preserved at Portsmouth as a museum ship. was a armoured cruiser launched in 1905. She was disabled at the Battle of Jutland in 1916 and foundered a day later. was a yacht requisitioned by the Royal Navy in 1917 and 1918 was a light fleet aircraft carrier launched in 1944, having had her name changed from HMS Brave in 1942. She was loaned to Canada from 1946 to 1948, as HMCS Warrior, then sold to Argentina and renamed ARA Independencia in 1958. HMS Warrior was the name assigned to the operational headquarters of the Royal Navy in Northwood, London from 1963. The base became the Joint Headquarters in 1996, before being decommissioned in 1999 to become the Joint Services Headquarters. References External links HMS Warrior (1860) History Royal Navy ship names

263566

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Bert

Bob Bert

Robert Bertelli, better known as Bob Bert, is an American rock drummer. Biography Based in Hoboken, New Jersey, Bert initially came to prominence as drummer for the experimental rock band Sonic Youth during the early to mid-1980s. Bert played on the Sonic Youth releases Confusion Is Sex, Sonic Death, and Bad Moon Rising. After Bad Moon Rising, Bert quit the group. Bert contributed during the last half of the 1980s as percussionist for noise band Pussy Galore. He was a member of Action Swingers in the early 1990s. In the early 1990s, Bert drummed for the Chrome Cranks (which also included Peter Aaron on vocals; Jerry Teel on bass; and William Weber on stun guitar). After the dissolution of the Cranks, Bert joined forces with guitarist Kid Congo, guitarist Jack Martin, bassist/vocalist Jerry Teel and organist Barry London in the rootsy New York City band Knoxville Girls. Throughout, Bert managed to release a handful of recordings by his percussive/concussive vehicle Bewitched. Releases by Bewitched include the Chocolate Frenzy 12" EP; some albums, including Harshing My Mellow on No. 6 Records; and the "Hey White Homie" 7" on Sub Pop. Bewitched toured with S.Y. and STP (short-lived NYC all-female foxcore band which included PG guitarist Julie Cafritz) during the summer of 1990, the year Goo was released. During the late 1990s, Bert and his wife, artist Linda Wolfe, began publishing BBGun, a zine that primarily covers punk rock. In 1998, Bert contributed the liner notes and interviewed Suicide for the reissue of the band's eponymous second album. Bert played with Five Dollar Priest as well as with the International Shades, which features ex-Live Skull guitarist Mark C. and former Pier Platters shop assistant-turned-keyboardist Dorien Garry among others. In 2011 Thick Syrup Records released the compilation cd Bewitched - Bob Bert Presents: The Worst Poetry Of 1986 - 1993, featuring all tracks Bob Bert recorded with Bewitched. The label also released the last album of the re-united Chrome Cranks featuring Bert on drums. Bert is now playing with Retrovirus (Lydia Lunch, Weasel Walter, Tim Dahl), who have released studio and live albums, and also with Wolfmanhattan Project with Kid Congo Powers (The Gun Club, The Cramps, Nick Cave & the Bad Seeds, Knoxville Girls, Pink Monkey Birds) and Mick Collins (The Gories, The Dirtbombs). In 2019, Bert released I'm Just the Drummer: My Time Behind Sonic Youth, Pussy Galore, Chrome Cranks & BB Gun Magazine, a book compiling his photographs and interviews he did with artists he collaborated with or that influenced him. Discography With Sonic Youth Confusion is Sex, 1982 Kill Yr Idols, 1983 Bad Moon Rising, 1984 Sonic Death, 1984 Death Valley 69, 1984 With Lee Ranaldo Between the Times and the Tides, 2012 Bewitched Chocolate Frenzy 12" EP Brain Eraser, No. 6 Records Harshing My Mellow, No. 6 Records "Hey White Homie" 7" Sub Pop. Bob Bert Presents: The Worst Poetry of 1986-1993, Thick Syrup Records 2011 Chrome Cranks Dead Cool, CD Crypt, 1995 Love In Exile, CD PCP, 1996 Oily Cranks, CD Atavistic Records, 1997 Diabolical Boogie: Singles, Demos & Rarities (1992 B.C.- 1998 A.D.) CD, Atavistic Records, 2006 Ain't No Lies In Blood CD, Thick Syrup Records 2011 With Lydia Lunch Retrovirus Retrovirus, Recorded live at the Knitting Factory, Brooklin, NY, Nov 15, 2012 (CD / Widowspeak, 2013) Urge to Kill (CD / Widowspeak / Rustblade / Brava, 2015) Live in Zurich (CD / Widowspeak, 2016) With Wolfmanhattan Project Smells Like You, (7", In The Red Recordings, 2015) Blue Gene Stew, (CD/Album, In the Red Recordings, 2019) References Further reading Browne, David. Goodbye 20th Century: A Biography of Sonic Youth. Da Capo Press, 2008. . pg. 81 ff. Sonic Youth members Pussy Galore (band) members American rock drummers Noise rock musicians Living people Musicians from Hoboken, New Jersey Place of birth missing (living people) 1955 births

263567

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0stiklal%20Avenue

İstiklal Avenue

İstiklal Avenue (; ), historically known as the Grand Avenue of Pera (Ottoman Turkish: Cadde-i Kebir; ; ) is one of the most famous avenues in Istanbul, Turkey, visited by nearly 3 million people in a single day over the course of weekends. Located in the historic Beyoğlu (Pera) district, it is an elegant pedestrian street, long, which houses boutiques, music stores, bookstores, art galleries, cinemas, theatres, libraries, cafés, pubs, nightclubs with live music, historical patisseries, chocolateries and restaurants. The avenue, surrounded by late Ottoman era buildings (mostly from the 19th and early 20th centuries) that were designed with the Neo-Classical, Neo-Gothic, Renaissance Revival, Beaux-Arts, Art Nouveau and First Turkish National Architecture styles; as well as a few Art Deco style buildings from the early years of the Turkish Republic, and a number of more recent examples of modern architecture; starts from the northern end of Galata (the medieval Genoese quarter) at Tünel Square and ultimately leads up to Taksim Square. Galatasaray Square is located at approximately the center of the avenue and is home to the oldest secondary school in Turkey: the Galatasaray High School (Galatasaray Lisesi), originally known as the Galata Sarayı Enderun-u Hümayunu (Galata Palace Imperial School). In the historic Karaköy (Galata) district towards the southern end of the avenue, it is possible to see the world's second-oldest subway station, generally known and referred to as simply Tünel (The Tunnel) which entered service in 1875. Moreover, one of the finest educational institutions established in Turkey, the German High School of Istanbul (Deutsche Schule Istanbul in German, Özel Alman Lisesi in Turkish) is also located near Tünel. The cosmopolitan avenue is surrounded by an array of historical and politically significant buildings, such as the Çiçek Pasajı (Flower Passage) where small, intimate restaurants and taverns are found; Balık Pazarı (The Fish Market); the Hüseyin Ağa Camii Mosque; the Roman Catholic churches of Santa Maria Draperis and S. Antonio di Padova; the Greek Orthodox Haghia Triada; the Armenian Üç Horan (among many other churches); several synagogues; mosques; academic institutions established by various European nations such as Austria, France, Germany and Italy in the 19th century; and consulates (former embassies before 1923) of several nations including France, Greece, the Netherlands, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. During the Ottoman period, the avenue was called Cadde-i Kebir (Grand Avenue) in Turkish or Grande Rue de Péra. It was a popular spot for Ottoman intellectuals, European and the local Italian and French Levantines. When 19th-century travelers referred to Constantinople (today, Istanbul) as the Paris of the East, they were mentioning the Grande Rue de Péra (İstiklal Caddesi) and its half-European, half-Asian culture. With the declaration of the Republic on 29 October 1923, the avenue's name was changed to İstiklal (Independence) for commemorating the triumph at the Turkish War of Independence. In September 1955, during the anti-Greek Istanbul pogrom, the Avenue was pillaged in one night, while it was covered with pieces of glass, clothes, smashed white goods, rolled down and burned automobiles and other goods, all belonging to the wrecked shops. The avenue briefly fell from grace in the 1970s and 1980s, with its old Istanbulite inhabitants moving elsewhere, and its side streets (back then stereotyped with their bars and night clubs with live music and shows, called pavyon in Turkish, derived from the word pavilion) being populated by migrants from the rural areas of Anatolia. However, during the late 1980s and early 1990s, a massive restoration process took place, which was master-planned and executed by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Beyoğlu Municipality (including the restoration of the historic buildings, new pavements for full pedestrianization, and the reinstallation of the historic trams), bringing the avenue its old charm and popularity. İstiklal Avenue once again became the center of fine arts and leisure in Istanbul, with real estate prices skyrocketing as a result. Numerous new art galleries, bookstores, cafés, pubs, restaurants, shops and hotels were opened. The venues around the avenue became the host of many international art festivals, such as the annual Istanbul Film Festival. İstiklal Avenue is also a popular venue for all sorts of parades (such as the annual Istanbul Pride), marches, gatherings and protests (such as the 2013 Gezi Park protests) in the city. On 19 March 2016 it was the location of a suicide bombing attack that killed 5 people. See also Abdi İpekçi Avenue Bağdat Avenue List of upscale shopping districts References External links istiklal caddesi / istiklal.caddesi.com İstiklalCaddesi.net - A news website of the Avenue Streets in Istanbul Shopping districts and streets in Turkey Pedestrian streets in Turkey Beyoğlu Tourist attractions in Istanbul Restaurant districts and streets in Turkey Entertainment districts in Turkey Istanbul pogrom

263570

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o%20Lopes%20%28soldier%29

Fernão Lopes (soldier)

Fernão Lopes (died 1545) was the first known permanent inhabitant of the remote Island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, an island that later became famous as the site of Napoleon's exile and death. Lopes was a 16th-century Portuguese soldier in India. He was tortured and disfigured in punishment for defecting to the side of Rasul Khan when the Portuguese conquered Goa in 1510. On his way home to Portugal after these events, Lopes chose voluntary exile on Saint Helena, where he lived in almost complete solitude for more than 30 years. In Portuguese service In 1510 Lopes, a minor nobleman and soldier, accompanied the Portuguese governor of India Afonso de Albuquerque on his conquest of Goa on the west coast of India. Shortly after its conquest, Albuquerque set sail to conquer Malacca in Malaysia, leaving Lopes behind as part of the garrison, with orders to keep the peace and rule over the local population. When Albuquerque returned nearly two years later, he found Goa under siege and some of the men had defected to the enemy side, and some, including Lopes himself, had married native women and converted to Islam. Albuquerque's men regained possession of the territory and Rasul Khan surrendered the Portuguese renegades on the condition that their lives be spared. Instead they were tortured so savagely that half of them died within three days. Lopes, as the leader of the group, received the harshest punishment. He was bound with ropes to two wooden posts, and Albuquerque's men severed his nose, ears, right arm, and left thumb (according to others, his index and middle fingers as well) in a public square. His hair and beard were scraped off with clam shells. The survivors were then released, and fled to the jungle where they could hide their deformities and be left alone. Lopes stayed in Goa until the death of Albuquerque in 1515, after which he set sail for Portugal, having been offered amnesty by King Manuel I. The ship stopped at Saint Helena for food and water. Saint Helena was discovered by the Portuguese João da Nova in 1502, and with its abundance of fresh water and fat, it became a regular port of call for Portuguese ships en route between the East Indies and Europe via the Cape of Good Hope. According to one source, Lopes went on land secretly and became utterly alone; according to another source he was landed with a boat and stayed on the island with a number of slaves. According to all sources, Lopes was granted a few supplies from the ship's stores. Marooned on Saint Helena Nearly a year passed before another ship docked at Saint Helena. Lopes acclimated himself to his new home, a volcanic island almost off the coast of Africa. The climate was tropical and mild, tempered by trade winds. At the time, Saint Helena's original ecosystem was almost intact, and goats introduced by the Portuguese thrived in the island's untouched environment (no mammals or reptiles inhabited Saint Helena before introduction by explorers). The interior of Saint Helena was a thick old-growth forest of ancient gumwood trees and other native plants that had colonized the island as many as 10 million years ago. The following is from a contemporary account of the first ship to encounter Lopes after he had been left on Saint Helena, found in a Hakluyt Society journal: The cockerel that Lopes saved from the ship became his only friend on Saint Helena. During the night, it roosted above his head and during the day it followed behind him, and would come if he called to it. As time went on, Lopes began to be less and less afraid of people. When a ship would lay anchor in what would later be known as Jamestown harbour, Lopes would greet the sailors, talking to them as they came ashore. Lopes began to be considered something of a saint, because of his deformities and the fact that he would not leave Saint Helena for any reason. Many people thought him to be the embodiment of human suffering and alienation, and they took pity on him. The travelers who stopped at the island gave Lopes many things, including livestock and seeds. Eventually, Lopes became a gardener and a keeper of livestock, working the soil, planting fruit trees, grasses and many other forms of vegetation. Lopes visits Portugal and Rome After 10 years on the island, Lopes agreed to return to Portugal to see his family, visited King João III and then traveled to Rome, where Pope Clement VII absolved him of the sin of apostasy. The absolution occurred at Easter, 1530, in public (In those days, only the Pope could absolve the sin of apostasy, and he always did so in public, at Easter). The Pope was very impressed with Lopes, and decided to grant him a wish. Lopes had one desire, and that was to return to his home on the Island of Saint Helena. The Pope sent Lopes back to Portugal with a letter for João III, requesting that Lopes be transported back to Saint Helena. Lopes returned to the island and died there in 1545, after another 20 years of almost complete solitude. References Further reading External links Historical Chronology of Saint Helena Fernão Lopes: The First Robinson Crusoe Chapter 2 of Brooke's 1808 History of the Island of St. Helena Portuguese Roman Catholics Converts to Roman Catholicism from Islam 1545 deaths Castaways Saint Helenian people of Portuguese descent Mercenaries in India 16th-century Portuguese people Year of birth unknown

263588

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20Row%20Records

Death Row Records

Death Row Records is an American record label that was founded in 1991 by Dr. Dre, Suge Knight, the D.O.C. and Dick Griffey. The label became a sensation by releasing multi-platinum hip-hop albums by West Coast-based artists such as Dr. Dre (The Chronic), Snoop Dogg (Doggystyle), Tha Dogg Pound (Dogg Food), and Tupac (All Eyez on Me) during the 1990s. At its peak, Death Row was making over US$100 million a year. By the late 1990s, the label began to decline after the death of its star artist, Tupac, imprisonment of Suge Knight, and the departures of Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg. Although Death Row was enjoying financial success, it was embroiled in controversies, lawsuits, and violence by its artists and associates. Death Row Records filed for bankruptcy in 2006 and was auctioned to WIDEawake Entertainment for $18 million on January 15, 2009. The owner of WIDEawake bankrupted in 2012 and the label was then sold to Entertainment One, then became a division of Hasbro until April 2021 when eOne Music was sold to The Blackstone Group. Snoop Dogg bought Death Row from MNRK Music Group in February 2022, intending to revive the label. History In the late-1980s, N.W.A's producer Dr. Dre signed to Eazy-E's Ruthless. As head of production at the label, Dr. Dre produced a large number of Ruthless projects, many of them successful; feeling the pressures of having to produce so many acts and feeling he was underpaid, Dr. Dre became frustrated with Ruthless. After the departure of Ice Cube in 1989 over financial disagreements with Jerry Heller, Suge Knight and the D.O.C. went over the books with a lawyer. Convinced that Jerry Heller was dishonest, they approached Dr. Dre about forming a label with them, away from Heller. Allegedly using strong-arm tactics, Suge Knight was able to procure contracts from Eazy-E for the D.O.C., Dr. Dre and Michel'le. Dr. Dre and Suge Knight along with partners the D.O.C. and Dick Griffey began the process of starting a record label and music partnership in anticipation of Dre's departure from Ruthless. Although the name of their new music venture was originally called Future Shock, the D.O.C. claimed to have suggested changing the name of the new label to 'Def Row' (a play on the Def Jam), but rights to the name were already owned by the Unknown DJ, who also happened to be one of Dre's former music associates in the 1980s. Unknown stated in an interview that he created the name "Def Row" for a potential deal to start another record label under Morgan Creek. However he later sold the naming rights to Dr. Dre and his partners in July 1991 and by 1992 the name changed to its eventual title of Death Row. Knight approached Michael "Harry-O" Harris, a businessman imprisoned on drug and attempted murder charges. Through David Kenner, an attorney handling Harris's appeal, Harry-O set up Godfather, a parent company for the newly christened Death Row. Knight approached Vanilla Ice (Robert Van Winkle), using management connections with Mario "Chocolate" Johnson, claiming Johnson had produced the song "Ice Ice Baby", and had not received royalties for it. After consulting with Alex Roberts, Knight and two bodyguards arrived at The Palm in West Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, where Van Winkle was eating. After shoving Van Winkle's bodyguards aside, Knight sat down in front of Van Winkle, staring at him before asking "How you doin'?" Similar incidents were repeated on several occasions, including alleged attempts to lure Vanilla Ice into a van filled with Bloods and Crips, before Knight showed up at Vanilla Ice's hotel suite on the 15th floor of the Bel Age Hotel, accompanied by Johnson and a member of the Los Angeles Raiders. According to Vanilla Ice, Knight took him out on the balcony by himself, and implied he would throw Vanilla Ice off unless he signed the rights to the song over to Knight; Van Winkle's money helped fund Death Row. Death Row was initially located at the intersection of Westwood Blvd and Wilshire Blvd, later to be relocated to the intersection of Wilshire Blvd. and San Vicente Blvd. The Chronic With the help of Kenner, Knight began signing young, inner-city California-based artists and arranged for Death Row Records to handle the soundtrack for the 1992 film, Deep Cover. The single, "Deep Cover", established Dr. Dre as a solo artist and a young Snoop Dogg (then known as Snoop Doggy Dogg) as his protégé. Work soon began on The Chronic, Dr. Dre's debut solo album, which heavily featured Snoop and the rest of the label's core roster. The album went on to sell 5.7 million records in the US, establishing the West Coast in the hip-hop industry and popularizing the distinctive style of G-Funk. The Death Row roster consisted of Dre, Snoop, Daz, Kurupt, Nate Dogg, Lady of Rage, the D.O.C., RBX, and many more. Later on, Death Row artist Lil 1/2 Dead's contract was later sold to Priority Records where he released his debut album The Dead Has Arisen. Doggystyle After finding solo success, Dr. Dre began crafting Snoop Dogg's debut album Doggystyle; the process took two years. Snoop's debut was released in 1993 due to public demand and high pressure from retailers. Though unfinished, it outperformed The Chronic at Quadruple Platinum, and garnered similarly glowing reviews. Soon after the release of the album, Snoop Dogg was charged with murder, fueling the debate that politicians C. Delores Tucker and Vice Presidential candidate Dan Quayle sparked by criticizing gangsta rap for being against American values, degrading to black women, and encouraging violence towards police officers. Death Row Thanksgiving On November 22, 1994, at the offices of The Brotherhood Crusade in Los Angeles, Suge Knight and several artists from Death Row such as Tha Dogg Pound and DJ Quik (wasn't signed to the label) distributed nearly 2,000 turkeys to the public. Death Row also donated turkeys the following year as well. Signing Tupac Shakur, Bad Boy Records feud and Dr. Dre's departure After an August visit to see Tupac Shakur at Clinton Correctional Facility in northern New York state, Suge traveled southward to New York City to join Death Row's entourage to the 2nd Annual Source Awards ceremony. Already reputed for strongarm tactics on the Los Angeles rap scene, Suge used his brief stage time mainly to disparage Sean "Puff Daddy" Combs, boss of Bad Boy Entertainment, the label then leading New York rap scene, who routinely performed with his own artists. Before closing with a brief comment of support for Shakur, Suge invited artists seeking the spotlight for themselves to join Death Row. Eventually, Puff recalled that to preempt severe retaliation from his Bad Boy orbit, he had promptly confronted Suge, whose reply—that he had meant Jermaine Dupri, of So So Def Recordings, in Atlanta—was politic enough to deescalate the conflict. Still, among the fans, the previously diffuse rivalry between America's two mainstream rap scenes had instantly flared already. And while in New York, Suge visited Uptown Records, where Puff, under its founder Andre Harrell, had started in the music business through an internship. Apparently without paying Uptown, Suge obtained the releases of Puff's prime Uptown recruits Jodeci, its producer DeVante Swing, and Mary J. Blige, all then signing with Suge's management company. On September 24, 1995, at a party for Dupri in Atlanta at the Platinum House nightclub, a Bad Boy circle entered a heated dispute with Suge and Suge's friend Jai Hassan-Jamal "Big Jake" Robles, a Bloods gang member and Death Row bodyguard. According to eyewitnesses, including a Fulton County sheriff, working there as a nightclub bouncer, Puff had heatedly disputed with Suge inside the club, whereas several minutes later, outside the club, it was Puff's childhood friend and own bodyguard, Anthony "Wolf" Jones, who aimed a gun at Big Jake who was fatally shot while entering Suge's car. The attorneys of Puff and his bodyguard both denied any involvement by their clients, while Puff's lawyer added that Puff had not even been with his bodyguard that night. Over 20 years later, the case remains officially unresolved. Yet immediately and persistently, Suge blamed Puff, cementing the enmity between the two bosses, whose two record labels dominated the rap genre's two mainstream centers. In October 1995, Knight visited Shakur in prison again and posted $1.4 million bond. Shakur began work on his Death Row album, kicking off his tenure by insulting the Notorious B.I.G., Junior M.A.F.I.A. and Puff Daddy (the founder of Bad Boy Records), whom he accused of setting him up to be robbed and shot at Quad Studios on November 30, 1994, as well as Mobb Deep, Jay-Z, A Tribe Called Quest, De La Soul, the Fugees and Nas. Tha Dogg Pound's debut album, Dogg Food, continued the label's streak of commercial successes; its members – rappers Kurupt and Daz Dillinger – then joined Snoop in ridiculing New York rappers with their single "New York, New York", featuring Snoop Dogg. The video, set in New York City, New York, was also heightened when the set was fired upon in a drive-by. After the shooting, Snoop Dogg and Tha Dogg Pound filmed scenes kicking down a building in New York. The single provoked a response called '"L.A., L.A." by East Coast rappers Capone-N-Noreaga, Tragedy Khadafi, and Mobb Deep. Another report was that Sam Sneed was beaten in one of the label's meetings by a group of Death Row affiliates, led by Suge Knight and 2Pac. According to Daz Dillinger, the reason this happened was that Sam Sneed had too many East Coast rappers in his Lady Heroin music video. Disillusioned with the direction of Death Row, artists RBX and the D.O.C. chose to leave, after which Suge Knight exercised tighter control over the rest of the roster. Dogg Food was not produced by Dr. Dre but was mixed by Dr. Dre, a further testament to Dre's dwindling involvement with his own record label. Dr. Dre also grew tired of Knight's violence within the label, although he contributed toward two tracks on 2Pac's All Eyez on Me. The rest of the tracks on the album, however, were mostly produced by Daz Dillinger and Johnny J, despite Dr. Dre being nominally titled as Executive Producer. Shakur's behavior reportedly became erratic as he continued his verbal wars with the Notorious B.I.G., Bad Boy Records, Puff Daddy, Mobb Deep, and Prodigy, including many violent confrontations with many of those rappers at some points. On March 22, 1996, due to the infighting, Dr. Dre officially left Death Row Records to found Aftermath, which provoked 2Pac to turn against Dr. Dre. M.C. Hammer's involvement and departure Suge Knight's relationship with MC Hammer dates back to 1988. With the success of Hammer's 1994 album, The Funky Headhunter (featuring Tha Dogg Pound), Hammer signed with Death Row in 1995, along with his close friend, Tupac. The label did not release the album of M.C. Hammer's music (titled Too Tight), although he did release versions of some tracks on his next album. However, Hammer did record tracks with Shakur and others, most notably the song "Too Late Playa" (along with Big Daddy Kane and Danny Boy). After the death of Tupac in 1996, MC Hammer left the label. Tupac Shakur's murder and Suge Knight's incarceration Formerly a united front of artists, Death Row's roster fractured into separate camps. Daz, now head producer, worked on Snoop Dogg's second album Tha Doggfather, which featured Bad Azz and Techniec of his LBC Crew, Warren G and Nate Dogg of his group 213 and Tha Dogg Pound. Tupac shut himself into the studio with Hurt-M-Badd and Big "D", crafting The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory - unlike All Eyez on Me, it was devoid of high-profile Death Row guest appearances, instead showcasing the Outlawz and Bad Azz. Suge Knight was now barely reachable by his staff, and employees were assaulted as punishment for not following orders. During a trip to Las Vegas, Nevada, for a Mike Tyson boxing match, Tupac was interviewed on the possibility of Death Row East, an East Coast branch of Death Row. It was also during this time that Alex Roberts and David Kenner had been seen at Suge Knight's Vegas Club 662, in discussion about the possibility of having Roberts' New York underworld connections help pave the way for Death Row East. Though names from Big Daddy Kane and the Wu-Tang Clan to Eric B. and K-Solo were mentioned, the label would never be formed; On September 7, 1996, Suge Knight and Tupac were caught on surveillance camera at the MGM Grand Hotel in Las Vegas attacking gang member Orlando Anderson, who was a member of the Southside Compton Crips street gang. Later that night, Tupac was shot four times in a drive-by shooting in the front seat of Suge Knight's BMW 750iL waiting at a red traffic light at crossroads; en route to Knight's Las Vegas Club 662; despite living six days in critical condition, 2Pac died September 13, 1996. Shakur's "The Don Killuminati: 7 Day Theory" was released in November 1996, just one week before Snoop Dogg's "Tha Doggfather". Both albums achieved Platinum sales. On February 28, 1997, Suge Knight was convicted of parole violation and sentenced to nine years in prison, causing Interscope to drop their distribution deal with the label. Suge Knight's control over the label diminished, as Nate Dogg was able to leave, followed by Snoop Dogg and Kurupt. After the release of her solo album, the Lady of Rage left. Daz Dillinger departed in 1999 but produced for Big C-Style, he later formed Dogg Pound Records. Kurupt returned to the label in early 2002 upon Suge Knight's release from prison on August 6, 2001. Death Row Records UK In 2001, Knight decided to enter the UK market with Death Row Records operating as an independent record label in conjunction with the Ritz Music Group, a company known for its success with Irish country music artists such as Daniel O'Donnell The joint-venture signed British R&B singer Mark Morrison to a five-year deal with Death Row Records UK, with a single called "Thank God It's Friday" and an album called Innocent Man scheduled for a 2002 release. However, the single did not chart in the UK and the album ended up being released by footballer Kevin Campbell's record label 2 Wikid, before being re-issued in 2006 by Mona Records. Second generation exodus (Tha Row Records) Maintaining artistic control from behind bars, Suge Knight launched smear campaigns against his former artists, most notably Snoop Dogg, death threats were exchanged, and Snoop Dogg responded by publicly dissing Suge Knight, leaving the label, and later releasing a diss track named "Pimp Slapp'd", critically acclaimed by music magazine Complex. The label supported itself with releases pulled from vaults—most successfully various posthumous 2Pac albums, along with Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg re-releases and then-unreleased compilation records such as Suge Knight Represents: Chronic 2000. He signed new talent, including Crooked I who had been lighting up the Californian underground with his rhyming ability, particularly the Wake Up Show with Sway & King Tech. Suge Knight also signed Left Eye. Despite bad blood, Kurupt would again sign with Suge Knight in exchange for the position of Vice President, which sparked a feud between himself and Daz Dillinger and Snoop Dogg. He began work on Against tha Grain; his verbal feud with his former partners continued from 2002 to 2005. Left Eye signed with Death Row after finishing her solo deal with Arista who released her first album Supernova in 2001. At this time, Death Row changed into Tha Row Records. Lopes joined to record a second solo album under the pseudonym N.I.N.A. (New Identity Not Applicable), while also working on TLC's new album 3D. N.I.N.A. was cancelled after her death in April 2002. The album was leaked online in 2011. After promoting his new talent from prison, directing a campaign against his former artists and exacerbating the conflict between Daz Dillinger and Kurupt, Suge had still yet to release any albums by his new artists. After Kurupt's second departure, Against tha Grain was released; soon after, citing dissatisfaction with serving five years on the label and seeing no release, Rapper Crooked I left Death Row, eventually filing a gag order on Knight to prevent him from interfering with him finding a new deal. Petey Pablo, who had signed in 2005 and started the never-released album Same Eyez on Me, left along with rapper Tha Realest in 2006. Bankruptcy On April 4, 2006, both Death Row Records and Suge Knight simultaneously filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection following the appointment of a Receiver to acquire and auction off assets of both Death Row Records and Suge Knight in the civil case filed by Lydia Harris against Suge Knight. Among those listed as unsecured creditors to Death Row include the Harrises, the Internal Revenue Service ($6.9 million), Koch Records ($3.4 million), Interscope Records ($2.5 million) and a number of artists previously signed to the label. Suge Knight eventually lost control of Death Row Records and his personal assets when Chapter 11 Trustees took over both cases. WideAwake and eOne WIDEawake Entertainment Group was created in 2006 by Lara Lavi. On January 15, 2009, Death Row Records was successfully auctioned to entertainment development company WIDEawake for US$18 million. WIDEawake Entertainment made a leveraged purchase of Death Row Records in part thanks to financing provided by New Solutions Financial Corporation. On January 25, 2009, an auction was held for everything found in Death Row's office after it filed for bankruptcy. Both WIDEawake and New Solutions Financial were based in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. New Solutions by the end of 2009 began to squeeze Lara Lavi out of WIDEawake Entertainment by restricting her ability to access funds they had lent her for Deathrow. By November 2009 Lara Lavi was removed from WIDEawake entertainment and Robert Thomson of New Solution Financial had taken over day-to-day operations. Lavi then sued her former company, Ontario-based WIDEawake Entertainment Group, New Solutions Financial Corporation and New Solutions Managing Director Robert Thompson in New York County Court on November 19, 2009. New Solutions Financial Corporation was eventually exposed as a Ponzi scheme. Of note was the Death Row electric chair which went for US$2,500. Since the acquisition, the company has continued to release material from its vast archives of materials acquired in the sale. Noteworthy releases include previously unreleased material from such artists as Snoop Dogg, Kurupt, Danny Boy, Crooked I, Sam Sneed, LBC Crew and O.F.T.B. Since the acquisition of the material, Death Row, under the management of WIDEawake, has made many positive steps towards improving the image of Death Row by making good on its promise to make royalty payments to many of the artists, producers, and songwriters with commercially released material under the label. On Record Store Day, April 18, 2012, the label issued a free Death Row "Record Store Day" CD sampler which included music from Petey Pablo and Danny Boy. The Chronic Re-Lit was released on September 1, 2009. The album contained The Chronic re-mastered with seven bonus songs from the vault by Snoop Doggy Dogg, CPO, Kurupt, Jewell, plus a DVD containing music videos, a Dr. Dre interview, a Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg mini movie, and 1992 television commercials for the original The Chronic release. Snoop Doggy Dogg – Death Row The Lost Sessions Vol 1 was released October 13, 2009 and contains 15 previously unreleased tracks with four being produced by Dr. Dre. Death Row The Ultimate Collection was released on November 24 and was a special box set containing three audio CDs (one greatest hits disc and two discs of unreleased content), one DVD of music videos which includes the unreleased Dr. Dre music video "Puffin' On Blunts" and a limited edition Death Row T-shirt. The set boasts over 20 unreleased tracks by Snoop Doggy Dogg, Tha Dogg Pound, the Lady of Rage, Lord Autopz and Petey Pablo. During this period, there was a distribution venture between Entertainment One, WIDEawake, and Death Row. On December 10, 2012, New Solutions Financial Corp., the Canadian company that owned WIDEawake Death Row, had gone bankrupt and sold both the label and catalog to a publicly held company. In 2013, Entertainment One purchased the rights to the Death Row catalog. The Group invested £175 million in content rights and television programmes in the year (2012: £135.8 million) and £4.2 million ($6 million) to purchase the music library assets of Death Row. Death Row had a Pop-Up event in Los Angeles on April 10, 2019. Sale of brand to Snoop Dogg and third generation On August 23, 2019, American toy company Hasbro announced a $4 billion purchase of eOne, making them the owners of Death Row Records. In April 2021, Hasbro and Entertainment One announced it would sell-off eOne Music to The Blackstone Group. The acquisition was completed in June 2021. On February 9, 2022, ahead of the release of his next album and his appearance in the Super Bowl LVI halftime show, Snoop Dogg announced that he would acquire the rights to the Death Row Records trademarks from MNRK Music Group (the renamed eOne Music). The sale did not immediately include rights to the label's catalog, but it was reported that he was nearing a deal to acquire the catalogs of himself and other Death Row artists from MNRK. On February 11, 2022, Snoop Dogg released his third studio album on Death Row Records, marking a 26 year lapse from the label. Snoop Dogg's purchase of Death Row Records did not include the rights to Tupac or Dr. Dre's albums. Artists Current artists Former artists Discography See also Death Row Records artists From Compton to Long Beach Notes References Further reading Have Gun Will Travel: The Spectacular Rise and Violent Fall of Death Row Records, Ronin Ro, Doubleday, 1998, 384 pages, Labyrinth: A Detective Investigates the Murders of Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G., the Implications of Death Row Records' Suge by Randall Sullivan, Atlantic Monthly Press, April 2, 2002, 384 pages, The Killing of Tupac Shakur, by Cathy Scott, Huntington Press, 2002 (2nd ed), 235 pages, Welcome to Death Row, Director: S. Leigh Savidge & Jeff Scheftel, (Video) 2001 External links Death Row Records – Official YouTube American companies established in 1992 American companies disestablished in 2008 American independent record labels Gangsta rap record labels Hip hop record labels Record labels based in California Vanity record labels Record labels established in 1992 Record labels disestablished in 2008 1992 establishments in California 2008 disestablishments in California Defunct companies based in Greater Los Angeles Dr. Dre Tupac Shakur MNRK Music Group Obscenity controversies in music

263592

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grafton%2C%20New%20South%20Wales

Grafton, New South Wales

Grafton (Bundjalung-Yugambeh: Gumbin Gir) is a city in the Northern Rivers region of the Australian state of New South Wales. It is located on the Clarence River, approximately by road north-northeast of the state capital Sydney. The closest major cities, Brisbane and the Gold Coast, are located across the border in South-East Queensland. In June 2018, Grafton had a population of 19,078. The city is the largest settlement and, with Maclean, the shared administrative centre of the Clarence Valley Council local government area, which is home to over 50,000 people in all. History Before European settlement, the Clarence River marked the border between the Bundjalung and Gumbaynggirr peoples, and so descendants of the speakers of both language-groups can now be found in the Grafton region. Grafton, like many other settlements in the area, was first opened up to "white" settlement by the cedar-getters. An escaped convict, Richard Craig, explored the district in 1831. With the wealth of "red gold" cedar just waiting for exploitation, he was given a pardon and one hundred pounds to bring a party of cedar-getters on the cutter Prince George to the region. Word of such wealth to be had did not take long to spread. One of the arrivals on the Susan in 1838, pioneer John Small, first occupied land on Woodford Island. 'The Settlement' (as the embryonic Grafton was then imaginatively named) was established shortly after.In 1851 Governor FitzRoy officially named the town "Grafton", after his grandfather, the Duke of Grafton, who had served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1768 to 1770. Grafton was proclaimed a city in 1885. Local industries include logging, beef cattle, fishing/prawning, sugar, manufacturing and tourism. The Grafton Bridge, connecting the main townsite with South Grafton, opened in 1932. It completed the standard-gauge rail connection between Sydney and Brisbane, also forming a vital link for the Pacific Highway. Previously the only way to travel from Grafton to South Grafton was via ferry. As a result, South Grafton developed quite a separate identity, and in fact had its own municipal government from 1896 to 1956. The introduction of fluoride to the town water supply in 1964 was accompanied by protest which became physical. The fluoride plant was blown up the night before commencement, the dentist supporting fluoridation received bomb threats against his family and later pro- and anti-fluoridation float participants at the annual Jacaranda Festival came to blows and a gun was produced. Heritage listings Grafton has a number of heritage-listed sites, including: Duke Street: Christ Church Cathedral 170 Hoof Street: Grafton Correctional Centre North Coast railway: Grafton Bridge 95 Prince Street: Saraton Theatre 150 Victoria Street: Arcola, Grafton Demographics At 30 June 2018, Grafton had a population of 19,078. From the 2016 census of Population: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 8.7% of Grafton's population. 87.1% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were England 1.5% and New Zealand 0.7%. 90.5% of people spoke only English at home. The most common responses for religion were Anglican 27.0%, No Religion 24.5% and Catholic 21.1%. Climate Grafton has a humid subtropical climate with significantly more rainfall and higher temperatures in summer than in winter. Rainfall is lower than in stations directly on the coast, but monthly rain totals can often surpass . The wettest month since records began was March 1974 when Cyclone Zoe produced a monthly total of , whilst during periods of anticyclonic control and strong westerly winds monthly rainfall can be very low; for instance in August 2017 only fell. Grafton gets around 115.2 clear days on an annual basis. Grafton like many NSW regional centres, is affected by heatwaves in the summer months. On 12 February 2017 Grafton recorded a maximum temperature of 46.3, the city's highest recorded temperature since records began. Culture Grafton is known and promoted as the Jacaranda City, in reference to its tree-lined streets and to the annual Jacaranda Festival. Inaugurated in 1935, Jacaranda is held each October/November. A half-day public holiday is observed locally on the first Thursday of November, the Festival's major focal day. During the 1963 festival, inventor John W. Dickenson demonstrated on the Clarence River the first hang glider that was controlled by weight shifts of the pilot from a swinging control frame – the birth of modern hang gliding. A half-day public holiday is also observed for the Grafton Cup horse race, held each year on the second Thursday in July. It is the high point of the city's annual Racing Carnival—Australia's largest and richest non-metropolitan Carnival—which takes place over a fortnight in that month. Grafton is the birthplace of several renowned country music players. Local artist Troy Cassar-Daley received four Golden Guitar awards at the 2006 Tamworth Country Music Awards—the largest and most prestigious country music awards in Australia. At the same event Samantha McClymont, the 2005/2006 Grafton Jacaranda Queen and sister of Brooke McClymont, also received an award for her country music talent. A vision of Grafton with its numerous brilliantly-flowered trees in bloom is immortalised in Australian popular music in Cold Chisel's song Flame Trees, written by band member Don Walker, who had lived in Grafton during his formative years. Notable buildings Christ Church Cathedral, designed by John Horbury Hunt, was consecrated in 1884 and is the seat of the Anglican Diocese of Grafton. Schaeffer House is a historic 1900 Federation house and contains the collection of the Clarence River Historical Society, which was formed in 1931. Transportation The Murwillumbah – Byron Bay – Lismore railway (opened in 1894) was extended to Grafton's original railway station in 1905; for details, see Murwillumbah railway line. The North Coast Line reached South Grafton's railway station from Sydney in 1915. Pending the opening of the combined road and rail bascule bridge in 1932, Grafton had a train ferry to connect the two railways. Clarence Valley Regional Airport is the airport that services Grafton. Grafton also lies on the Pacific Highway, the main North–South road route through Eastern Australia, and links it to the Gwydir Highway, one of the primary east–west routes through Eastern Australia. Busways Grafton is the operator for local routes, as well as out-of-town routes to Junction Hill, Jackadgery/Cangai, Copmanhurst, and Maclean and Yamba. Lawrence Bus Service operates a shopper service, as well as school service on school days, to and from Lawrence. Northern Rivers Buslines operates a weekday service to Lismore via Maclean, Evans Head and Coraki. NSW TrainLink provides a coach service to Byron Bay, connecting off the train from Sydney. It also offers a coach service to Moree via Glen Innes, connecting from the train from Brisbane. Industry From 1904 to 1917 the Grafton Copper Mining Company Ltd operated a copper mine, smelter and tramway at Cangai, more than 100 km from Grafton via the Clarence and Mann rivers, today about 70 km over the Gwydir Highway. From 1952 to 1997, first as an independent company, then owned by Tooheys since 1961, the Grafton brewery provided Grafton Bitter to the North Coast. The nearby Harwood Mill is the oldest working sugar mill in New South Wales. Newspapers The daily newspaper of Grafton is The Daily Examiner, owned by media conglomerate Australian Provincial Newspapers (APN). Radio and television Radio stations 2GF 1206 AM/103.9 FM (commercial) FM 104.7 (commercial) Triple J 91.5 FM/96.1 FM ABC Northern Rivers 738 AM/94.5 FM ABC Classic FM 97.9 FM/95.3 FM Radio National 99.5 FM/96.9 FM Racing Radio 101.5 FM Life FM 103.1 (community) Raw FM 87.6 Television channels Prime7, Prime7HD, 7TWO, 7mate, 7flix, ishop tv, Racing.com, owned and operated by the Seven Network. Nine (NBN Television); 9HD, 9Gem, 9GemHD, 9Go!, 9Life, Extra owned and operated by the Nine Network. 10, 10HD, 10 Bold, 10 Peach – (owned by WIN Corporation), (Network 10 affiliated channels). ABC Television including ABC, ABC TV Plus, ABC Me and ABC News, part of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Special Broadcasting Service, SBS, SBS Viceland, SBS Food and NITV Pay television services are provided by Foxtel. Of the three main networks, NBN produces an evening news bulletin containing regional, national and international news, screening every night at 6:00pm on Channel 9. Prime7 News produces a mid north coast new bulletin screening weeknights at 6:00pm. WIN Television produces news updates throughout the day, broadcast from the Wollongong studios. Education Public schools Gillwinga Public School Grafton High School Grafton Public School South Grafton High School South Grafton Public School Westlawn Public School Independent schools Clarence Valley Anglican School (formerly The Cathedral School) McAuley Catholic College St. Joseph's Primary School St. Mary's Primary School St. Andrew's Christian School Defunct public schools A large number of small (mostly one-teacher) public schools existed in the Grafton and Clarence Valley areas in the past. These schools have included: Alumny Creek 1872–1969 Angowrie 1895–1899 Billys Creek 1946–1963 Calliope 1890–1983 Carr's Creek 1877–1964 Clouds Creek 1943–1964 Coalcroft 1875–1971 (originally known as Coaldale till 1912) Coldstream Lower 1873–1966 Copmanhurst 1866–1938 Eatonsville 1881–1961 Glenferneigh 1928–1967 Kungala 1926–1977 Lawrence Lower 1883–1955 Mororo 1886–1939 Palmers Channel 1869–1975 (originally known as Taloumbi till 1907) Seelands 1889–1967 Shark Creek 1877–1927 Smalls Forest 1885–1971 South Arm 1871–1967 Southgate 1867–1875 Stockyard Creek 1882–1895 Swan Creek 1870–1994 Trenayr 1901–1970 (originally known as Milers Waterholes till 1912) Tullymorgan 1886–1971 (originally known as Cormicks Creek till 1911) Tyndale 1868–1975 Ulgundah Island Aboriginal 1908–1951 (near Maclean) Woodford Leigh 1869–1956 Woombah 1872–1953 Military history During World War II, Grafton was the location of RAAF No.6 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 and closed on 29 August 1944. Usually consisting of 4 tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the Royal Australian Air Force and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000). Notable people Notable people who were born or lived in Grafton include: James Armah (moved to Grafton in 2016) professional dual Commonwealth champion boxer Troy Cassar-Daley, country musician Fanny Cohen (born 1887), headmistress Matthew Colless (born 1960) astronomer and Director of the Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics (RSAA) at the Australian National University (ANU). He was for nine years previously the Director of the Australian Astronomical Observatory (AAO), Australia's national optical observatory. Peter Drysdale (born 1938), economist Adam Eckersley, musician Havelock Ellis (1859–1939), pioneer sexologist, held the position of assistant master at a local private grammar school during 1877. Nick Emmett, rugby league player Jim Eggins (1898–1952), politician Gary Foley (born 1950), Aboriginal activist, academic, writer Charles Hercules Green (1919–1950), officer George Green (1883–unknown), rugby league player Henry Kendall (18 April 1839 – 1 August 1882) Andrew Landenberger (born 1966), Olympic sailor and medalist Robyn Lambley (born 1965), politician Carly Leeson (born 1998), cricketer Jimmy Lisle (1939–2003), rugby league and rugby union player Brent Livermore (born 5 July 1976), field hockey midfielder Ryan Maskelyne (born 1999), Olympic swimmer, competing for Papua New Guinea The McClymonts, country music group consisting of sisters Brooke, Samantha and Mollie Frank McGuren (1909–1990), politician Iven Giffard Mackay (7 April 1882 – 30 September 1966), Lieutenant General David Marchant AM (born 1954), railway industry executive Bill McLennan (born 1942), statistician Chris Masters (born 1948), journalist Gillian Mears (born 1964), author James Lionel Michael, poet and solicitor (moved to Grafton 1861, died in Grafton 1868) Tony Mundine (born 1951), boxer Warren Mundine (born 1956), politician Kevin Nichols (born 1955), track cyclist Sir Earle Page (8 August 1880 – 20 December 1961), 11th Prime Minister of Australia, 1939 Geoff Page (born 1940) poet Ruby Payne-Scott (1912–1981), pioneer in radiophysics and radio astronomy Frank Partridge (1924–1964), recipient of the Victoria Cross Cameron Pilley (born 1982), squash player Eddie Purkiss (born 1934), rugby union player Tyrone Roberts (born 1 June 1991), Newcastle Knights and Gold Coast Titans footballer Michael Rush (1844–1921), rower Lindsay Gordon Scott (1898–1941), architect Henry Ernest Searle (1866–1889), rower Sir Grafton Elliot Smith (15 August 1871 – 1 January 1937), anatomist and palaeoanthropologist Tse Tsan-tai (1872–1938), Chinese revolutionary James Tully (1877–1962), politician William Edward Vincent (1823–1861), founded The Clarence and Richmond Examiner Brenda Walker (born 1957), writer Don Walker (born 1951), musician Arthur Bache Walkom (1889–1976), palaeobotanist and museum director Bill Weiley (1901–1989), politician Danny Wicks (born 1985), rugby league player Graham Wilson, rugby league footballer of the 1960s Walter George Woolnough (1876–1958), geologist Beau Young (born 1974), singer-songwriter, surfer References External links Clarence Valley Council Website Clarence Valley Tourism Website Grafton, tropicalnsw.com.au Photographs of Grafton in 1994, National Library of Australia Jacaranda Festival Grafton Gillwinga Public School Grafton High School Grafton Public School South Grafton High School South Grafton Public School Westlawn Public School Clarence Valley Anglican School St Josephs Primary School St Mary's Primary School St. Andrew's Christian School 1851 establishments in Australia Northern Rivers Clarence Valley Council

263601

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete%20Wright%20%28musician%29

Pete Wright (musician)

Peter Wright, was bass guitar player and vocalist for anarchist punk band Crass, from 1977 until 1984. Occasionally he is credited as Pete Wrong on the band's record covers. After the dissolution of Crass he formed the performance art duo, Judas II. References Living people Crass members Anarcho-punk musicians British anarchists English anarchists English punk rock singers English punk rock bass guitarists Year of birth missing (living people)

263609

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig%20Scotty

Ludwig Scotty

Ludwig Derangadage Scotty (born 20 June 1948) is a Nauruan politician who twice served as President of Nauru and was Speaker of Parliament five times between 2000 and 2016. He served as president from 29 May 2003 to 8 August 2003 and again from 22 July 2004 until his ousting in a vote of no confidence on 19 December 2007. He was elected as president in 2003, again from November 2010 to April 2013, and from June 2013 to June 2016. Background and earlier career Scotty grew up in Anabar in the north of Nauru; he attended secondary school from 1960 until 1964 and studied law at the University of the South Pacific in the Fijian capital city Suva. On 15 March 1983 he was first elected to the Parliament for his district Anbar; in his longtime tenure as parliament member Scotty was the chairman of the Bank of Nauru, the Nauru Rehabilitation Corporation and in the board of directors of Air Nauru. He served as Speaker of Parliament from April 2000 to March 2001, May 2001 to December 2002, February 2004 to April 2004, November 2010 to April 2013, and June 2013 to July 2016, while representing the Anabar district. He was appointed as Minister Assisting the President of Nauru in the cabinet of Derog Gioura from March 2003 to May 2003. President of Nauru 2003 At the end of the short administration of Derog Gioura, Ludwig Scotty was elected President of Nauru by a parliamentary vote of 10–7, defeating Centre Party leader and former President Kinza Clodumar. President Scotty's cabinet included himself as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Baron D. Waqa of Boe as Minister of Education, David Adeang of Ubenide as Minister of Finance, Dr. Kieren Keke of Yaren as Minister of Health, Russel E. Kun of Ubenide as Minister of Justice and Dogabe A. Jeremiah of Meneng as Minister of Public Works. Ludwig Scotty was ousted in a vote of no confidence in August 2003 and was replaced as president by René Harris. Period in Opposition 2003–2004 Scotty spent a short period in Opposition from August 2003 until July 2004, remaining a member of the Parliament of Nauru. President of Nauru 2004–2007 Ludwig Scotty returned as president on 22 July 2004 after a member of Harris's faction of the Parliament of Nauru defected. Ludwig was re-elected to Parliament in elections in October 2004, and most of his allies also did well. In this term, Scotty became the first president of Nauru to give up the foreign affairs ministry, as David Adeang was appointed to that position. Scotty's government implemented major reforms to restore the country's economy. Scotty and his supporters won a landslide victory in the parliamentary election held on 25 August 2007. On 28 August, Scotty was re-elected as president with the support of 14 of the 18 members of parliament, defeating Marcus Stephen. Despite the grave problems which the Nauruan authorities faced in the early 21st Century, the years under the Presidency of Ludwig Scotty saw some measure of stability return to the island Republic, albeit constrained by austerity measures. The liberal use of Parliamentary no-confidence motions, the occasion of many crises of government over several years, seemed initially to have subsided under Ludwig Scotty's widely respected tenure of office. A constitutional review was being proceeded with, with a view to improving the functioning of Parliament and the offices of state. On 13 November 2007, a motion of no-confidence against Scotty's government was unsuccessful; although a majority of those voting supported the motion (eight in favor, seven opposed), it fell short of the necessary nine votes. The motion was led by Dr. Kieren Keke, and it was based on allegations of misconduct on the part of Adeang and Scotty's unwillingness to act against Adeang. On 19 December 2007, however, a newly comprised majority in Parliament did succeed in ousting President Scotty through a new vote of no confidence (ten votes in favour, seven opposed). The motion was based on the same causes as the November vote. Marcus Stephen was sworn in as President of Nauru. Post-Presidency and legacy Ludwig Scotty remained a member of the Parliament of Nauru, following the no confidence defeat in Parliament of his Administration in 2007. Coming as it did only a few months after the landslide victory of his supporters at the polls in August 2007, his relinquishing of office so soon afterwards can be seen in terms of an element of promise and expectations unfilled. It remained to be seen whether Scotty, who turned 60 in 2008, and whose Administration was replaced by a ministerial team several of whom were many years his junior, would in the future seek a further term of office as president. His second Administration of 2004 - 2007, however, is increasingly regarded by some observers as one which was characterized by relative stability for the Republic of Nauru in contrast with the political upheavals and crises which occurred before and after this Administration. It also arguably represented a period when the Nauru electorate and their representatives were appearing to come to terms with being educated into the perceived need for economic austerity measures and the disciplines which coincided with them, and into a broader reflection on improvements in political culture. In the earlier part of 2008, somewhat of an oblique compliment was being paid to constitutional review process identified with Scotty when both Government and Opposition were claiming it as part of their legacy. In April 2008 Scotty stood again for the Parliament of Nauru and was reelected to serve as a Member. In March 2010 former President Scotty intervened the constitutional reform debate. Mr Scotty doubted whether changes proposed by the current Government of Nauru commanded popular support. Speaker of Parliament Scotty served his first two terms as speaker from April 2000 to March 2001, and May 2001 to December 2002, after which he was elected as president. In November 2010, Scotty was elected Speaker of the House again, breaking a 6-month deadlock which had paralysed the government. His election as Speaker enabled MPs to elect a President, and Marcus Stephen was duly re-elected President of Nauru. Scotty explained that he remained a member of the Opposition to Stephen's government (though he would of course carry out his duties in an impartial manner), but that he had accepted the position of Speaker so that Parliament could function (giving the Opposition a say in government), and so that a budget could be adopted. He explained that his decision was also due to the allegations over Opposition members receiving financial support from Australian company Getax. Speaker Scotty resigned on 18 April 2013 amid increasing parliamentary deadlock and infighting, started over his own attempt to dissolve Parliament, he was temporarily succeeded by Deputy Speaker Landon Deireragea who served as acting speaker until 25 April when Godfrey Thoma was elected as Speaker after being nominated by former President Marcus Stephen. Scotty was returned to the chair after the 2013 parliamentary election as the nominee of the government of Baron Waqa. Scotty was elected with 14 votes to 5 five for opposition nominee Kieren Keke. His deputy is newly elected MP Ranin Akua who was elected unopposed. References Specific General https://web.archive.org/web/20130926022811/http://islandsbusiness.com/2013/5/pacific-update/nauru-elections-in-possible-delay/ Speakers of the Parliament of Nauru Members of the Parliament of Nauru 1948 births Living people Presidents of Nauru People from Anabar District University of the South Pacific alumni Ministers Assisting the President of Nauru

263611

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montr%C3%A9al%E2%80%93Trudeau%20International%20Airport

Montréal–Trudeau International Airport

Montréal–Trudeau International Airport () or Montréal–Trudeau, formerly known and still commonly referred to as Montréal–Dorval International Airport (Aéroport international Montréal-Dorval), is an international airport in Dorval, Quebec, Canada. It is the only Transport Canada designated international airport serving Montreal and is situated from Downtown Montreal. The airport terminals are located entirely in the suburb of Dorval, while one runway is located in the Montreal borough of Saint-Laurent. Air Canada, the country's flag carrier, also has its corporate headquarters complex on the Saint-Laurent side of the airport. It also serves Greater Montreal and adjacent regions in Quebec and eastern Ontario, as well as the states of Vermont and northern New York in the United States. The airport is named in honour of Pierre Elliott Trudeau, the 15th Prime Minister of Canada and father of current Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. The airport is one of two managed and operated by Aéroports de Montréal (ADM), a not-for-profit corporation without share capital; the other is Montréal–Mirabel northwest of Montreal, which was initially intended to replace the one in Dorval but now deals almost solely with cargo. Montréal–Trudeau is owned by Transport Canada which has a 60-year lease with Aéroports de Montréal, as per Canada's National Airport Policy of 1994. Trudeau is the busiest airport in the province of Quebec and the fourth-busiest airport in Canada by both passenger traffic and aircraft movements, with 20.3 million passengers and 236,908 movements in 2019. It is one of eight Canadian airports with United States border preclearance and is one of the main gateways into Canada with 13.1 million or 65% of its passengers being on non-domestic flights, the highest proportion amongst Canada's airports during 2018. It is one of four Air Canada hubs and, in that capacity, serves mainly Quebec, the Atlantic Provinces and Eastern Ontario. On an average day, 53,000 passengers transit through Montréal-Trudeau. Airlines servicing Trudeau offer year-round non-stop flights to five continents, namely Africa, Asia, Europe, North and South America. It is one of only two airports in Canada with direct flights to four continents or more, the other being Toronto Pearson International Airport. Trudeau airport is the headquarters of and a large hub for Air Canada, the country's largest airline. It is also the headquarters of Air Inuit and Air Transat, and an operation base for Sunwing Airlines and Porter Airlines. It also plays a role in general aviation as home to the headquarters of Innotech-Execair, Starlink, ACASS and Maintenance Repair & Overhaul (MRO) facilities of Air Transat and Air Inuit. Transport Canada operates a Civil Aviation Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul facility on site, with a fleet of Government owned and operated civil aircraft. Bombardier Aerospace has an assembly facility on site where they build Global and Challenger business jets. History Early years By the 1940s, it was increasingly clear that Montreal's original airport, Saint-Hubert Airport, in operation since 1927, was no longer adequate for the city's needs. The Minister of Transport purchased land at the Dorval Race Track, which was considered the best location for an enlarged airport because of its good weather conditions and few foggy days. The airport opened on September 1, 1941, as Dorval Airport/Aéroport Dorval with three paved runways. By 1946 the airport was hosting more than a quarter of a million passengers a year, growing to more than a million in the mid-1950s. During World War II thousands of Allied aircraft passed through Dorval on the way to England. At one time Dorval was the major transatlantic hub for commercial aviation and the busiest airport in Canada, with flights from airlines such as British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). Until 1959, it also doubled as RCAF Station Lachine. Airport diagram for 1954 Growth In November 1960 the airport was renamed Montreal–Dorval International Airport/Aéroport international Dorval de Montréal. On December 15 of that year the Minister of Transport inaugurated a new $30 million terminal. The structure was built by Illsley, Templeton, Archibald, and Larose. At its height, it was the largest terminal in Canada and one of the biggest in the world. It was the gateway to Canada for all European air traffic and served more than two million passengers per year. Eight years later, Montréal–Dorval International Airport underwent a major expansion program. Despite this, the government of Prime Minister of Canada Pierre Elliott Trudeau (who represented a Montreal riding) predicted that Dorval would be completely saturated by 1985 and also projected that 20 million passengers would be passing through Montreal's airports annually. They decided to construct a new airport in Sainte-Scholastique, what became Montréal–Mirabel International Airport. As the first phase in the transition that would eventually have seen Dorval closed, all international flights (except those to and from the United States) were to be transferred to the new airport in 1975. The opening and closing of Mirabel Airport On November 29, 1975, Mirabel International Airport went into service. With an operations zone of and a buffer zone of , it became the largest airport in the world. Many connecting flights to Canadian centres were transferred to Mirabel and 23 international airlines moved their overseas activities there. As a consequence, Montréal–Dorval was repurposed to serve domestic flights and transborder flights to the United States. Mirabel's traffic decreased due to the advent in the 1980s of longer-range jets that did not need to refuel in Montreal before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. Montreal's economic decline in the late 1970s and 1980s had a significant effect on the airport's traffic, as international flights bypassed Montreal altogether in favour of Toronto Pearson International Airport. The Trudeau government had developed Mirabel Airport to handle an expected growth in international traffic and eventually, to replace Dorval. However, the extra traffic never materialized. This, combined with Dorval's closer proximity to downtown Montreal at instead of , led to the return of all scheduled air services to Dorval, while Mirabel ceased passenger operations in 2004. In May 2007, it was reported that the International Centre of Advanced Racing had signed a 25-year lease with Aéroports de Montréal to use part of the airport as a racetrack, the Circuit ICAR. At the same time the fixed-base operator Hélibellule opened a facility there which caters to private planes. The company also provides a helicopter passenger service from Mirabel to destinations in Canada and the United States. They operate two different types of helicopters: the Bell 222 and the Aérospatiale Gazelle. Back to Montréal–Dorval, renaissance With all international scheduled flights returning to Montréal–Dorval in 1997, as well as charter flights in 2004, Montréal–Dorval International Airport finally became a true hub as passengers would no longer have to travel to different airports depending on the destination of their flight. The consolidation of flights to Montréal–Dorval resulted in an increase in passenger traffic, not only due to the transfer of flights but because it became easier to connect through Montreal. Starting as Dorval Airport, then Montréal–Dorval International Airport, the airport was renamed Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport in Trudeau's honour on January 1, 2004, by the federal government. The renaming had been announced in September 2003 by then Minister of Transport David Collenette. This move provoked some opposition, especially Quebec sovereigntists opposed to Trudeau's staunchly federalist policies. The renaming also provoked opposition from many aviation historians and enthusiasts who recalled Trudeau's role in the effort to shutter Dorval in favour of the much larger and modern Mirabel Airport, of which he was the greatest instigator of its construction. Many Montrealers still refer to Trudeau airport as "Dorval," or "Dorval Airport." Operation Yellow Ribbon After the September 11 attacks, Dorval Airport participated in Operation Yellow Ribbon, taking in seven diverted flights that had been bound for the closed airspace over the United States, even though pilots were asked to avoid the airport as a security measure. Mirabel International Airport also took in 10 other diverted flights totaling 17 diverted flight in the Montreal area bound for American cities. 75th anniversary In 2016, Montréal-Trudeau celebrated its 75th anniversary. Under the theme Service, Destinations, Passion since 1941, various activities and contests were planned throughout the year. In partnership with the Canada Aviation and Space Museum, the airport hosted the Travelling Through Time exhibition in the public hall of the US Departures area. Exhibits showcasing important milestones in the airport's history were incorporated throughout the terminal. Expansion Terminal expansion (2000–2007) Montréal–Trudeau underwent a major expansion and modernization designed to increase the terminal's capacity and substantially enhance the level of passenger service. In February 2000, with a budget of CAD716 million, ADM announced plans for an extensive expansion plan that would bring Montréal–Trudeau up to standard with other North American airports its size. The airport terminal had for the most part remained the same, with the exception of minor renovations, since its opening in 1960. With increased passenger volume resulting from the transfer of international scheduled passengers from Mirabel Airport in 1997, as well as Air Canada's intentions to make Montréal–Trudeau its Eastern Canada hub, there was a strong need to greatly expand the terminal, whose capacity of roughly 7 million passengers per year had been exceeded. The expansion program included the construction of several brand-new facilities, including a jetty for flights to the United States (US Preclearance Terminal), another for other international destinations (International Terminal) and a huge international arrivals complex. An 18-gate Transborder Concourse opened in 2003, an 11-gate International Concourse opened in 2004, new customs hall and baggage claim area for non-domestic flights and an expanded parking garage opened in 2005. Additionally, sections of the domestic area were renovated and expanded in 2007, accompanied with additional retail space. The International part of the Aeroquay satellite was demolished in 2008, leaving the domestic part for regional carriers. The completion of the CAD716 million expansion gives Montréal–Trudeau the ability to serve 15 million passengers a year. This ironically accomplished one of the goals that was to be met with the construction of Mirabel. (In the 1970s, the federal government projected that 20 million passengers would be passing through Montreal's airports annually by 1985, with 17 million through Mirabel). Aéroports de Montréal financed all of these improvements itself, with no government grants. By the end of 2007, CAD1.5 billion had been spent to upgrade Montréal–Trudeau. The last round of construction in this phase was to allow the airport to accommodate the Airbus A380. Gate 55, part of the international jetty, was designed for the requirements of the A380. It is equipped with two air bridges to load and unload passengers on both decks of the A380 simultaneously. With Phase II of the international jetty expansion now completed, the airport has two additional A380 gates, although there are currently no airlines operating this type of aircraft at the airport. Air France became the first operator of the type in Montreal on April 22, 2011, when they officially launched their daily A380 service from Paris. A380 service was reduced to 4 weekly flights during summer 2012 and withdrawn in October 2012, due to low demand for business class and a high level of competition, with Air Canada, Air Transat and Corsair also operating Montreal–Paris flights. New hotel, transborder terminal expansion and modernization (2006–2009) On June 15, 2006, construction began on a new four-star Marriott hotel at the airport, above the transborder terminal. Originally scheduled to be completed by September 2008, the 279 first-class room hotel opened its doors on August 19, 2009. Construction was slowed down because of the recession and a collapse in the Transborder market. It contains an underground train station that was planned to eventually connect the airport with downtown Montreal as well as ADM's corporate headquarters. On the same day, Montreal–Trudeau airport opened the doors to the refurbished, expanded, modernized and user-friendly transborder terminal, meeting the industry's highest standards. This increased the total area of the terminal from . Furthermore, the terminal is equipped with a new baggage sorting room which allows U.S. customs officers to retrieve luggage for secondary inspection. International terminal expansion (2011–2016) In July 2011, James Cherry, the CEO of Aéroports de Montréal, announced the construction of a two-phase expansion of Montréal–Trudeau's international terminal. The total cost of the project, now completed, has been around $620 million. Phase I of this project, which was completed on December 20, 2012, opened a new boarding lounge which can accommodate as many as 420 passengers, along with a new gate, numbered 62. It was officially completed at a cost of $270 million. The new gate can accommodate three Passenger Transfer Vehicles, allowing passengers to be transferred from the terminal to an aircraft parked on a remote stand nearby. When phase II of the expansion began in 2014, this gate was closed to passengers. It was reopened with the inauguration of the extension two years later. Phase II of the project, which was officially inaugurated on May 10, 2016, and put into service two days after, added six new contact gates for wide-body jets, including two for the Airbus A380, increasing the total number of contact gates from 10 to 16. This expansion holds gates 63 through 68. The area has 20,000 m2 of open spaces, restaurants, shops and a children's playground area. It took two years to complete and opened four months ahead of the original schedule for a total cost of $350 million. It was conceived by Humà Design and integrates three massive art installations and four vitrines showcasing Montreal's museums. The extension of the international jetty was built to alleviate the high level of congestion on the tarmac and in the terminal. Apart from these expansions, ADM inaugurated in April 2016, a commercial area between gate 52 and 53. This area is called Haltes gourmandes (English: gourmet stops) referring to the large number of restaurants located there. The new restaurants are all owned by SSP Canada Food Service Inc. They operate 12 locations in the terminal, managing a total of 4000 m2 of terminal area. SSP invested over $200 million throughout 2016 in its airport locations. Future projects (2018–2030) In January 2016, ADM published a call for tenders on their website regarding the restoration and upgrade of the curtain wall of the main façade on the terminal. This part of the airport is one of the oldest remaining parts of the original terminal. Also, according to the 2013–2033 master plan from ADM, the following future developments are in the works: Increase in the capacity of the passenger curb-side areas Development of a network of taxiways in the centre-west portion of the airport to support the development of a new air cargo handling area and an industrial development zone Reconfiguration of the international arrivals hall and of the domestic and international departures luggage room Extension of the transborder jetty and addition of a remote parking area On April 30, 2018, a massive new expansion project was unveiled that will last until 2030. The first phase ($2.5 billion) will see the airport's multi-level parking lot demolished and rebuilt with a green roof and the Montreal-Trudeau Airport REM station underneath. The drop-off area will be greatly expanded and covered with glass, and a new remote terminal will be built where runway 10/28 used to stand. By 2030, the remote terminal will be connected via future phases to the current terminal building to handle the expected growth. ADM CEO Philippe Rainville stated "the airport's growth has been about double the international average in recent years [so the] goal is to meet the growth projections of the airport." Infrastructure Runways There are currently three runways in operation at Montréal-Trudeau, two parallel runways aligned in a northeast–southwest direction and a single runway in an east–west direction. Terminal Montréal-Trudeau airport consists of one two-storied terminal, divided into four different zones: the public area (departures and arrivals level), the domestic jetty, the international jetty and the transborder jetty. There are two distinct areas in the public part of the airport (departure level); one is dedicated for the check-in of flights within or outside Canada (except U.S.) and the other one is for flights departing for the U.S. Both public areas are equipped with self-service check-in kiosks, a prayer area, shops and cafés. There is free Wi-Fi throughout the airport, luggage trolleys, ATMs and nursing rooms. When passengers arrive at Montréal-Trudeau from an international destination, they are welcomed into a huge and bright arrival complex, before passing through primary customs inspection, then go down one level to the baggage claim area and finally the international arrivals public area. The Aérogalerie program places artworks throughout the airport to showcase the city's artistic and cultural history. Works throughout the airport include showcases, illuminated columns, temporary exhibitions in the international arrival complex and permanent collection from various artists from the city. The domestic jetty, which is accessible via security checkpoint A, is divided into two parts: a satellite jetty connected by a tunnel to the main terminal and a wing attached to the main terminal building. The main jetty holds 16 gates: 1 through 12, 15, and 47 through 49. The satellite jetty holds another 10 gates: 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30, 32 and 34. There are only two boarding bridges located inside the satellite (17 and 21) as the other gates are mostly used for prop aircraft like the Bombardier Dash 8 family. These parts of the airport are the only departure areas remaining that were part of the original terminal. The International jetty, also accessible via the security checkpoint A, is dedicated to flights with destinations outside Canada and United States. This jetty holds 18 gates: 50 through 53 and 55 through 68. Gates 53 and 62 are used exclusively for Passenger Transfer Vehicles. In this area, travellers can shop, eat and relax with a wide varieties of boutiques, restaurants, cafés, spa facilities and one of the biggest airport duty-free shops in Canada. At the far end of the jetty, there is a wide open space with a lot of natural lights through floor to ceilings windows and a big skylight in the rooftop. The masterpiece of the jetty is a work of art, called Veil of Glass, composed of different coloured glass triangles illuminated by spotlights, created by local artist ATOMIC3. Several murals and other works of art are also located in this jetty, including four from various Montréal museums. In the international jetty, there is a large area where passengers can relax before their flight. Travelers are able to download to their smartphone or e-reader the first chapter of any books available on the platform Lire vous transporte. After that, they can choose to buy the entire book through the Wi-Fi network in the airport. A rest area has been constructed near gate 57 in order to read these books in a calm environment, with cushions and dimmed lights. There are over 1000 chairs with charging stations and USB ports throughout the jetty as well as three water bottle-filling stations. Lastly, there is a jetty dedicated to all U.S. bound flights, which holds 18 gates: 72 through 89. For access to gate 87, 88 or 89, passengers must go down one level via an escalator. Gate 56, 58 and 60 (part of the international jetty) can also be used for a U.S. bound flight. They can be isolated from the other gates by moving glass walls known as swing gates. Unlike other jetties, the transborder jetty requires passengers to go through security checkpoint C and then the U.S. Customs and Border Protection and lastly through the duty-free shop before accessing their gates. The gate area contains the same services as the other parts of the airport such as shops, restaurants, rest zones and cafés. If needed, some gates can be isolated in order to offer additional security checkpoints if an aircraft flies to a potential risk zone like Washington–National. Airport lounges Two major airline alliances (Star Alliance and SkyTeam) have a large presence at Montréal-Trudeau, and therefore both maintain frequent flyer lounges within the airport. There are also two "Pay-In" lounges open for use by all passengers, regardless of airline, frequent flyer status or class of travel. Air Canada Maple Leaf Lounge (Star Alliance) Domestic International USA Transborder Air France/KLM Lounge (SkyTeam) National Bank Lounge Desjardins Odyssey Lounge Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Annual traffic : At Montréal–Trudeau and at other airports in Canada with United States border preclearance, a distinction is made between "transborder" and "international" flights for operational and statistical purposes. A "transborder" flight is a flight between Canada and a destination in the United States, while an "international" flight is a flight between Canada and a destination that is not within the United States or Canada. A "domestic" flight is a flight within Canada only. : From March 2020, there is a significant decrease of passenger movements due to the COVID-19 global pandemic and Canada border closures and/or restrictions. Ground transportation Public transport The Société de transport de Montréal (STM) currently has four regular bus routes serving Trudeau International Airport, including routes "204 Cardinal" and "209 Sources" which run every day and routes "356 Lachine /Montreal–Trudeau /Des Sources" and "378 Sauvé /Côte-Vertu /Montreal–Trudeau" which are night buses. Three of the four routes can take passengers to and from the Dorval bus terminus and train station, within walking distance of Via's Dorval station. A shuttle bus also runs between the airport and Via's Dorval station. On March 29, 2010, the STM introduced the 747 Montreal-Trudeau/Downtown route. Operating 7 days a week, 24 hours a day and 365 days a year, this route connects the airport to eight downtown stops, including transfer stops at Lionel-Groulx metro station, Central Station and Berri-UQAM metro station. Prior to the introduction of this public transportation service, Groupe La Québécoise operated a coach service known as L'Aerobus between the airport and Central Station, connecting with several hotels downtown. Inter-city rail connections Via Rail, the national train operator in Canada operates the "AirConnect" shuttle bus from the airport to Dorval station, the nearest station on the Québec City-Windsor Corridor. This station offers inter-city rail connections to Quebec City, Ottawa, Kingston and Toronto as well as a smaller regional centres in Quebec and Ontario. (Public transport options to downtown Montreal available from the STM are more frequent, and Via does not provide service between Dorval and Montreal Central Station on some trains.) The shuttle bus from Montréal–Trudeau International Airport to Dorval station is free of charge to Via Rail passengers, departs every 20–30 minutes from the departure level of the airport and takes around 20 minutes of travel time. Private bus KLM Royal Dutch Airlines operates a bus from Trudeau Airport to Ottawa Railway Station only for Air France-KLM customers originating in/arriving in the Ottawa area. Air-France KLM has three daily bus services between those cities. Air France also operates a bus from Trudeau to Sainte-Foy in Quebec City for its customers. Swiss International Air Lines previously operated its Swissbus service from Trudeau to Ottawa Railway Station for Swiss customers. Car The airport is accessible from Highway 20 or from Highway 520, a spur off Highway 40 that leads directly towards the airport. Eastbound Highway 20 leads to the Dorval interchange, the exit which drivers must take for the airport. From the north, Côte-Vertu Boulevard that runs parallel to runways 24L and 24R provides access to the Air Canada Base and hangars, Air Transat hangars, Air Inuit hangars, Bombardier Aerospace assembly facility and the deicing facility. When drivers pick up or drop off guests at Trudeau, they are permitted to stop momentarily outside the Arrivals and Departure areas at both the Canada and International departures as well as the Transborder Jetty. Aéroports de Montréal, the City of Montreal, Transports Québec and Transport Canada made plans to improve the Dorval interchange and built direct road links between the airport and highways 20 and 520. Once the certificate of authorization was obtained, work began in June 2009 with an original projected end date of 2017, although some parts of the project will be on hold for several years. The project entails redesigning the road network within the airport site, which was mostly completed as planned. Future connections On April 22, 2016, the CEO of the Caisse de Dépot et de Placement du Québec Michael Sabia and Montreal mayor Denis Coderre announced a massive transit project called Réseau express métropolitain, slated to open between 2021 and 2023. This planned rapid transit network will connect the Trudeau Airport to the Central station in Downtown Montréal, the North Shore, the South Shore and the West Island. It will run from 5am to 1am, 7 days a week. Construction began in April 2018 and will connect Trudeau Airport with downtown by 2023. Incidents and accidents November 29, 1963 – Trans-Canada Air Lines Flight 831 crashed shortly after departure for Toronto International Airport, killing all 118 people on board the Douglas DC-8 jet. On June 18, 1998, Propair Flight 420 suffered from brake dragging on departure from Trudeau Airport (then known as Montreal Dorval Airport). This heated up the wheel brakes of the Fairchild Metroliner, which eventually became lit by hydraulic fluid, starting a fire in the left wing. The aircraft attempted to divert to Mirabel International Airport. However, the left wing suffered a structural failure due to the extreme flames, and the aircraft rolled and hit the ground upside down, killing all 11 people on the flight. June 5, 2015 – WestJet flight 588 from Toronto Pearson International Airport, operated by a Boeing 737-600 (Registration C GWCT) slid off the runway while landing. There were no fatalities or injuries among the passengers and crew. Tenants Jet Fuel A, A-1 and 100DLL are available from various FBOs at Dorval. References External links Aéroports de Montréal homepage Virtual tour of the airport (video) – Aéroports de Montréal Arriving at Montréal–Trudeau airport: from the gate to the exit (video) – Aéroports de Montréal STM system maps Certified airports in Quebec Transport in Montreal Canadian airports with United States border preclearance Airports established in 1941 1941 establishments in Quebec Buildings and structures in Dorval Buildings and structures in Montreal Transport in Dorval Saint-Laurent, Quebec National Airports System

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OVRA

OVRA

The OVRA, whose most probable name was Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism (), was the secret police of the Kingdom of Italy, founded in 1927 under the regime of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini and during the reign of King Victor Emmanuel III. The OVRA was the Italian precursor of the German Gestapo. Mussolini's secret police were assigned to stop any anti-fascist activity or sentiment. Approximately 50,000 OVRA agents infiltrated most aspects of domestic life in Italy. The OVRA, headed by Arturo Bocchini, never appeared in any official document, so the official name of the organization still remains unclear. Origin In the aftermath of the attempted assassination of Mussolini by the young Anteo Zamboni, in Bologna on 31 October 1926, a swath of repressive legislation was swiftly enacted by the Italian government. All political parties, association and organizations opposed to the Fascist regime were dissolved, and everybody who was proven to have "committed or expressed intention to commit actions directed to violently subvert the social, economic or national order or undermine national security or to oppose or obstruct the actions of the Government" could be sent into internal exile in remote locations by the police. On November 25, 1926, the new Legge di Difesa dello Stato (State Defense Law) instituted a Tribunale Speciale (Special Court) to try those who were accused of being "enemies of the State", and sentence them to harsh prison terms or even to death, as the death penalty had also been restored under the new law. Priority was given to the reorganization of the National Police Force, known as Pubblica Sicurezza (PS), under career police officer Arturo Bocchini. The new Code of Laws concerning Public Security (Testo Unico delle Leggi di Pubblica Sicurezza, TULPS) enacted in 1926 and revised in 1931, specified a "Department of Political Police" as a special division of the force with the aim of controlling and preventing political dissent. Later, this division came to be known as OVRA, although its existence remained secret until December 1930 when the official press agency Agenzia Stefani released a statement quoting the OVRA as a "special section" of the police force. Keeping the fascist regime in power Bocchini appointed inspector Francesco Nudi as head of the OVRA. Nudi was later replaced by Guido Leto. The OVRA compiled files on around 130,000 potential subversives with the aid of a network of approximately 100,000 informants, and by 1930 they were organising around 20,000 raids each week. It is believed that about 6,000 of the people arrested by the OVRA, mainly communists and members of the Giustizia e Libertà, were either tried by the Tribunale Speciale or sent into exile on remote Mediterranean islands. The conditions in these places were extremely poor, so many anti-fascists simply left Italy for their own safety. It is known that Heinrich Himmler met with Bocchini repeatedly and modeled the organization of the Gestapo on that of the OVRA. A secret protocol was signed on April 2, 1936, by the heads of the two police organisations, to further cooperation and collaboration. One of the chief duties of the OVRA was to operate and maintain the (CPC), a special archive where all personal information about known "subversives" was dutifully compiled to create a "personal profile" containing all data concerning the subject's education, culture and habits, down to minute details about personal character and sexual orientation. Spying on the Vatican A major duty for the OVRA was spying on Pope Pius XI, as the Roman Catholic Church was an extremely powerful institution in Italian life that the Fascist regime never controlled, instead having a partnership with. It was a common practice of the OVRA to catch Roman Catholic priests in flagrante delicto and blackmail them into spying for the OVRA, which was therefore always very well informed about the affairs of the Holy See. The American historian David Kertzer described the OVRA's spy network within the Vatican as "robust", comprising four highly placed clerics and a number of lay Vatican employees. Mussolini was fascinated by reports of homosexual activity among senior Catholic clerics and always had them sent to his office for him to read. The OVRA had a very long file on the Pope's Master of Ceremonials, his close friend Monsignor Camillo Caccia Dominioni. He was known to lure young boys to his Rome apartment for sex, despite the Pope being aware of this, at least from 1926 on. Another homosexual cleric was Monsignor Ricardo Sanz de Samper, the Prefect of the Pope's Household and papal majordomo, whose fondness for sex with young boys became so open that even Pius was forced to dismiss him in 1928. Another long OVRA file was on the Jesuit Father Pietro Tacchi Venturi, the Pope's emissary to Mussolini, who often had "illicit" relations with young men and had been wounded in a lover's quarrel, which he tried to pass off as an anti-fascist assassination attempt. The Pope retained Venturi as his preferred liaison with Mussolini, despite this obvious fabrication. Another senior cleric blackmailed by the OVRA was Monsignor Enrico Pucci, the chief of the Vatican press department, who worked as an informer for the OVRA from October 1927 onward. Pucci as a rule did not see the Pope very often. However, he met on a daily basis with the Pope's advisers, to get directions for the editorial stance of the Vatican media. This provided the OVRA with much information. One of the most important informers in the Vatican remains anonymous. His OVRA file simply describes him as the "noted Vatican informer". Kertzer wrote that judging from the high-quality intelligence he provided, the "noted Vatican informer" must have been someone very senior, so that his name was never written down. During the Second World War During World War II, the OVRA was used by Mussolini to control resistance groups in the Balkans (Tito's National Liberation Army especially) prior to the 1943 armistice and withdrawal. In 1943, with the Allied invasion of Italy, the OVRA began to recruit double agents to infiltrate the British SOE, but these efforts failed to stop Mussolini's ouster. With the establishment of the Italian Social Republic in northern Italy, many OVRA agents flocked to this state led by Mussolini, fighting until Mussolini was executed by Italian partisans on April 28, 1945. OVRA agents were favourite targets of communist partisans, as they were a symbol of the fascist government. Legacy After the war ended the OVRA was officially disbanded, but a decree issued on April 26, 1945, stated that the CPC should be maintained and "updated with all the information pertaining to anybody whose political activity is aimed at breaking the laws and regulations enacted by the democratic Government against neo-Fascism, anarchists who are by definition against any law and government, and political activists whose moral depravity and contempt of law could prompt them to instigate unrest or commit acts of terrorism". Later, a division of the PS named Servizio Informazioni Speciali ("Special Informations Service", better known as SIS) was set up by the new Minister of Interior, the Socialist Giuseppe Romita, as a result of a new reorganization of the Police offices, with the task of taking over the management of the CPC and investigating politically motivated crimes and other felonies related to that particular time (such as black marketeering, etc.), and that many of the former officers of the OVRA were being reinstated as members of the new SIS. Even the person appointed as head of SIS was Inspector General Santoro, one of Leto's former deputies. Most of the laws and regulations of the old TULPS of 1931 were kept in force by the Italian Republic, and Leto (the former boss of OVRA aforementioned) was later reinstated as a fully fledged national Police officer, and entrusted with the supervision and coordination of police academies in postwar Italy. See also Servizio Informazioni Militari – Fascist Italy's military intelligence service Gestapo – Germany's secret police Political-Social Brigade - Spain's secret police The Conformist Milice - collaborationist police militia in Vichy France References Sources The Ultimate Spy by H. Keith Melton, 20th century in Italy Defunct law enforcement agencies of Italy Secret police Italian Fascism

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Barzun

Jacques Barzun

Jacques Martin Barzun (; November 30, 1907 – October 25, 2012) was a French-American historian known for his studies of the history of ideas and cultural history. He wrote about a wide range of subjects, including baseball, mystery novels, and classical music, and was also known as a philosopher of education. In the book Teacher in America (1945), Barzun influenced the training of schoolteachers in the United States. A professor of history at Columbia College for many years, he published more than forty books, was awarded the American Presidential Medal of Freedom, and was designated a knight of the French Legion of Honor. The historical retrospective From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life, 1500 to the Present (2000), widely considered his magnum opus, was published when he was 93 years old. Life Jacques Martin Barzun was born in Créteil, France, to and Anna-Rose Barzun, and spent his childhood in Paris and Grenoble. His father was a member of the Abbaye de Créteil group of artists and writers, and also worked in the French Ministry of Labor. His parents' Paris home was frequented by many modernist artists of Belle Époque France, such as the poet Guillaume Apollinaire, the Cubist painters Albert Gleizes and Marcel Duchamp, the composer Edgard Varèse, and the writers Richard Aldington and Stefan Zweig. While on a diplomatic mission to the United States during the First World War (1914–1918), Barzun's father so liked the country he decided that his son should receive an American university education; thus, the twelve-year-old Jacques Martin attended Lycée Janson-de-Sailly until moving to America, where he graduated from Harrisburg Technical High School in 1924 and then went off to Columbia University, where he obtained a liberal arts education. As an undergraduate at Columbia College, Barzun was drama critic for the Columbia Daily Spectator, a prize-winning president of the Philolexian Society, the Columbia literary and debate club, and valedictorian of the class of 1927. He obtained a Master's degree in 1928 and a Ph.D. in 1932 from Columbia, and taught history there from 1928 to 1955, becoming the Seth Low Professor of History and a founder of the discipline of cultural history. For years, he and literary critic Lionel Trilling conducted Columbia's famous Great Books course. He was elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1954. From 1955 to 1968, he served as Dean of the Graduate School, Dean of Faculties, and Provost, while also being an Extraordinary Fellow of Churchill College at the University of Cambridge. From 1968 until his 1975 retirement, he was University Professor at Columbia. From 1951 to 1963 Barzun was one of the managing editors of The Readers' Subscription Book Club, and its successor the Mid-Century Book Society (the other managing editors being W. H. Auden and Lionel Trilling), and afterwards was Literary Adviser to Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975 to 1993. In 1936, Barzun married Mariana Lowell, a violinist from a prominent Boston family. They had three children: James, Roger, and Isabel. Mariana died in 1979. In 1980, Barzun married Marguerite Lee Davenport. From 1996 the Barzuns lived in her hometown, San Antonio, Texas. His granddaughter Lucy Barzun Donnelly was a producer of the award-winning HBO film Grey Gardens. His grandson, Matthew Barzun, is a businessman who served from 2009-2011 as the U.S. Ambassador to Sweden, and from 2013-2017 as Ambassador to the United Kingdom. On May 14, 2012 Jacques Barzun attended a symphony performance in his honor at which works by his favorite composer, Hector Berlioz, were performed. He attended in a wheelchair and delivered a brief address to the crowd. Barzun died at his home in San Antonio, Texas on October 25, 2012, aged 104. The New York Times, which compared him with such scholars as Sidney Hook, Daniel Bell, and Lionel Trilling, called him a "distinguished historian, essayist, cultural gadfly and educator who helped establish the modern discipline of cultural history". Naming Edward Gibbon, Jacob Burckhardt and Thomas Babington Macaulay as his intellectual ancestors, and calling him "one of the West's most eminent historians of culture" and "a champion of the liberal arts tradition in higher education," who "deplored what he called the 'gangrene of specialism'", The Daily Telegraph remarked, "The sheer scope of his knowledge was extraordinary. Barzun's eye roamed over the full spectrum of Western music, art, literature and philosophy." Essayist Joseph Epstein, remembering him in the Wall Street Journal as a "flawless and magisterial" writer who tackled "Darwin, Marx, Wagner, Berlioz, William James, French verse, English prose composition, university teaching, detective fiction, [and] the state of intellectual life", described Barzun as a tall, handsome man with an understated elegance, thoroughly Americanized, but retaining an air of old-world culture, cosmopolitan in an elegant way rare for intellectuals". Career Over seven decades, Barzun wrote and edited more than forty books touching on an unusually broad range of subjects, including science and medicine, psychiatry from Robert Burton through William James to modern methods, and art, and classical music; he was one of the all-time authorities on Hector Berlioz. Some of his books—particularly Teacher in America and The House of Intellect—enjoyed a substantial lay readership and influenced debate about culture and education far beyond the realm of academic history. Barzun had a strong interest in the tools and mechanics of writing and research. He undertook the task of completing, from a manuscript almost two-thirds of which was in first draft at the author's death, and editing (with the help of six other people), the first edition (published 1966) of Follett's Modern American Usage. Barzun was also the author of books on literary style (Simple and Direct, 1975), on the crafts of editing and publishing (On Writing, Editing, and Publishing, 1971), and on research methods in history and the other humanities (The Modern Researcher, which has seen at least six editions, and is one of the thousand most widely held library items according to the OCLC). Barzun did not disdain popular culture: his varied interests included detective fiction and baseball. His widely quoted statement, "Whoever wants to know the heart and mind of America had better learn baseball." was inscribed on a plaque at the Baseball Hall of Fame. He edited and wrote the introduction to the 1961 anthology, The Delights of Detection, which included stories by G. K. Chesterton, Dorothy L. Sayers, Rex Stout, and others. In 1971, Barzun co-authored (with Wendell Hertig Taylor), A Catalogue of Crime: Being a Reader's Guide to the Literature of Mystery, Detection, & Related Genres, for which he and his co-author received a Special Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America the following year. Barzun was also an advocate of supernatural fiction, and wrote the introduction to The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural. Barzun was a proponent of the theatre critic and diarist James Agate, whom he compared in stature to Samuel Pepys. Barzun edited Agate's last two diaries into a new edition in 1951 and wrote an informative introductory essay, "Agate and His Nine Egos". Jacques Barzun continued to write on education and cultural history after retiring from Columbia. At 84 years of age, he began writing his swan song, to which he devoted the better part of the 1990s. The resulting book of more than 800 pages, From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life, 1500 to the Present, revealed a vast erudition and brilliance undimmed by advanced age. Historians, literary critics, and popular reviewers all lauded From Dawn to Decadence as a sweeping and powerful survey of modern Western history, and it became a New York Times bestseller. With this work he gained an international reputation.<ref>Le Nouvel Observateur, which said "il a connu un rayonnement international avec la sortie de "From dawn to decadence". L'historien Jacques Barzun, auteur de "From dawn to decandence", est mort Créé le October 26, 2012 à 07h10, http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/monde/20121026.FAP2051/l-historien-jacques-barzun-auteur-de-from-dawn-to-decandence-est-mort.html</ref> Reviewing it in the New York Times, historian William Everdell called the book "a great achievement" by a scholar "undiminished in his scholarship, research and polymathic interests," while also scrutinizing Barzun's scant treatment of figures like Walt Whitman and Karl Marx. The book introduces several novel typographic devices that aid an unusually rich system of cross-referencing and help keep many strands of thought in the book under organized control. Most pages feature a sidebar containing a pithy quotation, usually little known, and often surprising or humorous, from some author or historical figure. In 2007, Barzun commented that "Old age is like learning a new profession. And not one of your own choosing." As late as October 2011, one month before his 104th birthday, he reviewed Adam Kirsch's Why Trilling Matters for the Wall Street Journal. In his philosophy of writing history, Barzun emphasized the role of storytelling over the use of academic jargon and detached analysis. He concluded in From Dawn to Decadence that "history cannot be a science; it is the very opposite, in that its interest resides in the particulars". Recognition In 1968, Barzun received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. Barzun was appointed a Chevalier of the National Order of the Legion of Honour. In 2003, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush. In 1993, his book "An Essay on French Verse: For Readers of English Poetry" won the Poetry Society of America's Melville Cane Poetry Award. On October 18, 2007, he received the 59th Great Teacher Award of the Society of Columbia Graduates in absentia. On March 2, 2011, Barzun was awarded the 2010 National Humanities Medal by President Barack Obama, although he was not expected to be in attendance. On April 16, 2011, he received the Philolexian Award for Distinguished Literary Achievement in absentia. The American Philosophical Society honors Barzun with its Jacques Barzun Prize in Cultural History, awarded annually since 1993 to the author of a recent distinguished work of cultural history. He also received the Gold Medal for Criticism from the American Academy of Arts and Letters, of which he was twice president. Works 1927 Samplings and Chronicles: Being the Continuation of the Philolexian Society History, with Literary Selections from 1912 to 1927 (editor). Philolexian Society. 1932 The French Race: Theories of Its Origins and Their Social and Political Implications. P.S. King & Son. 1937 Race: A Study in Modern Superstition (Revised, 1965 Race: A Study in Superstition). Methuen & Co. Ltd. 1939 Of Human Freedom. Revised edition, Greenwood Press Reprint, 1977: . 1941 Darwin, Marx, Wagner: Critique of a Heritage. . 1943 Romanticism and the Modern Ego. Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1943. 1945 Teacher in America. Reprint Liberty Fund, 1981. . 1950 Berlioz and the Romantic Century. Boston: Little, Brown and Company / An Atlantic Monthly Press Book, 1950 [2 vols.]. 1951 Pleasures of Music: A Reader's Choice of Great Writing About Music and Musicians From Cellini to Bernard Shaw Viking Press. 1954 God's Country and Mine: A Declaration of Love, Spiced with a Few Harsh Words. Reprint Greenwood Press, 1973: . 1956 Music in American Life. Indiana University Press. 1956 The Energies of Art: Studies of Authors, Classic and Modern. Greenwood, . 1959 The House of Intellect. Reprint Harper Perennial, 2002: . 1960 Lincoln the Literary Genius (first published in The Saturday Evening Post, February 14, 1959) 1961 The Delights of Detection. Criterion Books. 1961 Classic, Romantic, and Modern. Reprint University of Chicago Press, 1975: . 1964 Science: The Glorious Entertainment. HarperCollins. . 1967 What Man Has Built (introductory booklet to the Great Ages of Man book series). Time Inc. 1968 The American University: How It Runs, Where It Is Going. Reprint University of Chicago Press, 1993: . 1969 Berlioz and the Romantic Century (3d ed.). 1971 On Writing, Editing, and Publishing. University of Chicago Press. 1971 A Catalogue of Crime: Being a Reader's Guide to the Literature of Mystery, Detection, and Related Genres (with Wendell Hertig Taylor). Revised edition, Harper & Row, 1989: . 1974 Clio and the Doctors. Reprinted University of Chicago Press, 1993: . 1974 The Use and Abuse of Art (A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts) . Princeton University Press. . 1975 Simple and Direct: A Rhetoric for Writers. 4th ed, Harper Perennial, 2001: . 1976 The Bibliophile of the Future: His Complaints about the Twentieth Century (Maury A. Bromsen lecture in humanistic bibliography). Boston Public Library. . 1980 Three Talks at Northern Kentucky University. Northern Kentucky University, Dept. of Literature and Language. 1982 Lincoln's Philosophic Vision. Artichokes Creative Studios. 1982 Critical Questions: On Music and Letters, Culture and Biography, 1940–1980 (edited by Bea Friedland). University of Chicago Press. . 1982 Berlioz and His Century: An Introduction to the Age of Romanticism (Abridgment of Berlioz and the Romantic Century). University of Chicago Press. . 1983 A Stroll with William James. Reprint University of Chicago Press, 2002: . 1986 A Word or Two Before You Go: Brief Essays on Language. Wesleyan University. 1989 The Culture We Deserve: A Critique of Disenlightenment. Wesleyan University. . 1991 An Essay on French Verse: For Readers of English Poetry. New Directions Publishing. . 1991 Begin Here: The Forgotten Conditions of Teaching and Learning. University of Chicago Press. . 2000 From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life, 1500 to the Present. . 2001 Sidelights on Opera at Glimmerglass. Glimmerglass Opera 2002 A Jacques Barzun Reader. . 2002 What Is a School? and Trim the College! (What Is a School? An Institution in Limbo, Trim the College! A Utopia). Hudson Institute. 2003 The Modern Researcher (6th ed.) (with Henry F. Graff). Wadsworth Publishing. . 2004 Four More Sidelights on Opera at Glimmerglass: 2001–2004See also American philosophy List of American philosophers References SourcesArt at Our Doorstep: San Antonio Writers and Artists featuring Jacques Barzun. Edited by Nan Cuba and Riley Robinson (Trinity University Press, 2008). Arthur Krystal, Except When I Write Oxford University Press, 2011), has a chapter on Barzun. Michael Murray, Jacques Barzun: Portrait of a Mind (Frederic C. Beil, 2011), authorized biography. Thomas Vinciguerra, "Jacques Barzun '27: Columbia Avatar", Columbia College Today, January 2006 Helen Hazen, "Endless Rewriting", The American Scholar, Spring 2013. On being edited by Barzun. External links Aeschliman, Michael D., "Jacques Barzun, Historian for All Time", National Review, May 30, 2021 Barzun Centennial website, including tributes Site devoted to writings about Barzun, including interviews Kimball, Roger, "Barzun on the West," New Criterion, June 18, 2000 Society of Columbia Graduates 2007 Great Teacher Award presented to Jacques Barzun, includes speeches by Henry F. Graff, William Theodore de Bary, Alan Brinkley, and others Jacques Barzun Video shown at the 2007 Great Teacher Award banquet Eyres, Harry, "Honour and Humanity," Financial Times'', August 14, 2010 Remembering the Work of Jacques Barzun Review of Barzun's Life and Work, October 26, 2012 The Intellectual Portrait Series: A Conversation with Jacques Barzun, Liberty Fund, 2000 Interview with Barzun in The Austin Chronicle, 2000 Jacques Barzun interview, April 23, 2009, Old New York Stories, 2011 A Conversation with Jacques Barzun (2010) SoL Center, San Antonio TX, September 12, 2010 The American Heritage® Dictionary Blog: Jacques Barzun his responses to a 2012 questionnaire Finding aid to the Jacques Barzun papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library 1907 births 20th-century American philosophers 21st-century American philosophers American centenarians Cultural historians Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Columbia College (New York) alumni Columbia University faculty Edgar Award winners French centenarians Men centenarians Fellows of Churchill College, Cambridge Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature National Humanities Medal recipients Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences French emigrants to the United States 2012 deaths Philosophers of education Philosophers from New York (state) Writers of style guides American historians Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni Presidents of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Lycée Janson-de-Sailly alumni

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis%E2%80%93Saint%20Paul%20International%20Airport

Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport

Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport , also less commonly known as Wold-Chamberlain Field, is a joint civil-military public use international airport. It is located in Fort Snelling Unorganized Territory, Minnesota, United States. Centrally located within of both downtown Minneapolis and downtown Saint Paul, MSP is the busiest airport in the Upper Midwest. A joint civil-military airport, MSP is home to the Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport Joint Air Reserve Station, supporting both Air Force Reserve Command and Air National Guard flight operations. The airport is located in Fort Snelling Unorganized Territory. Small sections of the airport border the city limits of Minneapolis and Richfield. However, under Minnesota state law, the parcel of land covered by the airport is not part of any city or school district. MSP covers 2,930 acres (1,186 ha) of land. The airport generates an estimated $15.9 billion a year for the Twin Cities' economy and supports 87,000 workers. MSP is a major hub for Delta Air Lines. It also serves as the home airport for Minnesota-based Sun Country Airlines. Delta Air Lines and its regional affiliates account for about 70% of the airport's passenger traffic. The airport is operated by the Metropolitan Airports Commission, which also handles the operation of six smaller airports in the region. History What is now known as Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport started in 1919 as Speedway Field when several local groups came together to take control of the former bankrupt Twin City Speedway race track. The first hangar was a wooden structure, constructed in 1920 for airmail services. The Minneapolis Park Board took possession of Wold–Chamberlain on June 1, 1928, and in 1929, passenger services began. In 1923, the airport was renamed "Wold–Chamberlain Field" for the World War I pilots Ernest Groves Wold and Cyrus Foss Chamberlain. In 1944 the site was renamed to "Minneapolis–St. Paul Metropolitan Airport/Wold-Chamberlain Field", with "International" replacing "Metropolitan" four years later. Today it is rare to see the Wold–Chamberlain portion of the name used anywhere. Expansions Ground was broken for the current Terminal 1 building on October 26, 1958. The US $8.5 million, 600,000 square foot (56,000 m2) terminal with 24 gates on two concourses was designed by Lyle George Landstrom. who worked for Cerny Associates. The terminal, then referred to as the New Terminal, was completed on January 13, 1962, and operations began on January 21. Pier D (formerly the Gold Concourse, now Concourse C) was completed in 1971 and Pier A (formerly the Green Concourse, now Concourse G) was completed in 1972 as part of an expansion of the terminal designed by Cerny Associates. This project also involved rebuilding the existing concourses into bi-level structures equipped with holding rooms and jet bridges. The Gold Concourse was expanded in 1986 and included the airport's first moving walkway. Concourses A and B opened on June 1, 2002, as part of a $250 million terminal expansion designed by Minneapolis-based Architectural Alliance. The final component of the project included a $17.5 million extension of Concourse C consisting of six additional gates, which opened on October 31, 2002. Terminal 2 was first built in 1986 and then rebuilt in 2001. It is used mostly for charter and low cost airlines, including Minnesota-based Sun Country and Southwest, but is also used for Condor, Icelandair and JetBlue. The terminal has since been expanded and has a total of 14 gates. The colored labeling system for concourses in both terminals was replaced beginning in 2000 with the current system of lettered concourses. Recent history Due in part to aircraft noise in south Minneapolis, the Highland Park neighborhood in St. Paul, and surrounding suburbs, proposals were made in the 1990s to build a new airport on the fringes of the Twin Cities metro in Dakota County to handle larger jets and more international traffic. Minneapolis, St. Paul, and other neighboring cities were concerned that such a move would have a negative economic impact, so an arrangement was made where the Metropolitan Airports Commission would outfit many homes in the vicinity of the airport with sound insulation and air conditioning so that indoor noise could be reduced. A citizen group named ROAR (Residents Opposed to Airport Racket) was created in 1998 and helped push the MAC to make these concessions. Later, in 2004, the MAC voted to reduce funding for the soundproofing projects, saying in part that the economic climate had turned in the wake of the September 11 attacks. Minneapolis Mayor R. T. Rybak, who had been a founding member of ROAR, promised that the city would challenge the changes. In 2005, the cities of Minneapolis, Eagan, and Richfield and the Minneapolis Public Housing Authority filed a lawsuit against the MAC, which was settled with a Consent Decree in 2007. The terms in the Consent Decree specified levels of sound insulation for homes within a fixed boundary of projected aircraft noise exposure around MSP. Upon the completion of the noise mitigation program in 2014, more than 15,000 single-family homes and 3,303 multi-family units around MSP were provided noise mitigation at cost of $95 million. Facilities Terminals Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport has two terminals with a total of 131 gates. International arrivals are processed in Concourse G in Terminal 1, and in Terminal 2. Terminal 1 contains 117 gates across seven concourses, lettered A–G. Terminal 2 contains 14 gates across one concourse, lettered H. Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport is the only major airport in the United States to have two terminals located on entirely separate roadway systems. Originally known as the Lindbergh and Humphrey terminals, numeric designations were added to the names and highway signs and other way-finding aids related to MSP were updated in 2010 in order to assist travelers in locating the terminals. Ground transportation The terminal buildings are directly located off of Minnesota State Highway 5. Several other major highways that border the airport are Minnesota State Highway 62, Minnesota State Highway 77, and Interstate 494. Metro Transit operates bus route 54 to MSP. The bus stop is located at Terminal 1. Passengers arriving in Terminal 2 must take the light rail to the bus stop location. The METRO light rail Blue Line has stops at both the Hub Building Terminal 1 (Lindbergh Station) and Terminal 2 Humphrey Terminal (Humphrey Station). It connects the airport with downtown Minneapolis as well as with the Mall of America in nearby Bloomington and operates as a shuttle service between the two airport terminals. Travelers can use the rail line to go between the two sites at all times; it is the only part of the line that operates continuously through the night (the rest shuts down for about four hours early in the morning). Two parallel tunnels for the line run roughly below the airport and at in length are the longest tunnels on the route. The Terminal 1 station is the only underground station on the line, as the rails return to the surface near Terminal 2. Due to current concerns about terrorism, a great deal of effort went into ensuring that the tunnels are highly blast-resistant. The underground portion was the costliest section of the entire rail project. Military facilities The Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport Joint Air Reserve Station at MSP is home to the 934th Airlift Wing (934 AW), an Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) unit and the 133d Airlift Wing (133 AW) of the Minnesota Air National Guard. Both units fly the C-130 Hercules and are operationally-gained by the Air Mobility Command (AMC). The 934th consists of over 1,300 military personnel, of which approximately 250 are full-time Active Guard and Reserve (AGR) and Air Reserve Technician (ART) personnel. The 133rd is similarly manned, making for a total military presence of over 2,600 full-time and part-time personnel. The 934 AW serves as the "host" wing for the installation, which also includes lodging/billeting, officers club, Base Exchange (BX) and other morale, welfare and recreation (MWR) facilities for active, reserve/national guard and retired military personnel and their families. Runways Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Top domestic destinations Top international destinations Airline market share Annual traffic Accidents and incidents On March 7, 1950, Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 307, a Martin 2-0-2 diverted from Rochester International Airport crashed 5 km northwest of MSP after first hitting a 70 foot high flagpole with its left wing on final approach, 8/10 of a mile from the touchdown point, in blinding snow. The left wing eventually detached and the aircraft dived and crashed into a house. All 13 passengers and crew and two children in the house were killed. A loss of visual reference to the ground on approach was the probable cause. On May 10, 2005, Northwest Flight 1495, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9, suffered a valve fracture and lost hydraulic pressure in its right engine shortly after takeoff from John Glenn Columbus International Airport en route to MSP. The aircraft performed a successful emergency landing, but began experiencing steering problems and a loss of the brakes while taxing to the gate, resulting in it colliding with the wing of an Airbus A319-114 at approximately 16 mph. Eight injuries were reported among the crew and passengers of both planes and the ground crew. On June 11, 2007, US Senator Larry Craig was arrested by an undercover police officer for lewd conduct during an alleged attempt at cottaging in a Lindbergh Terminal bathroom. He later plead guilty to a lesser charge of disorderly conduct. The ensuing scandal resulted in his resignation from The Senate, and effectively ended his political career. See also Blue Line List of airports in Minnesota Metro Transit Minneapolis–St. Paul Airport Trams Minnesota World War II Army Airfields References External links   MAC Noise Homepage (official—interactive maps of flights and noise data) Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields: Minnesota – used for information on former airports Airport diagram for October 1959 Airports in Minnesota Transportation buildings and structures in Hennepin County, Minnesota 1920 establishments in Minnesota Airports established in 1920

263622

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodoro%20Obiang%20Nguema%20Mbasogo

Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo

Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo (; born 5 June 1942) is an Equatoguinean politician and former military officer who has served as the 2nd president of Equatorial Guinea since August 1979. He is the second-longest consecutively serving current non-royal national leader in the world Cameroon's Paul Biya. After graduating from military school, Obiang held numerous positions under the presidency of his uncle, Francisco Macías Nguema before ousting him in a military coup that took place in August 1979. He has overseen Equatorial Guinea's emergence as an important oil producer, beginning in the 1990s. Obiang was Chairperson of the African Union from 31 January 2011 to 29 January 2012. Obiang heads an authoritarian regime in Equatorial Guinea. He has been widely accused of widespread human rights abuses, corruption and abuse of power. In marked contrast to the trend toward democracy in most of Africa, Equatorial Guinea is currently a dominant-party state, in which Obiang's Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea (PDGE) holds virtually all governing power in the nation. The constitution provides Obiang sweeping powers, including the right to rule by decree, effectively making his government a legal dictatorship. Obiang has placed family members in key government positions. Early life Early years From a family of the Esangui ethnic clan, he was born in the town of Acoacán (Mongomo district, Wele-Nzas province), belonging to the colony of Spanish Guinea, on the current border with Gabon, within the Continental Equatorial Guinea. Son of the Gabonese Santiago Nguema Eneme Obama and María Mbasogo Ngui, Obiang was the third of ten brothers, among whom are also the National Security Delegate Armengol Ondo Nguema and former National Defense Minister Antonio Mba Nguema. Obiang's parents emigrated from Gabon to avoid paying capitation taxes and take advantage of the good economic situation in Spanish Guinea. After the death of María Mbasogo Ngui, Obiang and his brothers were raised by his father and his new wife Carmen Mikue Mbira. Education and formation Obiang completed his first studies at the Cardenal Cisneros School Group in Ebebiyin and at the La Salle Center in Bata (now the Enrique Nvo Okenve National College), where he obtained a degree in labor administration. Obiang joined the Colonial Guard during Equatorial Guinea's colonial period and attended the General Military Academy in Zaragoza, Spain. He achieved the rank of lieutenant after his uncle, Francisco Macías Nguema, was elected the country's first president. Under Macías, Obiang held various positions, including governor of Bioko and leader of the National Guard. He was also head of Black Beach Prison, notorious for severely torturing its inmates. Presidency After Macías ordered the murders of several members of the family they shared, including Obiang's brother, Obiang and others in Macías's inner circle feared the president had become insane. Obiang overthrew his uncle on 3 August 1979 in a bloody coup d'état, and placed him on trial for his actions, including the genocide of the Bubi people, over the previous decade. Macías was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad on 29 September 1979. A new Moroccan presidential guard was required to form the firing squad, because local soldiers feared his alleged magical powers. Obiang declared that the new government would make a fresh start from Macías's brutal and repressive régime. He granted amnesty to political prisoners, and ended the previous régime's system of forced labor. However, he made virtually no mention of his own role in the atrocities committed under his uncle's rule. New constitution The country nominally returned to civilian rule in 1982, with the enactment of a slightly less authoritarian constitution. At the same time, Obiang was elected to a seven-year term as president; he was the only candidate. He was reelected in 1989, again as the only candidate. After other parties were nominally allowed to organize in 1992, he was reelected in 1996 and 2002 with 98 percent of the vote in elections condemned as fraudulent by international observers. In 2002, for instance, at least one voting district was recorded as giving Obiang 103 percent of the vote. He was reelected for a fourth term in 2009 with 97% of the vote, again amid accusations of voter fraud and intimidation, beating opposition leader Plácido Micó Abogo. Obiang's rule was at first considered more humane than that of his uncle. By some accounts, however, it has become increasingly brutal, and has bucked the larger trend toward greater democracy in Africa. According to most domestic and international observers, he leads one of the most corrupt, ethnocentric and repressive regimes in the world. Equatorial Guinea is essentially a one-party state dominated by Obiang's Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea (PDGE). The constitution grants Obiang sweeping powers, including the power to rule by decree. Although opposition parties were legalized in 1992, the legislature remains dominated by the PDGE, and there is no substantive opposition to executive decisions. At present, every Senate seat and all but one seat in the Chamber of Deputies is held by the PDGE. There have never been more than eight opposition deputies in the lower house, while the PDGE has held every seat in the Senate since its inception in 2013. For all intents and purposes, Obiang holds all governing power in the nation. The opposition is barely tolerated; indeed, a 2006 article in Der Spiegel quoted Obiang as asking, "What right does the opposition have to criticize the actions of a government?" The opposition is severely hampered by the lack of a free press as a vehicle for their views. There are no newspapers and all broadcast media are either owned outright by the government or controlled by its allies. International relations United States Equatorial Guinea's relations with the United States cooled in 1993, after Ambassador John E. Bennett was accused of practicing witchcraft at the graves of 10 British airmen who were killed when their plane crashed there during World War II. Bennett left after receiving a death threat at the U.S. Embassy in Malabo in 1994. In his farewell address, he publicly named the government's most notorious torturers, including Equatorial Guinea's Minister of National Security, Manuel Nguema Mba, another Obiang uncle. No new envoy was appointed, and the embassy was closed in 1996, leaving its affairs to be handled by the embassy in neighboring Cameroon. Things turned around for the Obiang regime after the terrorist attacks in 2001 on New York and Washington, after which the United States re-prioritized its dealings with key African states. On 25 January 2002, the Institute for Advanced Strategic and Political Studies, a neoconservative Israeli-based think tank, sponsored a forum on 15 May 2006. Speaking at the IASPS forum, Assistant Secretary of State for Africa Walter H. Kansteiner said, "African oil is of national strategic interest to us, and it will increase and become more important as we move forward." In a lengthy state visit from March to April 2006, President Obiang sought to reopen the closed embassy in the US, saying that "the lack of a U.S. diplomatic presence is definitely holding back economic growth." President Obiang was warmly greeted by Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, who called him a "good friend". Public relations company Cassidy & Associates may have been partially responsible for the change in tone between Obiang and the United States government. Since 2004, Cassidy had been employed by the dictator's government at a rate of at least $120,000 a month. By October 2006, however, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee had raised concerns about the proposal to build the new embassy on land owned by Obiang, whom the United Nations Commission on Human Rights accused of directly overseeing the torture of opponents. The new embassy chancery opened in 2013. Controversy In July 2003, state-operated radio declared Obiang "the country's god" with "all power over men and things." It added that the president was "in permanent contact with the Almighty" and "can decide to kill without anyone calling him to account and without going to hell." He personally made similar comments in 1993. Macías had also proclaimed himself a god. Obiang has encouraged his cult of personality by ensuring that public speeches end in well-wishing for himself rather than for the nation as a whole. Many important buildings have a presidential lodge, many towns and cities have streets commemorating Obiang's coup against Macías, and many people wear clothes with his face printed on them. Like his predecessor and other African strongmen such as Idi Amin and Mobutu Sese Seko, Obiang has assigned himself several creative titles. Among them are "gentleman of the great island of Bioko, Annobón and Río Muni." He also refers to himself as El Jefe (the boss). In 2008, American journalist Peter Maass called Obiang Africa's worst dictator, worse than Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe. While he was researching a book on the country's oil boom in 2004, Maass recalled that no one approached him on the streets. He believed that the only time he had encountered a more docile populace was in North Korea. Since the downfall of Muammar Gaddafi in October 2011, Obiang has become the world's second longest-ruling non-royal head of state. In an October 2012 interview on CNN, Christiane Amanpour asked Obiang whether he would step down at the end of the then-current term (2009–2016) since he had been reelected at least four times in his reign of over thirty years. In his response, Obiang categorically refused to step down at the end of the term despite the term limits in the 2011 constitution. Abuses Abuses under Obiang have included "unlawful killings by security forces; government-sanctioned kidnappings; systematic torture of prisoners and detainees by security forces; life-threatening conditions in prisons and detention facilities; impunity; arbitrary arrest, detention, and incommunicado detention." The few private media outlets in the country are largely owned by persons close to Obiang. Freedoms of association and of assembly are severely curtailed, and the government imposes restrictive conditions on the registration and operation of nongovernmental organizations. The few local activists who work on human rights-related issues often face intimidation, harassment, and reprisals. Wealth Forbes magazine has said that Obiang, with a net worth of US$600 million, is one of the world's wealthiest heads of state. In 2003, Obiang told his citizenry that he felt compelled to take full control of the national treasury in order to prevent civil servants from being tempted to engage in corrupt practices. Obiang then deposited more than half a billion dollars into more than sixty accounts controlled by himself and his family at Riggs Bank in Washington, D.C., leading a U.S. federal court to fine the bank $16 million for allowing him to do so. A United States Senate investigation in 2004 found that the Washington-based Riggs Bank had taken $300 million in payments on behalf of Obiang from Exxon Mobil and Hess Corporation. In 2008, the country became a candidate for the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative – an international project meant to promote openness about government oil revenues – but never qualified and missed the April 2010 deadline. Transparency International includes Equatorial Guinea on its list of twelve most corrupt states. Beginning in 2007, Obiang and several other African state leaders came under investigation for corruption and fraudulent use of funds. He was suspected of using public funds to finance private mansions and other luxuries for both himself and his family. He and his son, in particular, owned several properties and supercars in France. Several complaints were also filed in US courts against Obiang's son. Attorneys stressed that the funds appropriated by the Obiangs were taken quite legally under Equatoguinean laws, even though those laws might not agree with international standards. The U.S. Department of Justice alleged that Obiang and his son had appropriated hundreds of millions of dollars through corruption. In 2011 and early 2012, many assets were seized from Obiang and his son by the French and American governments, including mansions, wine collections, and supercars. The United States, France and Spain have all investigated the Obiang family's use of public funds. The corruption investigation is ongoing. Obiang, his cabinet and his family allegedly have received billions in undisclosed oil revenue each year from the nation's oil production. Marathon Oil purchased land from Abayak, Obiang's personal investment vehicle, for more than $2 million; in June 2004 the sale was pending but Marathon had already made a $611,000 first payment with a check made out to Obiang. Marathon also was involved in a joint venture to operate two gas plants with GEOGAM, a quasi-state firm in which Abayak controlled a 75% stake. Although the cabinet has made moderate increases in social spending, these remain far overshadowed by the spending on, for instance, presidential palaces. In addition, the Obiang administration has been characterized by harassment of dissenters and foreign officials seeking to report on conditions. Obiang filed a libel lawsuit in a French court against an organization he believed was demeaning his image by saying that his government had committed such acts, but the case was dismissed. Obiang has made several pledges to commit to open governance, reduce corruption, increase transparency, and improve the quality of life and uphold the basic freedoms of his citizens. Critics say that Obiang's government has made very little progress toward this goal, however. Several international groups have called for Obiang to: increase fiscal transparency and accountability by publishing all government revenues, and conducting and publishing annual audits of government accounts, including those abroad, and forcing officials to declare assets Disclose natural resource revenues Greatly increase spending alleviation of poverty Uphold political freedoms and rights Allow judicial practices to meet international standards Cease harassing and hindering his critics Allow foreign inspectors and groups to travel freely, unhindered and unharassed. The U.S. Justice Department has alleged that Obiang's son also extorted funds from lumber and construction companies by inflating contractor payments by as much as 500%, then funnelled the funds into a private accounts for his own use. Obiang and his cabinet have defended Kiki, as his son is known. Lawyers uphold his innocence in both US and French courts, saying he received the funds legally though legitimate business enterprises. Shortly after the emergence of these allegations, Obiang named his son Equatorial Guinea's deputy permanent delegate to UNESCO, possibly giving him diplomatic immunity from prosecution. Obiang has created an independent audit task force to review the expenditures and financials of public figures in the government, screen for corruption, and increase financial transparency. The head of this task force, however, was appointed by Obiang himself. Finances Obiang had a close relationship with the Washington DC-based Riggs Bank. He is said to have been welcomed by top Riggs officials, who held a luncheon in his honor. Publicity regarding this relationship would later contribute to the downfall of Riggs. On 10 November 2010, the Supreme Court of France ruled that a complaint filed by Transparency International in France on 2 December 2008 was admissible to the court system there. The decision allowed the appointment of an investigating judge and a judicial inquiry into claims that Obiang used state funds to purchase private property in France. A 2010 article published in Forbes magazine suggested that Obiang gathered roughly $700 million of the country's wealth in US bank accounts. Personal life Obiang reportedly favours his son Teodoro Nguema to succeed him. Honours : Grand Collar of the Order of Lakandula, Rank of Supremo (19 May 2006) : Grand Officer Honorary Order of the Yellow Star References External links President Obiang's address to the 63rd session of the United Nations General Assembly, 25 September 2008 Honorary Consul for Equatorial Guinea Who's Africa's Worst Dictator? Hint: It's probably not Robert Mugabe Slate.com "Torture and Poverty in Equatorial Guinea", Alexander Smoltczyk, Der Spiegel, 28 August 2006 Amidst Poverty, Equatorial Guinea Builds Lavish City to Host African Union — video report by Democracy Now! |- 1942 births Living people Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea politicians Equatoguinean Roman Catholics Leaders who took power by coup People from Wele-Nzas Presidents of Equatorial Guinea Grand Cordons of the Honorary Order of the Yellow Star Grand Collars of the Order of Lakandula

263623

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical%20behaviorism

Radical behaviorism

Radical behaviorism was pioneered by B. F. Skinner and is his "philosophy of the science of behavior." It refers to the philosophy behind behavior analysis, and is to be distinguished from methodological behaviorism—which has an intense emphasis on observable behaviors—by its inclusion of thinking, feeling, and other private events in the analysis of human and animal psychology. The research in behavior analysis is called the experimental analysis of behavior and the application of this field is called applied behavior analysis (ABA), which was originally termed "behavior modification." Radical behaviorism as natural science Radical behaviorism inherits from behaviorism the position that the science of behavior is a natural science, a belief that animal behavior can be studied profitably and compared with human behavior, a strong emphasis on the environment as cause of behavior, and an emphasis on the operations involved in the modification of behavior. Radical behaviorism does not claim that organisms are tabula rasa whose behavior is unaffected by biological or genetic endowment. Rather, it asserts that experiential factors play a major role in determining the behavior of many complex organisms, and that the study of these matters is a major field of research in its own right. The most precise way to describe radical behaviorism as "radical" is to understand that instances such as evolution and cell division are occurrences that just happen. There is no third party that assists in this transformation; they can, however, be explained by other naturally occurring events. They should not try to be explained through objects that are not tangible, e.g., ghosts or inner entities. Radical behaviorists therefore conclude that naturally occurring events may be examined in relation to past and present environments through the effect they have on human beings. The basics: operant psychology Skinner saw that classical conditioning did not account for the behavior that many people are interested in, such as riding a bike or writing a book. His observations led him to propose a theory about how these and similar behaviors, called "operants", come about. Roughly speaking, in operant conditioning, an operant is actively emitted and produces changes in the world (i.e., produces consequences) that alter the likelihood that the behavior will occur again. As represented in the table below, operant conditioning involves two basic actions (increasing or decreasing the probability that a specific behavior will occur in the future), which are accomplished by adding or removing one of two basic types of stimuli, positive reinforcers or negative reinforcers. In other words: If the probability of a behavior is increased as a consequence of the presentation of a stimulus, that stimulus is a positive reinforcer. If the probability of a behavior is increased as a consequence of the withdrawal of a stimulus, that stimulus is a punishment. If the probability of a behavior is decreased as a consequence of the presentation of a stimulus, that stimulus is a punishment. If the probability of a behavior is decreased as a consequence of the withdrawal of a stimulus, that stimulus is a positive reinforcer. Instrumental conditioning is another term for operant conditioning that is most closely associated with scientists who studied organisms running through a maze. Skinner pioneered the free operant technique, where organisms could respond at any time during a protracted experimental session. Thus Skinner's dependent variable was usually the frequency or rate of responding, not the errors that were made or the speed of traversal of a maze. Operant conditioning affects the future of the organism, that is how the organism will respond after the actions summarized above occur. Explaining behavior and the importance of the environment John B. Watson argued against speaking of mental states and held that psychology should study behavior directly, holding private events as impossible to study scientifically. Skinner rejected this position, conceding the importance of thinking, feelings and "inner behavior" in his analysis. Skinner did not hold to truth by agreement, as Watson did, so he was not limited by observation. In Watson's days (and in Skinner's early days), it was held that psychology was at a disadvantage as a science because behavioral explanations should take physiology into account. Very little was known about physiology at the time. Skinner argued that behavioral explanations of psychological phenomena are "just as true" as physiological explanations. In arguing this, he took a non-reductionistic approach to psychology. Skinner, however, redefined behavior to include "everything that an organism does," including thinking, feeling and speaking, and argued that these phenomena were valid scientific subject matters. (The challenge was that thoughts and feelings cannot be observed objectively.) The term radical behaviorism refers to just this: that everything an organism does is a behavior. However, Skinner ruled out thinking and feeling as valid explanations of behavior. The reasoning is this: Thinking and feeling are not epiphenomena nor have they any other special status; they are just more behavior to explain. Explaining behavior by referring to thought or feelings would be pseudo-explanation, because thoughts and feelings merely point to more behavior to be explained. Skinner proposed environmental factors as proper causes of behavior because: Environmental factors are at a different logical level than behavior and actions. One can manipulate behavior by manipulating the environment. This holds only for explaining operant behaviors. Skinner held operant behaviors to be the most interesting class of behaviors. Many textbooks, in noting the emphasis Skinner places on the environment, argue that Skinner held that the organism is a blank slate or a tabula rasa. Skinner wrote extensively on the limits and possibilities nature places on conditioning. Conditioning is implemented in the body as a physiological process and is subject to the current state, learning history, and history of the species. Skinner did not consider people a blank slate, or tabula rasa. Many textbooks confuse Skinner's rejection of physiology with Watson's rejection of private events. It is true to some extent that Skinner's psychology considers humans a black box, since Skinner maintains that behavior can be explained without taking into account what goes on inside the organism. However, the black box is not private events, but physiology. Skinner considers physiology useful, interesting, valid, etc., but not necessary for operant behavioral theory and research. Private events in a radical behaviorist account Radical behaviorism differs from other forms of behaviorism in that it treats everything we do as behavior, including private events (such as thinking and feeling). Indeed, this is one reason why Skinner's philosophy is considered radical. Unlike John B. Watson's behaviorism, private events are not dismissed as "epiphenomena," but are seen as subject to the same principles of learning and modification as have been discovered to exist for overt behavior. Although private events are not publicly observable behaviors, radical behaviorism accepts that we are each observers of our own private behavior. Many textbooks, in emphasizing that Skinner held behavior to be the proper subject matter of psychology, fail to clarify Skinner's position and implicitly or even explicitly posit that Skinner ruled out the study of private events as unscientific. Skinner explicitly noted that private events were essential for behaviorists to understand and account for, though he also considered them beyond the limits of direct analysis. Outgrowths There are radical behaviorist schools of animal training, management, clinical practice, and education. Skinner's philosophical views have left their mark in principles adopted by a small handful of utopian communities, such as Los Horcones and Twin Oaks, and in ongoing challenges to aversive techniques in control of human and animal behavior. Radical behaviorism has generated numerous descendants. Examples of these include molar approaches associated with Richard Herrnstein and William Baum, Howard Rachlin's teleological behaviorism, William Timberlake's behavior systems approach, and John Staddon's theoretical behaviorism. Contextual behavioral science, associated with the works of Steven C. Hayes, is also an interpretation of radical behaviorism. Skinner's theories on verbal behavior have seen widespread application in therapies for children with autism that are based on applied behavior analysis (ABA). Criticism Many textbooks and theorists like Noam Chomsky label Skinnerian or radical behaviorism as S–R (stimulus–response, or to use Skinner's term, "respondent"), or Pavlovian psychology, and argue that this limits the approach. Chomsky has further argued Skinner's experimental results could not be extended to humans. Contemporary psychology rejects many of Skinner's conclusions, although some scholars find his work into operant conditioning, which emphasizes the importance of consequences in modifying discriminative responses, useful when combined with current understandings about the uniqueness of evolved human thought compared to other animals. Many textbooks argue that radical behaviorism maintains the incorrect position that animals (including humans) are passive receivers of conditioning, although others have countered that: operant behavior is titled operant because it operates on the environment operant behavior is emitted, not elicited: Animals act on the environment and the environment acts back on them, or the consequence of a behavior can itself be a stimulus; one needs not present anything for shaping to take place. Radical behaviorism is sometimes negatively described as a form of logical positivism, a doctrine that had come into disfavor by the late 20th century. Skinnerians maintain that Skinner was not a logical positivist and recognized the importance of thinking as behavior, as Skinner emphasizes in About Behaviorism. See also Ogden Lindsley Murray Sidman Charles Ferster Allen Neuringer Ivar Lovaas References Further reading Wyatt, W. Joseph (2001). "Some Myths about Behaviorism That Are Undone in B.F. Skinner's 'The Design of Cultures'". Behavior and Social Issues, (11)1, pp. 28–30. Gaynor, Scott T. (2004). "Skepticism of caricatures: B.F. Skinner turns 100". The Skeptical Inquirer, 28(1), pp. 26–29. External links Behavior and Social Issues Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis The Behavior Analyst The Psychological Record B.F. Skinner Foundation Behaviorism History of psychology

263624

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20632

IBM 632

The IBM 632 was a valve-and-relay driven basic (very basic) accounting machine, introduced in 1958, that was available in seven different models. It consisted of an IBM Electric typewriter and at least a punched card unit (like the IBM 024) that housed the "electronics" in two gates (a relay gate and an electronic gate). Some machines also had a card reader unit (like the IBM 026). A small core memory provided storage for 8 numeric 12 digit words. The machine was programmed primarily with a plastic tape that moved synchronously with the typewriter carriage. Each tape would typically handle one application. The tape mechanism was mounted behind the carriage in the typewriter unit. Further programming was provided in the card machines program drums. Programs were only executed as the machine typed or spaced over a column - tabbing or carriage returning was not recognised. As the typewriter carriage moved from field to field three program entries were available in the last three columns of each field - as I recall they were Calc1, Calc2, and Pgm. One calculation was allowed in each Calc column. The PGM field allowed a program instruction - a jump in the form of a "jump" to a new column then auto printout of a calculated field (including decimal place control) as well as punched card control, etc. The PGM column was actually the column the typewriter would space to after typing the last character in the field (either under operator or PGM control). For example, after entering "price" then tabbing and entering "qty", the machine could automatically space through a dummy field, calculate the $amount on the way and then continue to print it out. The PGM field could then have dictated a carriage return, ready for the next entry. Two programs were allowed on each tape: primary and alternate. But by resetting the tab-stops it was possible to overlap programs in amazingly complex ways. Adding was carried out electronically, but multiplication was electro-mechanical. The machine gave off a characteristic kerr-ick-kit-i-tic, kerr-ick-kit-i-tic sound as the relays worked furiously. Multiplication took 3 or 4 seconds, addition, on the other, hand was immediate. Most machines were used for some type of order-entry/invoicing application, providing a hard-copy invoice and a punched card that could be processed further on some other system. Those with a card reader could do some of that processing themselves, especially if augmented with a sorter. The first installation was in early 1958 into the Barclay Knitwear company in Kingston, New York. They struck an issue with the 632 because they sold units by the dozen, but because the 632 worked in decimal, rounding meant they were losing money. This was because 1/12 was converted to 0.083. IBM solved the issue by rewiring the 632 so that it worked to five decimal places (0.08333) rather than three. Cost, price and rental rates Maintenance/service was included in all monthly rental prices. Maintenance/service for purchased machines was additional. References 632 Programmable calculators Computer-related introductions in 1958

263625

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20folk%20dance

International folk dance

International folk dance includes Balkan dance, Middle Eastern dance, contra dance, Hungarian dance, polka, Chinese dance, and Japanese dance. Clubs featuring these ethnic dance genres are enjoyed by non-professional dancers for entertainment. Many clubs that use collections of ethnic folk dances will use the term "international folk dance" or similar in their name. History International folk dance developed in the immigrant communities of the United States of America during the first half of the 20th century. Traditional dances such as branles, polkas, quadrilles and others have been done internationally for hundreds of years; however, the creation of international folk dance as such is often attributed to Vytautas Beliajus, a Lithuanian-American who studied, taught, and performed dances from various ethnic traditions in the 1930s. Also, in the mid 1930s, Scandinavian dancing began to take hold in non-Scandinavian communities. Clubs began to form around this style. A pioneer of this era was the ethnic Chinese illustrator Song Chang, who, struck by the lack of bigotry among the Scandinavian dancers, encouraged others to join, advised clubs, and had a club named in his honor, the Chang's International Folk Dancers, still located in San Francisco. Other prominent teachers and promoters of international folk dance in its first few decades included Michael Herman and Mary Ann Herman, Jane Farwell, and Dick Crum. Those groups known as international folk dance clubs began to take hold in the 1930s and 1940s, with more diverse selections of music than just Scandinavian, with Balkan dances, Western European dances, and dances from the Philippines. The Folk Dance Federation of California was founded in 1942. By 1946, there were approximately 100 clubs in California alone. In 1948, the College of the Pacific Folk Dance Camp, now known as the Stockton Folk Dance Camp, was founded. Other camps were founded later, and all draw on teaching talent both American and foreign. At the inaugural Statewide Festival held in Ojai, California, occurring on May 11, 1946, there were over 500 dancers and 3000 spectators. In 1964, a new idea took hold in a pair of dancers in Los Angeles. Rudy Dannes and Athan Karras opened a coffeehouse that also functioned as a place for international folk dancers to dance at night without having to worry about renting a space, called The Intersection. The idea took off, with new people starting their own dance coffeehouses, such as Cafe Danssa in L.A., founded by Dani Dassa, and the famous Ashkenaz in Berkeley, founded by David Nadel in 1973. In 1975, the Folk Arts Center of New England was founded by Conny Taylor and Marianne Taylor to preserve and encourage international folk dancing and other folk arts. In the 1980s, costs escalated, and the number of active clubs shrank somewhat. Many events such as camps or festivals had to be put on hold until the organizers could gather the money and the people. In 1984, The Intersection shut its doors due to lowering turnout. However, on the East Coast, the NFO, or the National Folk Organization, was founded in Chicago in 1986 by Vytautas Beliajus, Mary Bee Jensen, George Frandsen, and L. DeWayne Young, an organization dedicated to the preservation of folk arts. In the 1990s, interest in dancing increased again, and dances from the Chinese, Japanese and Hispanic groups were added to the repertoires over the '80s and '90s as neighborhoods diversified. Ballroom dance, swing dance, tango and salsa dance became more popular, with some dancers from these genres also entering the international folk dance scene as a whole. International folk dance has grown into a large community of dancers, performing groups and recreational folk dance clubs throughout the United States, Europe, Canada, Japan, Australia and other countries. Dance festivals and conventions are held year-round. Dance "camps" or workshops invite teachers to instruct dancers in dances from many traditions. These groups usually focus on European dances, but the international folk dance repertoire may include dances from every part of the world: Europe, Africa, North and South America, the Middle East, the Far East, Australia and the South Pacific. Clubs The most common way to dance "international folk dance" is in a club setting. These can range in style of organization from a small gathering to highly structured and regulated meetings, depending on the preferences of the dancers. Many clubs are associated with international folk dance societies or federations, such as the Folk Dance Federation of California, who provide them with music and exposure. A club can have a mixture of dances on their playlist, or specialize in a single genre or a few genres. (For example, a club could be a Serbian dance club, or a Balkan dance club, or a mixed repertoire with a preference for Balkan, or a club with no preference and a varied playlist.) Many require no experience or partner whatsoever to participate. The most common genres of the clubs that choose a specific genre are Balkan dance, contra dance, and English country dance. Classes Many clubs are also classes, or are entirely so. Classes usually have a master teacher, either creating their own event or using time at a club, teaching new dances to add to the repertoire. These are always open to the public and usually have a "party" afterwards where people dance to requests. Some master teachers teach for their livelihoods, while others are local dancers with the will to teach. Festivals Festivals are multi-day events that combine the club and class atmosphere. Often a day will be mostly full of teaching sessions and the evening for dancing and requests. Often they sell food to dancers as well. Examples of festivals include the Zlatne Uste Golden Festival in New York City, the Blossom Festival in San Francisco, the Kolo Festival in San Francisco, and the Tanatsfestival in Belgium. Camps Camps are essentially festivals that include room and board. Oftentimes dancers sleep on-site or in a hotel that has specifically been reserved for the event, with food and drinks also provided to the dancers. Famous camps include the Stockton Folk Dance Camp in Stockton, CA and Camp Yofi in Italy. See also Folk dance List of folk dances sorted by origin Circle Dance combining traditional folk and modern community dances Hora (dance) Kolo (dance) Hasapiko Syrtos Sirtaki Dabke Bulgarian dances Croatian dances Contra dance Ukrainian dance Georgian dance Ashkenaz (music venue) Athan Karras References Betty Casey, International Folk Dancing U.S.A., Doubleday, New York, 1981. Mirjana Laušević, Balkan Fascination, Oxford University Press, 2007. An extended annotated bibliography can be found at http://www.phantomranch.net/folkdanc/teaching/bibliofd.htm The Folk Dance Federation of California. Has resources and a list of clubs. The Folk Dance Federation of California, South. Also a resource and club list. Teacher biographies. The Zlatne Uste Golden Festival. The Blossom Festival. The Kolo Festival. The Tanatsfestival. The Stockton Folk Dance Camp. Camp Yofi. History of International Folk Dancing in California. Articles on the history of The Intersection. Athan Karras reflects on the Intersection. History of the NFO. Folk Arts Center of New England. History of Ashkenaz. History of Cafe Danssa. An article on Song Chang. External links Bulgarian folk workshop for national folklore costumes and musical instruments About Folk Dances, Steps, Videos, Pictures Nordic Folk Dance around the World Folk Arts Center of New England Society for International Folk Dancing (United Kingdom) recfd.com, includes choreography notes for many dances Dunav, an Israeli organization of Balkan dancers dedicated to the online sharing of folk dance music, notes, and videos Folk dance

263627

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%206400

IBM 6400

The IBM 6400 family of line matrix printers were modern highspeed business computer printers introduced by IBM in 1995. These printers were designed for use on a variety IBM systems including mainframes, servers, and PCs. Configuration The 6400 was available in a choice of open pedestal (to minimize floor size requirements) or an enclosed cabinet (for quiet operation). Three models existed, with print speeds of 500, 1000 or 1500 lines/minute. When configured with the appropriate graphics option, it could print mailing bar codes "certified by the U.S. Postal service. Twelve configurations were commonly sold by IBM. Rebadged These printers were manufactured by Printronix Corp and rebranded for IBM. All internal parts had the Printronix Logo and/or artwork. Although they once did, IBM no longer manufactures printers. One of their old printer divisions became Lexmark The other became the IBM Printing Systems Division, which was subsequently spun off to Ricoh. IBM now uses several different manufacturers to fill their printer requirements under the IBM brand. References 6400 Line printers Computer-related introductions in 1995 History of computing hardware

263632

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Aubrey

Jack Aubrey

John "Jack" Aubrey, , is a fictional character in the Aubrey–Maturin series of novels by Patrick O'Brian. The series portrays his rise from lieutenant to rear-admiral in the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars. The twenty (and one incomplete draft)-book series encompasses Aubrey's adventures and various commands along his course to flying a rear-admiral's flag. Some of his naval battles and adventures are drawn from Royal Navy history. Several of his exploits and reverses, most importantly those in the plots of Master and Commander, The Reverse of the Medal and Blue at the Mizzen, are directly based on the chequered career of Thomas Cochrane. Often in the other 17 novels in the series, Aubrey may witness an action or hear of one that is drawn from history, while the battles or other encounters with ships he captains are fictional. Besides reaching the peak of naval skills and authority, Aubrey is presented as being interested in mathematics and astronomy, a great lover of music and player of the violin, a hearty singer and is generally accompanied by his friend and shipmate Stephen Maturin on the cello. He is noted for his mangling and mis-splicing of proverbs, sometimes with Maturin's involvement, such as “Never count the bear’s skin before it is hatched” and “There’s a good deal to be said for making hay while the iron is hot.” Aubrey is played by Russell Crowe in the 2003 film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World and by David Robb in the BBC Radio 4 adaptations of the novels. Education and early life Aubrey's mother died when he was a boy; he is an only child. His father General Aubrey lives a longer life, and is a character in some of the novels, often working against the career interest of his son with clumsy politics. In Master and Commander, Aubrey describes the efforts of his slightly older neighbor "Queeney" to teach him some Latin and the mathematics associated with a sailing ship and its navigation so that he could pass his examination for lieutenant, an event that happened before the first novel. Queeney's family had occupied Damplow when Aubrey was a boy, a house adjoining General Aubrey's estate ("they were almost in our park"). Queeney appears in Aubrey's life when she marries Lord Keith, who heads up the Mediterranean Fleet of the Royal Navy. In the first novel, Lord Keith gave him his promotion to master and commander and his first command, and Lord Keith is married to Queeney at that time. Queeney is the historic Hester Maria Elphinstone, Viscountess Keith, and in Queeney's mother the reader will recognize the historic Hester Thrale. Early career This section covers the career of Aubrey before the Aubrey-Maturin series, for more information on that period, see the individual books. Like many officers in the British fleet, Aubrey spent much of his life raised on the sea, joining the navy very early: he was on the books at the age of nine and at sea when he was twelve. While a midshipman aboard HMS Resolution commanded by a friend of General Aubrey's, Captain Douglas, Jack was turned before the mast for hiding a girl aboard the ship. He spent six months as a common seaman before being re-rated as a midshipman. This was when Lord Keith was still Captain Elphinstone, therefore pre-1797. Aubrey also spent some time as fifth lieutenant aboard HMS Hannibal (in service 1786–1801), under Captain John Newman. There, after insulting the first lieutenant, he was put in front of a board, with Lord Keith upon it, which reprimanded him for his "petulance," which led to Aubrey spending eight months ashore with half pay. While second lieutenant aboard , Aubrey was the leader of the prize crew for the Généreux after it was captured by Nelson's fleet in 1800. He earned a silver Nile medal, having served as a lieutenant aboard HMS Leander during the battle of the Nile in 1798, mentioned in Master and Commander. The Nile Medal is mentioned whenever Aubrey wears his dress uniform. The Battle of the Nile was a major turning point in the long wars between the United Kingdom and Napoleon's France, when dominance on the sea went to the United Kingdom. Horatio Nelson became a hero for his role in that 1798 battle. Career and characteristics depicted in the novels Aubrey is between twenty and thirty years old when the first story opens, a lieutenant passing time on the island of Minorca, at a musical performance. When he returns to his inn, his letter of promotion to master and commander awaits him. He is given his first command: a fourteen-gun brig-rigged sloop, HMS Sophie. He rises to the rank of post captain, though he is once struck off the Navy List, reinstated, then suspends himself in 1814 as peace comes in spring. As was the practice in the Royal Navy, once on the list of post captains, he moved up the list for promotion to admiral by the end of the series of novels, set during the Napoleonic Wars. In his early career, according to HMS Surprise, Aubrey was not a skilled mathematician. In that book, he is described as learning mathematics and "...he studied the mathematics, and like some other late-developers he advanced at a great pace." In later books, Aubrey is presented as interested and skilled in mathematics and astronomy. He is also a great lover of music and player of the violin; he is a hearty singer. He is a man of even temperament, generally cheerful, sociable and alert to the feelings of his shipmates. He knows every aspect of the ships he sails and how best to gain speed over the oceans from each one by use of the sails without putting too much stress on the masts or yards (which would then break), a complex and hard-earned knowledge. He has been described as "the bluff and ultracompetent Aubrey". He feels the joy of battle; he is skilled in planning his attacks and in carrying them out, using cannon or hand-to-hand fighting. By contrast, he cannot watch his close friend, Dr Maturin, perform a surgery, and is offended at the sight of blood on Maturin, the natural result of performing surgeries. On board ship, Aubrey on his violin is generally accompanied by his friend and shipmate Stephen Maturin on the cello. Aubrey is particularly fond of the music of Corelli and Boccherini. He is noted for his mangling and mis-splicing of proverbs, sometimes with Maturin's involvement, such as “Never count the bear’s skin before it is hatched” and “There’s a good deal to be said for making hay while the iron is hot.” Maturin enters actively into the humor of fractured proverbs by the eighth novel, The Ionian Mission, as shown in this exchange between the two friends in Chapter 10: 'Why, as to that,' said Jack, blowing on his coffee-cup and staring out of the stern-window at the harbour, 'as to that ... if you do not choose to call him a pragmatical clinchpoop and kick his breech, which you might think ungenteel, perhaps you could tell him to judge the pudding by its fruit.' 'You mean, prove the tree by its eating.' 'No, no, Stephen, you are quite out: eating a tree would prove nothing. And then you might ask him, had he ever seen many poltroons in the Navy?' 'I am not quite sure what you mean by poltroons.' Aubrey frequently mentions his respect of Lord Nelson, repeating a line he heard him say at a dinner in his early life in the navy, "Never mind manoeuvres, always go at them," in Chapter 3 of Master and Commander and in many of the subsequent novels, then quoted by Tom Pullings as "Never mind manoeuvres, always go straight at them." In one of his letters to his wife written from Boston, when Aubrey has a wounded right arm and can write to her only with his left hand, he couches this news of his injury to her as part of his desire to imitate Nelson in all things, except matrimonially, in Chapter 4 of The Fortune of War. He enjoys the company of women. From the incident of keeping a girl aboard ship in his youth, unbeknownst to him, she was pregnant when he sailed away. Their son, Samuel Panda, appears in Aubrey's life fully grown and educated, a dark-skinned version of himself, but a Catholic priest. Before he knew of this young man, Aubrey married Sophia Williams, whom he met and courted in the peace of 1802, when he was on land. They married and had three children, twin daughters Fanny and Charlotte, and a son George. He loves his family, though most of the time he is away on a ship. When his father dies, Jack Aubrey inherits the Aubrey family estate and the role of lord of the manor in The Letter of Marque. He displays extensive knowledge of the laws and practices surrounding that role in The Yellow Admiral, when he opposes enclosing the only commons left to the manor. His good connections with his neighbors in Woolcombe gain him a seat in Parliament from the pocket borough held by his neighbor Cousin Edward Norton; gaining that seat aided in his restoration to the Navy List. He sits as justice of the peace for certain local matters. This knowledge and well-tempered judgment seems to match with his skill in running a tight ship, a happy ship, and is a contrast to his financial faux pas. He can earn the money by taking rich prizes, but only with the help of his wife's good management and his lawyer's persistence at winning in lawsuits meant to take it from him, does the money stay in his hands for good uses. Watches real battles, fights fictional battles Aubrey is a prisoner of war with a perfect view of the naval battle in Algeciras Bay in Master and Commander. He is a passenger aboard HMS Java when she is captured by USS Constitution in The Fortune of War. Again a prisoner of war, Aubrey arrives in Boston aboard USS Constitution. He heals from a serious wound in Boston. He, Maturin and Diana Villiers escape aboard HMS Shannon, which defeats USS Chesapeake in Boston Harbor as part of the War of 1812, also in The Fortune of War. The battles in which Aubrey participates are inspired by real ship engagements, but not involving the same ships by name, or sometimes by exact date of the real encounter. An example of this is Aubrey's first command, HMS Sophie taking a far heavier Spanish frigate with 32 12-pound guns to the Sophie's 14 4-pounders and a crew of 319 compared to 56, which is very similar to an encounter of HMS Speedy under Cochrane in May 1801. The taking of the two islands in The Mauritius Command is closely based on the actual Mauritius campaign of 1809–1811, and the encounter with the Spanish ships carrying gold from their South American colonies that closes the story in Post Captain, with Aubrey in temporary command of one of the British ships, closely matches the Battle of Cape Santa Maria, including the names of the British and Spanish ships in the encounter. Most of his naval battles and adventures are drawn from actual Royal Navy history. Several of his exploits and reverses, most importantly those in the plots of Master and Commander, The Reverse of the Medal and Blue at the Mizzen, are directly based on the chequered career of Thomas Cochrane: as his friend the botanist and surgeon Stephen Maturin mused, "There was something of Cochrane in Jack, a restless impatience of authority, a strong persuasion of being in the right." Ships commanded by Jack Aubrey During the series of novels, Jack Aubrey commands a succession of many different vessels. Most of them are warships of the Royal Navy, prefixed HMS (His Majesty's Ship). On one occasion he commands an Honourable East India Company ship, and for some time after she is sold out of the service, the Surprise is a hired vessel working for the Royal Navy (HMHV), having been purchased by Stephen Maturin. The Franklin is a privateer Jack Aubrey captures and uses for a brief time before he sells it. The status of the Nutmeg of Consolation is undefined, as she belongs to Stamford Raffles, the Governor of Batavia. Although the names and characteristics of real Royal Navy ships are used in the novels, the ships often do not take the same cruises or appear in the same battles as they did in history. In his first memorable success, he uses the smaller HM Sloop Sophie to take a larger Spanish vessel. The battle action is based on Cochrane's similar feat as captain of the HM Sloop Speedy in 1800. Awards and rewards Aubrey earned the silver Nile medal and wore it on his dress uniform always (mentioned in nearly every novel when the dress uniform is donned). He earned it as a lieutenant in an action before the series began, in the 1798 Battle of the Nile. His portrait was painted to hang at home, showing him wearing the red ribbon of the Order of the Bath, described at the start of Desolation Island, after he returned from great success in The Mauritius Command. The Order of the Bath at that date was an order of knighthood and the recipient would invariably be titled "Sir" unless they had a higher title. However, O'Brian never refers to Aubrey as Sir John, nor does the author have any other character refer to him as Sir John, in any of the novels. He also received an elaborate diamond chelengk, earned in The Ionian Mission from the Turks, and mentioned in Treason's Harbour as having been saved by Killick. He has a Lloyd's 100-guinea presentation sword, mentioned in the start of The Reverse of the Medal and in The Nutmeg of Consolation. The Order of the Bath ribbon is again mentioned in the unfinished novel The Final Unfinished Voyage of Jack Aubrey, when Aubrey is about to step aboard the ship flying his broad pennant as Rear Admiral of the Blue. Aubrey is described with his military awards at the start of The Reverse of the Medal. Grateful owners of merchant ships honored Aubrey with gifts of silver plate and cash when his efforts protected their ships and cargo. In HMS Surprise, the merchants in Calcutta pay to refit his ship. In The Letter of Marque, Aubrey receives a gift of silver plate from the merchants whose ships had been harried by a French-American privateer captured by the Surprise, herself a British letter of marque. Heraldry The Aubreys were an old land holding family who owned various, though untitled, lordships of the manor. Their arms were azure, 3 sheep's heads erased, proper. In addition, Jack was granted the augmentation of 2 Moors' heads, proper, on this arms in honour of his success in the Mauritius campaign. Portrayed in adaptations of the novels Jack Aubrey is played by Russell Crowe in the 2003 film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World. He is played by David Robb in the BBC Radio 4 adaptations of the novels. References Fictional sailors Fictional sea captains Fictional military captains Fictional admirals Fictional lieutenants Patrick O'Brian characters Fictional violinists Characters in British novels of the 20th century Literary characters introduced in 1969 Fictional Royal Navy personnel

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20transport%20museums

List of transport museums

A transport museum is a museum that holds collections of transport items, which are often limited to land transport (road and rail)—including old cars, motorcycles, trucks, trains, trams/streetcars, buses, trolleybuses and coaches—but can also include air transport or waterborne transport items, along with educational displays and other old transport objects. Some transport museums are housed in disused transport infrastructure such as dismantled trolley systems, former engine sheds or bus garages. Many transport museums exist throughout the world, listed below. Argentina Tramway Histórico de Buenos Aires, Caballito, Buenos Aires, ; Australia Archer Park Railway Station, Rockhampton, Queensland Australian National Maritime Museum, Sydney, New South Wales Ballarat Tramway Museum, Ballarat, Victoria – Tram Bendigo Tram Museum, Bendigo, Victoria – Tram Brisbane Tramway Museum, Ferny Grove, Brisbane, Queensland Canberra Railway Museum, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Dorrigo Steam Railway & Museum, Dorrigo, New South Wales Glenreagh Mountain Railway, Glenreagh, near Coffs Harbour, New South Wales Hawthorn tram depot, Hawthorn, Melbourne, Victoria National Railway Museum, Port Adelaide, South Australia National Road Transport Hall of Fame, Alice Springs, Northern Territory NSW Rail Museum, Thirlmere, New South Wales Old Ghan Heritage Railway and Museum, Alice Springs, Northern Territory Pichi Richi Railway – Quorn to Port Augusta, South Australia Puffing Billy Railway, Belgrave, Victoria Qantas Founders Outback Museum, Longreach, Queensland Queensland Motorsport Museum, Ipswich, Brisbane, Queensland Rail Heritage WA, Bassendean, Western Australia Rail Motor Society, Paterson, New South Wales Revolutions Transport Museum, Whiteman Park, Western Australia Shepparton Motor Museum, Shepparton, Victoria South Australian Maritime Museum, Port Adelaide, South Australia Steamtown Heritage Rail Centre, Peterborough, South Australia Sydney Bus Museum, Leichhardt, Sydney, New South Wales Sydney Heritage Fleet, Rozelle, Sydney, New South Wales Sydney Tramway Museum, Loftus, Sydney, New South Wales Tasmanian Transport Museum, Glenorchy, Hobart, Tasmania Tramway Museum Society of Victoria, Bylands, Victoria Tramway Museum, St Kilda, South Australia Valley Heights Locomotive Depot Heritage Museum, Valley Heights, New South Wales Valley Heights Steam Tramway, Valley Heights, New South Wales Western Australia's Heritage Tramway, Whiteman Park, Western Australia Western Australian Maritime Museum, Fremantle, Western Australia Zig Zag Railway, near Lithgow, New South Wales. Austria TMB's Innsbruck Tramway Museum, Innsbruck – Graz Tramway Museum, Graz – SKGLB-Museum, Mondsee Vienna Transport Museum Remise, Vienna Belgium Brussels Tram Museum (MTUB (fr) / MSVB (nl)), Woluwe-Saint-Pierre, Brussels, – streetcar/tram/trolleybus Tramsite Schepdaal, Schepdaal – streetcar/tram Centre de découverte du Vicinal, Trammuseum of the ASVi, Thuin – interurban and rural streetcar/tram Flemish Tram and Bus Museum (VlaTAM), Berchem, Antwerp – streetcar/tram/bus Musée des Transports en Commun de Wallonie (MTCW), Liège – streetcar / tram / interurban and rural tram / trolleybus / motorbus Train World, Schaerbeek — Railway Museum CFV3V, Mariembourg, Treignes — Railway Museum Bermuda Railway Museum and Curiosity Shop, Hamilton Brazil Museu Aeronáutico de Guarulhos, Guarulhos Museu Asas de um Sonho, São Carlos Museu do Automóvel de São Paulo, São Paulo Museu dos Transportes Públicos Gaetano Ferolla, São Paulo Museu Ferroviário Barão de Mauá, Jundiaí, – Railways (Avenida União dos Ferroviários) Museu Ferroviário de Bauru, Bauru Museu Ferroviário de Campinas, Campinas Museu Tecnológico Ferroviário, Santo André Bulgaria National Transport Museum, Rousse Canada Alberta Railway Museum, Edmonton, Alberta – British Columbia Aviation Museum, Sidney, British Columbia Canadian Museum of Flight, Langley, British Columbia Canadian Railway Museum, Saint-Constant, Québec Canadian Transportation Museum & Heritage Village, Essex, Ontario – Edmonton Radial Railway Society, Edmonton, Alberta Halton County Radial Railway, Rockwood, Ontario Marine Museum of the Great Lakes, Kingston, Ontario – Muskoka Marine Museum, Huntsville, Ontario – Railway Coastal Museum, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador – Reynolds-Alberta Museum, Wetaskiwin, Alberta, automobiles Saskatchewan Railway Museum, Saskatoon Saskatchewan Western Canada Aviation Museum, Winnipeg, Manitoba Winnipeg Railway Museum, Winnipeg, Manitoba China China Aviation Museum, Changping, Beijing – (200 airplanes) China Railway Museum, Beijing Shanghai Metro Museum, Shanghai Shanghai Railway Museum, Shanghai Croatia Croatian Railway Museum, Zagreb (Croatian: Hrvatski željeznički muzej) Czech Republic National Technical Museum, Prague Muzeum městské hromadné dopravy v Praze (Praha Střešovice) Železniční muzeum ČD (Lužná u Rakovníka) Železniční muzeum Zlonice Zubrnická museální železnice Muzeum těžby a dopravy vápence v Českém Krasu – Skanzen Solvayovy lomy Muzeum Pošumavských železnic Nové Údolí Muzeum koněspřežné železnice České Budějovice výtopna Jaroměř Muzeum průmyslových železnic Mladějov Prague Public Transport Museum Denmark Bornholm Automobilmuseum, Bornholm, Region Hovedstaden – Danish Railway Museum, Odense – Danish Tramway Museum, Skjoldenæsholm, near Ringsted – Dansk Veteranflysamling, Skjern, Midtsjælland – Scandinavian airplanes Vikingeskibsmuseet, Roskilde, Midtsjælland – Viking ships Estonia Estonian Railway Museum, Haapsalu Finland Finnish Railway Museum, Hyvinkää Aviation Museum of Central Finland, Tikkakoski, Central Finland Finnish Aviation Museum, Vantaa, near Helsinki's international airport Kotka Maritime Center France Cité de l'Automobile, Mulhouse : car museum Musée Français du Chemin de Fer : railway museum Musée Maurice Dufresne Musée de l'Aventure Peugeot, Sochaux, Kanton Sochaux-Grand-Charmont – Peugeot-Automobile – Musée des 24 Heures du Mans Musée de l'Air, Le Bourget : Airplane Museum Germany PS Speicher in Einbeck Museum of Ancient Seafaring in Mainz DB Museum, Nuremberg, operated by Deutsche Bahn AG — rail transport in Germany Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum in Bremerhaven — water transport Otto-Lilienthal-Museum, air transport Eisenbahnmuseum Bochum, Bochum in the suburb Dahlhausen at the river Ruhr — railway museum Eisenbahnmuseum Neustadt Neustadt (Weinstrasse) in central Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz) Auto & Technik Museum, Sinsheim, Baden-Württemberg Hannoversches Straßenbahn-Museum, Sehnde near Hannover Deutsches Museum Verkehrszentrum, Munich, Bavaria Deutsches Museum Flugwerft, Oberschleißheim, Bavaria Deutsches Dampflokomotiv-Museum Neuenmarkt-Wirsberg in northern Bavaria MVG Museum, Munich, Bavaria Schifffahrtsmuseum Flensburg in Flensburg, Schleswig-Holstein Straßenbahnmuseum Dresden, Dresden, Sachsen Verkehrsmuseum Dresden, Dresden, Sachsen Verkehrsmuseum Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt, Hesse Verein Historische Straßenbahn in Köln Greece Aegean Maritime Museum, Mykonos Andros Maritime Museum, Andros Electric Railways Museum of Piraeus Hellenic Air Force Museum, Athens Hellenic Maritime Museum, Piraeus Hellenic Motor Museum, Athens Nautical Museum of Crete, Chania Phaethon Museum of Technology (cars), Oropos Railway Museum of Athens Railway Museum of Thessaloniki Thessaly Railway Museum, Volos Hong Kong Hong Kong Railway Museum, Tai Po District, Hong Kong Hungary Hungarian Railway History Park, Budapest – Railways Budapest Transport Museum, City Park (past) , Diesel Hall - former Északi Vehicle Repair Center (future), Budapest – Urban Public Transport History Museum, Szentendre. Millenial Underground Railway Museum, Deák Ferenc Square, Budapest. India Kursura Submarine Museum, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh - Submarine Museum TU 142 Aircraft Museum, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh - Aircraft Museum Heritage Transport Museum, Gurgaon , Haryana - Transport Museum Indonesia Ambarawa Railway Museum, Ambarawa Maritime Museum, Jakarta Museum Angkut, Batu Transport Museum, Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta Ireland Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, Belfast National Maritime Museum of Ireland, Dublin – Ships National Transport Museum of Ireland, (Iarsmalann Náisiunta Iompair na hÉireann), Howth, Fingal Foynes Flying Boat Museum, Foynes – Flugboote Isle of Man Jurby Transport Museum, Jurby – Manx Electric Railway Museum, Derby Castle, Douglas – Manx Transport Museum, Peel – Port Erin Railway Museum, Port Erin Israel Israel Railway Museum, Haifa – Italy Museo Ferrari, Maranello Ducati Museum, Bologna Museo Nazionale dell'Automobile, Turin Moto Guzzi Museum, Mandello del Lario Alfa Romeo Museum, Arese Museo Piaggio Giovanni Alberto Agnelli, Pontedera - Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnologia, Milan Museo Nazionale dei Trasporti, La Spezia – Museo Ferroviario Piemontese, Savigliano, Turin Museo Europeo dei Trasporti Ogliari, Ranco, Varese - Museo Ferroviario di Trieste Campo Marzio, Trieste Museo Nazionale Ferroviario di Pietrarsa, Naples Japan Honda Collection Hall, Motegi - automobiles, motorcycles Hiroshima City Transportation Museum, Hiroshima – Tramways Matsuda Collection, Gotemba, Shizuoka - automobiles Kyoto Railway Museum, Kyoto - Railway Modern Transportation Museum, Osaka, Osaka – Railways Nagahama Railroad Square, Nagahama, Shiga Ome Railway Park, Ome, Tokyo Railway Museum, Saitama, Saitama – Railway SCMaglev and Railway Park, Nagoya - Railway Tokyo Subway Museum, Tokyo Kyushu Railway History Museum, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka Tokyo Subway Museum, Tokyo Tokyo Transportation Museum, Tokyo (Closed) Toyota Automobile Museum, Nukata District, Aichi – Automobiles (also other brands) Umekōji Steam Locomotive Museum, Kyoto – Steam locomotives Usui Pass Railway Heritage Park, Annaka, Gunma - Railways Yokohama Municipal Tramway Museum, Yokohama Kuwait Historical Vintage & Classic Cars Museum, Kuwait City - Latvia Latvian Railway History Museum, Riga – Riga Motor Museum, Riga – Lithuania Lithuanian Railway Museum, Vilnius – Luxembourg Luxembourg's tram and bus museum, Luxembourg City – Mexico Ferrocarril Interoceanico heritage railway & museum. Cuautla, Morelos – Museo de los Ferrocarriles de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Museo Nacional de los Ferrocarriles Mexicanos, Puebla, Puebla Museo Tecnológico de la Comisión Federal de Electricidad (MUTEC), Mexico City Museo del Transporte, Xalapa, Veracruz Museo del Ferrocarril de Torreón, Torreón, Coahuila Namibia Trans-Namib Railroad Museum Netherlands Aviodrome, Lelystad, Flevoland – Aviation Elekrische Museumtramlijn, Amsterdam, North Holland - Tramway DAF Museum, Eindhoven, North Brabant – Automobile Haags Openbaar Vervoer Museum, The Hague, South Holland – Streetcars/tram Nationaal Openbaar vervoer Museum NOV, Ouwsterhaule, Friesland – Railways/Busses Nationaal Bus Museum NBM, Hoogezand, Groningen – Busses Industrieel Smalspoor Museum, Erica, Drenthe - Industrial narrow gauge railway Louwman Museum - The Hague, South Holland – Automobile Marinemuseum Den Helder, Den Helder, North Holland – Ships (Koninklijke Marine) Museum Buurtspoorweg, Haaksbergen, Overijssel – Railways National Carriage Museum, Leek, Groningen (province) - Carriages Dutch Railway Museum, Utrecht (city), Utrecht (province) - – Railways Nederlands Transport Museum, Nieuw-Vennep, North Hollandair, road and rail vehicles NZH Public Transport Museum, Haarlem, North Holland - Public transport by the former NZH Museumstoomtram Hoorn-Medemblik, Hoorn, North Holland - Steamtram Stoom Stichting Nederland, Rotterdam, South Holland – Steamlocomotives Trammuseum Rotterdam, Rotterdam, South Holland - Trams Trolleybus Museum Arnhem, Arnhem, Gelderland - Trolley Busses Veluwsche Stoomtrein Maatschappij, Beekbergen, Gelderland – Railways Stoomtrein Katwijk Leiden, Valkenburg, South Holland – Narrow gauge, formerly known as Stoomtrein Valkenburgse Meer / Nationaal Smalspoormuseum New Zealand List of New Zealand railway museums and heritage lines Christchurch City Tramway Ferrymead Heritage Park, Christchurch, Foxton Trolleybus Museum, Horowhenua Museum of Transport and Technology, Auckland, National Maritime Museum, Auckland, National Transport and Toy Museum, Wanaka Otago Settlers Museum, Dunedin, Packard and Pioneer Museum, Northland, Southward Car Museum, Kapiti Coast, Wellington Tramway Museum, Kapiti Coast, [Transport World, Invercargill] Norway Old Voss Line Railway Museum, Bergen Krøderen Line Railway Museum, Krøderen – Norwegian Railway Museum, Hamar, Norwegian Aviation Museum, Bodø, Setesdal Line Railway Museum, Vennesla, Sporveismuseet Vognhall 5, Oslo – Tramway Trondheim Tramway Museum, Trondheim – Viking Ship Museum (Oslo), Oslo http://www.ukm.uio.no/vikingskipshuset/index_eng.html Pakistan PAF Museum, Karachi Pakistan Maritime Museum, Karachi Pakistan Railways Heritage Museum, near Islamabad Poland Warsaw Railway Museum, Warsaw – Railways Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, – Aviation, http://www.muzeumlotnictwa.pl/ Narrow Gauge Railway Museum in Gryfice, Gryfice, Woiwodschaft Westpommern – Railways Narrow Gauge Railway Museum in Wenecja, Wenecja, Woiwodschaft Kujawien-Pommern – Railways https://web.archive.org/web/20090321044151/http://www.paluki.pl/mzp/kolejka.php Skansen Parowozownia Kościerzyna, Kościerzyna, Pomeranian Voivodeship, – Railways Museum of city transport, Poznań Bydbus Zabytkowe Autobusy, Bydgoszcz, Woiwodschaft Kujawien-Pommern http://zabytkowe-autobusy.pl/ http://bydbus.cba.pl Portugal Carris Museum, Lisbon Museu Nacional Ferroviário, Entroncamento – Museu do Carro Eléctrico, Porto - Museu dos Transportes e Comunicações, Porto Russia Central Railway Museum, Saint Petersburg – Museum of Electrical Transport, Saint Petersburg (see in Russian) Moscow Metro Museum, Moscow – Oktyabrskaya Railway Museum, Saint Petersburg – Pereslavl Narrow Gauge Railway Museum, Pereslavl-Zalessky – Museum of Carriages and Autocars, Moscow – Vadim Zadorozhny's Technical Museum, Moscow – Museum of Retro Cars, Moscow – Museum of Urban Transport, Moscow – unofficial site Monino Air Force Museum, Moscow Museum of the Moscow Railway, Moscow Saudi Arabia Hejaz Railway Museum in Medina The Hejaz railway station at Mada'in Saleh Serbia Muzej Vazduhoplovstva, Belgrade Zeleznicki Muzej, Belgrade Singapore Land Transport Gallery, Singapore - Slovakia Museum of Transport, Bratislava – Museum of Aviation, Košice – Čierny Hron Railway heritage railway, Čierny Balog, Hronec et al. Historical Logging Switchback Railway heritage railway, Vychylovka Orava Logging Railway heritage railway, Oravská Lesná Railway Museum of Railway Depot "East", Bratislava Košice Children's Heritage Railway, Košice Museum of Transport, Rajecké Teplice Museum of Vintage Automobiles, Mlynica (defunct, moved) Exhibit of Vintage Automobiles, Kežmarok Museum, Kežmarok (moved from Mlynica) Classic Car Museum, Piešťany 1st Slovak Private Transport Museum in Prešov, Prešov-Šarišské Lúky (private collections, open on demand) Slovenia Slovenian Railway Museum, Ljubljana South Africa James Hall museum of Transport, Johannesburg Franschhoek Motor Museum, Franschhoek - Spain Torre Loizaga, Biscay Sweden Nynäshamns Järnvägsmuseum, Nynäshamn – Nässjö Järnvägsmuseum, Nässjö – Spårvägsmuseet, Stockholm – Sveriges Järnvägsmuseum, Gävle – Marcus Wallenberg-hallen (Scania) Bothnia Railway Museum, Luleå - Switzerland Heritage Railway Blonay-Chamby, Blonay, Waadt; Heritage Railway including a museum Bahnmuseum Kerzers/Kallnach, Kerzers, FR und Kallnach, BE; Railways EUROVAPOR (Railway Society) Fliegermuseum Dübendorf, Dübendorf, ZH, – Aviation Swiss Museum of Transport, Lucerne; Large Museum exhibiting all forms of transport. Zürich Tram Museum, Zürich Taiwan Chung Cheng Aviation Museum, Taoyuan City Evergreen Maritime Museum, Taipei City Kaohsiung Harbor Museum, Kaohsiung City Miaoli Railway Museum, Miaoli County Takao Railway Museum, Kaohsiung City Tamkang University Maritime Museum, New Taipei City Wulai Tram Museum, New Taipei City Turkey Rahmi M. Koç Museum, Istanbul Ural Ataman Classic Car Museum, Istanbul Key Museum, İzmir United Arab Emirates Emirates National Auto Museum, Abu Dhabi United Kingdom List of British railway museums England Amberley Museum & Heritage Centre, West Sussex – Motor buses, industrial narrow-gauge railways, road making Beamish Museum, Durham – Locomotives, trams, trolleys, motor buses Bentley Wildfowl and Motor Museum, Halland, East Sussex - Automobiles and motorcycles Black Country Living Museum, Dudley, West Midlands – trams and motor buses British Motor Museum, Gaydon, Warwickshire - Cars Brooklands, Weybridge, Surrey – Automobiles, aircraft Bury Transport Museum, Bury, Greater Manchester - Road vehicles, railway equipment, maps and signs C. M. Booth Collection of Historic Vehicles, Rolvenden, Kent - Pre-war automobiles and motorcycles Coventry Transport Museum, Coventry – Automobiles Cotswold Motoring Museum and Toy Collection, Bourton on the Water, Gloucestershire – Automobiles and nostalgia Dewsbury Bus Museum, West Yorkshire - Motor buses and coaches - Home of two Guy Wulfrunian buses Donington Grand Prix Collection, Leicestershire – Motor Racing Cars East Anglia Transport Museum, Suffolk – Trams, Trolleys, Motor Buses Electric Railway Museum, Warwickshire – Electric Rail Traction, Ensignbus transport museum, Essex – Motor Buses Fleet Air Arm Museum, Yeovilton, Somerset – Air Planes Greater Manchester's Museum of Transport, Manchester – Buses, Haynes Motor Museum, Sparkford, Somerset – Automobiles, Motorcycles Heritage Motor Centre, Gaydon, Warwickshire – Automobiles Hopetown Carriage Works, Darlington, Durham Imperial War Museum Duxford Airfield, near Cambridge – Civilian and Military Planes, Tanks Ingrow Railway Centre, Keighley, West Yorkshire – Steam Locomotives Ipswich Transport Museum – Trams, Trolleys, Motor Buses London Bus Museum, Weybridge - London buses London Canal Museum, London – Canal London Motor Museum, Hayes, Hillingdon - Custom and American automobiles London Motorcycle Museum – Motorcycles London Transport Museum, London – Rail Rolling Stock, Trams, Trolleys, Motor buses Midland Air Museum, near Coventry, Warwickshire. – Airplanes Museum of Transport in Manchester – Buses, (Trolleys), some train ephemera. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich and Falmouth – Maritime National Motor Museum, Beaulieu, Hampshire – Cars, Motorcycles National Motorcycle Museum, Solihull, West Midlands National Railway Museum, York – Locomotives, carriages, wagons and all related railway equipment National Tramway Museum, near Matlock, Derbyshire – Trams National Waterways Museum, Gloucester – Inland waterways collection Newark Air Museum, Nottinghamshire – Airplanes North West Museum of Road Transport, St Helens - Buses, Cars, Fire Engines, Trucks and Trams. North East Land, Sea and Air Museums, Sunderland - Aircraft, Trams, Buses, Fire Appliances and military vehicles. Nottingham Transport Heritage Centre, Nottinghamshire, – mainly railways, buses, cars Oxford Bus Museum, Long Hanborough – Buses Royal Air Force Museum, Hendon, London – Airplanes Royal Air Force Museum, Cosford, Shropshire – Airplanes Sammy Miller Motorcycle Museum, New Milton, Hampshire - Motorcycles Shildon Locomotion Museum, Durham – Locomotives, carriages, wagons and all related railway equipment Shuttleworth Collection, Old Warden, Bedfordshire – Pre-war automobiles, motorcycles and airplanes Solent Sky, Southampton, Hampshire – Aircraft Southampton Maritime Museum, Southampton, Hampshire – Maritime Streetlife Museum, Kingston upon Hull – Bicycles, carriages, cars, railway and Streetscene Swindon Steam Railway Museum – Railway The Transport Museum, Wythall, Worcestershire – Buses and electric cars Trolleybus Museum at Sandtoft, Lincolnshire – Trolleys Whitewebbs Museum of Transport, Enfield, London – Cars, trucks, fire engines, motorcycles, memorabilia, etc. Yorkshire Air Museum – Aircraft Northern Ireland Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, Belfast – all kinds of transport Scotland Glasgow Museum of Transport (now closed) Museum of Flight, East Lothian Aerospace Riverside Museum, Glasgow (the city's new transport museum, opened in 2011) Grampian Transport Museum, Aberdeenshire Dundee Museum of Transport, Dundee Scottish Vintage Bus Museum, Lathalmond, Fife Wales Pembrokeshire Motor Museum – cars Pendine Museum of Speed – cars Swansea Bus Museum - buses United States Alabama Barber Vintage Motorsports Museum, Leeds, Alabama Heart of Dixie Railroad Museum, Calera, Alabama Huntsville Depot, Huntsville, Alabama North Alabama Railroad Museum, Huntsville, Alabama US Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama Alaska White Pass and Yukon Route from Skagway, Alaska to Whitehorse, Yukon Arizona Arizona Street Railway Museum, Phoenix, Arizona Southern Arizona Transportation Museum, Tucson, Arizona California Aerospace Museum of California, McClellan Air Force Base, northeast of Sacramento, California Cable Car Museum, San Francisco, California California Automobile Museum, Sacramento, California California State Railroad Museum, Sacramento, California (located in Old Sacramento) Golden Gate Railroad Museum, formerly San Francisco, California – relocated to Niles Canyon Railway in Sunol, California Hiller Aviation Museum, San Carlos, California Oakland Aviation Museum, Oakland, California Pacific Bus Museum, Fremont, California Pacific Coast Air Museum, Santa Rosa, California Petersen Automotive Museum, Los Angeles, California San Diego Air & Space Museum, San Diego, California San Diego Model Railroad Museum, San Diego, California San Francisco Maritime Museum, San Francisco, California San Francisco Railway Museum, San Francisco, California South Coast Railroad Museum, Goleta, California Southern California Railway Museum, Perris, California Travel Town Museum, Los Angeles, California Western Pacific Railroad Museum, Portola, California Western Railway Museum, Rio Vista, California Colorado Colorado Railroad Museum, Golden, Colorado Durango and Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad, Durango, Colorado Forney Transportation Museum, Denver, Colorado Golden Oldy Cyclery, The Sustainable Museum of Sustainable Transportation, Golden, Colorado, pre-1900 bicycles and tricycles & 21st century electric cars in a carbon negative museum. Connecticut Connecticut Trolley Museum, East Windsor, Connecticut Shore Line Trolley Museum, East Haven, Connecticut District of Columbia National Air and Space Museum (Smithsonian), Washington, D.C. Florida Gold Coast Railroad Museum, Florida National Naval Aviation Museum, formerly known as the National Museum of Naval Aviation and the Naval Aviation Museum, Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. Tallahassee Automobile Museum, Tallahassee, Florida Tampa Bay Automobile Museum, Pinellas Park, Florida Georgia Delta Heritage Museum, Atlanta, Georgia Southeastern Railway Museum, Atlanta, Georgia Illinois Illinois Railway Museum, Union, Illinois Monticello Railway Museum, Monticello, Illinois Volo Auto Museum, Volo, Illinois Indiana Auburn Cord Duesenberg Museum, Auburn, Indiana Grissom Air Museum, Grissom Air Reserve Base, Peru, Indiana Indiana Aviation Museum, Valparaiso, Indiana Indiana Railway Museum, French Lick, Indiana Indiana Transportation Museum, Noblesville, Indiana Iowa Iowa Transportation Museum, Grinnell, Iowa Kansas Carona Train Museum, Carona, Kansas Great Plains Transportation Museum, Wichita, Kansas Midland Railway, Baldwin City, Kansas Kentucky Kentucky Railway Museum, New Haven, Kentucky National Corvette Museum, Bowling Green, Kentucky Maine Owls Head Transportation Museum, Owls Head, Maine Seashore Trolley Museum, Kennebunkport, Maine Maryland B&O Railroad Museum, Baltimore, Maryland, located at Mount Clare Station, the birthplace of American railroading. Baltimore Streetcar Museum, Baltimore, Maryland. Located on Falls Road on the old MD & PA right of way. Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park from Georgetown, Washington, D.C. to Cumberland, Maryland National Capital Trolley Museum, Montgomery County, Maryland Massachusetts American Heritage Museum, Stow, Massachusetts Edaville Railroad, South Carver, Massachusetts National Streetcar Museum, Lowell, Massachusetts Shelburne Falls Trolley Museum, Shelburne Falls, Massachusetts Michigan Air Zoo, Portage, Michigan Automotive Hall of Fame, Dearborn, Michigan Ford Piquette Avenue Plant, Detroit, Michigan. Birthplace of the Ford Model T and the oldest car factory building on Earth open to the general public (built 1904). Gilmore Car Museum, Hickory Corners, Michigan Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan R.E. Olds Transportation Museum, Lansing, Michigan Walter P. Chrysler Museum, Auburn Hills, Michigan Yankee Air Museum, Belleville, Michigan Minnesota Bandana Square, Saint Paul, Minnesota, home of Twin Cities Model Railroad Club and old Northern Pacific Como shops. Minnesota Transportation Museum, Saint Paul, Minnesota Missouri Museum of Transportation, St. Louis, Missouri Montana Montana Auto Museum, Deer Lodge, Montana Nevada Nevada Northern Railway Museum, Ely, Nevada New Hampshire Conway Scenic Railroad, North Conway, New Hampshire New York Brooklyn Trolley Museum, Brooklyn, New York Champlain Valley Transportation Museum, Plattsburgh, New York New York Transit Museum, Brooklyn, New York Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome, Rhinebeck, New York Railroad Museum of the Niagara Frontier, North Tonawanda, New York Trolley Museum of New York, Kingston, New York North Carolina North Carolina Transportation Museum, Spencer, North Carolina Ohio National Museum of the United States Air Force, formerly the US Air Force Museum, in Dayton, Ohio Ohio Railway Museum, Worthington, Ohio Oklahoma Oklahoma Railway Museum, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Stafford Air & Space Museum, Weatherford, Oklahoma Oregon Columbia River Maritime Museum, Astoria, Oregon Evergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon – Aviation,. Hughes H-4, Boeing B-17 und Supermarine Spitfire Oregon Electric Railway Museum, Brooks, Oregon Pennsylvania American Helicopter Museum and Education Center, West Chester, Pennsylvania Bicycle Heaven, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Museum of Bus Transportation, Hershey, Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Trolley Museum, Washington, Pennsylvania Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania Steamtown National Historic Site, Scranton, Pennsylvania Rhode Island Herreshoff Marine Museum, Bristol, Rhode Island South Carolina Transportation Museum of the World featuring the Miniature World of Trains, Greenville, South Carolina Tennessee Memphis Railroad and Trolley Museum, Memphis, Tennessee Tennessee Central Railway Museum, Nashville, Tennessee Tennessee Valley Railroad Museum, Chattanooga, Tennessee Texas American Airpower Heritage Museum, Midland, Texas Texas Museum of Automotive History, Dallas, Texas Texas Transportation Museum, San Antonio, Texas Utah Golden Spike National Historic Site, Promontory Summit, Utah. Location of the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad on May 10, 1869. Virginia Commonwealth Coach & Trolley Museum, Roanoke, Virginia Mariners' Museum, Newport News, Virginia Norfolk Southern Museum, Norfolk, Virginia Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center (Part of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum), Fairfax County, Virginia – Airplanes (Boeing B-29 Enola Gay) and Space Shuttle Enterprise Virginia Museum of Transportation, Roanoke, Virginia Washington America's Car Museum, Tacoma, Washington Flying Heritage Collection, Everett, Washington Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington Naval Undersea Museum, Keyport, Washington – U-Boote Northwest Railway Museum, Snoqualmie, Washington Wisconsin East Troy Electric Railroad Museum, Wisconsin Harley-Davidson Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsin National Railroad Museum, Green Bay, Wisconsin Wyoming Wyoming Transportation Museum, Cheyenne, Wyoming Vatican City Padiglione delle Carozze (Museo Storico, Vatican Museums) Venezuela Guillermo José Schael Transport Museum, Caracas, Venezuela See also List of aerospace museums List of automobile museums List of heritage railways List of museum ships List of railway museums List of British railway museums List of New Zealand railway museums and heritage lines References External links MEXLIST List of Mexican rail and transport museums Transport Museums

263634

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaitupu

Vaitupu

Vaitupu is the largest atoll of the nation of Tuvalu. It is located at 7.48 degrees south and 178.83 degrees west. There are 1,061 people (2017 Census) living on with the main village being Asau. Geography The island, which covers approximately , includes swamps, mangroves, a fringing coral reef, and a large lagoon. Vaitupu atoll consists of at least nine isles: Luasamotu Mosana (group of 2) Motutanifa Temotu Te Motu Olepa Tofia Vaitupu proper and at least one other islet The biggest island is Vaitupu proper, followed by Tofia. In the 2012 census, the population of the villages of Vaitupu were: Apalolo - Saniuta: 263 Tumaseu: 248 Potufale: 230 Asau: 198 In the same census, 502 people were recorded as being at Motufoua Secondary School. On 30 January and 1 February 1990, Cyclone Ofa had a major impact on Vaitupu, with around 85 percent of residential homes, trees and food crops being destroyed. In the 2011 Tuvalu drought, Vaitupu experienced the loss of coconut palm trees, pulaka and taro due to the high temperatures and arid soil. In March 2015, storm surges resulting from Cyclone Pam caused damage to houses, crops and infrastructure. History The exact date of Vaitupu's first settlement is unknown. According to oral history, the founder of the Vaitupuan community was a Samoan by the name of Telematua, who arrived in the 16th or 17th century. However, it is possible that Tongans may have first reached the atoll during the mid-13th century. Vaitupu has maintained contacts with Tonga throughout its history, both peaceful (alliances through marriage) and hostile (visits by Tongan slave-seekers). Vaitupu was also visited by I-Kiribati, and was thus far from isolated. Vaitupu means 'the fountain of water'. Despite what earlier sources on the discovery of Vaitupu state, namely that Obed Starbuck, captain of whaler Loper of Nantucket, had sighted this island in 1825, it wasn't until 26 April 1826, that he in fact would. William Plaskett, captain of the Nantucket whaler Independence II, called at Vaitupu on 21 August 1827. In view of Starbuck's earlier sighting of the island, the log entry by Plaskett for the day that he rediscovered it may appear somewhat remarkable: “[...] At daylight found it to be a small low island about 6 miles long. [...] Having one native and an interpreter on board who we brought from Rotumah, who formerly belonged to one of the islands about here and who understood their language we learned that they had never seen a ship before. The natives name of this island is voytopu. It is not laid down on the books or charts so we call it a new discovery. Lat.7°-25 [south] Longitude 178°-78 East". It was named 'Tracy Island' by Starbuck. The United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes visited Vaitupu in 1841. Samoan pastors from the London Missionary Society successfully introduced Christianity in the 1860s. The pastors implemented religious regulations, outlawing many cultural practices. They also introduced the Samoan language, as their Bibles were written in Samoan. Vaitupuans became literate in Samoan rather than in their own language. Vaitupuans celebrate Te Aso Fiafia (Happy Day) on 25 November of each year. Te Aso Fiafia commemorates 25 November 1887 which was the date on which the final instalment of a debt of $13,000 was repaid to H. M. Ruge and Company, a German trading firm that operated from Apia, Samoa. Vaitupu history is that Thomas William Williams, the Ruge agent, pretended to do his customers a favour by allowing them to obtain goods on credit. In 1883 the debt of the Vaitupuans was $13,000 and H. M. Ruge and Company had threatened to seize the entire island unless the debt was repaid. Neemia, a Vaitupuan pastor living in Samoa, returned and organised working parties to collect coconuts and prepare copra to sell to pay off the debt, with Henry Nitz, the Webber & Co agent on Vaitupu, contributing money to meet the final payment. The Vaitupuans, with the help of their friends from Funafuti, repaid the debt by the due date. Seven thousand dollars was repaid by 1886 and the balance was paid on 25 November 1887. Vaitupuan tradition is that chance favoured their efforts, a ship sent to collect the last payment sank, as did the second ship the trading schooner Vaitupulemele. By the time a third ship arrived most of the money had been collected. However, the trading schooner Vaitupulemele appears to have a different role in the history of Vaitupu. The creation of the debt that was repaid to Ruge & Co extended beyond the purchase of goods on credit to include the purchase price of the Vaitupulemele by the Vaitupu Company. While T.M. Williams had been the Ruge agent, he later formed the Vaitupu Company with the Vaitupuan community and purchased the Vaitupulemele from Ruge & Co. However the schooner was lost during a voyage from Samoan and soon after Williams died, leaving no accounting for copra that had been shipped from Vaitupu. In any event the Vaitupuans paid the full amount claimed by Ruge & Co, although that company soon after went into liquidation. Vaitupu Post Office opened around 1916. Donald Gilbert Kennedy, the resident District Officer in the administration of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony from 1932 to 1938, describe the construction of paopao and of the variations of single-outrigger canoes that had been developed on Vaitupu and Nanumea. Population of Vaitupu The population of Vaitupu from 1860 to 1900 is estimated to be 400 people. Vaitupu is home to the second-largest population in Tuvalu, numbering 1,576 (2002 Census) and 1,555 (2012 census). Despite its relatively large size, Vaitupu became so overcrowded during the 1940s that a number of families migrated to Fiji to live on Kioa Island. Neli Lifuka was the magistrate on Vaitupu from 1945 to 1951. He was instrumental in collecting the funds to purchase Kioa Island in Fiji. Initially 37 people migrated from Vaitupu to live on Kioa Island; within a decade, more than 235 people followed. Schools on Vaitupu The primary school on Vaitupu is called Tolise, which was established in 1953. A secondary school called Elisefou (New Ellice), opened in 1923 and closed in 1953 when the boys were transferred to King George V School on South Tawara. The first headmaster of Elisefou was Donald Gilbert Kennedy, who was a strict disciplinarian who would not hesitate to beat his students. The two most famous Tuvaluans from the school were Tuvalu's first Governor General, Sir Fiatau Penitala Teo and its first Prime Minister, Toaripi Lauti. Kennedy published Field Notes on the Culture of Vaitupu, Ellice Islands in the Journal of the Polynesian Society in instalments between 1929 and 1932 and as a book in 1931. Motufoua Secondary School was established in 1905 by the London Missionary Society. Over time the school has evolved and it is now a boarding school for boys and girls that is administered by the Department of Education. In 2009 the student roll at Motufoua Secondary School was 550. Vaitupu received worldwide attention in 2000, when a fire in a dormitory at the Motufoua school killed 18 girls and a female adult supervisor. It was later discovered that the fire was caused by a student using a candle to read during the night. The Prime Minister Ionatana Ionatana declared a national tragedy and quickly travelled to the island to witness the aftermath. A memorial service was held the following year in memory of the 18 girls and their matron who tragically lost their lives. Tuvaluan leaders as well as parents of the victims attended the memorial service. Power generation with solar-hybrid systems In 2010 what was then described as the largest diesel-solar photovoltaic (PV) hybrid electricity system in the South Pacific was installed at Motufoua Secondary School. Prior to the instalment of the system the school relied upon a diesel powered generator, which needed to be turned off during the night. The hybrid system systems saves thousands of dollars in diesel costs and provides the school with a 24-hour supply of energy, with up to 200 kWh per day. In 2014 New Zealand and the European Union agreed to provide finance to the Government of Tuvalu to install battery-backed solar photovoltaic (PV) systems for the outer islands. From January to March 2015 Powersmart, a New Zealand company, implemented German solar power technology to build the new Vaitupu powerhouse. Community activities The only village on Vaitupu consists of the neighbourhoods Tumaseu and Asau. There is a church, Tolise Primary School, at least one guesthouse and a post office. An aquaculture project has been established in the lagoon. The community activities on Vaitupu include the Nafa Moa and Talo (Taro crops and chickens competition). In this contest the community is divided into two rival teams. Members of each team compete for who can grow the heavier taro or larger chickens; the climax comes with the weigh-off between the competitors, concluding a day of good-natured rivalry and fun. Transportation and tourism There is a wharf on Vaitupu but no harbour, meaning passengers must board a smaller boat from the inter-island passenger/cargo ships to get to the Vaitupu. There are paths and small unpaved roads throughout the island. Only a few cars drive on Vaitupu. In the main village there is a guest house called Vivalia III located at the wharf near the main church. General election, 2019 The 2019 general election was held on 9 September 2019. Isaia Taape was returned to the parliament and Nielu Isake was elected to represent Vaitupu in the parliament. Notable local persons Reverend Sir Filoimea Telito, GCMG, MBE, (19 March 1945 – 11 July 2011) as a young man became a teacher at Motufoua Secondary School. After completing theological studies, he returned to Motufoua to serve as Pastor. Later he became Principal of Motufoua, then in April 2005 he was appointed to be the Governor-General of Tuvalu. Sir Tomasi Puapua, GCMG, KBE, PC represented Vaitupu in the Parliament of Tuvalu. He was the second Prime Minister (1981–1989). Puapua later served as Governor-General of Tuvalu (1998–2003). Apisai Ielemia (19 August 1955 – 19 November 2018) represented Vaitupu in the Parliament of Tuvalu. He served as Prime Minister of Tuvalu (2006–2010). Taukelina Finikaso represents Vaitupu in the parliament. He served as Minister of Communications and Works (2006–2010) and served as the Foreign Minister in the Sopoaga Ministry (2013-2019). Further reading Kennedy, Donald Gilbert, 'Field notes on the culture of Vaitupu, Ellice Islands' (1931): Thomas Avery & Sons, New Plymouth, N.Z. See also List of villages and neighbourhoods in Tuvalu List of islands of Tuvalu References Atolls of Tuvalu

263636

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism

Connectionism

Connectionism is an approach in the field of cognitive science that hopes to explain mental phenomena using artificial neural networks (ANN). Connectionism presents a cognitive theory based on simultaneously occurring, distributed signal activity via connections that can be represented numerically, where learning occurs by modifying connection strengths based on experience. Some advantages of the connectionist approach include its applicability to a broad array of functions, structural approximation to biological neurons, low requirements for innate structure, and capacity for graceful degradation. Some disadvantages include the difficulty in deciphering how ANNs process information, or account for the compositionality of mental representations, and a resultant difficulty explaining phenomena at a higher level. The success of deep learning networks in the past decade has greatly increased the popularity of this approach, but the complexity and scale of such networks has brought with them increased interpretability problems. Connectionism is seen by many to offer an alternative to classical theories of mind based on symbolic computation, but the extent to which the two approaches are compatible has been the subject of much debate since their inception. Basic principles The central connectionist principle is that mental phenomena can be described by interconnected networks of simple and often uniform units. The form of the connections and the units can vary from model to model. For example, units in the network could represent neurons and the connections could represent synapses, as in the human brain. Spreading activation In most connectionist models, networks change over time. A closely related and very common aspect of connectionist models is activation. At any time, a unit in the network has an activation, which is a numerical value intended to represent some aspect of the unit. For example, if the units in the model are neurons, the activation could represent the probability that the neuron would generate an action potential spike. Activation typically spreads to all the other units connected to it. Spreading activation is always a feature of neural network models, and it is very common in connectionist models used by cognitive psychologists. Neural networks Neural networks are by far the most commonly used connectionist model today. Though there are a large variety of neural network models, they almost always follow two basic principles regarding the mind: Any mental state can be described as an (N)-dimensional vector of numeric activation values over neural units in a network. Memory is created by modifying the strength of the connections between neural units. The connection strengths, or "weights", are generally represented as an N×M matrix. Most of the variety among neural network models comes from: Interpretation of units: Units can be interpreted as neurons or groups of neurons. Definition of activation: Activation can be defined in a variety of ways. For example, in a Boltzmann machine, the activation is interpreted as the probability of generating an action potential spike, and is determined via a logistic function on the sum of the inputs to a unit. Learning algorithm: Different networks modify their connections differently. In general, any mathematically defined change in connection weights over time is referred to as the "learning algorithm". Connectionists are in agreement that recurrent neural networks (directed networks wherein connections of the network can form a directed cycle) are a better model of the brain than feedforward neural networks (directed networks with no cycles, called DAG). Many recurrent connectionist models also incorporate dynamical systems theory. Many researchers, such as the connectionist Paul Smolensky, have argued that connectionist models will evolve toward fully continuous, high-dimensional, non-linear, dynamic systems approaches. Biological realism Connectionist work in general does not need to be biologically realistic and therefore suffers from a lack of neuroscientific plausibility. However, the structure of neural networks is derived from that of biological neurons, and this parallel in low-level structure is often argued to be an advantage of connectionism in modeling cognitive structures compared with other approaches. One area where connectionist models are thought to be biologically implausible is with respect to error-propagation networks that are needed to support learning, but error propagation can explain some of the biologically-generated electrical activity seen at the scalp in event-related potentials such as the N400 and P600, and this provides some biological support for one of the key assumptions of connectionist learning procedures. Learning The weights in a neural network are adjusted according to some learning rule or algorithm, such as Hebbian learning. Thus, connectionists have created many sophisticated learning procedures for neural networks. Learning always involves modifying the connection weights. In general, these involve mathematical formulas to determine the change in weights when given sets of data consisting of activation vectors for some subset of the neural units. Several studies have been focused on designing teaching-learning methods based on connectionism. By formalizing learning in such a way, connectionists have many tools. A very common strategy in connectionist learning methods is to incorporate gradient descent over an error surface in a space defined by the weight matrix. All gradient descent learning in connectionist models involves changing each weight by the partial derivative of the error surface with respect to the weight. Backpropagation (BP), first made popular in the 1980s, is probably the most commonly known connectionist gradient descent algorithm today. Connectionism can be traced to ideas more than a century old, which were little more than speculation until the mid-to-late 20th century. Parallel distributed processing The prevailing connectionist approach today was originally known as parallel distributed processing (PDP). It was an artificial neural network approach that stressed the parallel nature of neural processing, and the distributed nature of neural representations. It provided a general mathematical framework for researchers to operate in. The framework involved eight major aspects: A set of processing units, represented by a set of integers. An activation for each unit, represented by a vector of time-dependent functions. An output function for each unit, represented by a vector of functions on the activations. A pattern of connectivity among units, represented by a matrix of real numbers indicating connection strength. A propagation rule spreading the activations via the connections, represented by a function on the output of the units. An activation rule for combining inputs to a unit to determine its new activation, represented by a function on the current activation and propagation. A learning rule for modifying connections based on experience, represented by a change in the weights based on any number of variables. An environment that provides the system with experience, represented by sets of activation vectors for some subset of the units. A lot of the research that led to the development of PDP was done in the 1970s, but PDP became popular in the 1980s with the release of the books Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition - Volume 1 (foundations) and Volume 2 (Psychological and Biological Models), by James L. McClelland, David E. Rumelhart and the PDP Research Group. The books are now considered seminal connectionist works, and it is now common to fully equate PDP and connectionism, although the term "connectionism" is not used in the books. Following the PDP model, researchers have theorized systems based on the principles of perpendicular distributed processing (PDP). Earlier work PDP's direct roots were the perceptron theories of researchers such as Frank Rosenblatt from the 1950s and 1960s. But perceptron models were made very unpopular by the book Perceptrons by Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert, published in 1969. It demonstrated the limits on the sorts of functions that single-layered (no hidden layer) perceptrons can calculate, showing that even simple functions like the exclusive disjunction (XOR) could not be handled properly. The PDP books overcame this limitation by showing that multi-level, non-linear neural networks were far more robust and could be used for a vast array of functions. Many earlier researchers advocated connectionist style models, for example in the 1940s and 1950s, Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts (MP neuron), Donald Olding Hebb, and Karl Lashley. McCulloch and Pitts showed how neural systems could implement first-order logic: Their classic paper "A Logical Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943) is important in this development here. They were influenced by the important work of Nicolas Rashevsky in the 1930s. Hebb contributed greatly to speculations about neural functioning, and proposed a learning principle, Hebbian learning, that is still used today. Lashley argued for distributed representations as a result of his failure to find anything like a localized engram in years of lesion experiments. Connectionism apart from PDP Though PDP is the dominant form of connectionism, other theoretical work should also be classified as connectionist. Many connectionist principles can be traced to early work in psychology, such as that of William James. Psychological theories based on knowledge about the human brain were fashionable in the late 19th century. As early as 1869, the neurologist John Hughlings Jackson argued for multi-level, distributed systems. Following from this lead, Herbert Spencer's Principles of Psychology, 3rd edition (1872), and Sigmund Freud's Project for a Scientific Psychology (composed 1895) propounded connectionist or proto-connectionist theories. These tended to be speculative theories. But by the early 20th century, Edward Thorndike was experimenting on learning that posited a connectionist type network. Friedrich Hayek independently conceived the Hebbian synapse learning model in a paper presented in 1920 and developed that model into global brain theory constituted of networks Hebbian synapses building into larger systems of maps and memory network . Hayek's breakthrough work was cited by Frank Rosenblatt in his perceptron paper. Another form of connectionist model was the relational network framework developed by the linguist Sydney Lamb in the 1960s. Relational networks have been only used by linguists, and were never unified with the PDP approach. As a result, they are now used by very few researchers. There are also hybrid connectionist models, mostly mixing symbolic representations with neural network models. The hybrid approach has been advocated by some researchers (such as Ron Sun). Connectionism vs. computationalism debate As connectionism became increasingly popular in the late 1980s, some researchers (including Jerry Fodor, Steven Pinker and others) reacted against it. They argued that connectionism, as then developing, threatened to obliterate what they saw as the progress being made in the fields of cognitive science and psychology by the classical approach of computationalism. Computationalism is a specific form of cognitivism that argues that mental activity is computational, that is, that the mind operates by performing purely formal operations on symbols, like a Turing machine. Some researchers argued that the trend in connectionism represented a reversion toward associationism and the abandonment of the idea of a language of thought, something they saw as mistaken. In contrast, those very tendencies made connectionism attractive for other researchers. Connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds, but the debate in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to opposition between the two approaches. Throughout the debate, some researchers have argued that connectionism and computationalism are fully compatible, though full consensus on this issue has not been reached. Differences between the two approaches include the following: Computationalists posit symbolic models that are structurally similar to underlying brain structure, whereas connectionists engage in "low-level" modeling, trying to ensure that their models resemble neurological structures. Computationalists in general focus on the structure of explicit symbols (mental models) and syntactical rules for their internal manipulation, whereas connectionists focus on learning from environmental stimuli and storing this information in a form of connections between neurons. Computationalists believe that internal mental activity consists of manipulation of explicit symbols, whereas connectionists believe that the manipulation of explicit symbols provides a poor model of mental activity. Computationalists often posit domain specific symbolic sub-systems designed to support learning in specific areas of cognition (e.g., language, intentionality, number), whereas connectionists posit one or a small set of very general learning-mechanisms. Despite these differences, some theorists have proposed that the connectionist architecture is simply the manner in which organic brains happen to implement the symbol-manipulation system. This is logically possible, as it is well known that connectionist models can implement symbol-manipulation systems of the kind used in computationalist models, as indeed they must be able if they are to explain the human ability to perform symbol-manipulation tasks. Several cognitive models combining both symbol-manipulative and connectionist architectures have been proposed, notably among them Paul Smolensky's Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic Cognitive Architecture (ICS). But the debate rests on whether this symbol manipulation forms the foundation of cognition in general, so this is not a potential vindication of computationalism. Nonetheless, computational descriptions may be helpful high-level descriptions of cognition of logic, for example. The debate was largely centred on logical arguments about whether connectionist networks could produce the syntactic structure observed in this sort of reasoning. This was later achieved although using fast-variable binding abilities outside of those standardly assumed in connectionist models. Part of the appeal of computational descriptions is that they are relatively easy to interpret, and thus may be seen as contributing to our understanding of particular mental processes, whereas connectionist models are in general more opaque, to the extent that they may be describable only in very general terms (such as specifying the learning algorithm, the number of units, etc.), or in unhelpfully low-level terms. In this sense connectionist models may instantiate, and thereby provide evidence for, a broad theory of cognition (i.e., connectionism), without representing a helpful theory of the particular process that is being modelled. In this sense the debate might be considered as to some extent reflecting a mere difference in the level of analysis in which particular theories are framed. Some researchers suggest that the analysis gap is the consequence of connectionist mechanisms giving rise to emergent phenomena that may be describable in computational terms. The recent popularity of dynamical systems in philosophy of mind have added a new perspective on the debate; some authors now argue that any split between connectionism and computationalism is more conclusively characterized as a split between computationalism and dynamical systems. In 2014, Alex Graves and others from DeepMind published a series of papers describing a novel Deep Neural Network structure called the Neural Turing Machine able to read symbols on a tape and store symbols in memory. Relational Networks, another Deep Network module published by DeepMind, are able to create object-like representations and manipulate them to answer complex questions. Relational Networks and Neural Turing Machines are further evidence that connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds. See also Associationism Artificial intelligence Behaviorism Catastrophic interference Calculus of relations Cybernetics Eliminative materialism Feature integration theory Harmonic grammar Machine learning Pandemonium architecture Self-organizing map Notes References Rumelhart, D.E., J.L. McClelland and the PDP Research Group (1986). Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. Volume 1: Foundations, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, McClelland, J.L., D.E. Rumelhart and the PDP Research Group (1986). Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. Volume 2: Psychological and Biological Models, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, Pinker, Steven and Mehler, Jacques (1988). Connections and Symbols, Cambridge MA: MIT Press, Jeffrey L. Elman, Elizabeth A. Bates, Mark H. Johnson, Annette Karmiloff-Smith, Domenico Parisi, Kim Plunkett (1996). Rethinking Innateness: A connectionist perspective on development, Cambridge MA: MIT Press, Marcus, Gary F. (2001). The Algebraic Mind: Integrating Connectionism and Cognitive Science (Learning, Development, and Conceptual Change), Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, External links Dictionary of Philosophy of Mind entry on connectionism A demonstration of Interactive Activation and Competition Networks Critique of connectionism Cognitive science Computational neuroscience Theory of mind Learning Philosophy of artificial intelligence Emergence

263637

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando%20International%20Airport

Orlando International Airport

Orlando International Airport is a major public airport located 6 miles (10 km) southeast of Downtown Orlando, Florida. In 2019, it handled 50,613,072 passengers, making it the busiest airport in the state and tenth busiest airport in the United States. The airport code MCO stands for the airport's former name, McCoy Air Force Base, a Strategic Air Command (SAC) installation, that was closed in 1975 as part of a general military drawdown following the end of the Vietnam War. The airport serves as a hub for Silver Airways, an operating base for JetBlue, Southwest Airlines and Spirit Airlines, as well as a focus city for Frontier Airlines. Southwest is the airport's largest carrier by passengers carried. The airport is also a major international gateway for the mid-Florida region, with over 850 daily flights on 44 airlines. The airport also serves 135 domestic and international destinations. At , MCO is one of the largest commercial airports in terms of land area in the United States. In addition, the airport is home to a maintenance base for United Airlines. The airport was also a hub for Delta Air Lines until 2007. History Military years The airfield was originally constructed as a U.S. Army Air Forces facility and military operations began in 1942 as Orlando Army Air Field #2, an auxiliary airfield to Orlando Army Air Base, now known as Orlando Executive Airport. Orlando Army Air Field #2 was renamed Pinecastle Army Airfield in January 1943. At the end of World War II, Pinecastle was briefly used for unpowered glide tests of the Bell X-1 from B-29 aircraft before the program moved to Muroc Army Airfield in California– now Edwards AFB – for the world's first supersonic flight. With the establishment of an independent U.S. Air Force in 1947, the airfield was briefly placed in caretaker status, until being reactivated during the Korean War as a Strategic Air Command (SAC) facility for B-47 Stratojets and KC-97 Stratofreighters and renamed Pinecastle AFB. In the 1950s, the base began hosting SAC's annual Bombing and Navigation Competition. A B-47 Stratojet crashed during the 1958 competition, killing Colonel Michael Norman Wright McCoy, commander of the 321st Bombardment Wing, which was the host wing for Pinecastle AFB. The following year the base was renamed for McCoy. The base later was home to the 306th Bombardment Wing operating the B-52 Stratofortress and the KC-135 Stratotanker. It was also used by EC-121 Warning Star early warning aircraft of the 966th Airborne Early Warning and Control Squadron, a tenant unit at McCoy assigned to the Aerospace Defense Command. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, McCoy AFB became a temporary forward operating base for more than 120 F-100 Super Sabre and F-105 Thunderchief fighter bombers and the primary base for U-2 reconnaissance aircraft flying over Cuba. One of these U-2s was shot down by Soviet-operated SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missiles near Banes, Cuba. Its pilot, Major Rudolf Anderson, Jr., USAF, was the crisis' only combat death. Following the crisis, McCoy AFB hosted a permanent U-2 operating detachment of the 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing until 1973. McCoy AFB was identified for closure in early 1973 as part of a post-Vietnam reduction in force. The following year, McCoy's 306th Bombardment Wing was inactivated, its B-52D Stratofortress and KC-135A Stratotanker aircraft reassigned to other SAC units and most of the McCoy AFB facility turned over to the city of Orlando by the General Services Administration (GSA) in late 1974 and early and mid 1975. USAF responsibility for the airfield's air traffic control tower was turned over to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the airport established its own crash, fire and rescue department, initially utilizing equipment transferred by the GSA. Civil-military years In the early 1960s, when jet airline flights came to Orlando, the installation became a joint civil-military facility. Early jetliners such as the Boeing 707, Boeing 720, Douglas DC-8 and Convair 880 required longer and sturdier runways than the ones at Herndon Airport (now Orlando Executive Airport). Nearby lakes and commercial and residential development made expansion impractical, so an agreement was reached between the City of Orlando and the United States Air Force in 1962 to use McCoy AFB under a joint arrangement. The military offered a large AGM-28 Hound Dog missile maintenance hangar and its associated flight line ramp area in the northeast corner of the field for conversion into a civil air terminal. The city would then cover the cost of building a replacement missile maintenance hangar on the main base's western flight line. The new civil facility would be known as the Orlando Jetport at McCoy and would operate alongside McCoy AFB. This agreement became a model for other joint civil-military airports in operation today. Airline flights to the Orlando Jetport began shortly after an agreement was signed by the city and USAF in October 1961. Over the next few years airline flights shifted from the old Herndon Airport (renamed in 1982 as the Orlando Executive Airport ). In 1971 scheduled airlines were Delta Air Lines, Eastern Air Lines, National Airlines and Southern Airways. When McCoy AFB closed in 1975, part of the facility stayed under military control to support Naval Training Center Orlando and several tenant commands. There are only a few enclaves on the original McCoy AFB site that the military still uses such as the 164th Air Defense Artillery Brigade from the Florida Army National Guard in the former McCoy AFB Officers Club complex, an Army Reserve intelligence unit in the former SAC Alert Facility, the 1st Lieutenant David R. Wilson Armed Forces Reserve Center supporting multiple units of the Army Reserve, Navy Reserve and Marine Corps Reserve that was constructed in 2002, and a large Navy Exchange for active, reserve and retired military personnel and their dependents. Civil years In 1975, the final Air Force contingent departed McCoy AFB and the Greater Orlando Aviation Authority (GOAA) was established as a state-chartered local governmental agency and an enterprise fund of the city of Orlando. GOAA's mission was to operate, manage and oversee construction of expansions and improvements to both the Orlando International Airport and the Orlando Executive Airport. The airport gained its current name and international airport status a year later in 1976, but retained its old IATA airport code MCO and ICAO airport code KMCO. The airport became a U.S. Customs Service Foreign Trade Zone (FTZ) in 1978, said zone being designated as FTZ #42. In 1979, the facility was also designated as a large hub airport by the FAA based on flight operations and passenger traffic. In 1978, construction of the current Landside Terminal and Airsides 1 and 3 began, opening in 1981. In 1983 a small chapel was opened memorializing Michael Galvin who died during the construction of the airport's expansion. The original International Concourse was housed in Airside 1 and opened in 1984. Funding to commence developing the east side of the airport was bonded in 1986, with Runway 17/35 (now 17R/35L) completed in 1989. Airside 4 opened in 1990 and also contains an International Concourse for the processing of international flights. Airside 2, which filled out what will become known as the North Terminal complex, was completed in 2000, with the last additional gates added in 2006. Runway 17L/35R was opened in 2003, providing the airport with a total of four runways. In 1978, the airport handled 5 million passengers. By 2018, that number had risen to 47 million. Today it covers 51 square kilometers (19.7 sq mi) and is the fifth-largest airport in the United States by land area after Denver International Airport which covers 136 square kilometers (52.4 sq mi), Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport which covers 70 square kilometers (26.9 sq mi), Southwest Florida International Airport which covers 55 square kilometers (21.2 sq mi), and Washington Dulles International Airport which covers 53 square kilometers (20.3 sq mi). MCO has North America's fourth tallest control tower at 345 feet, replacing two earlier Air Force and FAA control towers. Orlando was a designated Space Shuttle emergency landing site. The west-side runways, Runway 18L/36R and Runway 18R/36L, were designed for B-52 Stratofortress bombers and due to their proximity to NASA's John F. Kennedy Space Center, were an obvious choice for an emergency landing should an emergency return to launch site (RTLS) attempt to land at KSC have fallen short. The runway was also an emergency divert site for NASA's Boeing 747 Shuttle Transport Aircraft when relocating orbiters from either west coast modification work or divert recoveries at Edwards AFB, California or the White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. Eastern Air Lines used Orlando as a hub during the 1970s and early 1980s, and became "the official airline of Walt Disney World." Following Eastern's demise, Delta Air Lines assumed this role, although it later pulled much of its large aircraft hub operations from Orlando and focused its service there on regional jet flights, before pulling down the hub entirely in the mid-2000s. On February 22, 2005, the airport became the first airport in Florida to accept E-Pass and SunPass toll transponders as a form of payment for parking. The system allows drivers to enter and exit a parking garage without pulling a ticket or stopping to pay the parking fee. The two toll roads that serve the airport, SR 528 (Beachline Expressway) and SR 417 (Central Florida GreeneWay), use these systems for automatic toll collection. The original terminal building, a converted hangar, was described as inadequate for the task at hand even when it was first opened as Orlando Jetport. After its closure in 1981, it passed through several tenants, the last of which was UPS. It was demolished in May 2006. On February 1, 2010, Allegiant Air began operations at the airport. The company moved one half of its Orlando Sanford International Airport (SFB) schedule to Orlando to test revenue at the higher cost airport. After evaluating the routes out of Orlando, the carrier decided to consolidate and return its Orlando area operations to Sanford citing an inability to achieve a fare premium at Orlando as anticipated, passenger preference for Orlando Sanford International Airport, higher costs at Orlando than expected and a more efficient operating environment at Sanford. In March 2015, Emirates announced that they would begin daily service to the airport from Dubai International Airport beginning September 1, 2015. The airport had tried to attract Emirates for five years before the service was announced. Orlando International was the first airport in Florida served by Emirates. The airline expects three major markets for the flights: leisure and corporate travelers along with locals of Asian heritage traveling to Asia, which is well-served by the airline. Greater Orlando Aviation Association Chair Frank Kruppenbacher called the new service "without question the biggest, most significant move forward for our airport" and estimates that the local economic impact of the new service will be up to $100 million annually. The inaugural flight was made with an Airbus A380. Regularly scheduled flights operate with Boeing 777-300ERs. Gate 90 was updated in the summer of 2018 with 3 jetways to be able to properly handle the A380, 3 years after the airplane first arrived at Orlando, docking at Gate 84. On May 18, 2016, the airport launched its own radio station, FlyMCO 105.1 HD2, an FM HD Radio subchannel of WOMX-FM. With the goal of "keeping passengers informed, entertained and aware" FlyMCO 105.1 HD2 provides quick access to up-to-date airport information, local weather, and adult contemporary / top-40 pop music. The radio station can be heard across 11 Central Florida counties (Orange, Seminole, Osceola, Volusia, Brevard, Lake, Marion, Flagler, Polk, Sumter and Putnam), and through WOMX's owner Entercom, is streamable via the Radio.com website/app outside of central Florida. In 2017, the airport reached 44.6 million passengers, surpassing Miami International Airport to become the busiest airport in the state of Florida. Future The Orlando International Airport Intermodal Terminal is currently under construction approximately one mile due south of the main airport terminal. The new station, which is partially being funded by the Florida Department of Transportation, will serve as the Orlando station for the Brightline higher speed regional rail service to South Florida, possibly Sunrail, and a link to International Drive. The station, which will be connected to the main terminal via an automated people mover (APM) system, is mostly reusing plans from the Orlando Airport station of the now defunct Florida High Speed Rail project. As part of the estimated $684 million price tag for the intermodal terminal complex, the airport authority is building a new 2,500 space parking garage. A future connection to the SunRail commuter rail service is also being explored. The route to the current SunRail line would travel along an Orlando Utilities Commission rail spur, before either branching off to the intermodal station, or have an intermediate transfer point on to light rail to complete the journey to this station. Multiple options are being considered for the link to I-Drive, either an elevated maglev train system built by American Maglev Technology, connecting the airport to the Orange County Convention Center, the Florida Mall, and the Sand Lake Road SunRail station, or a light rail link running along a similar route as the maglev alternative between the airport and International Drive. In May 2015, the Board of the Greater Orlando Aviation Authority (GOAA) voted unanimously to approve construction of the $1.8 billion South Terminal Complex (STC), which will be located directly south of the existing terminal. The STC will be built adjacent to the South Airport Intermodal Terminal, which was completed in early 2018; will have 120 new gates and both will be connected to the existing terminal via a new Automated People Mover (APM). Phase I (which will be known as "Terminal C") will encompass approximately and will include new aircraft taxiways and aprons, a terminal building with 60 gates, and a 6-story, 5,000 space parking garage. Construction of the STC began in 2017, and it is expected to be operational by 2022. In June 2018 GOAA approved the expansion of Phase 1, known as Phase 1X, which will add another six gates to the South. The construction firms building the new South Terminal are Hensel Phelps (airside), and Turner-Kiewit Joint Venture (landside). Vanderlande Industries will be providing the new high-tech ICS baggage handling system. Facilities Terminal Orlando International Airport has a large main terminal building divided into north and south sides, and four airside concourses accessible via elevated people movers, with a total of 93 gates. International arrivals are primarily handled in Airside 4, with secondary operations occurring in Airside 1. Terminal A consists of the northern half of the main terminal, with tramway systems to Airside 1 and Airside 2. Terminal B consists of the southern half of the main terminal, with tramway systems to Airside 3 and Airside 4. Hotel The airport features an on-site Hyatt Regency hotel within the main terminal structure. The hotel is located on the East Atrium side of the terminal with a fourth floor lobby level and guest rooms beginning on level five and above. The airport features an expansive lobby area for guests awaiting flights, convention space, several bars, and two restaurants including a signature restaurant on the top level of the terminal building overlooking the airport facility and runways below. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Top destinations Airline market share Annual traffic See also B-52 Memorial Park Florida World War II Army Airfields Innovation Way List of busiest airports by passenger traffic References External links Transportation in Orlando, Florida Airports in Florida Buildings and structures in Orlando, Florida Transportation buildings and structures in Orange County, Florida Airports established in 1940 1940 establishments in Florida Space Shuttle Emergency Landing Sites

263638

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis%20International%20Airport

Memphis International Airport

Memphis International Airport is a civil-military airport located southeast of Downtown Memphis in Shelby County, Tennessee, United States. MEM is the primary international airport serving Memphis, Tennessee, United States. It covers and has four runways. It is home to the FedEx Express global hub, often referred to as the FedEx Superhub or simply the Superhub, which processes many of the company's packages. Non-stop FedEx destinations from Memphis include cities across the continental United States, Canada, Europe, the Middle East, Asia and South America. From 1993 to 2009, Memphis had the largest cargo operations of any airport worldwide. MEM dropped to the second position in 2010, just behind Hong Kong. It still remained the busiest cargo airport in the United States and in the Western Hemisphere, until 2020, when it once again became the world's busiest cargo handling airport due to the surge in ecommerce partly caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. On the passenger side, MEM averages over 80 passenger flights per day. The 164th Airlift Wing of the Tennessee Air National Guard is based at the co-located Memphis Air National Guard Base, operating C-17 Globemaster III transport aircraft. History Memphis Municipal Airport, dedicated in 1929, opened on a plot of farmland just over from downtown Memphis. In its early years the airport had three hangars and an unpaved runway; passenger and air mail service was provided by American Airlines and Chicago and Southern Air Lines (acquired by Delta Air Lines in 1953). In 1939 Eastern Air Lines arrived; that March, Eastern had one departure a day to Muscle Shoals and beyond, American had four east/west and C&S had four north/south. During World War II the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command 4th Ferrying Group used Memphis while sending new aircraft overseas. In April 1951 the runways were 6000-ft 2/20, 6530-ft 9/27, 4370-ft 14/32 and 4950-ft 17/35; the airport was all north of Winchester Road during the 1950s. The April 1957 OAG shows 64 weekday departures: 25 on Delta, 18 American, 7 Southern, 5 Eastern, 4 Braniff, 3 Trans-Texas and 2 Capital. American DC-6s flew non-stop to Washington and New York, but westward non-stops didn't reach beyond Fort Worth and Kansas City until American started Los Angeles in 1964. The first scheduled jets were Delta 880s ORD-MEM-MSY and back, starting in July–August 1960. The current terminal was designed by Mann & Harrover and cost $6.5 million. It opened on June 7, 1963, and Memphis Municipal changed its name to Memphis International in 1969. In 1985–86 Republic Airlines began flights to Mexico. The terminal was expanded for $31.6 million in 1974, adding two new concourses and extending the others, which were designed by Roy P. Harrover & Associates. Hub status Southern Airways was an important regional carrier at Memphis in the 1960s; it merged into Republic Airlines in 1979 as the first large merger after the passage of the Airline Deregulation Act. With the dismantling of the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) flight approval requirements, airlines began developing around a large hub model as opposed to the former point-to-point networks that were common before deregulation. Republic established Memphis as a hub operation in 1985 before merging into Northwest Airlines in 1986. Northwest operated around 300 daily flights at the peak of the hub, including international flights to Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean. Meanwhile, Northwest partner KLM launched the Tennessee city's first-ever transatlantic service in June 1995, using McDonnell Douglas MD-11s to fly to Amsterdam. The airport had spent $12.6 million on a new customs area in preparation for the route. KLM operated the flights until sometime between 2002 and 2003, when Northwest took over. Delta operated the route from the airline's merger with Northwest in 2008 to September 2012 when the route was discontinued. Federal Express (now FedEx Express) began operations in Memphis in 1973. It opened its current "SuperHub" facility on the north side of the airport in 1981, and maintains a large presence to the present day. Northwest was acquired by Delta Air Lines (which operates a large hub in Atlanta) in 2008, and Delta continued operating at Memphis as a hub, flying as many as 200 flights per day as recently as 2009. The carrier maintained the nonstop link to Amsterdam until 2012; it explained that expensive fuel, diminished passenger numbers, and the state of the American and European economies had compelled it to withdraw the service. Delta continued to scale back its operations at Memphis before closing the hub in 2013. Passenger traffic at the airport declined for the next several years until it bottomed out at 3.5 million in 2015. Recent years In 2014 the Memphis-Shelby County Airport Authority announced a planned $114 million renovation of the airport. This renovation included demolishing the largely vacant south ends of Concourses A and C, mothballing the remaining portions and widening and modernizing the larger Concourse B. The renovation, which was expected to start in late 2015 and end around 2020, would have left the airport with about 60 gates. The initial project was only partly completed, with the south end of Concourse A demolished. Memphis officials decided to rethink the plans; several aspects of the project changed. The plan had called for renovating and widening Concourse B, the updated plan included a full redesign of most of the concourse. Concourse B was closed during construction, and airlines and tenants moved to Concourses A and C during that time. The southwest leg of Concourse B will be updated in a future phase, and will only be utilized in the near term for passengers from inbound international flights. The modernization began in September 2018 and was completed in February 2022. Facilities Terminal Memphis International Airport has a single terminal and three concourses, but only Concourse B is in use with 23 gates. Concourses A and C are mothballed indefinitely. All non pre–cleared international flights are processed on the southwestern portion of B. Runways Memphis International Airport has four runways. Ground transportation Memphis International Airport's passenger terminal can be accessed from Interstate 240 at exit 23B via Plough Blvd and Jim McGehee Pkwy. It can also be accessed via Winchester Rd. MATA Bus #28 offers connections to the Hudson and Airways transit centers. The Ground Transportation Center, completed in February 2013, contains the airport's economy parking and parking for all car rental companies. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Passenger traffic Top destinations Airline market share Accidents and incidents On August 12, 1944, a USAAF Douglas C-47 caught fire after takeoff after one of the propeller blades cut through the fuselage, causing a fire on the runway. All except the captain got out safely. On December 17, 1944, a USAAF Douglas C-49 drifted to the right after takeoff, stalled and hit a brick storehouse. Three out of the six on board died. On January 13, 1963, a Douglas DC-7 operated by the USAF struck a USAF Fairchild C-123 Provider taxiing at night. The pilot of the DC-7 was killed, the Provider was destroyed after catching fire. On May 18, 1978, a Dassault Falcon 20 C operated by Flight Safety International collided with a Cessna 150 3.8 miles west of MEM, all four occupants on the Falcon and two aboard the Cessna died as both aircraft crashed. On August 11, 1984, Douglas C-47 N70003 of Aviation Enterprises crashed shortly after take-off from Memphis International Airport on a domestic non-scheduled passenger flight to O'Hare International Airport, Chicago. All three people on board died. A missing spark plug on the port engine caused a loss of power. Maintenance involving the removal of the spark plugs had been performed the previous day. On October 8, 1987, a Volpar Turboliner II operated by Connie Kalitta Services crashed while attempting to return to MEM due to an attached tail stand, the aircraft was overweight and the cg was three inches forward of the limit. The sole occupant died. On April 7, 1994, Federal Express Flight 705 bound for San Jose, California experienced an attempted hijacking shortly after takeoff. FedEx employee Auburn Calloway tried to hijack the plane in order to crash it into the FedEx hub at Memphis International, in a Kamikaze-style attack. The crew—although seriously injured—fought him off and returned to Memphis, where police and emergency crews subdued him. On December 18, 2003, FedEx Express Flight 647 veered off the runway after the landing gear collapsed upon landing. The flight had departed Oakland International Airport (OAK) earlier that same day. The aircraft was immediately engulfed in flames. All five crew members escaped by exiting via the cockpit window. On July 28, 2006, FedEx Flight 630's landing gear collapsed upon landing at Memphis International Airport after a flight from Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. After coming to a stop, the plane caught fire, engulfing the left wing and engine. While the three crew members sustained injuries, they all survived. The aircraft was written off. References Further reading Hollahan, Terry. "Delta Air Lines deals crushing blow to Memphis airport." Memphis Business Journal. June 4, 2013. External links Memphis International Airport (official site) Airports in Tennessee Buildings and structures in Memphis, Tennessee Transportation in Memphis, Tennessee 1929 establishments in Tennessee Airports established in 1929

263642

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradley%20International%20Airport

Bradley International Airport

Bradley International Airport is a public international airport in Windsor Locks, Connecticut. Owned and operated by the Connecticut Airport Authority, it is the second-largest airport in New England. The airport is about halfway between Hartford, Connecticut, and Springfield, Massachusetts. It is Connecticut's busiest commercial airport and the second-busiest airport in New England after Boston's Logan International Airport, with over 6.75 million passengers in 2019. The four largest carriers at Bradley International Airport are Southwest, Delta, JetBlue, and American with market shares of 29%, 19%, 15%, and 14%, respectively. As a dual-use military facility with the U.S. Air Force, the airport is home to the 103d Airlift Wing (103 AW) of the Connecticut Air National Guard. Bradley was originally branded as the "Gateway to New England" and is home to the New England Air Museum. In 2016, Bradley International launched its new brand, "Love the Journey". In 2019, Bradley was the 55th-busiest commercial airport in the United States, by passengers enplaned. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021 categorized it as a medium-hub primary commercial service facility. The former discount department store chain Bradlees was named after the airport as many of the early planning meetings were held there. History 20th century Bradley has its origins in the 1940 acquisition of of land in Windsor Locks by the state of Connecticut. In 1941, this land was turned over to the U.S. Army, as the country began its preparations for the impending war. The airfield was named after 24-year-old Lt. Eugene M. Bradley of Antlers, Oklahoma, assigned to the 64th Pursuit Squadron, who died when his P-40 crashed during a dogfight training drill on August 21, 1941. The airfield began civil use in 1947 as Bradley International Airport. Its first commercial flight was Eastern Air Lines Flight 624. International cargo operations at the airport also began that year. Bradley eventually replaced the older, smaller Hartford–Brainard Airport as Hartford's primary airport. In 1948, the federal government deeded the Airport to the State of Connecticut for public and commercial use. In 1950, Bradley International Airport exceeded the 100,000-passenger mark, handling 108,348 passengers. In 1952, the Murphy Terminal opened. Later dubbed Terminal B, it was the oldest passenger terminal of any major airport in the U.S. when it closed in 2010. The April 1957 OAG shows 39 weekday departures: 14 American, 14 Eastern, 9 United, and 2 Northeast. The first jets were United 720s to Cleveland in early 1961. Nonstops never reached west of Chicago or south of Washington until Eastern and Northeast began nonstops to Miami in 1967; nonstops to Los Angeles and Atlanta started in 1968. In 1960, Bradley handled 500,238 passengers. In 1971, the Murphy Terminal was expanded with an International Arrivals wing. This was followed by the installation of instrument landing systems on two runways in 1977. In 1974, construction began on an experimental People Mover to move people between the terminal and a parking lot 7/10 of a mile away. It was completed in December 1975. The People Mover consisted of a 7' wide roadway and two 30' long cars. It cost US$4.5 million to construct and was anticipated to cost $250,000 annually to operate. Due to the high operating cost and the fact that the parking lot it was connected to was not being used, the system was never put in service and was dismantled in 1984 to make room for a new terminal building. The retired vehicles from the system are now on display at the Connecticut Trolley Museum in East Windsor, Connecticut. In 1979, the "Windsor Locks" tornado ripped through the eastern portions of the airport. The New England Air Museum sustained some of the worst damage. It reopened in 1981. The new Terminal A and Bradley Sheraton Hotel were completed in 1986. The Roncari cargo terminal was also built. 21st century 2001 saw the commencement of the Terminal Improvement Project to expand Terminal A with a new concourse, construct a new International Arrivals Building and centralize passenger screening. The airport expansion was part of a larger project to enhance the reputation of the Hartford metropolitan area as a destination for business and vacation travel. The new East Concourse, designed by HNTB, opened in September 2002. In December 2002 a new International Arrivals Building opened west of Terminal B, housing the Federal Inspection Station with one jetway. Two government agencies support the facility; U.S. Customs and Border Protection and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The FIS Terminal can process more than 300 passengers per hour from aircraft as large as a Boeing 747. This facility cost approximately $7.7 million, which included the building and site work, funded through the Bradley Improvement Fund. Currently the International Arrivals Building is utilized by Delta Air Lines and Frontier Airlines (Apple Vacations) for their seasonal service to Cancun, Mexico and Punta Cana, Dominican Republic. All international arrivals except for those from airports with customs preclearance are processed through the IAB. International departures are handled from the existing terminal complex. Northwest Airlines launched Hartford's first direct flight to Europe in July 2007, employing Boeing 757s on a route to Amsterdam. Three months later, the Airbus A380 visited Bradley on its world tour, stopping in Hartford to showcase the aircraft to Connecticut workers for Pratt & Whitney and Hamilton Sundstrand, both divisions of United Technologies, which helped build the GP7000 TurboFan engines, which is an option to power the aircraft. Bradley Airport is one of only 68 airports worldwide large enough to accommodate the A380. No carriers provide regular A380 service to Bradley, but the airport occasionally is a diversion airfield for JFK-bound A380s. Northwest Airlines terminated its service to Holland in October 2008, attributing its decision to the increased cost of jet fuel. In the same month, Embraer, an aerospace company based in Brazil, selected Bradley as its service center for the Northeastern United States. An $11 million project was begun with support from teams of the Connecticut Department of Transportation and Connecticut's Economic and Community Development. The center is intended to be a full maintenance and repair facility for its line of business jets and is expected to employ up to 60 aircraft technicians. The facility was temporarily closed ten months after opening due to economic conditions, reopening on February 28, 2011. On June 22, 2012 the Connecticut Airport Authority board approved the hiring of Kevin A. Dillon as the Executive Director for the Connecticut Airport Authority, including Bradley International Airport. On October 21, 2015 Bradley announced renewed transatlantic service, partnering with Aer Lingus to bring daily flights between Bradley and Dublin. Service to Dublin began on September 28, 2016. On September 13, 2018 Governor Dannel P. Malloy announced that Aer Lingus service at Bradley International Airport will continue for at least four more years under a new agreement made with the state, committing the airline to continue its transatlantic service at the airport through September 2022. Aer Lingus committed to placing one of its first four A321neoLR aircraft on the Bradley to Dublin route, replacing the Boeing 757-200 assigned to the route. Norwegian Air Shuttle flew the airport's third transatlantic European flight. The first flight was on June 17, 2017 to Edinburgh in the UK. On January 15, 2018 the airline announced it would end service from Bradley to Scotland, with the last flight leaving March 25, 2018. On January 25, 2017 Spirit Airlines announced new daily nonstop service to Orlando and Fort Lauderdale along with 4 times weekly seasonal service to Myrtle Beach. The first flight to Orlando was on April 27, and service to Fort Lauderdale started on June 16. The same day, the company also announced seasonal nonstop service to Fort Myers and Tampa, which began on November 9, 2017. On January 25, 2021, Sun Country Airlines announced new service to Bradley International Airport beginning in May with nonstop service twice weekly to MSP Airport and in September 2021, service to Orlando. On May 21, 2021, Breeze Airways announced new service to Bradley International Airport beginning May 27, 2021 with nonstop service to Charleston (SC), with service to Columbus-Glenn, Norfolk and Pittsburgh to begin in July. It also made BDL part of the first flights for the airline, with the first flight from Tampa to Charleston and continuing on to Hartford. Facilities Bradley International Airport covers 2,432 acres (984 ha) at an elevation of 173 feet (53 m). It has two asphalt runways: 6/24 is 9,510 by 200 feet (2,899 × 61 m); 15/33 is 6,847 by 150 feet (2,087 × 46 m). In the year ending March 31, 2016 the airport had 93,678 aircraft operations, averaging 257 per day: 61% airline, 21% air taxi, 16% general aviation and 3% military. Sixty-four aircraft were then based at this airport: 48% jet, 31% military, 3% multi-engine, 11% helicopter and 6% single-engine. Terminals Current Terminals The airport has one terminal known as Terminal A with two concourses: East Concourse (Gates 1–12) and West Concourse (Gates 20–30). The East Concourse has 12 gates and houses the following airlines: Air Canada, Delta, JetBlue, Southwest, Sun Country. The West Concourse has 11 gates and houses the following airlines: American, Breeze, Frontier, Spirit, United. The Customs Building that is used for arriving international flights has been dubbed Terminal B. Terminal B consists of one passenger gate. The third floor of Terminal A has the administrative offices of the Connecticut Airport Authority. Former terminal Terminal B, known as the Murphy Terminal, opened in 1952 and was closed to passenger use in 2010. It was slowly demolished starting in late 2015 and ending in early 2016. It housed the administrative offices of the CAA and TSA until its demolition. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo In addition to the regular cargo services described above, Bradley is occasionally visited by Antonov An-124 aircraft operated by Volga-Dnepr Airlines, and Antonov Airlines, transporting heavy cargo, such as Sikorsky helicopters or Pratt & Whitney engines, internationally. Military operations Connecticut Air National Guard 103d Airlift Wing (103 AW) "Flying Yankees" 118th Airlift Squadron (118 AS): operates the C-130 Hercules. Connecticut Army National Guard 169th Aviation Regiment, 104th Aviation Regiment, 142nd Aviation Regiment. UH60 Blackhawk, CH47 Chinooks, C12 Fixed Wing. The Connecticut Wing Civil Air Patrol 103rd Composite Squadron (NER-CT-004) operates out of the airport. Statistics Enplaned passenger statistics : Traffic hit a low due to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. : Traffic showed a decline due to the Great Recession of 2007-2009 : From March 2020, there is a significant decrease of passenger movements due to the COVID-19 global pandemic. Top destinations Airline market share Future Airport construction On July 3, 2012 the Connecticut Department of Transportation released an Environmental Assessment and Environmental Impact Evaluation, detailing a proposal to replace the now-vacant Terminal B with updates and facilities intended to improve access and ease of use for Bradley travelers. The replacement proposal calls for: Demolition of the Murphy Terminal and existing International Arrivals Building; Construction of a new Terminal B, with two concourses containing a total of 19 gates, two of which could accommodate international widebody aircraft; Inclusion of a new Federal Inspection Services facility within the new Terminal; Construction of a new Central Utility Plant; Relocation of the Terminal B arrival roadway and departure viaduct; Realignment of Schoephoester Road; and Construction of a new 7-level parking garage and consolidated car rental facility, adding 2,600 public parking spaces and 2,250 rental car spaces. The proposal calls for a three-phase construction program: Demolition of the existing Terminal B, realignment of surface roads and construction of the new garage/rental car facility would occur during the initial phase. The initial phase is estimated to cost between $630 million and $650 million. Construction of part of Terminal B and its upper roadway would occur in a second phase. The original estimated completion date was 2018. Construction of the final segment of Terminal B and its upper roadway would occur in a third phase. The original estimated completion date was 2028. Actual completion dates depend upon funding and demand. As of May 2018 the project had not left the planning stage. In 2020 construction began on the ground transportation center, west of the existing garage, with current plans calling for it to host 830 new public parking spaces, a new consolidated rental car facility, and bus stops for regional bus services and a planned shuttle connecting the airport to the Windsor Locks rail station. The projected cost of the facility is $210 million, with construction projected to be complete in 2022. Ground transportation Rail Amtrak and Hartford Line trains serve both the nearby and stations. , weekday service includes eleven southbound trains and twelve northbound trains at Windsor Locks. Bus Connecticut Transit route 24 connects Bradley with the Windsor Locks and Windsor train stations. Route 34 provides local service connecting Bradley with Windsor and Hartford. Route 30 (the "Bradley Flyer") provides express service to downtown Hartford. Environment The Connecticut Air National Guard 103d Airlift Wing leases in the southwest corner of the airport for their Bradley ANG Base. The base is a designated Superfund site. Bradley has also been identified as one of the last remaining tracts of grassland in Connecticut suitable for a few endangered species of birds, including the upland sandpiper, the horned lark, and the grasshopper sparrow. Awards In 2017, Bradley Airport was named 5th-best airport in the United States by Condé Nast Traveler's Reader's Choice Awards. Bradley scored well with readers in the categories of on-site parking, availability of charging stations and free Wi-Fi, decent restaurant options, and overall relaxed atmosphere. In 2018, Bradley Airport was named 3rd-best airport in the United States by Condé Nast Travelers Reader's Choice Awards. Bradley scored well with readers in the categories of flight choices, on-site parking, availability of charging stations and free Wi-Fi, restaurant options, and overall relaxed atmosphere. Accidents and incidents On March 4, 1953, a Slick Airways Curtiss-Wright C-46 Commando N4717N on a cargo flight from New York-Idlewild Field crashed. Bradley was experiencing light rain and a low ceiling at the time of the incident. After being cleared to land on Runway 06, the pilot reported problems intercepting the localizer, and continued to circle down to get under the weather. The plane struck trees approximately southwest of the airport, killing the crew of two. On January 15, 1959, a USAF Douglas DC-4 impacted a wooded hillside in fog without the use of a compass during approach, the pilot survived, the co-pilot and mechanic were killed. On July 16, 1971, a Douglas C-47B N74844 of New England Propeller Service crashed on approach. The aircraft was on a ferry flight to Beverly Municipal Airport, Massachusetts, when an engine lost power shortly after take-off due to water in the fuel. At the time of the accident, the aircraft was attempting to return to Bradley Airport. All three occupants survived. On June 4, 1984, a Learjet 23 operated by Air Continental crashed on approach to runway 33 due to asymmetric retraction of the spoilers, two crew and one passenger were killed. On May 3, 1991, a Ryan International (wet-leased by Emery Worldwide) Boeing 727-100QC, N425EX, caught fire during take-off. The take-off was aborted and the three crew members escaped while the aircraft was destroyed by the fire. The fire was determined to have started in the number 3 engine. It was determined that the 9th stage HP compressor had ruptured. On November 12, 1995, American Airlines Flight 1572 crashed while trying to land at Bradley. The plane, a McDonnell Douglas MD-83, was substantially damaged when it impacted trees while on approach to runway 15 at Bradley International Airport. The airplane also impacted an instrument landing system antenna as it landed short of the runway on grassy, even terrain. The cause of the accident was determined to be the pilot's failure to reset the altimeter, however, severe weather may have played a factor. One of the 78 passengers and five crew on board were injured. On January 21, 1998, a Continental Express ATR-42, N15827, had an emergency during roll on landing. During the landing roll, a fire erupted in the right engine. The airplane was stopped on the runway, the engines were shut down and the occupants evacuated. The fire handles for both engines were pulled and both fire bottles on the right engine discharged. However, the fire in the right engine continued to burn. The airport fire services attended shortly afterward and extinguished the fire. On October 2, 2019, a vintage Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress owned by the Collings Foundation carrying three crew and ten passengers crashed into deicing tanks and a shed while attempting an emergency landing and caught fire. Seven deaths and seven injuries were reported including one person injured on the ground. Witnesses reported that an engine failed upon takeoff and then the aircraft circled back at low altitude. See also Connecticut World War II Army Airfields Hartford–Brainard Airport (HFD) FlightSimCon Tweed New Haven Airport (HVN) Westover Metropolitan Airport (CEF) Previously marketed by defunct Skybus Airlines as "Hartford (Chicopee, MA)" Yankee Terminal Radar Approach Control (Y90) References External links Bradley International Airport (official site) Connecticut Airport Authority (official site) Windsor Locks, Connecticut Connecticut Airport Authority Airports in Hartford County, Connecticut 1940 establishments in Connecticut Airports established in 1940

263646

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards

1987 Governor General's Awards

Each winner of the 1987 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit received $5000 and a medal from the Governor General of Canada. The winners and nominees were selected by a panel of judges administered by the Canada Council for the Arts. The Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit nominally increased in number from 8 in 1986 to 14 in 1987, with the addition of four awards for children's book writing and illustration and two awards for translation. The four Children's Literature awards, however, were simply the four annual Canada Council Children's Literature Prizes (1975 to 1986) under a new name. English French References Governor General's Awards Governor General's Awards Governor General's Awards

263648

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver%20International%20Airport

Denver International Airport

Denver International Airport , locally known as DIA, is an international airport in the Western United States, primarily serving metropolitan Denver, Colorado, as well as the greater Front Range Urban Corridor. At , it is the largest airport in North America by land area and the second largest in the world, behind King Fahd International Airport. Runway 16R/34L, with a length of , is the longest public use runway in North America and the seventh longest in the world. The airport is driving distance from Downtown Denver, further than the former Stapleton International Airport, the facility DIA replaced: the airport is actually closer to the City of Aurora than central Denver, and many airport-related services, such as hotels, are located in Aurora. Opened in 1995, DEN currently has non-stop service to 215 destinations amongst 23 different airlines throughout North America, Latin America, Europe, and Asia; it was the fourth airport in the U.S. to exceed 200 destinations. The airport is a hub for both United Airlines and Frontier Airlines and is one of the largest operating bases for Southwest Airlines. With over 35,000 employees, the airport is the largest employer in Colorado. The airport is located on the western edge of the Great Plains and within sight of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. In 2020, DIA was the 8th busiest airport in the world and 3rd busiest airport in the United States by passenger traffic; DIA has been among the top 20 busiest airports in the world every year since 2000. History Denver has traditionally been home to one of the busier airports in the United States because its midcontinent location was ideal for an airline hub. Several airlines, notably United Airlines and Continental Airlines were hubbed at the former Stapleton International Airport, helping make it the sixth-busiest airport in the country by the 1960s. But Stapleton was cramped, with little room to add additional flights and with runways too close together, leading to long waits in bad weather that would cause nationwide travel disruptions. From 1980 to 1983, the Denver Regional Council of Governments investigated areas for a new area airport north and east of Denver. Meanwhile in 1983, Federico Peña was elected mayor of Denver, campaigning on a plan to expand Stapleton onto Rocky Mountain Arsenal lands. The plan had broad support, but leaders in nearby Adams County threatened to sue over noise concerns. Eventually Peña struck a deal: Adams County leaders would rally citizens to back a plan for Denver to annex of the county to build an airport away from established neighborhoods. In 1988, Adams County voters approved the annexation. The proposal was met with some skepticism because of its location: from the heart of the city. But seeing the importance of a Denver air hub to the national transportation system, the federal government put $500 million (equivalent to $ billion today) toward the new airport. The rest of the cost would be financed by bonds, to be repaid with fees on airlines. Ground was broken in September 1989. Two years later, Mayor Wellington Webb inherited the megaproject, which at that time was scheduled to open on October 29, 1993. At the time United was refusing to move to the new airport over the high proposed fees. The airline finally relented under the condition that the airport include an automated baggage system. Construction delays pushed opening day back, first to December 1993, then to March 1994. By September 1993, delays due to a millwright strike and other events meant opening day was pushed back again, to May 1994. In April 1994, the city invited reporters to observe the first test of the new automated baggage system. Reporters were treated to scenes of clothing and other personal effects scattered beneath the system's tracks and carts that would often toss the luggage right off the system. After the embarrassing preview, the mayor cancelled the planned May opening. The baggage system continued to be a maintenance hassle and was finally terminated in September 2005, with traditional baggage handlers manually handling cargo and passenger luggage. DEN finally replaced Stapleton on February 28, 1995, 16 months behind schedule and at a cost of $4.8 billion (equivalent to $ billion today), nearly $2 billion over budget ($ billion today). The construction employed 11,000 workers. United Airlines Flight 1062 to Kansas City International Airport was the first to depart DIA and United Flight 1474 from Colorado Springs Airport was the first to arrive at the new airport. In September 2003, runway 16R/34L was added, the airport's sixth and at , it is longer than the other runways. Its length, exceeded by only six other runways in the world, allows fully-laden Airbus A380s and Boeing 747-8s to take off in the hot and high conditions at the airport, which is roughly above sea level. During a blizzard on March 17–19, 2003, the weight of heavy snow tore a hole in the terminal's white fabric roof, and over of snow on paved areas closed the airport and its main access road (Peña Boulevard) for almost two days, stranding several thousand people. Another blizzard on December 20–21, 2006, dumped over of snow in about 24 hours. The airport was closed for more than 45 hours, stranding thousands. Following this, the airport invested heavily in new snow-removal equipment that has led to a dramatic reduction in runway occupancy times to clear snow, down from an average of 45 minutes in 2006 to just 15 minutes in 2014. After shunning DEN for over a decade due to high fees, Southwest Airlines entered the airport in January 2006 with 13 daily flights. Southwest has since rapidly expanded and is now the airport's second-largest carrier after United. In the 2010s, a transit center and hotel were added to the main Jeppesen Terminal. The hotel opened on November 19, 2015 and on April 22, 2016, commuter rail trains started operating between the airport and Denver Union Station on RTD's A Line. On September 9, 2015, a political campaign was launched by Mayor Michael Hancock to radically expand commercial development at DIA, previously prohibited by intergovernmental agreement between Denver and Adams County. The changes to the agreement were approved by both Denver and Adams County voters in November 2015. In 2018, work began on a major interior renovation and reconfiguration including the beginning phases of construction to relocate two out of the three TSA security checkpoints from the Great Hall on Level 5 to Level 6 (East & West) while simultaneously updating and consolidating airline ticket counters/check-in for all airlines. Eventually, both pre- and post-security gathering and leisure areas will be incorporated into the spaces where both expansive TSA security areas on Level 5 are currently located. The third TSA security checkpoint currently accessible via the Concourse A bridge is expected to be removed. The renovation and reconfiguration will bring back the original intent and use of the Great Hall as a large commons area for airport patrons and visitors to enjoy. This phased terminal project is expected to be completed by 2025. Additionally, work is underway on expanding all three concourses, with 12 new gates being added to A (including several gates with direct access to U.S. Customs and Border Protection), 11 to B, and 16 to C for a total of 39 gates. Following the completion of this project, United Airlines will lease 24 additional gates on both A and B (bringing its total gate count at DEN to around 90), as well as build a new United Club in A and expand their existing clubs in B. Southwest Airlines will lease 16 of the new gates on C bringing its total gate count at DEN to 40. When both the ongoing terminal and concourse projects are completed, the airport will be able to handle upwards of 90 million passengers per year. In 2021, the Airport experienced a notable failure of the train system. In response, a request for information from the private sector was issued to analyze options to possibly supplement the train system in the future. Facilities The airport is driving distance from Downtown Denver, which is farther away than Stapleton International Airport, the airport DIA replaced. The distant location was chosen to avoid aircraft noise affecting developed areas, to accommodate a generous runway layout that would not be compromised by blizzards, and to allow for future expansion. The of land occupied by the airport is more than one and a half times the size of Manhattan (). DIA occupies the largest amount of commercial airport land area in North America, by a great extent. The land was transferred from Adams County to Denver after a 1989 vote, increasing the city's size by 50 percent and bifurcating the western portion of the neighboring county. All freeway traffic accessing the airport from central Denver leaves the city and passes through Aurora for nearly , making the airport a practical exclave. Similarly, the A Line rail service connecting the airport with downtown Denver has two intervening stations in Aurora. Terminal DIA has one terminal, named The Jeppesen Terminal after aviation safety pioneer Elrey Borge Jeppesen, and three midfield concourses, spaced far apart. The three midfield concourses have a total of 146 gates. Concourse A is accessible via a pedestrian bridge directly from the terminal building, as well as via the underground train system that services all three concourses. For access to Concourses B and C, passengers must utilize the train. All international arrivals without border pre-clearance are processed in Concourse A; this concourse also has 4 3-jetway international gates that can support ADG Group VI aircraft such as an Airbus A380 and a Boeing 747-8, the two largest commercial aircraft in the world. Concourse A has 51 gates, including several ground level boarding slips. Concourse B has 88 gates. Concourse C has 29 gates. United operates two United Clubs in Concourse B and will be opening one in Concourse A soon. American Airlines and Delta Air Lines operate an Admirals Club and Sky Club respectively in Concourse A. American Express operates a Centurion Lounge in Concourse C. Capital One is set to open a Capital One Lounge in Concourse A in 2022. Art and aesthetics The Jeppesen Terminal's internationally recognized peaked roof, designed by Fentress Bradburn Architects, resembles snow-capped mountains and evokes the early history of Colorado when Native American teepees were located across the Great Plains. The catenary steel cable system, similar to the Brooklyn Bridge design, supports the fabric roof. DIA is also known for a pedestrian bridge connecting the terminal to Concourse A that allows travelers to walk from the main Terminal to Concourse A, while viewing planes taxiing beneath them. It offers views of the Rocky Mountains to the west and the high plains to the east. Both during construction and after opening, DIA has set aside a portion of its construction and operation budgets for art. The corridor from the main terminal and Concourse A frequently displays temporary art exhibits. A number of public artworks are present in the underground train that links the main terminal with concourses, including art pieces from the history of Colorado. The airport features a bronze statue of Denver native Jack Swigert in Concourse B. Swigert flew on Apollo 13 as Command Module Pilot, and was elected to the House of Representatives in 1982, but died of cancer before he was sworn in. The statue is dressed in an A7L pressure suit, and is posed holding a gold-plated helmet. It is a duplicate of a statue placed at the United States Capitol in 1997. Denver International Airport has four murals, all of which have been the topic of conspiracy theorists and debate. The murals are ambiguous in meaning, depicting scenes including caged animals, fires, suffering people, and a soldier with a blade and a gas mask. They have been interpreted in the past by onlookers to represent war, hope, and even the New World Order. In March 2019, the airport unveiled an animated, talking gargoyle in the middle of one of the concourses. The gargoyle interacts with passengers and jokes about the supposed conspiracies connected to the airport. Blue Mustang, by El Paso-born artist Luis Jiménez, was one of the earliest public art commissions for Denver International Airport in 1993. The sculpture is a bright blue cast-fiberglass sculpture of a horse with glowing red eyes located between the inbound and outbound lanes of Peña Boulevard. Jiménez was killed in 2006 at age 65 while creating the sculpture when a part of it fell on him and severed an artery in his leg. At the time of his death, Jiménez had completed painting the head of the mustang. Blue Mustang was completed by others, and unveiled at the airport on February 11, 2008. The statue has been the subject of considerable controversy, and has acquired the nickname Blucifer for its demonic appearance. The sculpture has been defended and disparaged by many people. Ground transportation The Regional Transportation District (RTD) operates the A Line rail service between DIA and Denver Union Station in downtown Denver, making the 37 minute trip about every 15 minutes. RTD also operates an airport express bus service called skyRide between Arapahoe County or Boulder and DIA. There is also hourly service to Thornton on RTD route 104L, a limited stop bus. The airport is also served by two commuter routes with just a few runs per day: RTD route 145X to Brighton and 169L to Aurora. Scheduled bus service is also available to points such as Fort Collins, and van services stretch into Nebraska, Wyoming, and Colorado summer and ski resort areas. Amtrak offers a Fly-Rail plan for ticketing with United Airlines for trips into scenic areas in the Western U.S. via a Denver stopover. The airport is connected to the I-70 and Denver via the Peña Boulevard freeway. A number of car rental companies are located at the airport, providing courtesy shuttle services from Jeppesen Terminal Level 5, Island 4, to their parking areas. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Top destinations Annual traffic Airline market share Accidents and incidents On February 16, 2007, 14 aircraft suffered windshield failures within a three-and-a-half-hour period at the airport. A total of 26 windshields on these aircraft failed. The NTSB opened an investigation, determining that foreign object damage was the cause, possibly the sharp sand used earlier that winter for traction purposes combined with wind gusts of . On December 20, 2008, a Continental Airlines Boeing 737-500 operating as Flight 1404 to Houston–Intercontinental Airport veered off the left side of runway 34R and caught fire during its takeoff roll at DIA. There was no snow or ice on the runway, however there were crosswinds at the time of the accident. On July 13, 2010, the NTSB published that the probable cause of this accident was the captain's cessation of right rudder input, which was needed to maintain directional control of the airplane. Of the 115 people on board, at least 38 sustained injuries, at least two critically. On April 3, 2012, an ExpressJet Embraer ERJ-145, registration N15973, operating as Flight UA/EV-5912 from Peoria, IL to Denver, was landing on 34R when the aircraft hit the approach lights and stopped on the runway. Smoke developed inside the aircraft and passengers were evacuated onto the runway. One passenger was taken to a hospital for treatment of his injuries. On February 20, 2021, United Airlines Flight 328, a Boeing 777-200 that was on its way from Denver to Honolulu, Hawaii, suffered engine damage just after takeoff and had to return to Denver International Airport. Debris from the damaged engine fell on a neighborhood in Broomfield, a city near the airport. The damaged airplane landed safely on runway 26 and no injuries were reported. See also Busiest airports in the United States by international passenger traffic Busiest airports in the United States by total passenger boardings List of airports in the Denver area List of the busiest airports in the United States List of longest runways Megaprojects and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition World's busiest airports by passenger traffic World's busiest airports by traffic movements World's busiest airports by cargo traffic World's busiest airports by international passenger traffic References External links Denver International Airport, official site Airportag, kiosk located in the airport in 2019 Airports in Colorado Tensile membrane structures Transportation buildings and structures in Denver Airports established in 1995 1995 establishments in Colorado

263650

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Diego%20International%20Airport

San Diego International Airport

San Diego International Airport , formerly known as Lindbergh Field, is an international airport northwest of Downtown San Diego, California, United States. It is owned and operated by the San Diego County Regional Airport Authority. The airport covers of land. While primarily serving domestic traffic, San Diego has nonstop international flights to destinations in Canada, Germany, Japan, Mexico, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. San Diego International Airport is the busiest single-runway airport in the world. The airport's landing approach is well known for its close proximity to the skyscrapers of Downtown San Diego, and can sometimes prove difficult to pilots for the relatively short usable landing area, steep descent angle over the crest of Bankers Hill, and shifting wind currents just before landing. San Diego International operates in controlled airspace served by the Southern California TRACON, which is some of the busiest airspace in the world. History Prior to the development of the airport, the area was a delta river outlet for the San Diego River into the San Diego Bay, which was then re routed to terminate to the Pacific Ocean parallel to Mission Bay. The airport is near the site of the Ryan Airlines factory, but it is not the same as Dutch Flats, the Ryan airstrip where Charles Lindbergh flight-tested the Spirit of St. Louis before his historic 1927 transatlantic flight. The site of Dutch Flats is on the other side of the Marine Corps Recruit Depot, in the Midway neighborhood, near the intersection of Midway and Barnett avenues. Inspired by Lindbergh's flight and excited to have made his plane, the city of San Diego passed a bond issue in 1928 for the construction of a two-runway municipal airport. Lindbergh encouraged the building of the airport and agreed to lend his name to it. The new airport, dedicated on August 16, 1928, was San Diego Municipal Airport – Lindbergh Field with 140 Navy and 82 Army planes involved in a flyover. The airport was the first federally certified airfield to serve all aircraft types, including seaplanes. The original terminal was on the northeast side of the field, on Pacific Highway. The airport was also a testing facility for several early US sailplane designs, notably those by William Hawley Bowlus (superintendent of construction on the Spirit of St. Louis) who also operated the Bowlus Glider School at Lindbergh Field from 1929 to 1930. The airport was also the site of a national and world record for women's altitude established in 1930 by Ruth Alexander. The airport was also the site of the first transcontinental glider tow by Capt. Frank Hawks departing Lindbergh Field on March 30, 1930, and ending in Van Cortland Park in New York City on April 6, 1930. On June 1, 1930, a regular San Diego–Los Angeles airmail route started. The airport gained international airport status in 1934. In April 1937, United States Coast Guard Air Base was commissioned next to the airfield. The Coast Guard's fixed-wing aircraft used Lindbergh Field until the mid-1990s when their fixed-wing aircraft were assigned elsewhere. A major defense contractor and contributor to World War II heavy bomber production, Consolidated Aircraft, later known as Convair, had their headquarters on the border of Lindbergh Field, and built many of their military aircraft there. Convair used the airport for test and delivery flights from 1935 to 1995. The US Army Air Corps took over the field in 1942, improving it to handle the heavy bombers being manufactured in the region. Two camps were established at the airport during World War II and were named Camp Consair and Camp Sahara. This transformation, including an runway, made the airport "jet-ready" long before jet airliners came into service. The May 1952 C&GS chart shows an 8,700-ft runway 9 and a 4,500-ft runway 13. Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) established its headquarters in San Diego and started service at Lindbergh Field in 1949. The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 42 departures per day: 14 American, 13 United, 6 Western, 6 Bonanza, and 3 PSA (5 PSA on Friday and Sunday). American had a nonstop flight to Dallas and one to El Paso; aside from that, nonstop flights did not reach beyond California and Arizona. Nonstop flights to Chicago started in 1962 and to New York in 1967. The first scheduled flights using jets at Lindbergh Field were in September 1960: American Airlines Boeing 720s to Phoenix and United Airlines 720s to San Francisco. The original terminal was on the north side of the airport; the current Terminal 1 opened on the south side of the airport on March 5, 1967. Terminal 2 opened on July 11, 1979. These terminals were designed by Paderewski Dean & Associates. A third terminal, dubbed the Commuter Terminal, opened July 23, 1996. Terminal 2 was expanded by in 1998, and opened on January 7, 1998. The expanded Terminal 2 and the Commuter Terminal were designed by Gensler and SGPA Architecture and Planning. The airport was built and operated by the City of San Diego through the sale of municipal bonds to be repaid by airport users. In 1962 it was transferred to the San Diego Unified Port District by a state law. In 2001 the San Diego County Regional Airport Authority was created, and assumed jurisdiction over the airport in December 2002. The Authority changed the airport's name from Lindbergh Field to San Diego International Airport in 2003, reportedly considering the new name "a better fit for a major commercial airport." San Diego gained a nonstop transatlantic flight in March 2001, when British Airways eliminated the halt in Phoenix on its route to London. The airline had served San Diego intermittently since 1988; the flights always included a stopover, however. British Airways left the city in 2003 but returned eight years later. Expansion San Diego International Airport's expansion and enhancement program for Terminal 2 was dubbed "The Green Build". Additions include 10 gates on the west side of Terminal 2 West, a two-level roadway separating arriving and departing passengers, additional security lanes, and an expanded concession area. It was completed on August 13, 2013, and cost US$900 million. In January 2016, the airport opened a new consolidated rental car facility on the airport's north side. The US$316 million, facility houses 14 rental car companies and is served by shuttle buses to and from the terminals. A new three-story parking structure in front of Terminal 2 was launched in July 2016 and completed in May 2018. The Airport Development Plan (ADP) is the next master-planning phase for San Diego International Airport. In 2006, a county-wide ballot measure to move the airport was defeated. Therefore, the airport will continue in its current location for the foreseeable future. The ADP identifies improvements that will enable the airport to meet demand through 2035, which is approximately when projected passenger activity levels will reach capacity for the airport's single runway. An additional runway is not under consideration. The ADP envisions the replacement of Terminal 1 and related improvements. As a first step in the ADP, several potential concepts were developed. These concepts represented the first step in a comprehensive planning process. Extensive public outreach was conducted to obtain input from residents and airport stakeholders in the San Diego region. The Airport Authority Board eventually selected a preferred alternative and a detailed environmental analysis is now under way. The environmental review and planning process is expected to conclude in spring 2017. A new immigration and customs facility at Terminal 2 West began construction in 2017. The new facility was completed in June 2018 and is almost five times the size of its predecessor. Prior to its completion, gates 20, 21, and 22 in Terminal 2 East handled international arrivals. These arrivals are now handled at gates 47, 48, 49, 50, and 51 in Terminal 2 West. The construction of the new facility was due to the sharp rise of international travel at the airport; international arrivals increased "from 50,000 passengers a year in 1990 to more than 400,000 a year in 2017." San Diego International Airport is proceeding with a redevelopment plan, starting with reconstruction of Terminal 1. This work is scheduled to be completed by 2026. The number of gates will increase from 19 gates in the old Terminal 1 to 30 gates in the new Terminal 1. Other parts of the redevelopment plan include a 7,500-space parking structure, a new dual-level roadway in front of the new Terminal 1, and a new entry road. Further changes are scheduled in later years for Terminal 2, which will increase the total number of gates at San Diego International Airport to 61. Completion of these changes are not expected until 2035. Relocation proposals In the jet age there have been concerns about a relatively small airport constrained by terrain serving as the area's primary airport; at one point acting Civil Aeronautics Authority administrator William B. Davis said he doubted any jet airline would use it. In 1950 the city acquired what is today Montgomery Field and much of the land surrounding it through eminent domain to build a new airport, but the Korean War brought with it a massive expansion in jet traffic to nearby Naval Air Station Miramar, which soon rendered a commercial service airport in the area impractical. The CAA refused to fund any major enhancements to SDIA through the 1950s, and at various times the city proposed NAS North Island, Mission Bay, and Brown Field as replacements. Cost, conflicts with the Navy, and potential interference with other air traffic stymied these plans. It was not until 1964 that the FAA would finally agree to an expansion of SDIA, which at this point was over double the capacity of its 1940s era terminals, leading to the construction of today's Terminal 1. Even then, it was only allowed with the assurance of San Diego Mayor Charles Dail that it was only a temporary measure until a replacement could be found. From that time until 2006, various public agencies conducted studies on potential locations for a replacement airport. One revisited a study done in the 1980s by the City in 1994 when Naval Air Station Miramar closed and was then immediately transferred to the US Marine Corps as Marine Corps Air Station Miramar. Another was by the City of San Diego in 1984 and another that started in 1996 and sat dormant with SANDAG until the airport authority was formed. This is the first study ever done to look for a new site by a public agency that actually had jurisdiction over the issue, and the first non-site specific comprehensive study of the entire region. California State Assembly Bill 93 created the San Diego County Regional Airport Authority (SDCRAA) in 2001. At the time, the SDCRAA projected SAN would be constrained by congestion between 2015 and 2022; the Great Recession, however, extended the forecast capacity limitations into the 2030s. In June 2006, SDCRAA board members selected Marine Corps Air Station Miramar as its preferred site for a replacement airport, despite military objections the compromises this would require would severely interfere with the readiness and training of aviators stationed at the air station. On November 7, 2006, San Diego County residents rejected an advisory relocation ballot that included a joint use proposal measure over these and related concerns over the potential impact reducing the region's military value would have on the defense-focused San Diego economy. Since then no public agency has placed forth a serious proposal to relocate SDIA, and the Airport Authority has stated it has no plans to do so for the foreseeable future. Facilities Terminals San Diego International Airport has two terminals and 51 gates: Terminal 1 has two concourses (East and West) and 19 gates (1A and 1–18). Terminal 2 has two concourses (East and West), 32 gates, and three lounges (Delta Sky Club, United Club, and Airspace Lounge). Runway The airport has one runway, designated 09/27 for its magnetic headings of 095 degrees (106 True) and 275 degrees (286 True). The runway, built of asphalt and concrete, measures . Each end has a displaced threshold: on Runway 27, the first are displaced, while the first are displaced on Runway 9. Westerly winds predominate, so most takeoffs and landings use Runway 27. The approach to Runway 27 is unusually steep due to trees over tall that are located within of the east end of the runway – less than from the displaced threshold. The final approach to Runway 27 has also gained notoriety among passengers for the unusual experience of flying relatively low and close to San Diego's densely populated downtown, and has drawn comparisons to Kansas City's Charles B. Wheeler Downtown Airport and Hong Kong's former Kai Tak Airport. From the left side of the aircraft, the approach offers closeup views of skyscrapers, Petco Park (home of the San Diego Padres), the San Diego Bay, and the San Diego–Coronado Bridge, while Balboa Park, site of the 1915–1916 Panama-California Exposition, can be seen on the right. Contrary to local lore, the parking garage located from the east of the end of the runway was built in the 1980slong after previous obstructions also on the east side of I-5 were builtand does not affect the approach; none of the nearby downtown skyscrapers do, either. To appease the concerns of the airport's neighbors regarding noise and to head off any ensuing lawsuits, a curfew was implemented in 1979 whereby takeoffs are only allowed between 6:30 a.m. and 11:30 p.m. Outside these hours, they are subject to a large fine. Arrivals are permitted 24 hours per day. While several flights have scheduled departure times before 6:30 a.m., these are pushback times, and the first takeoff roll does not occur until 6:30 a.m. Ground transportation The airport is on North Harbor Drive, which is accessible from Interstate 5 northbound via the Hawthorn Street exit and southbound via the Sassafras Street exit. Short-term parking is located in front of both terminals: Terminal 2 has covered parking plaza and an outdoor lot, while Terminal 1 only has an outdoor lot. Long term parking is on North Harbor Drive to the east of the terminals and is served by shuttle buses. Both terminals have designated areas for taxis and ride-share pickups. Public transportation There are four public transportation options: Metropolitan Transit System Route 992: operates between Downtown San Diego, Terminal 1, Terminal 2 East, and Terminal 2 West. Route 992 operates from 5 a.m. to 11:30 p.m. with buses arriving every 15 minutes on weekdays and every 30 minutes on weekends and holidays. Route 992 connects to several major stations in Downtown San Diego: Santa Fe Transit Center (Santa Fe Depot & America Plaza station) served by Amtrak, Coaster, the Blue Line and Green Line of the San Diego Trolley, and Rapid buses City College Transit Center served by the Blue Line and Orange Line of the San Diego Trolley, and Rapid buses Metropolitan Transit System bus Route 923: operates between Ocean Beach and just outside the airport on North Harbor Drive from 5:45 a.m. to 6:30 p.m. with buses arriving every 30 minutes. On weekdays, buses extend into Downtown San Diego. TERMINAL → TROLLEY shuttle: buses serving the rental car center make a stop at the corner of Admiral Boland Way and West Palm Street, one block (about ) from the Middletown station. San Diego Flyer shuttle: buses operate between Old Town Transit Center, Terminal 1, Terminal 2 East, and Terminal 2 West with buses arriving every 20 to 30 minutes. At Old Town Transit Center passengers can transfer to Amtrak, Coaster, along with Blue Line and Green Line trains of the San Diego Trolley. Extension of the San Diego Trolley, which goes across the street from the airport runway, to directly serve the airport terminals, has been proposed several times but not yet come to fruition. A 2021 study found that such an extension is feasible and could be completed within ten years. Military Coast Guard Air Station San Diego is near the southeast corner of the airport. The installation originally supported seaplane operations, with seaplane ramps into San Diego Bay, as well as land-based aircraft and helicopter operations using the airport's runway. The air station is separated from the rest of the airfield, which required aircraft to cross North Harbor Drivea busy, six-lane city streetat a traffic signal in order to reach the runway. This was a common occurrence during the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, when the station had HH-3F Pelican and HH-60J Jayhawk helicopters and HU-25 Guardian jets assigned. Following 9/11, the gate was closed and the traffic signals removed because the Coast Guard station no longer supports fixed wing operations. Airline Support Building The Airline Support Building, which houses cargo operations and storage areas for aircraft provisions, and serves as a pick up and drop off point for live animals and large cargo, opened on July 20, 2021. Located on the south side of the airfield along North Harbor Drive, the building counts among its cargo tenants Alaska Airlines, American, Delta, Hawaiian, Lufthansa, Southwest, Sun Country, and United. The design-build project to construct the facility was awarded to SUNDT construction in 2018 for approximately $130 million. Other facilities BBA Aviation's Signature Flight Support (previously known as Landmark Aviation) is the fixed-base operator (FBO) at San Diego International Airport. It services all aircraft, from the single-engine Cessna aircraft to the twin-aisle Airbus A340. Generally, it services corporate traffic to the airport. The FBO ramp is at the northeast end of the airfield. A portion of the southeast infield at San Diego International Airport is set aside as a nesting site for the endangered California least tern. The least tern nests from March through September. The birds lay their eggs in the sand and gravel surface at the southwest end of the airfield. The San Diego Zoological Society monitors the birds from May through September. The terns nest on the airfield because they do not have to compete with beachgoers, and the airport fence keeps dogs and other animals out, while the airplane activity helps keep predatory hawks away from the nests. Approximately 135 nests were established there in 2007. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Top destinations Airline market share Airport traffic Accidents and incidents On April 29, 1929, a Ford Trimotor operated by Maddux Air Lines collided in mid-air with a PW-9D shortly after taking off from Lindbergh Field. The aircraft collided over Downtown San Diego, killing all 5 aboard the Trimotor and the USAAC pilot of PW-9D. According to eyewitness accounts shortly before the collision the Air Corps pilot had been flying extremely close to the larger airliner in an impromptu show for viewers on the ground, when he misjudged the distance between the two aircraft and crashed into it. On June 2, 1941, the first British Consolidated LB-30 Liberator II, AL503, on its acceptance flight for delivery from the Consolidated Aircraft Company plant in San Diego, crashed into San Diego Bay when the flight controls froze, killing all five of the civilian crew: Consolidated Aircraft Company's chief test pilot William Wheatley, co-pilot Alan Austen, flight engineer Bruce Kilpatrick Craig, and two chief mechanics, Lewis McCannon and William Reiser. Craig had been commissioned a 2nd Lieutenant in the US Army Reserve in 1935 following Infantry ROTC training at the Georgia Institute of Technology, where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering. He had applied for a commission in the US Army Air Corps before his death; this was granted posthumously, with the rank of 2nd Lieutenant. On August 25, 1941, the airfield in his hometown of Selma, Alabama was renamed Craig Field, later Craig Air Force Base. Investigation into the cause of the accident caused a two-month delay in deliveries, resulting in the Royal Air Force not receiving Liberator IIs until August 1941. On May 10, 1943, the first Consolidated XB-32 Dominator, 41–141, crashed on take-off at Lindbergh Field, likely from failure of the flaps. Although the bomber did not burn when it piled up at end of runway, Consolidated's senior test pilot Dick McMakin was killed. Six others on board were injured. This was one of only two twin-finned B-32s (41–142 was the other); all subsequent planes had a PB4Y-style single tail. On November 22, 1944, Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer, BuNo 59544, on a pre-delivery test flight from Lindbergh Field, took off at 12:23 am, lost its left outer wing on climb-out, and crashed in a ravine in an undeveloped area of Loma Portal near the Naval Training Center, less than from the runway. All 6 members of the Consolidated Vultee test crew were killed, including pilot Marvin R. Weller, co-pilot Conrad C. Cappe, flight engineers Frank D. Sands and Clifford P. Bengston, radio operator Robert B. Skala, and Consolidated Vultee field operations employee Ray Estes. A wing panel landed on a home at 3121 Kingsley Street in Loma Portal. The cause was found to be 98 missing bolts; the wing was only attached with four spar bolts. Four employees who either were responsible for installation, or were inspectors who signed off on the undone work, were fired two days later. A San Diego coroner's jury found Consolidated Vultee guilty of "gross negligence" by vote of 11–1 on January 5, 1945, and the Bureau of Aeronautics reduced its contract by one at a cost to firm of US$155,000. Consolidated Vultee paid out US$130,484 to the families of the six dead crew. On April 5, 1945, the prototype Ryan XFR-1 Fireball, BuNo 48234, on a test flight over Lindbergh Field, lost skin between the front and rear spars of the right wing, interrupting airflow over the wing and causing it to break apart. Ryan test pilot Dean Lake bailed out as the airframe disintegrated. The wreckage struck a brand new Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer, BuNo 59836, just accepted by the US Navy and preparing to depart for the modification center at Litchfield Park, Arizona. The bomber caught fire and the four man Navy crew was forced to evacuate the burning PB4Y, with Aviation Machinist J. H. Randall suffering first, second, and third degree burns and minor lacerations while the rest of the crew was uninjured. On April 30, 1945, just before midnight, the first production Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer, BuNo 59359, was being prepared on the ramp at Lindbergh Field for a flight to Naval Air Station Twin Cities in Minneapolis, Minnesota. A mechanic attempted to remove the left battery solenoid, located below the cockpit floor, but did so without disconnecting the battery. A ratchet wrench accidentally punctured a hydraulic line above the battery and the fluid ignited, setting the entire aircraft alight. The mechanic suffered severe burns. Only the number four (outer right) engine was deemed salvageable. The cause was an unqualified mechanic attempting a task that only a qualified electrician should perform. On August 5, 1952, Convair B-36D-25-CF Peacemaker, 49-2661, returning from a pre-delivery test after being modified for the San-San project, suffered an uncontrollable engine fire in the right wing while attempting to land at Lindbergh Field. The #4 and #5 engines fell off the aircraft as the Convair test crew steered the crippled bomber towards the ocean. Seven of the eight crew onboard bailed out, with Pilot David H. Franks heroically electing to stay with the aircraft to prevent it turning back towards the heavily populated coast, but flight engineer W.W. Hoffman drowned before he could be rescued. A USAF accident investigation was inconclusive, with a failure in the #5 engine's alternator, supercharger, fuel or exhaust systems suggested as possible causes. On July 15, 1953, the prototype Convair XP5Y-1 Tradewind seaplane, BuNo 121455, on a test flight off Point Loma after taking off from the water next to Lindbergh Field, fractured an elevator torque tube rendering the aircraft uncontrollable. All 9 onboard bailed out safely and were rescued. On November 4, 1954, an experimental Convair YF2Y Sea Dart seaplane, BuNo 135762, on a demonstration flight for Navy officials over San Diego Bay after taking off from the water next to Lindbergh Field, disintegrated in mid-air after its pilot inadvertently exceeded the airframe's structural limits. Convair test pilot Charles E. Richbourg was pulled from the water but did not survive. On September 25, 1978, a Boeing 727-200 operating flight PSA Flight 182 on the Sacramento–Los Angeles–San Diego route collided in mid-air with a Cessna 172 while attempting to land at San Diego Airport. The two aircraft collided with 727 above the Cessna over San Diego's North Park neighborhood, killing all 135 people on Flight 182, the two people in the Cessna, and seven people on the ground. An NTSB accident investigation found the probability of the accident's cause was that PSA flight crew's failure to inform the tower they had lost sight of the Cessna, in contradiction to Air Traffic Control instructions to "keep visual separation" from the smaller aircraft. Other factors named were errors on the part of ATC, including the use of pilot-maintained visual separation when ATC-monitored radar clearances were available, and an unexpected turn by the Cessna that put it directly in the path of the 727. See also California World War II Army Airfields Tijuana International Airport Notes References External links Flight planner section of the airport's website The Ambassablog – official Airport Authority employee blog Airliners.net – search for San Diego under Photo Search and see the colorful past of San Diego airport through the years IMDB movie: Billy Wilder's The Spirit of St. Louis, starring James Stewart, 1957 Airports established in 1928 Airports in San Diego Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in California USAAF Contract Flying School Airfields Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command in North America Charles Lindbergh 1928 establishments in California Proposed California High-Speed Rail stations

263651

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Armstrong%20New%20Orleans%20International%20Airport

Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport

Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport (French: Aéroport international Louis Armstrong de La Nouvelle-Orléans) is an international airport under Class B airspace in Kenner, Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, United States. It is owned by the city of New Orleans and is west of downtown New Orleans. A small portion of Runway 11/29 is in unincorporated St. Charles Parish. Armstrong International is the primary commercial airport for the New Orleans metropolitan area and southeast Louisiana. MSY covers 1,500 acres (607 ha) of land. At an average of above sea level, MSY is the second lowest-lying international airport in the world, behind only Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in the Netherlands, which is below sea level. History Beginnings Plans for a new airport began in 1940, as evidence mounted that the older Shushan Airport (New Orleans Lakefront Airport) was too small. The airport was originally named Moisant Field after daredevil aviator John Moisant, who died in 1910 in an airplane crash on agricultural land where the airport is now located. Its IATA code MSY was derived from Moisant Stock Yards, as Lakefront Airport retained the code NEW. In World War II the land became a government air base. It returned to civil control after the war and commercial service began at Moisant Field in May 1946. On September 19, 1947, the airport was shut down as it was submerged under two feet of water in the wake of the 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane's impact. When commercial service began at Moisant Field in 1946, the terminal was a large, makeshift hangar-like building—a sharp contrast to airports in then-peer cities. A new terminal complex, designed by Goldstein Parham & Labouisse and Herbert A. Benson, George J. Riehl and built by J. A. Jones Company, debuted in 1959 towards the end of Mayor DeLesseps "Chep" Morrison's administration. The core of this structure formed much of the facility used until November 2019. Retired United States Air Force Major-General Junius Wallace Jones served as airport director in the 1950s. During his term, the airport received many improvements. Historical airline service In 1969, Braniff International Airways was operating direct, no change of plane service to Honolulu via a stop at Dallas with Boeing 707-320 jetliners flying the route three days a week with one of the flights also making a stop at Hilo. By the early and mid 1970s, airlines operating jet service into the airport included domestic air carriers Braniff International, Continental Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Eastern Air Lines, National Airlines (1934-1980), Southern Airways, Texas International Airlines and United Airlines as well as Central American airlines Aviateca and SAHSA. In 1974, two airlines had begun operating wide body jetliners into the airport: National with McDonnell Douglas DC-10 nonstops from Houston Intercontinental Airport, Los Angeles, Miami, and Tampa, and Delta with Lockheed L-1011 TriStar nonstop service from LaGuardia Airport in New York City. Several other airlines also operated wide body jets on domestic flights into the airport at various times during the 1980s and early 1990s including American Airlines and Pan Am with the DC-10, Eastern with the L-1011 TriStar, and Continental and Northeastern International Airways with the Airbus A300 with the latter air carrier operating a small hub at MSY in the spring of 1984. Another airline which attempted to operate a hub at MSY was short-lived Pride Air which was based in New Orleans and was operating nonstop or direct Boeing 727 service from the airport to sixteen destinations including cities in California, Florida, and the western U.S. in the summer of 1985. During the 1960s, Japan Airlines (JAL) used New Orleans as a technical stop on its multi-stop special service between Tokyo and São Paulo, Brazil. On January 25, 1979, Southwest Airlines began nonstop Boeing 737-200 flights between New Orleans and Houston Hobby Airport thus marking the first time this air carrier had operated service outside of the state of Texas. By early 1985, air carriers operating jet service into MSY besides Southwest included American Airlines, Continental Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Eastern Air Lines, Florida Express Airlines, LACSA, Muse Air, New York Air, Northwest Airlines (operating as Northwest Orient Airlines at this time), Ozark Air Lines, Pan Am, Piedmont Airlines, Republic Airlines, Trans World Airlines (TWA), United Airlines, USAir and Western Airlines with commuter air carriers Air New Orleans and Royale Airlines operating small turboprop aircraft into the airport at this same time as well. National Airlines operated New Orleans' first transatlantic flight in July 1978; the carrier began offering direct service to Frankfurt via Amsterdam aboard McDonnell Douglas DC-10s. Less than a month later, however, National reported that the flight would make an additional stop in Tampa to board more passengers, as demand was low from New Orleans. The airline intended to bring back a nonstop route to Europe the following year. Nevertheless, Pan Am did not continue any transatlantic service from Louisiana after assuming control of National Airlines in 1980. Meanwhile, British Airways flew to the airport between 1981 and 1982; the airline's Lockheed L-1011 TriStars would refuel and pick up passengers in New Orleans en route from Mexico City to Gatwick Airport near London. By the time the previous airport terminal building opened in 1959, the name Moisant International Airport was being used for the New Orleans facility. In 1961, the name was changed to New Orleans International Airport. In July 2001, to honor the 100th anniversary of Louis Armstrong's birth (August 4, 1901), the airport's name became Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport. Airport relocation proposals During the administration of Morrison's successor, Vic Schiro, the government sponsored studies of the feasibility of relocating New Orleans International Airport to a new site, contemporaneous with similar efforts that were ultimately successful in Houston (George Bush Intercontinental Airport) and Dallas (Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport). This attempt got as far as recommending a site in New Orleans East; a man-made island was to be created south of I-10 and north of U.S. Route 90 in a bay of Lake Pontchartrain. In the early 1970s it was decided that the current airport should be expanded instead, leading to the construction of a lengthened main terminal ticketing area, an airport access road linking the terminal to I-10, and the present-day Concourses A and B. New Orleans Mayor Sidney Barthelemy, in office from 1986 to 1994, later reintroduced the idea of building a new international airport for the city, with consideration given to other sites in New Orleans East, as well as on the Northshore in suburban St. Tammany Parish. Only a couple months before Hurricane Katrina's landfall, Mayor Ray Nagin again proposed a new airport for New Orleans, this time to the west in Montz. These initiatives met with the same fate as 1960s-era efforts concerning construction of a new airport for New Orleans. Post–Hurricane Katrina capacity restoration MSY reopened to commercial flights on September 13, 2005, after the devastation of Hurricane Katrina the previous month, with four flights operated by Delta Air Lines to Atlanta and a Northwest Airlines flight to Memphis. Slowly, service from other carriers began to resume, with limited service offered by Southwest Airlines, Continental Airlines, and American Airlines. Eventually, all carriers announced their return to MSY, with the exception of America West Airlines (which merged into US Airways two weeks later) and international carrier TACA. In early 2006, Continental Airlines (since merged into United Airlines) became the first airline to return to pre-Katrina flight frequency levels, and in September 2006, to pre-Katrina seat capacity levels. All international service into MSY was suspended while the FIS facility was closed post-Katrina. The facility reopened to chartered flights arriving from London, Manchester, Bournemouth, and Nottingham, UK—all carrying tourists in for Mardi Gras and set to depart aboard a cruise liner. On November 21, 2006, the New Orleans Aviation Board approved an air service initiative to promote increased service to Armstrong International: Airlines qualify for a $0.75 credit per seat toward terminal use charges for scheduled departing seats exceeding 85% of pre-Katrina capacity levels for a twelve-month period. Airlines qualify for a waiver of landing fees for twelve months following the initiation of service to an airport not presently served from New Orleans. On January 17, 2008, the city's aviation board voted on an amended incentive program that waives landing fees for the first two airlines to fly nonstop into a city not presently served from the airport. Under the new ruling, landing fees will be waived for up to two airlines flying into an "underserved destination airport." In 2013, city leaders started reaching out to different airlines with the goal of convincing one of them to introduce a link between New Orleans and a European metropolis. Their efforts paid off when British Airways returned to Louisiana in March 2017 with nonstop Boeing 787 service to London's Heathrow Airport. In May, Condor reconnected New Orleans to Frankfurt, this time with seasonal, nonstop service. MSY served 9,785,394 passengers in 2014, exceeding for the first time in the post-Katrina era the total passenger count of 9,733,179 achieved in 2004, the last full calendar year prior to Katrina's landfall in August 2005. A new record passenger count was set by the airport in 2015. 10,673,301 passengers were served, eclipsing the earlier record of 9.9 million passengers, set in 2000. New passenger terminal In December 2015, the New Orleans Aviation Board, along with the Mayor of New Orleans and City Council, approved a plan to build a new $598 million terminal building on the north side of the airport property with two concourses and 30 gates. Construction began January 2016, with Hunt-Gibbs-Boh-Metro listed as the contractor at-risk. During the construction, the scope of the project was expanded so the terminal would feature 35 gates. The new terminal opened in November 2019. Facilities Terminal MSY has a single terminal with three concourses and 35 gates that opened in 2019. Departures and Ticketing are on Level 3, TSA Security Screening is on Level 2, and Arrivals and Baggage Claim are on Level 1. International flights are processed in Concourse A, which contains the airport's customs facilities. Concourse A has 6 gates and serves all international flights. Concourse B has 14 gates. Concourse C has 15 gates. Former terminal The former terminal was in use between 1959 and 2019. After closing it has been used as a TV and film production venue and a temporary skate park and still houses the airport administration offices. Ground transportation The terminal is served by Interstate 10 at exit 221. Bus service between the airport and downtown New Orleans is provided by New Orleans Regional Transit Authority Airport Express Route 202 and Jefferson Transit bus E-2. Airport Shuttle has services to most hotels and hostels in the Central Business District of New Orleans for $22 per person (one-way) and $44 per person (round-trip). The rental car facility is on the south side of the airfield next to the former terminal. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Passenger numbers Top domestic destinations Airline market share Accidents and incidents On November 16, 1959 National Airlines Flight 967, a Douglas DC-7 flying from Tampa to New Orleans crashed into the Gulf of Mexico. All 42 passengers and crew were killed. On February 25, 1964, Eastern Air Lines Flight 304 operated with a Douglas DC-8 flying from New Orleans International Airport to Washington Dulles International Airport crashed nine minutes after takeoff. All 51 passengers and 7 crew members were killed. On March 30, 1967, Delta Air Lines Flight 9877, a Douglas DC-8-51, a training exercise with 6 crewmembers aboard, crashed on approach to MSY at 12:50 AM Central Time Zone after simulating a two-engine out approach, resulting in a loss of control. All 6 crewmembers and 13 on the ground were killed. The DC-8 crashed into a residential area, destroying several homes and a motel complex. On March 20, 1969, Douglas DC-3 N142D, leased from Avion Airways for a private charter, crashed on landing, killing 16 of the 27 passengers and crew members on board. The aircraft was operating a domestic non-scheduled passenger flight from Memphis International Airport, Tennessee. On July 9, 1982, Pan Am Flight 759, en route from Miami to San Diego, departed New Orleans International on its way to a second stop-over at Las Vegas. The Boeing 727-200 jetliner took off from the east–west runway (Runway 10/28) traveling east but never gained an altitude higher than . The aircraft traveled 4,610 feet (1405 m) beyond the end of Runway 10, hitting trees along the way, until crashing into a residential neighborhood. A total of 153 people were killed (all 145 on board and 8 on the ground). The crash was, at the time, the second-deadliest civil aviation disaster in U.S. history. The National Transportation Safety Board determined the probable cause was the aircraft's encounter with a microburst-induced wind shear during the liftoff. This atmospheric condition created a downdraft and decreasing headwind forcing the plane downward. Modern wind shear detection equipment protecting flights from such conditions is now in place both onboard planes and at most commercial airports, including Armstrong International. On May 24, 1988, TACA Flight 110 was forced to glide without power and make an emergency landing on top of a levee east of New Orleans International Airport after flame-out in both engines of the Boeing 737-300 in a severe thunderstorm. There were no casualties and the aircraft was subsequently repaired and returned to service. On April 4, 2011, United Airlines Flight 497 en route from New Orleans to San Francisco made an emergency landing back at New Orleans after smoke entered the cockpit due to an electrical fault. The aircraft excursed from the runway during landing, sustaining minor damage. All 109 people on board evacuated the aircraft with no injuries. See also Louisiana World War II Army Airfields References External links Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport, official site (hosted on Greater New Orleans Free Net, GNOFN, Inc.) Airports in Louisiana Airports established in 1946 Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Louisiana Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces Technical Service Command Buildings and structures in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana Buildings and structures in St. Charles Parish, Louisiana Transportation in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana Transportation in the New Orleans metropolitan area Transportation in St. Charles Parish, Louisiana Airports in the New Orleans metropolitan area 1946 establishments in Louisiana

263656

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuna%20salad

Tuna salad

Tuna salad starts with a blend of two main ingredients: tuna, and mayonnaise or hard boiled egg. The tuna used is usually pre-cooked, canned, and packaged in water or oil. Pickles, celery, relish, and onion are foremost among the ingredients that are often added. When the mixture is placed on bread, it makes a tuna salad sandwich. Tuna salad is also regularly served by itself, or on top of crackers, lettuce, tomato, or avocado. Chopped boiled eggs may be added. Relish adds a piquant flavor yet, unlike commonly added vegetables, requires no chopping. Dishes In Belgium, the dish pêches au thon/perziken met tonijn ('peaches with tuna') is made from halved canned or fresh peaches stuffed with tuna salad. It is widespread throughout the country, and, due to its ease of preparation, it is common fare at potlucks. In the United States, tuna salad is often considered its own dish. However, it may be added to noodles with its standard ingredients (onions mayonnaise and celery) to make a tuna pasta salad. Tuna salad is also commonly seen in American salad bars. History Tuna salad has been eaten for over 100 years. The first written reference to tuna salad, in America, appeared in 1907, and by 1914 dozens of recipes had been published. Tuna salad, especially with celery, is similar to chicken salad while also being much cheaper, a fact that helped its early rise in popularity. Due to the high nutritional content of tuna salad, it assumed the reputation of a diet food in the 1960s. See also Egg salad List of salads List of tuna dishes Niçoise salad References Fish salads Tuna dishes

263657

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trillium%20Book%20Award

Trillium Book Award

The Trillium Book Award ( or Prix Trillium) is an annual literary award presented to writers in Ontario, Canada. It is administered by Ontario Creates, a Crown agency of the Government of Ontario, which is overseen by the Ministry of Heritage, Sport, Tourism and Culture Industries. The monetary component for the award includes amounts paid to the author of the book and to the publisher of the book. The award has been expanded several times since its establishment in 1987: a separate award for French-language literature was added in 1994, an award for poetry in each language was added in 2003, and an award for French-language children's literature was added in 2006. History The Trillium Book Award was created for three reasons: to recognize a book of literary excellence which furthers the understanding of Ontarians and Ontario society; to assist Ontario’s publishing industry; and, to bring Ontario’s public library and writing communities closer together. The Trillium Award was one of several creative initiatives undertaken by the Libraries and Community Information Branch while under the direction of Wil Vanderelst during the 1980s, that encouraged the development of Ontario writers and the distribution of their works. When created in 1987 the Trillium Book Award/Prix Trillium was the richest book award in Canada with a cash prize of $10,000 to the winner. It was also unique in that a separate $2000 would go to the publisher of the winning book to assist in its marketing and promotion. Under the auspices of the Libraries Branch, both the shortlisted books and the finalist were marketed through a unique logo for the prize, posters, bookmarks as well as an aggressive six-week media campaign targeting both bookstores as well as public libraries. (The prize today is $20,000 for the writer with $2,500 for the publisher, and $10,000/$2000 for the poetry prize.) The first jury was bilingual and selected seven nominees for the book award. Books in both languages were considered, as were poetry, fiction, and non-fiction books. The members of the first jury were Joyce Marshall, novelist and translator; Pierre Levesque, an Ottawa bookseller and specialist in French Canadian books; Grace Buller, retired librarian and former editor of Ontario Library Review (of Books); William Eccles, historian and Professor Emeritus; and Wayne Grady, anthologist, critic, translator, and former editor of Harrowsmith. The Trillium Book Award met with considerable approval from newspaper book editors at the time of the first award in 1988. While some critics did not like a judged competition involving personal taste in reading the material, the benefits of the award in assisting the marketing of Canadian books was thought more important. The Writers’ Union led at that time by the writer Matt Cohen met with Wil Vanderelst and strongly supported both programs given cutbacks in support for arts organizations at the federal level. Through reprioritizing, the public libraries budget these programs continued – although the writers in libraries program was eventually eliminated as part of the province’s budgetary restrictions. The Trillium Book Award managed to avoid the budgetary ax only through the personal support of the then Premier, Bob Rae. He is the only Premier of Ontario who has attended the presentation program of the award. Awards and eligibility The Trillium Award is open to books in any genre: fiction, non-fiction, drama, children's books, and poetry. Anthologies, new editions, re-issues and translations are not eligible. Electronic and self-published books are also ineligible. Three jury members per language judge the submissions, select the shortlist and the winning title. The jury is composed of writers and other members of the literary community. Canadian citizens and landed immigrants who have lived in Ontario for at least three out of the past five years and who have been published anywhere in the world are eligible. Their publishers are invited to submit titles to the Ministry of Culture for consideration. In 1993 the award was expanded by Premier Bob Rae's government to also include a French-language category; it was first awarded in 1994. In 2003, new English and French poetry categories were added to the awards. The following year, however, due to the smaller number of French-language titles published in Ontario there were not enough French poetry submissions to present an award; accordingly, the French section is now divided into poetry and children's literature awards presented in alternating years, with each award having an eligibility period of two years rather than one. The English poetry award continues to be presented yearly, and an English children's literature award is not presented; however, English children's books are eligible to be nominated for the English fiction award. Winners 1987 - Michael Ondaatje, In the Skin of a Lion 1988 - Timothy Findley, Stones 1989 - Modris Eksteins, Rites of Spring 1990 - Alice Munro, Friend of My Youth 1991 - Margaret Atwood, Wilderness Tips 1992 - Michael Ondaatje, The English Patient 1993 - Jane Urquhart, Away and Margaret Atwood, The Robber Bride 1994 English - Donald Harman Akenson, Conor: A Biography of Conor Cruise O'Brien; Volume 1 Narrative French - Andrée Lacelle, Tant de vie s'égare 1995 English - Margaret Atwood, Morning in the Burned House and Wayson Choy, The Jade Peony French - Maurice Henrie, Le Balcon dans le ciel 1996 English - Anne Michaels, Fugitive Pieces French - Nancy Vickers, Le Pied de Sappho and Alain Bernard Marchand, Tintin au pays de la ferveur 1997 English - Dionne Brand, Land to Light On French - Roger Levac, Petite Crapaude! 1998 English - André Alexis, Childhood and Alice Munro, The Love of a Good Woman French - Daniel Poliquin, L'homme de paille and Stefan Psenak, Du chaos et de l'ordre des choses 1999 English - Alistair MacLeod, No Great Mischief French - Andrée Christensen and Jacques Flamand, Lithochronos ou le premier vol de la pierre 2000 English - Don Coles, Kurgan French - Didier Leclair, Toronto, je t'aime 2001 English - Richard B. Wright, Clara Callan French - Michèle Matteau, Cognac et Porto 2002 English - Austin Clarke, The Polished Hoe and Nino Ricci, Testament French - Michel Ouellette, Le testament du couturier and Éric Charlebois, Faux-fuyants 2003 English - Thomas King, The Truth About Stories English (Poetry) - Adam Sol, Crowd of Sounds French - Serge Denis, Social-démocratie et mouvements ouvriers and François Paré, La distance habitée French (Poetry) - Angèle Bassolé-Ouédraogo, Avec tes mots 2004 English - Wayson Choy, All That Matters English (Poetry) - Maureen Scott Harris, Drowning Lessons French - Antonio D'Alfonso, Un vendredi du mois d'aout French (Poetry) - there was no prize given this year, as there were fewer than 5 submissions. The prize money is being used to create a scholarship for French-language emerging poets. 2005 English - Camilla Gibb, Sweetness in the Belly English (Poetry) - Kevin Connolly, drift French - Jean Mohsen Fahmy, L'Agonie des dieux French (Poetry) - Éric Charlebois, Centrifuge 2006 English - Mark Frutkin, Fabrizio's Return English (Poetry) - Ken Babstock, Airstream Land Yacht French - Paul Savoie, Crac and Daniel Castillo Durante, La Passion des nomades French (Children's) - Françoise Lepage, Poupeska 2007 English - Barbara Gowdy, Helpless English (Poetry) - Rachel Zolf, Human Resources French - Pierre Raphaël Pelletier, L'Oeil de la lumière French (Poetry) - Tina Charlebois, Poils lisses 2008 English - Pasha Malla, The Withdrawal Method English (Poetry) - Jeramy Dodds, Crabwise to the Hounds French - Marguerite Andersen, Le Figuier sur le toit French (Children's) - Paul Prud’Homme, Les Rebuts: Hockey 2 2009 English - Ian Brown, The Boy in the Moon English (Poetry) - Karen Solie, Pigeon French - Ryad Assani-Razaki, Deux Cercles French (Poetry) - Michèle Matteau, Passerelles 2010 English - Rabindranath Maharaj, The Amazing Absorbing Boy English (Poetry) - Jeff Latosik, Tiny, Frantic, Stronger French - Estelle Beauchamp, Un souffle venu de loin French (Children's) - Daniel Marchildon, La première guerre de Toronto 2011 English - Phil Hall, Killdeer English (Poetry) - Nick Thran, Earworm French - Michèle Vinet, Jeudi Novembre French (Poetry) - Sonia Lamontagne, À tire d’ailes 2012 English - Alice Munro, Dear Life English (Poetry) - Matthew Tierney, Probably Inevitable French - Paul Savoie, Bleu bemol French (Children's) - Claude Forand, Un moine trop bavard 2013 English - Hannah Moscovitch, This Is War English Poetry - Souvankham Thammavongsa, Light French - Marguerite Andersen, La mauvaise mère French Poetry - Daniel Groleau Landry, Rêver au réel 2014 English - Kate Cayley, How You Were Born English Poetry - Brecken Hancock, Broom Broom French - Micheline Marchand, Mauvaise mine French (Children) - Michel Dallaire, Violoncelle pour lune d’automne 2015 English - Kevin Hardcastle, Debris English Poetry - Soraya Peerbaye, Tell French - Véronique-Marie Kaye, Marjorie Chalifoux French (Poetry) - David Ménard, Neuvaines 2016 English - Melanie Mah, The Sweetest One English Poetry - Meaghan Strimas, Yes or Nope French - Jean Boisjoli, La Mésure du temps French (Children) - Pierre-Luc Belanger, Ski, Blanche et Avalanche 2017 English - Kyo Maclear, Birds Art Life English Poetry - Pino Coluccio, Class Clown French - Aurélie Resch, Sous le soleil de midi French Poetry - Sylvie Bérard, Oubliez 2018 English - Dionne Brand, The Blue Clerk English Poetry - Robin Richardson, Sit How You Want French - Lisa L'Heureux, Et si un soir French (Children) - Diya Lim, La marchande, la sorcière, la lune et moi 2019 English - Téa Mutonji, Shut Up You're Pretty English Poetry - Roxanna Bennett, Unmeaningable French - Paul Ruban, Crevaison en corbillard French Poetry - Véronique Sylvain, Premier quart 2020 English - Souvankham Thammavongsa, How to Pronounce Knife English Poetry - Jody Chan, Sick French - Danièle Vallée, Sept nuits dans la vie de Chérie French (Children's) - Éric Mathieu, Capitaine Boudu et les enfants de la Cédille References External links Ontario awards Awards established in 1987 1987 establishments in Ontario Canadian children's literary awards Canadian poetry awards Canadian fiction awards Canadian non-fiction literary awards

263659

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A20%20line

A20 line

The A20, or address line 20, is one of the electrical lines that make up the system bus of an x86-based computer system. The A20 line in particular is used to transmit the 21st bit on the address bus. A microprocessor typically has a number of address lines equal to the base-two logarithm of the number of words in its physical address space. For example, a processor with 4 GB of byte-addressable physical space requires 32 lines, which are named A0 through A31. The lines are named after the zero-based number of the bit in the address that they are transmitting. The least significant bit is first and is therefore numbered bit 0 and signaled on line A0. A20 transmits bit 20 (the 21st bit) and becomes active once addresses reach 1 MB, or 220. Overview The Intel 8086, Intel 8088, and Intel 80186 processors had 20 address lines, numbered A0 to A19; with these, the processor can access 220 bytes, or 1 MB. Internal address registers of such processors only had 16 bits. To access a 20-bit address space, an external memory reference was made up of a 16-bit offset address added to a 16-bit segment number, shifted 4 bits so as to produce a 20-bit physical address. The resulting address is equal to segment × 16 + offset. There are many combinations of segment and offset that produce the same 20-bit physical address. Therefore, there were various ways to address the same byte in memory. For example, here are four of the 4096 different segment:offset combinations, all referencing the byte whose physical address is 0x000FFFFF (the last byte in 1 MB-memory space): F000:FFFF FFFF:000F F555:AAAF F800:7FFF Referenced the last way, an increase of one in the offset yields F800:8000, which is a proper address for the processor, but since it translates to the physical address 0x00100000 (the first byte over 1 MB), the processor would need another address line for actual access to that byte. Since there is no such line on the 8086 line of processors, the 21st bit above, while set, gets dropped, causing the address F800:8000 to "wrap around" and to actually point to the physical address 0x00000000. When IBM designed the IBM PC AT (1984) machine, it decided to use the new higher-performance Intel 80286 microprocessor. The 80286 could address up to 16 MB of system memory in protected mode. However, the CPU was supposed to emulate an 8086's behavior in real mode, its startup mode, so that it could run operating systems and programs that were not written for protected mode. The 80286 did not force the A20 line to zero in real mode, however. Therefore, the combination F800:8000 would no longer point to the physical address 0x00000000, but to the address 0x00100000. As a result, programs relying on the address wrap around would no longer work. To remain compatible with such programs, IBM decided to correct the problem on the motherboard. That was accomplished by inserting a logic gate on the A20 line between the processor and system bus, which got named Gate-A20. Gate-A20 can be enabled or disabled by software to allow or prevent the address bus from receiving a signal from A20. It is set to non-passing for the execution of older programs that rely on the wrap-around. At boot time, the BIOS first enables Gate-A20 when it counts and tests all of the system memory, and then disables it before transferring control to the operating system. Originally, the logic gate was a gate connected to the Intel 8042 keyboard controller. Controlling it was a relatively slow process. Other methods have since been added to allow more efficient multitasking of programs that require this wrap-around with programs that access all of the system memory. There are multiple methods to control the A20 line. Disconnecting A20 would not wrap all memory accesses above 1 MB, just those in the 1–2 MB, 3–4 MB, 5–6 MB, etc. ranges. Real-mode software cared only about the area slightly above 1 MB, so the Gate-A20 line was enough. Enabling the Gate-A20 line is one of the first steps that a protected-mode x86 operating system does in the bootup process, often before control has been passed to the kernel from the bootstrap (in the case of Linux, for example). Virtual 8086 mode, introduced with the Intel 80386, allows the A20 wrap-around to be simulated by using the virtual memory facilities of the processor; physical memory may be mapped to multiple virtual addresses. Thus, the memory mapped at the first megabyte of virtual memory may be mapped again in the second megabyte of virtual memory. The operating system may intercept changes to Gate A20 and make corresponding changes to the virtual-memory address space, which also makes irrelevant the efficiency of Gate-A20 line toggling. A20 gate Controlling the A20 line was an important feature at one stage in the growth of the IBM PC architecture, as it added access to an additional 65,520 bytes (64 KB − 16 bytes) of memory in real mode, without significant software changes. In what was arguably a "hack", the A20 gate was originally part of the keyboard controller on the motherboard, which could open or close it depending on what behavior was desired. The A20 gate is still present on many modern PCs, and the gate is initially closed right after boot. Modern protected-mode operating systems typically open the A20 gate early during the boot process and never close it again. Such operating systems do not have the compatibility reasons for keeping it closed, and they gain access to the full range of physical addresses available by opening it. The Intel 80486 and Pentium added a special pin named A20M#, which when asserted low forces bit 20 of the physical address to be zero for all on-chip cache- or external-memory accesses. It was necessary, since the 80486 introduced an on-chip cache and so masking this bit in external logic was no longer possible. Software still needs to manipulate the gate and must still deal with external peripherals (the chipset) for that. Support for the A20 gate was changed in the Nehalem microarchitecture (some sources incorrectly claim that A20 support was removed). Rather than the CPU having a dedicated A20M# pin that receives the signal whether or not to mask the A20 bit, it has been virtualized so that the information is sent from the peripheral hardware to the CPU using special bus cycles. From a software point of view, the mechanism works exactly as before, and an operating system must still program external hardware (which in-turn sends the aforementioned bus cycles to the CPU) to disable the A20 masking. Intel no longer supports the A20 gate, starting with Haswell. Page 271 of the Intel System Programmers Manual Vol. 3A from June 2013 states: "The functionality of A20M# is used primarily by older operating systems and not used by modern operating systems. On newer Intel 64 processors, A20M# may be absent." A20 handler The A20 handler is IBM PC memory manager software that controls access to the high memory area (HMA). Extended-memory managers usually provide this functionality. A20 handlers are named after the 21st address line of the microprocessor, the A20 line. In DOS, HMA managers such as HIMEM.SYS have the "extra task" of managing A20. HIMEM.SYS provided an API for opening/closing A20. DOS itself could use the area for some of its storage needs, thereby freeing up more conventional memory for programs. That functionality was enabled by the DOS=HIGH or HIDOS=ON directives in the CONFIG.SYS configuration file. Affected programs Since 1980, the address wrap was internally used by 86-DOS and MS-DOS to implement the CP/M-style CALL 5 entry point in the Program Segment Prefix (PSP) (which partially resembles CP/M's zero page). This was, in particular, utilized by programs machine-translated from CP/M-80 through assembly language translators like Seattle Computer Products' TRANS86. The CALL 5 handler this entry point refers to resides at physical address 0x000000C0 (overlapping the entry for INT 30h and the first byte of INT 31h in the real mode interrupt vector table). However, by the design of CP/M-80 which loaded the operating system immediately above the memory available for the program to run in, the 8080/Z80 16-bit target address stored at offset 6 in the zero page could deliberately also be interpreted as segment memory size. In order to emulate this in DOS with its 8086 segment:offset addressing scheme, the far call entry point's 16-bit offset had to match this segment size (f.e. 0xFEF0), which is stored at offset 6 in the PSP, overlapping parts of the CALL 5. The only way to reconcile these requirements was to choose a segment value that, when added to 0xFEF0, results in an address of 0x001000C0, which, on an 8086, wraps around to 0x000000C0. A20 had to be disabled for the wraparound to occur and DOS programs using this interface to work. Newer DOS versions which can relocate parts of themselves into the HMA, typically craft a copy of the entry point at FFFF:00D0 in the HMA (which again resolves to physical 0x001000C0), so that the interface can work without regard to the state of A20. One program known to use the CALL 5 interface is the DOS version of the Small-C compiler. Also, the SPELL utility in Microsoft's Word 3.0 (1987) is one of the programs depending on the CALL 5 interface to be set up correspondingly. Sun Microsystems' PC-NFS (1993) requires the CALL 5 fix-up as well. Also, to save program space, a trick was used by some BIOS and DOS programmers, for example, to have one segment that has access to program data (such as from F800:0000 to F800:7FFF, pointing to the physical addresses 0x000F8000–0x000FFFFF), as well as the I/O data (such as the keyboard buffer) that was located in the first memory segment (with addresses F800:8000 to F800:FFFF pointing to the physical addresses 0x00000000 to 0x00007FFF). This trick works for as long as the code isn't executed in low memory, the first 64 KB of RAM, a condition that was always true in older DOS versions without load-high capabilities. With the DOS kernel relocated into higher memory areas, low memory increasingly became available for programs, causing those depending on the wraparound to fail. The executable loaders in newer versions of DOS attempt to detect some common types of affected programs and either patch them on-the-fly to function also in low memory or load them above the first 64 KB before passing execution on to them. For programs, which are not detected automatically, LOADFIX or MEMMAX -L can be used to force programs to be loaded above the first 64 KB. The trick was utilized by IBM/Microsoft Pascal itself as well as by programs compiled with it, including Microsoft's MASM. Other commonly used development utilities using this were executable compressors like Realia's Spacemaker (written by Robert B. K. Dewar in 1982 and used to compress early versions of the Norton Utilities) and Microsoft's EXEPACK (written by Reuben Borman in 1985) as well as the equivalent /E[XEPACK] option in Microsoft's LINK 3.02 and higher. Programs processed with EXEPACK would display a "Packed file is corrupt" error message. Various third-party utilities exist to modify compressed executables either replacing the problematic uncompression routine(s) through restubbing, or attempting to expand and restore the original file. Modern Legacy BIOS boot loaders (such as GNU GRUB) use A20 line. UEFI boot loaders use 32-bit protected mode or 64-bit long mode. See also Bug compatibility Computer storage High memory area (HMA) LOADFIX (CONFIG.SYS directive) (PTS-DOS) Boot loaders References Further reading X86 memory management Memory expansion X86 architecture IBM PC compatibles

263660

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle%20of%20forces

Circle of forces

The circle of forces, traction circle, friction circle, or friction ellipse is a useful way to think about the dynamic interaction between a vehicle's tire and the road surface. The diagram below shows the tire from above, so that the road surface lies in the x-y plane. The vehicle to which the tire is attached is moving in the positive y direction. In this example, the vehicle would be cornering to the right (i.e. the positive x direction points to the center of the corner). Note that the plane of rotation of the tire is at an angle to the actual direction that the tire is moving (the positive y direction). Put differently, rather than being allowed to simply "roll" in the direction that it is "pointing" (in this case, rightwards from the positive y direction), the tire instead must "slip" in a different direction from that which it is pointing in order to maintain its "forward" motion in the positive y direction. This difference between the direction the tire "points" (its plane of rotation) and the tire's actual direction of travel is the slip angle. A tire can generate horizontal force where it meets the road surface by the mechanism of slip. That force is represented in the diagram by the vector F. Note that in this example F is perpendicular to the plane of the tire. That is because the tire is rolling freely, with no torque applied to it by the vehicle's brakes or drive train. However, that is not always the case. The magnitude of F is limited by the dashed circle, but it can be any combination of the components Fx and Fy that does not extend beyond the dashed circle. (For a real-world tire, the circle is likely to be closer to an ellipse, with the y axis slightly longer than the x axis.) In the example, the tire is generating a component of force in the x direction (Fx) which, when transferred to the vehicle's chassis via the suspension system in combination with similar forces from the other tires, will cause the vehicle to turn to the right. Note that there is also a small component of force in the negative y direction (Fy). This represents drag that will, if not countered by some other force, cause the vehicle to decelerate. Drag of this kind is an unavoidable consequence of the mechanism of slip, by which the tire generates lateral force. The diameter of the circle of forces, and therefore the maximum horizontal force that the tire can generate, depends upon many factors, including the design of the tire and its condition (age and temperature, for example), the qualities of the road surface, and the vertical load on the tire. See also Racetrack (game) Vehicle dynamics Cornering force Slip angle Slip (vehicle dynamics) References Force Automotive suspension technologies Automotive safety Tires Motorcycle dynamics

263662

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huli%20jing

Huli jing

Huli jing () are Chinese mythological creatures usually capable of shapeshifting, who may either be benevolent or malevolent spirits, among which the nine-tailed fox, jiuweihu (), is the most famous. Nine-tailed foxes appear in Chinese folklore, literature, and mythology, in which, depending on the tale, they can be a good or a bad omen. During the Han dynasty, the development of ideas about interspecies transformation had taken place in Chinese culture. The idea that non-human creatures with advancing age could assume human form is presented in works such as the Lunheng by Wang Chong (27–91). As these traditions developed, the fox's capacity for transformation was shaped. Descriptions The nine-tailed fox occurs in the Shanhaijing (Classic of Mountains and Seas), compiled from the Warring States period to the Western Han period (circa 4th to circa 1st century BC). The work states: In chapter 14 of the Shanhaijing, Guo Pu had commented that the nine-tailed fox was an auspicious omen that appeared during times of peace. However, in chapter 1, another aspect of the nine-tailed fox is described: In one ancient myth, Yu the Great encountered a white nine-tailed fox, which he interpreted as an auspicious sign that he would marry Nüjiao. In Han iconography, the nine-tailed fox is sometimes depicted at Mount Kunlun and along with Xi Wangmu in her role as the goddess of immortality. According to the first-century Baihutong (Debates in the White Tiger Hall), the fox's nine tails symbolize abundant progeny. Describing the transformation and other features of the fox, Guo Pu (276–324) made the following comment: The Youyang Zazu made a connection between nine-tailed foxes and the divine: Traditions Popular fox worship during the Tang dynasty has been mentioned in a text entitled Hu Shen (Fox gods): In the Song dynasty, fox spirit cults, such as those dedicated to Daji, became outlawed, but their suppression was unsuccessful. For example, in 1111, an imperial edict was issued for the destruction of many spirit shrines within Kaifeng, including those of Daji. In late imperial China, during the Ming and Qing dynasties, disruptions in the domestic environment could be attributed to the mischief of fox spirits, which could throw or tear apart objects in a manner similar to a poltergeist. "Hauntings" by foxes were often regarded as both commonplace and essentially harmless, with one seventeenth-century author commenting that "Out of every ten houses in the capital, six or seven have fox demons, but they do no harm and people are used to them". In Chinese mythology, it is believed that all things are capable of acquiring human forms, magical powers, and immortality, provided that they receive sufficient energy, in such forms as human breath or essence from the Moon and the Sun. It was believed that a fox would place skulls on its head, and the one that fit would transform it into a human being. The fox spirits encountered in tales and legends are usually females and appear as young, beautiful women. One of the most infamous fox spirits in Chinese mythology was Daji (), who is portrayed in the Ming shenmo novel Fengshen Yanyi. A beautiful daughter of a general, she was married forcibly to the cruel tyrant Zhou Xin ( Zhòu Xīn). A nine-tailed fox spirit who served Nüwa, whom Zhou Xin had offended, entered into and possessed her body, expelling the true Daji's soul. The spirit, as Daji, and her new husband schemed cruelly and invented many devices of torture, such as forcing righteous officials to hug red-hot metal pillars. Because of such cruelties, many people, including Zhou Xin's own former generals, revolted and fought against Zhou Xin's dynasty, Shang. Finally, King Wen of Zhou, one of the vassals of Shang, founded a new dynasty named after his country. The fox spirit in Daji's body was later driven out by Jiang Ziya (), the first Prime Minister of the Zhou dynasty and her spirit condemned by Nüwa herself for excessive cruelty. Typically fox spirits were seen as dangerous, but some of the stories in the Qing dynasty book Liaozhai Zhiyi by Pu Songling are love stories between a fox appearing as a beautiful girl and a young human male. In the fantasy novel The Three Sui Quash the Demons' Revolt, a huli jing teaches a young girl magic, enabling her to conjure armies with her spells. Belief in fox spirits has also been implicated as an explanatory factor in the incidence of attacks of koro, a culture-bound syndrome found in southern China and Malaysia in particular. There is mention of the fox spirit in Chinese Chán Buddhism, when Linji Yixuan compares them to voices that speak of the Dharma, stating "the immature young monks, not understanding this, believe in these fox-spirits..." In popular culture Film, TV series and Donghua The Pokémon Ninetales (1996) The Legend of Nezha (2003) Strange Tales of Liao Zhai (2005) The Legend and the Hero (2006) Painted Skin (2008) The Legend and the Hero 2 (2009) A Chinese Fairy Tale (2011) Painted Skin: The Resurrection (2012) The Investiture of the Gods (2014) The Investiture of the Gods 2 (2015) Fox Spirit Matchmaker (2015) League of Gods (2016) Legend of Nine Tails Fox (2016) Fox in the Screen (2016) Eternal Love (2017) Once Upon a Time (2017) Moonshine and Valentine (2017) Hanson and the Beast (2017) Beauties in the Closet (2018) Investiture Of The Gods (2019) Love, Death & Robots (2019) The Legend of Hei (2019) The Life of White Fox (2019) Eternal Love of Dream (2020) Jiang Ziyia (2020) Soul Snatcher (2020) Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings (2021) See also Daji, a well-known character who was a fox spirit in the Fengshen Yanyi Fox spirit Huxian, the fox immortals, highly cultivated fox spirits in Chinese tradition Kitsune, a similar fox spirit from Japan Kumiho, a similar fox spirit from Korea Hồ ly tinh, a similar fox spirit from Vietnam Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, a compilation of supernatural stories of which many have fox spirits as a theme References Literature Ting, Nai-tung. "A Comparative Study of Three Chinese and North-American Indian Folktale Types." Asian Folklore Studies 44, no. 1 (1985): 42-43. Accessed July 1, 2020. doi:10.2307/1177982. Anatole, Alex. "Tao of Celestial Foxes -The Way to Immortality" Volumes I, II, III)(2015) External links Fox Spirits in Asia Chinese legendary creatures Fairies Inari faith Mythological canines Mythological foxes Shapeshifting

263664

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20goldeneye

Common goldeneye

The common goldeneye or simply goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) is a medium-sized sea duck of the genus Bucephala, the goldeneyes. Its closest relative is the similar Barrow's goldeneye. The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek boukephalos ("bullheaded", from bous, "bull " and kephale, "head"), a reference to the bulbous head shape of the bufflehead. The species name is derived from the Latin clangere ("to resound"). Common goldeneyes are aggressive and territorial ducks, and have elaborate courtship displays. Description Adult males ranges from and weigh approximately , while females range from and weigh approximately . The common goldeneye has a wingspan of 30.3-32.7 in (77-83 cm). The species is named for its golden-yellow eye. Adult males have a dark head with a greenish gloss and a circular white patch below the eye, a dark back and a white neck and belly. Adult females have a brown head and a mostly grey body. Their legs and feet are orange-yellow. Two subspecies are generally recognized, the nominate Eurasian subspecies Bucephala clangula clangula and the North American B. c. americana. americana has a longer and thicker bill than clangula. Habitat and breeding Their breeding habitat is the taiga. They are found in the lakes and rivers of boreal forests across Canada and the northern United States, Scotland, Scandinavia, the Baltic States, and northern Russia. They are migratory and most winter in protected coastal waters or open inland waters at more temperate latitudes. Naturally, they nest in cavities in large trees, where they return year after year, though they will readily use nest boxes as well. Natural tree cavities chosen for nest sites include those made by broken limbs and those made by large woodpeckers, specifically pileated woodpeckers or black woodpeckers. Average egg size is a breadth of , a length of and a weight of . The incubation period ranges from 28 to 32 days. The female does all the incubating and is abandoned by the male about 1 to 2 weeks into incubation. The young remain in the nest for about 24–36 hours. Brood parasitism is quite common with other common goldeneyes, and occurs less frequently with other duck species. The broods commonly start to mix with other females' broods as they become more independent or are abandoned by their mothers. Goldeneye young have been known to be competitively killed by other goldeneye mothers, common loons and red-necked grebes. The young are capable of flight at 55–65 days of age. Diet Common goldeneyes are diving birds that forage underwater. Year-round, about 32% of their prey is crustaceans, 28% is aquatic insects and 10% is molluscs. Insects are the predominant prey while nesting and crustaceans are the predominant prey during migration and winter. Locally, fish eggs and aquatic plants can be important foods. They themselves may fall prey to various hawks, owls and eagles, while females and their broods have been preyed upon by bears (Ursus spp.), various weasels (Mustela spp.), mink (Mustela vison), raccoons (Procyon lotor) and even northern flickers (Colaptes auratus) and red squirrels (Tamiasciurus husonicus). Conservation The common goldeneye is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Approximately 188,300 common goldeneyes were killed annually by duck hunters in North America during the 1970s, representing slightly less than 4% of the total waterfowl killed in Canada during that period, and less than 1% of the total waterfowl killed in the US. Both the breeding and winter habitat of these birds has been degraded by clearance and pollution. However, the common goldeneye in North America is known to derive short-term benefits from lake acidification. Gallery References External links Common Goldeneye Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Common Goldeneye - Bucephala clangula - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter eNature.com: Common Goldeneye Common Goldeneye wildlife photos and voice at nature-photos.org Feathers of Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) at ornithos.de common goldeneye Holarctic birds common goldeneye Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

263666

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charmed%20Life%20%28Billy%20Idol%20album%29

Charmed Life (Billy Idol album)

Charmed Life is the fourth studio album by English rock singer Billy Idol, released in 1990 through Chrysalis Records. The lead single, "Cradle of Love", appeared on the soundtrack of The Adventures of Ford Fairlane. The song was famous for its video, which won the 1990 MTV Video Music Award for "Best video from a film". The video directed by David Fincher, involved Betsy Lynn George as a teenager who knocks at her neighbour's door and asks to play a tape, before stripping to the music. The album's second single is a cover version of "L.A. Woman" by The Doors. Its video was also directed by Fincher. The third single off the album was "Prodigal Blues". Charmed Life was certified Platinum by the RIAA and Silver by BPI in 1990. Track listing Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications Personnel Billy Idol – vocals, guitar, horn arrangement on "License to Thrill" Mark Younger-Smith – guitar, bass guitar Phil Soussan – bass guitar Jimmy Johnson – bass guitar Phil Shenale – bass guitar, programming Vito – bass guitar Arthur Barrow – keyboards, programming Greg Mathieson – keyboards Mike Baird – drums Keith Forsey – drums, producer References Billy Idol albums 1990 albums Albums produced by Keith Forsey Chrysalis Records albums

263667

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarkan%20%28singer%29

Tarkan (singer)

Tarkan Tevetoğlu (; born 17 October 1972) is a Turkish singer-songwriter. Since the early 1990s, with the successful sales of his albums, he has been a prominent figure of the Turkish pop music, being known in Turkey, Europe and Western Asia. Tarkan was born and raised in Alzey, Rhineland-Palatinate. In 1986, he moved to Turkey together with his family. Tarkan, who had been interested in music since his childhood, went to high school at Karamürsel and took music lessons. In the following years, he met the owner of İstanbul Plak, Mehmet Söğütoğlu, and signed a contract to release his own album. Tarkan released his first album Yine Sensiz in late 1992 with "Kıl Oldum" being chosen as its lead single. His second and third albums, Aacayipsin and Ölürüm Sana, were released in 1994 and 1998 respectively. The song "Şımarık" from Ölürüm Sana became popular in a number of countries. In 1998, he signed a new contract with Universal Music Group. In 1999, his compilation album, Tarkan, received platinum and gold certifications in several countries. In 2001, he made music videos for the songs "Kuzu Kuzu, "Hüp" and "Verme" from his fourth studio album Karma. Two years later, extended play Dudu performed well on the sales charts, and in 2006 with the release of his first English album, Come Closer, he became known in Europe. "Bounce" and "Start the Fire" were the lead singles of this album. The lyrics of the songs included in the album Metamorfoz were praised by the Turkish Language Association. In 2010, his seventh studio album, Adımı Kalbine Yaz, became the best-selling album of the year in Turkey. In 2016, his ninth album, Ahde Vefa, which has a Classical Turkish theme, was released. Alongside his music career, Tarkan has taken part in numerous social projects and is known as "Megastar" and "Prince of the Bosporus" in the press. One of few European singers who has managed to span chart success without singing in English, he is also noted for his live stage performances. Tarkan's effect on Turkey has been compared by the Washington Post to that of Elvis Presley in the US around 1957 and Atlantic Records's co-founder Ahmet Ertegun described him as one of the best live performers he had ever seen. He has also been listed by Rhapsody as a key artist in the history of European pop music, with his signature song "Şımarık" as a keystone track that moved the genre forward. His albums have sold over 15 million copies. Throughout his career, he has won four Turkey Music Awards, six Golden Butterfly Awards and one World Music Award and has received various nominations. Early life Tarkan Tevetoğlu was born on 17 October 1972 in Alzey, West Germany, to Neşe and Ali Tevetoğlu. His mother named him after the comic book character Tarkan. The name Tarkan is said to originate from an ancient Turkic king or title, meaning bold and strong. Tarkan's interest in music began in childhood. Tarkan and his five siblings moved to Turkey in 1986 with their parents settled in Karamürsel, Kocaeli. After his father's death, his mother married an architect, Seyhun Kahraman. Tarkan has three step-siblings named Adnan, Gülay and Nuray, from his mother's first marriage, and a brother, Hakan, and a younger sister, Handan, from her marriage to his father. Tarkan started his high school there and took Turkish Art and Music lessons at the Karamürsel Advanced Music Association. After his family moved to Istanbul, he continued his music studies at the Uskudar Music Society and started performing at various venues. After finishing high school, he made plans to move to Germany for higher education and meanwhile he signed a contract with İstanbul Plak's owner Mehmet Söğütoğlu to release his first album. Career 1992–2000: Yine Sensiz, Aacayipsin and Ölürüm Sana Tarkan's first album, Yine Sensiz, was released on cassettes by İstanbul Plak on 26 December 1992. He wrote the lyrics for three of the album's songs, and composed three other songs himself and chose "Kıl Oldum" to be its lead single. On 18 June 1993, three new versions of the album were released on CD. Alongside "Kıl Oldum", he made music videos for the songs "Kimdi", "Gelip de Halimi Gördün mü?", "Vazgeçemem" and "Çok Ararsın Beni". The album sold 700,000 copies in total. Wrote one critic: "It happened maybe for the first time in the world of [Turkish] music, that "slang" words were used in songs and the brave young man began to draw attention as much with his songs as with his green eyes." In May 1994, his second studio album Aacayipsin was released in Turkey; it was subsequently released in Germany and Russia in 1996 and 1998 respectively. Artists Sezen Aksu, Ümit Sayın, Ozan Çolakoğlu and Yıldız Tilbe were among those who were featured on the album. Tarkan wrote the lyrics for four songs, three of which were also composed by him; "Hepsi Senin mi?", "Unutmamalı", "Gül Döktüm Yollarına", "Kış Güneşi", "Şeytan Azapta", "Dön Bebeğim" and "Bekle" were the songs that got separate music videos. Aacayipsin sold two and a half million copies and earned Tarkan the "Best Male Pop Music Artist" award at the Turkey Music Awards. The song "Hepsi Senin mi?" was also awarded with the "Best Lyrics", "Best Composition" and "Best Song" awards. In 1994, he experienced a dip in his celebrity status after he made a gaffe during an interview on a live broadcast marking the anniversary of the private Turkish TV channel ATV. When asked how he was on live television, his response was "Çişim var, ağabey." ("I've gotta pee, man.") He was publicly criticised for the comment and only after performing traditional songs on another TV special did he endear himself again to the nation. In part to remove himself from media scrutiny, Tarkan moved to New York in 1994 to learn English and complete his education at Baruch College. During this period he filmed a video to another song from his second album, "Dön Bebeğim", in New York. Again Tarkan stripped for this project, but this time he was sharing a bed with a female American model for the slow love song. While in the United States, he met the Turkish founder of Atlantic Records, Ahmet Ertegun. Tarkan has described Ertegun as his mentor in music and business. Ertegun, who died in December 2006, had long been preparing Tarkan for an American career. In 1997, Tarkan found his own production company Hitt Müzik and in the same year he released his third studio album Ölürüm Sana, which sold three and a half million copies. Tarkan himself did the songwriting and composition for many of the songs on this album. "Şımarık", "İkimizin Yerine", "Salına Salına Sinsice", "Ölürüm Sana" and "Kır Zincirlerini" were the songs for which music videos were made. "Şımarık" became a hit in many countries; ranking third in France, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland; second in Norway; and first in Belgium; it also ranked 26th on Billboard list of Latin Pop Songs. The song was later performed by many other artists. The song "Kır Zincirleri" also made it into Germany, Belgium and France's music charts. A copyright dispute erupted between Tarkan and Aksu over the track "Şımarık", which ultimately blocked the singer's chance to release an English-language version of the song. The music was initially credited as composed by Aksu, Tarkan and Çolakoğlu, but Tarkan later admitted in a 2006 interview that this had been done without Aksu's consent, and that Aksu was the true copyright owner. This dispute ended their successful musical partnership and friendship. In 1998, Tarkan signed a contract with Universal Music Group. In the same year, his compilation album Tarkan was released in a number of countries including France, Argentina, Russia and the Netherlands, and it also contained his signature songs from his previous albums. Tarkan sold one and a half million copies worldwide earning the singer a platinum certification from Mexico, and gold certifications from Germany, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Colombia and Luxembourg. In 1999, Tarkan, who already had high sales figures around the world, was honored at the World Music Awards as the Best-Selling Turkish Artist. As the first artist of Turkish origin to sell 500,000 albums in France, in an interview for CNN he said: "It feels wild, you know, because in the beginning I never thought it was going to really happen. It's all in Turkish, you know, and nobody understands a word. But I think it's a groove. It's the kisses that are universal." His entry into the European musical consciousness started a Turkish pop boom in Germany and Turkey in the 1990s, with his European successes signalling that the musical borders between Turkey and Europe, more specifically Germany, were dissolving. Because of his success, he became the prime example of a Turkish pop performer with an audience outside Turkey. His erotic persona was enhanced when the artist posed naked and semi-naked for the most popular Turkish magazines of the period. 2001–06: Karma, Dudu and Come Closer Tarkan released the lead single of his fourth studio album "Kuzu Kuzu" in May 2001, which sold 200,000 copies on cassettes and 500,000 copies in CD format. Three months later, in July 2001 his fourth studio album Karma was released. Tarkan wrote and composed six of the songs, and Nazan Öncel, Mete Özgencil and Mazhar Alanson helped in its preparing. The album Karma sold one and a half million copies. Although Karma was not released worldwide, it was distributed in large shipments to Russia, where he had become the largest-selling non-Russian pop star. A million copies shipped to other areas of Europe, including Denmark. "Hüp" and "Verme", became the album's other songs to get music videos, and the clip for "Hüp" was subject to various negative criticisms. When the video, directed by Ferzan Özpetek, was released, the Turkish Radio and Television Supreme Council considered banning it from television broadcast, as some viewers complained that the scene in which Tarkan kisses actress Sinemis Candemir was too "explicit" and "pornographic". The case was reported through Europe by the BBC. At the Golden Butterfly Awards, "Hüp" was awarded with the "Best Video Clip" award; and Tarkan himself received the "Best Male Turkish Pop Music Soloist" award in addition to an honorary award. Tarkan's so-called Karma-era style projected an image totally different from his earlier persona in respect to both music and looks. His appearance – tight trousers, loose, unbuttoned shirts or tight T-shirts – and his new hairdo set a trend among young Turkish men, who started to copy his looks. According to hairdressers, his Kuzu Kuzu hairstyle was the most frequently requested style in the salons of Turkey. During this time he met Michael Lang, co-organiser of the Woodstock Festival, who became his international manager. According to Lang, Tarkan is a great singer and his performance is great. In 2001 researcher Dr. N Aysun Yüksel published a book titled Tarkan – Yıldız Olgusu (Tarkan – Anatomy of a Star), which was withdrawn from bookshelves by a court order after Tarkan's lawyer Süheyl Atay sued the writer. According to the court's decision the book published personal information and copyrighted photos of the artist, and violated his good reputation. In 2002, Tarkan released two new singles "Özgürlük İçimizde" and "Bir Oluruz Yolunda"; modifications in the song "Bir Oluruz Yolunda" were made for the Turkish national football team's entry to the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Tarkan's EP album Dudu was produced by Ozan Çolakoğlu and released in summer 2003 in Turkey, Ukraine, Russia and Japan. It was the first album of its kind to sell over a million copies in Turkey, while the title track won Tarkan a "Song of the Year Award" in Russia. Although musically a continuation from Karma, in terms of image Dudu presented different visuals from the 2001–2003 period. Sexuality became secondary in terms of fashion and concerts were toned down to become intimate affairs. The new image portrayed a more laid back Tarkan sporting shorter hair and wearing less glamorous designs. It was a declaration that glitz and sex were no longer a necessary tool to sell his works. Indicating his desire to show different sides of his personality, he said of his new look: "It's not important how sexy I look or whether I dance sexy". "Dudu", "Sorma Kalbim", "Gülümse Kaderine" and "Uzun İnce Bir Yoldayım", were the song from the EP that were made into music videos. The album sold one million copies. In 2004, Tarkan was chosen as the "Best Male Pop Music Artist" at the Turkey Music Awards. In 2005, Tarkan released the single "Ayrılık Zor" followed by "Bounce" in 2006, which was sold in Europe as well. In April 2006, after a long period of preparations, he released his English studio album Come Closer on 7 April. It included 15 songs in total. The plans for Come Closer had begun in 1995, when media mogul Ahmet Ertegun encouraged Tarkan to break into the international market. The album, ranked 18th on Germany's music charts, 43rd on Switzerland's charts, 50th on Austria's charts; and sold 110,000 copies in Turkey. A Turkish music pirate, well before the official release, leaked four stolen demo recordings from the debut English album onto the internet. Thousands of copies were downloaded illegally before the album's official release. The leaked songs garnered considerable airplay in dance clubs in Turkey before Tarkan's management took legal action against DJ's playing them. 2007–15: Metamorfoz and Adımı Kalbine Yaz On 23 December 2007, Tarkan's sixth studio album Metamorfoz was released. Tarkan wrote all of the songs of this album, and composed seven of them. For the Turkish idioms and proverbs widely used in the lyrics, he was praised by the Turkish Language Association, showing in the association's view a good example to Turkish youth in preserving the culture of the Turkish language. The critical response to Metamorfoz was lukewarm. Most music critics found the album musically lacking in comparison with Tarkan's earlier albums. Ecevit Kılıç, columnist for Sabah newspaper, hailed Tarkan on his return and called him the "Orhan Pamuk of music", saying that Tarkan, just like Nobel award recipient Pamuk, always does everything his own way, despite all the attacks he has received from the press. The album sold 200,000 copies and the songs "Vay Anam Vay", "Pare Pare", "Arada Bir" and "Dilli Düdük" were made into music videos. Tarkan received gold and diamond certifications from MÜ-YAP in 2008 and 2009 respectively. In 2008, the remixed versions of the songs from Metamorfoz were released in two CDs under the title Metamorfoz Remixes. Dutch DJ Tiësto served as the remix album's producer. In the same year, the singer released the song "Uyan", which he prepared to support Doğa Derneği (Nature Society). In July 2010, Tarkan's seventh studio album Adımı Kalbine Yaz was released and sold 355,000 copies. The song "Sevdanın Son Vuruşu", which was released before the album, won the "Best Song", "Best Composition", and "Best Lyrics" award at the Turkey Music Awards; the album itself was chosen as the Best Album. The songs "Öp", "Acımayacak", "Kayıp" and "Adımı Kalbine Yaz" were turned into music videos, and "Öp" won the "Best Video Clip" award at the Turkey Music Awards. According to a survey conducted in 2011, Tarkan was the most searched artist on Google in Turkey. In 2012, Tarkan recorded the song "Aşk Gitti Bizden" for Ozan Çolakoğlu's debut album 01. In the early months of 2013, he started working on his new album. In June 2013, he was featured on the album Aysel'in, in tribute to Aysel Gürel, and performed the song "Firuze". In August 2014, he recorded and performed the song "Hop De" for İskender Paydaş's album Zamansız Şarkılar 2. On 22 August 2014, he became the first Turkish singer to perform at the closing concert of Monte Carlo Sporting Summer Festival on its fortieth anniversary. 2016–present: Ahde Vefa and 10 On 11 March 2016, Tarkan's ninth studio album Ahde Vefa was released. It was produced by Hitt Müzik and distributed by DMC.Ahde Vefa is Tarkan's first Classical Turkish album. Within one week of its release, it sold 170,000 copies. On 14 July 2016, his single "Cuppa" was released. At the 43rd Golden Butterfly Awards, Ahde Vefâ was chosen as the "Best Project" in Turkish Classical Music category. Tarkan released his new album 10 under the label DMC on 15 June 2017. Out of the 14 songs in the album, "Yolla" written by Tarkan and composed by Ozan Çolakoğlu, was released as the lead single and made into music video. The songs "Beni Çok Sev", "Çok Ağladım", "Kedi Gibi", and "O Sevişmeler" were also released with separate music videos. Out of these songs, "Yolla" and "Beni Çok Sev" both topped the official music chart in Turkey. According to Telifmetre, Tarkan was the male artist with the most number of streams in Turkey in the first six months of 2019. On 17 February 2022, Tarkan released a new song, titled "Geççek". Popularity According to Ahmet Ertegun: "He's a great dancer, he moves beautifully, and he has the magic that all big hit artists share, which is the ability to get an emotion across through a recording." His song "Şımarık" has been sampled by various artists in these countries, and the film industry in India has also used several Tarkan hits, including "Şıkıdım", "Kuzu Kuzu" and "Dudu", for various Bollywood films. His "Kış Güneşi" song has been chosen as one of "The Unforgettable Hits of Turkish Music" by Hürriyet newspaper. Personal life Military service At the height of his fame in 1999, Tarkan was called up for military service, which had been legally deferred since 1995. The deadline for beginning his service had passed in 1998, but due to contractual obligations abroad after the success of his compilation album he did not return to Turkey to do his military service. The media discussed whether Tarkan should be viewed as a deserter and stripped of his citizenship. Even the Turkish parliament discussed the issue. After the August 1999 earthquake shook Turkey, legislation was enacted that allowed those covered by the law to pay $16,000 for the benefit of the earthquake victims in return for shortening their military service obligation to 28 days. Tarkan returned to Turkey in 2000, took advantage of this law, and completed his service. Of his shortened time in military training, he said: "It was January and snowing like crazy. It was tough; the food was terrible. Eighteen months of my life for nothing? I thought my own dreams were more important." Relationships and rumours Tarkan was in a relationship with a French model in the early 1990s, and with a Turkish journalist between 1994 and 1996. Because Tarkan does not like to talk about his personal life, there has been speculation about his sexual orientation in the popular press. Photos stolen from his house in New York in 2001 were portrayed as compromising; they were photos with other men in swimwear at a public nude beach. In one of the pictures he appears to be kissing a man. In an interview with Hürriyet, Tarkan contested the widespread assumption that he was gay. He said that men spread the rumours, because he didn't conform to their image of being a man. One of his ex-girlfriends also denied he was gay. Tarkan later gave fewer and fewer interviews and television appearances, limiting himself to a small number of trusted journalists. In 2006, he said that his relationship with the media had gone wrong. He was in a relationship with a lawyer, Bilge Öztürk, for seven years until they amicably parted in 2008. He has told the media that he regards the institution of marriage as outdated, stating he would only get married for the benefit of any children he might have. Tarkan owns a ranch-like property in Polonezköy, Istanbul, where he cultivates fruit trees and keeps animals, and owned a flat in Murray Hill, New York City. Marriage On 29 April 2016, Tarkan married his long-time girlfriend, Pınar Dilek. The couple met in 2011 after a concert in Germany. Dilek had been a fan of Tarkan long before they got acquainted. On 12 July 2018, the couple had their first child, a daughter named Liya. Health Tarkan, who had been suffering from sleeping issues and voice disorders due to thyroid nodules, underwent a successful surgery at Maslak Acıbadem Hospital in June 2019. Discography Albums Yine Sensiz (December 1992) Aacayipsin (May 1994) Ölürüm Sana (July 1997) Tarkan (International debut) (September 1998) Karma (July 2001) Come Closer (First English album) (April 2006) Metamorfoz (December 2007) Adımı Kalbine Yaz (July 2010) Ahde Vefa (March 2016) 10 (June 2017) Other releases ‘’Dudu (EP) (June 2003) Metamorfoz Remixes (July 2008) Geççek (February 2022)Awards List of awards Tarkan has won during his career: International 1999, World Music Awards (Monaco) Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist: Tarkan 1999, Record Fair Midem (Cannes) Best Selling Pop Single: Şımarık 2004, The Pud Award (Russia) "Song of the Year": DuduDomestic 1998 Kral TV Music Awards Yılın Şarkısı (Song of the Year): Şımarık 2001 MGD Golden Objective Awards Yılın En İyi Pop Müzik Sanatçısı (Best Pop Singer of the Year) 2001 Kral TV Music Awards Yılın Erkek Pop Sanatçısı (Male Pop Singer of the Year) Yılın Şarkısı (Song of the Year): Kuzu Kuzu Yılın Videosu (Video of the Year): Hüp 2002 MGD Altin Objektif Ödülleri En İyi Erkek Yorumcu (Best Male Singer) Yılın Albümü (Album of the Year): Karma 2003 Kral TV Music Awards En İyi Pop Erkek (Best male pop singer) 2011 Kral TV Müzik Ödülleri En İyi Albüm (Best Album): Adımı Kalbine Yaz En İyi Erkek Sanatçı (Best Male Artist) En İyi Şarkı (Best Song): Sevdanın Son Vuruşu En İyi Beste (Best Composition): Sevdanın Son Vuruşu Radyolarda En Çok Çalınan Sanatçı (Most Played Artist for Airplay) Mü-Yap (Yılın En Çok Satan Albümü) (Best-Selling Album of the Year): Adımı Kalbine Yaz 2011 Golden Butterfly Awards En İyi Türk Pop Müzik Erkek Solist (Best Turkish Pop Music Male Soloist) Yılın En İyi Şarkısı (Best Song of the Year): Sevdanın Son Vuruşu 2017 Golden Butterfly Awards En İyi Türk Pop Müziği Erkek Solist (Best Turkish Pop Music Male Soloist) Yılın En İyi Şarkısı (Best Song of the Year): Beni Çok Sev'' References Further reading External links Official website [ Tarkan] at AllMusic Tarkan People from Alzey Tarkan Tarkan Tarkan World Music Awards winners Golden Butterfly Award winners Turkish pop singers 20th-century Turkish male singers 21st-century Turkish male singers People from Murray Hill, Manhattan English-language singers from Turkey Turkish singer-songwriters

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.%20A.%20Santamaria

B. A. Santamaria

Bartholomew Augustine Santamaria, usually known as B. A. Santamaria (14 August 1915 – 25 February 1998), was an Australian Roman Catholic anti-Communist political activist and journalist. He was a guiding influence in the founding of the Democratic Labor Party (DLP). Early and family life Santamaria was born in Melbourne. The son of a greengrocer who was an immigrant from the Aeolian Islands in Italy, Santamaria was educated at St Ambrose's Catholic Primary School in Brunswick, behind his father's shop, and later at St Joseph's College in North Melbourne by the Christian Brothers. He finished his secondary education at St Kevin's College as dux of the school. One of his teachers, Francis Maher, belonged to a newly founded Roman Catholic association, the Campion Society. Santamaria attended the University of Melbourne, where he graduated in arts and law. He completed his Master of Arts degree with a thesis entitled Italy Changes Shirts: The Origins of Italian Fascism. Santamaria was a political activist from an early age, becoming a leading Catholic student activist. The subject of his Master of Arts thesis and his strenuous support of Franco's forces in the Spanish Civil War suggest that Santamaria was also a Fascist in the 1930s. Santamaria was married in 1939 and had eight children. In 1980 his wife, Helen, died. He later married Dorothy Jensen, his long-time secretary. His brother, Joseph, was a Melbourne surgeon and prominent in the Roman Catholic bioethics movement. His daughter Bernadette Tobin, is a leading Catholic bioethicist. Catholic Worker movements In 1936 he co-founded The Catholic Worker, a newspaper influenced by the social teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, particularly the encyclical Rerum novarum of Pope Leo XIII. He was the first editor of the paper which declared itself opposed to both communism and capitalism. Although the group campaigned for the rights of workers and against what it saw as the excesses of capitalism, Santamaria came to see the Communist Party of Australia, which in the 1940s made great advances in the Australian trade union movement, as the main enemy. In 1937 he was persuaded by Archbishop Daniel Mannix to join the National Secretariat of Catholic Action, a lay activist organisation. During World War II, Santamaria gained an exemption from military service. In 1972 Arthur Calwell, a leading Catholic Labor politician, confirmed that Santamaria had "dodged" war service after Mannix had approached him to gain the exemption. When asked, Calwell stated "I want to put the record straight because apparently the Department of Defence cannot find any of the records, nor can the Department of Labour and National Service." Santamaria and two other men (Maher and K. W. Mitchell) were, argued Mannix, "members of the Secretariat of Catholic Action and that their work was equivalent to that of a minister of religion." Calwell said 'I regret my part in it... I want the country to know that these three men who have been pestering and opposing and demonstrating against the Australian Labor Party for the last 30 years were people who dodged military service'. He reflected on the Vietnam War and noted that all three supported it and "conscription of men for military service", adding "I regret that these people who benefited from our generosity did not beget any children who went out to fight in the war in Vietnam. Their sons were exempted, all of them, because they were employed in reserve institutions as were their fathers." Santamaria denied the allegation that he had ever sought an exemption and stated that 'if Mr Calwell repeated his statement outside of parliament he would take appropriate action'. Calwell moderated his statements regarding Maher, but not on Mitchell or Santamaria. In May 1972, previously missing records were found confirming Calwell's version. In 1941, Santamaria founded the Catholic Social Studies Movement, generally known simply as "the Movement" or Groupers, which recruited Catholic activists to oppose the spread of communism, particularly in the trade unions. The movement gained control of the Industrial Groups in the unions, fighting the communists and gaining control of many unions. This activity brought him into conflict not only with the Communist Party but with many left-wing Labor Party members, who favoured a united front with the communists during the war. During the 1930s and 1940s Santamaria generally supported the conservative Catholic wing of the Labor Party, but as the Cold War developed after 1945 his anti-communism drove him further away from Labor, particularly when H.V. Evatt became Leader of the Labor Party in 1951. Seven Labor MPs, elected from Victoria and associates of Santamaria, criticised Evatt's leadership over the next four years. Labor split and the National Civic Council Events leading to "The Split" included a well publicised incident in the Parliament of Victoria. In October 1954, the Sydney Sun-Herald reported on a letter sent by the Victorian Minister for Lands, Robert W. Holt, to the federal secretary of the Australian Labor Party, a Mr J. Schmella, which the paper described as "probably as explosive, politically, as any document in Australia". Holt stated "My charge is that the Victorian branch is controlled and directed in the main by one group or section through Mr. B. Santamaria ... My criticism is not personal. It is leveled against those ideas which are contrary to what I believe Labor policy to be. Moreover, I have been requested by my numerous and trusted friends, who happen to be Catholic, to fight against the influence of Mr. Santamaria and those he represents, when he seeks to implement his ideas through an abuse of a political movement, designed to serve a truly political purpose." Holt spoke of events the previous year and described attending a meeting of Santamaria's National Catholic Rural Movement Convention, following which he was, as Minister of Lands, approached by Santamaria and Frank Scully, where he was asked to use his position to make Crown land available to "Italians with foreign capital". When he refused, "Santamaria stated that I might not be in the next parliament", and Scully agreed. Holt considered this "a direct threat" which was confirmed when another M.L.A. confided that there was 'pressure' to oppose him for party selection for his seat. He added that "subsequent events which happened during the selection ballot' had convinced him that the ALP's "Victorian branch is not free to implement Labor policy and connives with this method". He concluded by stating his belief in:a party machine which permits the true expression of opinion of its members, regardless of who or what they may be. The only requirement is loyalty to Labor ideals and principles. This is not possible in the present circumstances... Holt introduced the Land Bill without Santamaria's desired advantage and it was at first amended by another ALP member, then defeated, amended again and passed – with what Santamaria wanted – after two Liberal party members "switched sides". In December 1954, Santamaria launched a suit against Holt for libel, citing the letter published in-full by the Sun-Herald. The libel action was withdrawn, without explanation, in April 1955. In 1954 Evatt publicly blamed "the Groupers" for Labor's defeat in that year's federal election, and after a tumultuous National Conference in Hobart in 1955, Santamaria's parliamentary followers were expelled from the Labor Party. The resulting split (now usually called "The Split", although there have been several other "splits" in Labor history) brought down the Labor government of John Cain senior in Victoria. In Victoria, Dr Mannix strongly supported Santamaria, but in New South Wales, Norman Cardinal Gilroy, the first Australian-born Roman Catholic prelate, opposed him, favouring the traditional alliance between the Church and Labor. Gilroy's influence in Rome helped to end official Church support for the Groupers. In January 1955, Santamaria used Dr Mannix as his witness to the statement, "There is no Catholic organisation seeking to dominate the Labor Party or any other political party ... So that there will be no equivocation, Catholics are not associated with any other secular body seeking to dominate the Labor Party or any other political party." Santamaria made this statement when he denied charges from the general secretary of the Australian Workers' Union (Mr T Dougherty) that the "No. 2-man in the Victorian ALP" (Frank McManus), the "No. 2-man in the NSW Labor Party" (J. Kane) and the "secretary of the Australian Rules Football Association of Queensland" (Mr Polgrain) were Santamaria's "top lieutenants in The Movement". For his part, McManus suggested that Dougherty "appeared to have contracted an ailment from one of his political colleagues ... the chief symptom of this ailment was that the sufferer believed he was always detecting conspiracy theories". Santamaria founded a new organisation no longer an organ of Catholic Action, the National Civic Council (NCC), and edited its newspaper, News Weekly, for many years. His followers, known as Groupers, continued to control a number of important unions. Those expelled from the Labor Party formed a new party, the Democratic Labor Party (DLP), dedicated to opposing both Communism and the Labor Party, which they said was controlled by Communist sympathisers. Santamaria never joined the DLP but was one of its guiding influences. Anti-communist and social conservative During the 1960s and 1970s Santamaria regularly warned of the dangers of communism in Southeast Asia, and supported South Vietnam and the United States in the Vietnam War. He founded the Australian Family Association and the Thomas More Centre (for Traditional Catholicism) to extend the work of the NCC. However, his political role gradually declined. The death of the 99-year-old Archbishop Mannix (in 1963) ended the Roman Catholic Church's support for the NCC, even in Victoria. In 1974 the DLP lost all its seats in the Senate, and was wound up a few years later. Santamaria ran the NCC in a highly personal and (according to his critics) autocratic way, and in 1982 there was a serious split in the organisation, with most of the trade unionists leaving it. The first of four unions disaffiliated after the split of 1955, attempted to return at the ALP Victorian State Conference in 1983. The Federated Clerks' Union and three others similarly aligned 'right-wing' unions – the Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees Association, the Federated Ironworkers' Association of Australia and the Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners – had their re-affiliation cases considered by a special Victorian ALP committee of ten which split on the decision 5 against 5 and had submitted separate reports to the State Conference. The Federated Clerks' case, 'after a bitter and at times acrimonious 3 and a 1/2-hour debate', which was 'centred on alleged links' with Santamaria, the National Civic Council, and the Industrial Action Fund, was defeated at the State Conference by 289 votes to 189. It was noted in a news report of the time that all four were likely to appeal to the federal ALP executive and that they had the support of then Prime Minister Bob Hawke. The ALP federal executive supported the re-affiliation before the 1985 Victorian State Conference while two of the unions were refused re-affiliation in the Northern Territory later that year. Ultimately, all four returned as ALP affiliated unions in some form; the Federated Clerks' Union amalgamated into the affiliated Australian Services Union in 1993, the Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees Association is a current ALP affiliated union, while the Federated Ironworkers' Association of Australia and the Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners amalgamated with the affiliated Australian Workers' Union. But Santamaria's personal stature continued to grow, through his regular column in The Australian newspaper and his regular television spot, Point of View (he was given free air time by Frank Packer, owner of the Nine Network). He was one of the most articulate voices of Australian conservatism for more than 20 years. According to historians David McKnight and C. J. Coventry, Santamaria worked for the United States of America as an informer in the 1960s and 1970s discreetly providing information about Australia to diplomatic officials. He was offered a knighthood by Malcolm Fraser but declined it. Traditionalism in the Catholic Church Santamaria also opposed what he saw as liberal and non-traditional trends in the Catholic Church following the Second Vatican Council (which he had sought to attend as an independent observer), and founded a magazine through his Thomas More Centre, called AD 2000, to argue for traditionalist views. He welcomed Pope John Paul II's return to conservatism in many areas. The conservative Archbishop of Melbourne, George Cardinal Pell, a staunch supporter of Santamaria, delivered the panegyric at his funeral, which was held at St. Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne. Santamaria had died from an inoperable brain tumour at age 82 at Caritas Christi Hospice, Kew, Victoria. On his death Santamaria was praised by conservatives for his opposition to communism, but also by some on the left (such as veteran left-wing Labor ex-Cabinet Minister Clyde Cameron) and by social democrats (such as former Governor-General Bill Hayden) for his consistent critique of unrestricted capitalism. Bibliography Books The Price of Freedom : the Movement – after ten years (1964) Campion Press Point of View (1969) Hawthorn Press The defence of Australia (1970) Hawthorn Press Against the Tide (1981) Oxford University Press Daniel Mannix : the quality of leadership (1984) Melbourne University Press Australia at the crossroads : reflections of an outsider (1987) Melbourne University Press Santamaria : a Memoir (1997) Oxford University Press (Revised ed. of Against the tide) Your Most Obedient Servant : selected letters, 1938–1996 (edited by Patrick Morgan) (2007) Miegunyah Press (in association with the State Library of Victoria) Running the Show : selected documents, 1939–1996 (edited by Patrick Morgan) (2008) Miegunyah Press (in association with the State Library of Victoria) Pamphlets What the church has done for the worker (1940) Renown Press The fight for the land : the program and objectives of the National Catholic Rural Movement (1942) * Advocate Press Self-government and the land : War Agricultural Committee Organisation (1943) NCRM The earth - our mother (A study of the future of Australian agriculture) (1945) Araluen Publishing Correspondence with Professor N. W. Arndt (1956) The pattern of a Christian society (1956) Renown Press Catholics and the fight against communism in Australia (1956) NCRM Religious apostolate and political action (1956) The mission of the layman : an analysis of the thought of Pius XII on the mission of the layman in the modern world (1957) Australian Catholic Publications Peace or war? : The global strategy of world communism (1958) Renown Press New Guinea : the price of weakness (1959) Australian Catholic Publications The peace game (1959) National Civic Council Spotlight on Santamaria : a commentary on the present and future of Australia (1960) Hawthorn Equality in education (1960) Institute of Social Order Communism returns to Yallourn (1960) Renown Press The Movement 1941-60 : an outline (1961) Hawthorn Press State aid in perspective (1966) Hawthorn Press Determined to survive (1966) Hawthorn Press The politics of 1966 (1966) Hawthorn Press Contraception : reflections on the Pope's ruling (1968) The Australian Labor movement (1966-71) : the issue of control (1971) Hawthorn Press Philosophies in collision (1973) National Civic Council Archbishop Mannix : his contribution to the art of public leadership in Australia (1978) Melbourne University Press A.N.Z.U.S. in the “eighties” (1979) Australia Defence Association The movement into the eighties : a study paper (1981) National Civic Council The challenge of the eighties : a study paper (1981) National Civic Council Extension Committee Test tube babies? (1984) Australian Family Association The church in Australia : the visit of John Paul II in perspective (1986) National Civic Council Presentation of discussion papers to the Society by Bob Santamaria and Clyde Cameron, Elder Hall Adelaide University, 26th October 1997 (2000) Society for the Study of Labour History Articles Critical studies, reviews and biographies of Santamaria Ross Fitzgerald: The Pope's Battalions: Santamaria, Catholicism and the Labor Split: St. Lucia, University of Queensland Press: 2003; Gerard Henderson: Mr Santamaria and the Bishops: Sydney: Hale and Iremonger: 1983; Xavier Connor, et al.: Santamaria: The Politics of Fear: Richmond: Spectrum: 2000; Joseph N. Santamaria: The Education of Dr Joe: Ballan: Connor Court Publishing: 2006; Gerard Henderson: Santamaria: A Most Unusual Man: Melbourne: Miegunyah: 2015; References External links Obituary for B.A. Santamaria Archbishop Pell's tribute to B.A. Santamaria Reprinted from AD2000. Vol. 11; No. 3. (April 1998), p. 10 1915 births 1998 deaths Activists from Melbourne Journalists from Melbourne Australian anti-communists Australian traditionalist Catholic Australian people of Italian descent Australian people of Sicilian descent Deaths from brain tumor Deaths from cancer in Victoria (Australia) People educated at St Kevin's College, Melbourne

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmie%20Lunceford

Jimmie Lunceford

James Melvin Lunceford (June 6, 1902 – July 12, 1947) was an American jazz alto saxophonist and bandleader in the swing era. Early life Lunceford was born on a farm in the Evergreen community, west of the Tombigbee River, near Fulton, Mississippi, United States. The farm was owned by his father, James. His mother was Idella ("Ida") Shumpert of Oklahoma City, an organist of "more than average ability". Seven months after James Melvin was born, the family moved to Oklahoma City. The family next moved to Denver where Lunceford attended high school and studied music under Wilberforce J. Whiteman, father of Paul Whiteman, whose band was soon to acquire a national reputation. As a child in Denver, he learned several instruments. After high school, Lunceford continued his studies at Fisk University. In 1922, he played alto saxophone in a local band led by the violinist George Morrison which included Andy Kirk, another musician destined for fame as a bandleader.<ref>Dictionary of American Biography, Supplement 4: 1946–1950</ref> Career In 1927, while an athletic instructor at Manassas High School in Memphis, Tennessee, Lunceford organized a student band, the Chickasaw Syncopators, whose name was changed to the Jimmie Lunceford Orchestra. Under the new name, the band started its professional career in 1929, and made its first recordings in 1930. Lunceford was the first public high school band director in Memphis. After a period of touring, in 1934 the band accepted a booking at the Harlem nightclub The Cotton Club for their revue "Cotton Club Parade" starring Adelaide Hall. The Cotton Club had already featured Duke Ellington and Cab Calloway, who won their first widespread fame from their inventive shows for the Cotton Club's all-white patrons. With their tight musicianship and the often outrageous humor in their music and lyrics, Lunceford's orchestra made an ideal band for the club, and Lunceford's reputation began to steadily grow. Jimmie Lunceford's band differed from other great bands of the time because it was better known for its ensemble than for its solo work. Additionally, he was known for using a two-beat rhythm, called the Lunceford two-beat, as opposed to the standard four-beat rhythm. This distinctive "Lunceford style" was largely the result of the imaginative arrangements by trumpeter Sy Oliver, which set high standards for dance-band arrangers of the time. Though not well-known as a musician, Lunceford knew how to play several instruments and was even featured on flute in "Liza". Comedy and vaudeville played a distinct part in Lunceford's presentation. Songs such as "Rhythm Is Our Business" (featured in a 1937 musical short with Myra Johnson (Taylor) on vocals), "I'm Nuts about Screwy Music", "I Want the Waiter (With the Water)", and "Four or Five Times" displayed a playful sense of swing, often through clever arrangements by trumpeter Sy Oliver and bizarre lyrics. Lunceford's stage shows often included costumes, skits, and obvious jabs at mainstream white bands, such as Paul Whiteman's and Guy Lombardo's. Despite the band's comic veneer, Lunceford always maintained professionalism in the music befitting a former teacher; this professionalism paid off and during the apex of swing in the 1930s, the Orchestra was considered the equal of Duke Ellington's, Earl Hines' or Count Basie's. This precision can be heard in such pieces as "Wham (Re-Bop-Boom-Bam)", "Lunceford Special", "For Dancers Only", "Uptown Blues", and "Stratosphere". The band's noted saxophone section was led by alto sax player Willie Smith. Lunceford often used a conducting baton to lead his band. The orchestra began recording for the Decca label and later signed with the Columbia subsidiary Vocalion in 1938. They toured Europe extensively in 1937, but had to cancel a second tour in 1939 because of the outbreak of World War II. Columbia dropped Lunceford in 1940 because of flagging sales. (Oliver departed the group before the scheduled European tour to take a position as an arranger for Tommy Dorsey). Lunceford returned to the Decca label. The orchestra appeared in the 1941 movie Blues in the Night. Lunceford's band was hired to play at the Elks Ballroom in Los Angeles on September 26, 1940 and again on June 26, 1947 by Leon Hefflin Sr. Most of Lunceford's sidemen were underpaid and left for better paying bands, leading to the band's decline. Personal life After playing McElroy's Ballroom in Portland, Lunceford and his orchestra were in Seaside, Oregon, to play at The Bungalow dance hall on July 12, 1947. Retrieved November 1, 2016 Before the performance Lunceford collapsed during an autograph session at a local record store. He died while being taken by ambulance to the Seaside hospital. Lunceford was 45. Dr Alton Alderman performed an autopsy in nearby Astoria, Oregon, and concluded that Lunceford died of coronary occlusion. Lunceford had complained about an aching leg as they arrived in Seaside, and had been suffering with high blood pressure for a while, and had recently complained about not feeling well. Allegations and rumors circulated that he had been poisoned by a restaurant owner, who was unhappy at having to serve a "Negro" in his establishment. He was buried at Elmwood Cemetery in Memphis. Legacy Band members, such as Eddie Wilcox and Joe Thomas, kept the band going for a time but finally had to break up the Jimmie Lunceford Orchestra in 1949. In 1999, band-leader Robert Veen and a team of musicians set out to acquire permission to use the original band charts and arrangements of the Jimmie Lunceford canon. "The Jimmie Lunceford Legacy Orchestra" officially debuted in July 2005 at the North Sea Jazz Festival in the Netherlands. The Jimmie Lunceford Jamboree Festival was founded in 2007 with the aim of increasing recognition of Lunceford's contribution to jazz, particularly in Memphis, Tennessee. The Jimmie Lunceford Legacy Awards were created by the festival to honor exceptional musicians with Memphis ties as well as those who have dedicated their careers to excellence in music and music education. Lunceford's music continues to have an impact. Most recently the tune "Rhythm is Our Business" was included as track on the compilation set Memphis Jazz Box in 2004 in honor of Lunceford's close ties to Memphis. On July 19, 2009, a brass note was dedicated to Lunceford on the Beale Street Walk of Fame in Memphis. Selected discography Prior to Lunceford's success on Decca (beginning September 1934), Lunceford made the following recordings: "In Dat Mornin'"/"Sweet Rhythm" (Victor V-38141) - recorded Memphis, June 6, 1930 "Flaming Reeds and Screaming Brass"/"While Love Lasts" (test pressings for Columbia, not released until 1967 on LP) - recorded New York, May 15, 1933 "Jazznocracy"/"Chillun, Get Up" (Victor 24522) - recorded New York, January 26, 1934 "White Heat"/"Leaving Me" (Victor 24586) - recorded New York, January 26, 1934 "Breakfast Ball"/"Here Goes" (Victor 24601) - recorded New York, March 20, 1934 "Swingin' Uptown"/"Remember When" (Victor 24669) - recorded New York, March 20, 1934 Also prior to his Decca period, he made recordings for Brunswick records from 1934 to 1940. Decca recordingsJazz Heritage Series #3- Jimmie Lunceford 1: Rhythm Is Our Business (1934-1935) (LP: Decca #79237, 1968/LP reissue: MCA #1302, 1980)Jazz Heritage Series #6- Jimmie Lunceford 2: Harlem Shout (1935-1936) (LP: Decca #79238, 1968/LP reissue: MCA #1305, 1980) Jazz Heritage Series #8- Jimmie Lunceford 3: For Dancers Only (1936-1937) (LP: Decca #79239, 1968/LP reissue: MCA #1307, 1980) Jazz Heritage Series #15- Jimmie Lunceford 4: Blues In The Night (1938-1942) (LP: Decca #79240, 1968/LP reissue: MCA #1314, 1980) Jazz Heritage Series #21- Jimmie Lunceford 5: Jimmie's Legacy (1934-1937) (LP: MCA #1320, 1980) Jazz Heritage Series #22- Jimmie Lunceford 6: The Last Sparks (1941-1944) (LP: MCA #1321, 1980)Stomp It Off (1934-1935 Decca recordings) (CD: GRP #608, 1992)For Dancers Only (1935-1937 Decca recordings) (CD: GRP #645, 1994)Swingsation: Jimmie Lunceford (1935-1939 Decca recordings) (CD: GRP #9923, 1998) Columbia recordingsLunceford Special (1939-1940 Columbia Records recording) (78rpm 4-disc album set/8 songs/#C-175: 1948; original LP issue/12 songs/#CL-634: 1956; expanded LP reissue/16 songs/#CL-2715 and #CS-9515: 1967; CD release/22 songs/#CK-65647: 2001 from Sony-Legacy label) Majestic recordingsMargie (1946-1947 Majestic recordings) (LP/13 songs/#SJL-1209: 1989 from Savoy Jazz label) The Chronological...Classics series note: every recording by Jimmie Lunceford & His Orchestra is included in this 10 volume series from the Classics reissue label:The Chronological Jimmie Lunceford & His Orchestra 1930-1934 (#501)The Chronological Jimmie Lunceford & His Orchestra 1934-1935 (#505)The Chronological Jimmie Lunceford & His Orchestra 1935-1937 (#510)The Chronological Jimmie Lunceford & His Orchestra 1937-1939 (#520)The Chronological Jimmie Lunceford & His Orchestra 1939 (#532)The Chronological Jimmie Lunceford & His Orchestra 1939-1940 (#565)The Chronological Jimmie Lunceford & His Orchestra 1940-1941 (#622)The Chronological Jimmie Lunceford & His Orchestra 1941-1945 (#862)The Chronological Jimmie Lunceford & His Orchestra 1945-1947 (#1082)The Chronological Jimmie Lunceford's Orchestra 1948-1949 (#1151) -note: these last recordings (1948-1949) were made after Lunceford's death by his long-time band under the joint-direction of Eddie Wilcox (his piano player) and Joe Thomas (his tenor sax player/vocalist). CD compilations from different reissue labelsRhythm Is Our Business (ASV/Living Era, 1992) -note: all tracks recorded 1933-1940, both the Decca and Columbia periods successively.It's the Way That You Swing It: The Hits of Jimmie Lunceford (Jasmine, 2002) 2-CD setJukebox Hits 1935–1947 (Acrobat 2005)Quadromania: Jimmie Lunceford–Life Is Fine (1935–45, Membran/Quadromania Jazz, 2006) 4-CD box setStrictly Lunceford (Proper, 2007) 4-CD box setThe Complete Jimmie Lunceford Decca Sessions'' (Mosaic, 2014) 7-CD box set References External links Jimmie Lunceford recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings. 1902 births 1947 deaths African-American saxophonists American jazz alto saxophonists American male saxophonists American jazz bandleaders Big band bandleaders Death in Oregon Fisk University alumni Musicians from Denver People from Fulton, Mississippi Swing bandleaders Swing saxophonists 20th-century American musicians 20th-century saxophonists Jazz musicians from Mississippi Brunswick Records artists Columbia Records artists Decca Records artists Majestic Records artists RCA Victor artists Jazz musicians from Colorado 20th-century American male musicians American male jazz musicians 20th-century African-American musicians

263676

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caf%C3%A9%20society

Café society

Café society was the description of the "Beautiful People" and "Bright Young Things" who gathered in fashionable cafés and restaurants in New York, Paris and London beginning in the late 19th century. Maury Henry Biddle Paul is credited with coining the phrase "café society" in 1915. Members attended each other's private dinners and balls, and took holidays in exotic locations or at elegant resorts. In the United States, café society came to the fore with the end of Prohibition in December 1933 and the rise of photojournalism to describe the set of people who tended to do their entertaining semi-publicly—in restaurants and night clubs—and who would include among them movie stars and sports celebrities. Some of the American night clubs and New York City restaurants frequented by the denizens of café society included the 21 Club, El Morocco, Restaurant Larue, and the Stork Club. See also 1920s Berlin Années folles Golden Twenties Jazz Age Paris between the Wars (1919–1939) Roaring Twenties Jet set Bibliography References Further reading External links Upper class culture Social groups Sociolinguistics Roaring Twenties

263678

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member%20of%20the%20Scottish%20Parliament

Member of the Scottish Parliament

Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP; ; ) is the title given to any one of the 129 individuals elected to serve in the Scottish Parliament. Electoral system The additional member system produces a form of proportional representation, where each constituency has its own representative, and each region has seats given to political parties to reflect as closely as possible its level of support among voters. Each registered voter is asked to cast 2 votes, resulting in MSPs being elected in one of two ways: 73 are elected as First past the post constituency MSPs and; 56 are elected as Regional additional member MSPs. Seven are elected from each of eight regional groups of constituencies. Types of candidates With the additional members system, there are 3 ways in which a person can stand to be a MSP: a constituency candidate a candidate named on a party list at the regional election an individual candidate at the regional election A candidate may stand both in a constituency and on a regional list. Constituency seats are decided first. Candidates who succeed in being elected to a constituency seat will then have their name removed from the regional list process. Elections All MSP positions become simultaneously vacant for elections held on a five-year cycle. The Scotland Act 1998 as amended by the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 sets out that ordinary general elections for the Scottish Parliament are held on the first Thursday in May, every five years. If a vacancy arises at another time, due to death or resignation, then it may be filled in one of two ways, depending on whether the vacancy is for a first-past-the-post constituency MSP or for an additional-member MSP. A constituency vacancy may be filled by a by-election. An additional-member vacancy may be filled by the next available candidate on the relevant party list. In case there is no next available person, then the vacancy will remain. This situation occurred in April 2014 following the death of Margo MacDonald, independent MSP for the Lothian region. Title An MSP is known as Name MSP (Name BPA in Gaelic). For instance, Mike Russell can be entitled either Mike Russell MSP or Mìcheal Ruiseal BPA. See also Commissioner (Scottish Parliament) for the historic representatives of the pre-1707 Estates of Parliament 1st Scottish Parliament 2nd Scottish Parliament 3rd Scottish Parliament 4th Scottish Parliament 5th Scottish Parliament 6th Scottish Parliament Scottish Parliament constituencies and regions MSPs' Salaries, Expenses and Allowances Member of Parliament Member of the Legislative Assembly (Northern Ireland) Member of the Senedd References Scottish Parliament

263703

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moda%20Center

Moda Center

Moda Center, formerly known as the Rose Garden, is the primary indoor sports arena in Portland, Oregon, United States. It is used for basketball, ice hockey, rodeos, circuses, conventions, ice shows, concerts, and dramatic productions. The arena has a capacity of 19,393 spectators when configured for basketball. It is equipped with state-of-the-art acoustics and other amenities. The arena is owned by Vulcan Inc., a holding company owned by the estate of Paul Allen, and is currently managed by Anschutz Entertainment Group and AEG Live. The primary tenant is the Portland Trail Blazers NBA franchise, also owned by Allen's estate. The other major tenant of the building was the major junior hockey franchise Portland Winterhawks of the Western Hockey League, which used to split its schedule with the Memorial Coliseum next door. In addition to the Blazers and Winterhawks, several other professional sports franchises, and the Portland State University men's basketball team, either currently play home games in Moda Center, or have done so in the past. In addition, Moda Center is a popular venue for concerts and other artistic productions. Construction began in 1993, and the arena opened on October 12, 1995. The arena cost US$262 million to build; construction was financed with funds obtained by a variety of sources, including the City of Portland, Allen's personal fortune, and $155 million in bonds issued by a consortium of mutual funds and insurance companies. These bonds would become the subject of an acrimonious 2004 bankruptcy in which the Oregon Arena Corporation, the holding company which owned the arena at the time, would forfeit title to the arena in lieu of repaying the bonds per the payment terms. Allen would later repurchase the arena from the creditors in 2007. Description Moda Center is a multipurpose arena which is suitable for numerous indoor sports, including basketball, ice hockey, arena football, and lacrosse, as well as for hosting other events such as concerts, conventions, and circuses. The arena is located in a sports and entertainment district known as the Rose Quarter, a parcel of land in inner northeast Portland which also includes the Memorial Coliseum arena, as well as several parking structures, restaurants, and other amenities. Name The original name of the facility was "Rose Garden"; however, the arena was also commonly known as the "Rose Garden Arena" to disambiguate it from the International Rose Test Garden, also located in Portland. The name was chosen both to reflect Portland's reputation as the Rose City, and to reflect the importance to basketball heritage of Boston Garden and Madison Square Garden arenas in Boston and New York City, respectively. When the name was selected, the remainder of the former coliseum grounds were given the name "Rose Quarter". In 2007, the Trail Blazers and Vulcan announced that they were seeking a corporate partner to grant naming rights for the facility, with the goal of a new name being available for the Blazers' 2008–09 season. In August 2013, the Trail Blazers announced a 10-year deal with Moda Health, an Oregon-based health insurance provider, to rename the arena Moda Center. The renaming spurred a public outcry and petition by fans and Portlanders who preferred the old name. Portland mayor Charlie Hales initially expressed concern about the name, calling it a "head scratcher." Structure and architecture Moda Center is a precast concrete-framed structure with a roof made up of skeletal steel. The arena structure encloses a total of over , on eight levels, five of which are open to the public. The building height is , from the event floor to the pinnacle of the saddle-shaped roof. The arena includes a permanent stage, and a ice rink. The building is composed of over of concrete, and over of steel. The exterior is composed of over of glass, of plaster, of architectural precast, of insulation, and of steel louvers. The building, designed by architecture firm Ellerbe Becket, has been criticized by some in Portland's architectural community. A survey of local architects and planners was conducted by the Portland Tribune, and subsequently Moda Center was listed among the five ugliest buildings in the city. Seating The arena has a total of over 14,000 permanent seats arranged in two bowls. An additional 1540 permanent seats are found in the arena's 70 skyboxes. Over 4,200 portable seats may or may not be installed, depending on the arena's configuration. When configured for basketball, the arena has a capacity of 19,393, and can accommodate a total of up to 20,796 patrons with standing room. Prior to the 1998 NBA season the capacity was reduced to 19,980 from the original 21,485 spectators. When configured for hockey or lacrosse, capacity decreases to 17,544. The arena supports numerous other configurations for events such as concerts, monster trucks, and circuses. The seating below the suites, known as the lower bowl, is further divided into the 100 and 200 levels. The upper bowl seats, above the suites, are the 300 level. Skyboxes and suites The arena features 70 Suites and 8 Skyboxes each with a seating capacity of 22 guests. Suites include amenities such as a wet bar, catering, a private restroom, multiple television monitors, and a sound system. Suites may be rented on a yearly or single-event basis; yearly renters of suites are given access to all Moda Center events. The arena also features modular party suites, which can be configured either as a pair of 44-person Super Suites, or as one 88-person mega suite. Theater of the Clouds For smaller, more intimate events, Moda Center can be placed into a configuration known as the "Theater of the Clouds". This configuration, part of a trend of large arenas having smaller theater configurations, places the stage at center court, and utilizes the western side of the arena. Custom floor-to-ceiling theater curtains are draped at the edges of the seating area, creating a more intimate setting. As of 2004, on average 10 events per year have been held in the Theater of the Clouds configuration. The Theater of the Clouds configuration seats 6,500, with 16 of the 70 luxury boxes being usable. Amenities Two concourses, the 100 level and the 300 level, are open to the ticket-buying public during events; the 100 level concourse provides access to the lower bowl (including the 200-level seats); the 300-level concourse provides access to the upper bowl. A third concourse, the 200 level, provides access to guest services such as a sports bar, a barbecue grill, an executive banquet facility, and several outdoor terraces. A fourth concourse, known as Suite Level, provides access to the skyboxes and is restricted to patrons who have skybox admission. All concourses provide a variety of concession stands. The arena also features 32 public restrooms; women's toilets outnumber men's toilets 3 to 1. There are Wi-Fi hotspots throughout the arena. The concourses are decorated with historical memorabilia. The primary scoreboard is a Mitsubishi-manufactured HD video scoreboard. This scoreboard, which hangs from the ceiling over center court, features four 15 feet by 22.5 feet (4.5 m by 6.75 m) video screens, among the biggest in the NBA. The arena also features over 650 television monitors placed throughout, showing the action on court. Auxiliary scoreboards located both in the arena itself and the concourses provide statistical information, including "hustle" statistics for basketball (rebounds, blocked shots, and steals). Three media towers, one at each main entrance, provide video of other games in the NBA. Acoustics A unique feature found in no other multi-purpose arena is known as the "acoustical cloud". The acoustical cloud is a set of 160 rotating acoustic panels suspended from the Moda Center ceiling, intended to recreate the roar of noise that made the old Memorial Coliseum one of the loudest buildings in the NBA. One side of each 10 feet by 10 feet (3 m by 3 m) panel reflects sound, while the other side absorbs sound. Each panel is shaped like an airplane wing, and is 8 inches (20 cm) thick at the center and 4 inches (10 cm) thick at the edges. The effect during Blazers games is to absorb the noise from the upper levels and reflect it back down to the court. The panels permit the acoustics of the arena to be adjusted according to the requirements of the event. For smaller events in which only the lower bowl of the arena is used, the panels can be lowered to further improve the sound and increase the intimacy of the arena. The acoustical cloud cost US$2 million to design and install. The arena is also equipped with a JBL sound system. The acoustics of Moda Center have been widely praised compared to similar venues. Ownership and management Moda Center is currently owned by Vulcan Sports and Entertainment, a holding company owned by the Estate of Paul Allen which manages Allen's various sports-related properties. Management and operation of Moda Center, along with other Rose Quarter facilities, is contracted out to Global Spectrum, Global Spectrum employs more than 75 full-time and 700 part-time employees at Moda Center. Mike Scanlon is the current general manager of the arena. Global Spectrum was first hired by arena creditors to operate the facility after Allen lost possession of the arena in a bankruptcy proceeding; Allen has subsequently repurchased the arena from creditors. Prior to the bankruptcy, Oregon Arena Corporation operated the arena directly; Global Spectrum has been widely praised for increasing the financial performance of the facility. Tenants The arena's current primary tenant is the Portland Trail Blazers of the NBA. Both the Trail Blazers and Moda Center are ultimately owned by the estate of Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen, which also owns the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League. The head of the estate is his sister Jody Allen. The Trail Blazers have a lease agreement with Moda Center which runs through 2025, and an exclusive site agreement with the City of Portland requires the team to remain in Portland through 2023. It was home to the Portland Winterhawks of the Western Hockey League, a Canadian-based junior hockey league. Both the Trail Blazers and Winterhawks previously played in the Memorial Coliseum and moved to the arena when it was completed in 1995. However, the Winterhawks played home games in both facilities during the season. Moda Center and Winterhawks hold the Western Hockey League's record for single game attendance with a crowd of 14,103 on March 15, 1997 in which Portland tied the visiting Seattle Thunderbirds, 6–6. Prior to the start of the 2021-22 WHL season, the Winterhawks announced they will be moving back to Veterans Memorial Coliseum full-time. The arena was also built to accommodate a NHL franchise and there has been speculation over the years about Portland landing an NHL team; however this has not occurred. A former third tenant was the Portland Lumberjax of the National Lacrosse League, who played four seasons in the arena prior to disbanding. The arena has hosted numerous other minor league sports teams as well. In 1997, an AFL team landed in Portland from Memphis as the Portland Forest Dragons. Two seasons later, they relocated to Oklahoma City. The arena started hosting another AFL team, the Portland Steel (originally called the Portland Thunder), from 2014 until it disbanded in 2016. From 2000 through 2002, the facility hosted the now-defunct Portland Fire of the WNBA. In the past, the Portland State Vikings men's basketball team has played home games in the arena; currently, the team plays its home games at Viking Pavilion on the PSU campus. History In the early 1980s, as the National Basketball Association increased in popularity, it became apparent that the 12,888-seat Memorial Coliseum, which was the home of the Portland Trail Blazers at the time, was no longer an adequate NBA facility. The Trail Blazers had sold out every home game since April 5, 1977. In 1988, the team was purchased by Paul Allen and made appearances in the NBA Finals in 1990 and 1992. Allen soon expressed a desire to build a new arena for his team, and in 1991 chartered the Oregon Arena Corporation, a private corporation with Allen as the sole shareholder, to build and operate a new facility. The team soon made an agreement with the City of Portland to build a new multi-purpose arena on the Coliseum's parking lot. A major factor in the choice of the site for the new arena was its close proximity to transit, with MAX Light Rail and bus service at TriMet's Coliseum Transit Center (later renamed Rose Quarter Transit Center) being adjacent to the site. The Portland Business Journal, in a July 1995 article, quoted the Trail Blazers' then-president Marshall Glickman as saying, "There is no doubt that transit made it possible for us to build here. The thing that burns everyone in terms of financing big projects like this is parking. The fact that we have a [light rail] stop outside our front door, and the potential for what we'll get with the south/north line made this the only place for us to build." (The "south/north" MAX line referred to was a then-planned line from Clackamas Town Center to Vancouver via downtown Portland, which was canceled in 1996, but partially revived several years later, with the MAX Yellow Line connecting Moda Center with areas to the north.) Financing The financing of the construction of the facility was widely hailed at the time as a good example of public-private partnership; most of the costs were borne by Allen and/or Allen-owned companies, rather than by taxpayers. The bulk of the $262 million construction costs were funded by a $155 million loan from a consortium of lenders led by pension fund TIAA-CREF. As Allen was unwilling to guarantee the loan with his personal finances, the lenders demanded an interest rate of 8.99%, with no opportunity for prepayment. Other major creditors included Prudential Insurance, and Farmers Insurance. The remainder of funds came from the City of Portland ($34.5 million), Allen himself ($46 million), with the final $10 million coming from a bond backed by box office and parking revenues. In addition, the City transferred to Allen the underlying land. The City maintains ownership of the Memorial Coliseum and the adjacent parking garages, but the right to manage these was also transferred to Allen. In exchange, Allen signed an exclusive site agreement with the city requiring the Trail Blazers to play all home games in Portland for 30 years The City of Portland hoped that the building of the arena would lead to other renovation or development in the Rose Quarter district, but as of 2021 this has yet to materialize. Construction and opening Ground on the arena was broken in 1993, and the arena opened on October 12, 1995. The project included the largest construction and demolition recycling program in the U.S. up to that time, in which of construction waste and of dirt were recycled, saving OAC over $127,000. This effort later won the project an environmental award from the city. The first concert held in the arena was held two weeks after opening, when David Bowie performed on October 25, with Nine Inch Nails opening. The first regular-season game to be played at the facility was the Trail Blazers hosting the then-Vancouver Grizzlies on November 3, 1995, a 92–80 defeat for the home team. The arena was originally capable of seating 20,340 spectators for NBA basketball. Its capacity has since been reduced to 19,393 by subsequent modifications. At the time of its construction, the arena was a state-of-the-art facility. Although more recent NBA arenas have surpassed Moda Center in amenities, it still is well regarded as a facility. A 2005 survey by USA Today ranked the facility in the middle of the pack among the 29 NBA arenas; factors unrelated to the venue itself (such as ticket prices and entertainment offerings) are considered in the rankings. Soon after the arena opened, it was the subject of several lawsuits seeking to enforce the Americans with Disabilities Act. One lawsuit (United States v. Ellerbe Becket, Inc.) was filed by the United States Department of Justice against architect Ellerbe-Becket; another (Independent Living Resources v. Oregon Arena Corporation) was filed by a disabled advocacy group against OAC. Both lawsuits alleged that Moda Center (and other facilities designed by Ellerbe Becket) did not provide adequate seating for patrons using wheelchairs, and that the line-of-sight of patrons in wheelchairs was frequently obstructed by standing spectators. The first case was settled with a consent decree, wherein Ellerbe Becket agreed to design future projects in compliance with the ADA; the lawsuit against Oregon Arena Corp was resolved in 1998 when OAC agreed to install over one hundred elevated seats permitting wheelchair-using patrons to see over standing spectators in front. Oregon Arena Corporation bankruptcy Claiming the local economy was responsible for reduced revenues which made it unable to make payments on the loans used to finance construction, the Oregon Arena Corporation filed for bankruptcy on February 27, 2004. After negotiations concurrent with the bankruptcy failed to produce a settlement, the United States Bankruptcy Court ordered on November 8 of that year that the Oregon Arena Corporation transfer the facility to the creditors. A new corporation owned by the creditors, Portland Arena Management (PAM) took over operation of the arena. PAM in turn hired Global Spectrum to operate the arena. For several years, the Trail Blazers (still owned by Allen) and the Portland Arena Management had a highly hostile relationship, with the two entities competing for ticket sales. The team made numerous complaints about a "broken economic model", and there was much speculation that the Trail Blazers might leave. The team was put up for sale in the summer of 2006, only to be taken off the market again several months later. Speculation intensified as to what would happen, and the team and Paul Allen were roundly criticized in the media. Despite the criticism and the team's poor finances the team insisted that bankruptcy was the right move. Early in 2007, Allen and the creditors reached an agreement for Allen to repurchase the arena, and the team and the building were united under common ownership once more. After much speculation that Allen would hire Anschutz Entertainment Group (AEG) to replace Global Spectrum, arena management elected to extend Global Spectrum's management contract by one year in the summer of 2007. In September 2007, Global Spectrum announced that the arena would undergo $13 million in renovations. Notable events While Moda Center has never hosted the NBA Finals (Portland's last appearance in the Finals was in 1992, three years before the arena opened), it has hosted three NBA Western Conference Finals series: in 1999 vs. the San Antonio Spurs; in 2000 vs. the Los Angeles Lakers; and in 2019 vs. the Golden State Warriors. One NBA-related event Moda Center—and for that matter, the Trail Blazers franchise—has never hosted is the NBA All-Star Game. The Trail Blazers are one of several franchises to never host an All-Star game; the Blazers' All-Star drought of 42 years is second only to the Boston Celtics, who last hosted the game in 1964. According to the Oregon Sports Authority, the main issue is hotel space close to the arena; the city of Portland lacks the large "headquarters" hotel needed to host the NBA and media entourage which accompanies the game. Moda Center has also hosted PBR Built Ford Tough Series bull riding events, has hosted editions of Monday Night Raw, Smackdown, Unforgiven (2004), No Mercy (2008) and NXT Takeover: Portland, and UFC 102 in 2009. In 2004, Portland was selected as one of five cities in the U.S. to host the Dew Action Sports Tour, a new extreme sports franchise to start in 2005. Titled the Vans Invitational, the event was held at the Rose Quarter from August 17 to 21. The Rose Quarter hosted BMX: Dirt and Freestyle Motocross. The Dew Action Sports returned to Portland for a third year. In the winter of 2005, the Rose Quarter hosted the U.S. Figure Skating Championships, an event attended by over 100,000 spectators. The arena would later host the 2007 NLL All Star Game on March 10, 2007. In 2009, the arena hosted first- and second-round games of the NCAA men's basketball tournament as well as in 2015. It was the first time NCAA men's tournament games were played in the state of Oregon since 1983, though the arena did host the finals of the 2008 Big Sky Conference men's basketball tournament. The state had been under an NCAA-imposed tournament embargo due to sports betting being legal in the state (specifically, the Oregon Lottery's "Sports Action" game, a parlay game which allowed bettors to wager on NFL games), but was awarded 2009 tournament games when the state Legislature eliminated Sports Action from the lottery's lineup. In addition to sports, the arena regularly hosts numerous other types of events, including concerts, circuses, ice shows, and conventions. Portland State University holds its spring commencement ceremonies at the arena. Notable non-sports related events include the 1998 Portland State commencement ceremony, where the keynote speaker was then U.S. President Bill Clinton. The President, speaking before a packed house in the Garden (including a graduating class of 2000), gave a speech embracing immigration to the United States, and was also awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the university. On June 27, 2000, a concert by former Pink Floyd member Roger Waters at the arena became the basis for the concert video In the Flesh: Live. On Sunday, August 9, 2015, Bernie Sanders held a campaign rally at the Moda Center that was attended by over 28,000 people. On October 2, British rock band Coldplay has performed during their A Head Full of Dreams Tour. On April 9, 2017, Radiohead performed at the arena for the first time during their A Moon Shaped Pool tour. It was also their first concert in Portland since 1996. The exterior of the Moda Center was featured in How I Met Your Mother's 2011 episode, Tick Tick Tick; again in the 2013 episode Platonish, and the series finale episode, Last Forever. The exterior of the Moda Center was also featured in iCarly's 2009 episode, iFight Shelby Marx. On August 22, 2021, Guns N' Roses played a show as part of their 2020 Tour. See also List of sports venues in Portland, Oregon List of indoor arenas in the United States Rose Garden Heliport Veterans Memorial Coliseum (Portland, Oregon) References External links Rose Quarter official website Vulcan, Inc. official website Global Spectrum official website Portland Trail Blazers official website Portland Winterhawks official website 1995 establishments in Oregon Arena football venues Basketball venues in Oregon Indoor arenas in Oregon Indoor ice hockey venues in the United States Indoor lacrosse venues in the United States Indoor soccer venues in the United States Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design gold certified buildings Lloyd District, Portland, Oregon Music venues in Portland, Oregon National Basketball Association venues Northeast Portland, Oregon Portland Fire venues Portland LumberJax Portland Thunder Portland Trail Blazers venues Portland Winterhawks Sports venues completed in 1995 Sports venues in Portland, Oregon Western Hockey League arenas

263706

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascalon

Ascalon

The word Ascalon comes from Ashkelon, a coastal city in Israel. It can refer to: Places and jurisdictions Ashkelon, coastal city in Israel, known in the Middle Ages as Ascalon Ascalon, Georgia, an unincorporated community Ascalon, Missouri, near St. Louis Ashkelon - history & legend Battle of Ascalon, considered the last action of the First Crusade Siege of Ascalon, the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem's capturing of the fortified city from the Fatimids in 1153 Ascalon, lance or sword used by Saint George to slay the dragon, named after the city Ashkelon in Israel. Ascalon, British World War II aeroplane used by Winston Churchill, named after the lance—an Avro York Popular culture Ascalon, a Kingdom and Region in the computer game series Guild Wars and it's sequel Guild Wars 2 Ascalon, a powerful sword in the game Dragon's Dogma Ascalon, a post-game greatsword in the game Infinite Undiscovery Ascalon, a holy sword wielded by King Thordan in the Heavensward expansion of Final Fantasy XIV: A Realm Reborn Ascalon, a sword of Galvan technology wielded by Georgius in Ben 10: Ultimate Alien Ascalon, a dragon-slaying sword that appears in the Castlevania Series. Ascalon, a holy sword given to Issei Hyoudou by the Arch Angel Michael in High School DxD Ascalon, the Class Champion weapon for Swordmaster in the game Granblue Fantasy Ascalon, the large sword wielded by Acqua of the Back in A Certain Magical Index Ascalon, a sword created by the Witch of Inysca, also known as Kalyba, in The Priory of the Orange Tree The Ascalon club, group of elite vampires ruling over night London in Vampyr Asclalon, the Noble Phantasm of Rider-Class Servant Georgios in the mobile game Fate/Grand Order Askelon, a Demi-god, prince and Companion of Tempus Thales in the Thieves' World collaborative short story series originated by Robert Lynn Asprin Ascalon, a program designed to kill the artificial intelligence Dragon from the web serial Worm by John C. McCrae. Surname Brad Ascalon (born 1977), American industrial designer David Ascalon (born 1975), Israeli artist Maurice Ascalon (1913–2003), Israeli designer and sculptor See also Ashkelon (disambiguation)

263707

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGL%20Performer

OpenGL Performer

OpenGL Performer, formerly known as IRIS Performer and commonly referred to simply as Performer, is a commercial library of utility code built on top of OpenGL for the purpose of enabling hard real-time visual simulation applications. OpenGL Performer was developed by SGI which continues to maintain and enhance it. OpenGL Performer is available for IRIX, Linux, and several versions of Microsoft Windows. Both ANSI C and C++ bindings are available. History Performer came about in 1991 when a group from SGI's Open Inventor project, then known as IRIS Inventor, decided to focus on performance rather than ease of programmability. Whereas Inventor delivered easy-to-use objects and various UI elements to interact with them, Performer focused on a scene graph system that could be re-arranged on the fly for performance reasons, allowing the various passes of a rendering task to be performed in parallel in multiple threads. Performer allowed the scene to describe levels of detail with hysteresis bands and fade capabilities. Frame rate and statistics were monitored and a 'stress' factor was calculated. This could be used to further weight the level of detail in the scene eliminating detail to maintain a target frame rate. Other key features of Performer were the use of symmetric multi-processing capabilities, support multiple graphics pipes and the ability to utilize the scalable resources of high end systems. In this regard Performer was actually simple to use given the underlying complexity. Application culling and rendering could be running in different threads locked to different physical processors. In a multi-pipe (multiple graphics subsystems) configuration rendering to each graphics pipe would have a dedicated thread and similarly culling would also have a dedicated processor. Advanced features like database paging, texture paging and point light source management (for flight simulation) and intersection testing for collision detection would also have dedicated processors allowing asynchronous I/O and processing to occur without negatively impacting graphics performance. Most of this complexity was hidden beneath a simpler scene graph API with relatively high level configuration calls which could be made to set up the threads and inter-process communication. Performer did not have a native file format, merely plugin loaders from 3rd parties such as MultiGen's OpenFlight format loader. Similarly there was no default runtime, there was sample code and the often used and often modified 'perfly' sample application. This probably contributed to its reputation for being difficult to use. By the mid-1990s it started to become clear that there was no reason that Inventor and Performer could not be combined. This led to the Cosmo 3D project that SGI was intending to build both Inventor and Performer (now essentially API shims) out of, as well as promote as a new and higher-level standardized API for future work on the SGI platform. However, after the first beta release of Cosmo 3D, SGi joined with Intel and IBM (and later DEC) to create OpenGL++, essentially a cleaned up version of Cosmo. This project died when SGI turned their attention to an almost identical project with Microsoft known as Fahrenheit, which was also killed. Today Inventor and Performer remain separate products, and none of the combined versions ever saw the light of day. Features Performer consists primarily of two libraries: the lower-level libpr and the higher-level libpf. The libpr library provides an object-oriented interface to high-speed rendering functions based on the concept of a pfGeoSet and a pfGeoState. A pfGeoSet is a collection of graphics primitives, such as polygons or lines. A pfGeoState encapsulates properties pertaining to a given pfGeoSet such as lighting, transparency, and texturing. The libpf library includes functions for the generation and manipulation of hierarchical scene graphs, scene processing (simulation, intersection, culling, and drawing tasks), level-of-detail management, asynchronous database paging, dynamic coordinate systems, environment models, light points, and so on. This library also provides transparent support for multiple viewports spread across multiple graphics pipelines. Other Performer libraries--libpfutil, libpfdb, libpfui, etc.--provide functions for generating optimized geometry, database conversion, device input (such as for interfacing with external flyboxes and MIL-STD-1553 mux busses), motion models, collision models, and a format-independent database interface that supports common data formats such as Open Inventor, OpenFlight, Designer's Workbench, Medit, and Wavefront. External links OpenGL Performer product page OpenGL Performer Getting Started Guide OpenGL Performer Programmers Guide OpenGL Performer sample code 3D scenegraph APIs OpenGL

263716

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chavo%20Guerrero%20Sr.

Chavo Guerrero Sr.

Salvador Guerrero III (January 7, 1949 – February 11, 2017), better known as Chavo Guerrero or Chavo Guerrero Sr., and also known during the 21st century as "Chavo Classic", was an American professional wrestler. He was best known for his work in Universal Wrestling Federation (UWF), American Wrestling Association (AWA) and World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and for being the father of third generation wrestler Chavo Guerrero Jr. He was the oldest son of Salvador "Gory" Guerrero, and part of the Guerrero wrestling family. He was the oldest WWE Cruiserweight Champion. Professional wrestling career Early career In 1977, Chavo competed for NWA Western States. Guerrero later moved his family to California so he could compete in Los Angeles's NWA Hollywood Wrestling and San Francisco's Big Time Wrestling. In NWA Hollywood, he feuded with Roddy Piper for the NWA Americas Heavyweight Championship. Between 1979 and 1980, he held the title 15 times. Various Territories He spent the early 80's splitting his time between All Japan Pro Wrestling, Mid South Wrestling, CWF and Houston Wrestling. In 1982, Guerrero feuded with Atsushi Onita over the NWA International Junior Heavyweight Championship in All Japan Pro Wrestling. In 1983, he feuded with Gino Hernandez in Mid South Wrestling. The feud resulted in Loser Leaves Town matches, Texas Death Matches and a Mexican Chicken Match. In 1984, he teamed with his brother Hector Guerrero in Championship Wrestling from Florida. They had rivalries with The U.S. Express, from whom they captured the NWA United States Tag Team Titles from and The Breakdancers of Brickhouse Brown and Mark Ragin. In 1985, Hector and Chavo then traveled back over to Mid South Wrestling, where they feuded with The Rock 'n' Roll Express. They then engaged in a rivalry with Ted Dibiase and "Dr. Death" Steve Williams over the UWF Tag Team Championship. In 1986, they wrestled The Fabulous Ones on multiple occasions for Mid South. AWA and EMLL In 1988, Mando and Chavo stopped in the AWA. They went after the AWA World Tag Team Championship held by Diamond Dallas Page's team of Badd Company (Paul Diamond and Pat Tanaka). However, they were unable to capture the titles in multiple attempts. In 1990, Chavo teamed with his brothers Mando and Eddie in EMLL. He competed with his brothers in multiple trios matches. World Wrestling Entertainment (2004, 2010) In 2004, Guerrero began working for World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), joining his son Chavo Jr. in a feud with his younger brother Eddie. While with WWE he competed as Chavo Classic and became the oldest WWE Cruiserweight Champion in history, defeating Chavo Jr. and Spike Dudley in a triple threat match. On the April 1 episode of SmackDown!, Classic and Chavo Jr. lost to Spike Dudley and Rey Mysterio. On the April 22 episode of SmackDown!, Classic and Chavo Jr defeated John Cena in a 2-on-1 handicap match. On the May 13 episode of SmackDown!, Chavo Classic defeated Jacqueline thanks to outside help by Chavo Jr. On the June 3 episode of SmackDown!, Chavo Classic retained the Cruiserweight Title against Funaki, thanks to outside help from Chavo Jr. He eventually lost the title to Rey Mysterio less than a month later. On June 15, 2004, he was fired by WWE for no-showing multiple SmackDown! house shows. On the November 15, 2010, "Old School" episode of Raw, Guerrero returned as Chavo Classic, driving Alberto Del Rio to the arena. Lucha Underground (2016) Chavo Classic first appeared on Lucha Underground talking with Rey Mysterio about the upcoming match of the latter against his son Chavo Guerrero Jr. in a Loser Leaves Lucha match. During the match, Classic, who was in the attendance, turned on Mysterio, helping his son win the match, but Dario Cueto ordered to restart the match, and Mysterio hit the 619 on Classic and defeated Chavo Guerrero, leaving Lucha Underground without the Guerreros. Personal life Chavo was the son of Gory Guerrero and the older brother of Mando, Hector, and Eddie Guerrero. He grew up in El Paso, Texas He had two children, wrestler Chavo Jr. and daughter Victoria, and he was the brother in-law of Vickie Guerrero. In July 2016, Guerrero and his son were named part of a class action lawsuit filed against WWE which alleged that wrestlers incurred traumatic brain injuries during their tenure and that the company concealed the risks of injury. The suit was litigated by attorney Konstantine Kyros, who has been involved in a number of other lawsuits against WWE. Over a year after his death, US District Judge Vanessa Lynne Bryant dismissed the lawsuit in September 2018. Death On February 11, 2017, Guerrero died of liver cancer, at the age of 68. Other media In 1978 he co-starred with Henry Winkler in the movie The One and Only as a wrestler called Indian Joe. He is the subject of the song "The Legend of Chavo Guerrero" by The Mountain Goats and is featured in its music video. The 2017 Netflix series, GLOW has its 7th episode dedicated to Chavo Guerrero Sr. Championships and accomplishments All Japan Pro Wrestling NWA International Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time) National Wrestling Alliance NWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship (2 times) Atlantic Coast Championship Wrestling ACCW Heavyweight Championship (2 times) Championship Wrestling from Florida NWA United States Tag Team Championship (Florida version) (1 time) – with Hector Guerrero Eastern Wrestling Federation EWF Heavyweight Championship (2 times) Empire Wrestling Federation EWF Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Hollywood Heavyweight Wrestling HHW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) International Wrestling Federation IWF Heavyweight Championship (1 time) NWA Hollywood Wrestling NWA Americas Heavyweight Championship (15 times) NWA Americas Tag Team Championship (11 times) – with Raul Mata (2), John Tolos (1), Gory Guerrero (1), Butcher Vachon (1), Victor Rivera (1), The Canadian (1), Hector Guerrero (1), El Halcon (1), Black Gordman (1) and Al Madril (1) NWA World Light Heavyweight Championship (2 times)1 New Japan Pro-Wrestling NWA International Junior Heavyweight Championship (2 times) Pro Wrestling Illustrated PWI ranked him # 130 out of the 500 best singles wrestlers during the "PWI Years" in 2003. Southwest Championship Wrestling / Texas All-Star Wrestling SCW Southwest Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time) SCW World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Manny Fernandez TASW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) TASW Texas Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Al Madril (1) and himself (1)3 Texas All-Star USA Heavyweight Championship (1 times) Vendetta Pro Wrestling Vendetty Award—2014 Co-Special Guest star of the Year (w/ Chavo Guerrero Jr. & The Godfather) World Wrestling Association WWA Trios Championship (1 time) – with Mando and Eddy Guerrero World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE WWE Cruiserweight Championship (1 time) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Best Wrestling Maneuver (1986) Moonsault block Notes 1When Chavo Guerrero won this championship, it was still officially recognized and sanctioned by the National Wrestling Alliance and was primarily defended in Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre, an NWA affiliated promotion in Mexico. After the promotion's withdrawal from the National Wrestling Alliance, they kept the title and continue to use the NWA initials. However, the NWA no longer recognizes or sanctions it. 3Defeats Al Madril to claim Madril's part of the championship, though he quickly surrenders the titles on the same day. References General sources External links Chavo Guerrero Sr.: A Legend (Official Website) Profile at Online World Of Wrestling 1949 births 2017 deaths Los Guerreros American professional wrestlers of Mexican descent People from El Paso, Texas Professional wrestlers from Texas Professional wrestling managers and valets Professional wrestling trainers American male professional wrestlers Deaths from liver cancer Deaths from cancer in Texas

263718

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Rogan

Joe Rogan

Joseph James Rogan (born August 11, 1967) is an American podcaster, Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) color commentator, comedian, actor, and former television presenter. He hosts The Joe Rogan Experience, a podcast that he launched in 2009 in which he discusses topics such as current events, comedy, politics, philosophy, science, and hobbies with a variety of guests. Rogan was born in Newark, New Jersey, and began his career in comedy in August 1988 in the Boston area. After relocating to Los Angeles in 1994, he signed an exclusive developmental deal with Disney and appeared as an actor on several television shows, including Hardball and NewsRadio. In 1997, he started working for the UFC as an interviewer and color commentator. He released his first comedy special, I'm Gonna Be Dead Someday ..., in 2000 and hosted the game show Fear Factor from 2001 to 2006. After leaving Fear Factor, Rogan focused on his stand-up career and hosted more comedy specials. He launched The Joe Rogan Experience in 2009; by 2015, it was one of the most popular podcasts in the world, regularly receiving millions of views per episode. Spotify obtained exclusive distribution rights to The Joe Rogan Experience in 2020 for 100 million. In 2022, Rogan became the subject of controversy for hosting physicians on his podcast who provided misinformation regarding COVID-19. Early life Joseph James Rogan was born on August 11, 1967, in Newark, New Jersey, US. He is of three-quarters Italian and one-quarter Irish descent. His father, Joseph, is a former police officer in Newark. Rogan's parents divorced when he was five, and he has not been in contact with his father since he was seven. Rogan recalled: "All I remember of my dad are these brief, violent flashes of domestic violence... But I don't want to complain about my childhood. Nothing bad ever really happened to me... I don't hate the guy." From ages seven to eleven he lived in San Francisco, California, after which his family moved to Gainesville, Florida. They later settled in Newton Upper Falls, Massachusetts, outside Boston, where Rogan attended Newton South High School, from which he graduated in 1985. Rogan participated in Little League Baseball and developed an interest in martial arts in his early teens. He recalled being "terrified of being a loser" as a child, and martial arts "gave me not just confidence, but also a different perspective of myself and what I was capable of. I knew that I could do something I was terrified of, and that was really difficult, and that I could excel at it. It was a big deal for me." Martial arts were "the first thing that ever gave me hope that I wasn't going to be a loser. So I really, really gravitated toward it." At age 14, Rogan took up karate and, a year later started Taekwondo. When he was 19, he won the US Open Championship taekwondo tournament as a lightweight. He was a Massachusetts full-contact state champion for four consecutive years and became a Taekwondo instructor. Rogan also practiced amateur kickboxing and held a 2–1 record; he retired from competition at age 21, as he began to suffer from frequent headaches and feared he might sustain worse injuries. He attended the University of Massachusetts Boston but found it pointless and dropped out early. He lived in the Boston area until he was 24. Career 1988–1994: Early stand-up career Rogan had no intention of being a professional stand-up comedian, and initially considered a career in kickboxing. He was a fan of comedy from a young age, and comedian Richard Pryor's film Live on the Sunset Strip affected him "in such a profound way. Nothing had made me laugh like that." Rogan's friends from gym and Taekwondo school, whom he would make laugh with impressions and jokes, convinced him to have a go at stand-up comedy. At 21, after six months preparing material and practicing his delivery, he performed his first stand-up routine on August 27, 1988, at an open-mic night at a Stitches comedy club in Boston. While living in Boston and working on his stand-up, Rogan held several jobs to secure himself financially, including teaching martial arts at Boston University and in Revere, Massachusetts, delivering newspapers, driving a limousine, doing construction work, and performing duties for a private investigator. Meanwhile, his blue comedy style earned him gigs at bachelor parties and strip clubs. One night, Rogan persuaded the owner of a comedy club in Boston to allow him to try a new, five-minute routine. At the show was talent manager Jeff Sussman, who liked Rogan's act and offered to become his manager. Rogan accepted Sussman's offer. In 1990, Rogan moved to New York City. As a full-time comedian, he was "scratching and grinding" for money and stayed with his grandfather in Newark for the first six months. Rogan later cited Richard Jeni, Lenny Bruce, Sam Kinison and Bill Hicks as comedy influences. 1994–1999: Hardball and NewsRadio In 1994, Rogan relocated to Los Angeles, where his first national television spot followed on the MTV comedy show Half-Hour Comedy Hour. The appearance led to the network's offering him a three-year exclusive contract and a role in a pilot episode of a "dopey game show" for $500. Rogan declined, but it prompted Sussman to send tapes of Rogan's performances to several networks, which sparked a bidding war. After a period of negotiation, Rogan accepted a development deal with the Disney network. He secured his first major acting role in the 1994 nine-episode Fox sitcom Hardball as Frank Valente, a young, egocentric star player on a professional baseball team. Rogan called the hiring process "weird", as the network had no idea if he could act until he was asked by Dean Valentine, then-president of Walt Disney Television, to whom he replied: "If you can lie, you can act, and if you can lie to crazy girlfriends, you can act under pressure." The filming schedule was a new experience for Rogan, who started to work 12-hour days. Rogan later said: "It was a great show on paper until a horrible executive producer with a big ego was hired by Fox to run the show and he rewrote it." Around this time, Rogan began performing at The Comedy Store in Hollywood and was hired as a paid regular by owner Mitzi Shore. He performed at the club for the next 13 years for free and paid for the venue's new sound system. From 1995 to 1999, Rogan starred in the NBC sitcom NewsRadio as Joe Garrelli, an electrician and handyman at the show's fictional news radio station. The role was originally set to be played by actor Ray Romano, but Romano was let go from the cast after one rehearsal and Rogan was brought in. The switch caused Rogan to work with the show's writers to help develop the character before the show was set to launch, which he later described as a "very dumbed-down, censored version" of himself. Rogan befriended fellow cast member Phil Hartman, who confided his marital problems to him. Rogan claimed he tried to persuade Hartman to divorce his wife five times, but "he loved his kids and didn't want to leave." In 1998, Hartman was murdered by his wife. The loss affected Rogan's ability to perform stand-up, and he cancelled a week of scheduled gigs. Rogan later saw acting as an easy job, but grew tired of "playing the same character every week", and only did so for the money. He later viewed his time on NewsRadio as "a dream gig" that allowed him to earn money while working on his stand-up as often as he could. During the series, he worked on a pilot for a show entitled Overseas. 1997–2006: UFC commentator and Fear Factor Rogan began working for the mixed martial arts promotion Ultimate Fighting Championship as a backstage and post-fight interviewer. His first show took place at UFC 12: Judgement Day in Dothan, Alabama on February 7, 1997. He became interested in Brazilian jiu-jitsu in 1994 after watching Royce Gracie fight at UFC 2: No Way Out, and landed the position at the organization as Sussman was friends with its co-creator and original producer, Campbell McLaren. He quit after two years as his salary could not cover the cost of traveling to the events, which were often held in rural locations at the time. After the UFC was taken over by Zuffa in 2001, Rogan attended some events and became friends with its new president Dana White, who offered him a job as a color commentator. However, Rogan initially declined as he "just wanted to go to the fights and drink". In 2002, White was able to hire Rogan for free in exchange for prime event tickets for him and his friends. After about 15 free gigs as a commentator, Rogan accepted pay for the job, working alongside Mike Goldberg until the end of 2016. Rogan won the Wrestling Observer Newsletter Award for Best Television Announcer twice, and was named MMA Personality of the Year four times by the World MMA Awards. In 1999, Rogan secured a three-album deal with Warner Bros. Records and began tentative plans to star in his own prime-time televised sitcom on Fox named The Joe Rogan Show. The show, co-written by Seinfeld writer Bill Masters, was to feature Rogan as "a second-string sportscaster who lands a spot as the token male on a View-style women's show". In December 1999, he recorded his first stand-up comedy album in two shows at the Comedy Connection at Faneuil Hall in Boston, which was released as I'm Gonna Be Dead Some Day... in August 2000. It received national exposure on The Howard Stern Show and downloads from Napster. "Voodoo Punanny", a song Rogan wrote after Warner suggested to produce a song they could play on the radio, was subsequently released as a single. Around this time, Rogan also worked on ideas for a film and a cartoon with his comedian friend Chris McGuire, and began to operate a blog on his website, JoeRogan.net, which he used to discuss various topics that helped him develop his stand-up routines. In 2001, the development of Rogan's television show was interrupted after he accepted an offer from NBC to host the American edition of Fear Factor. He declined initially as he thought the network would not air such a program due to its content, but Sussman convinced him to accept. Rogan later said that the main reason he accepted was to obtain observations and anecdotes for his stand-up comedy. The show increased Rogan's national exposure which caused turnouts at his stand-up gigs to grow. Fear Factor ran for an initial six seasons from 2001 to 2006. Rogan's role as host of Fear Factor led to further television opportunities. In 2002, he appeared on the episode "A Beautiful Mind" of Just Shoot Me as Chris, the boyfriend of lead character Maya Gallo. In December 2002, Rogan was the emcee for the 2002 Blockbuster Hollywood Spectacular, a Christmas parade in Hollywood. In February 2003, Rogan became the new co-host of The Man Show on Comedy Central for its fifth season from August 2003, with fellow comedian Doug Stanhope, following the departure of original hosts Jimmy Kimmel and Adam Carolla. A year into the show, however, the hosts entered disagreements with Comedy Central and the show's producers over content. Rogan recalled: "I was a little misled ... I was told: 'Show nudity, and we'll blur it out. Swear and we'll bleep it out.' That hasn't been the case". The show ended in 2004. Around this time Rogan entered talks to host his own radio show, but they came to nothing due to his already busy schedule. 2005–2009: Comedy specials In 2005, actor Wesley Snipes challenged Rogan to a cage fight. Rogan trained for the event for five months before Snipes backed out following an investigation by the IRS for alleged tax evasion. Rogan believed Snipes needed a quick payout to alleviate his debt. After Fear Factor, Rogan focused his career on his stand-up comedy, as concentrating on television had made him feel lazy and uninspired to work on new material for his act. With the money he had earned from television, Rogan hired two people full-time to film him and his comedy friends on tour, and release clips on his website for his JoeShow web series. In May 2005, Rogan signed a deal with the Endeavor Talent Agency. Two months later, he filmed his second stand-up comedy special, Joe Rogan: Live, in Phoenix, Arizona. The special premiered on Showtime in 2007. In 2005, Rogan wrote a blog entry on his website accusing comedian Carlos Mencia of joke thievery, a claim he had made since 1993. The situation culminated in February 2007 when Rogan confronted Mencia on stage at The Comedy Store in Hollywood. A video of the incident was uploaded onto YouTube and included evidence and comments from other comedians, including George Lopez, "The Reverend" Bob Levy, Bobby Lee and Ari Shaffir. The incident led to Rogan's talent agent expelling him as a client of The Gersh Agency, who also managed Mencia, and his ban from The Comedy Store, causing him to relocate his regular venue to the Hollywood Improv Comedy Club. Rogan later said that every comic he had talked to was happy and thankful that he did it, and went on to sign with William Morris Agency. Rogan returned to The Comedy Store in 2013 to support Shaffir in the filming of his first special. In April 2007, Comedy Central Records released Rogan's fourth comedy special, Shiny Happy Jihad. The set was recorded in September 2006 at Cobb's Comedy Club in San Francisco, and contains excerpts of an improvised Q&A session with the audience that was typical of Rogan's act at the time. 2009–present: Latest endeavors and podcast Rogan hosted the short-lived CBS show Game Show in My Head, which aired for eight episodes in January 2009. It was produced by Ashton Kutcher. The show involved contestants who try to convince people to perform or take part in increasingly bizarre situations for money. He agreed to host the show as the idea intrigued him, calling it "a completely mindless form of entertainment". In 2010, Rogan accused comedian Dane Cook of joke thievery. In 2011, Rogan resumed his role as Fear Factor host for its seventh and final season (until 2012). Rogan took the job, saying he "would hate to see somebody else do it." Later in 2011, Rogan played his first major film character, Gale, in the comedy film Zookeeper. He was also working on a book around this time that he tentatively titled Irresponsible Advice from a Man with No Credibility, based on his blog entries on his website. Rogan played himself in Here Comes the Boom, another action-comedy film starring Kevin James that was released in 2012. In December 2012, Rogan released his sixth comedy special Live from the Tabernacle exclusively as a download on his website for $5, following Louis C.K.'s example. In 2013, Rogan hosted the television show Joe Rogan Questions Everything on the SyFy network, which aired for six episodes. The show covered topics discussed on his podcasts, including the existence of Bigfoot and UFOs, and featured several comedians, experts, and scientists with the aim of trying to "put some subjects to bed... with an open-minded perspective". SyFy agreed to produce the show without a pilot episode. The production team gave Rogan some creative control over the program and aimed to present it in his own words where possible. The Joe Rogan Experience In December 2009, Rogan launched a free podcast with his friend and fellow comedian Brian Redban. The first episode was recorded on December 24 and was to be a live weekly broadcast on Ustream, with Rogan and Redban "sitting in front of laptops bullshitting". By August 2010, the podcast was named The Joe Rogan Experience and entered the list of Top 100 podcasts on iTunes, and in 2011, was picked up by SiriusXM Satellite Radio. The podcast features an array of guests who discuss current events, politics, philosophy, comedy, hobbies and numerous other topics. In January 2015, the podcast was downloaded over 11 million times. By October that year, the podcast was downloaded 16 million times each month, making it one of the most popular free podcasts. On May 19, 2020, Rogan announced that he had signed a multi-year licensing deal with Spotify worth an estimated $100 million, making it one of the largest licensing agreements in the podcast business. The deal made The Joe Rogan Experience available on Spotify starting September 1, 2020, and exclusive on the platform from January 2021. Clips from the video version will continue to be available on YouTube. In February 2022, Spotify removed 113 episodes of The Joe Rogan Experience over the course of a few days owing in part to some of the episodes having been perceived to have racist and insensitive language. Personal life Rogan married Jessica Ditzel, a former cocktail waitress, in 2009. The couple have two daughters; the first was born in 2008 and the second in 2010. Rogan is also a stepfather to Ditzel's daughter from a previous relationship. The family moved to Boulder, Colorado in 2008, where they lived for four months, but returned to Southern California when his wife became pregnant. They settled in Bell Canyon, California, where Rogan had lived since early 2003. They purchased a new home in the area for almost $5 million in mid-2018. In 2020, the family moved into a $14 million home on Lake Austin, Texas. Rogan has vitiligo on his hands and feet. Rogan became interested in jiu-jitsu after watching Royce Gracie fight at UFC 2: No Way Out in 1994. In 1996, Rogan began training in Brazilian jiu-jitsu under Carlson Gracie at his school in Hollywood, California. He is a black belt under Eddie Bravo's 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu, a style of no-gi Brazilian jiu-jitsu, and a black belt in gi Brazilian jiu-jitsu under Jean Jacques Machado. Rogan was raised Roman Catholic, having attended Catholic school in first grade, but has since abandoned following any organized religion and identifies as agnostic. In October 2019, during an episode of The Joe Rogan Experience podcast, Rogan confirmed that he is a cousin of My Chemical Romance lead vocalist Gerard Way, although they have never met. In January 2020, Rogan went on a carnivore diet for the entire month, only eating grass-feed beef, elk, eggs, and vitamins and supplements such as amino acids and fish oil. As a result of this diet, Rogan said that he lost 12 pounds (5.4 kilograms) and said he experienced an increase in energy and relief from some prior health issues. However, Rogan admitted that this diet also negatively impacted his digestive system. In January 2022, Rogan announced that he would go on a meat and fruit diet for the entire month. Views Political positions In 2020, CNN described Rogan as "libertarian-leaning". Rogan has said that he holds a wide variety of political views and does not easily fall on any particular side of the political spectrum. He has described himself as socially liberal, saying that he supports same-sex marriage, gay rights, women's rights, recreational drug use, universal health care, and universal basic income, but also supports gun rights and the Second Amendment. Rogan describes himself as a strong supporter of freedom of speech, and has criticized what he describes as "cancel culture" and what he perceives to be suppression of those who hold right-wing views in the television and film industry. He has also criticized what he describes as an American foreign policy of military adventurism. Rogan endorsed Ron Paul in the 2012 U.S. presidential campaign and voted for Libertarian candidate Gary Johnson in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. He endorsed Bernie Sanders during the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries, but ended up voting for Jo Jorgensen in the general election. Rogan has criticized political polarization in the United States and accused American liberals of hoping for former U.S. President Donald Trump to fail simply because they disliked his persona. 2020 presidential election Rogan publicly supported Tulsi Gabbard and encouraged her to run for the U.S. presidency in 2020. On January 21, 2020, Rogan said he would "probably" vote for Bernie Sanders in the 2020 Democratic primary, adding, "He's been insanely consistent his entire life." Sanders was criticized by fellow Democrats for touting Rogan's endorsement during the 2020 presidential campaign, including by MoveOn, which referred to Rogan as "someone known for promoting transphobia, homophobia, Islamophobia, racism and misogyny". The Human Rights Campaign called on Sanders to reject Rogan's endorsement. After Sanders dropped out of the race, Rogan said he would "rather vote for Trump than Biden" adding that "I don't think [Biden] can handle anything." He claimed that he was concerned that Biden, who turned 78 shortly after Election Day, lacked the cognitive ability needed to run the United States and would not be able to handle the pressure of the presidency. Rogan criticized Biden for his verbal slip-ups, which he described as "not a normal way to communicate, unless you're high". Rogan has stated "Biden, to me, is like having a flashlight with a dying battery and going for a long hike in the woods, it is not going to work out. It's not going to make it." Donald Trump subsequently retweeted Rogan's comments on Biden's mental fitness. Rogan offered to moderate a four-hour debate with Trump and Biden in an effort to avoid what he referred to as media bias; Trump said he would be willing to do such a debate. A Change.org petition was started "to elect Joe Rogan as the moderator for the 2020 Presidential Debate," claiming that Rogan was qualified to handle the debates because he is nonpartisan. The petition received over 300,000 signatures. Rogan later revealed during a live election night podcast that he voted for Libertarian candidate Jo Jorgensen. Drugs and spirituality Rogan supports the legalized use of cannabis and believes it holds numerous benefits. He hosted the documentary film The Union: The Business Behind Getting High and was featured in Marijuana: A Chronic History and The Culture High. He also supports the use of LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, and DMT toward the exploration and enhancement of consciousness, as well as introspection. He was the presenter in the 2010 documentary DMT: The Spirit Molecule. Rogan has an interest in sensory deprivation and using an isolation tank. He has stated that his personal experiences with meditation in isolation tanks have helped him explore the nature of consciousness and improve his performance in various physical and mental activities and overall well-being. Other views and advocacy Rogan is an avid hunter and is part of the "Eat What You Kill" movement, which attempts to move away from factory farming and the mistreatment of animals raised for food. Rogan is opposed to routine infant circumcision and has claimed there is a lack of significant scientific evidence for any benefits to the practice, which he considers not entirely different from female genital mutilation because of its nonconsensual nature. Rogan has been an outspoken critic of trans women fighting cisgender women in MMA matches. Controversies Remarks on COVID-19 In April 2021, Rogan made false remarks about COVID-19 vaccines, in particular claiming that young, healthy people do not need to be vaccinated against the virus. This view was criticized by Anthony Fauci and White House communication director Kate Bedingfield, as well as by several media outlets. Part of the objection was that there have been notable cases affecting young, healthy people. Rogan acknowledged there was "some legitimate science" behind Fauci's view and emphasized that he is not a doctor and should not be taken as "a respected source of information". In August 2021, Rogan expressed concern that means of mitigation such as vaccine passports would bring society "one step closer to dictatorship". On September 1, 2021, Rogan tested positive for the virus. Soon after, he released an online video reporting on the status of his condition and stating that he had begun a regimen including monoclonal antibodies, prednisone, azithromycin, NAD drip, a vitamin drip, as well as ivermectin, a drug usually taken to treat parasitic infestations and not endorsed by the FDA as an effective treatment for COVID-19. This caused some controversy due to multiple people reportedly being hospitalized after self-medicating with an over-the-counter form of ivermectin designed to treat ailments in livestock, which typically has a significantly larger dosage. Rogan criticized CNN for describing ivermectin as a "horse dewormer". Outpatient prescribing of ivermectin had recently increased significantly due to the unproven claim that it is effective against COVID-19. The FDA called this trend "disturbing". On September 3, 2021, Rogan tested negative for the virus. In January 2022, 270 scientists, physicians, professors, doctors, and healthcare workers wrote an open letter to Spotify expressing concern over "false and societally harmful assertions" on The Joe Rogan Experience and asked Spotify to "establish a clear and public policy to moderate misinformation on its platform." The 270 signatories took issue with Rogan "broadcasting misinformation, particularly regarding the COVID-19 pandemic" and more specifically "a highly controversial episode featuring guest Robert W. Malone (#1757). The episode has been criticized for promoting baseless conspiracy theories, including "an unfounded theory that societal leaders have 'hypnotized' the public". The signatories further assert that "Dr. Malone is one of two recent JRE guests who has compared pandemic policies to the Holocaust. These actions are not only objectionable and offensive, but also medically and culturally dangerous." The signatories also note that Malone was suspended from Twitter "for spreading misinformation about COVID-19". On January 24, 2022, musician Neil Young posted an open letter threatening to remove his music from Spotify if they did not remove the podcast The Joe Rogan Experience from their service. The podcast, one of Spotify's most popular, has been criticized for spreading COVID-19 misinformation. Young wrote that "Spotify has a responsibility to mitigate the spread of misinformation on its platform." On January 26, Spotify removed Young's music; a spokesperson said Spotify wanted "all the world's music and audio content to be available to Spotify users" and that it had a "great responsibility in balancing both safety for listeners and freedom for creators". On January 29, Joni Mitchell removed her catalogue from Spotify in support of long-time friend and fellow polio survivor "Neil Young and the global scientific and medical communities on this issue." Responding to the controversy, Rogan denied intentionally spreading misinformation and pledged "to try to balance out these more controversial viewpoints with other people's perspectives", and said that he agreed with Spotify adding a disclaimer to the beginning of his videos. Use of offensive language Early in Rogan's standup career, fellow comedian Mehran Khaghani complained that he unnecessarily used a gay slur in his act. Rogan said in a 2010 newspaper interview that "Sometimes faggot is the right word," and that it is not "a slanderous evil nasty word about homosexuals". Fellow comedian Sue Costello complained Rogan once followed her act at an L.A. club, saying "Who would ever fuck her with that accent", and simulating sex with her on stage. In February 2022, a compilation of Rogan saying the racial slur nigger on The Joe Rogan Experience was first published on Instagram by singer-songwriter India Arie. Rogan apologized, calling his past language "regretful and shameful" while also saying that the clips were "taken out of context" and he only quoted the slur to discuss its use by others. The footage in question, which was deceptively edited to remove proper context, was first published by the political action committee PatriotTakes, an affiliate of the liberal PAC MeidasTouch. This resulted in allegations of a defamation attempt by MeidasTouch, which the founders denied in an interview with Barstool Sports founder David Portnoy, instead attributing the source of the footage to Alex Jones who was a recurring guest on Rogan's show. Rogan described the video compilation as a "political hit job". Spotify had refused to carry 42 episodes of the podcast when it acquired the exclusive rights. Spotify says it spoke to Rogan about his "history of using some racially insensitive language", and it says (in an internal memo) that Rogan selected 70 episodes which were removed on February 4, 2022, all of which pre-date the COVID-19 pandemic. Filmography and discography Television Feature films and documentaries Comedy specials Video games Awards and honors Teen Choice Award Choice TV Reality/Variety Host for Fear Factor (2003, Nominated) World MMA Awards 2011 MMA Personality of the Year 2012 MMA Personality of the Year 2014 MMA Personality of the Year 2015 MMA Personality of the Year 2016 MMA Personality of the Year 2017 MMA Personality of the Year 2019 – July 2020 MMA Personality of the Year Wrestling Observer Newsletter Best Television Announcer (2010, 2011) See also List of Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners List of United States stand-up comedians References External links 1967 births Living people 20th-century American comedians 21st-century American comedians Comedians from New Jersey Actors from Newton, Massachusetts American agnostics American color commentators American fishers American game show hosts American hunters American libertarians American male comedians American male television actors American people of Irish descent American people of Italian descent American men podcasters American podcasters American practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu American stand-up comedians American transhumanists American YouTubers Audio podcasts Critics of the Catholic Church Former Roman Catholics Male actors from Newark, New Jersey Male actors from San Francisco Male YouTubers Mixed martial arts broadcasters Mixed martial arts people Non-interventionism People awarded a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu People from Bell Canyon, California People with vitiligo Psychedelic drug advocates University of Massachusetts Boston alumni Newton South High School alumni YouTube podcasters

263719

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furfur

Furfur

In demonology, Furfur (other spelling: Furtur, Ferthur) is a powerful Great Earl of Hell, being the ruler of twenty-six legions of demons. He is a liar unless compelled to enter a magic triangle where he gives true answers to every question, speaking with a rough voice. Furfur causes love between a man and a woman, creates storms, tempests, thunder, lightning, and teaches on secret and divine things. He is depicted as a deer or winged deer, and also as an angel. To some authors he changes from deer into angel when compelled to enter the magic triangle. Furfur in Latin 'Furfur' or 'furfures' in Latin means "bran". However it seems more likely that the name is a corruption of 'furcifer', the Latin word for scoundrel. See also The Lesser Key of Solomon Peryton References Sources S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: . Page 45 Goetic demons Mythological deer

263720

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marchosias

Marchosias

In demonology, Marchosias is a great and mighty Marquis of Hell, commanding thirty legions of demons. In the Ars Goetia, the first book of The Lesser Key of Solomon (17th century), he is depicted as a wolf with gryphon's wings and a serpent's tail, spewing fire from his mouth, but at the request of the magician he may take the form of a man. He is a strong fighter and gives true answers to all questions, and is very faithful to the magician in following his commands. Before his fall he belonged to the angelic order of Dominations (or Dominions), and when he was bound by Solomon he told him that after 1,200 years he hoped to return to Heaven ("unto the Seventh Throne"). In the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (1577) of Johann Weyer the demon is called Marchocias and his description is much the same as that given in the Goetia except that his gender when appearing as a wolf is female ("a cruel she wolf") and spewing forth "I cannot tell what" from his mouth. He likewise hopes to eventually return to the Seventh Throne but is "deceived in that hope." Collin de Plancy in his Dictionnaire Infernal (1818) draws on both sources for his description of Marchosias in his catalogue of demons. The name Marchosias comes from Late Latin marchio, "marquis". In popular culture In James Blish's apocalyptic novel Black Easter, black magician Theron Ware demonstrates his powers to sceptical arms-dealer Baines by performing a "sending" of Marchosias to cause the suicide by poison of an eminent physicist. The goetic ceremony of evocation is described with a vividness and a meticulous attention to detail unusual in a work of fiction. Marchosias appears in the Legends of Tomorrow season 5 episode "Ship Broken", where he is a hellhound that was previously the dog of famed serial killer Son of Sam. He was taken from Hell by Gary Green and brought aboard the Waverider timeship, before nearly massacring the whole crew, only to be sent back to hell by John Constantine. In Wolf's Curse by Kelley Armstrong, a demon claiming to be Marchosias appears with her hell beasts and she claims to be the creator of werewolves. This is said by a werewolf to be one of many legends as to their creation and that he doesn't know or care if the demon is actually Marochosias. The ASW-G-35 Gundam Marchosias (ガンダムマルコシアス) is a mobile suit from the Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans Urdr-Hunt mobile game and is one of the 72 Gundam Frames created during the Calamity War. The Marchosias Team is a team of aces from the Principality of Zeon in the Mobile Suit Gundam Side Story: Missing Link video game, formed from characters who are unfit for service in the regular forces. In Genshin Impact, it is revealed that Marchosius, now Guoba, was the God of the Stove and Patron God of the Soil. Following a series of calamities, he used up his power to vitalize the land, greatly reducing his physical size and intelligence. See also List of demons in the Ars Goetia Sources Goetic demons Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology

263721

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjurer

Conjurer

Conjurer may refer to: Conjurer, someone who exercises evocation, the act of calling upon or summoning a spirit, demon, deity or other supernatural agent, in the Western mystery tradition Conjurer, a performer of magic Arts and entertainment Conjurer (composition), a 2007 composition by John Corigliano Conjurer (film), a 2008 American supernatural horror film The Conjurer (painting), a 1502 painting by Hieronymus Bosch See also Conjuration (disambiguation)

263724

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenex

Phenex

In demonology, Phenex is a Goetic demon. A Great Marquis of Hell he has twenty legions of demons under his command. He teaches all wonderful sciences, is an excellent poet, and is very obedient to the conjuror. Phenex hopes to return to Heaven after 1,200 years, but he is deceived in this hope. Description He is depicted as a phoenix, which sings sweet notes with the voice of a child, but the conjurer must warn his companions (for he is not to be alone) not to hear them and ask him to put on a human shape, which the demon supposedly does after a certain amount of time. In conjuring The 17th-century spellbook, The Lesser Key of Solomon describes this spirit as follows: Phoenix is a great marquesse, appearing like the bird Phoenix, having a child's voice: but before he standeth still before the conjuror, he singeth many sweet notes. Then the exorcist with his companions must beware he give no ear to the melody, but must by and by bid him put on humane shape; then will he speak marvelously of all wonderful sciences. He is an excellent poet, and obedient, he hopeth to return to the seventh throne after a thousand two hundredth years, and governeth twenty legions. Other spellings: Pheynix, Phoenix, Phoeniex. See also Phoenix The Lesser Key of Solomon Sources S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: . Goetic demons Phoenix birds

263727

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malphas

Malphas

In demonology, Malphas is a demon who first appears in Johann Weirs Pseudomonarchia daemonum. That work and the Lesser Key of Solomon describe him as a mighty Great President of [Hell], with forty legions of demons under his command and is second in command under Satan. He appears as a raven, but if requested, will instead resemble a man with a hoarse voice. Malphas is said to build houses, high towers and strongholds, throw down the buildings of the enemies, destroy the enemies' desires or thoughts (and/or make them known to the conjurer) and all that they have done, give good familiars, and quickly bring artificers together from all places of the world. According to the writers, Malphas accepts willingly and kindly any sacrifice offered to him, but then he will deceive the conjurer. In popular culture Malphas appears as the main antagonist of the indie horror game FAITH: The Unholy Trinity, albeit with a drastically different appearance from its portrayal in the Lesser Key of Solomon. Malphas appears as the secondary antagonist of the 2015 Freeform series Dead of Summer. Malphas is a minor antagonist in the 2019 video game Devil May Cry 5, appearing as a deformed bird-like demon fused to a multi-headed witch. Malphas appears as a boss in the 2010 MMO Realm of the Mad God. Malphas appears as a summonable demon in the 2009 game Bayonetta, as well as its 2014 sequel. Malphas appears as a boss in Castlevania: Symphony of the Night. Malphas is the last name of the demonic guardian of Nick, Caleb in The Chronicles of Nick series by Sherrilyn Kenyon. He is part god in the series with his father being a primal god and his mother a daeve (mid level demon). Malphas, the ancient one, reveals himself during the process of the exorcism of a girl by the two priests in the 2015 Korean Horror 'The Priests'. Malphas appears as a demon in the 2016 point-and-click adventure video game, Goetia. Malphas appears in the book Wrath of Angels by John Connolly Malphas appears as one of the demonlords in the manhwa Skeleton Soldier Couldn’t Protect The Dungeon, where he has the appearance of a giant crow with red gems around the neck In the Conjurverse Malphas is the demon who controls the Annabelle Doll. In the animated TV-series The Owl House, Malphas is the Master Librarian of Bonesborough Library. See also The Lesser Key of Solomon Sources S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: . References Goetic demons

263728

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raum

Raum

In demonology, Raum is a Great Earl of Hell, ruling thirty legions of demons. He is depicted as a crow which adopts human form at the request of the conjurer. Characteristics Raum steals treasures out of kings' houses, carrying them where he wishes, and destroys cities and dignities of men (he is said to have great dispraise for dignities). Raum can also tell things past, present and future, reconcile friends and foes, and invoke love. Etymology 'Raum' in German means "space, room, chamber"; 'räumen' means to empty, evacuate. See lebensraum, literally "living room" (that is, room for living - like an aquarium for fish, not a living room). Other spellings include Raim, Raym, and Räum. See also The Lesser Key of Solomon, a 17th-century text which references Raum. Gustav Davidson Citations References Goetic demons Legendary crows

263729

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances%20Xavier%20Cabrini

Frances Xavier Cabrini

Frances Xavier Cabrini (; July 15, 1850 – December 22, 1917), also called Mother Cabrini, was an Italian-American Roman Catholic nun. She founded the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, a Catholic religious institute that was a major support to her fellow Italian immigrants to the United States. She was the first U.S. citizen to be canonized as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, on July 7, 1946. (Elizabeth Ann Seton in 1975 became the first canonized saint who was born in what is now the United States.) Early life She was born Maria Francesca Cabrini on July 15, 1850, in Sant'Angelo Lodigiano, in the Lombard Province of Lodi, then part of the Austrian Empire. She was the youngest of the thirteen children of farmers Agostino Cabrini and Stella Oldini. Only four of the thirteen survived beyond adolescence. Born two months early, she was small and weak as a child and remained in delicate health throughout her life. During her childhood, she visited an uncle, Don Luigi Oldini of Livagra, a priest who lived beside a swift canal. While there, she made little boats of paper, dropped violets in them, called the flowers "missionaries", and launched them to sail off to India and China. At thirteen, Francesca attended a school run by the Daughters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Five years later she graduated cum laude, with a teaching certificate. After her parents died in 1870, she applied for admission to the Daughters of the Sacred Heart at Arluno. These sisters were her former teachers, but reluctantly, they told her she was too frail for their life. She became the headmistress of the House of Providence orphanage in Codogno, where she taught and drew a small community of women to live a religious way of life. Cabrini took religious vows in 1877 and added Xavier (Saverio) to her name to honor the Jesuit saint, Francis Xavier, the patron saint of missionary service, as she had planned like Francis Xavier, to be a missionary in the Far East. Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus In November 1880, she and seven other women who had taken religious vows with her founded the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (M.S.C.). Cabrini composed the Rule and Constitutions of the religious institute, and she continued as its superior general until her death. The sisters took in orphans and foundlings, opened a day school to help pay expenses, started classes in needlework and sold their fine embroidery to earn a little more money. The institute established seven homes and a free school and nursery in its first five years. Its good works brought Cabrini to the attention of Giovanni Scalabrini, Bishop of Piacenza, and of Pope Leo XIII. Mission to United States In September 1887, Cabrini went to seek the pope's approval to establish missions in China. Instead, he urged that she go to the United States to help the Italian immigrants who were flooding to that nation, mostly in great poverty. "Not to the East, but to the West" was his advice. Cabrini left for the United States, arriving in New York City on March 31, 1889, along with six other sisters. In New York she encountered disappointment and difficulties. Archbishop Michael Corrigan, who was not immediately supportive, found them housing at the convent of the Sisters of Charity. She obtained the archbishop's permission to found the Sacred Heart Orphan Asylum in West Park, New York, later renamed Saint Cabrini Home. Cabrini organized catechism and education classes for the Italian immigrants and provided for many orphans' needs. She established schools and orphanages despite tremendous odds. She was as resourceful as she was prayerful, finding people who would donate what she needed in money, time, labor, and support. In New York City, she founded Columbus Hospital, which merged with Italian Hospital to become Cabrini Medical Center from 1973 until its closure in 2008. In Chicago, the sisters opened Columbus Hospital in Lincoln Park and Columbus Extension Hospital (later renamed Saint Cabrini Hospital) in the heart of the city's Italian neighborhood on the Near West Side. Both hospitals eventually closed in 2001–2002. Their foundress's name lives on in Chicago's Cabrini Street. She founded 67 missionary institutions to serve the sick and poor, long before government agencies provided extensive social services – in New York; Chicago and Des Plaines, Illinois; Seattle; New Orleans; Denver and Golden, Colorado; Los Angeles; Philadelphia; and in countries throughout Latin America and Europe. Long after her death, the Missionary Sisters would achieve Cabrini's goal of being missionaries to China. In only a short time, after much social and religious upheaval there, the Sisters left China and, subsequently, a Siberian placement. Cabrini was naturalized as a United States citizen in 1909. Death Cabrini died of complications from malaria at age 67 in Columbus Hospital in Chicago, Illinois, on December 22, 1917, while preparing Christmas candy for the local children. Her body was initially interred at what became Saint Cabrini Home, the orphanage she founded in West Park, Ulster County, New York. Veneration In 1933, her body was exhumed and divided as part of the process toward sainthood. At that time, her head was removed and is preserved in the chapel of the congregation's international motherhouse in Rome. Her heart is preserved in Codogno, where she founded her missionary order. An arm bone is at her national shrine in Chicago. Most of the rest of her body is at her shrine in New York. Cabrini was beatified on November 13, 1938, by Pope Pius XI, and canonized on July 7, 1946, by Pope Pius XII. Her beatification miracle involved purportedly restoring the sight of a day-old baby who had been blinded by a 50% silver nitrate solution instead of the normal 1% solution in the child's eyes. The child, named Peter Smith (1921–2002), would later be present at her beatification and become a priest. Her canonization miracle involved the purportedly healing of a terminally ill member of her congregation. When she was canonized, an estimated 120,000 people filled Chicago's Soldier Field for a Mass of thanksgiving. In the Roman Martyrology, her feast day is December 22, the anniversary of her death, the day ordinarily chosen as a saint's feast day. Following the reforms in Pope John XXIII's Code of Rubrics, the United States since 1961 has celebrated Cabrini's feast on November 13, the anniversary of her beatification, to avoid conflicting with the greater ferias of Advent. In 1950, Pope Pius XII named Frances Xavier Cabrini as the patron saint of immigrants, recognizing her efforts on their behalf across the Americas in schools, orphanages, hospitals, and prisons. Cabrini is also informally recognized as an effective intercessor for finding a parking space. As one priest explained: "She lived in New York City. She understands traffic." Shrines Chicago, Illinois (National Shrine) After Cabrini's death, her convent room at Columbus Hospital, in Chicago's Lincoln Park neighborhood, became a popular destination for the faithful seeking personal healing and spiritual comfort. Due to the overwhelming number of pilgrims after her canonization in 1946, the Archbishop of Chicago, Cardinal Samuel Stritch, commissioned a large National Shrine in her honor within the hospital complex. He dedicated the shrine in 1955. The hospital and shrine closed in 2002 to be replaced by a high-rise development on North Lakeview Avenue. Still, the shrine and Cabrini's room were preserved and refurbished during the long demolition and construction period. They were solemnly blessed and re-dedicated by Cardinal Francis George on September 30, 2012, and reopened to the public the next day. The shrine is an architectural gem of gold mosaics, Carrara marble, frescoes, and Florentine stained glass, functioning as a stand-alone center for prayer, worship, spiritual care, and pilgrimage. Golden, Colorado In 1904, Cabrini established Denver's Queen of Heaven Orphanage for girls, including many orphans of local Italian miners. In 1910, she purchased a rural property from the town of Golden, on the east slope of Lookout Mountain, as a summer camp for the girls. A small farming operation was established and maintained by three of the Sisters of the Sacred Heart. The camp dormitory, built of native rock and named the Stone House, was completed in 1914 and later listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Where Cabrini had once located an underground spring on the mountainside, a replica of the Lourdes Grotto was built in 1929, later replaced by a simpler sandstone structure. After Cabrini's canonization, the campsite officially became a shrine. Extensive additions in 1954 included a long Stairway of Prayer for pilgrims following her footpath up the mountain, marked with the Stations of the Cross, leading to a Statue of Jesus at the highest point of the site. Queen of Heaven Orphanage closed in 1967, replaced by a system of foster care. The summer campsite became a year-round facility for retreats and small prayer gatherings. A new convent building, completed in 1970, includes housing for the resident Sisters, overnight accommodations for visitors, a chapel dedicated to the Sacred Heart, and an exhibit of artifacts and clothing once used by Cabrini. The statues and stained-glass windows of the chapel came from Villa Cabrini Academy in Burbank, California, a former school founded by the Missionary Sisters. Upper Manhattan, New York The St. Frances Xavier Cabrini Shrine in the Hudson Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan overlooks the Hudson River, the George Washington Bridge, and the New Jersey Palisades. As Cabrini's cause for sainthood accelerated in 1933, the Missionary Sisters moved her remains from the Sacred Heart Orphanage she had founded in rural West Park, New York, to the chapel of a Catholic school she had founded in Manhattan, freshly renamed Mother Cabrini High School. When it became a popular pilgrimage site with her beatification in 1938, the Sisters enshrined the major portion of her body in a glass-enclosed coffin under the altar of the school chapel. Her 1946 canonization brought a further sustained level of public interest, so in 1957–1960 a larger shrine was built adjoining the school. When the new shrine was near completion in 1959, her remains were transferred to a large bronze-and-glass reliquary casket in the shrine's altar. She still rests in perpetual display for veneration, covered with her religious habit and a sculpted face mask and hands for more-lifelike viewing. In addition to accommodating the public, the new shrine also served Cabrini High School students as a place for their liturgies and prayer services until the school closed in 2014. "Today, the shrine continues as a center of welcome for new immigrants and pilgrims of many nationalities who come to pray and reflect." Other shrines Southwark, London, England: In St George's Cathedral, Southwark, which Cabrini regularly attended during her time in London, a shrine was dedicated to her in 2009, designed by brothers Theodore, James, and Gabriel Gillick. The bronze sculpture depicts the saint watching over a group of migrants standing on a pile of suitcases. Burbank, California, U.S.: Near the site of Villa Cabrini Academy (1937–1970), Burbank's Cabrini shrine consists of a chapel founded by Cabrini in 1916, relocated to St. Francis Xavier Church and renovated during 1973–1975, and joined by a library wing in 1993. The Italian Catholic Federation sponsors the shrine. Lewiston, New York, U.S.: Near Niagara Falls, the Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Fatima includes a shrine to Cabrini along the Avenues of Saints. Lower Manhattan, New York, U.S.: Our Lady of Pompeii Church was founded in 1892 as a national parish to serve the Italian-American immigrants of Greenwich Village. Cabrini and her Missionary Sisters taught religious education there for a time, and the church now honors her with a shrine, a statue, and a stained-glass window. Peru, New York, U.S.: In 1947, one year after Cabrini's canonization, a shrine was dedicated to her in Peru, New York. The shrine is a stone grotto located on the grounds of St. Patrick's, a mission church built in 1841 for Irish immigrants. Scranton, Pennsylvania, U.S.: In 1899–1900, Cabrini helped to found St. Lucy parish and school for Scranton's Italian immigrants. A century later, the church dedicated a shrine in honor of St. Cabrini. 2019 statue controversy In 2019, the First Lady of New York City, Chirlane McCray launched a campaign called "She built NYC", to build monuments to honor women who made an impact on New York City. Mother Cabrini received the most votes from New Yorkers to receive a monument in her honor. However the campaign decided to not give a monument to Mother Cabrini. The decision drew outrage from New Yorkers, especially Italian-Americans including actor Chazz Palminteri who called the decision "racist". Many other New Yorkers considered the decision to not honor Cabrini, as "anti-Christian" and "anti-Catholic". Days after the controversy, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo announced a statue of Mother Cabrini would be built in Battery Park, overlooking New York Harbor, to honor Mother Cabrini's work with immigrants. The statue was unveiled on Columbus Day in October of 2020. Legacy Churches and parishes Italy St. Frances Cabrini Parish (parrocchia Santa Francesca Cabrini), Lodi St. Frances Cabrini Parish (parrocchia Santa Francesca Cabrini), Rome St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, statue of "S. Francisca Xaveria Cabrini", included among 39 saints who founded religious congregations United States Mother Cabrini Parish in Shamokin, Pennsylvania. St. Frances Cabrini Parish in San Jose, California St. Frances Cabrini Catholic Church] in Littleton, Colorado St. Frances Xavier Cabrini Catholic Parish in Spring Hill, Florida St. Frances Cabrini Church in Savannah, Georgia St. Frances Cabrini Parish, Springfield, Illinois St. Frances Cabrini Church in New Orleans, Louisiana, built in 1953 and destroyed in Hurricane Katrina in 2005<ref>Kingsley, Karen. "St. Francis Cabrini Church", Gentilly, 64 Parishes]</ref> St. Frances Cabrini Parish in Allen Park, Michigan St. Frances Cabrini Catholic Church, Minneapolis, Minnesota St. Frances Cabrini Catholic Church in Paris, Missouri St. Frances Cabrini Church in Omaha, Nebraska St. Frances Cabrini Church, Brooklyn, New York St. Francis Cabrini Church, Coram, New York St. Frances Cabrini Church, Roosevelt Island, New York St. Frances Cabrini Catholic Church in Conneaut, Ohio St. Frances Xavier Cabrini Parish in Lorain, Ohio St. Frances Cabrini Catholic Church in Aliquippa, Pennsylvania St. Frances Cabrini Catholic Church in Lebanon, Tennessee St. Frances Xavier Cabrini Catholic Church in El Paso, Texas St. Frances Xavier Cabrini Catholic Church in Benton City, Washington St. Frances Cabrini Parish, West Bend, Wisconsin St. Frances Cabrini Parish, Houston, Texas Other countries St Francesca Cabrini Italian Church in Bedford, England Educational institutions Italy Istituto Comprensivo "F.S. Cabrini" in Milan United States The former Villa Cabrini Academy (1937–1970) in Burbank, California St. Frances Cabrini School in Savannah, Georgia Cabrini High School in New Orleans, Louisiana Cabrini High School in Allen Park, Michigan St. Frances Cabrini Academy elementary school in St. Louis, Missouri Saint Frances Cabrini Catholic Academy in Brooklyn, New York The former Mother Cabrini High School (1899–2014) in Manhattan, New York St. Frances Cabrini Catholic School in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Cabrini University in Radnor, Pennsylvania The former St. Frances Cabrini School (now the Cabrini Apartments) on St. Frances Cabrini Avenue in Scranton, Pennsylvania Mother Cabrini School in Caparra Heights, Puerto Rico Other countries Instituto Cabrini in Buenos Aires, Argentina Ensemble Scolaire Françoise Cabrini in Noisy-le-Grand, France (former orphanage) LPU-St. Cabrini College of Allied Medicine in Calamba City, Laguna, Philippines Colegio Santa Francisca Javier Cabrini in Madrid, Spain Hospitals St. Frances Xavier Cabrini Hospital, in Malvern and Brighton, Melbourne, Australia Santa Cabrini Hospital, founded in 1958 in Montreal, Canada, honoring her popularity among the Italian community St. Frances Cabrini Medical Center and Cancer Institute in Santo Tomas City, Batangas, Philippines The former St. Cabrini Hospital (c.1946–c.2002) in Chicago, Illinois, which she founded in 1905 as Columbus Hospital, now the site of her National Shrine Christus St. Frances Cabrini Hospital in Alexandria, Louisiana, founded shortly after her canonization, and named because Bishop Charles Greco had met her in his childhood, CHRISTUS St. Frances Cabrini Hospital The former Cabrini Medical Center (1973–2008) in Manhattan, New York, whose predecessor Columbus Hospital was co-founded by Mother Cabrini in 1892 Other tributes St. Cabrini Home, West Park, New York, was Mother Cabrini's early orphanage, headquarters, and burial place. The Cabrini Mission Foundation, founded in 1998, is a non-profit organization that raises funds to support Cabrini programs and institutions focused on health care, education, and social services. The Cabrini Sisters operate Cabrini Eldercare, a pair of non-profit residential facilities in Manhattan and Dobbs Ferry, New York. Cabrini was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1996. Milan Central railway station was dedicated to Cabrini in 2010. Chicago's Cabrini–Green housing project, which has since been mostly torn down, was named after her due to her work with Italian immigrants in the location. It has since become a haven for underprivileged and poor people, and the Cabrini Sisters still work there. Cabrini Boulevard and "Cabrini Woods Nature Sanctuary" are adjacent to the Cabrini shrine in Manhattan, New York. Mother Cabrini Park was created in Brooklyn, New York, in 1992. Mother Cabrini Park in Newark, New Jersey, includes a 1958 statue of the saint on the former site of one of her schools. Pope Francis's religious vocation was partly inspired by Mother Cabrini's ministry to his family's Italian immigrant community in Argentina. Colorado replaced its Columbus Day state holiday with Cabrini Day starting in 2020. In 2012, the Society of the Citizens of Pozzallo partnered with art organization Groundswell to create a mural honoring Cabrini. The mural's location on the side of Arriana Condominium in the heart of Carroll Gardens recognizes the contribution of the Italian and Sicilian community to the area. See also American Catholic Servants of God, Venerables, Beatified, and Saints Italians in Chicago List of Catholic saints Saint Frances Xavier Cabrini, patron saint archive References Further reading Di Donato, Pietro. Immigrant Saint: The Life of Mother Cabrini. McGraw-Hill (1960). Keyes, Frances Parkinson. Mother Cabrini, missionary to the world'' (1959) [https://archive.org/details/mothercabrinimis00keye Online free, For middle school students External links "Cardinal Spellman Honors Mother Cabrini". Newsreel footage marking her canonization (1946). 1850 births 1917 deaths 20th-century Christian saints American Roman Catholic religious sisters and nuns American Roman Catholic saints American people of Lombard descent Burials in Ulster County, New York Canonizations by Pope Pius XII Christian female saints of the Late Modern era Deaths from malaria Founders of Catholic religious communities Italian emigrants to the United States 19th-century Italian Roman Catholic religious sisters and nuns Italian Roman Catholic saints People from the Province of Lodi Naturalized citizens of the United States People of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York

263736

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingpin%20%28automotive%20part%29

Kingpin (automotive part)

The kingpin (also king-pin, king pin and k pin) is the main pivot in the steering mechanism of a car or other vehicle. The term is also used to refer to part of a fifth wheel coupling apparatus for a semi and its trailer or other load. History Originally, with the 'turntable' steering of horse-drawn wagons, this was a single pin on which the moveable axle was pivoted beneath the wagon's frame. This located the axle from side to side, but the weight of the wagon was carried on a circular wooden ring turntable surrounding this. Similar centre pivot steering was used by steam traction engines, the kingpin being mounted on the 'perch bracket' beneath the boiler. Some early cars also used centre pivot steering, although it became apparent that it was unsuitable for their increasing speeds. Ackermann steering separates the steering movement into two pivots, one near the hub of each front wheel. The beam axle between them remains fixed relative to the chassis, linked by the suspension. Ackermann steering has the two advantages that it reduces tyre scrub, the need to drag tyres sideways across their tread when turning the steering, and also it reduced bump steer, suspension and road bumps tending to upset the steering direction. The kingpins were now fixed to the axle ends and the hub carriers pivoted upon them. Most commonly the centre of the kingpin was fixed in the axle and the hub carrier was forked to fit over this, but some vehicles, including the Ford Model T illustrated, used a forked axle and a kingpin fixed into a single piece carrier. Kingpins were always clamped in the centre and the swivel bearings at the ends, to increase the lever arm and so reduce the bearing load. Independent front suspension developed through the 1930s, for high-performance cars at least, often using double wishbone suspension. This performance also encouraged the reduction of unsprung weight. Rather than using separate pivots for both the up-and-down motion of the suspension and the steering swivel, the use of a spherical ball joint that could move in two degrees of freedom allowed the same joint to carry out both functions. The hub carrier extended vertically to span the ends of both wishbones, with a ball joint at each end. In the 1950s and 1960s, such independent suspension became commonplace through light cars in all price ranges. Although the kingpin was no longer an identifiable physical component, suspension geometry was still designed in terms of a virtual kingpin along a line between the ball joint centres. Although they are largely obsolete, kingpin suspensions have the advantage of being able to carry much heavier weights, which is why they are still featured on some heavy trucks. Dana produced the kingpin version of the D60 axle until 1991. (The functionally analogous, similar looking and very robust joint between the chassis and boom on a backhoe is however referred to as a king post.) The nipple at the front of a semi-trailer to connect to a fifth wheel coupling on a tractor unit is also known as a kingpin, which usage is analogous to the original horse-drawn wagon and traction engine steering use. Kingpin inclination While no current-era automobile front suspension incorporates a physical kingpin, the axis defined by the steering knuckle pivot points acts a "virtual kingpin" about which the wheel turns. This virtual kingpin is inclined toward the centerline of the vehicle at an angle called the kingpin angle. Virtual or physical, the kingpin angle may also be referred to by its acronym KPA, kingpin inclination (KPI), or steering axis inclination (SAI), and remains a fundamental vehicle design parameter. On most modern designs, the kingpin angle is set relative to the vertical, as viewed from the front or back of the vehicle, and it is not adjustable, changing only if the wheel spindle or steering knuckles are bent. The kingpin angle has an important effect on steering, making it tend to return to the straight ahead or centre position because the straight ahead position is where the suspended body of the vehicle is at its lowest point. Thus, the weight of the vehicle tends to rotate the wheel about the kingpin back to this position. The kingpin inclination also contributes to the scrub radius of the steered wheel, the distance between the centre of the tyre contact patch and where the kingpin axis intersects the ground. If these points coincide, the scrub radius is zero. As a biological metaphor Zoologist Nicholas Humphrey introduced his 1976 paper "The Social Functions of Intellect" with the following anecdote: Henry Ford, it is said, commissioned a survey of the car scrap-yards of America to find out if there were parts of the Model T Ford which never failed. His inspectors came back with reports of almost every kind of failure: axles, brakes, pistons – all were liable to go wrong. But they drew attention to one notable exception, the kingpins of the scrapped cars invariably had years of life left in them. With ruthless logic Ford concluded that the kingpins on the Model T were too good for their job and ordered that in future they should be made to an inferior specification. Humphrey used the metaphor to introduce the idea of the efficiency of resource allocation by natural selection ("Nature is surely at least as careful an economist as Henry Ford"). The metaphor has been cited by several prominent science writers including Richard Dawkins, John Barrow, and Jared Diamond. Biologists Robert A. Laird and Thomas N. Sherratt have questioned both the truth of the story and the utility of the metaphor, pointing out that evolution of multicomponent systems need not result in identical component failure rates. See also Sliding pillar suspension Stemco Kingpin (disambiguation) References Automotive suspension technologies Automotive steering technologies

263745

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rack%20and%20pinion

Rack and pinion

A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a circular gear (the pinion) engaging a linear gear (the rack), which operate to translate rotational motion into linear motion. Driving the pinion into rotation causes the rack to be driven linearly. Driving the rack linearly will cause the pinion to be driven into a rotation. A rack and pinion drive can use both straight and helical gears. Though some suggest Helical gears are noted for “quieter” operation, there is no science to support this theory. Helical racks while being more affordable, have proven to increase side torque on the datums, increasing operating temperature leading to premature wear. Straight racks require a lower driving force and offer increased torque and speed per percentage of gear ratio which allows lower operating temperature and lessens viscal friction and energy use. The maximum force that can be transmitted in a rack and pinion mechanism is determined by the tooth pitch and the size of the pinion as well as the gear ratio.. For example, in a rack railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on a locomotive or a railroad car engages a rack placed between the rails and helps to move the train up a steep gradient. For every pair of conjugate involute profile, there is a basic rack. This basic rack is the profile of the conjugate gear of infinite pitch radius (i.e. a toothed straight edge). A generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for the design of a generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter. Applications Rack and pinion combinations are often used as part of a simple linear actuator, where the rotation of a shaft powered by hand or by a motor is converted to linear motion. The rack carries the full load of the actuator directly and so the driving pinion is usually small, so that the gear ratio reduces the torque required. This force, thus torque, may still be substantial and so it is common for there to be a reduction gear immediately before this by either a gear or worm gear reduction. Rack gears have a higher ratio, thus require a greater driving torque, than screw actuators. Stairlifts Most stairlifts today operate using the rack and pinion system. Steering A rack and pinion is commonly found in the steering mechanism of cars or other wheeled, steered vehicles. Rack and pinion provides less mechanical advantage than other mechanisms such as recirculating ball, but less backlash and greater feedback, or steering "feel". The mechanism may be power-assisted, usually by hydraulic or electrical means. The use of a variable rack (still using a normal pinion) was invented by Arthur Ernest Bishop in the 1970s, so as to improve vehicle response and steering "feel", especially at high speeds. He also created a low cost press forging process to manufacture the racks, eliminating the need to machine the gear teeth. Rack railways Rack railways are mountain railways that use a rack built into the center of the track and a pinion on their locomotives. This allows them to work on steep gradients, up to 45 degrees, as opposed to conventional railways which rely on friction alone for locomotion. Additionally, the rack and pinion addition provides these trains with controlled brakes, and reduces the effects of snow or ice on the rails. Actuators A rack and pinion with two racks and one pinion is used in actuators. An example is pneumatic rack and pinion actuators that can be used to control valves in pipeline transport. The actuators in the picture on the right are used to control the valves of large water pipeline. In the top actuator, a gray control signal line can be seen connecting to a solenoid valve (the small black box attached to the back of the top actuator), which is used as the pilot for the actuator. The solenoid valve controls the air pressure coming from the input air line (the small green tube). The output air from the solenoid valve is fed to the chamber in the middle of the actuator, increasing the pressure. The pressure in the actuator's chamber pushes the pistons away. While the pistons are moving apart from each other, the attached racks are also moved along the pistons in the opposite directions of the two racks. The two racks are meshed to a pinion at the direct opposite teeth of the pinion. When the two racks move, the pinion is turned, causing the attached main valve of the water pipe to turn. Arcuate rack A rack gear that is curved is called an arcuate rack. The term appears in many patent applications. History The Chinese Wu Pei Chih (1621) described Ottoman Turkish muskets that used a rack-and-pinion mechanism, which was not known to have been used in any European or Chinese firearms at the time. See also List of gear nomenclature Machine element Pitman arm Sprocket Steep grade railway References Automotive steering technologies Gears Actuators Turkish inventions

263746

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%20Beaker%20culture

Bell Beaker culture

The Bell Beaker culture (also described as the Bell Beaker complex or Bell Beaker phenomenon) is an archaeological culture named after the inverted-bell beaker drinking vessel used at the very beginning of the European Bronze Age. Arising from around 2800 BC, it lasted in Britain until as late as 1800 BC but in continental Europe only until 2300 BC, when it was succeeded by the Unetice culture. The culture was widely dispersed throughout Western Europe, from various regions in Iberia and spots facing northern Africa to the Danubian plains, the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, and also the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. The Bell Beaker phenomenon shows substantial regional variation, and a study from 2018 found that it was associated with genetically diverse populations, with the sampled individuals outside of Iberia and Sicily characterised by significant levels of Pontic-Caspian steppe-related ancestry. The Bell Beaker culture was partly preceded by and contemporaneous with the Corded Ware culture, and in north-central Europe preceded by the Funnelbeaker culture. The name was coined for its distinctive style of beakers by Paul Reinecke in 1900. The term's English translation Bell Beaker was introduced by John Abercromby in 1904. In its early phase, the Bell Beaker culture can be seen as the western contemporary of the Corded Ware culture of Central Europe. From about 2400 BC the Beaker folk culture expanded eastwards, into the Corded Ware horizon. In parts of Central and Eastern Europe, as far east as Poland, a sequence occurs from Corded Ware to Bell Beaker. This period marks a period of cultural contact in Atlantic and Western Europe following a prolonged period of relative isolation during the Neolithic. In its mature phase, the Bell Beaker culture is understood as not only a collection of characteristic artefact types, but a complex cultural phenomenon involving metalwork in copper and gold, archery, specific types of ornamentation, and (presumably) shared ideological, cultural and religious ideas. A wide range of regional diversity persists within the widespread late Beaker culture, particularly in local burial styles (including incidences of cremation rather than burial), housing styles, economic profile, and local ceramic wares (Begleitkeramik). Origins and expansion Origins The Bell Beaker artefacts (at least in their early phase) are not distributed across a contiguous area, as is usual for archaeological cultures, but are found in insular concentrations scattered across Europe. Their presence is not associated with a characteristic type of architecture or of burial customs. However, the Bell Beaker culture does appear to coalesce into a coherent archaeological culture in its later phase. The origin of the "Bell Beaker" artefacts has been traced to the early 3rd millennium, with early examples of the "maritime" Bell Beaker design having been found at the Tagus estuary in Portugal, radiocarbon dated to c. the 28th century BC. The inspiration for the Maritime Bell Beaker is argued to have been the small and earlier Copoz beakers that have impressed decoration and which are found widely around the Tagus estuary in Portugal. Turek sees late Neolithic precursors in northern Africa, arguing the Maritime style emerged as a result of seaborne contacts between Iberia and Morocco in the first half of the third millennium BC. More recent analyses of the "Beaker phenomenon", published since the 2000s, have persisted in describing the origin of the "Beaker phenomenon" as arising from a synthesis of elements, representing "an idea and style uniting different regions with different cultural traditions and background." Expansion and Corded Ware contacts The initial moves from the Tagus estuary were maritime. A southern move led to the Mediterranean where 'enclaves' were established in south-western Spain and southern France around the Golfe du Lion and into the Po Valley in Italy, probably via ancient western Alpine trade routes used to distribute jadeite axes. A northern move incorporated the southern coast of Armorica. The enclave established in southern Brittany was linked closely to the riverine and landward route, via the Loire, and across the Gâtinais Valley to the Seine Valley, and thence to the lower Rhine. This was a long-established route reflected in early stone axe distributions, and via this network, Maritime Bell Beakers first reached the Lower Rhine in about 2600 BC. Another expansion brought Bell Beaker to Csepel Island in Hungary by about 2500 BC. In the Carpathian Basin, the Bell Beaker culture came in contact with communities such as the Vučedol culture (c. 3000–2200 BC), which had evolved partly from the Yamnaya culture (c. 3300–2600 BC). In contrast to the early Bell Beaker preference for the dagger and bow, the favourite weapon in the Carpathian Basin during the first half of the third millennium was the shaft-hole axe. Here, Bell Beaker people assimilated local pottery forms such as the polypod cup. These "common ware" types of pottery then spread in association with the classic bell beaker. The Rhine was on the western edge of the vast Corded Ware zone (c. 3100–2350 BC), forming a contact zone with the Bell Beaker culture. From there, the Bell Beaker culture spread further into Eastern Europe, replacing the Corded Ware culture up to the Vistula (Poland). A review in 2014 revealed that single burial, communal burial, and reuse of Neolithic burial sites are found throughout the Bell Beaker zone. This overturns a previous conviction that single burial was unknown in the early or southern Bell Beaker zone, and so must have been adopted from Corded Ware in the contact zone of the Lower Rhine, and transmitted westwards along the exchange networks from the Rhine to the Loire, and northwards across the English Channel to Britain. The earliest copper production in Ireland, identified at Ross Island in the period 2400–2200 BC, was associated with early Beaker pottery. Here, the local sulpharsenide ores were smelted to produce the first copper axes used in Britain and Ireland. The same technologies were used in the Tagus region and in the west and south of France. The evidence is sufficient to support the suggestion that the initial spread of Maritime Bell Beakers along the Atlantic and into the Mediterranean, using sea routes that had long been in operation, was directly associated with the quest for copper and other rare raw materials. Migration vs. acculturation While Bell Beaker (Glockenbecher) was introduced as a term for the artefact type at the beginning of the 20th century, recognition of an archaeological Bell Beaker culture has long been controversial. Its spread has been one of the central questions of the migrationism vs. diffusionism debate in 20th-century archaeology, variously described as due to migration, possibly of small groups of warriors, craftsmen or traders, or due to the diffusion of ideas and object exchange. Migration Given the unusual form and fabric of Beaker pottery, and its abrupt appearance in the archaeological record, along with a characteristic group of other artefacts, known as the Bell Beaker "package", the explanation for the Beaker culture until the last decades of the 20th century was to interpret it as the migration of one group of people across Europe. Gordon Childe interpreted the presence of its characteristic artefact as the intrusion of "missionaries" expanding from Iberia along the Atlantic coast, spreading knowledge of copper metallurgy. Stephen Shennan interpreted the artefacts as belonging to a mobile cultural elite imposing itself over the indigenous substrate populations. Similarly, Sangmeister (1972) interpreted the "Beaker folk" (Glockenbecherleute) as small groups of highly mobile traders and artisans. Christian Strahm (1995) used the term "Bell Beaker phenomenon" (Glockenbecher-Phänomen) as a compromise in order to avoid the term "culture". Heyd (1998) concluded that the Bell Beaker culture was intrusive to southern Germany, and existed contemporarily with the local Corded Ware culture. The burial ritual which typified Bell Beaker sites appears to be intrusive to Western Europe, from Central Europe. Individual inhumations, often under tumuli with the inclusion of weapons contrast markedly to the preceding Neolithic traditions of often collective, weaponless burials in Atlantic/Western Europe. Such an arrangement is rather derivative of Corded Ware traditions. Cultural diffusion British and American archaeology since the 1960s have been sceptical about prehistoric migration in general, so the idea of "Bell Beaker Folk" lost ground. A theory of cultural contact de-emphasizing population movement was presented by Colin Burgess and Stephen Shennan in the mid-1970s. Under the "pots, not people" theory, the Beaker culture is seen as a 'package' of knowledge (including religious beliefs, as well as methods of copper, bronze, and gold working) and artefacts (including copper daggers, v-perforated buttons, and stone wrist-guards) adopted and adapted by the indigenous peoples of Europe to varying degrees. This new knowledge may have come about by any combination of population movements and cultural contact. An example might be as part of a prestige cult related to the production and consumption of beer, or trading links such as those demonstrated by finds made along the seaways of Atlantic Europe. Palynological studies including analysis of pollen, associated with the spread of beakers, certainly suggests increased growing of barley, which may be associated with beer brewing. Noting the distribution of Beakers was highest in areas of transport routes, including fording sites, river valleys and mountain passes, Beaker 'folk' were suggested to be originally bronze traders, who subsequently settled within local Neolithic or early Chalcolithic cultures, creating local styles. Close analysis of the bronze tools associated with beaker use suggests an early Iberian source for the copper, followed subsequently by Central European and Bohemian ores. AOO and AOC Beakers appear to have evolved continually from a pre-Beaker period in the lower Rhine and North Sea regions, at least for Northern and Central Europe. Renewed emphasis on migration Investigations in the Mediterranean and France recently moved the discussion to re-emphasise the importance of migration to the Bell Beaker story. Instead of being pictured as a fashion or a simple diffusion of objects and their use, the investigation of over 300 sites showed that human groups actually moved in a process that involved explorations, contacts, settlement, diffusion, and acculturation/assimilation. Some elements show the influence from the north and east, and other elements reveal the south-east of France to be an important crossroad on an important route of communication and exchange spreading north. A distinctive 'barbed wire' pottery decoration is thought to have migrated through central Italy first. The pattern of movements was diverse and complicated, along the Atlantic coast and the northern Mediterranean coast, and sometimes also far inland. The prominent central role of Portugal in the region and the quality of the pottery all across Europe are forwarded as arguments for a new interpretation that denies an ideological dimension. Genetic findings also lend support to the migratory hypothesis. Price et al. (1998), in a strontium isotope analysis of 86 people from Bell Beaker graves in Bavaria, suggest that 18–25% of all graves were occupied by people who came from a considerable distance outside the area. This was true of children and adults, indicative of some significant migration wave. Given the similarities with readings from people living on loess soils, the general direction of the local movement, according to Price et al., is from the northeast to the southwest. Archaeogenetics studies of the 2010s have been able to resolve the "migrationist vs. diffusionist" question to some extent. The study by Olalde et al. (2017) found only "limited genetic affinity" between individuals associated with the Beaker complex in Iberia and in Central Europe, suggesting that migration played a limited role in its early spread. However, the same study found that the further dissemination of the mature Beaker complex was very strongly linked to migration. This is true especially for Britain, where the spread of the Beaker culture introduced high levels of steppe-related ancestry, resulting in a near-complete transformation of the local gene pool within a few centuries, to the point of replacement of about 90% of the local Neolithic-derived lineages. Bell Beaker artefacts The two main international bell beaker styles are: the All Over Ornamented (AOO), patterned all over with impressions, of which a subset is the All Over Corded (AOC), patterned with cord-impressions, and the Maritime type, decorated with bands filled with impressions made with a comb or cord. Later, other characteristic regional styles developed. The beakers are suggested to have been designed for the consumption of alcohol, and the introduction of the substance to Europe may have fuelled the beakers' spread. Beer and mead content have been identified from certain examples. However, not all Beakers were drinking cups. Some were used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores, others have some organic residues associated with food, and still others were employed as funerary urns. They were used as status display amongst disparate elites. Postulated linguistic connections As the Beaker culture left no written records, all theories regarding the language or languages they spoke remain conjectural. It has been suggested as a candidate for an early Indo-European culture, or as the origin of the Vasconic substrate. James Mallory (2013) notes that the Beaker culture was associated with a hypothetical cluster of Indo-European dialects termed "North-West Indo-European," a cluster which includes the (predecessors of) Celtic, Italic, Germanic and Balto-Slavic branches. Earlier theories suggested a link to the hypothesised Italo-Celtic, or Proto-Celtic languages. Physical anthropology Historical craniometric studies found that the Beaker people appeared to be of a different physical type than those earlier populations in the same geographic areas. They were described as tall, heavy boned and brachycephalic. The early studies on the Beakers which were based on the analysis of their skeletal remains, were craniometric. This apparent evidence of migration was in line with archaeological discoveries linking Beaker culture to new farming techniques, mortuary practices, copper-working skills, and other cultural innovations. However, such evidence from skeletal remains was brushed aside as a new movement developed in archaeology from the 1960s, which stressed cultural continuity. Anti-migrationist authors either paid little attention to skeletal evidence or argued that differences could be explained by environmental and cultural influences. Margaret Cox and Simon Mays sum up the position: "Although it can hardly be said that craniometric data provide an unequivocal answer to the problem of the Beaker folk, the balance of the evidence would at present seem to favour a migration hypothesis." Non-metrical research concerning the Beaker people in Britain also cautiously pointed in the direction of migration. Subsequent studies, such as one concerning the Carpathian Basin, and a non-metrical analysis of skeletons in central-southern Germany, have also identified marked typological differences with the pre-Beaker inhabitants. Jocelyne Desideri examined the teeth in skeletons from Bell Beaker sites in Northern Spain, Southern France, Switzerland, the Czech Republic and Hungary. Examining dental characteristics that have been independently shown to correlate with genetic relatedness, she found that only in Northern Spain and the Czech Republic were there demonstrable links between immediately previous populations and Bell Beaker populations. Elsewhere there was a discontinuity. Genetics Lee et al. (2012) detected R1b two male skeletons from a German Bell Beaker site dated to 2600–2500 BC at Kromsdorf, one of which tested positive for M269 but negative for its U106 subclade (note that the P312 subclade was not tested for), while for the other skeleton the M269 test was unclear. Haak et al. (2015) analyzed the remains of a later Bell Beaker male skeleton from Quedlinburg, Germany, dated to 2296–2206 BC. The individual carried haplogroup R1b1a2a1a2 (R-P312). The study found that the Bell Beakers and people of the Unetice culture had less ancestry from the Yamnaya culture than from the earlier Corded Ware culture. The authors took this to be a sign of a resurgence of the indigenous inhabitants of Western Europe in the aftermath of the Yamnaya expansion. Allentoft et al. (2015) found the people of the Beaker culture to be closely genetically related to the Corded Ware culture, the Unetice culture and the Nordic Bronze Age. In yet another 2015 study published in Nature, the remains of eight individuals ascribed to the Beaker culture were analyzed. Two individuals were determined to belong to Haplogroup R1, while the remaining six were determined to belong to haplogroup R1b1a2 and various subclades of it. A study published in Nature in February 2018 confirmed that Bell Beaker males carried almost exclusively R1b, but the very first ones (in Iberia) had no Steppe autosomes or R at all. Papac et al. (2021) found in the region of Bohemia, Czech Republic, Bell Beaker culture's male individuals featuring Y-haplogroup R1b-P312, radiocarbon-dated to between 2400 and 2100 BC. Extent and impact Bell Beaker people took advantage of transport by sea and rivers, creating a cultural spread extending from Ireland to the Carpathian Basin and south along the Atlantic coast and along the Rhône valley to Portugal, North Africa, and Sicily, even penetrating northern and central Italy. Its remains have been found in what is now Portugal, Spain, France (excluding the central massif), Ireland and Great Britain, the Low Countries and Germany between the Elbe and Rhine, with an extension along the upper Danube into the Vienna Basin (Austria), Hungary and the Czech Republic, with Mediterranean outposts on Sardinia and Sicily; there is less certain evidence for direct penetration in the east. Beaker-type vessels remained in use longest in the British Isles; late beakers in other areas are classified as early Bronze Age (Barbed Wire Beakers in the Netherlands, Giant Beakers (Riesenbecher)). The new international trade routes opened by the Beaker people became firmly established and the culture was succeeded by a number of Bronze Age cultures, among them the Únětice culture in Central Europe, the Elp culture and Hilversum culture in the Netherlands, the Atlantic Bronze Age in the British Isles and the Atlantic coast of Europe, and by the Nordic Bronze Age, a culture of Scandinavia and northernmost Germany–Poland. Iberian Peninsula The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the Iberian Peninsula defines the late phase of the local Chalcolithic and even intrudes in the earliest centuries of the Bronze Age. A review of radiocarbon dates for Bell Beaker across Europe found that some of the earliest were found in Portugal, where the range from Zambujal and Cerro de la Virgen (Spain) ran , in contrast to the rather later range for Andalusia (). At present, no internal chronology for the various Bell Beaker-related styles has been achieved yet for Iberia. Peninsular corded Bell Beakers are usually found in coastal or near coastal regions in three main regions: the western Pyrenees, the lower Ebro and adjacent east coast, and the northwest (Galicia and northern Portugal). A corded-zoned Maritime variety (C/ZM), proposed to be a hybrid between AOC and Maritime Herringbone, was mainly found in burial contexts and expanded westward, especially along the mountain systems of the Meseta. With some notable exceptions, most Iberian early Bell Beaker "burials" are at or near the coastal regions. As for the settlements and monuments within the Iberian context, Beaker pottery is generally found in association with local Chalcolithic material and appears most of all as an "intrusion" from the third millennium in burial monuments whose origin may go back to the fourth or fifth millennia BC. Very early dates for Bell Beakers were found in Castelo Velho de Freixo de Numão in Guarda, northern Portugal. The site was located on the summit of a spur. A short-lived first occupation of pre-Bell Beaker building phase about 3000 BC revealed the remains of a tower, some pavings, and structures for burning. After a break of one or two centuries, Bell Beaker pottery was introduced in a second building phase that lasted to the Early Bronze Age, about 1800 BC. A third building phase followed directly and lasted to about 1300 BC, after which the site was covered with layers of stone and clay, apparently deliberately, and abandoned. The second building phase was dominated by a highly coherent group of pottery within the regional Chalcolithic styles, representing Maritime Bell Beakers of the local (northern Portuguese), penteada decoration style in various patterns, using lines of points, incision or impression. Three of them were carbon dated to the first half of the third millennium BC. The site demonstrates a notable absence of more common Bell Beaker pottery styles such as Maritime Herringbone and Maritime Lined varieties found in nearby sites such as Castanheiro do Vento and Crasto de Palheiros. One non-local Bell Beaker sherd, however, belonging to the upper part of a beaker with a curved neck and thin walls, was found at the bedrock base of this second phase. The technique and patterning are classic forms in the context of pure European and Peninsular corded ware. In the Iberian Peninsula, this AOC type was traditionally restricted to half a dozen scattered sites in the western Pyrenees, the lower Ebro, and the Spanish east coast; especially a vessel at Filomena at Villarreal, Castellón (Spain), has parallels with the decoration. In Porto Torrão, at inner Alentejo (southern Portugal), a similar vessel was found having a date ultimately corrected to around 2823–2658 BC. All pottery was locally made. The lack or presence of Bell Beaker elements is the basis for the division of Los Millares and Vila Nova cultures into two periods: I and II. Balearic Islands Radiocarbon dating currently indicates a 1,200-year duration for the use of the Beaker pottery on the Balearic Islands, between about 2475 and 1300 BC. Some evidence exists of all-corded pottery in Mallorca, generally considered the most ancient Bell Beaker pottery, possibly indicating an even earlier Beaker settlement about 2700 BC. However, in several regions, this type of pottery persisted long enough to permit other possibilities. Suárez Otero (1997) postulated this corded Beakers entered the Mediterranean by routes both through the Atlantic coast and eastern France. Bell Beaker pottery has been found in Mallorca and Formentera, but has not been observed in Menorca or Ibiza. Collective burials in dolmen structures in Ibiza could be contrasted against the individual burials in Mallorca. In its latest phase (about 1750–1300 cal BC) the local Beaker context became associated with the distinctive ornamented Boquique pottery demonstrating clear maritime links with the (megalithic) coastal regions of Catalonia, also assessed to be directly related to the late Cogotas complex. In most of the areas of the mainland, Boquique pottery falls into the latter stages of the Bell Beaker complex, as well. Along with other evidence during the earlier Beaker period in the Balearics, , as shown by the local presence of elephant ivory objects together with significant Beaker pottery and other finds, this maritime interaction can be shown to have a long tradition. The abundance of different cultural elements that persisted towards the end of the Bronze Age, show a clear continuity of different regional and intrusive traditions. The presence of perforated Beaker pottery, traditionally considered to be used for making cheese, at Son Ferrandell-Oleza and at Coval Simó confirms the introduction of production and conservation of dairy. Also, the presence of spindles at sites like Son Ferrandell-Oleza or Es Velar d’Aprop point to knowledge of making thread and textiles from wool. However, more details on the strategies for tending and slaughtering the domestic animals involved are forthcoming. Being traditionally associated with the introduction of metallurgy, the first traces of copper working in the Balearics were also clearly associated with Bell Beakers. Central Europe In their large-scale study on radiocarbon dating of the Bell Beakers, J. Müller and S. Willingen established that the Bell Beaker Culture in Central Europe started after 2500 BC. Two great coexisting and separate Central European cultures – the Corded Ware with its regional groups and the Eastern Group of the Bell Beaker Culture – form the background to the Late Copper Age and Early Bronze Age. The Makó/Kosihy-Caka culture, indigenous to the Carpathians, may be included as a third component. Their development, diffusion and long range changes are determined by the great river systems. The Bell Beaker settlements are still little known, and have proved remarkably difficult for archaeologists to identify. This allows a modern view of them to contradict results of anthropologic research. The late 20th century view is that the Bell Beaker people, far from being the "warlike invaders" as once described by Gordon Childe (1940), added rather than replaced local late Neolithic traditions into a cultural package and as such did not always and evenly abandon all local traditions. More recent extensive DNA evidence, however, suggests a significant replacement of earlier populations. Bell Beaker domestic ware has no predecessors in Bohemia and Southern Germany, shows no genetic relation to the local Late Copper Age Corded Ware, nor to other cultures in the area, and is considered something completely new. The Bell Beaker domestic ware of Southern Germany is not as closely related to the Corded Ware as would be indicated by their burial rites. Settlements link the Southern German Bell Beaker culture to the seven regional provinces of the Eastern Group, represented by many settlement traces, especially from Moravia and the Hungarian Bell Beaker-Csepel group being the most important. In 2002, one of the largest Bell Beaker cemeteries in Central Europe was discovered at Hoštice za Hanou (Moravia, Czech Republic). The relationship to the western Bell Beakers groups, and the contemporary cultures of the Carpathian basin to the south east, is much less. Research in N northern Poland shifted the north-eastern frontier of this complex to the western parts of the Baltic with the adjacent Northern European plain. Typical Bell Beaker fragments from the site of Ostrikovac-Djura at the Serbian river Morava were presented at the Riva del Garda conference in 1998, some 100 km south-east of the Csepel Beaker sub-group (modern Hungary). Bell Beaker related material has now been uncovered in a line from the Baltic Sea down to the Adriatic and the Ionian Sea, including the modern states comprising Belarus, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Albania, North Macedonia and parts of Greece. The Bell Beaker culture settlements in southern Germany and in the East-Group show evidence of mixed farming and animal husbandry, and indicators such as millstones and spindle whorls prove the sedentary character of the Bell Beaker people, and the durability of their settlements. Some especially well equipped child-burials seem to indicate sense of predestined social position, indicating a socially complex society. However, analysis of grave furnishing, size and deepness of grave pits, position within the cemetery, did not lead to any strong conclusions on the social divisions. The Late Copper Age is regarded as a continuous culture system connecting the Upper Rhine valley to the western edge of the Carpathian Basin. Late Copper Age 1 was defined in southern Germany by the connection of the late Cham Culture, Globular Amphora culture, and the older Corded Ware Culture of "beaker group 1" that is also referred to as Horizon A or Step A. Early Bell Beaker Culture intruded into the region at the end of the Late Copper Age 1, around 2600–2550 BC. Middle Bell Beaker corresponds to Late Copper Age 2 and here an east–west Bell Beaker cultural gradient became visible through the difference in the distribution of the groups of beakers with and without handles, cups and bowls, in the three regions Austria–Western Hungary, the Danube catchment area of Southern Germany, and the Upper Rhine/lake Constance/Eastern Switzerland area for all subsequent Bell Beaker periods. This middle Bell Beaker Culture is the main period when almost all the cemeteries in Southern Germany begin. Younger Bell Beaker Culture of Early Bronze Age shows analogies to the Proto-Únětice Culture in Moravia and the Early Nagyrév Culture of the Carpathian Basin. During the Bell Beaker period, a border ran through southern Germany, which culturally divided a northern from a southern area. The northern area was oriented around the Rhine and the Bell Beaker West Group, while the southern area occupied much of the Danube river system and was mainly settled by the homogeneous Bell Beaker East Group. This latter group overlapped with the Corded Ware Culture and other groups of the Late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. Nevertheless, southern Germany shows some independent developments of itself. Although a broadly parallel evolution with early, middle, and younger Bell Beaker Culture was detected, the Southern Germany middle Bell Beaker development of metope decorations and stamp and furrow engraving techniques do not appear on beakers in Austria-Western Hungary, and handled beakers are completely absent. It is contemporary to Corded Ware in the vicinity, that has been attested by associated finds of middle Corded Ware (chronologically referred to as "beaker group 2" or Step B) and younger Geiselgasteig Corded Ware beakers ("beaker group 3" or Step C). Bell Beaker Culture in Bavaria used a specific type of copper, which is characterised by combinations of trace elements. This same type of copper was spread over the area of the Bell Beaker East Group. Previously some archaeologists considered the Bell-beaker people to have lived only within a limited territory of the Carpathian Basin and for a short time, without mixing with the local population. Although there are very few evaluable anthropological finds, the appearance of the characteristic planoccipital (flattened back) Taurid type in the populations of some later cultures (e.g. Kisapostag and Gáta–Wieselburg cultures) suggested a mixture with the local population contradicting such archaeological theories. According to archaeology, the populational groups of the Bell-beakers also took part in the formation of the Gáta-Wieselburg culture on the western fringes of the Carpathian Basin, which could be confirmed with the anthropological Bell Beaker series in Moravia and Germany. In accordance with anthropological evidence, it has been concluded the Bell Beakers intruded in an already established form the southern part of Germany as much as the East Group area. Ireland Beakers arrived in Ireland around 2500 BC and fell out of use around 1700 BC. The beaker pottery of Ireland was rarely used as a grave good, but is often found in domestic assemblages from the period. This stands in contrast to the rest of Europe where it is frequently found in both roles. The inhabitants of Ireland used food vessels as a grave good instead. The large, communal passage tombs of the Irish Neolithic were no longer being constructed during the Early Bronze Age (although some, such as Newgrange were re-used). The preferred method of burial seems to have been single graves and cists in the east, or in small wedge tombs in the west. Cremation was also common. The advent of the Bronze Age Beaker culture in Ireland is accompanied by the destruction of smaller satellite tombs at Knowth and collapses of the great cairn at Newgrange, marking an end to the Neolithic culture of megalithic passage tombs. Beakers are found in large numbers in Ireland, and the technical innovation of ring-built pottery indicates that the makers were also present. Classification of pottery in Ireland and Britain has distinguished a total of seven intrusive beaker groups originating from the continent and three groups of purely insular character having evolved from them. Five out of seven of the intrusive Beaker groups also appear in Ireland: the European bell group, the All-over cord beakers, the Scottish/North Rhine beakers, the Northern British/Middle Rhine beakers and the Wessex/Middle Rhine beakers. However, many of the features or innovations of Beaker society in Britain never reached Ireland. Instead, quite different customs predominated in the Irish record that were apparently influenced by the traditions of the earlier inhabitants. Some features that are found elsewhere in association to later types of Earlier Bronze Age Beaker pottery, indeed spread to Ireland, however, without being incorporated into the same close and specific association of Irish Beaker context. The Wessex/Middle Rhine gold discs bearing "wheel and cross" motifs that were probably sewn to garments, presumably to indicate status and reminiscent of racquet headed pins found in Eastern Europe, enjoy a general distribution throughout the country, however, never in direct association with beakers. In 1984, a Beaker period copper dagger blade was recovered from the Sillees River near Ross Lough, County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. The flat, triangular-shaped copper blade was long, with bevelled edges and a pointed tip, and featured an integral tang that accepted a riveted handle. Flint arrow-heads and copper-blade daggers with handle tangs, found in association with Beaker pottery in many other parts of Europe, have a date later than the initial phase of Beaker People activity in Ireland. Also the typical Beaker wristguards seem to have entered Ireland by cultural diffusion only, after the first intrusions, and unlike English and Continental Beaker burials never made it to the graves. The same lack of typical Beaker association applies to the about thirty found stone battle axes. A gold ornament found in County Down that closely resembles a pair of ear-rings from Ermegeira, Portugal, has a composition that suggests it was imported. Incidental finds suggest links to non-British Beaker territories, like a fragment of a bronze blade in County Londonderry that has been likened to the "palmella" points of Iberia, even though the relative scarcity of beakers, and Beaker-compatible material of any kind, in the south-west are regarded as an obstacle to any colonisation directly from Iberia, or even from France. Their greater concentration in the northern part of the country, which traditionally is regarded as the part of Ireland least blessed with sources of copper, has led many authorities to question the role of Beaker People in the introduction of metallurgy to Ireland. However, indications of their use of stream sediment copper, low in traces of lead and arsenic, and Beaker finds connected to mining and metalworking at Ross Island, County Kerry, provide an escape to such doubts. The featured "food vessels" and cinerary urns (encrusted, collared and cordoned) of the Irish Earlier Bronze Age have strong roots in the western European Beaker tradition. Recently, the concept of these food vessels was discarded and replaced by a concept of two different traditions that rely on typology: the bowl tradition and the vase tradition, the bowl tradition being the oldest as it has been found inserted in existing Neolithic (pre-beaker) tombs, both court tombs and passage tombs. The bowl tradition occurs over the whole country except the south-west and feature a majority of pit graves, both in flat cemeteries and mounds, and a high incidence of uncremated skeletons, often in crouched position. The vase tradition has a general distribution and feature almost exclusively cremation. The flexed skeleton of a man 1.88 tall in a cist in a slightly oval round cairn with "food vessel" at Cornaclery, County Londonderry, was described in the 1942 excavation report as "typifying the race of Beaker Folk", although the differences between Irish finds and e.g. the British combination of "round barrows with crouched, unburnt burials" make it difficult to establishes the exact nature of the Beaker People's colonization of Ireland. In general, the early Irish Beaker intrusions don't attest the overall "Beaker package" of innovations that, once fully developed, swept Europe elsewhere, leaving Ireland behind. The Irish Beaker period is characterised by the earliness of Beaker intrusions, by isolation and by influences and surviving traditions of autochthons. Beaker culture introduces the practice of burial in single graves, suggesting an Earlier Bronze Age social organisation of family groups. Towards the Later Bronze Age the sites move to potentially fortifiable hilltops, suggesting a more "clan"-type structure. Although the typical Bell Beaker practice of crouched burial has been observed, cremation was readily adopted in accordance with the previous tradition of the autochthons. In a tumulus the find of the extended skeleton of a woman accompanied by the remains of a red deer and a small seven-year-old stallion is noteworthy, including the hint to a Diana-like religion. A few burials seem to indicate social status, though in other contexts an emphasis to special skills is more likely. Ireland has the greatest concentration of gold lunulae and stone wrist-guards in Europe. However, neither of these items were deposited in graves and they tend to be found isolated and at random, making it difficult to draw conclusions about their use or role in society at the time. One of the most important sites in Ireland during this period is Ross Island. A series of copper mines from here are the earliest known in Ireland, starting from around 2500 BC (O'Brien 2004). A comparison of chemical traces and lead isotope analysis from these mines with copper artefacts strongly suggests that Ross Island was the sole source of copper in Ireland between the dates 2500–2200 BC. In addition, two thirds of copper artefacts from Britain also display the same chemical and isotopic signature, strongly suggesting that Irish copper was a major export to Britain. Traces of Ross Island copper can be found even further afield; in the Netherlands it makes up 12% of analysed copper artefacts, and Brittany 6% of analysed copper artefacts After 2200 BC there is greater chemical variation in British and Irish copper artefacts, which tallies well with the appearance of other mines in southern Ireland and north Wales. After 2000 BC, other copper sources supersede Ross Island. The latest workings from the Ross Island mines is dated to around 1700 BC. As well as exporting raw copper/bronze, there were some technical and cultural developments in Ireland that had an important impact on other areas of Europe. Irish food vessels were adopted in northern Britain around 2200 BC and this roughly coincides with a decline in the use of beakers in Britain. The 'bronze halberd' (not to be confused with the medieval halberd) was a weapon in use in Ireland from around 2400–2000 BC. They are essentially broad blades that were mounted horizontally on a meter long handle, giving greater reach and impact than any known contemporary weapon. They were subsequently widely adopted in other parts of Europe, possibly showing a change in the technology of warfare. Britain Beakers arrived in Britain around 2500 BC, with migrations of Yamnaya-related people, resulting in a near total turnover of the British population. The Beaker-culture declined in use around 2200–2100 BC with the emergence of food vessels and cinerary urns and finally fell out of use around 1700 BC. The earliest British beakers were similar to those from the Rhine, but later styles are most similar to those from Ireland. In Britain, domestic assemblages from this period are very rare, making it hard to draw conclusions about many aspects of society. Most British beakers come from funerary contexts. Britain's only unique export in this period is thought to be tin. It was probably gathered in streams in Cornwall and Devon as cassiterite pebbles and traded in this raw, unrefined state. It was used to turn copper into bronze from around 2200 BC and widely traded throughout Britain and into Ireland. Other possible European sources of tin are located in Brittany and Iberia, but it is not thought they were exploited so early as these areas did not have bronze until after it was well established in Britain and Ireland. The most famous site in Britain from this period is Stonehenge, which had its Neolithic form elaborated extensively. Many barrows surround it and an unusual number of 'rich' burials can be found nearby, such as the Amesbury Archer. Another site of particular interest is Ferriby on the Humber Estuary, where western Europe's oldest plank built boat was recovered. Italian Peninsula The Italian Peninsula's most affected areas are the Po Valley, in particular the area of Lake Garda, and Tuscany. The bell-shaped vases appear in these areas of central and northern Italy as "foreign elements" integrated in the pre-existing Remedello and Rinaldone cultures. Graves with Beaker artefacts have been discovered in the Brescia area, like that of Ca' di Marco (Fiesse), while in central Italy, bell-shaped glasses were found in the tomb of Fosso Conicchio (Viterbo). Sardinia Sardinia has been in contact with extra-insular communities in Corsica, Tuscany, Liguria and Provence since the Stone Age. From the late third millennium BC on, comb-impressed Beaker ware, as well as other Beaker material in Monte Claro contexts, has been found (mostly in burials, such as Domus de Janas), demonstrating continuing relationships with the western Mediterranean. Elsewhere, Beaker material has been found stratigraphically above Monte Claro and at the end of the Chalcolithic period in association with the related Bronze Age Bonnanaro culture (1800–1600 BC), for which C-14 dates calibrate to c. 2250 BC. There is virtually no evidence in Sardinia of external contacts in the early second millennia, apart from late Beakers and close parallels between Bonnannaro pottery and that of the North Italian Polada culture. Like elsewhere in Europe and in the Mediterranean area, the Bell Beaker culture in Sardinia (2100–1800 BC) is characterised by the typical ceramics decorated with overlaid horizontal bands and associated finds: brassards, V-pierced buttons etc.; for the first time gold items appeared on the island (collier of the Tomb of Bingia 'e Monti, Gonnostramatza). The different styles and decorations of the ceramics which succeed through the time allow to split the Beaker culture in Sardinia into three chronological phases: A1 (2100–2000 BC), A2 (2000–1900 BC), B (1900–1800 BC). In these various phases is observable the succession of two components of different geographical origin: the first "Franco-Iberian" and the second "Central European". It appears likely that Sardinia was the intermediary that brought Beaker materials to Sicily. Sicily The Beaker was introduced in Sicily from Sardinia and spread mainly in the north-west and south-west of the island. In the northwest and in the Palermo kept almost intact its cultural and social characteristics, while in the south-west there was a strong integration with local cultures. The only known single bell-shaped glass in eastern Sicily was found in Syracuse. Jutland In Denmark, large areas of forested land were cleared to be used for pasture and the growing of cereals during the Single Grave culture and in the Late Neolithic Period. Faint traces of Bell Beaker influence can be recognised already in the pottery of the Upper Grave phase of the Single Grave period, and even of the late Ground Grave phase, such as occasional use of AOO-like or zoned decoration and other typical ornamentation, while Bell Beaker associated objects such as wristguards and small copper trinkets, also found their way into this northern territories of the Corded Ware Culture. Domestic sites with Beakers only appear 200–300 years after the first appearance of Bell Beakers in Europe, at the early part of the Danish Late Neolithic Period (LN I) starting at 2350 BC. These sites are concentrated in northern Jutland around the Limfjord and on the Djursland peninsula, largely contemporary to the local Upper Grave Period. In east central Sweden and western Sweden, barbed wire decoration characterised the period 2460–1990 BC, linked to another Beaker derivation of northwestern Europe. Stone and copper arms trade Northern Jutland has abundant sources of high quality flint, which had previously attracted industrious mining, large-scale production, and the comprehensive exchange of flint objects: notably axes and chisels. The Danish Beaker period, however, was characterised by the manufacture of lanceolate flint daggers, described as a completely new material form without local antecedents in flint and clearly related to the style of daggers circulating elsewhere in Beaker dominated Europe. Presumably Beaker culture spread from here to the remainder of Denmark, and to other regions in Scandinavia and northern Germany as well. Central and eastern Denmark adopted this dagger fashion and, to a limited degree, also archer's equipment characteristic to Beaker culture, although here Beaker pottery remained less common. Also, the spread of metallurgy in Denmark is intimately related to the Beaker representation in northern Jutland. The LN I metalwork is distributed throughout most of Denmark, but a concentration of early copper and gold coincides with this core region, hence suggesting a connection between Beakers and the introduction of metallurgy. Most LN I metal objects are distinctly influenced by the western European Beaker metal industry, gold sheet ornaments and copper flat axes being the predominant metal objects. The LN I copper flat axes divide into As-Sb-Ni copper, recalling so-called Dutch Bell Beaker copper and the As-Ni copper found occasionally in British and Irish Beaker contexts, the mining region of Dutch Bell Beaker copper being perhaps Brittany; and the Early Bronze Age Singen (As-Sb-Ag-Ni) and Ösenring (As-Sb-Ag) coppers having a central European – probably Alpine – origin. Connections with other parts of Beaker culture The Beaker group in northern Jutland forms an integrated part of the western European Beaker Culture, while western Jutland provided a link between the Lower Rhine area and northern Jutland. The local fine-ware pottery of Beaker derivation reveal links with other Beaker regions in western Europe, most specifically the Veluwe group at the Lower Rhine. Concurrent introduction of metallurgy shows that some people must have crossed cultural boundaries. Danish Beakers are contemporary with the earliest Early Bronze Age (EBA) of the East Group of Bell Beakers in central Europe, and with the floruit of Beaker cultures of the West Group in western Europe. The latter comprise Veluwe and Epi-Maritime in Continental northwestern Europe and the Middle Style Beakers (Style 2) in insular western Europe. The interaction between the Beaker groups on the Veluwe Plain and in Jutland must, at least initially, have been quite intensive. All-over ornamented (AOO) and All-over-corded (AOC), and particularly Maritime style beakers are featured, although from a fairly late context and possibly rather of Epi-maritime style, equivalent to the situation in the north of the Netherlands, where Maritime ornamentation continued after it ceased in the central region of Veluwe and were succeeded c. 2300 BC by beakers of the Veluwe and Epi-Maritime style. Clusters of Late Neolithic Beaker presence similar to northern Jutland appear as pockets or "islands" of Beaker Culture in northern Europe, such as Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein, and southern Norway. In northern central Poland Beaker-like representations even occur in a contemporary EBA setting. The frequent occurrence of Beaker pottery in settlements points at a large-scaled form of social identity or cultural identity, or perhaps an ethnic identity. Burial practices In eastern Denmark and Scania one-person graves occur primarily in flat grave cemeteries. This is a continuation of the burial custom characterising the Scanian Battle-axe Culture, often to continue into the early Late Neolithic. Also in northern Jutland, the body of the deceased was normally arranged lying on its back in an extended position, but a typical Bell Beaker contracted position occurs occasionally. Typical to northern Jutland, however, cremations have been reported, also outside the Beaker core area, once within the context of an almost full Bell Beaker equipment. Social transition The introductory phase of the manufacture and use of flint daggers, around 2350 BC, must all in all be characterised as a period of social change. Apel argued that an institutionalised apprenticeship system must have existed. Craftsmanship was transmitted by inheritance in certain families living in the vicinity of abundant resources of high-quality flint. Debbie Olausson's (1997) examinations indicate that flint knapping activities, particularly the manufacture of daggers, reflect a relatively low degree of craft specialisation, probably in the form of a division of labour between households. Noteworthy was the adoption of European-style woven wool clothes kept together by pins and buttons in contrast to the earlier usage of clothing made of leather and plant fibres. Two-aisled timber houses in Late Neolithic Denmark correspond to similar houses in southern Scandinavia and at least parts of central Scandinavia and lowland northern Germany. In Denmark, this mode of building houses is clearly rooted in a Middle Neolithic tradition. In general, Late Neolithic house building styles were shared over large areas of northern and central Europe. Towards the transition to LN II some farm houses became extraordinarily large. End of a distinct Beaker culture The cultural concepts originally adopted from Beaker groups at the lower Rhine blended or integrated with local Late Neolithic Culture. For a while the region was set apart from central and eastern Denmark, that evidently related more closely to the early Únětice culture across the Baltic Sea. Before the turn of the millennium the typical Beaker features had gone, their total duration being 200–300 years at the most. A similar picture of cultural integration is featured among Bell Beakers in central Europe, thus challenging previous theories of Bell Beakers as an elitist or purely super-structural phenomenon. The connection with the East Group Beakers of Únětice had intensified considerably in LN II, thus triggering a new social transformation and innovations in metallurgy that would announce the actual beginning of the Northern Bronze Age. See also Beaker (disambiguation) Amesbury Archer Prehistoric Britain Prehistoric Iberia Bronze Age Britain Notes References Sources Further reading Mallory J.P. (1997) "Beaker Culture". Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Fitzroy Dearborn. External links BBC – History – Bronze Age Britain Historical model of settling and spread of Bell Beakers Culture in the mediterranean France Bell beakers from west to east All Bell Beaker scientific articles on line free access

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Kearsarge%20%28CV-33%29

USS Kearsarge (CV-33)

USS Kearsarge (CV/CVA/CVS-33) was one of 24 s completed during or shortly after World War II for the United States Navy. The ship was the third US Navy ship to bear the name, and was named for a Civil War-era steam sloop. Kearsarge was commissioned in March 1946. Modernized in the early 1950s as an attack carrier (CVA), she served in the Korean War, for which she earned two battle stars. In the late 1950s she was further modified to become an anti-submarine carrier (CVS). Kearsarge was the recovery ship for the last two manned Project Mercury space missions in 1962–1963. She completed her career serving in the Vietnam War, earning five battle stars. She was decommissioned in 1970, and sold for scrap in 1974. Construction and commissioning Kearsarge was one of the "long-hull" ships. She was laid down on 1 March 1944 at the New York Navy Yard, and was launched on 5 May 1945, sponsored by Mrs. Gwyneth Fitch (née Conger), wife of Admiral Aubrey W. Fitch, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air). Kearsarge commissioned on 2 March 1946, with Captain Francis J. McKenna in command. KEARSARGE Original Hull Number (CV-12 Renamed to HORNET): The Chief of Naval Operations had ordered three Essex-class carriers on 10 May 1940 in anticipation of Congress passing the Two-Ocean Navy Act, although the ship that later became Hornet originally had the name Kearsarge with the hull number of CV-12. The contract to build her was awarded to Newport News Shipbuilding on 9 September 1940, and her keel was laid down on 3 August 1942. The seventh was sunk in the Battle of Santa Cruz on 26 October 1942, and the CV-12 hull was renamed Hornet shortly afterwards. Service history Kearsarge arrived at her home port of Norfolk, Virginia, on 21 April 1946, and for the next year engaged in training operations along the East Coast and Caribbean. She cleared Norfolk on 7 June 1947 on a midshipmen training cruise to the United Kingdom. Upon her return to the United States in August, the carrier engaged in maneuvers for 10 months before departing Hampton Roads on 1 June 1948 for duty with the 6th Fleet. Tragedy marked her steaming. Eighteen Navy personnel and ten Marines were unaccounted for after a 50-foot open launch returning some 90 men to the carrier from liberty swamped in the choppy water of Hampton Roads on 31 May. Sixty-eight were recovered. During her tour in the Mediterranean, units of the 6th Fleet were placed on alert to insure peace in the Middle East. Kearsarge returned to Quonset Point, Rhode Island, on 2 October, and operated along the Atlantic Coast and the Caribbean until 27 January 1950, when she sailed for the West Coast. The carrier arrived Puget Sound Navy Yard on 23 February, and decommissioned there on 16 June 1950 for the SCB-27A modernization overhaul that would enable her to handle new jet aircraft. Korean War Kearsarge recommissioned on 15 February 1952 with Captain Louis B. French in command. Following shakedown, the carrier cleared San Diego on 11 August for intensive flight training in the Hawaiian Islands. Her readiness complete, she sailed for the Far East to engage in combat missions in the Korean War. Arriving at Yokosuka on 8 September, Kearsarge joined the fast carrier Task Force 77 (TF 77) off the east coast of Korea six days later. For the next five months, the carrier's planes flew nearly 6,000 sorties against Communist forces in North Korea, unleashing considerable damage on enemy positions. She completed her tour in late February 1953, returning to her home port of San Diego on 17 March. While serving in Korea her classification was changed to CVA-33. After returning to San Diego, Kearsarge was used in the filming of the 1954 movie The Caine Mutiny to depict the abortive visit to Admiral William F. Halsey Jr. aboard his unnamed flagship. Far East Kearsarge sailed again for the Far East on 1 July 1953 and operated with the 7th Fleet fast carrier force during the uneasy truce in Korea. The "Mighty Kay" (after three collisions with other ships in a short period of time, including the ocean liner , Kearsarge was also nicknamed by some "Rammin Rankin's Krashbarge" and "The Mighty Kay-RUNCH") also kept watch over the Formosa Straits to prevent the Communists from attacking the Chinese Nationalists on Taiwan. Kearsarge returned to San Diego on 18 January 1954 to resume training operations off California. Clearing San Diego on 7 October, she steamed toward her third deployment to the Far East. While operating with the 7th Fleet, the carrier stood by to assist the Nationalist Chinese in the evacuation of the Tachen Islands. From 6–13 February 1955, Kearsarge supported units of the fleet in the successful evacuation of 18,000 civilians and 20,000 military personnel from the islands. Her cruise ended at San Diego on 12 May and for the next three years operated on the annual deployment schedule to the Far East and training operations off California. In 1956–57, Kearsarge received the SCB-125 modernization, mainly incorporating a hurricane bow and an angled deck. During the summer of 1958, Kearsarge was fitted out as a(n) (antisubmarine warfare) support carrier and reclassified CVS-33. Following intensive training in her new role, the carrier sailed on 5 September 1959 for 7th Fleet operations in the Far East. Early in her tour, Japan was hit with a violent typhoon, and Kearsarge played an important role in providing relief to the victims. Her planes landed parties of medical and supply units, while her crew and air group donated clothing and money to the distressed people. After participating in SEATO exercises and 7th Fleet operations, she cleared Yokosuka on 3 March 1960 for her homeward voyage. Three days later in stormy waters 1,200 miles (1,930 kilometers) off Wake Island, four Russians were rescued after drifting 49 days in disabled landing craft. They were flown back to their country after Kearsarge arrived in Alameda, California, on 15 March; and the carrier received thanks from the Soviet Union for this gesture. A year of training operations preceded her next deployment from San Diego which began on 3 March 1961. The antisubmarine carrier steamed to Southeast Asian waters as the Communists intensified their effort to overthrow the government in Laos. The demonstrations of the 7th Fleet were observed by the enemy and the crisis abated. After six months in the Far East, Kearsarge arrived Puget Sound on 1 November for the second phase of her modernizations. Project Mercury Upon completion of repairs and training, Kearsarge departed Long Beach, California, on 1 August 1962 to station herself in the Western Range as a recovery ship in the Project Mercury orbital space flight of astronaut Walter Schirra after splashdown. On 3 October, after a flawless flight, the carrier played her role in the Space Age by retrieving Schirra and his space capsule, Sigma 7, and returning him to Honolulu for flight back to the mainland. Kearsarge resumed training exercises, continuing these for six months before arriving Pearl Harbor on 29 April 1963 to once again take part in the space program. The carrier repeated her earlier splashdown recovery by plucking astronaut Gordon Cooper on 16 May 1963 after he orbited the Earth 22 times in his capsule Faith 7. Vietnam She returned the space hero to Pearl Harbor, then departed on 4 June on her eighth cruise to the Far East. Operations with the 7th Fleet included keeping watch on the unsettled problems in Southeast Asia. Kearsarge returned to Long Beach on 3 December for training exercises off California.On 19 June 1964, the antisubmarine carrier was deployed on her ninth Far Eastern cruise. Arriving Yokosuka on 30 July, Kearsarge was dispatched to the South China Sea, following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, the North Vietnamese patrol boat attack on U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin in early August 1964. While U.S. Navy planes destroyed North Vietnam oil and supply depots, Kearsarge provided antisubmarine protection for the 7th Fleet. Kearsarge returned to Long Beach on 16 December. After overhaul during the first half of 1965, Kearsarge operated off the West Coast and appeared in a 1965 episode of Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre entitled "The Admiral," with a number of Douglas A-1 Skyraiders painted in Korean War-period colors on her deck for the production. She departed for the Far East on 9 June 1966. Steaming via Hawaii and Japan, she reached "Yankee Station" on 8 August and operated off Vietnam through 24 October. The next day she headed for the Kuala Lumpur area and anchored in the Strait of Malacca on the 30th. She returned via Subic Bay to "Yankee Station" on 5 November and operated there through the 23rd. The next day, the carrier started home via Hong Kong and Japan, arriving in San Diego on 20 December. She operated on the West Coast until departing San Diego on 18 August and reached Pearl Harbor 10 days later to prepare for future action. Made redundant by the general fleet drawdown of the late 1960s and early 1970s, Kearsarge was decommissioned on 13 February 1970. Following three years in the Reserve Fleet, she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register in May 1973 and sold for scrap in February 1974. Awards Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation China Service Medal (extended) World War II Victory Medal Navy Occupation Service Medal (Europe clasp) National Defense Service Medal (2) Korean Service Medal (2 battle stars) Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (3 battle stars) Vietnam Service Medal (5 battle stars) Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Gallantry Cross Medal with Palm) United Nations Korean Medal Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal Korean War Service Medal (retroactive) Gallery See also List of aircraft carriers List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy Footnotes References External links Disaster at Nagoya (HS-6 and Kearsarge) http://www.2-sir.com/TwinFalls/Ise-Wan.html Navy photographs of Kearsarge (CV-33) History of the CV-33 Kearsarge mentioning the Krashbarge nickname New Zealand maritime records mentioning the collision with Oriana Essex-class aircraft carriers Ships built in Brooklyn 1945 ships World War II aircraft carriers of the United States Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States Korean War aircraft carriers of the United States Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States United States Navy New Hampshire-related ships Space capsule recovery ships

263748

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalpel

Scalpel

A scalpel, lancet, or bistoury, is a small and extremely sharp bladed instrument used for surgery, anatomical dissection, podiatry and various arts and crafts (called a hobby knife). Scalpels may be single-use disposable or re-usable. Re-usable scalpels can have permanently attached blades that can be sharpened or, more commonly, removable single-use blades. Disposable scalpels usually have a plastic handle with an extensible blade (like a utility knife) and are used once, then the entire instrument is discarded. Scalpel blades are usually individually packed in sterile pouches but are also offered non-sterile. Double-edged scalpels are referred to as "lancets". Scalpel blades are usually made of hardened and tempered steel, stainless steel, or high carbon steel; in addition, titanium, ceramic, diamond and even obsidian knives are not uncommon. For example, when performing surgery under MRI guidance, steel blades are unusable (the blades would be drawn to the magnets and would also cause image artifacts). Historically, the preferred material for surgical scalpels was silver. Scalpel blades are also offered by some manufacturers with a zirconium nitride–coated edge to improve sharpness and edge retention. Others manufacture blades that are polymer-coated to enhance lubricity during a cut. Alternatives to scalpels in surgical applications include electrocautery and lasers. Surgical scalpels Surgical scalpels consist of two parts, a blade and a handle. The handles are often reusable, with the blades being replaceable. In medical applications, each blade is only used once (sometimes just for a single, small cut). The handle is also known as a "B.P. handle", named after Charles Russell Bard and Morgan Parker, founders of the Bard-Parker Company. Morgan Parker patented the 2-piece scalpel design in 1915 and Bard-Parker developed a method of cold sterilization that would not dull the blades, as did the heat-based method that was previously used. The handle of medical scalpels come in several basic types. The first is a flat handle used in the #3 and #4 handles. The #7 handle is more like a long writing pen, rounded at the front and flat at the back. A #4 handle is larger than a #3. #5 handles are also common, and are round, with a patterning to ensure a non-slip grip. Blades are manufactured with a corresponding fitment size so that they fit on only one size handle. The following table of blades is incomplete and some blades listed may work with handles not specified here. Gripping a medical scalpel Palmar grip Also called the "dinner knife" grip. The handle is held with the second through fourth fingers and secured along the base of the thumb, with the index finger extended along the top rear of the blade and the thumb along the side of the handle. This grip is best for initial incisions and larger cuts. Pencil grip Best used for more accurate cuts with smaller blades (e.g. #15) and the #7 handle. The scalpel is held with the tips of the first and second fingers and the tip of the thumb with the handle resting on the fleshy base of the index finger and thumb. Care should be taken not to allow the handle to rest too far along the index finger as this promotes an unstable grip and cramped fingers. Graphic design and arts and crafts blades Graphical and model-making scalpels tend to have round handles, with textured grips (either knurled metal or soft plastic). The blade is usually flat and straight, allowing it to be run easily against a straightedge to produce straight cuts. There are many kinds of graphic arts blades; the most common around the graphic design studio is the #11 blade which is very similar to a #11 surgical blade (q.v.). Other blade shapes are used for wood carving, cutting leather and heavy fabric, etc. Ancient scalpels Obsidian scalpels older than 2100 BC have been found in a Bronze Age settlement in Turkey. Skulls from the same time and place show signs of brain surgery. Ancient Egyptians made incisions for embalming with scalpels of sharpened obsidian, a material that is still in use. The first medical writings of ancient Greeks indicate they were commonly using tools identical to today's scalpels around 500 BC. Ancient Romans used more than 150 different surgical instruments, including scalpels. Indian Ayurvedic medicine mentions the use of sharp bamboo splinters. Scalpel injuries Rising awareness of the dangers of sharps in a medical environment around the beginning of the 21st century led to the development of various methods of protecting healthcare workers from accidental cuts and puncture wounds. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, as many as 1,000 people were subject to accidental needle sticks and lacerations each day in the United States while providing medical care. Scalpel blade injuries were among the most frequent sharps injuries, second only to needlesticks. Scalpel injuries made up 7 percent to 8 percent of all sharps injuries in 2001. "Scalpel Safety" is a term coined to inform users that there are choices available to them to ensure their protection from this common sharps injury. Safety scalpels Safety scalpels are becoming increasingly popular as their prices come down and also on account of legislation such as the Needle Stick Prevention Act. There are essentially two kinds of disposable safety scalpels offered by various manufacturers. They can be either classified as retractable blade or retractable sheath type. The retractable blade version made by companies such as OX Med Tech, DeRoyal, Jai Surgicals, Swann Morton, and PenBlade are more intuitive to use due to their similarities to a standard box-cutter. Retractable sheath versions have much stronger ergonomic feel for the doctors and are made by companies such as Aditya Dispomed, Aspen Surgical and Southmedic. A few companies have also started to offer a safety scalpel with a reusable metal handle. In such models, the blade is usually protected in a cartridge. Such systems usually require a custom handle and the price of blades and cartridges is considerably more than for conventional surgical blades. However, CDC studies shows that up to 87% of active medical devices are not activated. Safety scalpels are active devices and therefore the risk of not activating is still significant. There is a study that indicated there were actually four times more injuries with safety scalpels than reusable scalpels. Blade removers There are various scalpel blade removers on the market that allows users to safely remove blades from the handle, instead of dangerously using fingers or forceps. In the medical field, when taking into account activation rates, the combination of a single-handed scalpel blade remover with a passing tray or a neutral zone was as safe and up to five times safer than a safety scalpel. There are companies which offer a single-handed scalpel blade remover that complies with regulatory requirements such as US Occupational Safety and Health Administration Standards. Safety The usage of both safety scalpels and a single-handed blade remover, combined with a hands-free passing technique, are potentially effective in reducing scalpel blade injuries. It is up to employers and scalpel users to consider and use safer and more effective scalpel safety measures when feasible. See also Laser scalpel Medical device The Lancet References External links Medical knives Surgical instruments scalpel

263753

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebellions%20of%201837%E2%80%931838

Rebellions of 1837–1838

The Rebellions of 1837–1838 (), were two armed uprisings that took place in Lower and Upper Canada in 1837 and 1838. Both rebellions were motivated by frustrations with lack of political reform. A key shared goal was responsible government, which was eventually achieved in the incidents' aftermath. The rebellions led directly to Lord Durham's Report on the Affairs of British North America and to the Act of Union 1840 which partially reformed the British provinces into a unitary system and eventually led to the British North America Act, 1867 which created the contemporary Canadian federation and its government. Atlantic context Some historians contend that the rebellions in 1837 ought to be viewed in the wider context of the late-18th- and early-19th-century Atlantic revolutions. The American Revolutionary War of 1775–83, the French Revolution of 1789–99, the Haitian Revolution of 1791–1804, the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and the rebellions in Spanish America (1810–25) were inspired by republican ideals, but whether the rebels would have gone so far as to usurp the Crown remains a subject for historical debate. Great Britain's Chartists sought the same democratic goals. Historians have tended to view the two Canadian rebellions and the subsequent US Patriot War in isolation, without reference to each other, and without reference to the republican impetus they shared. Recent reconsiderations have emphasized that this was a purposeful forgetfulness by the Reformers after the Rebellions, as they attempted to repudiate the bold republicanism of William Lyon Mackenzie, yet steer an acceptable course to national independence under the guise of responsible government. Ducharme (2006) puts the rebellion in 1837 in the context of the Atlantic Revolutions. He argues that Canadian reformers took their inspiration from the republicanism of the American Revolution. The rebels believed that the right of citizens to participate in the political process through the election of representatives was the most important right, and they sought to make the legislative council elective rather than appointed. Rebellion in Upper Canada (and Lower Canada also) broke out after the 1836 Legislative Assembly elections were corrupted. It seemed then that the reformers' struggles could only be settled outside the framework of existing colonial institutions. The British military crushed the rebellions, ending any possibility the two Canadas would become republics. Some historians see ties to the Chartist Newport Uprising of 1839 in Wales, suppressed by Sir Francis Bond Head's cousin, Sir Edmund Walker Head. Rebellions There were two types of rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada. Many of the rebels (including Mackenzie) fled to the United States. Mackenzie established a short-lived "Republic of Canada" on Navy Island in the Niagara River, but withdrew from armed conflict soon thereafter. Charles Duncombe and Robert Nelson, in contrast, helped foment a largely American militia, the Hunters' Lodge/Frères chasseurs, which organized a convention in Cleveland in September 1838 to declare another Republic of Lower Canada. The Hunters' Lodges drew on the American members of the radical Equal Rights Party (or "Locofocos"). This organization launched the "Patriot War", which was suppressed only with the help of the American government. The raids did not end until the rebels and Hunters were defeated at the decisive Battle of Windsor, nearly a year after the first defeat near Montgomery's Tavern. Similarities The constitutions of Upper and Lower Canada differed greatly, but shared a basis on the principle of "mixed monarchy"—a balance of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. The colonies, however, lacked the aristocratic element, and found their non-elective Legislative Councils dominated by local oligarchies that controlled local trade and the institutions of state and religion. In Lower Canada they were known as the Château Clique; in Upper Canada they were known as the Family Compact. Both office-holding oligarchies were affiliated with more broadly based "Tory parties" and opposed by a Reform opposition that demanded a radically more democratic government than existed in each colony. The governments in both provinces were viewed by the Reformers as illegitimate. In Lower Canada acute conflict between the elected and appointed elements of the legislature brought all legislation to a halt, leaving the Tories to impose Lord John Russell's Ten Resolutions, allowing them to rule without elected accountability. In Upper Canada the 1836 elections had been marred by political violence and fraud organized by the new Lt. Governor, Sir Francis Bond Head. William Lyon Mackenzie and Samuel Lount lost their seats in the result. The Tories passed a bill allowing them to continue to sit in disregard of the established practice of dissolving the House on the death of a monarch (William IV died in June 1837). In the midst of this crisis of legitimacy, the Atlantic economy was thrown into recession, with the greatest impact being on farmers. These farmers barely survived widespread crop failures in 1836–37, and now faced lawsuits from merchants trying to collect old debts. The collapse of the international financial system imperiled trade and local banks, leaving large numbers in abject poverty. In response, Reformers in each province organized radical democratic "political unions." The Political Union movement in Britain was largely credited with the passing of the Great Reform Bill of 1832. In Lower Canada the Patriots organized the Société des Fils de la Liberté ("Sons of Liberty"). William Lyon Mackenzie helped organize the Toronto Political Union in July 1837. Both organizations became the vehicles for politically organizing protests, and eventually rebellion. As the situation in Lower Canada approached crisis the British concentrated their troops there, making it apparent that they planned on using armed force against the Patriots. With no troops left in Upper Canada, an opportunity for a sympathetic revolt was opened. Differences Since the time of Lord Durham's Report on the Rebellions, the Lower Canada Rebellion has been attributed to tensions between the British and the French, that the conflict was "'racial' and, as a consequence, it was sharper than–indeed fundamentally different from—the milder strife that disturbed 'English' [speaking] Upper Canada." Despite being true, this interpretation underestimates the republicanism of the Patriots. The Lower Canada rebellion was widely supported by the populace, due to economic and political subordination of the French Canadians, resulting in mass actions over an extended period of time, such as boycotts, strikes and sabotage. These drew harsh punitive reprisals such as the burning of entire villages, rapes and other forms of psychological humiliation by government troops and militias, which had been concentrated in Lower Canada to deal with the crisis. By contrast, the Upper Canada Rebellion was not as broadly supported by local populations, was quickly quelled by relatively small numbers of pro-government militias and volunteers and was consequently less widespread and brutal by comparison. Aftermath Those rebels who were arrested in Upper Canada following the 1837 uprisings were put on trial, and most were found guilty of insurrection against the Crown. One of the most severe punishments was the sentencing of 100 Canadian rebels and American sympathizers to life in Britain's Australian prison colonies. Many were publicly hanged, most notably Samuel Lount and Peter Matthews. The public hangings of the rebels took place in Court House Square, in between Toronto's new jail and courthouse. The Foreman of Public Works, Joseph Sheard, was expected to share in the work of building the scaffold for Lount's and Matthews' execution. However, he claimed the men had done nothing that he wouldn't have and refused to assist. The Orange militia stood guard during the execution to deter a rescue. The root cause of resentment in Upper Canada was not so much against distant rulers in Britain, but rather against the corruption and injustice by local politicians—the so-called "Family Compact". However, the rebels were not really convicted because their views aligned with the liberalism of the US, and thus caused some kind of offence to the Tory values of the Canadian colonies. Rather, as revealed in the ruling of Chief Justice Sir John Robinson, a Lockean justification was given for the prisoners' condemnation, and not a Burkean one: the Crown, as protector of the lives, liberty and prosperity of its subjects, could "legitimately demand allegiance to its authority." Robinson went on to say that those who preferred republicanism over monarchism were free to emigrate, and thus the participants in the uprisings were guilty of treason. After the rebellions died down, more moderate reformers, such as the political partners Robert Baldwin and Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine, gained credibility as an alternative voice to the radicals. They proved to be influential when the British government sent Lord Durham, a prominent reformer, to investigate the cause of the troubles. Among the recommendations in his report was the establishment of responsible government for the colonies, one of the rebels' original demands (although it was not achieved until 1849). Durham also recommended the merging of Upper and Lower Canada into a single political unit, the Province of Canada (established through the Act of Union 1840), which became the nucleus for modern-day Canada. More controversially, he recommended the government-sponsored cultural assimilation of French Canadians to the English language and culture. In fact, the merging of the Upper and Lower Canada was intended to take any form of self-government away from the French Canadians, forcing them into becoming a smaller part of the new, larger, political unit. In geopolitical terms the Rebellions and the subsequent Patriot War altered the landscape of relations between Britain and British colonial authorities on one hand, and the American government on the other. Both nations were dedicated to a peace policy due to a budding financial crisis and to a sense of perceived disadvantage which both felt equally. Both were legitimately concerned about the disruption in relations which radical ideas might foment through further rebellion and raids. An unprecedented level of cooperation occurred in diplomatic and military circles. Far from the Rebellions being entirely domestic events, the administration of American president Martin Van Buren had little choice but to implement mitigating measures on US soil to prevent escalation. As they evolved into the Patriot War, the Rebellions contributed to the construction of more recent Anglo-American and Canada-US relations. Legacy In 1937, exactly one century after the Rebellion, the names of William Mackenzie and Louis-Joseph Papineau were applied to the Mackenzie–Papineau Battalion or the Mac-Paps, a battalion of officially unrecognised Canadian volunteers who fought on the Republican side in Spain during the Spanish Civil War. In memory of their heritage, the group fought to the rallying cry "The Spirit of 1837 Lives on!" See also History of Canada Military history of Canada American Revolution References Further reading Brown, Richard. Rebellion in Canada, 1837–1885: Autocracy, Rebellion and Liberty (Volume 1) ((2012) excerpt volume 1; Rebellion in Canada, 1837–1885, Volume 2: The Irish, the Fenians and the Metis (2012) excerpt for volume 2 Buckner, Phillip. 2020. "The Canadian Civil Wars of 1837–1838." London Journal of Canadian Studies. Greer, Allan. The patriots and the people: the rebellion of 1837 in rural Lower Canada ] University of Toronto Press, (2003) excerpt and text search Schull, Joseph. Rebellion: The Rising In French Canada, 1837 (1996) Primary sources Greenwood, F. Murray, and Barry Wright (2 vol 1996, 2002) Canadian state trials – Rebellion and invasion in the Canadas, 1837–1839 Society for Canadian Legal History by University of Toronto Press, External links Chart of British Regiments serving in the Canadian Rebellions of 1837–1838 Chronology and quotes The 1837–1838 Rebellion in Lower Canada, Images from the McCord Museum's collections, access-date 2006-12-10 To the Outskirts of Habitable Creation: Americans and Canadians Transported To Tasmania In The 1840s by Stuart D. Scott and Illustrated by Seth Colby. The Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada: A Collection of Documents. Edited by Colin Read and Ronald J. Stagg and Published by the Champlain Society, 1985. Political history of Canada Canadian Militia

263756

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug%20Henning

Doug Henning

Douglas James Henning (May 3, 1947 – February 7, 2000) was a Canadian magician, illusionist, escape artist and politician. Early life Henning was born in the Fort Garry district of Winnipeg, Manitoba, and began practicing magic at Oakenwald School in Fort Garry, later moving to Oakville, Ontario. His first experience in magic occurred when he was six years old, watching a magician on television. He asked his mother, "...what made the woman float in the air?" "Magic", his mother said. He went on to say that he still remembered that feeling and wanted to re-create that same emotion he felt. He performed his first show at the age of 14 at the birthday party of a friend and was inspired by his audience's spellbound reaction. Within a few months of placing an ad in a local newspaper, Henning launched a series of performances on local television in Toronto and as an entertainer at parties. After Henning graduated from Oakville Trafalgar High School, he stopped doing magic, not wanting to do it for a living. He felt that there were only two kinds of magicians, "...magicians for kids, and magicians for nightclub acts. I didn't want to be either kind." So, instead, he enrolled and became a student at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, and studied psychology, in preparation for a medical degree. It was there that Henning met Ivan Reitman, when he appeared in the 1968 Reitman-directed production of Li'l Abner in the role of Lonesome Polecat. To support himself during this time, he worked at the Toronto International Airport loading and unloading crates. He found the work to be too heavy and tiring; so, with the help of a female assistant, he formed the partnership of Henning and Mars, and performed at local bars and nightclubs. On May 19, 1967, Doug's father, an Air Canada pilot, was killed during a training flight when the DC-8-54 crashed near the Ottawa airport (CYOW). Career After graduating with honors with a degree in science and psychology, Henning decided to take a couple of years off before entering medical school to continue with his magic. Henning and Mars successfully performed with the top entertainers in Canada and traveled from one end of the country to the other. He soon realized that he needed more theatrical training as well as the principles of magic. He applied for a grant with the Canada Council Arts Bursary in the theater division with a proposal that used the equation that magic plus theater equals art. Henning was awarded a Canada Council for the Arts grant for $4,000. After being awarded the grant for a one year study of the art of magic, he studied mime under Adrian Pecknold as well as dance with a Canadian choreographer. He sifted through magic literature in the hopes of developing an all-around magic education in manipulation and being an illusionist. He visited the Magic Castle in Hollywood, California, a private club for magicians. After an impromptu performance in the Wine Cellar, he met resident magician, guru, and fellow Canadian Dai Vernon, known as "The Professor". Since the terms of the grant required Henning to study magic, he got up the nerve later in the year to write the Professor and asked him if he could take lessons with him. Thereafter, Henning traveled to Hollywood to study with Vernon, then with another magic great, Slydini, whom he considered to be his primary teacher of magic. With the intention of returning magic to its "glory days", Henning worked to perfect his craft. Garnering financial support, he developed a live theatrical show, Spellbound. It was there that he contacted his college friend Ivan Reitman, who directed Spellbound. Along with music by Howard Shore and co-starring actress Jennifer Dale, Henning created a musical that combined a dramatic story and his magic. Henning borrowed money for the project and spent $5,000 to build and design illusions. They set up a backer's audition in Toronto. One man found potential in the project and invested $70,000. It took so long to work out a plot around his illusions, that there was time only for two dress rehearsals, neither of which was in the theater. The show opened at the Royal Alexandra Theatre in Toronto, where it broke box-office records. Henning reworked the show after catching the attention of New York producers and took it to Broadway as The Magic Show, with songs composed by Stephen Schwartz. Debuting in 1974, the show ran for four and a half years and earned Henning a Tony Award nomination. Following his Broadway success, Henning approached NBC with the idea of producing a television special. It was not until Henning suggested that he would reproduce live Harry Houdini's famous and dangerous water-torture escape—for the first time since Houdini performed it himself—that the NBC executives signed him. Henning spent the next eight months reworking his stage act for TV and practicing the water-torture escape act. More than 50 million viewers tuned in for the December 1975 broadcast of Doug Henning's World of Magic, hosted by Bill Cosby. In 1977, Henning co-wrote a biography of Houdini, Houdini: His Legend and His Magic. He created illusions for an Earth, Wind and Fire tour in 1979, and for two of singer Michael Jackson's concerts, including his 1984 Victory Tour. In 1983, Henning was the producer and star of the Broadway musical Merlin. In 1984, he began a solo show on Broadway called Doug Henning and His World of Magic. In 1985, a set of plush toys called "Doug & Debby Henning's: Wonder Whims" were made by Panosh Place and copyrighted by Marvin Glass and Associates. There were a total of six Wonder Whim characters. Each came with an animal friend, a personalized story, and a magic kaleidoscope wand of colors and patterns. In 1986, Henning sold his illusions to David Copperfield and other magicians in order to devote his time to Transcendental Meditation. The World of Magic specials Henning's first World of Magic special aired on NBC on December 26, 1975. Henning successfully performed the water torture illusion, although he did not break Houdini's time record. Produced by famed talk show host David Susskind and sponsored by Mobil, the show ran live in the eastern United States without commercials. The event was the first of seven annual broadcasts, which would eventually bring Henning seven Emmy Award nominations, including two back-to-back in 1976 and 1977 for World of Magic. In December 1976, Doug Henning's World of Magic II aired, again live and with only two commercial breaks, on NBC. The theme for this show was "Fire, Water and Air" and it was hosted by actor Michael Landon, with guest star Joey Heatherton. The show included Henning vanishing an elephant and also included a segment with special guest magician Ricky Jay. On December 15, 1977, Doug Henning's World of Magic III aired live with guests Glen Campbell and Sandy Duncan; the hyped illusion was "Walking Through a Brick Wall". On December 14, 1978, Doug Henning's World of Magic IV aired with the theme "A Magical Journey Through Time"; however, due to numerous problems that occurred during the telecast, this was the last special broadcast live. On February 15, 1979, there was a broadcast of the fifth World of Magic special, which was taped at the Las Vegas Hilton. Doug Henning's World of Magic VI, taped at Osmond Studios in Orem, Utah, was broadcast February 22, 1980, on NBC. Bill Cosby made his second appearance as special guest. Marie Osmond also appeared on the program. Several revamped versions of illusions from earlier specials appeared. The finale was an escape and reappearance featuring a huge Rube Goldberg machine. Henning's last TV special was World of Magic VII in 1982, which featured guest Bruce Jenner and several revamped versions of illusions from earlier specials. The theme was Henning's magical house, with rooms featuring magic from the past, present and future. In the show's finale, Henning created the illusion of turning a black horse and a white horse into a zebra. At the end of each World of Magic performance, Henning addressed the audience with the same monologue: "Anything the mind can conceive is possible. Nothing is impossible. All you have to do is look within, and you can realize your fondest dreams. I would like to wish each one of you all of life's wonders and a joyful age of enlightenment." Other television appearances On December 13, 1977, Henning appeared as a guest on The Tonight Show starring Johnny Carson. While Henning performed illusions and chatted with host Johnny Carson and his other guests, he also plugged his new book on Houdini and announced his impending marriage to Barbara De Angelis. In 1979, Henning appeared on The Crystal Gayle Special, a variety program starring singer Crystal Gayle and featuring, along with Henning, B.B. King and the Statler Brothers. In 1980, Henning appeared on The Muppet Show, where he performed several acts. He demonstrated chink-a-chink for Scooter, did a flying handkerchief trick for Kermit the Frog's nephew Robin, segmented a Muppet monster into four pieces (and put him together wrong), and performed The Metamorphosis: a bit where he swapped places with an assistant who was locked inside a trunk. In December, Henning appeared on The Osmond Family Christmas Special, starring the popular brother/sister act Donny and Marie Osmond, as a guest with such entertainers as Peggy Flemming and Greg Evigan, at the time star of NBC's B.J. and the Bear. On February 13, 1981, Henning made his seventh appearance on The Tonight Show starring Johnny Carson. This show marked the first time that Henning was Carson's first guest. A version of The Magic Show was mounted in Toronto at the Queen Elizabeth Theatre. The purpose of this show was to film in front of a live audience of several thousand people for broadcast on CBC Television. Henning came back to the show that had made him a star, and many changes were made for this new production. Notably, most of the cast was changed, specifically the role of Cal, now performed by Didi Conn. Some script changes were made (the night club was now known as "Chez Manny" and the older, drunk magician was now named "Van Zyskin"). Some of the songs in the Broadway version were also changed (notably the risqué lyrics of Charmin's lament), or replaced totally, such as the song "Solid Silver Platform Shoes" (the once popular shoe style, by then out of fashion), which was replaced with "It's Gonna Take a Magician". The film version of the production was only aired once on Canadian television, but released on DVD decades later. Henning was featured in television commercials during 1984 to promote the Plymouth Voyager minivan. In 1993, he released a video for the Canada Natural Law Party, made up of excerpts from his World of Magic specials along with newly recorded linking dialogue detailing his philosophy of how the world's problems could be solved by meditation and yogic flying. Transcendental Meditation In the mid-1980s, Henning retired from the stage and had an increasing interest in Transcendental Meditation. He received a Ph.D. in the Science of Creative Intelligence from the Maharishi University in Switzerland. In 1992, Henning and Transcendental Meditation founder, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, drafted plans for a $1.5 billion-dollar project called "Maharishi Veda Land" near Niagara Falls, Ontario, that would "combine astonishing, unique visual and sensory effects, state-of-the-art 3D imagery, and ultra high-tech entertainment technology with his best original magic illusion secrets". Attractions were to include a building suspended above water and a journey into the heart of a rose, but at the time of Henning's death the project's status was uncertain. Political career In 1992, Henning was a Natural Law Party candidate in the United Kingdom's general election, contesting the Parliamentary constituency of Blackpool South in Lancashire. As a Canadian citizen, Henning qualified as a candidate under British electoral law, which allows candidates from Commonwealth nations. He finished fourth of four candidates, polling 173 votes. He was senior vice president of the Natural Law Party of Canada ("NLPC"), and ran as the party's candidate for the former Toronto riding of Rosedale in the 1993 federal election, finishing sixth out of ten candidates. Personal life Henning married Barbara De Angelis in 1977. Their marriage ended in divorce in 1981, and Henning married Debby Douillard in the Ladies' Dome in Fairfield, Iowa, in December of that year. Death and legacy Henning died aged 52 on February 7, 2000, at Cedars Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, five months after being diagnosed with liver cancer. His ashes were scattered in the Pacific Ocean off Redondo Beach, California. In 2005, a handwritten letter from Henning to James Randi was placed for auction on eBay, unbeknownst to Randi. When Randi learned of it, he announced on his blog that the letter had been "stolen" from his files. A week later, Randi wrote that he "managed to have the sale stopped" and that the letter was back in his possession, but did not elaborate on further details of the controversy. Randi claimed that Henning had immersed himself so thoroughly in transcendental meditation that he "abandoned regular medical treatment for liver cancer, continued to pursue his diet of nuts and berries, and died of the disease." On June 8, 2010, it was announced that Henning would receive a star on Canada's Walk of Fame. His "Zig Zag Girl" illusion is housed at the American Museum of Magic. A book titled Spellbound: The Wonder-filled Life of Doug Henning, by John Harrison, was released in 2009 to good reviews. See also Notes References External links Canadian Walk of Fame 1947 births 2000 deaths Escapologists Canadian expatriates in the United States Canadian magicians Deaths from cancer in California Deaths from liver cancer Natural Law Party of Canada candidates in the 1993 Canadian federal election People from Winnipeg McMaster University alumni

263759

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver%20tumor

Liver tumor

Liver tumors (also known as hepatic tumors) are abnormal growth of liver cells on or in the liver. Several distinct types of tumors can develop in the liver because the liver is made up of various cell types. Liver tumors can be classified as benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous) growths. They may be discovered on medical imaging (even for a different reason than the cancer itself), and the diagnosis is often confirmed with liver biopsy. Signs and symptoms of liver masses vary from being asymptomatic to patients presenting with an abdominal mass, hepatomegaly, abdominal pain, jaundice, or some other liver dysfunction. Treatment varies and is highly specific to the type of liver tumor. Classification Liver tumors can be broadly classified as benign or malignant: Benign There are several types of benign liver tumors. They are caused by either abnormal growth of neoplastic cells or in response to liver injury, known as regenerative nodules. One way to categorize benign liver tumors is by their anatomic source, such as hepatocellular, biliary, or stromal. Hemangiomas Cavernous hemangiomas (also called hepatic hemangioma or liver hemangioma) are the most common type of benign liver tumor, found in of people. They are made up of blood clusters that are surrounded by endothelial cells. These hemangiomas get their blood supply from the hepatic artery and its branches. These tumors are most common in women. The cause of liver hemangiomas remains unknown; however, it may have congenital and genetic components. They are not known to become malignant based on the available existing literature. Liver hemangiomas do not usually cause symptoms. They are usually small, with sizes up to 10 centimeters. Their size tends to remain stable overtime. However, if the hemangioma is large it can cause abdominal pain, a sense of fullness in right upper abdominal area, heart problems, and coagulation dysfunction. Cavernous hemangiomas are diagnosed with medical imaging (do not usually need biopsy to confirm diagnosis). Given their benign course and often asymptomatic nature, cavernous hemangiomas are typically diagnosed incidentally (e.g. when medical imaging is obtained for another reason). In terms of management, they are usually monitored with periodic imaging as well as more closely if the person becomes pregnant. If the cavernous hemangioma grows quickly or the patient is symptomatic, further medical intervention is warranted. Therapies include open or laparoscopic surgical resection, arterial embolization, or radio-frequency ablation. In terms of complications of hepatic hemangiomas, it is very rare for a hepatic hemangioma to rupture or bleed. Focal nodular hyperplasia Focal nodular hyperplasia (FNH) is the second most common benign tumor of the liver. FNH is found in of adults worldwide. FNH is more common in females (10:1 female to male ratio) except in Japan and China, in which there is a more equal prevalence of cases between females and males. FNH is associated with women of childbearing years and has been associated with women taking hormonal oral contraceptives. This tumor is the result of a congenital arteriovenous malformation hepatocyte response. This process is one in which all normal constituents of the liver are present, but the pattern by which they are presented is abnormal. These tumors usually do not have any symptoms. If large, they may present with abdominal pain. It is common for patients to have multiple distinct liver lesions; however, they do not tend to grow over time and they do not typically convert to malignant tumors. Diagnosis is made mainly with medical imaging, such as ultrasound or MRI with contrast. The majority of FNH have a characteristic "central scar" on contrast-enhanced imaging, which helps to solidify the diagnosis. However, if a central scar is not present on imaging, it is hard to tell the difference between FNH, hepatic adenoma, and hepatocellular carcinoma, in which cases biopsy is the next step to aid in the diagnosis process. Given the benign nature of FNH and the fact that they rarely progress in size or undergo malignant transformation, FNH tumors are usually managed with clinical monitoring. Surgical indications or arterial embolization for FNH include if the FNH lesion is large, symptomatic, or there is uncertainty surrounding the correct diagnosis. Hepatic adenoma Hepatocellular adenomas (also called hepatocellular adenoma) are rare benign liver tumors made up of hepatocytes, with estimates indicating hepatocellular adenomas make up 2% of liver tumors. They are most common in women using contraceptives or hormone replacement therapies containing estrogen, women who are pregnant, or people mis-using steroids. They are also associated with glycogen storage diseases (subtypes I and III), and newer studies are suggesting that diabetes, obesity, high blood pressure, and dyslipidemia are risk factors for hepatic adenomas. Hepatocellular adenomas are most often asymptomatic and often found incidentally on imaging. However, if signs and symptoms are present they include non-specific abdominal pain, yellowing of skin, and higher than normal gamma glutamyl transferase and alkaline phosphatase laboratory values. They are, in most cases, located in the right hepatic lobe and are frequently seen as a single lesion. Their size ranges from 1 to 30 cm. They can be difficult to diagnosis with imaging studies alone, because it can be hard to tell the difference between hepatocellular adenoma, focal nodular hyperplasia, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Molecular categorization via biopsy and pathological analysis aids in both diagnosis and understanding prognosis, particularly because hepatocellular adenomas have the potential to become malignant. It is important to note, percutaneous biopsy should be avoided, because this method can lead to bleeding or rupture of the adenoma. The best way to biopsy suspected hepatic adenoma is via open or laparoscopic excisional biopsy. Because hepatocellular adenomas are so rare, there are no clear guidelines for the best course of treatment. The complications, which include malignant transformation, spontaneous hemorrhage, and rupture, are considered when determining the treatment approach Estimates indicate approximately 20-40% of hepatocellular adenomas will undergo spontaneous hemorrhage. The evidence is not well elucidated, but the best available data suggests that the risk of hepatocellular adenoma becoming hepatocellular carcinoma, which is malignant liver tumor, is 4.2% of all cases. Transformation to hepatocellular carcinoma is more common in men. Currently, if the hepatic adenoma is >5 cm, increasing in size, symptomatic lesions, has molecular markers associated with HCC transformation, rising level of liver tumor markers such as alpha fetoprotein, the patient is a male, or has a glycogen storage disorder, the adenoma is recommended to be surgically removed. Like most liver tumors, the anatomy and location of the adenoma determines whether the tumor can removed laparoscopically or if it requires an open surgical procedure. Hepatocellular adenomas are also known to decrease in size when there is decreased estrogen or steroids (e.g. when estrogen-containing contraceptives, steroids are stopped, or post-partum). Women of childbearing age with hepatic adenomas were previously recommended to avoid becoming pregnant altogether; however, currently a more individualized approach is recommended that takes into account the size of the adenoma and whether surgical resection is possible prior to becoming pregnant. Currently, there is a clinical trial called the Pregnancy and Liver Adenoma Management (PALM) study that is investigating management of hepatic adenomas during pregnancy; however, the results of this trial have not been published as of February 2021. Liver Cell Adenomatosis Liver cell adenomatosis (also called hepatic adenomatosis) is a related but distinct diagnosis from hepatocellular adenoma. On medical imaging and histopathological biopsy results they are the same as hepatic adenomas. Liver cell adenomatosis differs from hepatic adenomas by its definition of more than 10 hepatic adenomas that are in both liver lobes in a person who does not have a glycogen storage disease and is not taking exogenous hormones. Liver cell adenomatosis is not associated with steroid use (e.g. their size does not change when taking or not taking oral contraceptives containing estrogen or anabolic steroids), which is another distinction from hepatic adenomas. Liver cell adenomatosis is associated with liver dysfunction and higher rates of bleeding than hepatic adenomas alone. Available evidence suggests that bleeding occurs in approximately 63% of patients with liver cell adenomatosis. Liver cell adenomatosis is also associated with becoming hepatocellular carcinoma. Like hepatic adenomas, they are diagnosed with imaging and biopsies as needed. Treatment of liver cell adenomatosis is difficult due to the multiple, widespread lesions. Liver imaging should be reviewed to see if it is possible to surgically remove the tumors. Liver transplantation is a treatment option for some patients. Simple Liver Cysts Liver cysts are common. They are fluid-filled contained structures within the liver. Simple liver cysts are seen most commonly in women and kids. In terms of pathophysiology, they are formed in response to developmental events and in response to trauma and inflammation. In addition, liver cysts can be seen with polycystic kidney disease and echinococcosis infection (hydatid disease). Pseudotumors: Pseudotumors differ from liver tumors in that they are not a proliferation of abnormal cells but are "local variations" of tissue type. Notably, liver pseudotumors can be confused for a liver tumor on initial imaging studies when diagnostically working up a liver mass. Examples of pseudotumors include: distinct areas of hepatic fibrosis, pockets of fatty liver changes, and inflammatory pseudotumor. Cancerous Most cases are metastases from other tumors, frequently of the GI tract (like colon cancer, carcinoid tumors mainly of the appendix, etc.), but also from breast cancer, ovarian cancer, lung cancer, renal cancer, prostate cancer, etc. The most frequent, malignant, primary liver cancer is hepatocellular carcinoma. Other forms of primary forms of liver cancer include cholangiocarcinoma, mixed tumors, sarcoma, and hepatoblastoma. Diagnosis Upon discovery of a liver tumor, the main issue in the workup is to determine whether the tumor is benign or malignant. Many imaging modalities are used to aid in the diagnosis of malignant liver tumors. These include sonography (ultrasound), computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Tumor markers, chemicals sometimes found in the blood of people with cancer, can be helpful in diagnosing and monitoring the course of liver cancers. High levels of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) in the blood can be found in many cases of HCC and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Cholangiocarcinoma can be detected with these commonly used tumor markers: carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA 19-9), carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and cancer antigen 125 (CA125). These tumour markers are found in primary liver cancers, as well as in other cancers and certain other disorders. Ultrasound Ultrasonography of liver tumors involves two stages: detection and characterization. Tumor detection is based on the performance of the method and should include morphometric information (three axes dimensions, volume) and topographic information (number, location specifying liver segment and lobe/lobes). The specification of these data is important for staging liver tumors and prognosis. Tumor characterization is a complex process based on a sum of criteria leading towards tumor nature definition. Often, other diagnostic procedures, especially interventional ones are no longer necessary. Tumor characterization using the ultrasound method will be based on the following elements: consistency (solid, liquid, mixed), echogenicity, structure appearance (homogeneous or heterogeneous), delineation from adjacent liver parenchyma (capsular, imprecise), elasticity, posterior acoustic enhancement effect, the relation with neighboring organs or structures (displacement, invasion), vasculature (presence and characteristics on Doppler ultrasonography and contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS). Computed tomography When evaluating hepatic masses by abdominal computed tomography (CT), it can be advantageous to have both late arterial and portal venous phase images since some tumors enhance briskly during the arterial phase (hepatocellular carcinoma, hepatic adenoma, follicular nodular hyperplasia (FNH), and hypervascular metastasis), but maybe occult or difficult to characterize on portal venous phase imaging alone. However, it should be stressed that the addition of late arterial phase images is only indicated if one of these tumors is suspected, or if there is a need for further characterization of a hepatic mass, since the large majority of patients will not benefit from the addition of this phase. In addition, if there is a need to definitively characterize a hepatic mass, MRI is generally more sensitive and specific, with no associated radiation dose. References External links Liver cancer at Mayo Clinic Hepatology Digestive system neoplasia Articles containing video clips bs:Tumori jetre de:Leberkrebs fr:Cancer du foie ko:간암 hu:Májtumor nl:Leverkanker ja:肝癌 pl:Nowotwory wątroby pt:Câncer de fígado simple:Liver cancer sh:Tumori jetre fi:Maksasyöpä sv:Levercancer ur:سرطان جگر zh:肝癌

263762

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gales%20Point

Gales Point

Gales Point is a village in Belize District in the nation of Belize, Central America. The village is on a peninsula in the Southern Lagoon In 2000, Gales Point had a population of about 500 people, most of whom subsist on fishing and farming. Most recently, in 2010, the population was placed at 296. Gales Point Manatee or Malanti is the local name for the village. The village is located in the Southern Lagoon, which is a manatee reserve. The Southern Lagoon's water is brackish. This lagoon connects directly to the Caribbean Sea through the Manatee Bar River. It also has 14 sq. miles of wildlife reserve known as the Gales Point Wild Life Sanctuary. History Ritamae Hyde (2009) recently established that based on (textual and oral) evidence Gales Point Manatee was an early maroon community. -A maroon community is a settlement made by persons who resisted enslavement by fleeing the control of the colonial authorizes and "slave masters" to live in self-sufficient communities in the hinterlands. It is believed that Gale's Point became one of such communities where "ex-enslaved" persons from "nearby areas such as Sibun River, Runaway Creek, Mullins River and Main River" established around the late 1700s and early 1800s (Hyde: 2009, p. 13, 16). Colonial knowledge of maroonage in British Honduras dates to 1816 when Superintendent Col. George Arthur recorded that there was "a community 'near Shiboon River, very difficult to discover'" outside the influence of the colonial authorities (quoted in Shoman: 2000, 51). In 1820, Arthur again made reference to "two Slave Towns, which it appears have been long formed in the Blue Mountains to the Northward of Sibun" (ibid). In around 1944, Gales Point became the first village in Belize to have a village council. Nurse Cleopatra White, first nurse in the village, recognized the need for managing village affairs and organized a council. Her idea later became the model for the current village council system which has been implemented throughout the country. Culture Due to the geographic isolation of Gales Point Manatee from the rest of the country, some traditional African practices continue to be observable (see Iyo, et al. 2007; Hyde: 2009). Food and drinks Like many West African cultures, the people of Manatee were traditionally reliant on ground food and other locally planted crops for subsistence. Fishing and hunting was also a much greater source of food for the community. For example, there is the fish sere. The dish is essentially a coconut-milk soup of fish and ground foods (yam, coco, potato, etc.). It may also be served along white rice. The people at Manatee are also well known for their homemade wines from local berries and cashews, amongst others fruits. Sambai The origin of the word Sambai is not fully known but Sambai refers to the rhythm style, drum style and event from the village of Gales Point Manatee. The Sambai rhythm is the most unusual aspect of Kriol culture from Manatee (taken from National Kriol Council). It is theorized that since the escaped slaves, or maroons, were likely first generation slaves, they probably remembered rituals and rhythms from their home in Africa. Since the Goombay (gumbeh) drum was not outlawed until 1790, it's easy to say that these rhythms were brought with these escaped slaves to the area near Runaway Creek. It is likely that the rhythms migrated from their origins as the people themselves did carrying with them the flowing and mutating rhythmic dialects of their own style, still strongly rooted in Africa. The Sambai is by tradition considered a fertility dance and occurs during the full moon cycle. Farmers plant and harvest crops directly related to lunar cycles as well and this may contribute to the reason that the Sambai is considered a fertility ritual. Also, many lyrics are sexual in nature such as: "Hok-i-nani-beh…here here ….hok-i-nani-beh…koko faiya." In recent times the Sambai has developed into simply a social event and is no more a fertility ritual. It done along with most other nighttime activities involving other dances. Elders remember the days when children were not allowed to participate in the Sambai. Although children are allowed to be at a Sambai now the event has not changed much since the old days. A circle of dancers and drummers gather around a pine wood fire. Drummers begin playing and "call" the song then the crowd answers. This "call and response" style is typical of the African tradition. For example: Call: "Aanti Kala Kala Kalala sohnting so" Response: "Aanti noh badi mi". The dancers enter one at a time and "Jump Sambai" as it is referred to. When the individual exits the ring he or she chooses the next dancer by pointing to or "reeling in" with a gesture or simply exits next to the person they are calling in. Often subtle courtships were explored as individuals frequently choose the candidate of their pursuit for the evening. If the person was interested they would return the gesture by choosing back the potential partner. If the person was not interested in the courtship then the discrete lack of reciprocation would be noticed only by the pursuer of the courtship. Story telling Storytelling has always been an important form of entertainment in the village. The introductions always started with a bizarre exaggeration to make the crowd laugh such as "Back in the day when monkey use to chew tobacco" and ended with the classic Creole line "if the pin neva ben, di story neva end". Some of the stories are long and have morals that can only be captured if one pays keen attention. The story may also change according to the mood of the teller, for example, the storyteller mentioned or integrated hurricane Richard in two of the stories, making the audience laugh at a recent disaster that affected the community. Outside influences It is important to recognize that culture is always in a process of change due to both internal and external occurrences and influences. Gales Point is not in total isolation or unaffected by the broader Belizean cultural lifestyles and 'Western culture'. Many things have changed in the community. For example, the Sambai is no longer the same. There are more children participating in the dance than actual adults. In the past, no children were allowed to do the Sambai in the past. People now live in concrete houses as opposed to thatched houses in the past. Processed and canned foods are available in the village. There is a local Christian church. Rastafari, or at least the growing of 'locks', is now quite common among the youth (for discussion on Rastafari in Belize, see Lawrence: 2012). These modern influences at the same time have benefited the community. For example, they now have access to electricity and water. There is little economic activity occurring in the village which leads people to migrate out of the community. Many persons hope that increase tourist arrivals will increase the economic activities of the community and decrease outward migration. Tourism The village of Gales Point has some tourism, mostly for those interested in seeing the rich ecosystem of the area, including a large West Indian manatee population. The village has a bar called 'Gentle's Cool Spot', a shop called 'Martha's Shop' and a Creole drumming school where drumming lessons are available from Emmeth Young. It is also possible to camp at Methos Campsite near the end of the point. At the end of the point is a lodge called Manatee Lodge, which offers hikes, manatee spotting trips and snorkelling in the Caribbean Sea at nearby islands and cayes. References Bolland, Nigel. Colonialism and Resistance in Belize: Essays in Historical Sociology. 1988. Mexico: Cubola, 2003. Print. Cocom, Rolando. (2014). I mi gawn da malanti: Reflections from a field-trip at Gales Point Manatee. Belizean Minds Blogspot. Web Article. Hyde, Ritamae. "Stoan Baas" people: An Ethnohistorical study of the Gales Point Manatee community of Belize. The University of the West Indies, 2009. "Stoan Baas" people: An Ethnohistorical study of the Gales Point Manatee community of Belize. Journal of Belizean Studies 31.2 (2012). Iyo, Aondofe. "Flight from enslavement in the Bay of Honduras to Freedom in Petén, Guatemala: Preliminary Findings." Belize Archeology and Anthropology Conference. 2012. Iyo, Aondofe, Tzalam Froyla, and Francis Humphreys. Belize New Vision: African and Maya Civilizations, Heritage of a New Nation. Belize: Factory Books, 2007. Print. Iyo, Joseph. Towards Understanding Belize's Multi-Cultural History and Identity. Belize: University of Belize, 2000. Print. Lawrence, V. (2012). Dreadlock displaced: Stereotyping Rastafarians in Belize Journal of Belizean Studies, 31(2). External links Gales Point on BelizeDistrict.com Populated places in Belize District Belize Rural Central

263763

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s%20Democratic%20Party%20of%20Afghanistan

People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan

The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) was a Marxist–Leninist political party in Afghanistan established on 1 January 1965. Four members of the party won seats in that year's parliamentary elections, reduced to two seats in 1969, albeit both before parties were fully legal. For most of its existence, the party was split between the hardline Khalq and moderate Parcham factions, each of which claimed to represent the "true" PDPA. The party originally followed leftist and Leninist ideals. Despite its orientation, the party did not describe itself as "communist", instead using labels such as "national democratic" and "socialist". In its final years, the party gradually moved away from Marxism–Leninism and towards Afghan nationalism. While a minority, the party helped then-Prime Minister of Afghanistan Mohammed Daoud Khan overthrow King Mohammed Zahir Shah in 1973 and establish the Republic of Afghanistan. Initially the PDPA was highly represented in the government cabinet, but many PDPA officials were later dismissed as relations between the party and President Daoud Khan worsened. In 1978 the PDPA, with help from members of the Afghan National Army, seized power from Daoud Khan in what became known as the Saur Revolution. The PDPA led by Nur Muhammad Taraki established the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan which would last until 1987. After National Reconciliation talks in 1987, the official name of the country was reverted back to the "Republic of Afghanistan" (as it was known prior to 1978). Under the leadership of Mohammad Najibullah in 1990, the party was renamed the Homeland Party (, ) and much of the party's symbols and policies were altered or removed. The republic lasted until 1992, when mujahideen rebels seized the capital Kabul and took over the country's government. The PDPA was subsequently dissolved, with some officials joining the new government, some joining militias, and others deserting. History Nur Mohammad Taraki started his political career as an Afghan journalist. On 1 January 1965, Taraki with Babrak Karmal established the Democratic People's Party of Afghanistan, while at the beginning the party was running under the name People's Democratic Tendency, since at the time secularist and anti-monarchist parties were illegal. The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) was officially formed at the unity congress of the different factions of the Socialist Party of Afghanistan on 1 January 1965. Twenty-seven men gathered at Taraki's house in Kabul, elected Taraki as the first party Secretary General and Karmal as Deputy Secretary General, and chose a five-member Central Committee (also called a Politburo). Taraki was invited to Moscow by the International Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) later that year. The PDPA was known in Afghan society at that time as having strong ties with the Soviet Union. Eventually the PDPA was able to get three of its members into parliament, in the first free elections in Afghan history; these three parliamentarians were Karmal, Anahita Ratebzad, Nur Ahmed Nur. Later on, Taraki established the first radical newspaper in Afghan history under the name The Khalq; the newspaper was eventually forced to stop publishing by the government in 1966. Khalqs and the Parchams In 1967 the party divided into several political sects, the biggest being the Khalqs and the Parchams, as well as the Setami Milli and Grohi Kar. These new divisions started because of ideological and economic reasons. Most of Khalqs supporters came from ethnic Pashtuns from the rural areas in the country. The Parchams supporters mostly came from urban citizens who supported social-economic reforms in the country. The Khalqs accused the Parchams of allegiance to King Mohammed Zahir Shah because their newspaper, the Parcham, was tolerated by the king and therefore published from March 1968 – July 1969. Karmal sought, unsuccessfully, to persuade the PDPA Central Committee to censure Taraki's excessive extreme radicalism. The vote, however, was close, and Taraki in turn tried to neutralize Karmal by appointing new members to the committee who were his own supporters. After this incident, Karmal offered his resignation, which was accepted by the Politburo. Although the split of the PDPA in 1967 into two groups was never publicly announced, Karmal brought with him less than half the members of the Central Committee. As a result of the internal strife within the party, the party's representation in the Afghan parliament decreased from four to only two seats in the Afghan parliamentary election in 1969. In 1973 the PDPA assisted Mohammed Daoud Khan with a seizure of power from Zahir Shah in a nearly bloodless military coup. After Daoud had seized power, he established Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan. After the coup, the Loya jirga approved Daoud's new constitution, establishing a presidential one-party system of government in January 1977. The new constitution alienated Daoud from many of his political allies. Reconciliation The Soviet Union set in Moscow played a major role in the reconciliation of the Khalq faction led by Taraki and the Parcham faction led by Karmal. In March 1977, a formal agreement on unity was achieved, and in July the two factions held their first joint conclave in a decade. Since the parties division in 1967 both sides had held contact with Soviet government. Both parties were consistently pro-Soviet. There are allegations that they accepted financial and other forms of aid from the Soviet embassy and intelligence organs. However, the Soviets were close to King Zahir Shah and his cousin Daoud Khan—the first Afghan President—and it could have damaged their relations. There are no facts proving that the Soviets provided financial help to either Khalqis or Parchamis. Taraki and Karmal maintained close contact with the Soviet Embassy and its personnel in Kabul, and it appears that Soviet Military Intelligence (Glavnoye Razvedyvatel'noye Upravleniye – GRU) assisted Khalq's recruitment of military officers. Saur Revolution In 1978 a prominent member of the PDPA on the Parcham side of the party, Mir Akbar Khyber, is claimed to have been assassinated by the government and its associates. While the government rejected any claims of having assassinated him, the PDPA members apparently feared that Mohammad Daoud Khan was planning to exterminate them all. Shortly after a massive protest against the government during the funeral ceremonies of Khaibar, most of the leaders of PDPA were arrested by the government. With a number of Afghan military officers supporting the Khalq faction of the PDPA wing, Hafizullah Amin stayed out of prison long enough to organize an uprising with the group. On the eve of the coup, the Afghan police did not send Amin to immediate imprisonment, as it did with the three Politburo members and Taraki on 25 April 1978. His imprisonment was postponed for five hours, during which time he was under house arrest. He gave instructions to the Khalqi military officers through his family before being sent to jail on 26 April 1978. The regime of President Daoud came to a violent end in the early morning hours of 28 April 1978, when military units from the Kabul military base loyal to the Khalq faction of the party stormed the Presidential Palace in Kabul. The coup was also strategically planned for this date because it was the day before Friday, the Muslim day of worship, and most military commanders and government workers were off duty. Tanks were utilized in the coup d'état, with Major Aslam Watanjar commanding the tank units. With the help of the Afghan air force led by Colonel Abdul Qadir, the insurgent troops overcame the resistance of the Presidential Guard, assassinated Daoud, and killed most members of his family. Hafizullah Amin renamed the country to the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA)., and Qadir assumed the control of the country from 27–30 April 1978 as the Head of the Military Revolutionary Council. New reforms The divided PDPA succeeded the Daoud regime with a new government under the leadership of Nur Muhammad Taraki of the Khalq faction. In Kabul, the initial cabinet appeared to be carefully constructed to alternate ranking positions between Khalqis and Parchamis. Taraki was Prime Minister, Babrak Karmal was senior Deputy Prime Minister, and Hafizullah Amin was foreign minister. Once in power, the PDP embarked upon a program of rapid modernization centered on separation of Mosque and State, eradication of illiteracy (which at the time stood at 90%), land reform, emancipation of women, and abolition of feudal practices. A Soviet-style national flag replaced the traditional black, red, and green. Traditional practices that were deemed feudal – such as usury, bride price and forced marriage – were banned, and the minimum age of marriage was raised. The government stressed education for both women and men, and launched an ambitious literacy campaign. Sharia Law was abolished, and men were encouraged to cut off their beards. These new reforms were not well received by the majority of the Afghan population, particularly in rural areas; many Afghans saw them as un-Islamic and as a forced approach to Western culture in Afghan society. Most of the government's new policies clashed directly with the traditional Afghan understanding of Islam, making religion one of the only forces capable of unifying the tribally and ethnically divided population against the unpopular new government, and ushering in the advent of Islamist participation in Afghan politics. The first signs of a rebellion appeared on 20 July 1978 in the far eastern provinces of Nuristan and Kunar. Repression The new government launched a campaign, mostly at Pul-e-Charkhi prison. Despite accusations and predictions by conservative elements, a year and a half after the coup no restrictions had been placed on religious practice. Parcham rule In the 1979 Soviet Operation Storm-333, the Soviet special force Spetnaz stormed the Tajbeg Palace and killed PDPA general secretary Hafizullah Amin. The death of Amin led to Babrak Karmal becoming the new Afghan leader and General Secretary of the PDPA. The Soviet-Afghan War followed the death of Amin, and Karmal was exiled to Prague in Czechoslovakia, where he assumed the role of Afghan ambassador. The Khalq-Parcham rivalry remained in place. Clashes between members often resulted in fatalities, with rival gangs of each side firing at each other. Moscow came to regard Karmal as a failure and blamed him for the problems. Years later, when Karmal's inability to consolidate his government had become obvious, Mikhail Gorbachev, then General Secretary of the CPSU, said: Additionally, some Afghan soldiers who had fought for the socialist government began to defect or leave the army. In May 1986, Karmal was replaced as party general secretary by Mohammad Najibullah, and six months later he was relieved of the presidency. His successor as head of state was Haji Mohammad Chamkani. Karmal then moved (or, allegedly, was exiled) to Moscow. National reconciliation After the Soviet Union had leveled most of the villages south and east of Kabul, creating a massive humanitarian disaster, the demise of the PDPA continued with the rise of the Mujahideen guerrillas, who were trained in Pakistani camps with US support. Between 1982 and 1992, the number of people recruited by Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) agency to join the insurgency topped 100,000. The Soviet Union withdrew in 1989, but continued to provide military assistance worth billions of dollars to the PDPA regime until the USSR's collapse in 1991. Homeland Party The Soviet troop withdrawal in late 1989 changed the political structure that had enabled the PDPA to stay in power all those years. Inner collapse of the government started when Hekmatyar withdrew his support for the government. Later in March 1990 Defense Minister and Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces Shahnawaz Tanai tried to seize power in a military coup. The coup failed and Tanai was forced to flee the country. Najibullah still hung on to the presidency, so in June 1990 he renamed the party the Homeland Party. The party dropped the Marxist–Leninist ideology that had been held previously by the PDPA. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved. All support for the Republic of Afghanistan stopped. In April 1992, the PDPA regime in Afghanistan collapsed after the sudden change of allegiance of Afghan General Abdul Rashid Dostum following President Najibullah's resignation. Post-Najibullah interim leader Abdul Rahim Hatif agreed on 22 April 1992 for a rebel-led state. Ideology Since 1919, the Soviet Union had strongly influenced Afghan politics, economy and military (see Soviet–Afghan relations before 1979). The thousands of Afghan academic students and military trainees in the USSR were compelled to study Marxism–Leninism and the international communist movement; some of them converted to that ideology. Nur Muhammad Taraki, the first PDPA General Secretary in 1978, had worked and studied in India in 1932, had met members of the Communist Party of India there, and had converted to communism. Hafizullah Amin, the second PDPA General Secretary, had seen his leftist beliefs strengthened during his studies in the United States in the late 1950s. Taraki and Babrak Karmal (the third PDPA General Secretary) had been frequent contacts of the Soviet Embassy in Afghanistan from the late 1950s. From its inception in 1965 until at least 1984, the PDPA labeled themselves "national democratic", not communist; however, in its view of international relations, the PDPA was clearly pro-Soviet oriented. The secret party constitution of 1965 called for "expanding and strengthening Afghan-Soviet friendly relations". A party history in 1976 stated, "The party struggles against imperialism, particularly American imperialism and its ally, Maoism, and is fighting alongside our brother parties, foremost among them the Leninist party of the Soviet Union." In a 1978 party pamphlet, the PDPA described itself as a "vanguard of the working class" and General Secretary Taraki as an "experienced Marxist–Leninist". These descriptions led Western authors to label PDPA as either of "clear Marxist orientation", "an avowedly pro-Soviet socialist movement", or reformist "with a socialist bent". After the April 1978 PDPA coup d'état, PDPA general secretary Taraki stated that the PDPA were nationalists and revolutionaries but not communists, and declared a commitment to Islam within a secular state. Once in power, however, it became clear that the PDPA was dominated by an urban intelligentsia and lacked any real social base in the overwhelmingly rural and Islamic communities of Afghanistan. The party launched a programme ranging from land redistribution to emancipation and education of women, which violated traditional customs, religious laws, and the balance of power between Kabul and the rural localities. The radical reform program, class-struggle, anti-imperialistic rhetoric, the signing of a friendship treaty with the Soviet Union, increased presence of Soviet advisers in the country, and support of countries like Cuba and North Korea led to the international media and domestic opponents giving the label of "communist" to the PDPA. Pro-Najibists relaunched the Hezb-e Watan in 2004 and again in 2017. Organization Congress 1st Congress (1967) 2nd Congress (1987) Conference Central Committee In the period April 1978 – September 1979 the Central Committee contained 38 individuals, of these, 12 were either purged, imprisoned or executed on the orders of Taraki after the Saur Revolution. With Taraki's ouster and execution in 1979, another member was removed. During Hafizullah Amin's short rule, September–December 1979, the Central Committee had at most 33 members, 12 of which were appointed by him. Upon Babrak Karmal's ascension to power 25 members were either executed or purged on his orders (76 percent of the members). He reinstated 14 members (including himself), who had been purged by either Taraki or Amin, appointed 15 newcomers and retained 7 Amin appointees. The Central Committee now contained 36 members. A year later, in June 1981, 10 new members were appointed to the Central Committee (the body now containing a record high 46 members), in a bid to increase the representation of Parchamites. Two years later, in 1983, six more members were appointed, with the Central Committee now containing 52 full members and 27 candidate members. Of these 52 members, only three had held offices continuously through Taraki's, Amin's and Karmal's rule; they were Abdur Rashid Arian, Mohammed Ismail Danesh and Saleh Mohammad Zeary (often referred to as a Khalqist). Central Auditing Commission Statute Central Committee apparatus General Secretary, Politburo and Secretariat The Politburo and Secretariat were elected by a plenum of the Central Committee, exactly as how it was done within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). As in the CPSU, the Politburo was the main executive and legislative body of the PDPA when the congress, conference nor the Central Committee were in session. All decisions of the Politburo were implemented by the Secretariat, a body concurrently in session with the Politburo. Throughout its existence, the body usually had between 7 and 9 members. During Taraki's rule, 10 members had held seats in the PDPA Politburo, this was reduced to seven by Amin (only four members from the Taraki period were retained under Amin), and it was increased back to nine by Karmal. 6 members from the Amin period were either executed or disappeared, and Karmal turned the Politburo into a Parcham-dominated body. In the immediate aftermath of the Saur Revolution, there was "almost an even balance" between the Khalqist and the Parchamites in the body, but Khalqist representation was continuously increased under they formed a majority under Amin. The Politburo had one female member throughout its existence; Anahita Ratebzad. Unlike the Soviet practices the PDPA did not publish the list of Politburo members according to rank, but rather by alphabetical order. There is one exception however, and it was published in the book Handbook for Party Activists of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (published after the 6th Plenary Session of the 1st Central Committee in June 1981). Nur Muhammad Taraki, 1965–1979 Hafizullah Amin, 1979 Babrak Karmal, 1979–1986 Mohammad Najibullah, 1986–1992 Supervisory and Control Commission Subordinate bodies The PDPA Central Committee had several specialized commissions which handled day-to-day affairs. For instance, the party had the International Relations Commission, responsible for PDPA's relations with other parties, the Organization Commission, responsible for personnel appointments nationwide, and the Defense and Judicial Commission, responsible for military policy. Lower-level organizations From 1982 onwards, the PDPA experienced an organizational expansion into the countryside. For instance, in 1982 there existed 144 district and sub-district party committees, by mid-1984 it had increased to 205. Out of Afghanistan's fifty-five border districts, fifteen of them lacked a primary party organization (PPO), another nineteen had only one PPO in each district, and in the remaining twenty-one the party, while better organized, remained ineffective. Despite this, in the period 1982 to 1987 the PDPA did witness an organizational growth; witnessing a growth of PPOs form 443 to 1,331. However, the main problem facing the party was that it was not organized in the small villages scattering Afghanistan; out of an estimated 25,000 villages which existed in Afghanistan, the party was organized in an estimated 2,000. Another daunting problem was that the central party leadership had little contact with lower-level organizations in the provinces or, in general, with the people. In 1987, during Najibullah's rule, village-level party secretaries were appointed to the Central Committee in a bid to strengthen central-local contact. Concurrently, a threefold increase in visits by central party personnel to the provinces occurred, in another bid to strengthen the party's contact with the PDPA's lower-level and non-members alike. A major problem throughout PDPA's rule was that the majority of mid-level cadres resided in Kabul, rather than the places they were responsible for. Of the 10,000 mid-level cadres in the mid-1980s, 5,000 of them resided in Kabul. For instance, in the period 1982–83 the governor of Faryab province only visited the province during the winter months, since the mujahideen withdrew their troops from the area during those months. Another problem, in Faryab province the PDPA was inactive and the majority of the locals believed that Mohammad Daoud Khan, the president which the communists overthrew in 1978, was still ruling the country. Another case, that of Nangrahar province (in which the government was in complete control) faced a similar problem; the party organization laying dormant. To solve this problem, the PDPA sought to improve the cadres' education by enrolling them to educational institutions within the PDPA, public universities or giving them educational opportunities in the Eastern Bloc or the Soviet Union. The Social Science Institute of the PDPA had a capacity of 2,500 students, and by the end of the 1980s it had given degrees to over 10,000 individuals. Despite all this, the main problem facing the party was the unsafe conditions facing party members serving in the countryside; for instance, when the Ghazni Provincial Committee convened for a meeting the participants had to wait for three months to get home (waiting for an armoured column and a helicopter). Membership The PDPA had 5,000 to 7,000 members upon taking power. However, author Bruce Amstutz believes that PDPA membership probably stood at around 6,000 when Karmal took power. A little over a year later, the membership was estimated to stand between 10,000 and 15,000. By 1984, the party had between 20,000 and 40,000 members (this figure included both ordinary and probationary members), as a result of concerted membership drives in government institutions, state-owned enterprises, and the military. However, at the 1st PDPA Conference, Karmal claimed that the party had 62,820 ordinary and probationary members; this number was exaggerated. The conference reported a growth of 21,700 members since August 1981. From then until a party meeting in 1983, leading party officials claimed the party had between 63,000 and 70,000 members. Half of the members in 1982, were in the armed forces (which was dominated by the Khalqists). In August 1982, Karmal alleged that the PDPA had 20,000 members within the military, and said that "the army party organization forms the greatest part of the PDPA". Earlier that year, in March, Soviet sources stated that the largest concentration of PDPA members were to be found in Kabul Polytechnic Institute (with an estimated 600 members) and at Kabul University (with an estimated 1,000 members). In 1983, Karmal claimed that party membership had grown 35 percent to 90,000, the following year it had allegedly grown 33 percent to 120,000 members. While the membership increase did make the PDPA look more powerful than it really was, the increase was concurrently followed with increased indiscipline amongst members (a majority joined because of sheer opportunism). Before the 1973 coup led by Mohammad Daoud Khan, the vast majority of members either had "graduates of junior colleges or colleges", with many of them either being students or working in the public sector. After the 1973 coup, the Khalqist began recruiting members amongst the Officers Corps, which was proven successful by the takeover of 1978. However, in the aftermath of the coup, membership decreased notably (probably because of the increasing authoritarian policies of the government). By 1979, only the most blatant opportunists would be willing to join the party; the party was at its nadir. After the Soviet intervention, the Soviets forced the PDPA to recruit more members; in 1981 the probationary period for a new member was reduced from one year to six months, and to join a person needed fewer party sponsors. The 1981–83 recruitment drive increased party membership; the majority of the new members worked either in state-owned enterprises, the military. The main problem was that most of these new recruits were "functional illiterate", which in reality led to an overall decline in the quality of party members. In April 1981, 25–30 percent of members were "workers, farmers, soldiers, and other toilers"; this increased to 38 percent (both ordinary and probationary members) in 1982 and in 1983, according to Karmal, 28.4 were ordinary members. Democratic Youth Organization Receivers In 1997, Watan Party of Afghanistan was formed, which made attempts to register the old name of the PDPA, but the party was refused registration. In 2003, the National United Party of Afghanistan, which sought to unite former PDPA members, was registered. Notes References Citations Sources External links The PDPA and the Soviet invasion The future and legacy of PDPA members The Constitution of the People's Democratic Party Communist parties in Afghanistan Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Modern history of Afghanistan Political history of Afghanistan Formerly ruling communist parties Parties of one-party systems Collaborators with the Soviet Union 1960s in Afghanistan 1970s in Afghanistan 1980s in Afghanistan 1990s in Afghanistan Political parties established in 1965 Political parties disestablished in 1992 1965 establishments in Afghanistan 1992 disestablishments in Afghanistan Soviet–Afghan War Afghanistan conflict (1978–present) Political parties in Afghanistan

263767

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20George%27s%20Caye

St. George's Caye

St. George's Caye (Spanish: Cayo San Jorge) is an island in the Caribbean Sea, eight miles east of Belize City. It is part of the Belize District of Belize, Central America. The village on the island is also known as St. George's Caye. As of 2000, St. George's Caye had a permanent population of about 20 people. St. George's Caye was previously known by the Spaniards as "Cayo Cocina", or "Kitchen Cay". It was settled as a town in 1650, and was the largest settlement in what was then British Honduras in the 17th century and 18th century; however, its importance was eventually eclipsed by the growth of Belize City. St.George's Caye was Belize's first capital in the 1700s. Following Spanish Capture of Cayo Cocina in 1779, from 3 September through 10 September 1798, British settlers fought and defeated a small Spanish fleet sent to drive them from the area; this battle is marked as a national holiday in Belize each September 10 as the Battle of St. George's Caye. The British Army had an adventure training establishment on the island, allowing members of the British Forces stationed at the nearby British Army Training and Support Unit Belize (BATSUB) and their families a chance to take part in such activities as diving and sailing. However, the army decided to close the BATSUB in the late 20th century. Aside from several private residences, the island also has St. George's Caye Resort. Resort activities focus on diving, sailing, and snorkeling. References Islands of Belize Belize District Belize Rural South Populated places in Belize District

263768

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumper%20sticker

Bumper sticker

A bumper sticker is an adhesive label or sticker with a message, intended to be attached to the bumper of an automobile and to be read by the occupants of other vehicles—although they are often stuck onto other objects. Most bumper stickers are about 25.4 cm by 7.6 cm (10 in by 3 in) and are often made of PVC. Purpose Bumper stickers can be commercial, religious, secular, humorous, or in support of a sports team or other organization. They may promote or oppose a particular philosophical or political position. In some countries, such as the United States, bumper stickers are a popular way of showing support for a candidate for a government seat and become more common during election years. In others, such as the United Kingdom, they are rarely seen in any form. One variety of bumper sticker is the country tag. This is typically used for cars crossing international borders, and is overseen by the United Nations as the Distinguishing Signs of Vehicles in International Traffic, being authorized by the UN's Geneva Convention on Road Traffic (1949) and Vienna Convention on Road Traffic (1968). Often the country code is displayed on the license plate itself. These have (usually in the United States) been spun off into tags indicating a country with which the driver affiliates, or more humorously to indicate things like a region (OBX), support for rabbit rescue groups (BUN), etc. People who opt to exhibit their individuality through these decals may take part in more acts of road rage. Colorado State University social psychologist William Szlemko found that aggressive driving is linked to the number of markers a person has on their car, regardless of the messages portrayed. Application and removal Early bumper stickers had printed directions on the back removable liner for applying them to the bumper of a car. Due to the movement of the vehicle and changing weather conditions, the sticker needed to adhere well to the bumper surface. There are some "easy to remove" bumper stickers and magnetic bumper stickers. Bumper stickers can be removed with a razor blade, penetrating oil or a heat gun. Home remedies also include using common household items, such as WD-40 or paint thinner. History Before bumper stickers, advertisers used other methods of displaying their wares. In the horse-drawn carriage era, advertisers printed on horsefly nets with the name of a business. In the 1930s and 1940s, bumper signs were printed on metal or cardboard and wired to the chrome bumpers. Lester Dill, promoter of Meramec Caverns in Missouri, was an ardent adopter of the bumper sign to attract motorists to his site. Using a windowshield decal was another option. These paper strips could be wetted and placed inside a car window. However, these strips did not hold up well when placed on a bumper. Various factors contributed to the development of the bumper sticker. Developments in material manufacturing during World War II led to the widespread use of daylight fluorescent inks, which were invented by Bob Switzer and his brother Joe. These inks appeared to glow during the daytime and were useful to support various wartime activities; they were favored by early bumper sticker manufacturers after the war. In addition, the first commercially produced pressure-sensitive stickers appeared after World War II; new developments in adhesive materials led to the production of paper strips with adhesive on the back. In addition, In addition, increased use of vinyl by the general public after World War II led to the eventual use of this material in bumper stickers. Many experts credit Forest P. Gill, a silkscreen printer from Kansas City, Kansas, USA, as the developer of the bumper sticker. Gill recognized that the self-adhesive paper used during the second world war could be used to advertise promotional products in the late 1940s and beyond. Early widespread uses of the advertising bumper sticker were for tourist attractions, such as Marine Gardens, Florida, Seven Falls, Colorado, Meramec Caverns in Missouri, and Lookout Mountain, Tennessee. Another popular advertisement was the "See Rock City" sticker. In the 1940s and 1950s, visitors to the site had a sticker applied to their car, which duplicated the famous signs painted on the roofs of barns throughout the southeastern USA. Tourist attraction staff would circulate through the parking lot, applying the promotional sticker to every car. The first documented presidential election that used adhesive bumper stickers in political campaigns was the 1952 election between Dwight D. Eisenhower and Adlai Stevenson II. Bumper stickers allowed citizens to show support for a candidate while still maintaining some anonymity. Bumper stickers have caused legal issues between people and states. In 1989, a man with a bumper sticker containing indecent wording was convicted. The man's conviction was reversed in Cunningham v. State (1991). The court referenced the First Amendment, stating "the provision regulating profane words on bumper stickers reaches a substantial amount of constitutionally protected speech and unconstitutionally restricts freedom of expression". Around the world Considerable variation exists around the world as to the context and purpose of stickers. On some vehicles, some stickers are like trophy signs of World War II aeroplanes, either of locations visited or actions completed. They have also been extensively applied to rear windows as well, where legislative measures have not banned such use. For instance, in Sweden, this is the normal place to put them; bumper stickers are referred to as "" in Swedish, meaning "rear window decal". More recently, bumper stickers have become a route for advertising and a few companies offer to match car owners to advertisers willing to pay for the ad. "Shirat Hasticker" ("The Sticker Song") by Hadag Nachash is an Israeli song composed entirely of bumper sticker slogans. Variants of the bumper sticker have developed in recent years, including vinyl decals meant to be applied to a car's rear windshield, and chrome emblems to be affixed to the body of the car itself, generally on the rear (the "Jesus fish" and its "Darwin fish" counterpart are popular examples). License plate frames and vanity plates can serve similar purpose to bumper stickers, although the law may place restrictions on messages they display. Gallery See also Bumper (automobile) Car Sticker Country tag References Infographics Propaganda by medium Propaganda techniques by medium Stickers Automotive accessories

263774

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotinga

Cotinga

The cotingas are a large family, Cotingidae, of suboscine passerine birds found in Central America and tropical South America. Cotingas are birds of forests or forest edges, that are primary frugivorous. They all have broad bills with hooked tips, rounded wings, and strong legs. They range in size from of the fiery-throated fruiteater (Pipreola chlorolepidota) up to of the Amazonian umbrellabird (Cephalopterus ornatus). Description Cotingas vary widely in social structure. There is a roughly 50/50 divide in the family between species with biparental care, and those in which the males play no part in raising the young. The purple-throated fruitcrow lives in mixed-sex groups in which one female lays an egg and the others help provide insects to the chick. In cotinga species where only the females care for the eggs and young, the males have striking courtship displays, often grouped together in leks. Such sexual selection results in the males of these species, including the Guianan cock-of-the-rock, being brightly coloured, or decorated with plumes or wattles, like the umbrellabirds, with their umbrella-like crest and long throat wattles. Other lekking cotingids like the bellbirds and screaming piha, have distinctive and far-carrying calls. In such canopy-dwelling genera as Carpodectes, Cotinga, and Xipholena, males gather high in a single tree or in adjacent trees, but male cocks-of-the-rock, as befits their more terrestrial lives, give their elaborate displays in leks on the ground. The females of both lekking and biparental species are duller than the males. Breeding Nests range from tiny to very large. Many species lay a single egg in a nest so flimsy that the egg can be seen from underneath. This may make the nests hard for predators to find. Fruiteaters build more solid cup nests, and the cocks-of-the-rock attach their mud nests to cliffs. The nests may be open cups or little platforms with loosely woven plant material, usually placed in a tree. The clutches comprise one to four eggs. Incubation typically takes 15-28 days. Fledging usually occurs at 28–33 days. Habitat Deserts, open woodlands, coastal mangroves, and humid tropical forests comprise their habitats. Cotingas face very serious threats from the loss of their habitats. Taxonomy and systematics The family Cotingidae was introduced by French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1849. According to the International Ornithological Committee, as of July 2021, the family contains 66 species divided into 24 genera. A 2014 molecular phylogenetic study of the cotingas by Jacob Berv and Richard Prum found that the genera formed five monophyletic clades and they proposed that the family could be divided into five subfamilies. In the above cladogram, the genus Tijuca is not shown, as it was embedded in Lipaugus, a position that was confirmed by a more detailed 2020 study. The genus Perissocephalus is also not shown as it was embedded in Cephalopterus. A number of species previously placed in this family are now placed in the family Tityridae (genera Laniisoma, Laniocera and Iodopleura) References Further reading Snow, D.W. (1976). "The relationship between climate and annual cycles in the Cotingidae." Ibis 118(3):366-401 Snow, D.W. (1982). The Cotingas: Bellbirds, Umbrella birds and their allies. British Museum Press. External links Cotinga videos on the Internet Bird Collection Cotinga sounds on xeno-canto.org Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte

263775

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Fert%C3%A9-Alais%20Air%20Show

La Ferté-Alais Air Show

The La Ferté-Alais Air Show is an annual meeting of aviation enthusiasts in La Ferté-Alais, France. It takes place during Pentecost at the Cerny airfield, which is owned and operated by the "Amicale Jean-Baptiste Salis" (AJ-BS). The airfield is also the site of a museum which sports an impressive number of pre-World War I up to present aircraft. The B-17 Flying Fortress The Pink Lady used in the motion picture Memphis Belle is a permanent project of the AJ-BS group. During the show, dozens of vintage aircraft are assembled from Europe and the US for display and flight demonstrations. The French air force usually demonstrates some new air capacity (paratroops, etc.) as well as overflight by the Patrouille de France, the French aerobatic team (similar to the Blue Angels, Thunderbirds in the US). Also, Airbus or other aircraft manufacturers will fly their latest commercial aircraft, such as the A-300 series of jetliners. References External links AJ-BS group official Site (french only) Air shows Aviation in France

263780

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formicariidae

Formicariidae

Formicariidae is a family of smallish passerine birds of subtropical and tropical Central and South America known as formicariids. They are between in length, and are related to the antbirds, Thamnophilidae, and gnateaters, Conopophagidae. This family contains probably (see below) some 12 species in two fairly small genera. These are forest birds that tend to feed on insects at or near the ground. Most are drab in appearance with shades of (rusty) brown, black, and white being their dominant tones. Compared to other birds that specialize in following ants, this family is the most tied to the ground. The long, powerful legs (which lend the birds a distinctive upright posture) and an essentially vestigial tail aid this lifestyle. They lay two or three eggs in a nest in a tree, both sexes incubating. Systematics The antthrushes in the genera Formicarius and Chamaeza are similar in appearance to small rails. Their sexes are alike in plumage, and they walk like starlings. The thrush part of the name refers only to the similarity in size (and in Chamaeza also coloration) to true thrushes, not to an evolutionary relationship. Recent research (Irestedt et al. 2002, Rice 2005a,b) indicates that the Formicariidae as previously delimited are highly paraphyletic, judging from comparison of several mt and nDNA sequences. The aberrant bar-bellied "antpittas" of the genus Pittasoma, which were formerly placed here, belong to the gnateater family (which initially was also considered part of the Formicariidae); as the gnateaters proper, they are sexually dichromatic. In addition, the true antpittas formerly placed in this family are now found in their own family, the Grallariidae. On the other hand, at least a large proportion of the Rhinocryptidae (tapaculos), including the type genus Rhinocrypta, seem to be closer to the antthrushes, but are still considered a distinct family. Very little molecular data is currently available for rhinocryptids, which are moreover rather non-diagnostic morphologically. As relationships with related groups such as ovenbirds have not been fully resolved, it is certain that the systematics of the group will be revised soon, but it is not clear how exactly the new systematic lineup will be. On the other hand, morphological, behavioral and molecular analyses of the true antpittas agree astoundingly well as regards their internal systematics, considering the high amount of lifestyle-related homoplasies in the birds discussed here. Recent taxonomic favor has moved three major lineages – antthrushes, tapaculos and allies, and antpittas into separate families. Antthrushes Typical antthrushes - tribe Formicariini/subfamily Formicariinae References Irestedt, Martin; Fjeldså, Jon; Johansson, Ulf S. & Ericson, Per G.P. (2002): Systematic relationships and biogeography of the tracheophone suboscines (Aves: Passeriformes). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 23(3): 499–512. (HTML abstract) Rice, Nathan H. (2005a): Phylogenetic relationships of antpitta genera (Passeriformes: Formicariidae). Auk 122(2): 673–683. [English with Spanish abstract] DOI:10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0673:PROAGP]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext Rice, Nathan H. (2005b): Further Evidence for Paraphyly of the Formicariidae (Passeriformes). Condor 107(4): 910–915. [English with Spanish abstract] PDF fulltext External links Formicariidae videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection Bird families Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics Tyranni Taxa named by George Robert Gray

263789

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antpitta

Antpitta

Grallariidae is a family of smallish passerine birds of subtropical and tropical Central and South America known as antpittas. They are between 10 and 20 cm (4–8 in) in length, and are related to the antbirds, Thamnophilidae, and gnateaters, Conopophagidae. They were also formerly placed in the Formicariidae, but studies by Rice (2005) indicated a distinct family was supported. Both the North American and South American committees of the AOU recognized the family soon after. This family contains probably (see below) some 50 species in 1 large and four fairly small genera. These are forest birds that tend to feed at or near the ground since many are specialist ant eaters. Most are drab in appearance with shades of (rusty) brown, black, and white being their dominant tones. Compared to other birds that specialize in following ants, this family is the most tied to the ground. The long, powerful legs (which lend the birds a distinctive upright posture) and an essentially vestigial tail aid this lifestyle. They lay 1 to 6 eggs in a nest in a tree, both sexes incubating. Systematics The antpittas are sexually monomorphic; they resemble the true pittas in that they are virtually tailless; they hop like some thrushes, and are much easier to hear than see—although their vocalizations may be rather atypical for perching birds. Species Typical antpittas – tribe Grallariini/subfamily Grallariinae Genus Grallaria (32 species) Lesser antpittas – possibly tribe Myrmotherini/subfamily Myrmotherinae Genus Cryptopezus (1 species) Genus Hylopezus (9 species) Genus Myrmothera (3 species) Genus Grallaricula (10 species) References Rice, Nathan H. (2005a): Phylogenetic relationships of antpitta genera (Passeriformes: Formicariidae). Auk 122(2): 673–683. [English with Spanish abstract] DOI:10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0673:PROAGP]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext Rice, Nathan H. (2005b): Further Evidence for Paraphyly of the Formicariidae (Passeriformes). Condor 107(4): 910–915. [English with Spanish abstract] PDF fulltext External links Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics Taxa named by Philip Sclater Taxa named by Osbert Salvin

263791

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient%201%3A%20Music%20for%20Airports

Ambient 1: Music for Airports

Ambient 1: Music for Airports is the sixth studio album by English musician Brian Eno, released in 1978 by Polydor Records. The album consists of four compositions created by layering tape loops of differing lengths, and was designed to be continuously looped as a sound installation, with the intent of defusing the tense, anxious atmosphere of an airport terminal. Music for Airports was the first of four albums released in Eno's Ambient series, a term which he coined to describe music "as ignorable as it is interesting" that would "induce calm and a space to think". Although it is not the earliest entry in the genre, it was the first album to be created under the label "ambient music". Background and concept Eno's interest in ambience began in 1975, although his preceding output following Roxy Music, such as Another Green World and Discreet Music, is not too dissimilar to Music for Airports. Judy Nylon met Eno in a hospital and played him an album; the sound was low and in tandem with the rain outside the room—according to Nylon, somewhat by design, thus to her "neither of us invented ambient music". She left and Eno, unable to adjust the volume, allowed the music to create an ambience aligned with his fluctuating attention. After spending several hours waiting for a flight at Germany's Cologne Bonn Airport and becoming annoyed by its uninspired atmosphere, Eno conceived of an album of music "designed for airports"—although he intended for the album to still function within various other situations. The "Borgesian idea" of a self-generated "world in reverse" which is centered around music from its creator and the Ray Conniff Singers were also inspirations. Ambient music was a then-"relatively modest field"," more a concept than a genre", and mostly created within the context of muzak. Eno's envisionment of the genre was distinct from muzak and was to be used as a means on inducing deep thought. Recording and composition All tracks were composed by Eno except "1/1", which was co-composed by Eno with former Soft Machine drummer and vocalist Robert Wyatt and with producer Rhett Davies. Music for Airports makes use of spliced tape loops. Recalling its creation, Eno said it was "conceived as deliberately austere and unemotional" and "was essentially made by machines". He has stated a connection to death. Not wanting it to be "all bright and cheerful", Eno, a self-proclaimed "nervous flyer", considered the feelings that arise from being at an airport, including the supposed mortality salience and hoped the album would bring solace: "Really, it’s music to resign you to the possibility of death". John L. Waters described the album as a "logical progression from the work of the experimental and systems-based 'serious' musicians (John White, Gavin Bryars, Christopher Hobbs, Michael Parsons, Michael Nyman) that Eno recorded and championed for his label Obscure". David Stubbs noted similarities to the work of Erik Satie. "1/1", features a mixture of piano and synthesizer, in an arrhythmic manner – piano being the dominant instrument throughout the album. Various motifs, played in a fitful manner, are featured in the song. John Lysaker of Emory University, while discussing the album's general sense of aimless direction, noted that "1/1" "holds together no better (and no worse) than a cloud". The music throughout is down-tempo, without "distinct melodic or harmonic development[;] no highs or lows". Talking about the first piece, Eno has said: "2/1" and "1/2" make use of vocal loops; the former designed to have them fluctuate in synchrony. The disparate lengths of "2/1" were the result of the each singers' differing capabilities. He modified the tape recordings offhandedly to loops, desiring "a silence at least twice as long as the sound" and "complicated rather than simple relationships". "And then I started all the loops running, and let them configure in the way they chose to configure". "2/2" was performed with an ARP 2600 synthesizer. Brian Eno described how this piece was recorded: Release Critical reception and legacy The first album of ambient music to become popular – and later recognised as the "first deliberately 'ambient' recording" – it was initially dismissed by critics and audiences alike, bewildering some of the former; it only became more favoured by the 1990s, having "entered the modern musical canon". In a 1979 review for Rolling Stone, Michael Bloom found Ambient 1 self-indulgent and lacking focus. "There's a good deal of high craftsmanship here," Bloom said. "But to find it, you've got to thwart the music's intent by concentrating." In another contemporary review for The Village Voice, critic Robert Christgau wrote that "these four swatches of modestly 'ambient' minimalism have real charms as general-purpose calmatives. But I must also report that they've fared unevenly against specific backgrounds." Writing for The Globe and Mail, around the time of its release, Alan Niester noted the album as alien, calling it "background grunge" that was best suited for "dish-doing [and] bed-making". In a 1979 interview with Eno for Musician, critic Lester Bangs described Ambient 1 as having "a crystalline, sun-light-through windowpane quality that makes it somewhat mesmerising even as you half-listen to it," and recounted a personal experience in which the album induced him into a dream state featuring Charles Mingus. PopMatters journalist John Davidson was enthusiastic in a retrospective review, deeming Ambient 1 a masterpiece whose value "can only be appreciated by listening to it in a variety of moods and settings. Then you are likely struck by how the music allows your mind the space to breathe", Davidson wrote, "and in doing so, adapts itself to your mood". AllMusic reviewer Linda Kohanov stated that "like a fine painting, these evolving soundscapes don't require constant involvement on the part of the listener [...] yet the music also rewards close attention with a sonic richness absent in standard types of background or easy listening music." Sasha Frere-Jones wrote that, by strength of its compositions, Music for Airports fails to facilitate an easily disregarded listening experience: "the album is too beautiful to ignore". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described the effect of the compositions as "sheer weightlessness." Q described it as "soothing and sublime, a useful album when you're feeling particularly delicate." In a positive review, Pitchforks Liam Singer wrote that the album "gives the listener nothing to hold onto, remaining as transitory as its location", and added that it "realizes music's capacity to unify contrasting conceptions of time." Ambient 1 was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. Chuck Eddy from Spin later named it the fourth most essential ambient album, and J. D. Considine wrote in The Rolling Stone Album Guide that the record defined the ambient aesthetic while providing a name for the genre. Chris Richards of The Washington Post wrote that it "taught an entire generation of musicians to consider music as a texture". Paul Roquet, in a 2009 article about the "aesthetics of calm", called Music for Airports, "the most well-known ambient album to this day". In September 2016, Pitchfork named the record the best ambient album of all time. Lysaker deemed it a "seminal album in the history of electronic music"; Eno's description of ambient music as a genre which provides relaxation and is "as interesting as it is ignorable" would prove to be influential. Reflecting on the album, Jon Caramanica called it the best of Eno's work which shortly followed Roxy Music. Due in part to Music for Airports, perception of Eno's career shifted and he became aligned with highly influential minimalist composers: Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Terry Riley, and La Monte Young. Artists such as Pauline Oliveros, Riley and Harold Budd would expand on Eno's style of ambient music, which would feature prominently on his following albums. In a 2001 interview, Eno reported that the album had sold 250,000 copies in its first 20 years. Installation and covers The album was installed at the New York's LaGuardia Airport in 1981 for a month. The album's usage at Pittsburgh Airport in 1982 brought on a barrage of complaints from passengers who said its uncertain tones made them feel uneasy and demanded that the previous background music be restored. The album has been installed and performed in other airports. In 1998, Bang on a Can performed the album live. Discussing their performance, Eno described it as the ensemble "trying to act like machines, but they don't sound like machines at all, they sound like people and it's quite touching when that appears". He felt the rendition's emotive quality was the result of the supposed human element; it moved him to tears, he said, and others he knew – such as Lou Reed and Laurie Anderson – had similar reactions. Track listing The track labelling refers to the album's first release (1978) as an LP, and so the first track means "first track, first side", and so on. The CD pressing adds 30 seconds of silence after every song, including "2/2". The album's back cover features four abstract graphic notation images, one for each track, representing their structure and instrumentation. Personnel Brian Eno – synthesizer, electric piano, vocals Christa Fast – vocals ("2/1", "1/2") Christine Gomez – vocals ("2/1", "1/2") Inge Zeininger – vocals ("2/1", "1/2") Robert Wyatt – acoustic piano ("1/1", "1/2") Recording Brian Eno – producer, engineer Dave Hutchins – engineer ("2/1", "1/2") Conny Plank – engineer ("2/2"), Rhett Davies – engineer ("1/1") Design Brian Eno – cover art Recording Location London ("1/1", "1/2", "2/1") Plank's Studio, Cologne ("2/2") Release history Certifications Usage Mistaken Memories of Mediaeval Manhattan is a 1981, 47-minute ambient video created by Eno which uses music from both the albums Ambient 4: On Land and this album. This title was later included with his Thursday Afternoon video on the Rykodisc DVD compilation 14 Video Paintings. Music from the album has been covered by: Makyo — "2/1 (Night Flight Mix)", on the double compilation CD Minimalism: More Or Less, 1998, Law & Auder (LA05CD) nalptenalp, "Re: 1/1" (2020), which is a reconstruction of "1/1". Arrangements of the album performed by the Bang on a Can All-Stars were made into a video filmed and edited by Frank Scheffer, entitled Music For Airports / In The Ocean The first track is used in the PBS special The Creation of the Universe. Eno is the sole music credit, and he also wrote original music for the documentary. "1/1" is frequently used as background music on the US public radio program This American Life. "1/1" is used as background music in the 1986 film 9½ Weeks. "1/1" features prominently in the opening scene of the 2009 motion picture The Lovely Bones. Excerpts of Ambient 1 appear in Robert Hughes' documentary on Modern Art The Shock of the New, episode 4 Trouble in Utopia. Prior to the first hosted live broadcast of Apple's Beats 1 internet radio station, music from the album was played on the service's audio stream. See also Ambient 2: The Plateaux of Mirror Ambient 3: Day of Radiance Ambient 4: On Land Notes References External links Interview on Ambient 1: Music for Airports Liner notes of initial American release Interview, Artpress, Sep 2001 Interview, Keyboard Wizards, Winter 1985 Interview, Reality Hackers, Winter 1988 Eno lecture, New Music New York, 1979 The Wire, Stansted Airport BoaC performance, June 1998 Brian Eno albums 1978 albums Albums produced by Brian Eno E.G. Records albums Concept albums Aviation music

263792

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin%20Meads

Colin Meads

Sir Colin Earl Meads (3 June 1936 – 20 August 2017) was a New Zealand rugby union player. He played 55 test matches (133 games), most frequently in the lock forward position, for New Zealand's national team, the All Blacks, from 1957 until 1971. Meads is widely considered one of the greatest players in history. Nicknamed 'Pinetree' due to his physical presence, he was an icon within New Zealand rugby, and was named the country's Player of the Century at the NZRFU Awards in 1999. Early life and family Colin Earl Meads was born to Vere Meads and Ida Meads (née Gray) on 3 June 1936, in the town of Cambridge in the Waikato region. His father Vere was a descendant of early settlers Joseph Meads and Ann Meads (née Coates), who emigrated to New Zealand from England in 1842. Vere's grandfather Zachariah Meads was among the first British children to be born in Te Aro, Wellington, in 1843, and his grandmother Elizabeth Meads (née Lazare) was the daughter of an Irish minister who had educated freed slaves on the island of Mauritius before emigrating to Wanganui. Vere and his wife raised their five children on a sheep farm near Te Kuiti. Meads credited the farming lifestyle for his strong physique and high level of fitness. Meads' brother Stanley Meads was also a noted rugby player, playing 30 matches as an All Black. In 11 matches Stanley and Colin locked the All Black scrum. Meads and his wife Verna had five children: Karen Stockman, Kelvin Meads, Rhonda Wilcox (who represented New Zealand in the Silver Ferns netball team), Glynn 'Pinecone' Meads (who also played and managed rugby for provincial side King Country) and youngest daughter Shelley Mitchell (who played for the New Zealand women's basketball team). Meads raised his family on a farm on the outskirts of Te Kuiti and continued to live in the area until his death in 2017. Rugby career Meads played his club rugby throughout his career for Waitete R.F.C in Te Kuiti. He played his first game for King Country in 1955 against Counties, at the age of 19. He had a memorable game, scoring a try, and even a drop-goal (an unusual feat for a lock). He would play a further 138 games for the province. In 1955 Meads was also selected for the New Zealand under 21 side which toured Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He "played all eight matches, scored three tries and was recognised by the Rugby Almanack as one of the 1955 season's most promising players." In 1956 Meads played in national trials and was selected for the North Island team as a loose forward, but was considered too young to play for the All Blacks against the Springboks. Meads was selected for the 1957 tour of Australia. He played in ten matches and made his test debut, against the Wallabies. He played both tests, scoring a try in the second. Although normally a lock, he played at flanker and number 8, and even wing (from where he scored a try), as the All Black team was strong on locks. From 1957 until 1971 Meads was effectively an automatic pick for the All Blacks, missing selection for just two series; the British & Irish Lions in 1959 and Australia in 1962. There are differing accounts of how he acquired his nickname "Pinetree". Roger Boon believes he was the first to come up with the name in 1955. Alternatively, when he toured Japan in the New Zealand Under-23 team in 1958 teammate Ken Briscoe gave him the nickname and it stuck. He was named captain of the All Blacks 11 times, his first in a 23–9 victory over the Combined Services during the 1963–64 tour of Britain. His captaincy debut for the All Blacks in a test match came in his final series against the Lions in 1971. His final international game ended in a 14–14 draw, giving the Lions a 2–1 series victory, their only series win over the All Blacks. He seriously injured his back in a Land Rover accident at the end of the year and never played for the All Blacks again. Meads recovered enough to continue playing for King Country for two more years before retiring, amassing a total of 361 first class matches, a record that stood for 42 years. His strength and high threshold for pain became legendary — best illustrated when in a game against Eastern Transvaal in South Africa, in which he emerged from a particularly vicious ruck with his arm dangling horribly, with an obvious fracture, yet completed the match. When the doctor cut away his shirt and confirmed the break, Meads muttered, "At least we won the bloody game." He missed the first two Tests, but returned for the third with his still broken arm held together by a thin guard. Another incident occurred when Meads was kicked in the head, causing a large gash. The All Blacks doctor at the time wanted to take him to hospital so they could use anaesthetic, but Meads ordered him to do it right there in the dressing room. He also had the reputation of being a "hard man" and "an enforcer". Benoit Dauga, the player Meads thought had kicked him in the head ended up with a broken nose. South African center John Gainsford once tried to challenge Meads, who proceeded to hold his wrists in a grip that was "like being held in a band of steel" and simply said "Don't bother, son." Meads considered the Welsh player Rhys Williams and Irishman Willie John McBride just as hard as himself. However, he considered the "one-eyed Springbok" Martin Pelser as his toughest opponent. Meads was involved in some controversial incidents. In 1967, he was sent off by Irish referee Kevin D. Kelleher for dangerous play against at Murrayfield, becoming only the second All Black suspended in a test match at the time. The British newspaper The Daily Telegraph said of the incident that 'For one with Meads' worldwide reputation for robust play, this was rather like sending a burglar to prison for a parking offence.' In Australia he is notorious for having ended the career of Ken Catchpole by wrenching Catchpole's leg while he was pinned down, tearing his hamstring off the bone and severely rupturing his groin muscles. Meads says he was just trying to put him on the ground and did not realise his other leg was pinned. Years later he was invited to a dinner in Catchpole's honour, but was warned off by the organisers saying he would get booed off the stage. Meads saw that as more of a reason why he should attend and did so without receiving any boos. After retirement After retiring as a player in 1973, Meads became chairman of the King Country union, and spent time selecting and coaching the now-defunct North Island rugby team. In 1986 he was elected to the national selection panel, but was fired later in the year for acting as coach to the unauthorised New Zealand Cavaliers tour of apartheid South Africa, where the All Blacks were no longer allowed to tour. In 1992 he was elected to the New Zealand Rugby Union council and remained there for four years. In 1994 and 1995 he was All Blacks manager, which included the 1995 Rugby World Cup. He was uncompromising in this role, not afraid to let loose at his players when they played poorly. Despite his retirement from rugby, Meads remained a familiar face to many New Zealanders. He was a frequent public speaker at events, donating money raised to buy a farm for people with intellectual disabilities. He also appeared on television advertising products ranging from tanalised fence posts to finance companies. He was seen by many as the public face of Provincial Finance, he described the company as "solid as, I'd say" in an advertisement, and was later criticised when it went bankrupt. He regretted doing the ad and was sorry so many people lost money when it failed. Despite this Meads was named the third most trusted New Zealander after Victoria Cross holder Willie Apiata and triple Olympic gold medallist Peter Snell in 2008. In 2007 the Meads sold their sheep farm so they could move into Te Kuiti. In August 2016 it was announced that Meads had been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, following several months of illness. He died on 20 August 2017, as a result of cancer. As a mark of respect many New Zealanders placed rugby balls outside the front doors of their homes. Meads is buried in the Te Kuiti New Cemetery. Honours and tributes Meads is regarded by many as New Zealand's greatest ever rugby player, and was named Player of the Century at the NZRFU Awards dinner in 1999. He is a member of both the World Rugby Hall of Fame and the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame, and was a member of the International Rugby Hall of Fame before its merger with the World Rugby Hall in 2014. The International Rugby Hall of Fame considers him to have been 'the most famous forward in world rugby throughout the 1960s'. Meads was considered by many to be a tough, uncompromising, loyal and humble person. At tall and weighing , he was a similar size to many other players of the era. He had a large physical presence though, being very strong and having a high level of fitness. Meads credited this to growing up and working on a farm. In the 1971 New Year Honours, Meads was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire for services to rugby. He was appointed a Distinguished Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to rugby and the community, in the 2001 New Year Honours. In the 2009 Special Honours, following the restoration of titular honours by the New Zealand government, Meads accepted redesignation as a Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit. On 19 June 2017, during the then-ongoing British & Irish Lions tour, a statue of Meads was unveiled in the Te Kuiti town centre. Despite his ongoing battle with cancer, Meads attended and spoke at the unveiling. One of the other trophies contested in New Zealand's domestic competition, the Heartland Championship, is named the Meads Cup in his honour. Rugby writer Lindsay Knight wrote that "As a sporting legend Meads is New Zealand's equivalent of Australia's Sir Donald Bradman or the United States of America's Babe Ruth." References External links NZ Rugby Museum profile Player listing from Planet Rugby 1936 births 2017 deaths Deaths from cancer in New Zealand New Zealand international rugby union players New Zealand Members of the Order of the British Empire Knights Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit New Zealand rugby union players Rugby union flankers Rugby union locks Rugby union number eights World Rugby Hall of Fame inductees New Zealand farmers Sportspeople from Te Kuiti Rugby players and officials awarded knighthoods Sportspeople from Cambridge, New Zealand King Country rugby union players Deaths from pancreatic cancer People educated at Te Kuiti High School

263797

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice%20Work

Nice Work

Nice Work is a 1988 novel by British author David Lodge. It is the final volume of Lodge's "Campus Trilogy", after Changing Places (1975) and Small World: An Academic Romance (1984). Nice Work won the Sunday Express Book of the Year award in 1988 and was also shortlisted for the Booker Prize. The larger socioeconomic background to the novel was the economic policies and education cuts during the Thatcher government. Lodge was inspired, in part, by his experiences of shadowing a friend who supervised an engineering firm. Plot summary Set in 1986, in the fictional city of Rummidge, the book describes the relationship between Robyn Penrose, a feminist university teacher specialising in the industrial novel and women's writing and Vic Wilcox, the manager of J. Pringle & Sons Casting & General Engineering ("Pringle's"). Robyn is a temporary lecturer at Rummidge, where her boss is Professor Philip Swallow. Swallow is still head of the English Department but is now also Dean of Rummidge's Arts Faculty. Robyn has the temporary lectureship at Rummidge because of the time demands of Swallow's new administrative responsibilities. As part of the "Industry Year Shadow Scheme", the university is required to send one of its faculty into a local factory. Robyn is the chosen faculty member from Rummidge and the chosen factory is Pringle's, where Robyn is to shadow Vic Wilcox and observe the inner workings of a real-life foundry, which she has never seen. The novel also traces the separate private lives of Robyn and Vic. In the Wilcox family are Vic, his father, his wife Marjorie and his children. Separately, Robyn goes through various stages of her long-standing relationship with her boyfriend, Charles, a fellow literary scholar. Later in the novel, to Robyn's discomfort, after she has completed her time at Pringle's, the shadow scheme reverses, with Vic shadowing her during her teaching at Rummidge. The philosophical conflict between the ideologies of industry and academe come to the fore. Later, away from Vic, Professor Morris Zapp, a friend of Swallow's from the fictional American university Euphoric State (based on UC Berkeley), and a character from the earlier two novels in the Campus Trilogy, pays a brief visit to Rummidge on his way to a conference. He learns about Robyn's work for the first time and is impressed. Zapp tries to arrange for Robyn to have a job interview at Euphoric State for an open faculty position, to run interference against his ex-wife, whom Euphoric State's faculty is trying to recruit for the post. The uncertainty in Robyn's professional status comes from whether she will be able to find a permanent post anywhere, in the context of national budget reductions to the universities. The relaionship between Robyn and Vic reveals their weaknesses. Robyn's academic position is precarious because of national budget cuts to education and the universities. Vic has to deal with industrial politics at Pringle's. The plot is a pastiche of the industrial novel genre, alluding to North and South by Elizabeth Gaskell. This gentle ribbing acts to undermine the postmodern and feminist position of Robyn, who accepts the hand of fate despite ridiculing its role as the sole restorative capable (in the minds of authors of industrial novels) of elevating the female to a serious social position. Robyn acquires insight into the pragmatic ethos whose encroachment on university culture she resents and about the physical reality of factories of which her only prior knowledge was literature. In his turn, Vic learns to appreciate the symbolic or semiotic dimension of his environment and discovers a romanticism within himself that he had previously despised in his everyday life. Adaptations In 1989, the BBC broadcast a four-part TV miniseries based on the novel, with a screenplay by Lodge. Directed by Christopher Menaul, the series featured Haydn Gwynne as Robyn Penrose and Warren Clarke as Vic Wilcox. The University of Birmingham served as the filming location of many of the scenes from this series. The series won the 1989 Royal Television Society award for best drama series. References External links David Lodge discusses Nice Work on the BBC World Book Club Review of Nice Work and Thinks... 1988 British novels Novels by David Lodge Metafictional novels Novels set in Birmingham, West Midlands Secker & Warburg books Campus novels British novels adapted into television shows

263799

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick%20Tate

Nick Tate

Nicholas John Tate (born 18 June 1942), credited under his stage name Nick Tate, is an Australian actor popularly known for his roles as pilot Alan Carter in the 1970s science fiction television series Space: 1999, and James Hamilton in the 1980s Australian soap opera Sons and Daughters. Life and career Tate was born in Sydney. His parents were the actors John Tate and Neva Carr Glyn. His maternal grandparents were also actors, originally from Ireland and Great Britain, who performed in vaudeville. His father, of Russian descent, also had a connection to the works of Space:1999 creator Gerry Anderson, being a secondary voice actor in Thunderbirds. Tate's big break came with the Australian television series My Brother Jack, followed by a production of the musical The Canterbury Tales where he played "Nicholas the Gallant" for eighteen months on stage and on tour throughout the country. This was followed by the 1970 Australian television series Dynasty about rich, powerful family, where he joined his father John Tate for the first time onscreen; the two playing father and son roles. Tate portrayed astronaut Alan Carter in the British science fiction series Space: 1999, which was broadcast from 1975 to 1977, though the series began production in late 1973. In 1976, he broke through in film with an AACTA award-winning role in the movie The Devil's Playground. He continued to work in film with supporting roles in a number of theatrical films, including The Year My Voice Broke, Richard Attenborough's Cry Freedom, Return from the River Kwai, Evil Angels, and Steven Spielberg's Hook. From 1985 to 1986, he portrayed James Hamilton in the Australian soap opera Sons and Daughters. Tate has also made guest appearances on numerous American TV shows, such as The X-Files, Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, Star Trek: The Next Generation (in the 1990 episode "Final Mission"), Murder, She Wrote, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (in the 1998 episode "Honor Among Thieves"), Farscape and in the Lost episode "Tabula Rasa". On stage, Tate appeared in the TRIP (Tony Rudlin Ingrid Pitt Productions) stage production of Duty Free (later known as Don't Bother To Dress), by Emmerdale writer Neville Siggs, which ran from 1976 to 1977 at the Bristol Hippodrome. He returned to the stage in 2006 when he played the leading role of Captain Edward J. Smith in the Australian premiere of the musical Titanic. Tate is also known for his voiceover work in theatrical trailers for such films as Jurassic Park and Mission: Impossible, as well as work in commercials, including Guinness beer spots airing beginning in 2006. Tate and four other well known voice artists (Don LaFontaine, John Leader, Mark Elliot, and Al Chalk) parodied their individual voiceover styles en route to an awards show in a 1997 short film, 5 Men and a Limo. In 2000, he provided the voice for the Australian tycoon Ozzie Mandrill in the game Escape from Monkey Island. He was also in the 2014 film Lupin III. Tate resides in both Australia and the US. Filmography The Skin of Our Teeth (TV Movie 1959) My Brother Jack (TV Mini-Series 1965) – Davey A Man for All Seasons (1966) – Master at Arms (uncredited) Submarine X-1 (1968) – Leading Seaman X-1 (credited as Nicholas Tate) The Oblong Box (1969) – Young Man in Tavern (uncredited) Battle of Britain (1969) – RAF Pilot (uncredited) Dynasty (TV Series 1970–1971) – Peter Mason Homicide (TV Series 1972–1973) – Joseph Taylor / John Mason / Barry West Behind the Legend (TV Series 1974) – Captain Sanderson NBC Special Treat (TV Series 1975) – Capt. Harry Masters The Devil's Playground (1976) – Brother Victor The Day After Tomorrow, Into Infinity (TV Movie 1976) – Captain Harry Masters The Strange Case of the End of Civilization as We Know It (1977) – 1st Australian Summerfield (1977) – Simon Robinson Space: 1999 (TV Series 1978) – Alan Carter Undercover Lover (1979) – Jensen Fury Play for Today (TV Series 1980) – Steve Jackson The Gentle Touch (TV Series 1981) – Johnny Delvaux A Country Practice (TV Series 1982) – Graham Porter Patrol Boat (TV Series 1983) – Major Winn The Gold and the Glory (1984) – Joe Lucas The Empty Beach (1985) – Brian Henneberry Ivanhoe (TV Movie 1986) – Sir Cedric (voice) The Year My Voice Broke (1987) – Sergeant Pierce Cry Freedom (1987) – Richie Evil Angels (1988) – Charlwood Return from the River Kwai (1989) – Lt. Commander Hunt Star Trek: The Next Generation (TV Series 1990) – Dirgo Steel and Lace (1991) – Duncan Hook (1991) – Noodler The Public Eye (1992) – Henry Haddock Jr. Silent Cries (1993) Red Planet (TV Mini Series short 1994) – Colony Leader Bed of Roses (1996) – Bayard Star Wars: Shadows of the Empire (Video Game 1996) – Prince Xizor (PC version) / IG-88 (PC version) (voices) The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest (TV Series 1996) – Darcy / Hunter #2 / Pirate #2 / Pirate #3 (voices) Cow & Chicken (TV Series 1997) – English Guy 52 / Egg Buyer (voices) Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (TV Series 1998) – Liam Bilby The X-Files (TV Series 1999) – Dr. Eugene Openshaw Escape from Monkey Island (Video Game 2000) – Ozzie Mandrill (voice) The Lost World (TV Series 2001) – Dr. William Gull The Junction Boys (TV Movie 2002) – Smokey Harper Farscape (TV Series 2003) – R. Wilson Munroe Lost (TV Series 2004) - Dr. Smee The Vanished (Short 2005) – Roy Flushed Away (Video Game 2006) - Fat Barry (voice) The Gene Generation (2007) – Doctor The Devil's Playground: Filmmaking by Faith (Video short 2008) - Himself - Actor – Brother Victor East of Everything (TV Series 2009) – Gerry Watkins The Pacific (TV Mini Series 2010) – Tom Smee Killer Elite (2011) – Commander B Qian Xuesen (2012) – Kimball The Great Gatsby (2013) – Taxi Driver Lupin III (2014) – Thomas Dawson Mad Max (Video Game 2015) – The Mystic (voice) The Snow Queen 2: An Icy Adventure (2015) – Guard (voice) Rake (TV Series 2016) – Julian Tallow The Blacklist (TV Series 2017) – Arthur Kilgannon Firestorm (TV Movie 2018/II) – NASA Chief (voice) The Strange Chores (TV Series 2019) – Helsing (voice) Psychonauts 2 (Video Game 2021) - Compton Boole / Dr. Potts (voices) References External links Nick Tate at Voice Chasers 1942 births Australian male film actors Australian male television actors Australian male video game actors Australian male voice actors Australian people of Russian descent Australian people of British descent Australian people of Irish descent Best Actor AACTA Award winners Living people Male actors from Sydney

263800

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole

Tadpole

A tadpole is the larval stage in the life cycle of an amphibian. Most tadpoles are fully aquatic, though some species of amphibians have tadpoles that are terrestrial. Tadpoles have some features that may not be found in adult amphibians such as a lateral line, gills, and tails. As they undergo metamorphosis, the diet of tadpoles changes and they will start to breathe air. Having no hard parts, it might be expected that fossil tadpoles would not exist. However, traces of biofilms have been preserved and fossil tadpoles have been found dating back to the Miocene. Tadpoles are eaten in some parts of the world and are mentioned in various folk tales from around the world. Etymology The name tadpole is from Middle English , made up of the elements , 'toad', and , 'head' (modern English poll). Similarly, pollywog / polliwog is from Middle English , made up of the same , 'head', and , 'to wiggle'. General description The life cycle of all amphibians involves a larval stage that is intermediate between embryo and adult. Tadpoles of frogs are mostly herbivorous, while tadpoles of salamanders and caecilians are carnivorous. Anura Tadpoles of frogs and toads are usually globular, with a laterally compressed tail with which they swim by lateral undulation. When first hatched, anuran tadpoles have external gills that are eventually covered by skin, forming an opercular chamber with internal gills vented by spiracles. Depending on the species, there can be two spiracles on both sides of the body, a single spiracle on the underside near the vent, or a single spiracle on the left side of the body. Newly hatched tadpoles are also equipped with a cement gland which allows them to attach to objects. The tadpoles have a cartilaginous skeleton and a notochord which eventually develops into a proper spinal cord. Anuran tadpoles are usually herbivorous, feeding on soft decaying plant matter. The gut of most tadpoles is long and spiral-shaped to efficiently digest organic matter and can be seen through the bellies of many species. Though many tadpoles will feed on dead animals if available to them, only a few species of frog have strictly carnivorous tadpoles, an example being the frogs of the family Ceratophryidae, their cannibalistic tadpoles having wide gaping mouths with which they devour other organisms, including other tadpoles. Another example is the tadpoles of the New Mexico spadefoot toad (Spea multiplicata) which will develop a carnivorous diet along with a broader head, larger jaw muscles, and a shorter gut if food is scarce, allowing them to consume fairy shrimp and their smaller herbivorous siblings. A few genera such as Pipidae and Microhylidae have species whose tadpoles are filter feeders that swim through the water column feeding on plankton. Megophrys tadpoles feed at the water surface using unusual funnel-shaped mouths. As a frog tadpole matures it gradually develops its limbs, with the back legs growing first and the front legs second. The tail is absorbed into the body using apoptosis. Lungs develop around the time as the legs start growing, and tadpoles at this stage will often swim to the surface and gulp air. During the final stages of metamorphosis, the tadpole's mouth changes from a small, enclosed mouth at the front of the head to a large mouth the same width as the head. The intestines shorten as they transition from a herbivorous diet to the carnivorous diet of adult frogs. Tadpoles vary greatly in size, both during their development and between species. For example, in a single family, Megophryidae, length of late-stage tadpoles varies between and . The tadpoles of the paradoxical frog (Pseudis paradoxa) can reach up to , the longest of any frog, before shrinking to a mere snout-to-vent length of 3.4–7.6 cm (1.3–3.0 in). While most anuran tadpoles inhabit wetlands, ponds, vernal pools, and other small bodies of water with slow moving water, a few species are adapted to different environments. Some frogs have terrestrial tadpoles, such as the family Ranixalidae, whose tadpoles are found in wet crevices near streams. The tadpoles of Micrixalus herrei are adapted to a fossorial lifestyle, with a muscular body and tail, eyes covered by a layer of skin, and reduced pigment. Several frogs have stream dwelling tadpoles equipped with a strong oral sucker that allows them to hold onto rocks in fast flowing water, two examples being the Indian purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) and the tailed frogs (Ascaphus) of Western North America. Although there are no marine tadpoles, the tadpoles of the crab-eating frog can cope with brackish water. Some anurans will provide parental care towards their tadpoles. Frogs of the genus Afrixalus will lay their eggs on leaves above water, folding the leaves around the eggs for protection. Female Pipa frogs will embed the eggs into their backs where they get covered by a thin layer of skin. The eggs will hatch underneath her skin and grow, eventually leaving as either large tadpoles (such as in Pipa parva) or as fully formed froglets (Pipa pipa). Female marsupial frogs (Hemiphractidae) will carry eggs on her back for various amounts of time, with it going as far as letting the tadpoles develop into tiny froglets in a pouch. Male African bullfrogs (Pyxicephalus adspersus) will keep watch over their tadpoles, attacking anything that might be a potential threat, even though he may eat some of the tadpoles himself. Males of the Emei mustache toads (Leptobrachium boringii) will construct nests along riverbanks where they breed with females and keep watch over the eggs, losing as much as 7.3% of their body mass in the time they spend protecting the nest. Male midwife toads (Alytes) will carry eggs between their legs to protect them from predators, eventually releasing them into a body of water when they are ready to hatch. Poison dart frogs (Dendrobatidae) will carry their tadpoles to various locations, usually phytotelma, where they remain until metamorphosis. Some female dart frogs such as the strawberry poison dart frog (Oophaga pumilio) will regularly lay unfertilized eggs for the developing tadpoles to feed on. Fossil record Despite their soft-bodied nature and lack of mineralised hard parts, fossil tadpoles (around 10 cm in length) have been recovered from Upper Miocene strata. They are preserved by virtue of biofilms, with more robust structures (the jaw and bones) preserved as a carbon film. In Miocene fossils from Libros, Spain, the brain case is preserved in calcium carbonate, and the nerve cord in calcium phosphate. Other parts of the tadpoles' bodies exist as organic remains and bacterial biofilms, with sedimentary detritus present in the gut. Tadpole remains with telltale external gills are also known from several labyrinthodont groups. Human use Tadpoles are used in a variety of cuisines. Tadpoles of the megophryid frog Oreolalax rhodostigmatus are particularly large, more than in length, and are collected for human consumption in China. In India, the tadpoles of the Clinotarsus curtipes are collected for food, and in Peru Telmatobius mayoloi tadpoles are collected for both food and medicine. Mythology and history According to Sir George Scott, in the origin myths of the Wa people in China and Myanmar, the first Wa originated from two female ancestors Ya Htawm and Ya Htai, who spent their early phase as tadpoles ("") in a lake in the Wa country known as Nawng Hkaeo. In the Ancient Egyptian numerals, a hieroglyphic representing a tadpole was used to denote the value of 100,000. References Further reading Amphibians Larvae

263801

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien%20hand%20syndrome

Alien hand syndrome

Alien hand syndrome (AHS) or Dr. Strangelove syndrome is a category of conditions in which a person experiences their limbs acting seemingly on their own, without conscious control over the actions. There are a variety of clinical conditions that fall under this category, which most commonly affects the left hand. There are many similar terms for the various forms of the condition, but they are often used inappropriately. The afflicted person may sometimes reach for objects and manipulate them without wanting to do so, even to the point of having to use the controllable hand to restrain the alien hand. Under normal circumstances however, given that intent and action can be assumed to be deeply mutually entangled, the occurrence of alien hand syndrome can be usefully conceptualized as a phenomenon reflecting a functional "disentanglement" between thought and action. Alien hand syndrome is best documented in cases where a person has had the two hemispheres of their brain surgically separated, a procedure sometimes used to relieve the symptoms of extreme cases of epilepsy and epileptic psychosis, e.g., temporal lobe epilepsy. It also occurs in some cases after brain surgery, stroke, infection, tumor, aneurysm, migraine and specific degenerative brain conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Corticobasal degeneration and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. Other areas of the brain that are associated with alien hand syndrome are the frontal, occipital, and parietal lobes. Signs and symptoms "Alien behavior" can be distinguished from reflexive behavior in that the former is flexibly purposive while the latter is obligatory. Sometimes the sufferer will not be aware of what the alien hand is doing until it is brought to his or her attention, or until the hand does something that draws their attention to its behavior. There is a clear distinction between the behaviors of the two hands in which the affected hand is viewed as "wayward" and sometimes "disobedient" and generally out of the realm of their own voluntary control, while the unaffected hand is under normal volitional control. At times, particularly in patients who have sustained damage to the corpus callosum that connects the two cerebral hemispheres (see also split-brain), the hands appear to be acting in opposition to each other. A related syndrome described by the French neurologist François Lhermitte involves the release through disinhibition of a tendency to compulsively utilize objects that present themselves in the surrounding environment around the patient. The behavior of the patient is, in a sense, obligatorily linked to the "affordances" (using terminology introduced by the American ecological psychologist, James J. Gibson) presented by objects that are located within the immediate peri-personal environment. This condition is known as utilization behavior. It is most often associated with extensive bilateral frontal lobe damage and might actually be thought of as "bilateral" alien hand syndrome in which the patient is compulsively directed by external environmental contingencies (such as the presence of a hairbrush on the table in front of them elicits the act of brushing the hair) and has no capacity to "hold back" and inhibit pre-potent motor programs that are obligatorily linked to the presence of specific external objects in the peri-personal space of the patient. When the frontal lobe damage is bilateral and generally more extensive, the patient completely loses the ability to act in a self-directed manner and becomes totally dependent upon the surrounding environmental indicators to guide his behavior in a general social context, a condition referred to as "environmental dependency syndrome". In order to deal with the alien hand, some patients engage in personification of the affected hand. Usually these names are negative in nature, from mild such as "cheeky" to malicious "monster from the moon". For example, Doody and Jankovic described a patient who named her alien hand "baby Joseph". When the hand engaged in playful, troublesome activities such as pinching her nipples (akin to biting while nursing), she would experience amusement and would instruct baby Joseph to "stop being naughty". Furthermore, Bogen suggested that certain personality characteristics, such as a flamboyant personality, contribute to frequent personification of the affected hand. Neuroimaging and pathological research shows that the frontal lobe (in the frontal variant) and corpus callosum (in the callosal variant) are the most common anatomical lesions responsible for the alien hand syndrome. These areas are closely linked in terms of motor planning and its final pathways. The callosal variant includes advanced willed motor acts by the non-dominant hand, where patients frequently exhibit "intermanual conflict" in which one hand acts at cross-purposes with the other "good hand". For example, one patient was observed putting a cigarette into her mouth with her intact, "controlled" hand (her right, dominant hand), following which her left hand rose, grasped the cigarette, pulled it out of her mouth, and toss it away before it could be lit by the right hand. The patient then surmised that "I guess 'he' doesn't want me to smoke that cigarette." Another patient was observed to be buttoning up her blouse with her controlled dominant hand while the alien non-dominant hand, at the same time, was unbuttoning her blouse. The frontal variant most often affects the dominant hand, but can affect either hand depending on the lateralization of the damage to medial frontal cortex, and includes grasp reflex, impulsive groping toward objects or/and tonic grasping (in other words, difficulty in releasing grip). In most cases, classic alien-hand signs derive from damage to the medial frontal cortex, accompanying damage to the corpus callosum. In these patients, the main cause of damage is unilateral or bilateral infarction of cortex in the territory supplied by the anterior cerebral artery or associated arteries. Oxygenated blood is supplied by the anterior cerebral artery to most medial portions of the frontal lobes and to the anterior two-thirds of the corpus callosum, and infarction may consequently result in damage to multiple adjacent locations in the brain in the supplied territory. As the medial frontal lobe damage is often linked to lesions of the corpus callosum, frontal variant cases may also present with callosal form signs. Cases of damage restricted to the callosum however, tend not to show frontal alien-hand signs. Cause The common emerging factor in alien hand syndrome is that the primary motor cortex controlling hand movement is isolated from premotor cortex influences but remains generally intact in its ability to execute movements of the hand. A 2009 fMRI study looking at the temporal sequence of activation of components of a cortical network associated with voluntary movement in normal individuals demonstrated "an anterior-to-posterior temporal gradient of activity from supplemental motor area through premotor and motor cortices to the posterior parietal cortex". Therefore, with normal voluntary movement, the emergent sense of agency appears to be associated with an orderly sequence of activation that develops initially in the anteromedial frontal cortex in the vicinity of the supplementary motor complex on the medial surface of the frontal aspect of the hemisphere (including the supplementary motor area) prior to activation of the primary motor cortex in the pre-central gyrus on the lateral aspect of the hemisphere, when the hand movement is being generated. Activation of the primary motor cortex, presumed to be directly involved in the execution of the action via projections into the corticospinal component of the pyramidal tracts, is then followed by activation of the posterior parietal cortex, possibly related to the receipt of recurrent or re-afferent somatosensory feedback generated from the periphery by the movement which would normally interact with the efference copy transmitted from primary motor cortex to permit the movement to be recognized as self-generated rather than imposed by an external force. That is, the efference copy allows the recurrent afferent somatosensory flow from the periphery associated with the self-generated movement to be recognized as re-afference as distinct from ex-afference. Failure of this mechanism may lead to a failure to distinguish between self-generated and externally generated movement of the limb. This anomalous situation in which re-afference from a self-generated movement is mistakenly registered as ex-afference due to a failure to generate and successfully transmit an efference copy to sensory cortex, could readily lead to the interpretation that what is in actuality a self-generated movement has been produced by an external force as a result of the failure to develop a sense of agency in association with emergence of the self-generated movement (see below for a more detailed discussion). A 2007 fMRI study examining the difference in functional brain activation patterns associated with alien as compared to non-alien "volitional" movement in a patient with alien hand syndrome found that alien movement involved anomalous isolated activation of the primary motor cortex in the damaged hemisphere contralateral to the alien hand, while non-alien movement involved the normal process of activation described in the preceding paragraph in which primary motor cortex in the intact hemisphere activates in concert with frontal premotor cortex and posterior parietal cortex presumably involved in a normal cortical network generating premotor influences on the primary motor cortex along with immediate post-motor re-afferent activation of the posterior parietal cortex. Combining these two fMRI studies, one could hypothesize that the alien behavior that is unaccompanied by a sense of agency emerges due to autonomous activity in the primary motor cortex acting independently of premotor cortex pre-activating influences that would normally be associated with the emergence of a sense of agency linked to the execution of the action. As noted above, these ideas can also be linked to the concept of efference copy and re-afference, where efference copy is a signal postulated to be directed from premotor cortex (activated normally in the process associated with emergence of an internally generated movement) over to somatosensory cortex of the parietal region, in advance of the arrival of the "re-afferent" input generated from the moving limb, that is, the afferent return from the moving limb associated with the self-generated movement produced. It is generally thought that a movement is recognized as internally generated when the efference copy signal effectively "cancels out" the re-afference. The afferent return from the limb is effectively correlated with the efference copy signal so that the re-afference can be recognized as such and distinguished from "ex-afference", which would be afferent return from the limb produced by an externally imposed force. When the efference copy is no longer normally generated, then the afferent return from the limb associated with the self-generated movement is mis-perceived as externally produced "ex-afference" since it is no longer correlated with or canceled out by the efference copy. As a result, the development of the sense that a movement is not internally generated even though it actually is (i.e. the failure of the sense of agency to emerge in conjunction with the movement), could indicate a failure of the generation of the efference copy signal associated with the normal premotor process through which the movement is prepared for execution. Since there is no disturbance of the sense of ownership of the limb in this situation, and there is no apparent physical explanation for how the owned limb could be moving in a purposive manner without an associated sense of agency, a cognitive dissonance is created which may be resolved through the assumption that the goal-directed limb movement is being directed by an "alien" unidentifiable external force with the capacity for directing goal-directed actions of one's own limb. Disconnection It is theorized that alien hand syndrome results when disconnection occurs between different parts of the brain that are engaged in different aspects of the control of bodily movement. As a result, different regions of the brain are able to command bodily movements, but cannot generate a conscious feeling of self-control over these movements. As a result, the sense of agency that is normally associated with voluntary movement is impaired or lost. There is a dissociation between the process associated with the actual execution of the physical movements of the limb and the process that produces an internal sense of voluntary control over the movements, with this latter process thus normally creating the internal conscious sensation that the movements are being internally initiated, controlled and produced by an active self. Recent studies have examined the neural correlates of emergence of the sense of agency under normal circumstances. This appears to involve consistent congruence between what is being produced through efferent outflow to the musculature of the body, and what is being sensed as the presumed product in the periphery of this efferent command signal. In alien hand syndrome, the neural mechanisms involved in establishing that this congruence has occurred may be impaired. This may involve an abnormality in the brain mechanism that differentiates between "re-afference" (the return of kinesthetic sensation from the self-generated "active" limb movement) and "ex-afference" (kinesthetic sensation generated from an externally produced 'passive' limb movement in which an active self does not participate). This brain mechanism is proposed to involve the production of a parallel "efference copy" signal that is sent directly to the somatic sensory regions and is transformed into a "corollary discharge", an expected afferent signal from the periphery that would result from the performance driven by the issued efferent signal. The correlation of the corollary discharge signal with the actual afferent signal returned from the periphery can then be used to determine if, in fact, the intended action occurred as expected. When the sensed result of the action is congruent with the predicted result, then the action can be labelled as self-generated and associated with an emergent sense of agency. If, however, the neural mechanisms involved in establishing this sensorimotor linkage associated with self-generated action are faulty, it would be expected that the sense of agency with action would not develop as discussed in the previous section. Loss of inhibitions One theory posed to explain these phenomena proposes that the brain has separable neural "premotor" or "agency" systems for managing the process of transforming intentions into overt action. An anteromedial frontal premotor system is engaged in the process of directing exploratory actions based on "internal" drive by releasing or reducing inhibitory control over such actions. A 2011 paper reporting on neuronal unit recording in the medial frontal cortex in human subjects showed a clear pre-activation of neurons identified in this area up to several hundred milliseconds prior to the onset of an overt self-generated finger movement and the authors were able to develop a computational model whereby volition emerges once a change in internally generated firing rate of neuronal assemblies in this part of the brain crossed a threshold. Damage to this anteromedial premotor system produces disinhibition and release of such exploratory and object acquisition actions which then occur autonomously. A posterolateral temporo-parieto-occipital premotor system has a similar inhibitory control over actions that withdraw from environmental stimuli as well as the ability to excite actions that are contingent upon and driven by external stimulation, as distinct from internal drive. These two intrahemispheric systems, each of which activates an opposing cortical "tropism", interact through mutual inhibition that maintains a dynamic balance between approaching toward (in other words, with "intent-to-capture" in which contact with and grasping onto the attended object is sought) versus withdrawing from (that is, with "intent-to-escape" in which distancing from the attended object is sought) environmental stimuli in the behavior of the contralateral limbs. Together, these two intrahemispheric agency systems form an integrated trans-hemispheric agency system. When the anteromedial frontal "escape" system is damaged, involuntary but purposive movements of an exploratory reach-and-grasp nature—what Denny-Brown referred to as a positive cortical tropism—are released in the contralateral limb. This is referred to as a positive cortical tropism because eliciting sensory stimuli, such as would result from tactile contact on the volar aspect of the fingers and palm of the hand, are linked to the activation of movement that increases or enhances the eliciting stimulation through a positive feedback connection (see discussion above in section entitled "Parietal and Occipital Lobes"). When the posterolateral parieto-occipital "approach" system is damaged, involuntary purposive movements of a release-and-retract nature, such as levitation and instinctive avoidance – what Denny-Brown referred to as a negative cortical tropism – are released in the contralateral limb. This is referred to as a negative cortical tropism because eliciting sensory stimuli, such as would result from tactile contact on the volar aspect of the fingers and palm of the hand, are linked to the activation of movement that reduces or eliminates the eliciting stimulation through a negative feedback connection (see discussion above in section entitled "Parietal and Occipital Lobes"). Each intrahemispheric agency system has the potential capability of acting autonomously in its control over the contralateral limb although unitary integrative control of the two hands is maintained through interhemispheric communication between these systems via the projections traversing the corpus callosum at the cortical level and other interhemispheric commissures linking the two hemispheres at the subcortical level. Disconnection of hemispheres due to injury One major difference between the two hemispheres is the direct connection between the agency system of the dominant hemisphere and the encoding system based primarily in the dominant hemisphere that links action to its production and through to its interpretation with language and language-encoded thought. The overarching unitary conscious agent that emerges in the intact brain is based primarily in the dominant hemisphere and is closely connected to the organization of language capacity. It is proposed that while relational action in the form of embodied inter-subjective behavior precedes linguistic capacity during infant development, a process ensues through the course of development through which linguistic constructs are linked to action elements in order to produce a language-based encoding of action-oriented knowledge. When there is a major disconnection between the two hemispheres resulting from callosal injury, the language-linked dominant hemisphere agent which maintains its primary control over the dominant limb loses, to some degree, its direct and linked control over the separate "agent" based in the nondominant hemisphere, and the nondominant limb, which had been previously responsive and "obedient" to the dominant conscious agent. The possibility of purposeful action occurring outside of the realm of influence of the conscious dominant agent can occur and the basic assumption that both hands are controlled through and subject to the dominant agent is proven incorrect. The sense of agency that would normally arise from movement of the nondominant limb now no longer develops, or, at least, is no longer accessible to consciousness. A new explanatory narrative for understanding the situation in which the now inaccessible nondominant hemisphere based agent is capable of activating the nondominant limb is necessitated. Under such circumstances, the two separated agents can control simultaneous actions in the two limbs that are directed at opposing purposes although the dominant hand remains linked to the dominant consciously accessible language-linked agent and is viewed as continuing to be under "conscious control" and obedient to conscious will and intent as accessible through thought, while the nondominant hand, directed by an essentially non-verbal agent whose intent can only be inferred by the dominant agent after the fact, is no longer "tied in" and subject to the dominant agent and is thus identified by the conscious language-based dominant agent as having a separate and inaccessible alien agency and associated existence. This theory would explain the emergence of alien behavior in the nondominant limb and intermanual conflict between the two limbs in the presence of damage to the corpus callosum. The distinct anteromedial, frontal, and posterolateral temporo-parieto-occipital variants of the alien hand syndrome would be explained by selective injury to either the frontal or the posterior components of the agency systems within a particular hemisphere, with the relevant and specific form of alien behavior developing in the limb contralateral to the damaged hemisphere. Diagnosis Corpus callosum Damage to the corpus callosum can give rise to "purposeful" actions in the sufferer's non-dominant hand (an individual who is left-hemisphere-dominant will experience the left hand becoming alien, and the right hand will turn alien in the person with right-hemisphere dominance). In "the callosal variant", the patient's hand counteracts voluntary actions performed by the other, "good" hand. Two phenomena that are often found in patients with callosal alien hand are agonistic dyspraxia and diagonistic dyspraxia. Agonistic dyspraxia involves compulsive automatic execution of motor commands by one hand when the patient is asked to perform movements with the other hand. For example, when a patient with callosal damage was instructed to pull a chair forward, the affected hand would decisively and impulsively push the chair backwards. Agonistic dyspraxia can thus be viewed as an involuntary competitive interaction between the two hands directed toward completion of a desired act in which the affected hand competes with the unaffected hand to complete a purposive act originally intended to be performed by the unaffected hand. Diagonistic dyspraxia, on the other hand, involves a conflict between the desired act in which the unaffected hand has been engaged and the interfering action of the affected hand which works to oppose the purpose of the desired act intended to be performed by the unaffected hand. For instance, when Akelaitis's patients underwent surgery to the corpus callosum to reduce epileptic seizures, one patient's left alien hand would frequently interfere with the right hand. For instance, while trying to turn over to the next page with the right hand, his left hand would try to close the book. In another case of callosal alien hand, the patient did not suffer from intermanual conflict between the hands but rather from a symptom characterized by involuntary mirror movements of the affected hand. When the patient was asked to perform movements with one hand, the other hand would involuntarily perform a mirror image movement which continued even when the involuntary movement was brought to the attention of the patient, and the patient was asked to restrain the mirrored movement. The patient suffered from a ruptured aneurysm near the anterior cerebral artery, which resulted in the right hand being mirrored by the left hand. The patient described the left hand as frequently interfering and taking over anything the patient tried to do with the right hand. For instance, when trying to grasp a glass of water with the right hand with a right side approach, the left hand would involuntary reach out and grasp hold of the glass through a left side approach. More recently, Geschwind et al. described the case of a woman who suffered severe coronary heart disease. One week after undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting, she noticed that her left hand started to "live a life of its own". It would unbutton her gown, try to choke her while asleep and would automatically fight with the right hand to answer the phone. She had to physically restrain the affected hand with the right hand to prevent injury, a behavior which has been termed "self-restriction". The left hand also showed signs of severe ideomotor apraxia. It was able to mimic actions but only with the help of mirror movements executed by the right hand (enabling synkinesis). Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Geschwind et al. found damage to the posterior half of the callosal body, sparing the anterior half and the splenium extending slightly into the white matter underlying the right cingulate cortex. Park et al. also described two cases of infarction as the origin of alien hand symptoms. Both individuals had suffered an infarction of the anterior cerebral artery (ACA). One individual, a 72-year-old male, had difficulty controlling his hands, as they often moved involuntarily, despite his trying to stabilize them. Furthermore, he often could not let go of objects after grasping them with his palms. The other individual, a 47-year-old female who suffered an ACA in a different location of the artery, complained that her left hand would move on its own and she could not control its movements. Her left hand could also sense when her right hand was holding an object and would involuntarily, forcibly take the object out of her right hand. Frontal lobe Unilateral injury to the medial aspect of the brain's frontal lobe can trigger reaching, grasping and other purposeful movements in the contralateral hand. With anteromedial frontal lobe injuries, these movements are often exploratory reaching movements in which external objects are frequently grasped and utilized functionally, without the simultaneous perception on the part of the patient that they are "in control" of these movements. Once an object has been acquired and is maintained in the grasp of this "frontal variant" form of alien hand, the patient often has difficulty with voluntarily releasing the object from grasp and can sometimes be seen to be peeling the fingers of the hand back off the grasped object using the opposite controlled hand to enable the release of the grasped object (also referred to as tonic grasping or the "instinctive grasp reaction"). Some (for example, the neurologist Derek Denny-Brown) have referred to this behavior as "magnetic apraxia" Goldberg and Bloom described a woman who suffered a large cerebral infarction of the medial surface of the left frontal lobe in the territory of the left anterior cerebral artery which left her with the frontal variant of the alien hand involving the right hand. There were no signs of callosal disconnection nor was there evidence of any callosal damage. The patient displayed frequent grasp reflexes; her right hand would reach out and grab objects without releasing them. In regards to tonic grasping, the more the patient tried to let go of the object, the more the grip of the object tightened. With focused effort the patient was able to let go of the object, but if distracted, the behaviour would re-commence. The patient could also forcibly release the grasped object by peeling her fingers away from contact with the object using the intact left hand. Additionally, the hand would scratch at the patient's leg to the extent that an orthotic device was required to prevent injury. Another patient reported not only tonic grasping towards objects nearby, but the alien hand would take hold of the patient's penis and engage in public masturbation. Parietal and occipital lobes A distinct "posterior variant" form of alien hand syndrome is associated with damage to the posterolateral parietal lobe and/or occipital lobe of the brain. The movements in this situation tend to be more likely to withdraw the palmar surface of the hand away from sustained environmental contact rather than reaching out to grasp onto objects to produce palmar tactile stimulation, as is most often seen in the frontal form of the condition. In the frontal variant, tactile contact on the ventral surface of the palm and fingers facilitates finger flexion and grasp of the object through a positive feedback loop (i.e. the stimulus generates movement that reinforces, strengthens and sustains the triggering stimulation). In contrast, in the posterior variant, tactile contact on the ventral surface of the palm and fingers is actively avoided through facilitation of extension of the fingers and withdrawal of the palm in a negative feedback loop (i.e. the stimulus, and even anticipation of stimulation of the palmar surface of the hand, generates movement of the palm and fingers that reduces and effectively counteracts and eliminates the triggering stimulation, or, in the case of anticipated palmar contact, decreases the likelihood of such contact). Alien movements in the posterior variant of the syndrome also tend to be less coordinated and show a coarse ataxic motion during active movement that is generally not observed in the frontal form of the condition. This is generally thought to be due to an optic form of ataxia since it is facilitated by the visual presence of an object with visual attention directed toward the object. The apparent instability could be due to an unstable interaction between the tactile avoidance tendency biasing toward withdrawal from the object, and the visually based acquisition bias tendency pushing toward an approach to the object. The alien limb in the posterior variant of the syndrome may be seen to "levitate" upward into the air withdrawing away from contact surfaces through the activation of anti-gravity musculature. Alien hand movement in the posterior variant may show a typical posture, sometimes referred to as a "parietal hand" or the "instinctive avoidance reaction" (a term introduced by neurologist Derek Denny-Brown as an inverse form of the "magnetic apraxia" seen in the frontal variant, as noted above), in which the digits move into a highly extended position with active extension of the interphalangeal joints of the digits and hyper-extension of the metacarpophalangeal joints, and the palmar surface of the hand is actively pulled back away from approaching objects or up and away from supporting surfaces. The "alien" movements, however, remain purposeful and goal-directed, a point which clearly differentiates these movements from other disorganized non-purposeful forms of involuntary limb movement (e.g. athetosis, chorea, or myoclonus). Similarities between frontal and posterior variants In both the frontal and the posterior variants of the alien hand syndrome, the patient's reactions to the limb's apparent capability to perform goal-directed actions independent of conscious volition is similar. In both of these variants of alien hand syndrome, the alien hand emerges in the hand contralateral to the damaged hemisphere. Treatment There is no cure for the alien hand syndrome. However, the symptoms can be reduced and managed to some degree by keeping the alien hand occupied and involved in a task, for example by giving it an object to hold in its grasp. Specific learned tasks can restore voluntary control of the hand to a significant degree. One patient with the "frontal" form of alien hand who would reach out to grasp onto different objects (e.g., door handles) as he was walking was given a cane to hold in the alien hand while walking, even though he really did not need a cane for its usual purpose. With the cane firmly in the grasp of the alien hand, it would generally not release the grasp and drop the cane in order to reach out to grasp onto a different object. Other techniques proven to be effective includes; wedging the hand between the legs or slapping it; warm water application and visual or tactile contact. Additionally, Wu et al. found that an irritating alarm activated by biofeedback reduced the time the alien hand held an object. In the presence of unilateral damage to a single cerebral hemisphere, there is generally a gradual reduction in the frequency of alien behaviors observed over time and a gradual restoration of voluntary control over the affected hand. Actually, when AHS originates from focal injury of acute onset, recovery usually occurs within a year. One theory is that neuroplasticity in the bihemispheric and subcortical brain systems involved in voluntary movement production can serve to re-establish the connection between the executive production process and the internal self-generation and registration process. Exactly how this may occur is not well understood, but a process of gradual recovery from alien hand syndrome when the damage is confined to a single cerebral hemisphere has been reported. In some instances, patients may resort to constraining the wayward, undesirable and sometimes embarrassing actions of the impaired hand by voluntarily grasping onto the forearm of the impaired hand using the intact hand. This observed behavior has been termed "self-restriction" or "self-grasping". In another approach, the patient is trained to perform a specific task, such as moving the alien hand to contact a specific object or a highly salient environmental target, which is a movement that the patient can learn to generate voluntarily through focused training in order to effectively override the alien behavior. It is possible that some of this training produces a re-organization of premotor systems within the damaged hemisphere, or, alternatively, that ipsilateral control of the limb from the intact hemisphere may be expanded. Another method involves simultaneously "muffling" the action of the alien hand and limiting the sensory feedback coming back to the hand from environmental contact by placing it in a restrictive "cloak" such as a specialized soft foam hand orthosis or, alternatively, an everyday oven mitt. Other patients have reported using an orthotic device to restrict perseverative grasping or restraining the alien hand by securing it to the bed pole. Of course, this can limit the degree to which the hand can participate in addressing functional goals for the patient and may be considered to be an unjustifiable restraint. Theoretically, this approach could slow down the process through which voluntary control of the hand is restored if the neuroplasticity that underlies recovery involves the recurrent exercise of voluntary will to control the actions of the hand in a functional context and the associated experiential reinforcement through successful willful suppression of the alien behavior. History The first known case described in the medical literature appeared in a detailed case report published in German in 1908 by the preeminent German neuro-psychiatrist, Kurt Goldstein. In this paper, Goldstein described a right-handed woman who had suffered a stroke affecting her left side from which she had partially recovered by the time she was seen. However, her left arm seemed as though it belonged to another person and performed actions that appeared to occur independent of her will. The patient complained of a feeling of "strangeness" in relationship to the goal-directed movements of the left hand and insisted that "someone else" was moving the left hand, and that she was not moving it herself. When the left hand grasped an object, she could not voluntarily release it. The senses of touch and proprioception of the left side were impaired. The left hand would make spontaneous movements, such as wiping the face or rubbing the eyes, but these were relatively infrequent. With significant effort, she was able to move her left arm in response to spoken command, but conscious movements were slower or less precise than similar involuntary motions. Goldstein developed a "doctrine of motor apraxia" in which he discussed the generation of voluntary action and proposed a brain structure for temporal and spatial cognition, will and other higher cognitive processes. Goldstein maintained that a structure conceptually organizing both the body and external space was necessary for object perception as well as for voluntary action on external objects. In his classic papers reviewing the wide variety of disconnection syndromes associated with focal brain pathology, Norman Geschwind commented that Kurt Goldstein "was perhaps the first to stress the non-unity of the personality in patients with callosal section, and its possible psychiatric effects". In popular culture In Stanley Kubrick's 1964 film Dr. Strangelove, the eponymous character, played by Peter Sellers, apparently suffers from alien hand syndrome, as he can't stop himself from doing the Nazi salute. "Dr. Strangelove syndrome" was suggested as the official name for AHS. This was not approved, though it is sometimes used as an alternative name. In the medical drama TV series House episode "Both Sides Now", a patient suffers from alien hand syndrome. An episode of Dark Matters: Twisted But True—a documentary TV series on Discovery Science—described alien hand syndrome and traced its history. The 2017 Indian Tamil dark comedy film Peechankai is about a person who suffers from AHS. In Season 2 of the TV series Scream Queens, Dr. Brock Holt appears to suffer from alien hand syndrome. See also Automatic writing Automatic drawing Automatic speech Bicameral mentality Divided consciousness Dual consciousness Ideomotor phenomenon Left brain interpreter Split-brain Surrealist automatism References Works cited External links Recent review article from the Archives of Neurology by I. Biran and A. Chatterjee Radio interview with a person with alien hand syndrome Neurological disorders Syndromes Rare syndromes

263802

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyromancy

Pyromancy

Pyromancy (from Greek pyr, “fire,” and manteia, “divination”) is the art of divination by means of fire. History of pyromancy Due to the importance of fire in society in prehistory and its continued importance within civilizations, it is quite likely that pyromancy was one of the earlier forms of divination, arising independently in many civilizations around the world. In much of Western Culture, fire was often associated with a god, or was revered as a god itself. Fire was associated with a living being--it ate, breathed, grew, decayed, and died--in both Western and non-Western religions. Fire was so basic to the human experience that it persisted in the minds of humanity as an element close to nature. Fire rituals in Mesopotamia and Eurasia were thought to originate with Ancient Zoroastrian rituals around the use of fire in temples and on altars. Ancient Zoroastrians believe fire to have been “the most holy spirit” from which all life was born, and was used as a central icon in many rituals. In the Old Testament, fire was often associated with divine intervention; with the burning bush guiding the decision of Moses, and the pillar of fire guiding the Israelites in the wilderness. Even the burning of Sodom and Gomorrah was accomplished through divine retribution. Greek legends of the origins of fire speaks to the importance of fire to separate humans from animals. To many Ancient Greeks, fire was a godly element bestowed by higher forces; given to humanity by the Titan Prometheus. It is said that in Greek society, virgins at the Temple of Athena in Athens regularly practiced pyromancy. It is also likely the followers of Hephaestus, the Greek god of fire and the forge, practiced pyromancy. In Renaissance magic, pyromancy was classified as one of the seven "forbidden arts," along with necromancy, geomancy, aeromancy, hydromancy, chiromancy (palmistry), and scapulimancy. Fire rituals in East Asia most often revolved around animal bones. In Ancient China, Japan, and Tibet, bones from animal scapula (the shoulder bone) would be thrown into fires, and the cracks would be interpreted to divine the future. In Japan, specifically, turtle shells would also be used as a ritualistic divination technique. In Tibet such divination was used to understand natural phenomena otherwise inexplicable to villagers. Lamps using animal fat were often burned by ancient Tibetan peoples, and the smoke and flames were interpreted as the guidance of natural forces. Types of pyromancy The most basic form of pyromancy is that in which the diviner observes flames, from a sacrificial fire, a candle, or another source of flame, and interprets the shapes that he or she sees within them. There are several variations on pyromancy, however, some of which are as follows: Alomancy, divination by salt, one type of which involves casting salt into a fire Botanomancy, divination by burning plants Capnomancy, divination by smoke; light, thin smoke that rose straight up was a good omen; otherwise, a bad one. Causinomancy, divination by burning (non-specific as to the object burned) Daphnomancy (also, Empyromancy), divination by burning laurel leaves Osteomancy, divination using bones, one type of which involves heating to produce cracks Plastromancy, divination using turtle plastrons; in China, this was done by heating pits carved into them. Scapulimancy, divination by scapulae; in Asia and North America, this was done pyromantically. Sideromancy, divination by burning straw with an iron. References Divination Fire in culture

263805

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropata%20Wahawaha

Ropata Wahawaha

Ropata Wahawaha ( – 1 July 1897) was a Māori military leader and rangatira (chief) of the Ngāti Porou iwi (tribe) who rose to prominence during New Zealand's East Cape War and Te Kooti's War. Born in 1820 in the Waiapu Valley on the East Cape, he was enslaved as a boy and became known as Rāpata Wahawaha. He later obtained his freedom and as an adult, became known as Ropata. In 1865, he fought against the Pai Mārire religious movement when it expanded into the East Cape area. During the conflict, he became rangatira of Te Aowera, a hapū (subtribe) of Ngāti Porou. As a Kūpapa, a Māori allied to the New Zealand Government, he fought alongside the Volunteer Force, New Zealand's militia, and led war parties against the Pai Mārire and their presence in the East Cape region was largely eliminated by mid-1866. From 1868 to 1871, he commanded Ngāti Porou war parties in the pursuit of Te Kooti, a rebel Māori leader whose religious movement, Ringatū, threatened the security of the East Cape region. During the conflict he played a key role in the capture of Te Kooti's pā (hill fort) at Ngatapa, for which he was awarded the New Zealand Cross and was made a major in the Volunteer Force. His pursuit of Te Kooti was motivated by a desire to ensure that Ngāti Porou land was not subject to seizure by the Government. In his later years, he commanded the militia in the Ngāti Porou district, was a land agent and a member of the Legislative Council. Early life Rāpata Wahawaha was born about 1820 either in Te Puia Springs or Akuaku, in the Waiapu Valley on the East Cape. He was the son of Hīpora Koroua and Te Hapamana Te Whao. He was of the Te Aowera hapū (sub-tribe) of the Ngāti Porou iwi (tribe), one of the major Māori iwi in the eastern regions of the North Island of New Zealand. As a child Ropata was captured by the Rongowhakaata iwi during a conflict with Ngāti Porou over disputed land. He became the slave of Rāpata Whakapuhia whose name he perforce adopted. However, in later years when he rose to prominence he worked closely with Donald McLean who, having a broad Scottish accent, habitually pronounced his name as "Ropata" and it became the name by which he is generally known. He preferred this as it disassociated him from the period of life when he was a slave. By 1839 Ropata had gained his freedom and was living with the Ngāti Porou. He was married to Harata Te Ihi whose nephew, Paratene Ngata, was raised in their household. East Cape War Little is known of Ropata's life following his marriage until 1865, when the East Cape War broke out. Ngāti Porou had become divided following the arrival on the East Cape that year of the leaders of the Pai Mārire religious movement. The religion espoused its followers, known as Hauhau, immunity to bullets and sought to move pākehā (European New Zealanders) off Maori land. It also advocated for the Kingites. Some of the hapū of Ngāti Porou converted to the new religion while others opposed it. Owing to the work of missionaries in the area since the 1830s, many Ngāti Porou, including Ropata's hapū, had a strong Christian faith. They were angered by the murder of Carl Völkner by the Hauhau in early 1865. Furthermore, they realised that alignment with Pai Mārire would lead to conflict with the New Zealand Government, and a risk of confiscation of their land, as had happened elsewhere in the country. Waiapu Valley campaign Ropata himself was staunchly Anglican, and was a founding member of the diocese of Waiapu. On 5 June, he was among a number of Te Aowera attending celebrations for the establishment of a church at Popoti, when they were advised that some Hauhau had arrived in the Waiapu Valley. In response to pleas by a Ngāti Porou leader, he gathered a party of 40 men, mainly from his own hapū of Te Aowera. His party was poorly equipped, with only a few flintlock muskets among them, and traditional weapons such as mere (club) and taiaha (staff). In contrast, the Hauhau were armed with modern rifles. On 20 June Ropata led an attack on the Hauhau, who had established a pā (hill fort) at Mangaone. Although the Te Aowera were defeated, Ropata gained some notoriety when, in single combat, he killed a Hauhau leader. The rangatira (chief) of the Te Aowera was killed in the engagement and Ropata succeeded him as the leader of his hapū. He suffered another defeat two days later when his party was driven off during an attack of the Hauhau's pā at Pukemaire. In addition, their own pā at Tikitiki was captured. When the Hauhau arrived in Waiapu Valley, Mōkena Kōhere, a senior rangatira of Ngāti Porou, had appealed to Donald McLean, the superintendent for the Hawke's Bay Province, for assistance. Much needed supplies were subsequently sent along with one hundred militia, who arrived at Te Hatepe pā, to where Ropata and his party had withdrawn. His force now numbered around 85, following the arrival of Te Aowera reinforcements. The arrival of personnel of the Volunteer Force, New Zealand's militia, on 13 July further boosted numbers. This proved timely for the Hauhau attacked the next day and were driven off. Further defeats followed for the Hauhau, thanks to the intervention of the militia, but Ropata also played key roles in the fighting; He staged a successful ambush of Hauhau forces in late July and, equipped with modern weapons, later carried out campaigns alongside Henare Potae, another rangatira of Ngāti Porou, towards Tokomaru Bay and Tolaga Bay, seizing Hauhau pā. By this time, he had established himself as a respected warrior and rangatira among Ngāti Porou. He was also regarded as ruthless: according to an account written in 1879 by Walter Gudgeon, at one point Ropata found some men from his own hapū, Te Aowera, among a group of Hauhau prisoners and he personally shot each one. Monty Soutar, a Ngāti Porou historian, disputes this, writing in 2000 that no evidence in contemporary records could be found to support this action occurred. On 3 October, in conjunction with over 100 militia, Ropata's war party of 120 commenced a siege of the Pai Mārire stronghold of Pukemaire pā. Ropata, with a group of 12 warriors, dug a sap leading up to the palisade of the pā and pulled it down to gain entry. Although they had to withdraw, and poor weather delayed a renewed attack, the Hauhau abandoned Pukemaire a few days later and retreated to Hungahungatoroa. Ropata, with a group of his men, harried the Hauhau as they withdrew. On 13 October, they attacked Hungahungatoroa with Ropata part of a group sent to a ridge, overlooking the pā, to snipe at the Hauhau. At the suggestion of Mōkena Kōhere, negotiations commenced with defenders and the Ngāti Porou among them surrendered after receiving guarantees of their safety. The remainder, about 60, escaped out the rear of the pā. One, a senior leader of the Hauhau, was taken captive by Ropata; a colonial militia officer, upon discovering the identity of the prisoner, executed him. The action at Hungahungatoroa eliminated the last of the Hauhau strongholds in the Waiapu Valley. Some Ngāti Porou were allowed to return to their hapū after swearing allegiance to the Crown while others were sent to the Chatham Islands. Shift to the Poverty Bay There was still a Hauhau presence in Poverty Bay, to the south of the Waiapu Valley, centred on Waerenga-a-hika, a pā manned by around 400 to 500 Hauhau. The militia, despite being reinforced with troops brought in from Napier, only numbered 150 or so, inadequate to attack the pā. McLean sought Ropata's assistance to deal with the threat. He eagerly complied; many of the Hauhau in Poverty Bay were of the Rongowhakaata iwi, which had enslaved him as a child. Ropata gathered a Ngāti Porou war party of 300 warriors and joined the militia in what amounted to a seven-day siege on Waerenga-a-hika that commenced in mid-November. After an attempted breakout, the Hauhau were defeated and the survivors taken as prisoners to the Chatham Islands. Ropata continued to lead his war party south, this time in assistance of the Ngāti Kahungunu iwi, which was aligned with the Government. In January 1866, he and 150 Ngāti Porou landed at Wairoa. Together with 150 militia and 250 warriors from Ngāti Kahungunu iwi, they pushed towards Lake Waikaremoana in pursuit of the Hauhau. When the force was ambushed on 12 January and its lead elements began to fall back, Ropata helped restore morale, moving forward and setting fire to the undergrowth which obscured the vision of the Hauhau. Unable to see in the face of the advancing Ropata and his men, they withdrew. Closely pursued, around 25 to 35 were killed and several others taken prisoner. The losses of Ngāti Kahungunu and Porou amounted to 14 killed, one being Ropata's uncle, mostly in the initial ambush. Few militia were involved in this engagement but one later recorded that Ropata executed four leaders of the Hauhau that were among the prisoners. He had initially proposed to spare those of Ngāti Kahungunu but this was not acceptable to that tribe's rangatira who wished to make an example for the rest of their iwi. The Government forces and their allies then returned to Wairoa. There was further engagements with the remaining Hauhau over the next few months, but these involved Ngāti Kahungunu. By the middle of the year, the Hauhau threat to the East Cape had largely been eliminated. Te Kooti's War In July 1868, Ropata was called upon again by the Government to help deal with a new threat. This was Te Kooti, of Ngāti Maru, a hapū of Rongowhakaata iwi, who had recently escaped from captivity in the Chatham Islands. Te Kooti had been sent there when he was arrested in March 1866 as a spy during the campaign against the Hauhau in Poverty Bay. While on the Chathams, he had become a religious leader among the numerous exiled Hauhau, espousing his own faith, Ringatū, based upon the Bible. After two years, the prisoners had become frustrated at their treatment, having been held without trial, and Te Kooti led them in surprising their guards and seizing a vessel to sail back to New Zealand. Te Kooti and his followers made landfall near Poverty Bay on 9 July 1868 and made their way inland shortly afterwards. The local militia commander, Captain Biggs, ordered some of his men in pursuit after an initial attempt by a local rangatira to negotiate with Te Kooti was rejected. The militia were defeated in an encounter on 20 July, and there would be further unsuccessful skirmishes with Te Kooti's men over the next several weeks. Te Kooti's ranks soon swelled with converts from among the Māori of the region, who in their fervour, murdered some Ngāti Kahungunu rangatira. In response, in late October, Ropata and his Ngāti Porou were brought in. Ngatapa Te Kooti, after mounting a raid on 10 November that saw a number of Māori and European settlers and farmers murdered, retreated to a strong defensive pā at Ngatapa. Ropata and his men, at Wairoa, went north to Gisborne (known at the time as Tūranga) and onto Ngatapa. The pa contained about 200 Ringatū warriors and around 300 other Māori, many of whom were prisoners taken in Te Kooti's raids. The first assault on 4 December, led by Ropata, Hōtene Porourangi, another rangatira of Ngāti Porou, and Lieutenants Mair and Preece of the Armed Constabulary, was unsuccessful. The pā was up on the peak of a ridge, and had strong fortifications including entrenchments and was palisaded. Although Ropata led a party in capturing a defensive trench, it had to be abandoned in the evening when they ran out of ammunition. Ropata pulled his men, tired by the march from Wairoa and the subsequent fighting, back to Tūranga. Despite this Ropata was awarded the New Zealand Cross (NZC) for his bravery and leading role in this action. The NZC had recently been established as a gallantry award for colonial personnel, and was regarded as being equivalent to a Victoria Cross (VC); those serving in New Zealand's colonial militia were ineligible for the VC unless they were under the command of British officers. Ropata was also made a major in the Armed Constabulary. In early December, Colonel George Whitmore, commandant of the Armed Constabulary, arrived at Tūranga with 350 reinforcements for the local militia. They proceeded to Ngatapa after receiving reports that Te Kooti was still in the area and had not retreated to the Urewera country as first thought. In the meantime, Ropata had briefly returned to the East Cape to bring in more Ngāti Porou reinforcements and returned on 26 December with 300 men. Whitmore now had nearly 700 men, including 370 Ngāti Porou and 60 warriors of Te Arawa iwi, from the Bay of Plenty, under his command for an attack on Ngatapa. A tight cordon was thrown around the pā on 30 December, cutting off its water supply, and a siege commenced. An assault on 4 January 1869 breached the outer defences. This forced Te Kooti to evacuate the pā at dawn the next day, descending down steep, unguarded bluffs. Many of the escapees were captured by pursuing Ngāti Porou and Te Arawa. Around 136 of the Ringatū followers were killed, either during the siege itself or executed afterwards on the orders of Ropata. Te Kooti himself escaped and made his way to the Urewera country. Whitmore's force lost 11 men killed and eight wounded. Afterwards, he was effusive in his praise of Ropata's leadership and fighting skills. Indeed, it was Whitmore who had recommended Ropata for the NZC. Whitmore sought Ropata's assistance for a campaign against Titokowaru, another rebel chief, in the Wanganui area, on the opposite coast of the North Island. Ropata declined to join; he, along with Donald McLean and Karaitiana Takamoana, the Ngāti Kahungunu rangatira, felt that Te Kooti remained a threat to the East Cape region and did not want to see the area and his people defenceless. The Minister of Colonial Defence, Theodore Haultain, and the Prime Minister, Edward Stafford, both felt that McLean, who did not like Whitmore, influenced Ropata's decision. When Whitmore found that Ropata and his men were unavailable, he expressed regret, considering them "the bravest hapu of the best bush tribe in New Zealand". Some within Ngāti Porou were critical of Ropata's decision and proceeded to join Whitmore in his campaign. Urewera country The Urewera country, to the west of East Cape, was rugged, mountainous terrain, and thickly forested, the home of the Ngāi Tūhoe iwi. The Government had alienated Tūhoe with confiscation of its most valuable land. Te Kooti and around 30 acolytes soon gathered followers from among Tūhoe and mounted raids on Ohiwa and Whakatane for supplies and weapons. His actions during these and later raids were particularly ruthless, and drew the ire of the iwi and hapu surrounding the Urewera country and encouraged them to support the Government. Whitmore mounted an invasion of the Urewera country in early May, inflicting many casualties on the Tūhoe and destroying their homes and cultivated lands. Ngāti Porou warriors were slow to become involved in Whitmore's invasion of the Urewera country, only joining an expedition at Lake Waikaremoana in late May and that was withdrawn the following month after Te Kooti moved to the Taupo plains. In early 1870, the Government decided to withdraw all pākeha militia from the pursuit of Te Kooti, and entrust the hunt for him to kūpapa (Māori allied to the Government): the Ngāti Porou, under Ropata, and Maori from the Whanganui, under Te Keepa Te Rangihiwinui. The Te Arawa iwi would also be involved in the hunt for Te Kooti. Ropata was to command an East Cape invasion force, and manage its military operations. This was at the instigation of McLean, now the Minister of Defence, who had noted the success achieved by the kūpapa in the hunt for Te Kooti compared to the Armed Constabulary. Additional motivation was provided by a bounty of £5,000 for the capture of Te Kooti. Only one pākeha was allowed to accompany each of the Māori war parties; Ropata asked for and got Captain Thomas Porter, an officer of the Voluntary Cavalry in Poverty Bay. The East Cape party departed for the Urewera country on 28 February, numbering about 370 men. In his later writings, Porter commented favourably on Ropata's leadership and the resulting discipline and loyalty he instilled in his Ngāti Porou during the march to Maungapohatu, a key site for the Tūhoe. They captured the pa there, which had never before been attacked, with the loss of only one man. Then, in late March Te Keepa and Ropata managed to catch Te Kooti between their two forces at his pā at Maraetahi. In the ensuing battle the Ringatū force was destroyed. Te Kooti escaped but most of his men were either captured or killed. Despite Te Kooti evading capture, he was now largely a spent force. McLean was pleased with the result and rewarded Ngāti Porou by announcing the withdrawal of the Government's claim to disputed land on the East Cape. This prompted Ropata to raise another contingent of Ngāti Porou to pursue Te Kooti; Crosby notes his motivation was likely to ensure that McLean kept his word. He left Tūranga on 4 May with nearly 440 men, aiming to capture Ngāti Kowhatu, near the Mangaaruhe River. The weather conditions, being harsh, brought an end to the campaign which saw 22 prisoners captured. Ropata was also annoyed at the efforts of Ngāti Kahungunu, which had mounted a similar campaign at the same time, causing the Hauhau remnants to scatter. This reduced the effectiveness of Ropata's own operations. When Te Kooti raided a settlement at Uawa, on the East Cape, in late July, Ropata was seeking intelligence on his whereabouts. On hearing of the raid, he raised a war party of over 100 Ngāti Porou to pursue Te Kooti. After a few weeks of fruitless searching for Te Kooti in the bush around Taloga Bay, he withdrew. Over the following months, Tūhoe envoys carried out peace negotiations with some of Te Kooti's allies in the Urewera country. A sticking point was security from repercussions launched by Te Kooti if peace was made. The prospect of a Ngāti Porou garrison force moving into the Urewera country for protection was raised by McLean with Ropata. This required a daily payment to Ngāti Porou participants since the purpose was not the capture of Te Kooti, and thus there was no bounty available. Ropata took a party of 170 warriors to the Urewera country in mid-January 1871. Despite no bounty being on offer for the capture of Te Kooti, Ropata decided to go by way of the Waimana valley to look for him. It was rumoured he was hiding there. Two weeks of fruitless searching followed before they proceeded to Maungapohatu, as a rangitara had advised Ropata that it would be better to pacify the Tūhoe there. This was achieved and he proceeded east, continuing to look for Te Kooti. A follower of his was captured, who provided useful intelligence and led them to Te Kooti's pā. Although he was not there, another key follower of his was captured and food supplies were destroyed. Ropata's expedition ended in April and they returned to Tūranga, worn out from the weeks of marching over the hill country of the Urerewas. Ropata himself was covered with boils. Despite this, in June Ropata assembled another party to hunt for Te Kooti. His 200 men were split into four groups of 50 and pursued different routes. Ropata commanded one group and Porter another. Being mid-winter, conditions were harsh and by the time Ropata ended his search in early August, three of his men had died of exhaustion while many others were sick. He had succeeded in capturing small groups of Ringatū adherents who claimed to have lost contact with Te Kooti. Once in Gisborne, he received information that Te Kooti may be staying at a site on Lake Waikaremoana. Ropata almost immediately left for the area with a fresh group of Ngāti Porou warriors. Porter, still accompanying Ropata, struck out for sites previously searched to ensure that Te Kooti had not returned to them. He linked up with a Te Arawa party hunting Te Kooti after he escaped them following an attack on his campsite at Waipaoa. In the meantime, Ropata searched the likely areas where he believed Te Kooti might be. However, he became sick, and for most of September stayed in camp in the Mangaaruhe area while his party carried out local patrols. Porter's party had more success, and on 1 September his party surrounded Te Kooti's camp at Te Hapua, although Te Kooti himself escaped. Porter and Ropata, now recovered from his illness, met up at Maungapohatu, and then moved onto Ruatahuna, where they were advised that Kereopa Te Rau, who was one of the Hauhau involved in the murder of Völkner in 1865, was living a few hours away. Kereopa, who had a bounty of £1,000 for his capture, was seized in a surprise raid mounted by the Ngāti Porou party on 18 November. Following this, Tūhoe made peace with the Government, and Ropata withdrew his party, ending the Ngāti Porou campaigns in the Urewera country. The pursuit of Te Kooti was left to the Te Arawa. Later life By the end of Te Kooti's War Ropata was recognised as one of the leading men of Ngāti Porou due to his actions as a kūpapa. He used his influence to strengthen the iwis position with the Government, ensuring that it maintained its promise to not confiscate Ngāti Porou land. Te Kooti himself continued to evade capture and was eventually given refuge in the King Country. Ropata settled at Waiōmatatini and constructed a marae (meeting house) there, calling it Porourangi. An advocate for education, when a school was established at Waiōmatatini in 1871, he was its chairman. He would fine parents whose children did not attend the school without good reason. Conscious of his own inability in the language, he particularly urged teaching of English to Māori students. He became a land agent for the Government, facilitating the sale or leasing of Ngāti Porou land. This saw much of his iwi'''s land being leased, ensuring it remained in Ngāti Porou hands in the long term. He particularly encouraged the use of the Native Land Court to settle disputes. He also took up sheep farming. In his later years, his herd numbered over 2,400 sheep. During the general election of 1875 he opposed Karaitiana Takamoana of Ngāti Kahungunu, who was standing for Parliament in the Eastern Maori electorate. Takamoana was the leader of the Repudiation movement, which involved some former Hauhau and sought to recover Māori land through litigation. Ropata was against the movement; he tried to exert undue influence in the electorate in favour of his preferred candidate for the seat, Hōtene Porourangi, but was unsuccessful. In 1878 Ropata was awarded the Sword of Honour from Queen Victoria and appointed commander for the regional militia with a salary of £200 a year. Ropata commanded the militia until 1884, when his salary ceased due to cost cutting measures. In his later years, he received an annual pension of £100. On 10 May 1887 he was appointed a member of the Legislative Council. Two years later, he eventually got the chance to arrest Te Kooti, who had been pardoned in 1883. Since then Te Kooti had built up a large religious following. This was tolerated until 1889 when he decided to return to Poverty Bay, the scene of his earlier exploits. Ropata and Porter, still working together, were appointed by the then Prime Minister, Harry Atkinson, to make sure Te Kooti did not enter the East Cape or Urewera country. Ngāti Porou were mobilised and arrived on the scene just as Te Kooti was arrested by a police inspector, in time to prevent his followers from making a violent issue of it. Ropata missed the actual arrest because of ill health. Death and legacy Ropata died in Gisborne on 1 July 1897. Before his death, he stressed to his hapu that they should remain united and loyal to the Crown, committed to Christianity and congenial to pākehā. He was buried with full military honours nearly two weeks later at an urupā (burial ground) on Puputa, a rocky outcrop behind the Porourangi marae at Waiōmatatini. Porter was a pall bearer. A year after his death, the Government erected a memorial at Puputa in recognition of Ropata's services to the Crown. His grand-nephew, Sir Apirana Ngata, is buried nearby. Since the 1860s, Ropata has been described as a Kūpapa, for example by historians James Belich and Michael King. This is generally understood as meaning Māori who were neutral or loyal to the Government. However, in recent times, the term has also been used in a derogatory sense, to refer to Māori who aligned themselves with the Government to the disadvantage of other Māori. According to Crosby, Ropata should be more correctly characterised as being loyal to his iwi and the honouring of the Treaty of Waitangi, which guaranteed the security of Ngāti Porou lands. He took a pragmatic approach to collaboration with the Government to ensure his iwis land was not confiscated given that at least some Ngāti Porou became Hauhau during the East Cape War. Notes References External links Rapata Wahawaha on New Zealand History online ROPATA, Wahawaha, Major from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand'', originally published in 1966 1820s births 1897 deaths Military leaders of the New Zealand Wars Māori politicians Māori MLCs Members of the New Zealand Legislative Council Ngāti Porou People from the Gisborne District Recipients of the New Zealand Cross (1869) Ngata family 19th-century New Zealand politicians New Zealand Māori soldiers

263825

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siamese%20twins%20%28disambiguation%29

Siamese twins (disambiguation)

Siamese twins or conjoined twins are identical twins whose bodies are conjoined in utero. Siamese twins may also refer to: Chang and Eng Bunker the "Siamese Twins", Siamese-American conjoined twin brothers from whom the term derives Irreversible binomial, a pair or group of words used together in fixed order, such as fish and chips or null and void NGC 4567 and NGC 4568, two galaxies nicknamed the Siamese twins "Siamese Twins", a song from The Cure's 1982 album Pornography A type of crossword puzzle with two grids and two clues for each entry displayed together in random order See also Siamese (disambiguation) Siamese connection, a pipe fitting that allows two or more fire hoses to be connected Dual-listed company, a corporate structure in which two corporations function as a single operating business

263836

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle%20of%20Beauty%2C%20Isle%20of%20Splendour

Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour

"Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour" is the popular title for the national anthem of the Commonwealth of Dominica. It was adopted upon the island gaining statehood in 1967 and again with Dominica's independence in 1978. The lyrics are by Wilfred Oscar Morgan Pond (1912–1985) and the music was composed by Lemuel McPherson Christian OBE (1917–2000). Official lyrics Isle of beauty, isle of splendour, Isle to all so sweet and fair, All must surely gaze in wonder At thy gifts so rich and rare. Rivers, valleys, hills and mountains, All these gifts we do extol. Healthy land, so like all fountains, Giving cheer that warms the soul. Dominica, God hath blest thee With a clime benign and bright, Pastures green and flowers of beauty Filling all with pure delight, And a people strong and healthy, Full of godly reverent fear. May we ever seek to praise Thee For these gifts so rich and rare. Come ye forward, sons and daughters Of this gem beyond compare. Strive for honour, sons and daughters, Do the right, be firm, be fair. Toil with hearts and hands and voices. We must prosper! Sound the call, In which ev'ryone rejoices, "All for Each and Each for All." References External links "Dominica: Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour", YouTube. National symbols of Dominica Dominica music North American anthems National anthems National anthem compositions in C major

263839

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti%20%28anthem%29

Djibouti (anthem)

Djibouti (, , ) is the national anthem of Djibouti. Adopted upon independence from France in 1977, the lyrics, which are in Somali, were written by Aden Elmi, while the melody was composed by Abdi Robleh. The anthem was first officially played at an independence ceremony on 27 June 1977. Music The melody is written in common 4/4 time. It consists of twenty measures. Lyrics See also History of Djibouti Flag of Djibouti Notes References External links Audio of the national anthem of Djibouti, with information and lyrics African anthems Djiboutian music National symbols of Djibouti National anthem compositions in F major

263841

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourg-en-Bresse

Bourg-en-Bresse

Bourg-en-Bresse (; ) is the prefecture of the Ain department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in Eastern France. Located northeast of Lyon, it is the capital of the ancient province of Bresse (). In 2018, the commune had a population of 41,248. Geography Bourg-en-Bresse is located at the western base of the Jura Mountains, on the left bank of the Reyssouze, a tributary of the Saône. It lies northeast of Lyon and south-southwest of Lons-le-Saunier. History Roman remains have been discovered at Bourg, but little is known of its early history. It was probably pillaged by Goths in Late Antiquity. Raised to the rank of a free town in 1250, it was at the beginning of the 15th century the capital of the dukes of Savoy in the province of Bresse. In February 1535 it was conquered by France during a full-scale invasion of Savoy, but was restored to Duke Philibert Emmanuel in 1559, when he married Henri II's sister Marguerite. The duke later built a strong citadel, which afterwards withstood a six-months' siege by the soldiers of Henry IV during the Franco-Savoyard War of 1600–1601. The town was finally ceded to France in 1601. In 1814, the inhabitants, in spite of the defenseless condition of their town, offered resistance to the Austrians, who put the place to pillage. Demographics Politics Since 2008, Jean-François Debat of the Socialist Party (PS) has been Mayor of Bourg-en-Bresse. He was reelected following the 2020 municipal election. In the four last presidential elections, Bourg-en-Bresse voted as following: Sights Bourg-en-Bresse Cathedral, also known as the church of Notre-Dame (Cathédrale Notre-Dame-de-l'Annonciation de Bourg-en-Bresse), which dates back to the 16th century, has a façade built in the Renaissance; other parts of the church are Gothic. In the interior there are stalls of the 16th century. The other public buildings, including a handsome prefecture, are modern. The town hall contains a library and the Lorin Museum with a collection of pictures, while another museum has a collection of old costumes and ornaments characteristic of Bresse. Among the statues in the town there is one of historian Edgar Quinet, a native of Bourg-en-Bresse. The Royal Monastery of Brou, named after the suburb settlement of Bourg-en-Bresse in which it lies, is of great artistic interest. Margaret of Bourbon, wife of Philip II of Savoy, had intended to found a monastery on the spot, but died before her intention could be carried into effect. The church was actually built early in the 16th century by her daughter-in-law Margaret of Austria, wife of Philibert le Beau of Savoy, in memory of her husband. The exterior, especially the façade, is richly ornamented, but the chief interest lies in the works of art in the interior, which date from 1532. The most important are the three mausoleums with the marble effigies of Marguerite of Bourbon, Philibert le Beau and Margaret of Austria. All three are remarkable for perfection of sculpture and richness of ornamentation. The rood loft, the oak stalls and the reredos in the chapel of the Virgin are masterpieces in a similar style. The monastery has three cloisters from the early 16th century. The church and the cloisters are listed monuments. Economy In the early 20th century, the city manufactured iron goods, mineral waters, tallow, soap and earthenware. There were flour mills and breweries; there is considerable trade in grain, cattle and poultry. Transport Bourg-en-Bresse station offers rail connections to Paris, Strasbourg, Lyon and Geneva by high-speed rail, as well as several regional destinations with TER Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes services. The A39 motorway connects Bourg with Dole and Dijon, the A40 with Mâcon and Geneva. Sport Football Bourg-en-Bresse Péronnas 01 is based in the town. On 3 May 1953 a motorcycle racing meeting was held on a circuit going past the Residence Emile Pélicand and the Jardin d'Enfants Emile Pélicand. Miscellaneous Bourg is the prefecture of the department and the location of a court of assizes; it has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, as well as a local branch of the Bank of France. Bourg-en-Bresse was the finish of Stage 6 and the departure of Stage 7 in the 2007 Tour de France. Personalities Bourg-en-Bresse is the birthplace of: Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac (1581–1638), mathematician Julien Benneteau, (born 1981), tennis player Georges Blanc, chef Raymond Chevallier (1929–2004), historian and archaeologist François Clerc (born 1983), football player for Olympique Lyonnais and the French national team Alain Giletti, (born 1939), ice skater Jérôme Lalande (1732–1807), astronomer Daniel Morelon, cyclist Jean-Bernard Gauthier de Murnan (1748–1796), French officer for the Continental Army and general during the French Revolution Lionel Nallet, (born 1976), international rugby union player Jacques Pépin (born 1935), chef Edgar Quinet (1803–1875), historian and man of letters Twin towns – sister cities Bourg-en-Bresse is twinned with: Bad Kreuznach, Germany Aylesbury, England San Severo, Italy Parma, Italy Namur, Belgium Brzeg, Poland El Kef, Tunesia See also Arpitania Bressan Communes of the Ain department Pierre-Marie Poisson References External links City council website (in French) Communes of Ain Prefectures in France Bresse 1250 establishments in Europe 1250s establishments in France Populated places established in the 13th century Ain communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia

263843

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Anthem%20of%20the%20Dominican%20Republic

National Anthem of the Dominican Republic

The national anthem of the Dominican Republic was composed by José Rufino Reyes y Siancas (1835–1905), and its lyrics were authored by Emilio Prud'Homme (1856–1932). History José Reyes was inspired to create a national anthem for the Dominican Republic after having seen the Argentine National Anthem in the Parisian newspaper El Americano. In 1883, he invited his friend Emilio Prud'Homme to write lyrics for the anthem. The first version of Prud'Homme's lyrics was published in the in the weekly newspaper El Eco de la Opinion on 16 August 1883, and the first public performance of the anthem took place the next day on 17 August in Respectable Hope Lodge No. 9 in Santo Domingo. Though the music was an instant success, several objections were made to the lyrics for having various historical inaccuracies. In 1897, Prud’Homme submitted revised lyrics, which stand to this day. On 7 June 1897, the Congress of the Dominican Republic passed an act adopting "Himno Nacional" with the original music and revised lyrics as the country's official national anthem; however, then-President Ulises Heureaux (1846–1898) vetoed the act, because the lyric's author, Prud’Homme, was an opponent of the president and his administration. In 1899, Heureaux was assassinated, and the political disorder that ensued prevented the national anthem's legal adoption until 30 May 1934, when "Himno Nacional" was officially adopted and signed into law. Lyrics The Spanish name of the Dominican Republic, "", is never used in the anthem's official Spanish lyrics, nor is the demonym for Dominicans, "". Rather, the indigenous word for the island of Hispaniola, "", is used twice, and its derivative demonym, "", is used once. However, research later showed that these words do not seem to derive from the original Arawak Taíno language. In public, the national anthem is usually performed through the end of the lyric's fourth paragraph. References External links Ceremonial performance of the Dominican Republic's national anthem Vocal Dominican Republic music National symbols of the Dominican Republic Dominican Republic Spanish-language songs National anthems National anthem compositions in E-flat major

263859

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic%20Records

Epic Records

Epic Records is an American record label owned by Sony Music Entertainment, a subsidiary of Sony Corporation of America, the North American division of Japanese conglomerate Sony. The label was founded predominantly as a jazz and classical music label in 1953, but later expanded its scope to include a more diverse range of genres, including pop, R&B, rock, and hip hop. History Beginnings Epic Records was launched in 1953 by the Columbia Records unit of CBS, for the purpose of marketing jazz, pop, and classical music that did not fit the theme of its more mainstream Columbia Records label. Initial classical music releases were from Philips Records which distributed Columbia product in Europe. Pop talent on co-owned Okeh Records were transferred to Epic which made Okeh a rhythm and blues label. Epic's bright-yellow, black, and blue logo became a familiar trademark for many jazz and classical releases. This has included such notables as the Berlin Philharmonic, Charles Rosen, the Juilliard String Quartet, Antal Doráti conducting the Hague Philharmonic, and George Szell conducting the Cleveland Orchestra. Expansion of genres and mainstream success By 1960, Epic became better known for its signing of newer, fledgling acts. By the end of the 1960s, Epic earned its first gold records and had evolved into a formidable hit-making force in rock and roll, R&B and country music. Among its many acts, it included Roy Hamilton, Bobby Vinton, the Dave Clark Five, the Hollies, Tammy Wynette, Donovan, the Yardbirds, Lulu, July, Helen Shapiro, and Jeff Beck. Several of the British artists on the Epic roster during the 1960s were the result of CBS's Epic/Okeh units' international distribution deal with EMI; Epic recordings were issued by EMI on the Columbia label. Epic was involved in a notable "trade" of artists. Graham Nash was signed to Epic because of his membership in The Hollies. When the newly formed Crosby, Stills & Nash wanted to sign with Atlantic Records, Ahmet Ertegun worked out a deal with Clive Davis whereby Richie Furay's new band Poco (having signed with Atlantic due to Furay's contract from being in Buffalo Springfield) would sign with Epic. Epic's commercial success continued to grow in the 1970s with releases from ABBA (in the UK), Boston, Cheap Trick, the Clash, Charlie Daniels, Gabriel, Heart, Heatwave, the Isley Brothers, the Jacksons, George Jones, Labelle, Meat Loaf, Johnny Nash, Ted Nugent, REO Speedwagon, Minnie Riperton, Pegasus, Charlie Rich, Sly & the Family Stone, Steve Vai, and Edgar Winter. Also contributing to the label's success was its distribution of Philadelphia International Records, which produced additional hit records by acts such as the Three Degrees and McFadden and Whitehead. Corporate structure During the 1960s, Epic oversaw the smaller subsidiary CBS labels including Okeh Records and Date Records. In 1968, Epic recordings began being distributed in the UK by CBS after the distribution deal with EMI expired that year; Epic itself launched in England around 1971. Sony Corporation bought CBS Records in 1987, and the company was renamed Sony Music in 1991. It began splitting European operations into two separate labels, Epic and Columbia, in 1992, and in 1997, Sony Music Australia and New Zealand followed suit. In 2004, Sony merged with music distributor BMG, bringing Arista Records, Columbia Records, Epic Records, J Records, Jive Records, RCA Records, and Zomba Group of Companies to one parent company known as Sony BMG Music Entertainment. In 2008, Sony bought out BMG for $1.2 billion, bringing all affiliated labels together as Sony Music Entertainment International, SMEI. The merger was approved by the European Union in 2009. 1980s–2010 Epic was arguably the most successful label of the 1980s and its 1980s and 1990s mainstream success were fueled by its signing and releasing of albums by notable acts such as Michael Jackson, Culture Club, the Miami Sound Machine and Gloria Estefan, Wham! and George Michael, Adam Ant, Living Colour, Incubus, Dead or Alive, Europe, Cyndi Lauper, Teena Marie, Ozzy Osbourne, Korn, Pearl Jam, Sade, Luther Vandross, the Indigo Girls, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Rage Against the Machine, Céline Dion, Ginuwine, and Oasis among many others acts. Michael Jackson's Thriller album, released by Epic, is the best-selling album of all time. Another one of the label's many successes came via George Michael's debut solo album Faith which is estimated to have sold 25 million copies worldwide. Epic Soundtrax was founded in 1992. It was central to Epic's 1990s success, with 11 releases cumulatively selling more than 40 million records over a three-year period. Notable releases included soundtrack albums for Honeymoon in Vegas, Singles, Sleepless in Seattle, Forrest Gump, Philadelphia, and Judgment Night. In 1999, Jennifer Lopez released her debut album, On the 6, as part of WORK Group which was a critical and commercial success going on to sell over 8 million copies worldwide. Lopez's sophomore album J.Lo, experienced similar success in which over 8 million copies were sold worldwide in 2001, gaining multi-platinum status under Epic Records. With this album, Lopez became the first female solo artist under the record company to reach the number one spot on the Billboard 200. The 2002 remix album J TO THA L-O! The Remixes, which served as a follow up to Lopez's sophomore effort, was the first remix album to debut at number one on the Billboard 200, and became the fourth best selling remix album of all time, behind Michael Jackson (fellow Epic Records artist), Madonna and The Beatles. What's more is, in the second week at number one for the remix album, Lopez's remix single Ain't It Funny (Murder Remix), was also number one, making Lopez the only artist in history to have a number one remix album and single in the same week. Lopez's third studio album, released in late 2002 which was also a success, This is me... Then, sold 6 million copies worldwide and peaked at the second spot of the Billboard 200. Lopez's first full-length Spanish debut, Como Ama Una Mujer, became the first Spanish-language debut album to enter the top 10 of the Billboard 200, and has sold 1 million copies worldwide. This was Lopez's final studio album under Epic Records before her move to Island Def Jam and Capitol, until she released her first greatest hits compilation, Dance Again... The Hits, gaining critical success. In February 2009, Sony Music Group chairman Rob Stringer appointed singer-songwriter Amanda Ghost as president of Epic. Ghost, who had successfully promoted James Blunt to Grammy Award–winning status, was an unconventional and controversial choice for president because she had no corporate executive experience. She was expected to reverse the trend of declining sales at Epic by promoting the label's newer and mid-tier artists such as Augustana. Stringer also merged Epic and Columbia to form the Columbia/Epic Label Group in 2009, with himself as acting chairman. Ghost scored hit records for the Fray, Modest Mouse, Matisyahu and Sean Kingston. However, she delayed the scheduled release of Shakira's album She Wolf by insisting that the album contain another song – "Give It Up to Me" featuring Lil Wayne and uncredited Timbaland. This delay probably caused She Wolf to perform less well in the market. Epic staff members described Ghost as "abrasive" and a "loose cannon". She was fired in October 2010, with Stringer apologizing for his mistake: "I owe the people at Epic..." 2011–present In July 2011, L.A. Reid became the CEO of Epic Records, signing artists such as TLC, Toni Braxton, Cher Lloyd, Avril Lavigne, Outkast, Future, Yo Gotti, Ciara, Meghan Trainor, DJ Khaled, and Travis Scott. Epic also signed the winners of The X Factor during the seasons that Reid appeared on the show. In 2013, Sylvia Rhone, former president of Universal Motown, launched the imprint Vested In Culture through Epic Records. A year later, she was named president of Epic. In November 2014, Mosley Music Group created a joint venture with Sony Music, with marketing, publicity, distribution and overall label services provided by Epic. The joint venture was created due to Timbaland's previous co-collaboration with Reid on Michael Jackson's posthumous album, Xscape. Previously operated by Interscope, most of MMG's roster moved to Epic. In 2015, Def Jam Recordings parted ways with Mariah Carey and Carey reunited with Reid at Epic. She had worked with Reid at Def Jam under The Island Def Jam Music Group in 2004. Carey's deals with both Def Jam and Epic were at a fraction of the $80 million deal Carey had previously signed with Virgin Records; Virgin later rescinded that deal after poor sales. That same month, it was announced that R&B group Jodeci had signed to the label and planned to release their first studio album in 20 years. Wondaland Records, singer Janelle Monáe's imprint, entered into a joint venture with Epic in 2015. Acts on Wondaland include Jidenna, St. Beauty, Deep Cotton and Roman GianArthur. In 2016, Jennifer Lopez returned to Sony Music, six years after leaving in favor of Island Def Jam and Capitol Records. Lopez's multi-album deal reunited her with Reid, whom she signed with at Island Def Jam in 2010. In January 2017, 21 Savage signed to Epic. On May 11, 2017, it was announced that Reid would exit as the label's CEO. Following his exit, it was reported that Reid had been accused of sexual harassment by multiple Epic employees. On April 23, 2019, it was announced that Rhone had been appointed as Chair and CEO of the label. Formerly affiliated labels 550 Music (1993–2000) Blue Sky (1974–1982) Caribou Records (1976–1985) Cold Chillin' Records (1993–1998) Date Records (1960s) Duble Kick Entertainment (2010–2015) Epic Records Nashville (? – May 2006) Epic Soundtrax (1992–1997) Epic Street (1993–1998) Cleveland International Records (1976–1983) CTI Records (1980) Tuff City Records (1983–1984) Hidden Beach Records (1998–2007) Glacial Pace (mid–1990s) Invictus Records (1973–1976) Jet Records (1978–1983) Kirshner Records (1974–1983) MJJ Music (1988–2001) MLD Entertainment (2010–2017) Nemperor Records (1977–1990) Ode Records (1967–1969, 1976–1979) OKeh Records (1965–1970, 1994–2000) Pasha Records (1979–1990) Philadelphia International Records (1971–1984) Portrait Records (1976–1992) Ruthless Records (1990, 1999–2009) Scotti Brothers (1979–1988) SOLAR Records (1989–1993) Stone Music Entertainment (1994–2015) T-Neck Records (1972–1984) Tabu Records (1978–1991) The WORK Group (1994–1999) Virgin Records (1976–1978, 1982–1986) Artists Logos Unlike sister label Columbia, Epic went through five different logos since its launch. Some logos were temporarily revived for period reissues. The years shown below list the time served as the label's primary logo. See also Epic Records Japan (Japanese branch of Epic Records) List of record labels Immortal Records References External links Sony Music, Parent Company of Epic Epic Records album discography, 1962–1970 American record labels Heavy metal record labels Hip hop record labels IFPI members Jazz record labels Record labels established in 1953 Pop record labels Rock record labels Contemporary R&B record labels Rhythm and blues record labels Sony Music

263860

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangria

Sangria

Sangria (, , ) is an alcoholic beverage originating in Spain and Portugal. Under EU regulations only those two Iberian nations can label their product as Sangria; similar products from different regions are differentiated in name. A punch, sangria traditionally consists of red wine and chopped fruit, often with other ingredients or spirits. Sangria is very popular among foreign tourists in Spain even if locals do not consume the beverage that much. It is commonly served in bars, restaurants, and chiringuitos and at festivities throughout Portugal and Spain. Clericó is a similar beverage that is popular in Latin America. History and etymology Sangria means bloodletting in Spanish and Portuguese. The term sangria used for the drink can be traced back to the 18th century. According to the SAGE Encyclopedia of Alcohol, sangria's origins "cannot be pinpointed exactly, but early versions were popular in Spain, Greece, and England". Sangaree, a predecessor drink to sangria that was served either hot or cold, is likely to have originated in the Caribbean (West Indies), and from there was introduced to mainland America, where it was common beginning in the American colonial era but "largely disappeared in the United States" by the early twentieth century. Sangria as an iced drink was reintroduced to the U.S. by the late 1940s through Hispanic Americans and Spanish restaurants, and enjoyed greater popularity with the 1964 World's Fair in New York. Recipe Sangria recipes vary wildly even within Spain, with many regional distinctions. The base ingredients are always red wine, and some means to add a fruity or sweeter flavour, and maybe boost the alcohol content. Traditionally sangria may be mixed with local fruits such as peaches, nectarines, berries, apples, pears, or global fruits such as pineapple or lime, and sweetened with sugar and orange juice. Spanish Rioja red wine is traditional. Some sangria recipes, in addition to wine and fruit, feature additional ingredients, such as brandy, sparkling water, or a flavored liqueur. Sangria blanca (sangria with white wine) is a more recent innovation. For sangria blanca, Casas recommends dry white wines such as a Rueda, Jumilla, or Valdepeñas. Reál Sangria is predominantly made with wine from the Tempranillo and Garancha grapes. Ponche de Sangria is a variation for children, often for birthday parties. Oranges, peaches, and other sugary fruits are combined with berries, grapes, or food coloring in order to create the coloration of sangria. A soft drink typically replaces the wine. European Union law protection Under European Union law, the use of sangria in commercial or trade labeling is now restricted under geographical labeling rules. The European Parliament approved new labeling laws by a wide margin in January 2014, protecting indications for aromatized drinks, including sangria, Vermouth and Glühwein. Only sangria made in Spain and Portugal is allowed to be sold as "sangria" in the EU; sangria made elsewhere must be labeled as such (e.g., as "German sangria" or "Swedish sangria"). The definition of sangria under European Union law from the 2014 Regulation states that it is an: The 2014 regulation also recognises Clarea as an aromatised wine-based drink, which is obtained from white wine under the same conditions as for Sangría. ‘Clarea’ may be used as a sales denomination only when the product is produced in Spain. When the product is produced in other Member States, ‘Clarea’ may only be used to supplement the sales denomination 'aromatised wine-based drink', provided that it is accompanied by the words: 'produced in ...', followed by the name of the Member State of production or of a more restricted region. See also Mulled wine Spanish cuisine Spritzer Tinto de Verano References Works cited Mittie Hellmich, Sangria: Fun and Festive Recipes, Chronicle Books, 2004, Andrew F. Smith, "Sangria" in The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink (ed. Andrew F. Smith: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 522. External links Cocktails with brandy Cocktails with wine Spanish words and phrases Fruity cocktails

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Cup%20of%20Hockey

World Cup of Hockey

The World Cup of Hockey is an international ice hockey tournament. Inaugurated in 1996, it is the successor to the Canada Cup, which was held every 3 to 5 years from 1976 to 1991 and was the first international hockey championship to allow nations to field their top players. The World Cup has occurred thrice before on an irregular basis, with the United States winning in 1996 and Canada winning in 2004 and 2016. Following the 2016 tournament, it is uncertain if the series will be continued, after the cancellation of the 2020 tournament. The World Cup of Hockey is organized by the National Hockey League (NHL) and the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA), unlike the annual Ice Hockey World Championships and quadrennial Olympic tournament, both run by the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). World Cup games are played under NHL rules and not those of the IIHF, and the tournament occurs prior to the NHL pre-season, allowing all the NHL's players to be available, unlike the World Championships, which overlaps with the NHL's Stanley Cup playoffs. History Canada Cup The World Cup of Hockey was preceded by the Canada Cup, which began in 1976 in a combined effort from Doug Fisher of Hockey Canada and Alan Eagleson of the NHL Players' Association. Taking inspiration from soccer's FIFA World Cup, Eagleson proposed a new tournament that would bring together all the top hockey–playing nations. After successful negotiations with hockey officials from the Soviet Union in September 1974, Eagleson began arranging the Canada Cup tournament, which debuted in 1976. It was the first international ice hockey tournament that allowed hockey nations to field their top players, as the Winter Olympics was a strictly amateur competition and the annual World Championships clashed with the Stanley Cup playoffs. The tournaments, held every three to five years, took place in North American venues prior to the start of the National Hockey League (NHL) regular season. Six teams competed in each edition. Of the five Canada Cup tournaments, four were won by Canada, while the Soviet Union won one, that being in 1981. World Cup of Hockey In 1996, the Canada Cup was officially replaced by the World Cup of Hockey. The Canada Cup trophy was retired. The tournament expanded to eight teams: as the national teams of Canada, United States, Czech Republic, Finland, Russia and Sweden, popularly dubbed as the Big Six, were joined by Germany and Slovakia. The United States defeated Canada to win the inaugural event. Eight years later, the second installment of the World Cup of Hockey took place in 2004, just prior to the 2004–05 NHL lockout. Canada won its first tournament championship, defeating the Czech Republic in the semifinals and Finland in the final match. On January 24, 2015, NHL commissioner Gary Bettman announced the 2016 World Cup of Hockey to be held in September 2016 at Air Canada Centre in Toronto. The 2016 edition featured a slightly modified format: alongside the Big Six countries, there were two all-star teams, consisting of Team Europe and an under-23 Team North America. Canada again won the championship, defeating Team Europe in the finals. The 2020 edition was planned to include a European qualification tournament to determine some participating nations. In January 2019, plans for the tournament were abandoned due to the pending expiration of the collective bargaining agreement (CBA) between the NHL and the NHL Players' Association. In August 2019, it was reported that a World Cup could take place in February 2021 if the CBA could be extended or renewed; however, this was ruled-out by the NHL later that year. The league will attempt to hold the next edition of the World Cup in 2024. Trophy In 2004, Canadian American architect Frank Gehry designed a new trophy for the tournament. It is made from a composite alloy of copper and nickel as well as solid cast urethane plastic. The trophy was criticized by the sports community, noting the Toronto Sun's headline "What is that?" Tournaments See also List of international ice hockey competitions featuring NHL players 1972 Summit Series 1974 Summit Series Ice hockey at the Olympic Games Rendez-vous '87 References Müller, Stephan : International Ice Hockey Encyclopedia 1904-2005 / BoD GmbH Norderstedt, 2005 Ice hockey tournaments Recurring sporting events established in 1996 World cups in winter sports

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juilliard%20String%20Quartet

Juilliard String Quartet

The Juilliard String Quartet is a classical music string quartet founded in 1946 at the Juilliard School in New York by William Schuman. Since its inception, it has been the quartet-in-residence at the Juilliard School. The original members were violinists Robert Mann and Robert Koff, violist Raphael Hillyer and cellist Arthur Winograd. Current members are violinists Areta Zhulla and Ronald Copes, violist Roger Tapping, and cellist Astrid Schween. It has received numerous awards, including four Grammys and membership in the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences’ Hall of Fame. In February 2011, the group received the NARAS Lifetime Achievement Award for its outstanding contributions to recorded classical music. Members First violin 1946 Robert Mann 1997 Joel Smirnoff 2009 Nick Eanet 2011 Joseph Lin 2018 Areta Zhulla Second violin 1946 Robert Koff 1958 Isidore Cohen 1966 Earl Carlyss 1986 Joel Smirnoff 1997 Ronald Copes Viola 1946 Raphael Hillyer 1969 Samuel Rhodes 2013 Roger Tapping Violoncello 1946 Arthur Winograd 1955 Claus Adam 1974 Joel Krosnick 2016 Astrid Schween Repertoire The quartet plays a wide range of classical music, and has recorded works by Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Bartók, Debussy and Shostakovich, among others, while also promoting more contemporary composers such as Elliott Carter, Ralph Shapey, Henri Dutilleux and Milton Babbitt. It has performed with other noted musicians, such as Aaron Copland, Glenn Gould, Benita Valente and also (in its early days) the scientist Albert Einstein. It can be heard on the soundtrack of the movie Immortal Beloved. Recordings The quartet began recording with Sony Classical (formerly Columbia Records and CBS Masterworks) in 1949, and the group's discography numbers over 100 items, including repertory both well-traveled and unfamiliar. In 1950, the quartet made the first of at least three appearances at the Peabody Mason Concerts in Boston. In that concert, it performed the world premiere of Martin Boykan's String Quartet of 1949. Its early 1950s recordings of the six Bartók string quartets on the Columbia label and various works recorded for the RCA Living Stereo label (c. 1958-1962), including Bartók's quartets and a complete Beethoven quartet cycle, are particularly acclaimed. In 2015, the quartet released an app for Apple's iOS called "Juilliard String Quartet – An Exploration of Schubert’s Death and the Maiden". The recording was issued separately on audio by Ulysses Arts. The app was co-produced by the London-based app developer Touchpress and The Juilliard School. The app features the quartet in a performance of Franz Schubert’s celebrated String Quartet No. 14 in D minor ("Death and the Maiden"). Awards and recognitions Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance: The Juilliard String Quartet for Beethoven: The Late String Quartets (1985) The Juilliard String Quartet for Schoenberg: Quartets for Strings (Complete) (1978) The Juilliard String Quartet for Debussy: Quartet in G Minor/Ravel: Quartet in F (1972) The Juilliard String Quartet for Bartók: The Six String Quartets (1966) The Juilliard String Quartet Lifetime Achievement Award'' (2011) References External links Juilliard String Quartet Juilliard String Quartet official site Colbert Artists Management: Juilliard String Quartet Musical groups established in 1946 American string quartets Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Juilliard School faculty

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauvais

Beauvais

Beauvais ( , ; historical English: Beawayes, Beeway, Boway; ) is a city and commune in northern France. It is the prefecture of the Oise département, in the Hauts-de-France region. Beauvais is located approximately North of Paris. The residents of the city are called Beauvaisiens. The municipality (commune) of Beauvais has a population of 56,020 , population estimate from the Insee, and ranks as the most populous city in the Oise department, and the third most-populous city in Picardy. Together with its suburbs and satellite towns, the metropolitan area of Beauvais has a population of 128,020. History Beauvais was known to the Romans by the Gallo-Roman name of Caesaromagus (magos is Common Celtic for "field"). The post-Renaissance Latin rendering is Bellovacum from the Belgic tribe the Bellovaci, whose capital it was. In the ninth century it became a countship, which about 1013 passed to the bishops of Beauvais, who became peers of France from the twelfth century. At the coronations of kings the Bishop of Beauvais wore the royal mantle and went, with the Bishop of Langres, to raise the king from his throne to present him to the people. De Bello Gallico II 13 reports that as Julius Caesar was approaching a fortified town called Bratuspantium in the land of the Bellovaci, its inhabitants surrendered to him when he was about 5 Roman miles away. Its name is Gaulish for "place where judgements are made", from *bratu-spantion. Some say that Bratuspantium is Beauvais. Others theorize that it is Vendeuil-Caply or Bailleul sur Thérain. From 1004 to 1037, the Count of Beauvais was Odo II, Count of Blois. In a charter dated 1056/1060, Eudo of Brittany granted land "in pago Belvacensi" (Beauvais, Picardy) to the Abbey of Angers Saint-Aubin (see Albinus of Angers). In 1346 the town had to defend itself against the English, who again besieged it in 1433. The siege which it endured in 1472 at the hands of the Duke of Burgundy was rendered famous by the heroism of the town's women, under the leadership of Jeanne Hachette, whose memory is still celebrated by a procession on 27 June (the feast of Sainte Angadrême), during which women take precedence over men. An interesting hoard of coins from the High Middle Ages became known as the Beauvais Hoard, because some of the British and European coins found with the lot were from the French abbey located in Beauvais. The hoard, which contained a variety of rare and extremely rare Anglo-Norman pennies, English and foreign coins, was reputed to have been found in or near Paris. Beauvais was extensively damaged during World War I, and again in World War II during the German advance on Paris in June 1940. Much of the older part of the city was all but destroyed, and the cathedral badly damaged before being liberated by British forces on 30 August 1944. Geography Beauvais lies at the foot of wooded hills on the left bank of the Thérain at its confluence with the Avelon. Its ancient ramparts have been destroyed, and it is now surrounded by boulevards, outside of which run branches of the Thérain. In addition, there are spacious promenades in the north-east of the town. Population The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Beauvais proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Beauvais absorbed the former communes of Marissel, Saint-Just-des-Marais and Voisinlieu and part of Notre-Dame-du-Thil in 1943. Sights Cathedral The city's cathedral, dedicated to Saint Peter (Cathédrale Saint-Pierre de Beauvais), in some respects the most daring achievement of Gothic architecture, consists only of a transept and quire with apse and seven apse-chapels. The vaulting in the interior exceeds 46 m or 150 feet in height. The cathedral underwent a major repair and restoration process in 2008. The small Romanesque church of the 10th century known as the Basse Oeuvre occupies the site destined for the nave; much of its east end was demolished to make room for the new cathedral. Begun in 1247, under Bishop William of Grès (Guillaume de Grès, Guillaume de Grez), an extra were added to the height, to make it the tallest cathedral in Europe: the work was interrupted in 1284 by the collapse of the vaulting of the choir, a disaster that produced a temporary failure of nerve among the masons working in Gothic style. The transept was built from 1500 to 1548. In 1573 the fall of a too-ambitious central tower stopped work again, after which little addition was made. Its façades, especially that on the south, exhibit all the richness of the late Gothic style. The carved wooden doors of both the north and the south portals are masterpieces respectively of Gothic and Renaissance workmanship. The church possesses an elaborate astronomical clock (1866) and tapestries of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries; but its chief artistic treasures are stained glass windows of the thirteenth, fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, the most beautiful of them from the hand of the Renaissance artist, Engrand Le Prince, a native of Beauvais. To him also is due some of the stained glass in St. Etienne, the second church of the town, and an interesting example of the transition stage between the Romanesque and Gothic styles. During the Middle Ages, on 14 January, the Feast of Asses was celebrated in the Beauvais Cathedral, in commemoration of the Flight into Egypt. Other notable sites In the Place de l'Hôtel de Ville and in the old streets near the cathedral there are several houses dating from the 12th to the 16th centuries. The Hôtel de ville, close to which stands the statue of Jeanne Hachette, was built in 1752. The episcopal palace, now housing the Musée départemental de l'Oise, was built in the 16th century, partly upon the Gallo-Roman fortifications. The church of Saint-Étienne is a Romanesque-Gothic building (early 12th-late 16th centuries), including, in one of its transept's portals, a sculpture of "Wheel of Life" Transport Rail transport The railway station, Gare de Beauvais, opened since 1857 is currently served by several TER lines: Beauvais – Persan-Beaumont – Paris Gare du Nord ; Beauvais – Creil ; Beauvais – Abancourt – Le Tréport. Air transport Beauvais–Tillé Airport, dating from the 1930s, lies in north of the city, in Tillé. It is used as a gateway to Paris by several low-cost carriers. Traffic growth is significant: in 1997, 200,000 passengers used it annually, but by 2006, it was more than 1.8 million. Airport usage increased by 40% a year on average between 2001 and 2005. The airport is mainly used for passenger traffic (only 2 to 3 flights involve freight each month) and serves 48 destinations. Public transport Public transport in Beauvais is provided by (formerly The Urban Transport network of Beauvaisis or ). The transit bus (commuter bus) network consists of 25 regular lines which serve Beauvais and its suburbs, including: 12 day lines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 13 14 3 Sunday lines. 11A 11B 11C 3 summer lines. 10 (divided into 3 sub lines) 7 Demand responsive transport lines T1 T2 T3 T5 T6 T7 T8 3 shuttles Navette Aéroport (Airport Shuttle) Navette Parking (Parking Shuttle) Navette LaSalle (Polytechnic Institute of LaSalle Shuttle) Environmentally friendly transportation In an effort to promote cleaner urban transportation and protect the environment, the city began to develop a "Green Plan" (Plan vert). Ultimately, the goal is to have a network of bicycle paths. Personalities Dominique Ansel, pastry chef and creator of the Cronut Guillaume Brenner, footballer Fanny Dénoix (1798-1879), poet Hubert de Givenchy, fashion designer Henri Lebesgue, mathematician Pierre Louvet (1617–1684), 17th-century French historian, archivist and historiographer. Anthony Mfa Mezui, footballer Mustapha Yatabare, footballer Sambou Yatabare, footballer Jérôme Lempereur, footballer (born 1973) George Auriol, born Jean-Georges Huyot, graphic designer (26 April 1863) Arnaud Démare, pro-cyclist Clément Lenglet, footballer Economy The industry of Beauvais comprises, besides the state manufacture of tapestry, which dates from 1664, the manufacture of various kinds of cotton and woollen goods, brushes, toys, boots and shoes, and bricks and tiles. Market-gardening flourishes in the vicinity and an extensive trade is carried on in grain and wine. The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a Court of Assizes; it has Tribunals of First Instance and of commerce, together with a Chamber of Commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a lycée and training colleges. Amongst the major companies operating in the town are Nestle and Agco (Massey Ferguson). Also present since 1986 is RS Components, founded by Jerry Vaughan, and now operating from a purpose built distribution centre to the east of the town Beauvais also has a small airport, Beauvais Tillé, which is used by several low-cost carrier and charter airlines such as Ryanair as a terminal for nearby Paris, to which frequent shuttle buses run. Education Beauvais has the following schools: Public schools: 20 preschools: Four in Argentine, five in Centre-Ville, one in Marissel, one in Notre Dame du Thil, five in Saint-Jean, one in Saint Just des Marais, two in Saint Lucien, and one in Voisinlieu 24 public elementary schools: Five in Argentine, six in Centre-Ville, two in Marissel, two in Notre Dame du Thil, five in Saint-Jean, one in Saint Just des Marais, two in Saint-Lucien, and one in Voisinlieu Five junior high schools: Collège Henri Baumont, Collège Charles Fauqueux, Collège Jules Michelet, Collège Jean Baptiste Pellerin, and Collège George Sand Four general high schools: Lycée Félix Faure, Lycée Jeanne Hachette, Lycée Paul Langevin, and Lycée François Truffaut Four vocational high schools: Lycée Professionnel Paul Langevin, Lycée Professionnel Jean-Baptiste Corot, Lycée Professionnel Les Jacobins, and Lycée Agricole de l'Oise Private schools: Institution du Saint-Espirit (elementary, junior high, high school, and technological high school) Institution Notre-Dame (elementary and junior high school) Elementary schools: Ecole Saint-Paul and Ecole Sainte-Bernadette Lycée Saint-Vincent de Paul Sport Beauvais is home to AS Beauvais Oise, a football club playing in the Championnat National (), which is supported by a fine percussion band. International relations Beauvais is twinned with: Maidstone, United Kingdom, since 1961 Witten, Germany, since 1975 Setúbal, Portugal, since 1982 Dej, Romania, since 2003 Tczew, Poland, since 2003 Climate Beauvais experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb). The average annual temperature is 9.9 °C (1961–1990), the sunlight annual average of 1669 hours (1991–2010). Hills Bray are provided to the precipitation of Beauvais. The precipitation is 669 mm on average per year (1981–2010), while it is 800 mm on average per year in Bray. However, the frequency of rainfall is high. The average number of days per year above the precipitation of a 1 mm is 116 days, or every third day. The fog is often present, it is estimated at about 55 days a year. The department is affected by 41 days of average wind year, usually it comes from the west to the south. See also Milo of Nanteuil, bishop of Beauvais, builder of the Beauvais Cathedral Pierre Cauchon, bishop of Beauvais and judge of Joan of Arc Roman Catholic Diocese of Beauvais Notes References Bibliography Charles Delettre, Histoire du diocèse de Beauvais, depuis son établissement, Volume 2, Harvard Library External links Official website Unofficial website blog46, BIJ & EPM (open cybercafé) "Diocese of Beauvais"—Catholic Encyclopedia Coin Hoard Article AGE LaSalle-Beauvais Google Earth view of Beauvais Cathedral from south Google Earth view of (truncated) west end of Beauvais Cathedral and Basse Oeuvre Cities in France Communes of Oise Prefectures in France Bellovaci