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262187

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Province%2C%20Sri%20Lanka

Western Province, Sri Lanka

The Western Province ( Basnāhira Paḷāta; Mael Paḷāta) is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka, the first level administrative division of the country. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. The province is the most densely populated province in the country and is home to the legislative capital Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte as well to Colombo, the nation's administrative and business center. History Parts of present-day Western Province were part of the pre-colonial Kingdom of Kotte. The province then came under Portuguese, Dutch and British control. In 1815 the British gained control of the entire island of Ceylon. They divided the island into three ethnic based administrative structures: Low Country Sinhalese, Kandyan Sinhalese and Tamil. The Western Province was part of the Low Country Sinhalese administration. In 1833, in accordance with the recommendations of the Colebrooke-Cameron Commission, the ethnic based administrative structures were unified into a single administration divided into five geographic provinces. The districts of Chilaw, Colombo, Kalutara, Puttalam, Seven Korales (present day Kurunegala District), Three Korales, Four Korales and Lower Bulatgama (present day Kegalle District) formed the new Western Province. Chilaw District, Puttalam District and Seven Korales were transferred to the newly created North Western Province in 1845. Three Korales, Four Korales and Lower Bulatgama were transferred to the newly created Sabaragamuwa Province in 1889. It is planned to create a planned Megacity under the Western Region Megapolis Plan in the Western Province designed by Surbana. Originally initiated in 2004 by Ranil Wickremesinghe it was stopped after his election defeat and was restarted again after his return to power in 2015. The project plans to merge Colombo, Gampaha and Kalutara districts and introduce zoning Geography and climate Western Province is located in the southwest of Sri Lanka. It has an area of . The province is surrounded by the Laccadive Sea to the west, North Western Province to the north, Sabaragamuwa Province to the east and the Southern Province to the south. The Western Province is vulnerable to recurrent flooding as a result of an increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events, with knock-on impacts on the infrastructure, utility supply, and the urban economy of the Province. As the most urbanised province in Sri Lanka, these climate events pose a number of problems due to the rapid urban growth the province has undergone. Administrative divisions Districts The Western Province is divided into three administrative districts, 40 Divisional Secretary's Divisions (DS Divisions) and 2,505 Grama Niladhari Divisions (GN Divisions). Major population centres Demographics Population The Western Province's population was 5,821,710 in 2012. The majority of the population are Sinhalese, with a minority Sri Lankan Moor and Sri Lankan Tamil population. Ethnicity Religion Economy The Western province provides the highest contribution to the Gross Domestic Product contributing 41.2% of the Provincial Gross Domestic Product(PGDP) and has a nominal PGDP growth rate of 5.8% as of 2015. Agriculture only made up 1.7% of the GDP the lowest among the nine provinces while Industrial sector made up 34.6% the highest in the country and service sector represented 56.5%. The province is undergoing rapid development with several of the largest infrastructure development projects happening in the province such as the Colombo International Financial City(CIFC) which is an International Financial Zone and the Western Region Megapolis Planning Project(WRMPP) Western province is also undergoing a major real estate and construction boom with residential and commercial buildings and skyscrapers changing the skylines of cities such as Colombo and Rajagiriya. Several major residential, office and hotel buildings as well as resorts and malls are either proposed or under construction. The Colombo Harbour is also a major driver of economic growth being the busiest port in South Asia. It has both privately run and state owned terminals and is being expanded. Education Almost all the premier educational institutions in the island are located in the Western Province. Universities in the province includes the University of Colombo, University of Kelaniya, University of Moratuwa, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Open University, Sri Lanka, Buddhist and Pali University of Sri Lanka, General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University, National Institute of Business Management and the Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology. Having the highest population in all the provinces, Western Province has the largest number of schools in the country, which includes national, provincial, private and international schools. Transportation Expressways in Western Province Southern Expressway Outer Circular Expressway Colombo-Katunayake Expressway International Highways in Western Province National Highways in Western Province Kollupitiya to Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte Colombo to Dummaladeniya Colombo to Alutgama Colombo to kochchikade Colombo to Avissawella Panadura to Nambapana Ja Ela to Yakkala See also List of settlements in Western Province (Sri Lanka) Provinces of Sri Lanka Districts of Sri Lanka Notes References External links Western Provincial Council 1833 establishments in Ceylon Provinces of Sri Lanka

262189

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukhari%20%28surname%29

Bukhari (surname)

Bukhari (), also spelled as Bokhari, Bukhary and Bukhori, is a common surname in South Asia and in the Muslim World, meaning "from Bukhara" (a Persian.speaking-majority city in today's Uzbekistan). Its Arabic version is al-Bukhari () Males Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870), editor of Sahih al-Bukhari, the book of Hadith Abu Ishaq al-Saffar al-Bukhari (1067–1139), Hanafi-Maturidi scholar Jalaluddin Surkh-Posh Bukhari (1199–1291), Naqvi Sufi saint and missionary Syed Ali Alaa Ud Din Bukhari (1018-1081AH), Sufi/scholar- Chewdara, Kashmir Shah Jewna or Hazrat Pir Shah Jewna Al-Naqvi Al-Bukhari, famous saint of Kannauj Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar al-Bukhari (1211–1279), Yunnan's provincial governor, under the Mongol Yuan Dynasty Jamal ad-Din Muḥammad ibn Ṭāhir ibn Muḥammad al‐Zaydī al‐Bukhārī, (13th-century) Persian-speaking Muslim astronomer Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari (1318–1389), founder of the Naqshbandi tariqa 'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari (1377–1438), Hanafi-Maturidi scholar Pir Haji Ali Shah Bukhari, 14th century Sufi saint Kirom Bukhoroi, 18th century Tajik poet Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari (1892–1961), Muslim scholar and orator Patras Bokhari (1898–1958), Pakistani humorist and diplomat Zulfiqar Ali Bukhari (1904–1975), Urdu broadcaster and first director-general of Radio Pakistan Lal Bokhari (1909–1959), Indian field hockey player Naeem Bokhari (born 1948), Pakistani lawyer and television personality Syed Mokhtar Albukhary (born 1951), Malaysian businessman Nayyar Hussain Bukhari (born 1952), Pakistani politician Shahid Hussain Bokhari (born 1952), Pakistani computer scientist Syed Faisal Bukhari (born 1963), Pakistani film and television director, producer, and cinematographer Syed Iftikhar Bokhari (1935–2021), Pakistani politician and cricketer Nourdin Boukhari (born 1980), Dutch-born Moroccan footballer Mudassar Bukhari (born 1983), Pakistani-born Dutch cricketer Admiral Fasih Bokhari, Chief of Naval Staff of the Pakistani navy Asghar Bukhari, founding member of the Muslim Public Affairs Committee UK Fida Hussain Bukhari, Pakistani religious scholar Muhammadu Buhari (born 17 December 1942), Nigerian Syed Ahmed Bukhari, Imam of Delhi's Jama Masjid Females Samra Bukhari, Pakistani novelist The Bokhary family of Hong Kong Daoud Bokhary (born c. 1919), Hong Kong businessman Kemal Bokhary (born 1947), Hong Kong judge References Arabic-language surnames Persian-language surnames Nisbas Urdu-language surnames

262195

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahomet

Mahomet

Mahomet may refer to: People Muhammad (in Medieval Latin or French) Albert Mahomet (born 1858, died unknown), Anglo-Indian photographer, teacher, and Methodist preacher Sake Dean Mahomet, an 18th-century Bengali traveler Mahomet Weyonomon, a Native American tribal chieftain of the Mohegan tribe from Connecticut Other uses Mahomet (play), by Voltaire Mahomet, Illinois, a village in the United States

262196

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARD

ARD

ARD or Ard may refer to: People Ard (surname), a surname of Scottish origin Ard (biblical figure), a son of Benjamin in the Bible Ard., abbreviation in scientific literature for botanist Pietro Arduino Places Ard, Arkansas, U.S. Ard, Inverness, Scotland Ard, alternate name of Arad, Iran, a city in Fars Province ARD, the IATA code for Alor Island Airport, Indonesia Ardgay railway station, Scotland, station code Ardmore station (Pennsylvania), Philadelphia, US, Amtrak code Organizations ARD (broadcaster), Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, German Association of Public Broadcasters Das Erste, primary television channel of the ARD, often called the same ARD International Music Competition Alliance for Restoration of Democracy, a Pakistani political movement American Research and Development Corporation, the first venture capital firm Army Reconnaissance Detachment 10, a special forces unit of the Swiss Armed Forces Democratic Republican Alliance, Alliance Républicaine Démocratique or ARD, a French political party of the Third Republic Republican Alliance for Democracy, an opposition party in Djibouti (Alliance Républicaine pour le Développement) Right Romania Alliance, Alianţa România Dreaptăa, short-lived electoral alliance in Romania Science and Technology Acid rock drainage, the outflow of acidic water from mines Acireductone dioxygenase (iron(II)-requiring), an enzyme Antimicrobial Removal Device, Marion Laboratories product Apple Remote Desktop, computer application Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator, ESA spacecraft Auxiliary repair dock US Navy hull classification symbol for an auxiliary repair dry dock Other uses Accelerated Rehabilitative Disposition, pretrial intervention program, Pennsylvania, US Alcohol-related dementia Ard (plough), a simple plough Ard, a character in the 1981 film Heavy Metal See also Ards (disambiguation)

262201

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZDF

ZDF

ZDF (, short for Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen; ; "Second German Television") is a German public-service television broadcaster based in Mainz, Rhineland-Palatinate. It is run as an independent nonprofit institution, which was founded by all federal states of Germany (Bundesländer). ZDF is financed by television licence fees and advertising revenues. The broadcaster is well known for its famous programmes heute, a newscast established in 1963, and Wetten, dass..?, an entertainment show that premiered in 1981, and ended in 2014. Thomas Bellut, ZDF's director general, was elected by the ZDF Television Council in 2011. History In 1959, the government of Konrad Adenauer began preparations to form a second nationwide television network with the intention of competing with ARD. Adenauer perceived ARD's news coverage to be too critical of his government, and believed that two of the organizations primarily responsible for its news reporting – the Deutsche Presse-Agentur and Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk, which produced the nightly Tagesschau – were too close to the opposition Social Democratic Party (SPD) to ever be able to report neutrally on his Christian Democratic Union government. The new television company, called the Freies Fernsehen Gesellschaft (Free Television Society) but derisively called Adenauer-Fernsehen by critics, was founded on 25 July 1960. The Deutsche Bundespost began constructing a second transmitter network on UHF channels, which required new reception equipment. For older receivers, a converter was sold for about 80 DM (). As with the earlier ARD television network, the location of the transmitters was carefully planned to ensure the entire country would be able to receive the programming. To test the transmitters and encourage the public to purchase UHF receivers, the federal government allowed the ARD network to create a temporary secondary channel, ARD 2, which was broadcast daily from 8 to 10 pm. ARD 2 began broadcasting on 1 May 1961 in the transmission area of Hessischer Rundfunk and a month later expanded nationwide. Interstate agreement The SPD-led states of Hamburg, Bremen, Lower Saxony, and Hesse appealed to the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, which on 28 February 1961 in the First Broadcasting Judgment blocked the plan. While building and maintaining telecommunications infrastructure, such as television transmitters, is a responsibility of the federal government under article 87f of the Basic Law, the constitution does not extend these duties to running a television or radio broadcaster. Under article 30, any power or duty not explicitly assigned to the federal government is reserved for the states. Therefore, the court ruled only the states had the right to set up a television broadcaster. (Conversely, the same decision supported new longwave broadcaster Deutschlandfunk, which had been established by the federal government in November 1960; its focus was on external broadcasting and therefore under the federal government's remit to conduct foreign relations.) After this decision, in March 1961, the states decided to establish a central nonprofit public television network independently of Adenauer's effort. On 6 June 1961, the state premiers signed at a premiers' conference in Stuttgart the interstate agreement on the "establishment of the public institution Second German Television". On 1 December 1961, though not all states had ratified the agreement, it went into force in the states that had done so (Baden-Württemberg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate). The last state, Bavaria, filed the instrument of ratification on 9 July 1962. Launch The station began broadcasting from Eschborn near Frankfurt am Main on 1 April 1963, with a speech by the first director general (Intendant), Dr. Karl Holzamer. The channel broadcast its first programme in colour in 1967. In 1974, ZDF moved its base of operations to Mainz-Lerchenberg, after briefly being located in Wiesbaden. From 5 October 1996 ZDF broadcasts 24 hours a day. Finances ZDF is financed by a license fee of €18.36 per month, which must be paid by all households in Germany, except handicapped people and persons on social aid. ZDF shares the income with ARD and Deutschlandradio. The fees are not collected directly by ZDF, but by the Beitragsservice, a common organization of the ARD member broadcasters, ZDF, and Deutschlandradio. ZDF also has income from sponsorships and programming and advertising sales. Transmission and reception Terrestrial As ZDF is a channel, not a network, the channel is broadcast throughout Germany, with no regional variations or affiliates, using a number of signal repeaters. ZDF transmitters broadcast a digital signal. Analog signals were gradually phased out, a process which lasted from 2002 to 2008. ZDF does not run any transmitters itself. Throughout the analogue days, all ZDF transmitters were run by the Deutsche Bundespost which was later privatised as Deutsche Telekom's subsidiary T-Systems Media Broadcast. (This is in contrast to the other public German broadcaster, ARD, which owns its main transmitters.) ZDF was not previously allowed to use ARD's transmitters. ZDF has used both ARD and Telekom transmitters since changes to the law in the 1990s, and since the digital switchover. Cable ZDF has also been relayed by cable since the days of the first cable pilot projects. Satellite The first Europe-wide satellite broadcast via Astra 1C began in August 1993 during the Internationale Funkausstellung Berlin (IFA – "International Broadcasting Exhibition") in Berlin. In the same decade, these new technologies were used to enable digital broadcasting of ZDF. Today, ZDF is available free-to-air throughout Europe on Astra 19.2°E. Other channels ZDF operates two digital channels: ZDFneo (aimed at 18- to 45-year-olds) and ZDFinfo (documentaries). Both are transmitted in SD and HD. A commercial subsidiary called ZDF Enterprises GmbH manages programme sales, acquisitions, international coproductions, and a growing number of important activities in new media. ZDF Enterprises owns a Dutch TV production and distribution company Off the Fence. ZDF also operates various channels in cooperation with other networks: Arte, 3sat, KI.KA, and Phoenix. Design ZDF's animated station-identity mascots, the Mainzelmännchen (a play on the words "Mainz" and "Heinzelmännchen"), created by Wolf Gerlach for the channel's launch in 1963, quickly became popular and are still shown between commercials. In 1976, Otl Aicher, a graphic designer, created ZDF's corporate design. A new design for ZDF was created by Lee Hunt in February 2000. Administration Director general Administratively, ZDF is headed by a director general (Intendant), who is elected by the ZDF Television Council, the composition of which is in turn determined by "societally relevant groups" named in the ZDF Treaty. Directors General since the start of ZDF: 1963–1977: Karl Holzamer 1977–1982: Karl-Günther von Hase 1982–2002: Dieter Stolte 2002–2012: Markus Schächter 2012–present: Thomas Bellut Supervising board The supervising board supervises the work of the intendant. They pay special attention to the budget. The supervising board has 14 members: Five representatives of the federal states One representative of the federal republic of Germany Eight independent members (not allowed to work for the government or other public entities) Television board The Television Board supervises ZDF and authorizes the budget. They also elect the Director General. The board has 60 members: Sixteen representatives of the states of Germany Two representatives of the federal republic of Germany Two representatives of the Protestant churches Two representatives of the Catholic Church One representative of the Central Council of Jews in Germany 21 representatives of selected civil society groups 16 members nominated by the federal states, representing different social causes Membership ZDF became a full member of the European Broadcasting Union in 1963. It also has numerous individual cooperation agreements with broadcasters around the world. ZDF is a supporter of the Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV initiative which promotes the establishment of an open European standard for hybrid set-top boxes for the reception of broadcast TV and broadband multimedia applications with a single user interface. Programming Children 1, 2 oder 3 (1977–present) ALF (1988–1993) Alfred J. Kwak (1990–2003) Die Kinder von Bullerbü (Alla vi barn i Bullerbyn) Dog City (1995–1997) Fraggle Rock (Die Fraggles) (1983–1995) Hals über Kopf (1987–1993, 1997) Löwenzahn (1981–present) Pingu (1990–2004) Pippi Langstrumpf (Pippi Långstrump) (1969–present) Rappelkiste (1973–1987) Tabaluga (1997–2007) Cosmic Quantum Ray (2009) Tabaluga tivi (1997–2011) The Muppet Show (Die Muppet Show) (1977–1989) The Simpsons (Die Simpsons) (1991–1994) Mia and Me (2012–present) Culture aspekte (1965–present) Das Blaue Sofa (2003–present) Das Literarische Quartett (1998–2006, 2015–present) Documentaries 37 Grad (1994–present) Alexander the Great (2014) Die Deutschen (2008/2010) Terra X (1982–present) Terra Xpress (2011–present) ZDFzeit (2012–present) ZDF-History (2000–present) Entertainment Bares für Rares, hosted by Horst Lichter (2013–present) Blond am Freitag (2002–2007) Blond am Sonntag (2001) Dance Academy (2010) Das große Los – Die Show für die Aktion Sorgenkind, hosted by Dieter Thomas Heck (1996–2000) Die Anstalt, comedy hosted by Claus von Wagner and Max Uthoff (2014–present) Die Goldene Kamera (1973, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1994–present) Die goldene Stimmgabel, hosted by Dieter Thomas Heck (1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001–2007) Die größten Musical Hits (The Greatest Musical Hits) Die Helene Fischer Show, hosted by Helene Fischer (2013–present) Die Pyramide, German version of Pyramid hosted by Dieter Thomas Heck (1979–1994) Die Pyramide, German version of Pyramid hosted by Micky Beisenherz and Joachim Llambi (2012) Die ZDF-Hitparade, hosted by Dieter Thomas Heck/Viktor Worms/Uwe Hübner (1969–2000) Die ZDF-Kultnacht (2002–present) Disco (1971–1982) Grand Prix der Volksmusik (1986–2010) heute-show, comedy hosted by Oliver Welke (2009–present) Kerner kocht, cooking show hosted by Johannes B. Kerner (2005–2008) Lafer! Lichter! Lecker!, cooking show hosted by Johann Lafer and Horst Lichter (2006–2017) Mainz bleibt Mainz, wie es singt und lacht (Carnival) (1973–present) Melodien für Millionen, hosted by Dieter Thomas Heck (1985–2007) Musik liegt in der Luft, hosted by Dieter Thomas Heck (1991–1998) Neues aus der Anstalt, comedy hosted by Urban Priol (2007–2013) Nicht nachmachen! (2012–2013) Rockpop (1977–1981) Rock Pop Music Hall (1984–1986) Show Palast, hosted by Dieter Thomas Heck (1999–2000) Wetten, dass..?, hosted by Frank Elstner/Thomas Gottschalk (1981–2014, 2021-present) Willkommen bei Carmen Nebel, hosted by Carmen Nebel (2004–present) ZDF-Fernsehgarten, hosted by Andrea Kiewel (1986–present) Information Aktenzeichen XY… ungelöst, hosted by Eduard Zimmermann/Sabine Zimmermann/Butz Peters/Rudi Cerne auslandsjournal (1973–present) Berlin direkt (1999–present) Bonn direkt (1987–1999) Chronik der Woche (1965–1984) Die Drehscheibe (1964–1982) drehscheibe (1998–present) Frontal, hosted by Bodo H. Hauser and Ulrich Kienzle (1993–2000) Frontal21 (2001–present) hallo deutschland (1997–present) heute (newscast) (1963–present) heute aus den Ländern (newscast) (1983–1992) heute journal (newscast) (1978–present) heute mittag (newscast) (1998–2009) heute nacht (newscast) (1994–2015) heute Xpress (newscast) (2015–present) Kennzeichen D (1971–2001) länderjournal (1991–1996) Leute heute (1997–present) ML Mona Lisa (1988–present) Politbarometer (1977–present) tele-illustrierte (1982–1991) Volle Kanne – Service täglich (1999–present) WISO (1984–present) ZDF-abendmagazin (1996–1997) ZDF-Magazin, hosted by Gerhard Löwenthal/Fritz Schenk/Wolfgang Weinert/Hans Scheicher (1969–1988) ZDF-Mittagsmagazin (1989–present) ZDF-Morgenmagazin (1992–present) ZDFzoom (2011–present) Series ALF (1988–1996) Bella Block (1994–present) Blochin (2015) Borgia (Borgia: Faith and Fear), co-producers CANAL+ (France) and others (2011, 2013) The Bridge (2011), co-producers Sveriges Television and DR Cologne P.D. (2003–present) Das Kriminalmuseum (1963–1973) Das Traumschiff (1981–present) Der Adler – Die Spur des Verbrechens (Ørnen) (2005–2007, 2009–2010, 2012, 2014, 2017) Der Alte (The Old Fox) (1977–present) Der Bergdoktor (2008–present) Der kleine Doktor (1974, 1981–1982) Der Kommissar (1969–1976) Der Kommissar und das Meer (Kommissarien och havet) (2007–present) Der Kriminalist (2006–present) Der Landarzt (1987–2016) Derrick (1974–1998) Die Bergretter (2009–present) Die Chefin (2012–present) Die Garmisch-Cops (2012, 2014, 2016) Die Rosenheim-Cops (2002–present) Die Schwarzwaldklinik (The Black Forest Clinic) (1985–2013) Die Toten vom Bodensee (2014–present) Diese Drombuschs (1983–1995, 1998–2000) Dr. Klein (2014–2016) Ein Fall für Zwei (1981–2013) Ein starkes Team (1994–present) Forsthaus Falkenau (1989–2016) Freunde fürs Leben (1992–2005, 2008) Friesland (2015–present) Girl friends – Freundschaft mit Herz (1995–2009) Helen Dorn (2014–present) Herzensbrecher – Vater von vier Söhnen (2013–2016) Highway to Heaven (Ein Engel auf Erden) (1987–1990) Hotel (1985, 1988) Hotel Paradies (1990–1992, 1995–1996, 1998, 2000–2001, 2009) Ich heirate eine Familie (1987–1992, 1998–2008, 2013) In Plain Sight (2010, 2013–2014, 2016) Inga Lindström (2004–present) Jack Holborn (miniseries for Christmas 1982) Jack Taylor (2013, 2017) Jede Menge Leben (1995–1996) Kidnap and Ransom (Der Jäger – Geld oder Leben) (2016–present) Kommissarin Lucas (2003–present) Kripo Holstein (2013–2015) Ku'damm 56 (2016) Küstenwache (1997–2016) Leipzig Homicide (2001–present) Letzte Spur Berlin (2012–present) Lotta & ... (2010–present) Magnum, P.I. (Magnum) (2012–2015) Matlock (1998–1992) Midsomer murders (Inspector Barnaby) (2005–present) Mino (1986 Christmas miniseries) Mordkommission Königswinkel (2017–present) Morgen hör ich auf (2016) New Tricks (New Tricks – Die Krimispezialisten) (2005) Notruf Hafenkante (2007–present) Ray Donovan (2014–2016) Salto Kommunale (1998, 2001–2002) Salto Postale (1993–1997, 2002–2003, 2006) Sibel&Max (2015–2016) Siska (2002–2010) SOKO 5113 (1978–present) SOKO Donau/SOKO Wien (2005–present) SOKO Hamburg (2018–present) SOKO Kitzbühel (2003–present) SOKO Rhein-Main (2006–2008, 2010) SOKO Wismar (2004–present) "Solo für Weiss" (2016–present) Sperling (1996–2013) Star Trek (Raumschiff Enterprise) (1972–1982) Star Trek: The Next Generation (Raumschiff Enterprise: Das nächste Jahrhundert) (1990–1993) Stubbe – Von Fall zu Fall (1995–2016) Stuttgart Homicide (2009–present) The Bold and the Beautiful (Reich und Schön) (2002–2008, 2010–2011) The Fall (The Fall – Tod in Belfast) (2015) The Five (2017) The Muppet Show (Die Muppet Show) (1977–1989) The Simpsons (Die Simpsons) (1991–1993) The Young and the Restless (Schatten der Leidenschaft) (2008) Unser Charly (1995–2012) Unsere Mütter, unsere Väter (Generation War) (2013) Veronica Mars (2006–2008) Welcome Back, Kotter (1979–1980) Wilsberg (1999–present) Sport das aktuelle sportstudio (1963–present) Talk Dunja Hayali, hosted by Dunja Hayali (2015–present) Johannes B. Kerner, talk show hosted by Johannes B. Kerner (1998–2009) live (1986–1997) Markus Lanz, talk show hosted by Markus Lanz (2008–present) Maybrit Illner, a political talk show hosted by Maybrit Illner (1999–present) Peter Hahne, hosted by Peter Hahne (2010–2017) Tacheles, hosted by Johannes Gross (1996) Willemsens Woche, hosted by Roger Willemsen (1994–1998) Zeugen des Jahrhunderts'' (1979–present) Audience share Germany The average viewer age is 62 years (as of 2016). References External links ZDF on YouTube European Broadcasting Union members German-language television networks German-language television stations German news websites Television networks in Germany Mass media in Mainz Publicly funded broadcasters Television channels and stations established in 1963 Television stations in Germany Peabody Award winners Organisations based in Mainz 1963 establishments in Germany Companies based in Mainz

262203

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nawawi

Al-Nawawi

Abū Zakariyyā Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf al-Nawawī (;‎ 1233–1277), popularly known as al-Nawawī or Imam Nawawī (631–676 A.H./1234–1277), was a Sunni Shafi'ite jurist and hadith scholar. He authored numerous and lengthy works ranging from hadith, to theology, biography, and jurisprudence. Al-Nawawi never married. Early life Background He was born at Nawa near Damascus, Syria. As with Arabic and other Semitic languages, the last part of his name refers to his hometown. Yasin bin Yusuf Marakashi, says: "I saw Imam Nawawi at Nawa when he was a youth of ten years of age. Other boys of his age used to force him to play with them, but Imam Nawawi would always avoid the play and would remain busy with the recitation of the Noble Qur'an. When they tried to domineer and insisted on his joining their games, he bewailed and expressed his no concern over their foolish action. On observing his sagacity and profundity, a special love and affection developed in my heart for young Nawawi. I approached his teacher and urged him to take exceptional care of this lad as he was to become a great religious scholar. His teacher asked whether I was a soothsayer or an astrologer. I told him I am neither soothsayer nor an astrologer but Allah caused me to utter these words." His teacher conveyed this incident to Imam's father and in keeping in view the learning quest of his son, decided to dedicate the life of his son for the service and promotion of the cause of Islam. Education He had no academic or scholarly atmosphere and there were no religious academies or institutes where one could earn excellence in religious learning, so his father took him to Damascus, which was considered the center of learning and scholarship, and the students from far and wide gathered there for schooling. During that period, there were more than three hundred institutes, colleges and universities in Damascus. Imam Nawawi joined Madrasah Rawahiyah which was affiliated with the Ummvi University. The founder and patron of this Madrasah was a trader named Zakiuddin Abul-Qassim who was known as Ibn Rawahah. Madrasah was named after him. Noted and eminent teachers of the period taught in that Madrasah. Imam Nawawi says, "I studied in this institution for two years. During my stay in Madrasah Rawahiyah, I never had complete rest and lived on the limited food supplied by the institution." As a routine, he used to sleep very little at night. When it became irresistible as a human being, he would lean and slumber for a while against the support of books. After a short duration he would again be hard at his scholastic pursuits. Life as a scholar He studied in Damascus from the age of 18 and after making the pilgrimage in 1253, he settled there as a private scholar. Notable teachers During his stay at Damascus, he studied from more than twenty teachers who were regarded as masters and authority of their subject field and disciplines they taught. An-Nawawi studied Hadith, Islamic Jurisprudence, its principles, syntax and Etymology. His teachers included Abu Ibrahim Ishaq bin Ahmad AI-Maghribi, Abu Muhammad Abdur-Rahman bin Ibrahim Al-Fazari, Radiyuddin Abu Ishaq Ibrahim bin Abu Hafs Umar bin Mudar Al-Mudari, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim bin Isa Al-Muradi, Abul-Baqa Khalid bin Yusuf An-Nablusi, Abul-Abbas Ahmad bin Salim Al-Misri, Abu Abdullah Al-Jiyani, Abul-Fath Umar bin Bandar, Abu Muhammad At-Tanukhi, Sharafuddin Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad Al-Ansari, Abul-Faraj Abdur-Rahman bin Muhammad bin Ahmad Al-Maqdisi, and Abul-Fada'il Sallar bin Al-Hasan Al Arbali among others. Creed He did ta'wil on some of the Qur'an verses and ahadith on the attributes of Allah. He states in his commentary of a hadith that: Relationship with the Mamluk Sultanate Nawawi drew the ire of Mamluk Sultan Rukn al-Din Baybars, when he petitioned on behalf of residents of Damascus who sought relief from heavy tax burdens during a drought that lasted many years. This prompted Baybars to threaten to expel him from Damascus. To this, he responded:"As for myself, threats do not harm me or mean anything to me. They will not keep me from advising the ruler, for I believe that this is obligatory upon me and others." Death and legacy He died at Nawa at the relatively young age of 44. An-Nawawi's lasting legacy is his contribution to hadith literature through his momentous works Forty Hadiths and Riyadh as-Saaliheen. This made him respected in all madhabs, despite of him being of Shafi'i jurisprudence. According to Al-Dhahabi, Imam Nawawi's concentration and absorption in academic love gained proverbial fame. He had devoted all his time for learning and scholarship. Other than reading and writing, he spent his time contemplating on the interacted and complex issues and in finding their solutions. Sheikh Mohiuddin expresses his impression about Imam Nawawi as thus: Imaam an-Nawawi had three distinctive commendable qualities in his person. If anybody has only one out of these three, people turn to him in abundance for guidance. First, having knowledge and its dissemination. Second, to evade completely from the worldly inclinations, and the third, inviting to all that is good (Islam) enjoining virtue and forbidding vice. Imaam an-Nawawi had all three in him. Destruction of tomb In 2015, during the ongoing Syrian Civil War, his tomb was demolished by rebels linked to Al Nusra. Works During his life of 45 years he wrote "at least fifty books" on Islamic studies and other topics. These include: Al Minhaj bi Sharh Sahih Muslim (), making use of others before him, and is considered one of the best commentaries on Sahih Muslim. It is available online. Riyadh as-Saaliheen (); collection of hadith on ethics, manners, conduct, popular in the Muslim world. al-Majmu' sharh al-Muhadhab (), is a comprehensive manual of Islamic law according to the Shafi'i school has been edited with French translation by van den Bergh, 2 vols., Batavia (1882–1884), and published at Cairo (1888). Minhaj al-Talibin (), a classical manual on Islamic Law according to Shafi'i fiqh. Tahdhib al-Asma wa'l-Lughat (), edited as the Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious Men chiefly at the Beginning of Islam (Arabic) by F. Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1842–1847). Taqrib al-Taisir (), an introduction to the study of hadith, it is an extension of Ibn al-Salah's Muqaddimah, was published at Cairo, 1890, with Suyuti's commentary "Tadrib al-Rawi". It has been in part translated into French by W. Marçais in the Journal asiatique, series ix., vols. 16–18 (1900–1901). al-Arbaʿīn al-Nawawiyya () - 'Forty Hadiths,' collection of forty-two fundamental traditions, frequently published along with numerous commentaries. Ma Tamas ilayhi hajat al-Qari li Saheeh al-Bukhaari () Tahrir al-Tanbih () Kitab al-Adhkar (); collection of supplications of prophet Muhammad. al-Tibyan fi adab Hamalat al-Quran () Adab al-fatwa wa al-Mufti wa al-Mustafti () al-Tarkhis fi al-Qiyam () Manasik () on Hajj rituals. al-Hatt ala al-Mantiq () - 'The Insistence upon Logic,' written to address epistemological and historical criticisms of logic Sharh Sunan Abu Dawood Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari Mukhtasar at-Tirmidhi Tabaqat ash-Shafi'iyah Rawdhat al-Talibeen Bustan al-`arifin Recent English language editions Bustan al-ʿarifin (The Garden of Gnostics), Translated by Aisha Bewley Minhaj al-Talibin Minhaj et talibin: A Manual of Muhammadan Law ; According To The School of Shafi, Law Publishing Co (1977) ASIN B0006D2W9I Minhaj et talibin: A Manual of Muhammadan Law ; According To The School of Shafi, Navrang (1992) Minhaj Et Talibin: A Manual of Muhammadan Law, Adam Publishers (2005) The Forty Hadith Al-Nawawi Forty Hadiths and Commentary; Translated by Arabic Virtual Translation Center; (2010) Ibn-Daqiq's Commentary on the Nawawi Forty Hadiths; Translated by Arabic Virtual Translation Center; (2011) The Compendium of Knowledge and Wisdom; Translation of Jami' Uloom wal-Hikam by Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali translated by Abdassamad Clarke, Turath Publishing (2007) Al-Nawawi's Forty Hadith, Translated by Ezzeddin Ibrahim, Islamic Texts Society; New edition (1997) The Forty Hadith of al-Imam al-Nawawi, Abul-Qasim Publishing House (1999) The Complete Forty Hadith, Ta-Ha Publishers (2000) The Arba'een 40 Ahadith of Imam Nawawi with Commentary, Darul Ishaat Commentary on the Forty Hadith of Al-Nawawi (3 Vols.), by Jamaal Al-Din M. Zarabozo, Al-Basheer (1999) Riyad al-Salihin Gardens of the righteous: Riyadh as-Salihin of Imam Nawawi, Rowman and Littlefield (1975) Riyad-us-Salihin: Garden of the Righteous, Dar Al-Kotob Al-Ilmiyah Riyadh-us-Saliheen (Vol. 1&2 in One Book) (Arabic-English) Dar Ahya Us-Sunnah Al Nabawiya See also Forty hadith Islamic scholars Imam Shafi'i References External links Biodata at MuslimScholars.info A short bio on Imam Nawawi An-Nawawi's Forty Hadiths Imam Nawawi Shafi'is Asharis Bibliographers Hadith scholars Muslim encyclopedists Sunni Muslim scholars Sunni fiqh scholars Sharia judges Shaykh al-Islāms Theologians of the Mamluk Sultanate 13th-century jurists Biographical evaluation scholars 13th-century Muslim scholars of Islam 13th-century biographers 13th-century historians 1234 births 1277 deaths Supporters of Ibn Arabi

262204

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald%20Lampert%20Award

Gerald Lampert Award

The Gerald Lampert Memorial Award is made annually by the League of Canadian Poets to the best volume of poetry published by a first-time poet. It is presented in honour of poetry promoter Gerald Lampert. Each winner receives an honorarium of $1000. Winners and nominees References External links League of Canadian Poets Canadian poetry awards First book awards Awards established in 1981 1981 establishments in Canada

262205

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psophia

Psophia

Psophia is a genus of birds restricted to the humid forests of the Amazon and Guiana Shield in South America. It is the only genus in the family Psophiidae. Birds in the genus are commonly known as trumpeters, due to the trumpeting or cackling threat call of the males. The three species resemble chickens in size; they measure long and weigh . They are rotund birds with long necks and legs and curved bills and a hunched posture. Their heads are small, but their eyes are relatively large, making them look "good-natured". The plumage is soft, resembling fur or velvet on the head and neck. It is mostly black, with purple, green, or bronze iridescence, particularly on the wing coverts and the lower neck. In the best-known taxa the secondary and tertial flight feathers are white, grey, or greenish to black, and hairlike, falling over the lower back, which is the same colour. These colours give the three generally accepted species their names. Taxonomy and systematics The genus Psophia was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae to contain a single species, the grey-winged trumpeter (Psophia crepitans). The genus name is from the Ancient Greek psophos meaning "noise". Traditionally only three species of trumpeters have been recognised. In 2008 a review of the morphology of the dark-winged trumpeter resulted in the recommendation of splitting it into three species. In 2010 a review of the phylogeny and biogeography of all members of the family resulted in a total of 8 species, including two in the grey-winged trumpeter complex, two in the pale-winged trumpeter complex, and four in the dark-winged trumpeter complex. Grey-winged trumpeter, Psophia crepitans Grey-winged trumpeter, Psophia (crepitans) crepitans Napo trumpeter, Psophia (crepitans) napensis Ochre-winged trumpeter, Psophia (crepitans) ochroptera Pale-winged (or white-winged) trumpeter, Psophia leucoptera White-winged trumpeter, Psophia (leucoptera) leucoptera Dark-winged trumpeter, Psophia viridis Green-winged trumpeter, Psophia (viridis) viridis Brown-winged trumpeter, Psophia (viridis) dextralis Dark-winged trumpeter, Psophia (viridis) obscura Psophia (viridis) interjecta – should possibly be merged with dextralis. Behaviour and ecology Trumpeters fly weakly but run fast; they can easily outrun dogs. They are also capable of swimming across rivers. They spend most of the day in noisy flocks, sometimes numbering more than 100, on the forest floor. They feed on fallen fruit (particularly fruit knocked down by monkeys). They also eat a small amount of arthropods, including ants and flies, and even some reptiles and amphibians. At night they fly with difficulty into trees to roost above the ground. Trumpeters nest in a hole in a tree or in the crown of a palm tree. They lay 2 to 5 eggs with rough, white shells, averaging about . In the pale-winged trumpeter and the grey-winged trumpeter, groups of adults care for a single clutch. Relationship with humans Trumpeters are often used as "guard dogs" because they call loudly when alarmed, become tame easily, and are believed to be adept at killing snakes. One source states their skill at hunting snakes as a fact, and the nineteenth-century botanist Richard Spruce gave an account of the friendliness and snake-killing prowess of a tame grey-winged trumpeter. For these reasons, Spruce recommended that England import trumpeters to India. However, another source says this prowess is "reputed". References External links Trumpeter videos on the Internet Bird Collection Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics Bird genera

262211

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ign%C3%A1c%20Goldziher

Ignác Goldziher

Ignác (Yitzhaq Yehuda) Goldziher (22 June 1850 – 13 November 1921), often credited as Ignaz Goldziher, was a Hungarian scholar of Islam. Along with the German Theodor Nöldeke and the Dutch Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, he is considered the founder of modern Islamic studies in Europe. Biography Born in Székesfehérvár of Jewish heritage, he was educated at the universities of Budapest, Berlin, Leipzig and Leiden with the support of József Eötvös, Hungarian minister of culture. He became privatdozent at Budapest in 1872. In the next year, under the auspices of the Hungarian government, he began a journey through Syria, Palestine and Egypt, and took the opportunity of attending lectures of Muslim sheiks in the mosque of al-Azhar in Cairo. Goldziher kept a personal record of his reflections, travel records and daily records. This journal was later published in German as Tagebuch. The following quotation from Goldziher's published journal provides insight into his feelings about Islam. (p. 59) i.e., "In those weeks, I truly entered into the spirit of Islam to such an extent that ultimately I became inwardly convinced that I myself was a Muslim, and judiciously discovered that this was the only religion which, even in its doctrinal and official formulation, can satisfy philosophic minds. My ideal was to elevate Judaism to a similar rational level. Islam, as my experience taught me, is the only religion, in which superstitious and heathen ingredients are not frowned upon by rationalism, but by orthodox doctrine." Sander Gilman, in commenting on this passage, writes that, 'the Islam he discovered becomes the model for a new spirit of Judaism at the close of the nineteenth century.’ In Cairo, Goldziher even prayed as a Muslim: "In the midst of the thousands of the pious, I rubbed my forehead against the floor of the mosque. Never in my life was I more devout, more truly devout, than on that exalted Friday." Despite his love for Islam, Goldziher remained a devout Jew all his life. This bond to the Mosaic faith was unusual for a man seeking an academic career in Europe in the late 19th century. This fact is significant in understanding his work. He saw Islam through the eyes of someone who refused to assimilate into contemporary European culture. In fact, despite his fondness for Islam, he had little affection, if not outright scorn, for European Christianity. As a convert to Christianity he would have easily received a university appointment as full professor but he refused. Goldziher died in Budapest. Career In 1890 he published in which he showed how Hadith reflected the legal and doctrinal controversies of the two centuries after the death of Muhammad rather than the words of Mohamed himself. He was a strong believer in the view that Islamic law owes its origins to Roman law but in the opinion of Patricia Crone his arguments here are "uncharacteristically weak". Goldziher was denied a teaching post at Budapest University until he was 44. He represented the Hungarian government and the Academy of Sciences at numerous international congresses. He received the large gold medal at the Stockholm Oriental Congress in 1889. He became a member of several Hungarian and other learned societies, and was appointed secretary of the Jewish community in Budapest. He was made Litt.D. of Cambridge (1904) and LL.D. of Aberdeen (1906). Views on Zionism Goldziher viewed Zionism as an ethno-nationalist sentiment, a distinctly separate ideology from the religion of Judaism or what makes one a Jew, stating: “Jewishness is a religious term and not an ethnographical one. As regards to my nationality I am a Transdanubian, and by religion a Jew. When I headed for Hungary from Jerusalem I felt I was coming home.” Works Tagebuch, ed. Alexander Scheiber. Leiden: Brill, 1978. Zur Literaturgeschichte der Shi'a (1874) Beiträge zur Geschichte der Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei den Arabern. Vienna, 1871–1873. Der Mythos bei den Hebräern und seine geschichtliche Entwickelung. Leipzig, 1876; Eng. trans., R Martineau, London, 1877. Muhammedanische Studien. Halle, 1889–1890, 2 vols. English translation: Muslim Studies, 2 vols. Albany, 1977. Abhandlungen zur arabischen Philologie, 2 vols. Leiden, 1896–1899. Buch vom Wesen der Seele. Berlin 1907. Vorlesungen über den Islam. 1910; 2nd ed. revised by Franz Babinger, 1925. English translation: Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, trans. Andras and Ruth Hamori. Princeton University Press, 1981. Legacy Islamic traditions Goldziher's eminence in the sphere of scholarship was due primarily to his careful investigation of pre-Islamic and Islamic law, tradition, religion and poetry, in connection with which he published a large number of treatises, review articles and essays contributed to the collections of the Hungarian Academy. Scholarly work of his that is still considered relevant include his contention that Mecca, as the birthplace of Islam, is a myth. Along with Joseph Schacht (1902-1969), who expanded on his work, Goldziher is thought to have authored one of the "two influential and founding works" of Islamic studies or "Orientalist" studies (Goldziher's being Muslim Studies) according to Mohammed Salem Al-Shehri. Writing in the late 19th and early 20th century, Goldziher "inaugurated the critical study" of the hadith's authenticity and concluded that "the great majority of traditions from the Prophet are documents not of the time to which they claim to belong" but created "during the first centuries of Islam," i.e. were fraudulent. This included hadith "accepted even in the most rigorously critical Muslim collections", which meant that "the meticulous isnads which supported them were utterly fictitious" (R. Stephen Humphreys). Instead, Goldziher argued in his book Muslim Studies, hadith were the product of "debates and arguments within the emerging [Islamic] religion and society ... projected back into the time of the Prophet" and were a means of putting "support for one party or another ... into the mouth of the prophet" (in the words of G.R. Hawting). Comments of Edward Said Goldziher's works have taken on a renewed importance in recent times owing to Edward Said's critical attacks in his book Orientalism. Said himself was to reprove his work's defect for failing to pay sufficient attention to scholars like Goldziher. Of five major German orientalists, he remarked that four of them, despite their profound erudition, were hostile to Islam. Goldziher's work was an exception in that he appreciated 'Islam's tolerance towards other religions', though this was undermined by his dislike of anthropomorphism in Mohammad's thought, and what Said calls 'Islam's too exterior theology and jurisprudence'. In his numerous books and articles, he sought to find the origins of Islamic doctrines and rituals in the practices of other cultures. In doing so, he posited that Islam continuously developed as a civilization, importing and exporting ideas. See also Islamic scholars Josef Horovitz Joseph Schacht References Citations Sources External links A review of the book on Goldziher of the major contemporary scholar of his oeuvre, Róbert Simon: 1850 births 1921 deaths People from Székesfehérvár Hungarian Jews 19th-century Hungarian people 20th-century Hungarian people Historians of Islam Hungarian orientalists Jewish orientalists Jewish scientists Jewish scholars of Islam Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy

262213

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2030

U.S. Route 30

U.S. Route 30 or U.S. Highway 30 (US 30) is an east–west main route in the system of the United States Numbered Highways, with the highway traveling across the northern tier of the country. With a length of , it is the third longest U.S. highway, after US 20 and US 6. The western end of the highway is at US 101 in Astoria, Oregon; the eastern end is at Virginia Avenue, Absecon Boulevard, and Adriatic Avenue in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The "0" as the last digit in the number indicates that it is a coast-to-coast route and a major east-west route. Despite long stretches of parallel and concurrent Interstate Highways, it has not been decommissioned unlike other long haul routes such as US 66. Much of the historic Lincoln Highway, the first road across the United States (from New York City to San Francisco), became part of US 30; it is still known by that name in many areas. US 30 and US 20 break the general U.S. Route numbering guidelines in Oregon, since US 20 actually starts south of US 30 in Newport, Oregon and US 30 runs parallel to the north throughout the state (the Columbia River and Interstate 84). The two run concurrently and continue in the correct positioning near Caldwell, Idaho. This is because US 20 was not a planned coast-to-coast route while US 30 was. US 20 originally ended at the eastern entrance of Yellowstone National Park; it was extended to Albany, Oregon in 1940, then again to Newport in 1943. Route description |- |OR |477.47 |768.41 |- |ID |415.55 |668.77 |- |WY |454.37 |731.24 |- |NE |451 |726 |- |IA |330.43 |531.77 |- |IL |151.32 |243.53 |- |IN |151.8 |244.3 |- |OH |245.39 |394.92 |- |WV |3.4 |5.5 |- |PA |324 |521 |- |NJ |58.26 |93.76 |- |Total |3064 |4930 |} Oregon The western terminus of US 30 is at an intersection with U.S. Route 101 at the southern end of the Astoria–Megler Bridge in downtown Astoria, Oregon, approximately from the Pacific Ocean. It heads east to Portland, where it uses a short section of freeway built for the canceled Interstate 505. From there it heads around the north side of downtown on Interstate 405 and Interstate 5 to reach Interstate 84 (I‑84). Most of the rest of the route is concurrent with I‑84, with only about , under 1/5 of its remaining length, off the freeway, mainly on old alignments. Idaho Upon entering Idaho, US 30 runs along its old surface route through Fruitland and New Plymouth before joining I‑84. It leaves at Bliss and soon crosses the Snake River, running south of it through Twin Falls and Burley before crossing it again and rejoining I‑84. At the split with Interstate 86 (I‑86), US 30 continues east with I‑86 almost to its end at Pocatello. US 30 cuts southeast through downtown Pocatello to Interstate 15, where it heads south to McCammon. There it exits and heads east and southeast into Wyoming, not paralleling an Interstate highway for the first time since Portland. Wyoming In Wyoming, US 30 heads southeast through Kemmerer to Granger, where it joins Interstate 80 across the southern part of the state. It is also here that it joins the historic Lincoln Highway. As in the previous two states, US 30 remains with the Interstate highway for most of its path, only leaving for the old route in the following places: from Walcott to Laramie through Cheyenne through Pine Bluffs to the Nebraska state line Nebraska Unlike the three states to the west, Nebraska keeps US 30 completely separate from its parallel Interstates (Interstate 80 [I‑80] in this case). From the state line to Grand Island, US 30 closely parallels I‑80. East of Grand Island, US 30 diverges from I‑80 and runs northeast towards Columbus on a highway parallel to the Platte River. At Columbus, it turns east towards Schuyler and Fremont and crosses the Missouri River into Iowa east of Blair. Iowa US 30 crosses Iowa from west to east approximately north of Interstate 80. Between Missouri Valley and Denison, US 30 runs in a southwest-to-northeast direction. Several freeway bypasses have been built around the major cities on US 30 - Ames, Marshalltown, Tama, Cedar Rapids, Mt. Vernon and DeWitt. It crosses the Mississippi River into Illinois on the Gateway Bridge at Clinton. U.S. Route 30S and U.S. Route 30A are two previous alternate alignments of US 30 in Iowa. They followed the original alignment of US 30 in the state. They both began in Nebraska, entered Iowa in Council Bluffs, and extended north to Missouri Valley via Crescent to meet the current highway. Illinois US 30 heads east in Illinois to Rock Falls, where it begins to parallel Interstate 88. At Aurora it turns southeast to Joliet, where it is a major thoroughfare in the city of Joliet (Plainfield Road), and then back east through New Lenox, Frankfort, Mokena, Matteson, Olympia Fields, Park Forest, Chicago Heights, Ford Heights, and Lynwood to the Indiana state line, bypassing Chicago to the south. Notwithstanding, the original 1926 routing of US 30 ran directly through downtown Chicago. Indiana US 30 in Indiana is a major rural divided highway. It is not a freeway except at Fort Wayne, where it runs around the north side on Interstate 69 (I‑69) and Interstate 469. Between Interstate 65 (at Merrillville) and I‑69 (Fort Wayne), there are over 40 traffic signals on this divided highway, hindering smooth traffic flow. This is especially pronounced near Warsaw and Columbia City, where the speed limit is reduced as the highway runs through a commercial section with many businesses and traffic signals. Many of the other signals are concentrated between Hobart and Valparaiso, the two cities being about apart. It is, however, a four lane divided road through its entirety within Indiana, generally avoiding small towns. Speed limits range, but are generally . Ohio US 30 continues into Ohio, where it is mainly a 4 lane divided highway until in Canton. A proposal to make US 30 a limited access freeway from Trump Ave and OH 11 was set in 2019 & federal funding has set $18 Million to construct the new freeway. As of 2020 the only sections that are limited access freeways are in Van Wert, Bucyrus, Mansfield, Wooster, & Canton. A section between I-71 & US-250 is a divided 4 lane highway. Also a section between OH 57 & OH 172 is a 4 lane divided highway with Traffic Signals at 2 intersections. The highway passes through Van Wert. After Van Wert it travels through Upper Sandusky where, the highway runs concurrent with US 23. The section between Mansfield and Canton follows the old Lincoln Highway. The last remaining segments that will be upgraded to a freeway is passed Canton, currently the highway is a 2 lane route that passes through East Canton, Minerva, & Lisbon. After Lisbon it concurs with OH 45 for 3 miles and it becomes a freeway. Designated with signs marking routes OH 11, OH 7, OH 39, & US 30. After joining Ohio 11, Ohio 7 becomes a part of the freeway where all 3 routes split in East Liverpool where US 30 joins OH 39 for 1 mile and US 30 crosses the Ohio River into West Virginia. West Virginia US 30 runs for only about in West Virginia. It crosses the Ohio River over the Jennings Randolph Bridge, continuing the freeway from the Ohio section. After cutting through the town of Chester with only one interchange, West Virginia Route 2 (Carolina Avenue), the freeway section ends not too long after. US 30 continues across the northernmost piece of the Northern Panhandle on a two-lane road. Pennsylvania US 30 heads southeast into Pennsylvania, joining US 22 and then the Penn-Lincoln Parkway West west of Pittsburgh. It heads through downtown Pittsburgh on Interstate 376/US 22, leaving at Wilkinsburg for its own alignment. From there it roughly parallels the Pennsylvania Turnpike (Interstate 76 [I‑76]) to the Philadelphia area, though in many areas, particularly from York past Lancaster, and bypassing Coatesville, Downingtown, and Exton, it is far enough from the Pennsylvania Turnpike to require its own freeway. As it approaches Philadelphia, US 30 constitutes the main road of the "Main Line", a string of affluent suburbs west of the city; often called Lancaster Avenue and Lancaster Pike through this stretch. US 30 then briefly joins I‑76 near Center City Philadelphia, splitting onto Interstate 676 to cross the Delaware River on the Benjamin Franklin Bridge. New Jersey US 30 splits from Interstate 676 just east of the Ben Franklin Bridge toll plaza in Camden and heads southeast to Atlantic City, generally parallel to the Atlantic City Expressway, passing through the New Jersey Pine Barrens. For most of its New Jersey run, it is known as the White Horse Pike. It ends in Atlantic City at the intersection of Absecon Boulevard, Virginia Avenue, and Adriatic Avenue, about from the Atlantic Ocean. History US 30 was originally proposed to run from Salt Lake City, Utah to Atlantic City, New Jersey. West of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, this was designated largely along the Lincoln Highway, as part of a promise to the Lincoln Highway Association to assign a single number to their road as much as possible. West of Salt Lake City, U.S. Route 40 continued to San Francisco, California, although it ran farther north than the Lincoln Highway east of Wadsworth, Nevada and west of Sacramento, California. Around 1931, a split in Ohio was designated, from Delphos east to Mansfield. The original US 30 was assigned U.S. Route 30S (US 30S), and a straighter route became U.S. Route 30N (US 30N). US 30S was eliminated ca 1975, putting US 30 on former US 30N. US 30 was rerouted ca 1931 to bypass Omaha, Nebraska and Council Bluffs, Iowa to the north. The former route, from Fremont, Nebraska to Missouri Valley, Iowa, was designated U.S. Route 30S. Around 1934 it was truncated to Omaha and c. 1939 it was changed from US 30S to US 30A and was removed from service in 1969 when the historic Douglas Street bridge was demolished. Metropolitan Portland, Oregon has a signed US 30 "Bypass", beginning at the St. John's bridge, following (roughly) Lombard Street in North Portland, continuing along Sandy Boulevard, and rejoining the Interstate 84|/US 30 route in the center of the town of Wood Village. Junctions with Interstate 5, US 30 at the St. John's bridge, and Interstate 205 are all signed with "US-30 BYPASS" markers. Portland also had a U.S. 30 Business route along N.E. Sandy Boulevard, however the route was decommissioned in 2007. During the planning stages US 30 was proposed to run through and terminate in Salt Lake City, Utah, but Idaho and Oregon objected. What is now US 30 through those states (west of Burley, Idaho) had been designated as part of U.S. Route 20, another transcontinental route, but it took a detour to the north through Yellowstone National Park, making it inaccessible during the winter season. The states agreed to take US 30 along that route, splitting from the route to Salt Lake City at Granger, Wyoming and running along what had been designated as U.S. Route 530 (US 530). (That number was then reused for the spur towards Salt Lake City.) The planned US 530 had ended at U.S. Route 91 at McCammon, Idaho, where the new US 30 turned north to Pocatello, meeting the planned US 20. (US 20 was truncated to Yellowstone but later extended along its own route to the Pacific Ocean.) What had been designated as U.S. Route 630 (US 630), from US 30 at Echo, Utah to Ogden, Utah, was to be extended east on former US 30 to US 30 at Granger and northwest on US 91 and what had been designated U.S. Route 191 to US 30 at Burley. Utah objected to that plan, however, as it removed US 30 from that state, giving them only US 630, a branch. A compromise was reached, in which the US 630 route would become the main line of US 30, once improved to higher standards, but that was still not deemed completely satisfactory. Ultimately, in the final system, a split was approved between Burley, Idaho and Granger, Wyoming, with U.S. Route  30N running along the modern routing US 30, and U.S. Route 30S taking the route through Utah (planned as US 630). In the final plan (dated November 11, 1926), the route towards Salt Lake City became U.S. Route 530, ending at U.S. Route 40 at Kimball Junction, Utah. In 1988 Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) engineers proposed that US 30 be rerouted and upgraded to a four-lane controlled-access expressway through a portion of Lancaster County. The American Farmland Trust (AFT) opposed the plan because, according to Jim Riggle, then Director of Operations at AFT, it "would have cut right through the heart of the best farmland [and] would probably have been the death knell of the Amish community." The plans were averted when more than a thousand Old Order Amish, people who do not usually participate in the public process, "drove their buggies to the meeting hall and expressed their concern by simply sitting quietly in the audience in their black homespun suits." Major intersections Oregon in Astoria in Portland. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Portland. I-5/US 30 travel concurrently through the city. in Portland. I-84/US 30 travel concurrently to Cascade Locks. in Portland in Portland in Portland in Cascade Locks. The highways travel concurrently to Hood River. in Hood River. The highways travel concurrently to Mosier. in The Dalles in The Dalles. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in The Dalles. I-84/US 30 travel concurrently to Pendleton. east-northeast of The Dalles east of Boardman southwest of Hermiston in Stanfield. The highways travel concurrently to Pendleton. in Gopher Flats. The highways travel concurrently to La Grande. southeast of La Grande. The highways travel concurrently to North Powder. in Baker City. The highways travel concurrently to south of Fruitland, Idaho. Idaho south of Fruitland. US 30/US 95 travel concurrently to Palisades Corner. south of New Plymouth. The highways travel concurrently to west-northwest of Bliss. north of Caldwell. The highways travel concurrently to Caldwell. in Boise. in Boise. US 20/US 30 travel concurrently to Mountain Home. US 26/US 30 travel concurrently to west-northwest of Bliss. east of Filer. The highways travel concurrently to Twin Falls. in Heyburn. The highways travel concurrently to northeast of Declo. northeast of Declo. I-86/US 30 travel concurrently to west of Chubbuck. in Pocatello. The highways travel concurrently to northwest of McCammon. in Pocatello. The highways travel concurrently to northwest of McCammon. in Montpelier. The highways travel concurrently through the city. Wyoming in Kemmerer in Little America. The highways travel concurrently to south-southeast of Walcott. in Purple Sage. The highways travel concurrently to Rock Springs. east of Rawlins. The highways travel concurrently to Laramie. southeast of Laramie. The highways travel concurrently to southwest of Cheyenne. in Cheyenne in Cheyenne east-northeast of Cheyenne. The highways travel concurrently to Pine Bluffs. Nebraska in Sidney. The highways travel concurrently to Chappell. north of Big Springs west-southwest of Ogallala. The highways travel concurrently to Ogallala. in North Platte in Lexington in Grand Island south of Columbus. The highways travel concurrently to Columbus. north of Fremont. US 30/US 275 travel concurrently to east-northeast of Fremont. in Blair. The highways travel concurrently through the city. Iowa in Missouri Valley in Denison. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Carroll on the Amaqua–Beaver township line. The highways travel concurrently to Ogden. in Ames southeast of Ames in Colo in Toledo in Fremont Township. The highways travel concurrently to Cedar Rapids. in Cedar Rapids. The highways travel concurrently to Bertram Township. in Cedar Rapids in De Witt. The highways travel concurrently to southwest of De Witt. in Clinton. The highways travel concurrently through the city. Illinois southeast of Rock Falls north of Amboy southwest of Lee in Oswego. The highways travel concurrently to Montgomery. in Joliet in Joliet. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in New Lenox in Frankfort in Matteson Indiana in Schererville in Merrillville in Wanatah in Davis Township east of Plymouth in Fort Wayne. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Fort Wayne. I-69/US 30 travel concurrently through the city. in Fort Wayne north-northeast of Fort Wayne. The highways travel concurrently to New Haven. northeast of New Haven. The highways travel concurrently to New Haven. Ohio in Pleasant Township. The highways travel concurrently to Van Wert. north of Van Wert in Madison Township in Salem Township. The highways travel concurrently to Crane Township. in Madison Township in Mifflin Township in Plain Township. The highways travel concurrently to Wooster Township. in Massillon. The highways travel concurrently to Canton. in Canton from West Point to West Virginia state line West Virginia in Chester Pennsylvania in North Fayette Township. The highways travel concurrently to Wilkinsburg. in Robinson Township. The highways travel concurrently to Wilkinsburg. southwest of Pennsbury Village in Pittsburgh. The highways travel concurrently approximately . in Pittsburgh in North Huntingdon Township in Southwest Greensburg in Jenner Township in Bedford Township in Breezewood. The highways travel concurrently through the town. in Todd Township in Chambersburg in Chambersburg in Straban Township in Manchester Township in Manheim Township. The highways travel concurrently through the township. in Caln Township in West Whiteland Township in Radnor Township on the Lower Merion Township–Philadelphia line in Philadelphia. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Philadelphia. I-676/US 30 travel concurrently to Camden, New Jersey. in Philadelphia New Jersey in Pennsauken Township. The highways travel concurrently to Collingswood. in Barrington in Hammonton in Absecon Virginia Avenue/Absecon Boulevard/Adriatic Avenue in Atlantic City Special routes US 30 has had multiple alternate routes during it existence, but all have been finally eliminated. Although several business loops of US 30 have been decommissioned as well, nearly a dozen remain. In addition to these business loops, there is also one bypass, one emergency route, and one business alternate truck route. Related routes in New Jersey (former) in Pennsylvania (former) in Illinois (former) in Illinois (former) in Utah (former) in Oregon in Oregon and Washington (former) in Washington See also List of United States Numbered Highways Lincoln Highway References External links Endpoints of U.S. Route 30 on usends.com Speed Limits for U.S. Route 30 in New Jersey 30 30 30 Interstate 80 Interstate 84 (Oregon–Utah) 1926 establishments in the United States

262216

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpkin

Limpkin

The limpkin (Aramus guarauna), also called carrao, courlan, and crying bird, is a large wading bird related to rails and cranes, and the only extant species in the family Aramidae. It is found mostly in wetlands in warm parts of the Americas, from Florida to northern Argentina. It feeds on molluscs, with the diet dominated by apple snails of the genus Pomacea. Its name derives from its seeming limp when it walks. Taxonomy and systematics The limpkin is placed in the family Aramidae, which is in turn placed within the crane and rail order Gruiformes. The limpkin had been suggested to be close to the ibis and spoonbill family Threskiornithidae, based upon shared bird lice. The Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds, based upon DNA–DNA hybridization, suggested that the limpkin's closest relatives were the Heliornithidae finfoots, and Sibley and Monroe even placed the species in that family in 1990. More recent studies have found little support for this relationship. More recent DNA studies have confirmed a close relationship with particularly the cranes, with the limpkin remaining as a family close to the cranes and the two being sister taxa to the trumpeters. Between 1856 and 1934, the limpkin was treated as two species, one in South America (Aramus guarauna) and the other found in Central America, the Caribbean, and Florida (Aramus pictus). Today, it is treated as a single species with four subspecies. Along with the nominate subspecies A. g. guarauna, A. g. dolosus, A. g. elucus (both J. L. Peters, 1925), and A. g. pictus (F. A. A. Meyer, 1794) are recognized. The difference between the subspecies are related to slight differences in size and plumage. Although the limpkin is the only extant species in the family today, several fossils of extinct Aramidae are known from across the Americas. The earliest known species, Aramus paludigrus, is dated to the middle Miocene, while the oldest supposed members of the family, Aminornis and Loncornis, have been found in early Oligocene deposits in Argentina, although whether these are indeed related is not certain; in fact, Loncornis seems to be a misidentified mammal bone. Another Oligocene fossil from Europe, Parvigrus pohli (family Parvigruidae), has been described as a mosaic of the features shared by the limpkins and the cranes. It shares many morphological features with the cranes and limpkins, but also was much smaller than either group, and was more rail-like in its proportions. In the paper describing the fossil, Gerald Mayr suggested that it was similar to the stem species of the grues (the cranes and limpkins), and that the limpkins evolved massively long bills as a result of the specialisation to feeding on snails. In contrast, the cranes evolved into long-legged forms to walk and probe on open grasslands. Description The limpkin is a somewhat large bird, long, with a wingspan of . Body mass ranges from , averaging . The males are slightly larger than the females in size, but no difference in plumage is seen. Its plumage is drab—dark brown with an olive luster above. The feathers of the head, neck, wing coverts, and much of the back and underparts (except the rear) are marked with white, making the body look streaked and the head and neck light gray. It has long, dark-gray legs and a long neck. Its bill is long, heavy, and downcurved, yellowish bill with a darker tip. The bill is slightly open near but not at the end to give it a tweezers-like action in removing snails from their shells, and in many individuals the tip curves slightly to the right, like the apple snails' shells. The white markings are slightly less conspicuous in first-year birds. Its wings are broad and rounded and its tail is short. It is often confused with the immature American white ibis. This bird is easier to hear than see. Its common vocalization is a loud wild wail or scream with some rattling quality, represented as "kwEEEeeer or klAAAar." This call is most often given at night and at dawn and dusk. Other calls include "wooden clicking", clucks, and in alarm, a "piercing bihk, bihk...". Distribution and habitat The limpkin occurs from peninsular Florida (and formerly the Okefenokee Swamp in southern Georgia) and southern Mexico through the Caribbean and Central America to northern Argentina. In South America, it occurs widely east of the Andes; west of them its range extends only to the Equator. It inhabits freshwater marshes and swamps, often with tall reeds, as well as mangroves. In the Caribbean, it also inhabits dry brushland. In Mexico and northern Central America, it occurs at altitudes up to . In Florida, the distribution of apple snails is the best predictor of where limpkins can be found. The limpkin undertakes some localized migrations, although the extent of these is not fully understood. In some parts in the northern part of the range, females (and a few males) leave the breeding areas at the end of summer, returning at the end of winter. In Brazil, birds breeding in some seasonal marshes leave during the dry season and return again with the rains. Birds may also migrate between Florida and Cuba, as several limpkins on the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas have been reported, but these records may also represent vagrants or postbreeding dispersal. One study in Florida using wing tags found limpkins dispersed up to away from the breeding site. This tendency may explain vagrant limpkins seen in other parts of the United States and at sea near the Bahamas. Behavior and ecology Limpkins are active during the day, but also forage at night. Where they are not persecuted, they are also very tame and approachable. Even so, they are usually found near cover. They are not aggressive for the most part, being unconcerned by other species and rarely fighting with members of their own species. Because of their long toes, they can stand on floating water plants. They also swim well, both as adults or as newly hatched chicks, but they seldom do so. They fly strongly, the neck projecting forward and the legs backward, the wings beating shallowly and stiffly, with a jerky upstroke, above the horizontal most of the time. Feeding Limpkins forage primarily in shallow water and on floating vegetation such as water hyacinth and water lettuce. When wading, they seldom go deeper than having half the body underwater, and never are submerged up to the back. They walk slowly with a gait described as "slightly undulating" and "giving the impression of lameness or limping", "high-stepping", or "strolling", looking for food if the water is clear or probing with the bill. They do not associate with other birds in mixed-species feeding flocks, as do some other wading birds, but may forage in small groups with others of their species. The diet of the limpkin is dominated by apple snails (Ampullariidae) of the genus Pomacea. The availability of this one mollusk has a significant effect on the local distribution of the limpkin. Freshwater mussels, including Anodonta cowperiana, Villosa vibex, Elliptio strigosus, E. jayensis, and Uniomerus obesus, as well as other kinds of snails, are a secondary food sources. Less important prey items are insects, frogs, lizards, crustaceans (such as crayfish) and worms, as well as seeds. These prey items may be important in periods of drought or flooding when birds may be pushed into less than optimal foraging areas. In one site in Florida, moon snails and mussels were the most important prey items. Two studies, both in Florida, have looked at the percentage composition of the diet of limpkins. One, looking at stomach contents, found 70% Pomacea apple snails, 3% Campeloma, and 27% unidentified mollusc, probably Pomacea. When a limpkin finds an apple snail, it carries it to land or very shallow water and places it in mud, the opening facing up. It deftly removes the operculum or "lid" and extracts the snail, seldom breaking the shell. The extraction takes 10 to 20 seconds. The orange-yellow yolk gland of female snails is usually shaken loose and not eaten. It often leaves piles of empty shells at favored spots. Reproduction and breeding Males have exclusive territories, which can vary in size from . In large, uniform swamps, nesting territories can often be clumped together, in the form of large colonies. These are vigorously defended, with males flying to the territory edges to challenge intruders and passing limpkins being chased out of the territory. Territorial displays between males at boundaries include ritualized charging and wing-flapping. Females may also participate in territorial defense, but usually only against other females or juveniles. Territories may be maintained year-round or abandoned temporarily during the nonbreeding season, usually due to lack of food. Limpkins may be either monogamous, with females joining a male's territory, or serially polyandrous, with two or more females joining a male. With the monogamous pairs, banding studies have shown that a small number of pairs reform the following year (four out of 18 pairs). Nests may be built in a wide variety of places – on the ground, in dense floating vegetation, in bushes, or at any height in trees. They are bulky structures of rushes, sticks, or other materials. Nest building is undertaken by the male initially, which constructs the nest in his territory prior to pair-bond formation. Unpaired females visit a number of territories before settling on a male with which to breed. Males may initially challenge and fight off prospective mates, and may not accept first-year females as mates. Pair-bond formation may take a few weeks. Courtship feeding is part of the bonding process, where males catch and process a snail and then feed it to the female. The clutch consists of three to eight eggs, with five to seven being typical and averaging 5.5, which measure . The egg color is highly variable. Their background color ranges from gray-white through buff to deep olive, and they are marked with light-brown and sometimes purplish-gray blotches and speckles. The eggs are laid daily until the clutch is complete, and incubation is usually delayed until the clutch is completed. Both parents incubate the eggs during the day, but only the female incubates at night. The shift length is variable, but the male incubates for longer during the day. The male remains territorial during incubation, and leaves the clutch to chase off intruders; if this happens, the female returns quickly to the eggs. The incubation period is about 27 days, and all the eggs hatch within 24 hours of each other. The young hatch covered with down, capable of walking, running, and swimming. They follow their parents to a platform of aquatic vegetation, where they are brooded. They are fed by both parents; they reach adult size at 7 weeks and leave their parents at about 16 weeks. Ecology Limpkins are reported to be attacked and eaten by American alligators. Also, adults with serious foot and leg injuries have been reported, suggesting they may have been attacked by turtles while standing on floating vegetation. Their nests are apparently preyed upon by snakes, raccoons, crows, and muskrats. Foraging adults may in times of drought be victims of kleptoparasitism by snail kites, and the attempted theft of apple snails caught by limpkins has also been observed in boat-tailed grackles. Limpkins in Florida were examined for parasites, which included trematodes, nematodes, and biting lice. Two biting lice species were found, Laemobothrion cubense and Rallicola funebris. The trematode Prionosoma serratum was found in the intestines of some birds; this species may enter the bird after first infecting apple snails (this has been shown to be the route of infection for a closely related trematode to infect snail kites). Nematodes Amidostomum acutum and Strongyloides spp. are also ingested and live in the gut. Relationship with humans Many of the limpkin's names across its range are onomatopoeic and reflect the bird's call; for example, carau in Argentina, carrao in Venezuela, and guareáo in Cuba. The species also has a range of common names that refer to its call, for example lamenting bird, or to its supposed gait, crippled bird. The limpkin does not feature much in folklore, although in the Amazon people believe that when the limpkin starts to call, the river will not rise any more. Its call has been used for jungle sound effects in Tarzan films and for the hippogriff in the film Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. References External links Limpkin Bird Sound at Florida Museum of Natural History Gruiformes Wading birds Native birds of the Southeastern United States Birds of the Americas Birds of Hispaniola Birds of the Dominican Republic Birds of Haiti Birds of the Guianas Birds described in 1766 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

262218

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Amend

Bill Amend

William J. C. Amend III (; born September 20, 1962) is an American cartoonist. He is known for his comic strip FoxTrot. Early life Amend was born in Massachusetts and raised in Northern California. He attended high school in Burlingame, California where he was a cartoonist on his school newspaper. Amend is an Eagle Scout in the Boy Scouts of America. He graduated with a degree in physics from Amherst College in 1984. Career After about a month in the animation business, Amend got fired for being unqualified, and decided to pursue a cartooning career and got signed on with Universal Press Syndicate after three years of trying. FoxTrot first appeared on April 10, 1988. On May 21, 1999, Amherst College awarded him an honorary degree as Doctor of Humane Letters. On December 5, 2006, Universal Press Syndicate issued a press release stating that his strip, FoxTrot, would turn into a Sunday-only strip. Amend stated that he wants to continue doing the strip, but at a less hurried pace. This news was followed by several weeks of the characters discussing a "cartoonist" semi-retiring to Sundays only, and what methods he would use to phase out the daily strips. The last daily FoxTrot cartoon was printed on December 30, 2006. Amend also sometimes does guest strips for webcomics such as Scott Kurtz's PvP, Mike Krahulik and Jerry Holkins's Penny Arcade, and Randall Munroe's XKCD. On May 26, 2007, Amend was presented with the Reuben Award for Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year. Personal life Amend made a television appearance on The Screen Savers, which aired October 20, 2003, on the former TechTV. Amend is also an avid World of Warcraft player who plays on the server "Bronzebeard". References External links FoxTrot Amend's comic and blog Short bio at The National Cartoonists Society (with picture) Amherst College alumni People from Burlingame, California People from Northampton, Massachusetts Artists from Kansas City, Missouri Reuben Award winners American comic strip cartoonists Living people 1962 births

262220

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octave%20Cr%C3%A9mazie

Octave Crémazie

Octave Crémazie (April 16, 1827 – January 16, 1879) was a French Canadian poet and bookseller born in Quebec City. Recognized both during and after his lifetime for his patriotic verse and his significant role in the cultural development of Quebec, Crémazie has been called "the father of French Canadian poetry." Octave was the youngest of the four surviving children of Jacques Crémazie and Marie-Anne Miville. From 1836 to 1844, he was a student at the Seminary of Quebec, where the priest John Holmes (American priest) introduced him to the works of the French Romantic writers. Alfred de Musset, Alphonse de Lamartine, and Victor Hugo, in particular, had a profound influence on the future poet. After finishing his studies at the Seminary of Quebec, Crémazie went into business with his brother Joseph, a bookseller. Their shop in Quebec City, the J. et O. Crémazie bookstore, was instrumental in the North American dissemination of works by many Romantic writers. It was also a meeting place for the members of what would become known as Quebec's literary movement of 1860. While still in his early twenties, Crémazie helped found the Institut canadien, an organization devoted to the promotion of French Canadian culture. He would later serve as the organization's president (from 1857 to 1858). Crémazie's first published poems appeared in L'Ami de la religion et de la patrie (edited by his brother Jacques) and other Quebec City newspapers. Recognition for his poetry grew throughout the 1850s. As French-Canadian literature scholar Odette Condemine writes: His nostalgic evocation of the happiness that preceded the Conquest and the miseries that followed roused his compatriots' fervour. "Le vieux soldat canadien" (1855) and "Le Drapeau de Carillon" (1858) were enthusiastically received and won Crémazie his title as "national bard." The longing for a glorious, vanished past and the sense of estrangement from France in Crémazie's work has prompted the critic Gilles Marcotte to describe it as a poetry of exile. Despite the popularity of his bookstore, Octave Crémazie's extravagant taste for foreign commodities led to large debts and trouble with creditors. By 1862, his financial situation had become so dire that he fled to France in secret, leaving the bookstore bankrupt. He lived at different times in Paris, Bordeaux, and Le Havre under the name of Jules Fontaine, poor and isolated despite having secured a modest job and the support of a few French friends. Crémazie's poetic production stopped when he left Quebec. The documents that survive from his later years include his Journal du siège de Paris, a diary detailing the hardship that Parisians and Crémazie himself endured during the siege of the capital in 1870 and 1871. Many of his letters to close friends and family members also survive, including his correspondence with the priest Raymond Casgrain, to whom Crémazie often expressed his ideas about literature. Octave Crémazie died in Le Havre on January 16, 1879. Œuvres complètes, a volume of Crémazie's poems and letters edited by Raymond Casgrain, was published in 1882 by the Beauchemin bookstore in Montreal and the Institut canadien de Québec. The book included the following remarks: "In a word, the publishers wanted this book to stand as the most enduring monument that could be raised to the memory of the most patriotic, and indeed the most hapless, of our poets." A statue depicting a French Canadian soldier stands in Montreal's Saint-Louis Square (Rue de Malines and Saint-Denis) with Crémazie's name across the top and the years 1827–1879 (his years of birth and death). Underneath the soldier are the words: Pour mon drapeau je viens ici mourir (literally: "For my flag I come here to die"). There is also a Montreal metro station named for him on the orange line, located on the boulevard likewise named in his honour. See also List of Quebec authors References References: 1827 births 1879 deaths 19th-century Canadian poets Canadian male poets Writers from Quebec City Canadian poets in French Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) 19th-century Canadian male writers

262221

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pele%20%28deity%29

Pele (deity)

In Hawaiian religion, Pele (pronounced ) is the goddess of volcanoes and fire and the creator of the Hawaiian Islands. Often referred to as "Madame Pele" or "Tūtū Pele" as a sign of respect, she is a well-known deity within Hawaiian mythology and is notable for her contemporary presence and cultural influence as an enduring figure from ancient Hawaii. Epithets of the goddess include Pele-honua-mea ("Pele of the sacred land") and Ka wahine ʻai honua ("The earth-eating woman"). In different stories talking about the goddess Pele, she was born from the female spirit named Haumea. This spirit is important when talking about Hawaiʻi's gods as she descended from Papa, or Earth Mother, and Wakea, Sky Father, both descendants of the supreme beings. Pele is also known as "She who shapes the sacred land," known to be said in ancient Hawaiian chants. The first published stories of Pele were done by William Ellis. Legends Kīlauea is a currently active volcano that is located on the island of Hawaii and is still being extensively studied. Many Hawaiians believe Kilauea to be inhabited by a "family of fire gods," one of the sisters being Pele who is believed to govern Kilauea and is responsible for controlling its lava flows. There are several traditional legends associated with Pele in Hawaiian mythology. In addition to being recognized as the goddess of volcanoes, Pele is also known for her power, passion, jealousy, and capriciousness. She has numerous siblings, including Kāne Milohai, Kamohoalii, Nāmaka, and numerous sisters named Hiiaka, the most famous being Hiiakaikapoliopele (Hiiaka in the bosom of Pele). They are usually considered to be the offspring of Haumea. Pele's siblings include deities of various types of wind, rain, fire, ocean wave forms, and cloud forms. Her home is believed to be the fire pit called Halemaʻumaʻu at the summit caldera of Kīlauea, one of the Earth's most active volcanoes, but her domain encompasses all volcanic activity on the Big Island of Hawaii. Pele shares features similar to other malignant deities inhabiting volcanoes, as in the case of the devil Guayota of Guanche Mythology in Canary Islands (Spain), living on the volcano Teide and was considered by the aboriginal Guanches as responsible for the eruptions of the volcano. Legend told that Pele herself journeyed on her canoe from the island of Tahiti to Hawaiʻi. When on her journey, it was said she tried to create her fires on different islands, but her sister, Nāmaka, was chasing her, wanting to put an end to her. In the end, the two sisters fought each other and Pele was killed. With this happening, her body was destroyed but her spirit lives in Halemaʻumaʻu on Kilauea. They say, "Her body is the lava and steam that comes from the volcano. She can also change form, appearing as a white dog, old woman, or beautiful young woman." In addition to her role as goddess of fire and her strong association with volcanoes, Pele is also regarded as the "goddess of the hula." She is a significant figure in the history of hula because of her sister Hiiaka, who is believed to be the first person to dance hula. As a result of Pele's significance in hula, there have been many hula dances and chants dedicated to her and her family. With hula being dedicated to Pele, the dance is often performed in a way that represents her intense personality and the movement of volcanoes. Expulsion version In one version of the story, Pele is the daughter of Kanehoalani and Haumea in the mystical land of Kuaihelani, a floating free land like Fata Morgana. Kuaihelani was in the region of Kahiki (Kukulu o Kahiki). She stays close to her mother's fireplace with the fire-keeper Lono-makua. Her older sister Nā-maka-o-Kahai, a sea goddess, fears that Pele's ambition would smother the homeland and drives Pele away. Kamohoali'i takes Pele south in a canoe called Honua-i-a-kea, along with her younger sister Hiiaka and with her brothers Kamohoalii, Kane-milo-hai, Kane-apua, arriving at the islets above Hawaii. There Kane-milo-hai is left on Mokupapapa, just a reef, to build it up in fitness for human residence. On Nihoa, 800 feet above the ocean, Pele leaves Kane-apua after her visit to Lehua and after crowning a wreath of kau-no'a. Pele feels sorry for her younger brother and picks him up again. Pele used the divining rod, Pa‘oa, to pick a new home. A group of chants tells of a pursuit by Namakaokahaʻi, who tears Pele apart. Her bones, KaiwioPele, form a hill on Kahikinui, while her spirit escaped to the island of Hawaii. Flood version In another version, Pele comes from a land said to be "close to the clouds," with parents Kane-hoa-lani and Ka-hina-lii, and brothers Ka-moho-alii and Kahuila-o-ka-lani. From her husband Wahieloa (also called Wahialoa) she has a daughter, Laka, and a son Menehune. Pele-kumu-honua entices her husband and Pele travels in search of him. The sea pours from her head over the land of Kanaloa (perhaps the island now known as Kahoolawe) and her brothers say: O the sea, the great sea! Forth bursts the sea: Behold, it bursts on Kanaloa! The sea floods the land, then recedes; this flooding is called Kai a Kahinalii ("The sea of Ka-hina-lii"), as Pele's connection to the sea was passed down from her mother Kahinalii. Pele and Poliʻahu Pele is considered to be a rival of the Hawaiian goddess of snow, Poliʻahu, and her sisters Lilinoe (a goddess of fine rain), Waiau (goddess of Lake Waiau), and Kahoupokane (a kapa-maker whose kapa-making activities create thunder, rain, and lightning). All except Kahoupokane reside on Mauna Kea. The kapa-maker lives on Hualalai. One myth tells that Poliʻahu had come from Mauna Kea with her friends to attend sled races down the grassy hills south of Hamakua. Pele came disguised as a beautiful stranger and was greeted by Poliʻahu. However, Pele became jealously enraged at the goddess of Mauna Kea. She opened the caverns of Mauna Kea and threw fire from them towards Poliʻahu, with the snow goddess fleeing towards the summit. Poliʻahu was finally able to grab her now-burning snow mantle and throw it over the mountain. Earthquakes shook the island as the snow mantle unfolded until it reached the fire fountains, chilling and hardening the lava. The rivers of lava were driven back to Mauna Loa and Kīlauea. Later battles also led to the defeat of Pele and confirmed the supremacy of the snow goddesses in the northern portion of the island, and Pele in the southern portion. Pele, Hiʻiaka, and Lohiʻau In one account of the Pele myths, she is banished from her home in Tahiti for creating hot spots by her older sister, Namakaokahaʻi, who also convinced the rest of her family that Pele would burn them all. Then, Pele travels on the canoe Honuaiakea to find a new home with her brother Kamohoaliʻi. Her mother gave her an egg to take care of and it later hatches into a baby girl whom Pele names Hiʻiaka-i-ka-poli-o-pele (Hiʻiaka in the Bosom of Pele) or Hiʻiaka for short. She is her favorite sister and encouraged her to befriend the people of Puna. However, when Hiʻiaka became best friends with a girl named Hōpoe, Pele became jealous of their friendship. Pele saw Lohiʻau, a chief of Kauaʻi, in a dream, sending Hiʻiaka to bring him to her in forty days or else she would punish them. When Hiʻiaka seeks out Lohiʻau, she discovers he is dead but she calls upon the power of the sorcery goddess Uli to revive him. As Hiʻiaka is on her journey, Pele grows impatient and sends a lava flow to Hōpoe's home before the forty days were up. When Hiʻiaka returns to Hawaiʻi with Lohiʻau, she saw Hōpoe covered in stone and knew Pele was behind this. Hiʻiaka spitefully embraced Lohiʻau in Pele's view, which further angered Pele, who then covered Lohiʻau with lava as well. The sisters saw that their anger led to the death of the two people who meant the most to them, so Pele apologetically brought Lohiʻau back to life and let him decide whom he would choose. Unfortunately for Pele, Lohiʻau ended up choosing Hiʻiaka, yet Pele gave them both her blessing. In another version of the myth, Pele hears the beating of drums and chanting coming from Kauaʻi while she is sleeping and travels there in her spirit form. She disguises herself as a beautiful young woman and meets Lohiʻau in this way. After three days of making love together, Pele goes back to Hawaiʻi and Lohiʻau dies from a broken heart. Modern times Belief in Pele continued after the old religion was officially abolished in 1819. In the summer of 1823 English missionary William Ellis toured the island to determine locations for mission stations. After a long journey to the volcano Kīlauea with little food, Ellis eagerly ate the wild berries he found growing there. The berries of the ōhelo (Vaccinium reticulatum) plant are considered sacred to Pele. Traditionally prayers and offerings to Pele were always made before eating the berries. The volcano crater was an active lava lake, which the natives feared was a sign that Pele was not pleased with the violation. Although wood carvings and thatched temples were easily destroyed, the volcano was a natural monument to the goddess. In December 1824 the High Chiefess Kapiolani descended into Halemaʻumaʻu after reciting a Christian prayer instead of the traditional Hawaiian one to Pele. As it was predicted, she survived and this story was often told by missionaries to show the superiority of their faith. Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892) wrote a poem about the incident in 1892. An urban legend states that Pele herself occasionally warns locals of impending eruptions. Appearing in the form of either a beautiful young woman or an elderly woman with white hair, sometimes accompanied by a small white dog, and always dressed in a red muumuu, Pele is said to walk along the roads near Kīlauea, but will vanish if passersby stop to help her, similar to the Resurrection Mary or vanishing hitchhiker legend. The passerby is then obliged to warn others or suffer misfortune in the next eruption. Another legend, Pele's Curse, states that Pele's wrath will fall on anyone who removes items from her island. Every year numerous small natural items are returned by post to the National Park Service by tourists seeking Pele's forgiveness. It is believed Pele's Curse was invented in the mid-20th century to deter tourist depredation. When businessman George Lycurgus ran a hotel at the rim of Kīlauea, called the Volcano House from 1904 through 1921, he would often "pray" to Pele for the sake of the tourists. Park officials frowned upon his practices of tossing items, such as gin bottles (after drinking their contents), into the crater. William Hyde Rice included an 11-page summary of the legends of Pele in his 1923 collection of Hawaiian legends, a reprint of which is available online from the Bernice P. Bishop Museum's Special Publications section. In 2003 the Volcano Art Center had a special competition for Pele paintings to replace one done in the early 20th century by D. Howard Hitchcock displayed in the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park visitors center. The existing portrait of what looked like a blond Caucasian as the Hawaiian goddess had been criticized by many Native Hawaiians. Over 140 paintings were submitted, and finalists were displayed at sites within the park. The winner of the contest was artist Arthur Johnsen of Puna. This version shows the goddess in shades of red, with her digging staff Pāʻoa in her left hand, and an embryonic form of her sister goddess Hiʻiaka in her right hand. The painting is now on display at the Kilauea Visitor Center. Relatives Pele's other prominent relatives are: Ai-kanaka, friend Ahu-i-maiʻa-pa-kanaloa, brother, name translates to "banana bunch of Kanaloa's field" Haumea (mythology), mother of pele Hiiaka or Hiʻiaka-i-ka-pua-ʻena-ʻena, sister, spirit of the dance, lei maker, healer Hina-alii, mother and takes different forms Ka-maiau, war god, relative to Pele and Hiʻiaka Kā-moho-alii, a shark god and the keeper of the water of life Kane-ʻapua, demigod younger brother Kane-Hekili, spirit of the thunder (a hunchback) Kane-hoa-lani, father and division with fire Kaōhelo, a mortal sister Kapo, a goddess of fertility Ka-poho-i-kahi-ola, spirit of explosions Ke-ō-ahi-kama-kaua, the spirit of lava fountains (a hunchback) Ke-ua-a-ke-pō, spirit of the rain and fire Nāmaka, appeared as a sea goddess or water spirit in pele cycle sister of Pele Tama-ehu, brother, god of salamanders and fire in Tahitian Wahieloa, husband which she fathered sons Laka and Menehune Chants Both of the chants above were performed at Halemaʻumaʻu, where it is said Pele currently resides. Other data Pele shares features similar to other malignant deities inhabiting volcanoes, as in the case of the devil Guayota of Guanche Mythology in Canary Islands (Spain), living on the volcano Teide and was considered by the aboriginal Guanches as responsible for the eruptions of the volcano. In geology Several phenomena connected to volcanism have been named after her, including Pele's hair, Pele's tears, and Limu o Pele (Pele's seaweed). A volcano on the Jovian moon Io is also named Pele. Myths about Pele encode dateable natural events. The chronology of Pele’s journey corresponds with the geological age of the Hawaiian islands. In 2006, one volcanologist suggested the battle between Pele and Hiʻiaka was inspired by geological events around 1500 AD. In popular culture The musician Tori Amos named an album Boys for Pele in her honor. A single lyrical excerpt from the song "Muhammad My Friend" makes the only outright connection, "You've never seen fire until you've seen Pele blow." However, the entire record deals with the ideas usually associated with Pele, such as feminine "fire," or power. Amos claims the title reflects the idea of boys being devoured by Pele, or alternatively, as boys worshiping Pele. Simon Winchester, in his book Krakatoa, stated about the Pele myth: "Like many legends, this old yarn has its basis in fact. The sea attacks volcanoes – the waters and the waves erode the fresh laid rocks. And this is why Pele herself moved, shifting always to the younger and newer volcanoes, and relentlessly away from the older and worn-out islands of the northwest." In 2004, American composer Brian Balmages composed a piece entitled "Pele for Solo Horn and Wind Ensemble" on commission by Jerry Peel, professor of French Horn at the University of Miami Frost School of Music. It was premiered by the University of Miami Wind Ensemble under the direction of Gary Green, with Jerry Peel on Horn. Steven Reineke created a musical composition called "Goddess of Fire" which was inspired by the story and life of Pele. She is referenced in The Backyardigans episode The Legend Of The Volcano Sisters in the song entitled "Huka Pele" In the 1990s a character claiming to be the goddess Pele appeared as a villainess in the DC Comics comic book Superboy. Pele later reappeared in the comic book Wonder Woman where she sought revenge against Wonder Woman for the murder of Kāne Milohai, who in that story was her father, at the hands of the Greek god Zeus. Pele appears on Sabrina, the Teenage Witch in the episode "The Good, the Bad, and the Luau" as Sabrina's cousin, who gives her the final clue to the family secret. This version of Pele has a humorous tendency to unwittingly set things on fire. In the Wildefire book series written by Karsten Knight, Pele is one of many deities that are reincarnated in teenagers along the centuries. Ashline Wilde and her two sisters (Evelyn and Rose) represent the spirit of the goddess (the Flame, the Spark and the Fuse), which was divided in three by the Cloak because of the (self)destructiveness of hers. Pele appears in a 1969 Hawaii Five-0 episode "The Big Kahuna" in which her appearance is faked by a couple of crooks intent on frightening their uncle into selling his property to them. The song Budding Trees by Nahko and Medicine for the People references the Hawaiian goddess Pele. She is a playable Smite (video game) character representing the entire Polynesian pantheon. She is referenced in the song "Israel" by Willow Smith off her self titled album, WILLOW. Pele appears as a recruitable dragon in the game Dragalia Lost during the temporary "Loyalty's Requiem" event. See also Painting of Pele Ti'iti'i, god of fire in Samoan mythology. Mahuika, goddess of fire in Māori mythology. Rūaumoko, god of earthquakes, volcanoes and seasons in Māori mythology. Vulcan, ancient Roman god of fire References External links Mythical Realm: Pele, Goddess of Fire MP3 sample by native speaker Kaʻupena Wong: Legend of Pele, Goddess of Fire Creator goddesses Hawaiian goddesses Arts goddesses Fire goddesses Volcano goddesses

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Devereux%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Essex

Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex

Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, KG (16 September 1541 – 22 September 1576), was an English nobleman and general. From 1573 until his death he fought in Ireland in connection with the Plantations of Ireland, most notably the Rathlin Island massacre. He was the father of Robert, 2nd Earl of Essex, who was Elizabeth I's favourite during her later years. Family Walter Devereux was the eldest son of Sir Richard Devereux, who was created a knight of the Bath on 20 February 1547 and died that same year, in the lifetime of his father, the 1st Viscount Hereford. Walter Devereux's mother was Lady Dorothy Hastings, daughter of the 1st Earl of Huntingdon and Anne Stafford, said to have been a mistress of King Henry VIII. Through his paternal ancestry he was related to the Bourchier family, to which previous earls of Essex had belonged: John Devereux, son of Walter Devereux who died at the Battle of Bosworth, married Cecily Bourchier, sister of Henry Bourchier, 2nd Earl of Essex. Career On his grandfather's death, Devereux became on 27 September 1558 The 2nd Viscount Hereford and 11th Baron Ferrers of Chartley. He was entrusted with joint custody of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1568, and appointed Lord Lieutenant of Staffordshire in 1569 (which he held through the end of his life). Lord Hereford, as he was now, provided signal service in suppressing the Northern Rebellion of 1569, serving as high marshal of the field under The 3rd Earl of Warwick and Lord Clinton. For his zeal in the service of Queen Elizabeth I on this and other occasions, he was made a Knight of the Garter on 17 June 1572 and was created Earl of Essex and Ewe, and Viscount Bourchier, on 4 May 1572. Eager to give proof of "his good devotion to employ himself in the service of her Majesty," Lord Essex, as he was now, offered on certain conditions to subdue or colonise, at his own expense, a portion of the Irish province of Ulster. At that time, Ulster, in the north of Ireland, was completely under the dominion of the O'Neills, led by Sir Brian MacPhelim and Sir Turlough Luineach, and of the Scots led by Sorley Boy MacDonnell. His offer, with certain modifications, was accepted. He set sail for Ireland from Liverpool in August 1573, accompanied by a number of earls, knights and gentlemen, and with a force of about 1,200 men. His enterprise had an inauspicious beginning; a storm dispersed his fleet and drove some of his vessels as far as Cork and the Isle of Man. His forces did not all reach the place of rendezvous till late in the autumn, and he was compelled to entrench himself at Belfast for the winter. Here his troops were diminished by sickness, famine and desertion to not much more than 200 men. Intrigues of various sorts and fighting of a guerilla type followed, and Essex had difficulties both with his deputy Fitzwilliam and with the Queen. He was in dire straits, and his offensive movements in the east of Ulster took the form of raids and brutal massacres among the O'Neills. In October 1574, he treacherously captured MacPhelim at a conference and feast in Belfast Castle, and after slaughtering his attendants there, had MacPhelim, his wife and brother executed at Dublin. He arrested William Piers, who had been active in driving the Scots out of Ulster, and accused him of passing military intelligence to Sir Brian mac Phelim O'Neill. Essex ordered Piers's arrest and detention in Carrickfergus Castle in December 1574, but Piers was freed and he successfully executed Sir Brian mac Phelim O'Neill for treason. After encouraging Lord Essex to prepare to attack the Irish chief Sir Turlough Luineach O'Neill, apparently at the instigation of The 1st Earl of Leicester, the Queen suddenly commanded him to "break off his enterprise." However, she left him a certain discretionary power, and he took advantage of that to defeat Sir Turlough Luineach and chastise County Antrim. He also massacred several hundreds of Sorley Boy's following, chiefly women and children, who had hidden in the caves of Rathlin Island in the face of an amphibious assault led by Francis Drake and Sir John Norreys. He returned to England at the end of 1575, resolved "to live henceforth an untroubled life." He was, however, persuaded to accept the offer of the Queen to make him Earl Marshal of Ireland. He arrived in Dublin in September 1576, but fell ill at the banquet given in his honour at Dublin Castle, and died three weeks later, probably of dysentery. It was suspected that he had been poisoned at the behest of Lord Leicester, who married his widow two years later. A post-mortem was carried out and concluded that Essex had died of natural causes (Alice Draycott, daughter of the prominent judge Henry Draycott who drank from the same cup at the banquet, also died soon afterwards). He was succeeded in the Earldom of Essex by his son Robert. Marriage and issue In 1561 or 1562, Lord Hereford, as he was at the time, married Lettice Knollys, daughter of Sir Francis Knollys and Catherine Carey. Lord and Lady Hereford, later Earl and Countess of Essex, had the following children: Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex. Married Frances Walsingham Sir Walter Devereux. Married Margaret, daughter of Arthur Dakyns. He was killed at the siege of Rouen in 1591. Penelope Devereux. Married The 3rd Baron Rich Dorothy Devereux. Married The 9th Earl of Northumberland Francis Devereux (died in infancy) See also Betrayal of Clannabuidhe Rathlin Island Massacre Notes References Sources G.E.C (Editor). Complete Baronetage. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984). Volume II, page 249–250, Bourchier; Volume V, page 138, Essex; Volume V, page 140, Essex; Volume V, page 326–327, Ferrers Mosley, Charles (Editor). Burke's Peerage & Barontetage, 106th Edition. (Switzerland: Burkes Peerage Genealogical Books,1999). Volume 1, pages 1004, and 1378 External links Historical, genealogical, and biographical account of the Jolliffe family of Virginia 1652 to 1893 By William Jolliffe (1893) Google Books Family tree of some Devereux, Dudley, Sidney members 1541 births 1576 deaths 16th-century English nobility 1 Walter English generals 11 08 People of the Elizabethan era People of Elizabethan Ireland Knights of the Garter Deaths from dysentery Infectious disease deaths in the Republic of Ireland

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Drapeau

Jean Drapeau

Jean Drapeau, (18 February 1916 – 12 August 1999) was Mayor of Montreal from 1954 to 1957 and 1960 to 1986. Major accomplishments of the Drapeau Administration include the development of the Montreal Metro entirely underground mass transit subway system running on 'whisper quiet' rubber wheels, a successful international exposition Expo 67 as well as the construction of a major performing arts centre, the Place des Arts. Drapeau also secured the hosting of the 1976 Summer Olympics and was instrumental in building the city's iconic Olympic stadium and then world's tallest inclined tower. Drapeau was responsible for securing a Major League Baseball franchise, with the creation of the Montreal Expos in 1969. Drapeau's main legacy is Montreal's attainment of global status under his administration. Early life and career The son of Joseph-Napoléon Drapeau and Alberta (Berthe) Martineau, Jean Drapeau was born in Montreal in 1916. His father, an insurance broker, city councilor and election worker for the Union nationale, introduced him to politics. Jean Drapeau studied law at the Université de Montréal. Drapeau was a protégé of nationalist priest Lionel Groulx in the 1930s and 1940s, and was a member of André Laurendeau's anti-conscription Ligue pour la défense du Canada. In 1942, he ran as a candidate of the nationalist Bloc Populaire, which opposed Canadian conscription during World War II, in a federal by-election (see Second Conscription Crisis). Drapeau lost the election. He was also a Bloc populaire candidate in the 1944 provincial election but was badly defeated in his Montreal constituency. He began his practice as a criminal lawyer in Montreal in 1944. During the Asbestos Strike of 1949, he took on the legal defence of some of the strikers. In 1945, he married Marie-Claire Boucher. They had three sons. Mayor of Montreal Jean Drapeau's profile grew as the result of his role in a public inquiry led by Pacifique Plante into police corruption in the early 1950s. When Camillien Houde retired as mayor of Montreal, Drapeau was well poised to succeed him. Drapeau was elected mayor of Montreal in 1954 at the age of 37, as the candidate of the Civic Action League, on a platform of cleaning up the administration. He ran an exceptionally wide-flung campaign, uniting a large coalition of voters from English-speaking and French-speaking parts of Montreal. Drapeau's charismatic demeanor, accessible style, and his fluency in both English and French (unprecedented for a mayoral candidate) propelled him to such popularity. In 1957, he lost to Sarto Fournier who was backed by the powerful Premier of Quebec Maurice Duplessis, but Drapeau was elected again in the election of 1960 at the helm of his newly formed Civic Party (Parti Civique). He was re-elected without interruption until he retired from political life in 1986. By the end of the decade, Montreal was a virtual one-party state, with Drapeau and his party only facing nominal opposition in City Hall. During Jean Drapeau's tenure as mayor, he initiated the construction of the Montreal Metro mass transit subway system with trains running on whisper quiet rubber wheels, Place des Arts, and Expo 67, the Universal Exposition of 1967. To support the expenditures, Drapeau created the first public lottery in Canada in 1968, which he called simply a "voluntary tax", an idea that would later gain favour and become enlarged by the provincial government by creating Loto-Québec corporation in 1970. The 1970s were busy times for the preparation of the 1976 Summer Olympics. Cost overruns and scandals forced the Quebec government to take over the project eight months before the Games opened. Almost a year after the Games had ended, Quebec Premier René Lévesque appointed a commission to investigate the high cost overruns of the games, led by Quebec supreme court judge Albert Malouf. The inquiry found that Drapeau had made some serious and costly mistakes. The debt taken on by the city under Drapeau, coupled with a crime wave as young upstarts challenged the mafia that controlled the city's underworld helped lead to the Murray-Hill riot, unrest caused by a wildcat strike by the Montreal police over pay on 7 October 1969. Drapeau retired ahead of the 1986 elections. Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney appointed Drapeau to the position of Canadian ambassador to UNESCO in Paris. Despite the nationalism of his youth, Drapeau remained neutral during the 1980 Quebec referendum. In 1967, Drapeau was made a Companion of the Order of Canada and received the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada's gold medal. He was named a Grand Officer of the National Order of Quebec in 1987. After his death in 1999 (at age 83), Drapeau was interred in the Cimetière Notre-Dame-des-Neiges in Montreal. One of the biggest parks in Montreal, Parc Jean-Drapeau, composed of Île Notre-Dame and Ile Sainte-Hélène in the middle of the Saint Lawrence river, site of the universal exposition of 1967, was renamed in his honour, as was the Metro station serving the park. Drapeau was also instrumental in the demolition of the historic Van Horne Mansion on Sherbrooke street; a classic greystone house built in 1869 for John Hamilton, President of the Merchant's Bank of Montreal. The building was controversially torn down by developer David Azrieli in 1973 under the mayoralty of Jean Drapeau, who declared that it was impossible to preserve it for cultural reasons because it was not part of Quebec's culture - Hamilton and Van Horne being Anglophone Quebecers (Hamilton was from Ontario and Van Horne was American). It was replaced by a sixteen-storey concrete tower. The mansion's destruction sparked the creation of the heritage preservation group Save Montreal.[9] Journalist William Weintraub includes the house and its demolition in his 1993 documentary, The Rise and Fall of English Montreal, identifying the significance of the building to the local Anglo community's heritage. Quotations During a public transport strike Drapeau said: "If bus and metro subway train drivers are not at work tomorrow morning, I will personally drive a metro train. If you want to ensure something gets done, the best way is to do it yourself." Drapeau said "The Olympics can no more lose money than a man can have a baby," after announcing the budget for the Montreal Olympic games. Following the Olympics, the city was left with a debt of $1 billion, leading to the Aislin editorial cartoon of a pregnant Drapeau calling Henry Morgentaler. Mayor Drapeau was on a TV show every week where Montrealers could phone and discuss live with Drapeau specific problems a particular citizen were having. Drapeau's detailed knowledge of every street in Montreal was astounding. One caller mentioned a street light not working. Drapeau, on live TV, and without any prior knowledge of the issue raised answered: "Are you talking about the street light on the west side of rue Fabre, precisely the one facing 4429 Fabre near Mont-Royal street?" Drapeau knew every lane and every street by heart of the city. References External links Canadian Encyclopedia entry on Jean Drapeau CBC Archives Drapeau's vision of bringing the Eiffel Tower to Montreal for Expo 67. Jean Drapeau Collection McGill University Library & Archives. 1916 births 1999 deaths Companions of the Order of Canada Grand Officers of the National Order of Quebec Mayors of Montreal Lawyers in Quebec Recipients of the Olympic Order Expo 67 20th-century Canadian lawyers Université de Montréal Faculty of Law alumni Burials at Notre Dame des Neiges Cemetery

262229

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20de%20Buade%20de%20Frontenac

Louis de Buade de Frontenac

Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac et de Palluau (; 22 May 162228 November 1698) was a French soldier, courtier, and Governor General of New France in North America from 1672 to 1682 and from 1689 to his death in 1698. He established a number of forts on the Great Lakes and engaged in a series of battles against the English and the Iroquois. In his first term, he supported the expansion of the fur trade, establishing Fort Frontenac (in what is now Kingston, Ontario) and came into conflict with the other members of the Sovereign Council over its expansion and over the corvées required to build the new forts. In particular, despite the opposition of bishop François de Laval, he supported selling brandy to the aboriginal tribes, which Laval considered a mortal sin. The conflict with the Sovereign Council led to his recall in 1682. His second term was characterised by the defence of Quebec from an English invasion during King William's War, a successful campaign against Iroquois and English settlements that resulted in the elimination of the Iroquois threat against New France and a large expansion of the fur trade using Canadian coureurs des bois. He died before his second recall to France. Early life Frontenac was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, the son of Henri de Buade, colonel in the regiment of Navarre, and Anne Phélypeaux, daughter of Raymond Phélypeaux. The details of his early life are meager, as no trace of the Frontenac papers have been discovered. The de Buades, however, were a family of distinction in the principality of Béarn. Antoine de Buade, seigneur de Frontenac, grandfather of the future governor of New France, attained eminence as a councilor of state under Henri IV; and his children were brought up with the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. Frontenac entered the army at an early age. In 1635 he began his military career and he served under the prince of Orange in Holland, and fought with credit and received many injuries during engagements in the Low Countries and in Italy. He was promoted to the rank of colonel in the regiment of Normandy in 1643, and three years later, after distinguishing himself at the siege of Orbetello, where he had an arm broken, he was made maréchal de camp. In the 17th century, warfare ceased during the winter months, and Frontenac, being a soldier, needed to keep occupied. Like many military officers, Frontenac took residence at the King's court. Such a lavish lifestyle proved to be costly, and his time at the King's court only led him to amass more debt. His growing debt led him to seek an Arrêt du Conseil d'état later in his life in order to protect his properties from his creditors who otherwise would have been able to seize them. His service seems to have been continuous until the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, when he returned to his father's house in Paris and married, without the consent of her parents, Anne de la Grange-Trianon in October 1648. Frontenac courted her because she was set to inherit a large sum of money from her deceased mother and her father upon his death. Anne de la Grange-Trianon's father had remarried and had a second child to ensure that his fortune would not go to his daughter and the son-in-law that he disapproved of. Therefore, when Frontenac's father-in-law died, Frontenac did not receive the money he was hoping for as his wife's father left his fortune to his new wife. The marriage was not a happy one, and after the birth of a son incompatibility of temper led to a separation, the count retiring to his estate on the Indre, where by an extravagant course of living, he became hopelessly in debt. Little is known of his career for the next fifteen years beyond the fact that he held a high position at court, but in 1669, when France sent a contingent to assist the Venetians in the defense of Crete against the Turks, Frontenac was placed in command of the troops on the recommendation of Turenne. In this expedition he won military glory, but his fortune was not improved. In 1664, Frontenac admitted to owing debt of 325,878 livres plus 17,350 livres of interest to his creditors, which was not repaid by 1672 when his property was seized by creditors. Frontenac, however, was offered the position of governor-general of New France which deferred his debts until the end of his governorship. Frontenac was appointed governor and lieutenant general of New France, Acadia, the island of Newfoundland on 6 April 1672 and arrived in Quebec on 7 September that same year. A 17th-century painting of Anne de la Grange-Trianon can be seen today at the Château de Versailles. First term in New France At this period the affairs of New France claimed the unexpected attention of the French court. From the year 1665 the colony had been successfully administered by three men: Daniel de Rémy de Courcelle, the governor, Jean Talon, the intendant, and the Marquis de Tracy, who had been appointed lieutenant general for the French king in America; but a difference of opinion had arisen between the governor and the intendant, and each had demanded the other's recall in the public interest. At this crisis in the administration of New France, Frontenac was appointed to succeed Rémy de Courcelle. From the beginning of Frontenac's term, it was evident that he was prepared to effect a policy of colonial expansion. He was also anxious to inaugurate an era of prosperity for Canada. He exercised an independence of action that did not coincide with the views of his minister Colbert. As governor, Frontenac was the most powerful figure within the colony. Among his most prominent duties as governor, Frontenac maintained control over military matters and foreign affairs. Situated within the context of the French colony throughout the seventeenth century, foreign affairs largely encompassed the relations between French settlers and indigenous peoples. Although the governor was not allowed to intervene in matters handled by the Sovereign Council and the intendant, persons in these formal posts had to respect the governor as the ultimate voice of authority. Such compliance was based on the notion that the governor was the king's representative. The governor was not merely an intermediary or a stand-in. The governor extended the king's authority from France to the North American colony. As one of his first acts as governor, he established his presence as the sovereign delegate of the king by establishing in Canada the three estates – nobles, clergy and people – and convening a colonial Estates General to pledge fealty to him. The arrival of the governor implied that all of the colony's settlers pledge allegiance to the king. Frontenac did not take this lightly. The royal policy, however, was averse to the granting of extensive political rights to the Canadians, and Frontenac's reforms in this direction were disapproved. In relation to the hierarchy of authority within the colonial setting, any check on the governor's power was absent. In Frontenac's case, France's finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who resided in France, could only impose restraints upon the governor's powers. Thus, measures were adopted to curb his ambition by increasing the power of the Sovereign Council and by reviving the office of intendant. Responding to his reduction in the Sovereign Council to a figurehead, he expressed his infuriation by challenging the authority of the intendant, Jacques Duchesnau and demanding that the council refer to him as the "chief and president". Frontenac, was a dominant man, jealous of authority, prepared to exact obedience from all and to yield to none. In the course of events he soon became involved in quarrels with the intendant touching questions of precedence and with the ecclesiastics, one or two of whom ventured to criticize his proceedings. The church in New France had been administered for many years by the religious orders; for the see of Quebec, so long contemplated, had not yet been erected. But three years after the arrival of Frontenac, a former vicar apostolic, François-Xavier de Montmorency-Laval, returned to Quebec as bishop, with a jurisdiction over the whole of New France. The governor found a vigorous opponent in de Montmorency-Laval, who was determined to render the state subordinate to the church. Frontenac, following in this respect in the footsteps of his predecessors, had issued trading licenses which permitted the sale of intoxicants. The bishop, supported by the intendant, tried to suppress this trade and sent an ambassador to France to obtain remedial action. The views of the bishop were upheld and authority was divided. Troubles ensued between the governor and the Sovereign Council, over its expansion and over the corvées required to build the new forts. In particular, despite the opposition of bishop François de Laval, he supported selling brandy to the First Nations, which Laval considered a mortal sin. The king and his minister had to listen to and adjudicate upon the appeals from the contending parties until one incident tried their patience. After the adolescent son of Duchesneau was verbally abused on the street by a follower of Frontenac, Frontenac physically assaulted him with his cane when he deemed his explanation unacceptable and, after negotiation between himself, the intendant and the bishop, an officer of Frontenac detained and imprisoned Duchesneau's son. Under the king's edict of 1679, it was forbidden for a governor to arbitrarily imprison any subjects. Following a deliberation in Versailles, both governor and intendant were recalled to France in the year 1682. During Frontenac's first administration many improvements had been made in the country. The defenses had been strengthened, a fort was built at Cataraqui (now Kingston, Ontario), bearing the governor's name, and conditions of peace had been fairly maintained between the Iroquois on the one hand and the French and their allies, the Ottawas and the Hurons, on the other. Frontenac made his way to Cataraqui to build his post that would facilitate trading with the Iroquois Confederacy. Even though Frontenac was disobeying Colbert's policies, he was able to continuously act in such a way because he represented the king. Throughout his first term, Frontenac was engaging in the fur trade to increase his own fortune and those of his associates. According to La Salle's personal memoir, Frontenac was also trying to secure a monopoly over a large part of the fur trade. The progress of events during the next few years proved that the recall of the governor had been ill-timed. The Iroquois were assuming a threatening attitude towards the inhabitants, and Frontenac's successor, La Barre, was quite incapable of leading an army against such foes. At the end of a year, La Barre was replaced by the Marquis de Denonville, a man of ability and courage, who, though he showed some vigour in marching against the western Iroquois tribes, angered rather than intimidated them, and the massacre of Lachine on 5 August 1689 must be regarded as one of the unhappy results of his administrations. Second term in New France The affairs of the colony were now critical. A man of experience and decision was needed to cope with the difficulties, and Louis XIV, chose Frontenac to represent and uphold the power of France. When on 17 October 1689, Frontenac arrived in Quebec as governor for the second time, he received an enthusiastic welcome, and confidence was at once restored in the public mind. Quebec was not long to enjoy peace. Frontenac's return to New France during the Nine Years' War offered him an opportunity to display his military capabilities against England in North America. Despite the tensions created during his first term as governor-general, Frontenac was still unwilling to share power with the Sovereign Council and continued to profit from the Canadian fur trade. In January 1690, Frontenac approved the use of raiding parties composed of French and Indigenous raiders to attack English border settlements. These parties raided the towns of Schenectady and Salmon Falls and murdered English colonists, but spared the Iroquois. The raids were intended to deter the English from forming an alliance with the Iroquois, but instead united the English colonies against New France. On October 16, 1690, several New England ships under the command of Sir William Phips, governor of Massachusetts, appeared off the Island of Orléans, and an officer was sent ashore to demand the surrender of the fort. Frontenac, bold and fearless, responded with the famous words: "Non, je n'ai point de réponse à faire à votre général que par la bouche de mes canons et de mes fusils." ("No, I have no reply to make to your general other than from the mouths of my cannons and muskets."). Frontenac completely repulsed the enemy, who in their hasty retreat left behind a few pieces of artillery on the Beauport shore. The prestige of the governor was increased by this event, and he was prepared to follow up his advantage by an attack on Boston from the sea, but his resources were inadequate. New France now rejoiced in a brief respite from her enemies, and during the interval Frontenac paid some attention to the social life of the colony and encouraged the revival of drama at the Chateau St-Louis. New France had been under intermittent attack throughout the 17th century. The people, however, were not subdued and for two years after the Phips attack, petty warfare was maintained. The sufferings of the colony, infested by war parties, were extreme. The fur trade, which formed its only resource for subsistence, was completely cut off, and a great accumulation of furs remained in the trading posts of the upper lakes, prevented from descending by the watchful enemy. To meet the threat, he dispatched Jean Baptiste Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes to establish a trading post and fort at Kekionga, present day Fort Wayne, Indiana. At a grand council of the friendly tribes, Frontenac took up a hatchet, brandished it in the air, and sang the war song, his officers following his example. The Christian Indians of the neighboring missions rose and joined them, and so did the Hurons and the Algonquins of Lake Nipissing, while Frontenac led the dance, whooping like the rest. His allies promised war to the death, and several years of conflict followed. After three years of destitution and misery, Frontenac broke the blockade of the Ottawa; the coveted treasure came safely to Montreal, and the colonists hailed him as their father and deliverer. In 1696 Frontenac decided to take the field against the Iroquois, although at this time he was 74 years old. On July 6 he left Lachine at the head of a considerable force for the village of the Onondagas, where he arrived a month later. In the meantime the Iroquois had abandoned their villages, and as pursuit was impracticable, the army commenced its return march on August 10. Frontenac endured the march as well as the youngest soldier, and for his courage and prowess he received the cross of St. Louis. Under Frontenac's leadership, the Canadian militia became increasingly adept at guerrilla warfare and took the war into Iroquois territory and attacked a number of English settlements. After waging a war of attrition between 1690 and 1698, the Iroquois fled the raided territory and negotiated for peace with the French. The result was that the threat of the Iroquois to New France was finally diffused. At the time of his second appointment as governor in 1689, France authorized the importation of enslaved Africans to Quebec from French colonies in the West Indies. Frontenac died on 28 November 1698 at the Chateau St-Louis after a brief illness, deeply mourned by the Canadian people. The faults of the governor were those of temperament. His nature was turbulent, and from his youth he had been used to command, but underlying a rough exterior there was evidence of a kindly heart. He was fearless, resourceful and decisive, and triumphed as few men could have done over the difficulties and dangers of a most critical position. Quebec's most famous building and landmark, the Château Frontenac, is named after him, as is the Kingston Frontenacs ice hockey team. In Ontario, Frontenac Provincial Park near the site of the former Fort Frontenac and Fort Cataraqui (present day Kingston), is also named in his honour. In Québec, Frontenac National Park commemorates his governorship and leadership of Canada during challenging period of war with the English colonies. Honours Many sites and landmarks were named to honour Louis de Buade de Frontenac. They include: Fort de Buade, St. Ignace, Michigan USA Le Château Frontenac, located in Québec City, Québec, Canada Avenue Frontenac, located in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada; Rue Frontenac & Métro Frontenac, located in Montréal, Québec, Canada; Frontenac Street, located in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada; The provincial electoral district of Frontenac, Quebec. Frontenac County, the sites of Fort Frontenac Frontenac, Missouri, a wealthy suburb of St. Louis. Frontenac, Minnesota, an old resort town on the Mississippi. Forward Operating Base Frontenac, Argandab Valley, Afghanistan The Frontenac rose, developed by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, was named in his honour. The Kingston Frontenacs team of the Ontario Hockey League were named in his honour. Frontenac Squadron at the Royal Military College of Canada was named so in his honour. Frontenac School and Frontenac Park in the Windsor Park neighborhood of Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Frontenac Public School and Frontenac Park in Burlington, Ontario, Canada Frontenac Axis: One of the very few outcroppings of the Canadian Shield to extend into the United States; situated at Kingston, Ontario and upper New York State. Frontenac, Kansas, is the second largest city in Crawford County, Kansas. Folklore Frontenac's coat of arms marks the entrance to the Château, part of which lies on the site of his former home. Some claim to have spotted him, dressed in 17th century garb, wandering the halls or floating through the ballroom. See also Notes References Burke, Peter. The Fabrication of Louis XIV. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. Eccles, W. J. Frontenac: The Courtier Governor. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1959. Eccles, W.J. Frontenac: The Courtier Governor. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. Eccles, William John. "Frontenac and New France, 1672–1698." PhD diss., McGill University, 1955. Quinn, Arthur. A New World: An Epic of Colonial America from the Founding of Jamestown to the Fall of Quebec. Boston: Faber & Faber, 1994. External links Association Frontenac-Amériques Chronicle as Governor of Canada at Project Gutenberg Historica’s Heritage Minute video docudrama about “Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac, Governor of New France.” (Flash video) 1622 births 1698 deaths People from Saint-Germain-en-Laye Governors of New France Counts of Frontenac Counts of Palluau People of pre-statehood Michigan Burials at the Cathedral-Basilica of Notre-Dame de Québec Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) De Buade family 17th-century Canadian politicians

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorley%20Boy%20MacDonnell

Sorley Boy MacDonnell

Sorley Boy MacDonnell (Scottish Gaelic: Somhairle Buidhe Mac Domhnaill), also spelt as MacDonald (c. 1505 – 1590), Scoto-Irish chief, was the son of Alexander MacDonnell, lord of Islay and Kintyre (Cantire), and Catherine, daughter of the Lord of Ardnamurchan, both in Scotland. MacDonnell is best known for establishing the MacDonnell clan in Antrim, Ireland, and resisting the campaign of Shane O'Neill and the English crown to expel the clan from Ireland. Sorley Boy's connection to other Irish Catholic lords was complicated, but also culturally and familiarly strong: for example, he married Mary O'Neill the daughter of Conn O'Neill. He is also known in English as Somerled and Somerled of the yellow hair. Clan MacDonnell The MacDonnells of Antrim were a sept of the powerful Clan Donald of the royal Clann Somhairle, (see Lords of the Isles), that the English crown had attempted to cultivate since the early 14th century in its efforts to influence the course of politics in Scotland. At the end of that century an ancestor of Sorley's, John Mór Tanister, had married Margaret Bisset, of the lordship on the Antrim coast known as the Glynns or Glens, which union would eventually lay the basis for Sorley Boy's claim to the lordship of that territory in Ireland. MacDonnell migration to the Glynns and Rathlin Island increased in the early 16th century (by way of swift galleys propelled by oar and sail), after the clan had rejected overtures from an increasingly powerful James IV, King of Scotland. However, the last known lord of the Mac Eoin Bissetts, a supporter of the O'Neills, was slain in battle in 1522, and it is only after this that the MacDonnells somehow emerge as claimants to the lordship. The precise circumstances of this transfer or encroachment have been lost to history, but the English authorities, themselves preparing to claim overlordship in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, still recognised the Bissetts as the lords of the Glynns as late as 1515. The English feared the formation of a fifth column, with the Ulster clans of O'Neill and O'Donnell, which might lay the foundation of a Bruce-style invasion of Ireland, and the clan did spread into the adjacent territories of Clandeboy and the Route. This migration from Scotland was cemented when the king's successor, James V, chose to maintain favourable relations with the rival Clan Campbell, although he did swing around to favour the MacDonnells in the 1530s, restoring certain lands to them in Kintyre and Islay while encouraging their expansion in Ireland. This period of royal favour ended with the defeat in 1539 at the Battle of Belahoe of a combined Irish force (including the MacDonnells) by an English army: Scottish plans for an invasion of Ireland were then put off, while the French invasion of England that King Henry VIII had feared failed to occur. Military Leader Once the invasion crisis had passed, the MacDonnells resisted efforts by the English and Scots governments to drive them from their lands in the Western Isles of Scotland and Ulster in Ireland. Sorley Boy was born at Dunanynie Castle near Ballycastle, County Antrim in Ireland, and came to prominence during the mid-to-late 16th century, when the Dublin administration waged periodic campaigns in the Route. During the first campaign in 1550, Sorley Boy was taken prisoner and confined in Dublin Castle for twelve months, and was finally released in exchange for certain prisoners held by his brother, James, who was leader of the clan. After his release, Sorley Boy received a large ransom upon seizing the constable of Carrickfergus Castle, and went on to subjugate the MacQuillans. This clan was the immediate rival of the MacDonnells in Ireland, dominating the northern portion of Antrim – the Route – with their stronghold at Dunluce Castle, near the mouth of the River Bush. In 1558, the MacDonnell chieftain committed to him the lordship of the Route upon the death of his brother Colla, and Sorley Boy promptly raised a force of troops on the Scottish coast to confront the MacQuillans, former allies of the MacDonell clan. He landed at Marketon Bay in July 1559, where the MacQuillans were strongly posted at the foot of Glenshesk, his camp at Bonamargy was attacked with both suffering heavy losses. Sorley then attacked them at Beal a Faula, driving them south with heavy losses. Several bloody encounters followed, where the MacQuillans were defeated and driven from the Route. Sorley Boy was now too powerful and turbulent to be neglected by Queen Elizabeth and her ministers, who were also being troubled by his great contemporary, Shane O'Neill. For the next twenty years, the history of Ulster consists for the most part of alternating conflict and alliance between MacDonnells and O'Neills, and attempts on the part of the English government to subdue them both. With this object Elizabeth aimed at fomenting the rivalry between the two clans; she came to terms sometimes with the one and sometimes with the other. One event that simplified the situation for the queen was the success in 1560 of the Protestant revolution in Scotland, which largely removed the threat of invasion her father had suffered in 1539. But complications were never wanting in Ulster, owing to the criss-cross of dynastic and political allegiances and betrayals. At this time Shane O'Neill was allied by marriage with the Campbells, the MacDonnell clan's chief rival in Scotland; yet Sorley Boy's wife was a half-sister of the same Shane. Clan Chief Upon Elizabeth's accession in 1559 Sorley Boy had submitted to her authority under Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, then Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, and in return was confirmed in his Irish possessions. In 1562 Shane O'Neill paid his celebrated visit to London, where he obtained recognition by Elizabeth of his claims as head of the O'Neills. But in 1563, Sussex mounted a campaign against O'Neill, in which Sorley Boy played his part. Sussex retired in frustration, and O'Neill entered into a sustained offensive against the MacDonnells, ostensibly in the interests of ridding the English of Scottish interference in Ireland: he defeated Sorley Boy near Coleraine in the summer of 1564, laying waste his territory; in 1565 he invaded the Glynns, destroying all Scottish settlements there, and at the Battle of Glentasie he won a decisive victory, in which James MacDonnell and Sorley Boy were taken prisoner and Dunluce Castle fell into O'Neill's hands. James died soon afterward, but Sorley Boy remained O'Neill's captive until 1567, during which period he seems to have won his captor's confidence. After his unexpected defeat by the O'Donnells in the battle of Farsetmore, O'Neill turned to the MacDonnells for assistance and attended a feast laid on by them at Cushendun, bringing with him out of captivity Sorley Boy and his late brother's widow, Agnes, to secure an alliance with the Scots. In an event which seems to have had the approbation of the lord deputy of Ireland, Henry Sidney, O'Neill was stabbed and murdered by his hosts. Sorley Boy visited Scotland immediately and returned to Marketon Bay with 600 redshanks, in whose presence he swore never to leave Ireland. In 1569, an alliance between the O'Neills and MacDonnells was secured upon the marriage on Rathlin Island of Shane's successor, Turlough Lynagh O'Neill, to the widow Agnes. Sorley Boy spent the next few years in striving to frustrate the schemes of Sir Thomas Smith, and later of the Earl of Essex, for colonising Ulster with English settlers. (See Plantations of Ireland for details). He was willing to come to terms with the government provided his claims to the lands were allowed, but Essex determined to reduce him to unconditional submission. After a retreat into Scotland, Sorley Boy returned and made an unsuccessful attempt on the crown garrison at Carrickfergus. In time, he did come to terms with Smith, who supported his claims to title in the Route on condition that he take up the reformed religion. In 1573, letters of denization were addressed to Sorley Boy from the crown, but Essex frustrated these with the renewal of his plantation scheme; still, Sorley Boy managed to hold his position, when Essex failed in his negotiation with the Scottish regent and the Earl of Argyll of a withdrawal of the Scots from Ulster. Essex then switched tack, having struck a deal with Turlough Lynagh, and defeated Sorley Boy around Castle Toome, where the Bann flows out of Lough Neagh. Essex had to withdraw to Carrickfergus for lack of provisions, but he then ordered a follow-up operation, with the intention of driving the Scots from Ulster. Under the commands of John Norreys and Francis Drake an amphibious strike force proceeded by sea from Carrickfergus to Rathlin Island, where Sorley Boy's children and valuables, together with the families of his principal retainers, had been lodged for safety; and while the chieftain was himself at Ballycastle, within sight of the island, the women and children (perhaps 700) were massacred by the English. Sorley Boy retaliated with a successful raid on Carrickfergus, in which the garrison broke before a highland charge, and managed to partly re-establish his power in the Glynns and the Route. In 1583, taking advantage of Sorley's perceived weakness through the absence of a significant number of MacDonnell warriors, who had been hired by Turlough Lynagh for a campaign in the west, the Mac Quillans made their last great attempt to decisively defeat the MacDonnells and recover the Route. In alliance with Sir Hugh MacPhelim Bacagh O'Neill of Edenduffcarrick (Shane's Castle, Randalstown) and accompanied by two companies of English shot 'sent from the pale' and commanded by the newly appointed Senechel of Clandeboye, Captain Chatterton, the Mac Quillans launched a devastating raid on the northern glens. Sorley assembled a small force which threatened the main camp of the raiders sited on a broad ridge near Slieve na Orra. The cavalry and heavy infantry of the raiders were tricked into charging the small, apparently vulnerable, MacDonnell host across what they believed to be sound ground but what was in fact a deep bog, where they were incapacitated and decisively defeated by the MacDonnells. Hugh Mac Phelim and Chatterton fled, but were hunted down and killed near the summit of Orra while Rory Oge MacQuillan sought refuge on a crannog at Loughgile, where he was killed by a pursuer. This action is called the battle of Slieve-an-aura and has been inaccurately dated to 1559 by a number of sources, following Rev. George Hill's history, The MacDonnells of Antrim. The accurate date has been preserved in the State Papers for Ireland. On surveying the results, Lord Deputy Sidney agreed to a ceasefire, although he supported the claims of the MacQuillans to the Route, and of Sorley Boy's nephews (sons of the widow Agnes) to possession of the Glens – a typical Campbell manoeuvre, effected through their alliance with Turlough Lynagh. At the same time, Sidney forwarded to London Sorley Boy's petition for title, although it sat there without response for years. With fortitude, the MacDonnells managed to strengthen their position through an alliance with Turlough Lynagh, and by a formidable immigration of followers from the Scottish Isles following their decisive victory at Aura. Ambition achieved For some years the politics of eastern Ulster were maintained in a balance. But in 1584 the recently arrived lord deputy of Ireland, Sir John Perrot, led his army into the province in a determined effort to dislodge the Scots. Following an expedition to Scotland in search of reinforcements, Sorley Boy landed at Cushendun in January 1585 with a substantial army, but after initial successes he was driven back to Scotland, where he offered to accept the terms formerly put to him by Sidney; Perrot declined, whereupon Sorley Boy returned and regained possession of Dunluce Castle. Perrot reluctantly opened negotiations with Sorley Boy, sending as his emissary Sir William Warren, whose father Humphrey had been on good terms with Sorley during Sussex's Deputyship. Warren persuaded Sorley to come to terms, and in the summer of 1586 he repaired to Dublin and made submission to Elizabeth's representative. When shown the severed head of his son, which had been nailed above the gate of Dublin Castle, Sorley Boy gave the memorable response, "My son hath many heads". Below is a transcription of the submission to SirJohn Perrot. 1586- SUBMISSION OF SORLEY BOY MACDONALD TO THE LORD DEPUTY PERROT Most honorable Governor, it is and maybe  truly said that there is no unhappiness comparable to his that may say he hath been once in good Estate, and is fallen from it through his own folly ; amongst many others in that case, I may and do reckon myself for none of the least, for being a man born out of this realm, and gotten large possessions in the same, whereupon I lived, though I might claim none by inheritance, I have very inconsiderately presumed to think I might as well hold it as I got it, by strong hand : carried on with this imagination, as one ignorant of Her Majesty's might and force, (and withal ill persuaded by others) I unhappily refused to come in to your Lordship, as the rest of Ulster did, now almost two years past, thinking it might suffice for me upon you- Lordship's repair into those parts to write a letter of some kind of observance unto you, with an offer after a sort to come myself. Also upon such capitulations (as now to my smart I find,) were unmeet for me to make. But your Lordship having no mind as it hath we appeared, to take advantage of my rash oversight, vouchsafed to license the Earl of Tyrone and Sir Edward Moore to send unto me such gracious conditions, as I grieve to think that I refused them, and wish the unadvised letters I wrote to your: Lordship, the haughty words I uttered, and the indiscreet means I then made (to- have men of far better sort than myself to be in pledge for me) were buried up in forgetfulness. I condemn my folly in leaving such men in the Castle of Dunluce, within this Her Highness' land as should say they kept it in the name, or to the use of the King of Scots, a Prince that honom'eth Her Majesty and embraceth her favour. I sorrow for my perseverance in that purpose, whereby I have justly drawn Her Majesty's force, and whet Her Majesty's sword against me, which hath slain my son and most of my people, spoiled me of my goods, and left me with a few distressed, being no way able to stand against Her Majesty's force, wherefore I do prostrate myself here at the foot of Her Majesty's clemency submitting myself wholly thereto, and most humbly praying to be restored, only thereby through your noble favour, that is accustomed as well to pity the humble as to suppress the proud and obstinate. And I do most faithfully promise to depend for ever upon Her Majestv's gracious goodness, according to such conditions as it shall please your most honourable Lordship to afford me on the behalf of Her Highness, whom I pray God long- to preserve. Amen. Your Honour's most humble suppliant, SORLE Mc CONELL (his signature) The name Sorley uses above akin to the modern surname "McConnell" being the Gaelic pronunciation of the name Mac Domhnaill. Having made his submission, Sorley Boy at last obtained a grant to himself and his heirs of the greater part of the Route country, between the rivers Bann and Bush (an area then called the Boys), with certain other lands to the east, and was made constable of Dunluce Castle. A month beforehand, Sorley Boy's nephew had received a grant in similar terms of the greater part of the Glynns. At the same time, in the Treaty of Berwick, a clause was inserted recognizing the right of the Clan MacDonnell to remain in Ireland. Sorley Boy gave no further trouble to the English government, although he did assist survivors of the Spanish Armada to escape Ireland in 1588 (see Girona). He died in 1590 at the very place of his birth, the Castle of Dunanynie, and was buried in the traditional place of the MacDonnells, Bonamargy Friary at Ballycastle. Legacy Prior to the Plantation of Ulster in 1610, Sorley Boy had been the most powerful of the province's Scoto-Irish. Owing to his efforts, successive Tudor and Stuart administrations in England and Scotland were presented with ongoing strategic difficulties in the region of east Ulster and south-west Scotland. During the previous forty years, he had played those difficulties with courage, skill and deception, to the point that MacDonnell claims were largely accepted and the clan's fortunes secured. This period of Irish history throws up few winners, but Sorley Boy can be counted among them. Family By his first wife, Mary, daughter of Conn O'Neill, 1st Earl of Tyrone, their children were: Alaster MacDonnell, Killed in battle in 1585 Donnell MacDonnell James MacDonnell, Died on 13 April 1601 at Dunluce Castle Randal MacDonnell Earl of Antrim d. 10 December 1636 Angus MacDonnell Ludar MacDonnell unknown daughter married a chief of Clan Macnaghten unknown daughter married a chief of Clan McQuillan unknown daughter married Cormack O'Neill unknown daughter married Magennis, Lord of Iveagh unknown daughter married Shane O'Neill of Clandeboye In 1588, when he was past the age of eighty years, his second wife, was a daughter of Turlough Luineach O'Neill, a kinswoman of his first wife. Two of his five daughters married members of the O'Neill family. By his first marriage Sorley Boy had several sons (known as the MacSorleys): two were killed, and Randal, who was created earl of Antrim, is the ancestor of the present holder of that title. It was to Randal that King James I renewed the grants of the Route and the Glynns. Citations References See G. Hill, An Historical Account of the Macdonnells of Antrim (London, 1873); Calendar of State Papers: Carew MSS. i., ii., (6 vols., 1867–1873); Donald Gregory, History of the Western Highlands and Isles of Scotland 1493–1625 (London, 1881); John Thomas Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland (Dublin, 1865). Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors 3 vols. (London, 1885–1890). John O'Donovan (ed.) Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (1851). Colm Lennon Sixteenth Century Ireland – The Incomplete Conquest (Dublin, 1995) . Nicholas P. Canny Making Ireland British, 1580–1650 (Oxford University Press, 2001) . Steven G. Ellis Tudor Ireland (London, 1985) . Cyril Falls Elizabeth's Irish Wars (1950; reprint London, 1996) . Gerard Anthony Hayes McCoy Irish Battles (Belfast, 1989) . Dictionary of National Biography 22 vols. (London, 1921–1922). External links Genealogy of Sorley 'Buie' MacDonnel on The Peerage website Library Ireland Sorley Boy biography The Causeway Coastal Route Sorley Boy biography Ballycastle Oxford Index Sorley Boy overview 1500s births 1590 deaths Irish lords Sorley Boy People of Elizabethan Ireland People from Ballycastle, County Antrim

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosthetic%20makeup

Prosthetic makeup

Prosthetic makeup (also called special make-up effects and FX prosthesis) is the process of using prosthetic sculpting, molding and casting techniques to create advanced cosmetic effects. Prosthetic makeup goes back to the beginning of film making with A Trip to the Moon (French: Le Voyage dans la Lune), a 1902 French adventure short film directed by Georges Méliès where the man on the moon effect was accomplished using a combination of makeup and a prosthetic type mask with added pastes. The makeup artist Jack Pierce was another early Hollywood make-up artist, best remembered for creating the iconic makeup worn by Boris Karloff in Frankenstein, his makeup for the Wolfman, and more. Modern prosthetic makeup was revolutionized by John Chambers, whose work can be seen in Planet of the Apes, as well as Dick Smith's work in Little Big Man, Stan Winston in the Terminator series, and Rob Bottin in The Thing. Many of the techniques developed during that period are still regularly used in the field today. Additionally, many of these artists taught and inspired the next generation of Special Effects makeup artists, who in turn developed more advanced techniques for effects makeup, including developing different materials, animatronics and incorporating added computer elements. Technique The process of creating a makeup prosthetic appliance typically begins with concept art, created by the artist or production. Once the actor has been chosen, the effects artist will prepare the actor for the process of taking a mold of the actor's face, head or body part. This process is called lifecasting. Lifecast molds are made from prosthetic alginate or more recently, from skin-safe platinum silicone rubber. This initial mold can be relatively weak but flexible. A hard mother mold, also known as a jacket or matrix, is typically made of plaster or fiberglass which is created over the outside of the initial flexible mold to provide support. This mold is used to cast a copy of that part of the actor, in a hard resin or plaster type material to eventually use as a base for sculpting the prosthetic. This is considered a "positive" or lifecast. Before sculpting the clay prosthetic over the positive, The positive must be prepared by adding "keys" or mold points along the edges of it, which are often added using clay or more plaster or carved into the lifecast, to make sure that the two pieces of the mold will fit together correctly. Often the lifecast will be given an additional border in clay or plaster in order to have an area free of detail and undercuts to add these keys. The entire lifecast with borders and keys included is then molded. This ensures a stable area with built in keys to sculpt the prosthetic over. This also provides the artist an easily duplicated copy, if needed. Multiple copies are typically used to make variations or stages of prosthetics or different prosthetics for the same actor. Lifecasts of full bodies and body parts are also used and reused as the basis for making fake body parts, severed limbs, and various "gore" type effects used in horror films or films where body parts are required. The prosthetic required will be sculpted over the lifecast of that body part to become the design intended. For example, if the desired look is a pig nosed person then the artist would sculpt the pig nose over the actors real nose on the lifecast or positive copy. The edges of the clay should be made as thin as possible, for the clay is a stand-in for what will eventually be the prosthetic piece. Once sculpted, the new addition of the clay sculpted prosthetic part must be molded. Since the positive has been prepared with the additional boarder and keys, it actually becomes part of the prosthetic mold itself. Once molded, and clay removed, new mold cleaned out, the positive is one part of the mold and the new mold is the other side which has the negative of the newly sculpted prosthetic. This gives two or more pieces of a mold - a positive of the face or body part, and one (or more for complex molds) "negative" mold piece(s) with prosthetic sculpted in. To make the new prosthetic, material is cast into the mold cavity (where the clay used to be). The prosthetic material can be foam latex, gelatin, silicone or other similar materials. The prosthetic is cured within the two part mold. The prosthetic is carefully removed and prepared for painting and or application to the actor. Conflict with CGI As the film/television industry continues to grow, so do the capabilities of the technologies behind it. Since the debut of newer technologies, many have feared that CGI (Computer Generated Imagery) will put practical SFX makeup out of business. CGI can be used to accomplish effects that simply aren't possible when working in practical effects. Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis, two experienced SFX artists from Amalgamated Dynamics near L.A., share what they see as the middle ground on the subject. In an interview, they explain that most movies use (out of necessity) a combination of practical effects and CGI. They see CGI as a tool that can be utilized in a good way or a bad way, just like practical effects. Tom Savini (an SFX artist known for his work in Dawn of the Dead and Creepshow) states: "They still use the make-up guys to design the creatures and that’s what they work from. I don’t think you’ll see make-up effects guys hanging out on corners with signs that say: WILL DO EFFECTS FOR FOOD.” Real-world use Moulage is a process in which makeup is used to simulate different wounds and trauma in order to prepare medical, emergency, and military personnel for what they could experience in the field and lessen psychological trauma. Other real world uses are to create real disguises for Government agencies such as the F.B.I., C.I.A., Department of Justice, used to infiltrate possible terrorist groups. Special effects artists can create and apply special effects makeup prosthetics to undercover agents to gather intelligence for combating international terrorism. Disguises let officers and agents move around as another person to complete undercover work without jeopardizing their actual identity. Another real word use of prosthetics is the appearance of wounds to emulate death to be used by agencies such as the police departments to make someone appear as the victim of a murder during " hit or murder for hire " stings. If a suspect hires a hit-man (killer) to murder someone, the police are able to stage a set of pictures or video to make the suspect believe that the "hit" or murder has been carried out. These situations are made to gather evidence on the suspect before the actual crime of murder has been committed. Notable artists Lon Chaney (The Hunchback of Notre Dame, The Phantom of the Opera, London After Midnight) Jack Pierce (Frankenstein (1931), The Mummy (1932), The Wolf Man (1941) John Chambers (Planet of the Apes original film series) Dick Smith (Little Big Man, The Godfather, The Exorcist) Rick Baker (An American Werewolf in London, The Nutty Professor, Men in Black, How the Grinch Stole Christmas, The Wolfman (2010) Tom Savini (Friday the 13th, Dawn of the Dead, Creepshow) Rob Bottin (The Howling, The Thing, Total Recall) Stan Winston (The Terminator, Predator, Jurassic Park) Ve Neill (Beetlejuice, Mrs. Doubtfire, Ed Wood, Edward Scissorhands, Pirates of the Caribbean, The Hunger Games) Michael Westmore (Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Voyager, Star Trek: Enterprise, Raging Bull, Rocky, The Munsters) Gregory Nicotero (The Walking Dead) Howard Berger (The Chronicles of Narnia film series) Matthew W. Mungle (Albert Nobbs, The Butler, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Edward Scissorhands, Bram Stoker’s Dracula) Notable examples Tyra Banks - ABC News: Tyra Banks Experiences Obesity Through Fat Suit - showcased on her eponymous talk show on 4 November 2005 Jennie Bond: Posh Swap: Jennie Bond (makeup process) Nina Bott: fat makeup (before and after; makeup process). Vicki Butler-Henderson: Celebrity Swap. :(Vicki's entire head is covered with prosthetics during the makeup application.) Jim Carrey: How the Grinch Stole Christmas (2000) (Grinch makeup) Samantha Fox: Race Swap and makeup process. Julie Goodyear: Age Swap and makeup application. Tommy Lee Jones: Harvey Dent/Two-Face in Batman Forever. Rebecca Loos: Gender Swap and makeup application. Kelly Lynch: [Mr Magoo] (various disguises, the old lady and makeup application, the balding man). James McAvoy among others in The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Rik Mayall: Drop Dead Fred Melinda Messenger: Celebrity Swap. (The makeup application for Melinda) Jack Nicholson: Jack Napier/The Joker in Batman (1989 film). Ron Perlman: several times in his career, but most notably as Hellboy Brad Pitt: The Curious Case of Benjamin Button Katie Price (a.k.a. Jordan): Jordan Gets Even and makeup application. Linda Robson: Celebrity Swap. (Linda's makeup application) Arnold Schwarzenegger: as iterations of the Terminator in The Terminator and its sequels Terminator 2: Judgment Day and Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines. Carol Smillie: Gender Swap and makeup application. Lea Thompson: A Will Of Their Own; Back To The Future Part II and Back To The Future (including makeup application). See also Make-up artist Special effect Animatronics Facial prosthetic References Special effects Cosmetics Stagecraft Prosthetics

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20Asian%20financial%20crisis

1997 Asian financial crisis

The Asian financial crisis was a period of financial crisis that gripped much of East Asia and Southeast Asia beginning in July 1997 and raised fears of a worldwide economic meltdown due to financial contagion. However, the recovery in 1998–1999 was rapid and worries of a meltdown subsided. The crisis started in Thailand (known in Thailand as the Tom Yam Kung crisis; ) on 2 July, with the financial collapse of the Thai baht after the Thai government was forced to float the baht due to lack of foreign currency to support its currency peg to the U.S. dollar. Capital flight ensued almost immediately, beginning an international chain reaction. At the time, Thailand had acquired a burden of foreign debt. As the crisis spread, most of Southeast Asia and later South Korea and Japan saw slumping currencies, devalued stock markets and other asset prices, and a precipitous rise in private debt. Indonesia, South Korea, and Thailand were the countries most affected by the crisis. Hong Kong, Laos, Malaysia and the Philippines were also hurt by the slump. Brunei, mainland China, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam were less affected, although all suffered from a loss of demand and confidence throughout the region. Japan was also affected, though less significantly. Foreign debt-to-GDP ratios rose from 100% to 167% in the four large Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) economies in 1993–96, then shot up beyond 180% during the worst of the crisis. In South Korea, the ratios rose from 13% to 21% and then as high as 40%, while the other northern newly industrialized countries fared much better. Only in Thailand and South Korea did debt service-to-exports ratios rise. Although most of the governments of Asia had seemingly sound fiscal policies, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) stepped in to initiate a $40 billion program to stabilize the currencies of South Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia, economies particularly hard hit by the crisis. The efforts to stem a global economic crisis did little to stabilize the domestic situation in Indonesia, however. After 30 years in power, Indonesian President Suharto was forced to step down on 21 May 1998 in the wake of widespread rioting that followed sharp price increases caused by a drastic devaluation of the rupiah. The effects of the crisis lingered through 1998. In 1998, growth in the Philippines dropped to virtually zero. Only Singapore and Taiwan proved relatively insulated from the shock, but both suffered serious hits in passing, the former due to its size and geographical location between Malaysia and Indonesia. By 1999, however, analysts saw signs that the economies of Asia were beginning to recover. After the crisis, economies in the region worked toward financial stability and better financial supervision. Until 1999, Asia attracted almost half of the total capital inflow into developing countries. The economies of Southeast Asia in particular maintained high interest rates attractive to foreign investors looking for a high rate of return. As a result, the region's economies received a large inflow of money and experienced a dramatic run-up in asset prices. At the same time, the regional economies of Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and South Korea experienced high growth rates, of 8–12% GDP, in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This achievement was widely acclaimed by financial institutions including IMF and World Bank, and was known as part of the "Asian economic miracle". Credit bubbles and fixed currency exchange rates The causes of the debacle are many and disputed. Thailand's economy developed into an economic bubble fueled by hot money. More and more was required as the size of the bubble grew. The same type of situation happened in Malaysia and Indonesia, which had the added complication of what was called "crony capitalism". The short-term capital flow was expensive and often highly conditioned for quick profit. Development money went in a largely uncontrolled manner to certain people only – not necessarily the best suited or most efficient, but those closest to the centers of power. In the mid-1990s, Thailand, Indonesia and South Korea had large private current account deficits, and the maintenance of fixed exchange rates encouraged external borrowing and led to excessive exposure to foreign exchange risk in both the financial and corporate sectors. In the mid-1990s, a series of external shocks began to change the economic environment. The devaluation of the Chinese renminbi, and the Japanese yen due to the Plaza Accord of 1985, the raising of U.S. interest rates which led to a strong U.S. dollar, and the sharp decline in semiconductor prices, all adversely affected their growth. As the U.S. economy recovered from a recession in the early 1990s, the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank under Alan Greenspan began to raise U.S. interest rates to head off inflation. This made the United States a more attractive investment destination relative to Southeast Asia, which had been attracting hot money flows through high short-term interest rates, and raised the value of the U.S. dollar. For the Southeast Asian nations which had currencies pegged to the U.S. dollar, the higher U.S. dollar caused their own exports to become more expensive and less competitive in the global markets. At the same time, Southeast Asia's export growth slowed dramatically in the spring of 1996, deteriorating their current account position. Some economists have advanced the growing exports of China as a factor contributing to ASEAN nations' export growth slowdown, though these economists maintain the main cause of their crises was excessive real estate speculation. China had begun to compete effectively with other Asian exporters particularly in the 1990s after the implementation of a number of export-oriented reforms. Other economists dispute China's impact, noting that both ASEAN and China experienced simultaneous rapid export growth in the early 1990s. Many economists believe that the Asian crisis was created not by market psychology or technology, but by policies that distorted incentives within the lender–borrower relationship. The resulting large quantities of credit that became available generated a highly leveraged economic climate, and pushed up asset prices to an unsustainable level. These asset prices eventually began to collapse, causing individuals and companies to default on debt obligations. Panic among lenders and withdrawal of credit The resulting panic among lenders led to a large withdrawal of credit from the crisis countries, causing a credit crunch and further bankruptcies. In addition, as foreign investors attempted to withdraw their money, the exchange market was flooded with the currencies of the crisis countries, putting depreciative pressure on their exchange rates. To prevent currency values collapsing, these countries' governments raised domestic interest rates to exceedingly high levels (to help diminish flight of capital by making lending more attractive to investors) and intervened in the exchange market, buying up any excess domestic currency at the fixed exchange rate with foreign reserves. Neither of these policy responses could be sustained for long. Very high interest rates, which can be extremely damaging to a healthy economy, wreaked further havoc on economies in an already fragile state, while the central banks were hemorrhaging foreign reserves, of which they had finite amounts. When it became clear that the tide of capital fleeing these countries was not to be stopped, the authorities ceased defending their fixed exchange rates and allowed their currencies to float. The resulting depreciated value of those currencies meant that foreign currency-denominated liabilities grew substantially in domestic currency terms, causing more bankruptcies and further deepening the crisis. Other economists, including Joseph Stiglitz and Jeffrey Sachs, have downplayed the role of the real economy in the crisis compared to the financial markets. The rapidity with which the crisis happened has prompted Sachs and others to compare it to a classic bank run prompted by a sudden risk shock. Sachs pointed to strict monetary and contractionary fiscal policies implemented by the governments on the advice of the IMF in the wake of the crisis, while Frederic Mishkin points to the role of asymmetric information in the financial markets that led to a "herd mentality" among investors that magnified a small risk in the real economy. The crisis has thus attracted attention from behavioral economists interested in market psychology. Another possible cause of the sudden risk shock may also be attributable to the handover of Hong Kong sovereignty on 1 July 1997. During the 1990s, hot money flew into the Southeast Asia region through financial hubs, especially Hong Kong. The investors were often ignorant of the actual fundamentals or risk profiles of the respective economies, and once the crisis gripped the region, the political uncertainty regarding the future of Hong Kong as an Asian financial centre led some investors to withdraw from Asia altogether. This shrink in investments only worsened the financial conditions in Asia (subsequently leading to the depreciation of the Thai baht on 2 July 1997). Several case studies on the topic of the application of network analysis of a financial system help to explain the interconnectivity of financial markets, as well as the significance of the robustness of hubs (or main nodes). Any negative externalities in the hubs creates a ripple effect through the financial system and the economy (as well as any connected economies) as a whole. The foreign ministers of the 10 ASEAN countries believed that the well co-ordinated manipulation of their currencies was a deliberate attempt to destabilize the ASEAN economies. Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad accused George Soros of ruining Malaysia's economy with "massive currency speculation". Soros claims to have been a buyer of the ringgit during its fall, having sold it short in 1997. At the 30th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting held in Subang Jaya, Malaysia, the foreign ministers issued a joint declaration on 25 July 1997 expressing serious concern and called for further intensification of ASEAN's cooperation to safeguard and promote ASEAN's interest in this regard. Coincidentally, on that same day, the central bankers of most of the affected countries were at the EMEAP (Executive Meeting of East Asia Pacific) meeting in Shanghai, and they failed to make the "New Arrangement to Borrow" operational. A year earlier, the finance ministers of these same countries had attended the 3rd APEC finance ministers meeting in Kyoto, Japan, on 17 March 1996, and according to that joint declaration, they had been unable to double the amounts available under the "General Agreement to Borrow" and the "Emergency Finance Mechanism". IMF role The scope and the severity of the collapses led to an urgent need for outside intervention. Since the countries melting down were among the richest in their region, and in the world, and since hundreds of billions of dollars were at stake, any response to the crisis was likely to be cooperative and international. The International Monetary Fund created a series of bailouts ("rescue packages") for the most-affected economies to enable them to avoid default, tying the packages to currency, banking and financial system reforms. Due to IMF's involvement in the financial crisis, the term IMF Crisis became a way to refer to the Asian Financial Crisis in countries that were affected. Economic reforms The IMF's support was conditional on a series of economic reforms, the "structural adjustment package" (SAP). The SAPs called on crisis-struck nations to reduce government spending and deficits, allow insolvent banks and financial institutions to fail, and aggressively raise interest rates. The reasoning was that these steps would restore confidence in the nations' fiscal solvency, penalize insolvent companies, and protect currency values. Above all, it was stipulated that IMF-funded capital had to be administered rationally in the future, with no favored parties receiving funds by preference. In at least one of the affected countries the restrictions on foreign ownership were greatly reduced. There were to be adequate government controls set up to supervise all financial activities, ones that were to be independent, in theory, of private interest. Insolvent institutions had to be closed, and insolvency itself had to be clearly defined. In addition, financial systems were to become "transparent", that is, provide the kind of reliable financial information used in the West to make sound financial decisions. As countries fell into crisis, many local businesses and governments that had taken out loans in US dollars, which suddenly became much more expensive relative to the local currency which formed their earned income, found themselves unable to pay their creditors. The dynamics of the situation were similar to that of the Latin American debt crisis. The effects of the SAPs were mixed and their impact controversial. Critics, however, noted the contractionary nature of these policies, arguing that in a recession, the traditional Keynesian response was to increase government spending, prop up major companies, and lower interest rates. The reasoning was that by stimulating the economy and staving off recession, governments could restore confidence while preventing economic loss. They pointed out that the U.S. government had pursued expansionary policies, such as lowering interest rates, increasing government spending, and cutting taxes, when the United States itself entered a recession in 2001, and arguably the same in the fiscal and monetary policies during the 2008–2009 Global Financial Crisis. Many commentators in retrospect criticized the IMF for encouraging the developing economies of Asia down the path of "fast-track capitalism", meaning liberalization of the financial sector (elimination of restrictions on capital flows), maintenance of high domestic interest rates to attract portfolio investment and bank capital, and pegging of the national currency to the dollar to reassure foreign investors against currency risk. IMF and high interest rates The conventional high-interest-rate economic wisdom is normally employed by monetary authorities to attain the chain objectives of tightened money supply, discouraged currency speculation, stabilized exchange rate, curbed currency depreciation, and ultimately contained inflation. In the Asian meltdown, highest IMF officials rationalized their prescribed high interest rates as follows: From then IMF First Deputy managing director, Stanley Fischer in 1998: When their governments "approached the IMF, the reserves of Thailand and South Korea were perilously low, and the Indonesian Rupiah was excessively depreciated. Thus, the first order of business was... to restore confidence in the currency. To achieve this, countries have to make it more attractive to hold domestic currency, which in turn, requires increasing interest rates temporarily, even if higher interest costs complicate the situation of weak banks and corporations... Why not operate with lower interest rates and a greater devaluation? This is a relevant tradeoff, but there can be no question that the degree of devaluation in the Asian countries is excessive, both from the viewpoint of the individual countries, and from the viewpoint of the international system. Looking first to the individual country, companies with substantial foreign currency debts, as so many companies in these countries have, stood to suffer far more from… currency (depreciation) than from a temporary rise in domestic interest rates…. Thus, on macroeconomics… monetary policy has to be kept tight to restore confidence in the currency.... From the then IMF managing director Michel Camdessus: To reverse (currency depreciation), countries have to make it more attractive to hold domestic currency, and that means temporarily raising interest rates, even if this (hurts) weak banks and corporations. Countries affected Thailand From 1985 to 1996, Thailand's economy grew at an average of over 9% per year, the highest economic growth rate of any country at the time. Inflation was kept reasonably low within a range of 3.4–5.7%. The baht was pegged at 25 to the U.S. dollar. On 14 and 15 May 1997, the Thai baht was hit by massive speculative attacks. On 30 June 1997, Prime Minister Chavalit Yongchaiyudh said that he would not devalue the baht. However, Thailand lacked the foreign reserves to support the USD–Baht currency peg, and the Thai government was eventually forced to float the Baht, on 2 July 1997, allowing the value of the Baht to be set by the currency market. This caused a chain reaction of events, eventually culminating into a region-wide crisis. Thailand's booming economy came to a halt amid massive layoffs in finance, real estate, and construction that resulted in huge numbers of workers returning to their villages in the countryside and 600,000 foreign workers being sent back to their home countries. The baht devalued swiftly and lost more than half of its value. The baht reached its lowest point of 56 units to the U.S. dollar in January 1998. The Thai stock market dropped 75%. Finance One, the largest Thai finance company until then, collapsed. On 11 August 1997, the IMF unveiled a rescue package for Thailand with more than $17 billion, subject to conditions such as passing laws relating to bankruptcy (reorganizing and restructuring) procedures and establishing strong regulation frameworks for banks and other financial institutions. The IMF approved on 20 August 1997, another bailout package of $2.9 billion. Poverty and inequality increased while employment, wages and social welfare all declined as a result of the crisis. Following the 1997 Asian financial crisis, income in the northeast, the poorest part of the country, rose by 46 percent from 1998 to 2006. Nationwide poverty fell from 21.3 to 11.3 percent. Thailand's Gini coefficient, a measure of income inequality, fell from .525 in 2000 to .499 in 2004 (it had risen from 1996 to 2000) versus 1997 Asian financial crisis. By 2001, Thailand's economy had recovered. The increasing tax revenues allowed the country to balance its budget and repay its debts to the IMF in 2003, four years ahead of schedule. The Thai baht continued to appreciate to 29 Baht to the U.S. dollar in October 2010. Indonesia In June 1997, Indonesia seemed far from crisis. Unlike Thailand, Indonesia had low inflation, a trade surplus of more than $900 million, huge foreign exchange reserves of more than $20 billion, and a good banking sector. However, a large number of Indonesian corporations had been borrowing in U.S. dollars. This practice had worked well for these corporations during the preceding years, as the rupiah had strengthened respective to the dollar; their effective levels of debt and financing costs had decreased as the local currency's value rose. In July 1997, when Thailand floated the baht, Indonesia's monetary authorities widened the rupiah currency trading band from 8% to 12%. As a result, the rupiah suddenly came under severe attack in August. Therefore, on the 14th of the month, the managed floating exchange regime was replaced by a free-floating exchange rate arrangement. The rupiah dropped further due to the shift. The IMF came forward with a rescue package of $23 billion, but the rupiah was sinking further amid fears over corporate debts, massive selling of rupiah, and strong demand for dollars. The rupiah and the Jakarta Stock Exchange touched a historic low in September. Moody's eventually downgraded Indonesia's long-term debt to "junk bond". Although the rupiah crisis began in July and August 1997, it intensified in November when the effects of that summer devaluation showed up on corporate balance sheets. Companies that had borrowed in dollars had to face the higher costs imposed upon them by the rupiah's decline, and many reacted by buying dollars through selling rupiah, undermining the value of the latter further. Before the crisis, the exchange rate between the rupiah and the dollar was roughly 2,600 rupiah to 1 U.S. dollar. The rate plunged to over 11,000 rupiah to 1 U.S. dollar on 9 January 1998, with spot rates over 14,000 during 23–26 January and trading again over 14,000 for about six weeks during June–July 1998. On 31 December 1998, the rate was almost exactly 8,000 to 1 U.S. dollar. Indonesia lost 13.5% of its GDP that year. In February 1998, President Suharto sacked the incumbent Bank Indonesia governor, J. Soedradjad Djiwandono, but this proved insufficient. Amidst widespread rioting in May 1998, Suharto resigned under public pressure and Vice President B. J. Habibie replaced him. As a result of the financial crisis that hit the country, many factors arising from all aspects, including sports broadcasting on Indonesian television, including: ANTV lost their television rights to broadcast the 1998 Formula One World Championship despite their Formula One broadcasting rights contract in Indonesia lasting until 1999; as a result, the 1998 season was not aired on Indonesian television. RCTI finally re-secured the broadcast rights for the season. ANTV also stopped the coverage of 1997-98 Serie A, 1997-98 Bundesliga, and the 1997-98 La Liga, before the end of their respective seasons. However, it did not affect the 1997-98 FA Premier League, as they had already broadcast it up to the end of the season. All television stations have limited broadcast schedules, with an average ending broadcast hour at 11:30 PM or 12:00 AM. Additionally, the Indonesian motorcycle Grand Prix, which was held at Sentul, was dropped from the 1998 Superbike and MotoGP calendars. World Rally Championship also dropped the Rally Indonesia from their 1998 calendar. South Korea The banking sector was burdened with non-performing loans as its large corporations were funding aggressive expansions. During that time, there was a haste to build great conglomerates to compete on the world stage. Many businesses ultimately failed to ensure returns and profitability. The chaebol, South Korean conglomerates, simply absorbed more and more capital investment. Eventually, excess debt led to major failures and takeovers. Amongst other stimuli, the crisis resulted in the bankruptcy of major Korean companies, provoking not only corporation, but also government officials towards corruption. The Hanbo scandal of early 1997 exposed South Koreas economic weaknesses and corruption problems to the international financial community. Later that year, in July, South Korea's third-largest car maker, Kia Motors, asked for emergency loans. The domino effect of collapsing large South Korean companies drove the interest rates up and international investors away. In the wake of the Asian market downturn, Moody's lowered the credit rating of South Korea from A1 to A3, on 28 November 1997, and downgraded again to B2 on 11 December. That contributed to a further decline in South Korean shares since stock markets were already bearish in November. The Seoul stock exchange fell by 4% on 7 November 1997. On 8 November, it plunged by 7%, its biggest one-day drop to that date. And on 24 November, stocks fell a further 7.2% on fears that the IMF would demand tough reforms. In 1998, Hyundai Motor Company took over Kia Motors. Samsung Motors' $5 billion venture was dissolved due to the crisis, and eventually Daewoo Motors was sold to the American company General Motors (GM). The International Monetary Fund (IMF) provided US$58.4 billion as a bailout package. In return, Korea was required to take restructuring measures. The ceiling on foreign investment in Korean companies was raised from 26 percent to 100 percent. In addition, the Korean government started financial sector reform program. Under the program, 787 insolvent financial institutions were closed or merged by June 2003. The number of financial institutions in which foreign investors invested has increased rapidly. Examples include New Bridge Capital's takeover of Korea First Bank. The South Korean won, meanwhile, weakened to more than 1,700 per U.S. dollar from around 800, but later managed to recover. However, like the chaebol, South Korea's government did not escape unscathed. Its national debt-to-GDP ratio more than doubled (approximately 13% to 30%) as a result of the crisis. Philippines In May 1997, the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, the country's central bank, raised interest rates by 1.75 percentage points and again by 2 points on 19 June. Thailand triggered the crisis on 2 July and on 3 July, the Bangko Sentral intervened to defend the peso, raising the overnight rate from 15% to 32% at the onset of the Asian crisis in mid-July 1997. The peso dropped from 26 pesos per dollar at the start of the crisis to 46.50 pesos in early 1998 to 53 pesos as in July 2001. The Philippine GDP contracted by 0.6% during the worst part of the crisis, but grew by 3% by 2001, despite scandals of the administration of Joseph Estrada in 2001, most notably the "jueteng" scandal, causing the PSE Composite Index, the main index of the Philippine Stock Exchange, to fall to 1,000 points from a high of 3,448 points in 1997. The peso's value declined to around 55.75 pesos to the U.S. dollar. Later that year, Estrada was on the verge of impeachment but his allies in the senate voted against continuing the proceedings. This led to popular protests culminating in the "EDSA II Revolution", which effected his resignation and elevated Gloria Macapagal Arroyo to the presidency. Arroyo lessened the crisis in the country. The Philippine peso rose to about 50 pesos by the year's end and traded at around 41 pesos to a dollar in late 2007. The stock market also reached an all-time high in 2007 and the economy was growing by more than 7 percent, its highest in nearly two decades. China The Chinese currency, the renminbi (RMB), had been pegged in 1994 to the U.S. dollar at a ratio of 8.3 RMB to the dollar. Having largely kept itself above the fray throughout 1997–1998, there was heavy speculation in the Western press that China would soon be forced to devalue its currency to protect the competitiveness of its exports vis-a-vis those of the ASEAN nations, whose exports became cheaper relative to China's. However, the RMB's non-convertibility protected its value from currency speculators, and the decision was made to maintain the peg of the currency, thereby improving the country's standing within Asia. The currency peg was partly scrapped in July 2005, rising 2.3% against the dollar, reflecting pressure from the United States. Unlike investments of many of the Southeast Asian nations, almost all of China's foreign investment took the form of factories on the ground rather than securities, which insulated the country from rapid capital flight. While China was unaffected by the crisis compared to Southeast Asia and South Korea, GDP growth slowed sharply in 1998 and 1999, calling attention to structural problems within its economy. In particular, the Asian financial crisis convinced the Chinese government of the need to resolve the issues of its enormous financial weaknesses, such as having too many non-performing loans within its banking system, and relying heavily on trade with the United States. Hong Kong In October 1997, the Hong Kong dollar, which had been pegged at 7.8 to the U.S. dollar since 1983, came under speculative pressure because Hong Kong's inflation rate had been significantly higher than the United States' for years. Monetary authorities spent more than $1 billion to defend the local currency. Since Hong Kong had more than $80 billion in foreign reserves, which is equivalent to 700% of its M1 money supply and 45% of its M3 money supply, the Hong Kong Monetary Authority (effectively the region's central bank) managed to maintain the peg. Stock markets became more and more volatile; between 20 and 23 October the Hang Seng Index dropped 23%. The Hong Kong Monetary Authority then promised to protect the currency. On 23 October 1997, it raised overnight interest rates from 8% to 23%, and at one point to '280%'.The HKMA had recognized that speculators were taking advantage of the city's unique currency-board system, in which overnight rates(HIBOR) automatically increase in proportion to large net sales of the local currency. The rate hike, however, increased downward pressure on the stock market, allowing speculators to profit by short selling shares. The HKMA started buying component shares of the Hang Seng Index in mid-August 1998. The HKMA and Donald Tsang, the then Financial Secretary, declared war on speculators. The Government ended up buying approximately HK$120 billion (US$15 billion) worth of shares in various companies, and became the largest shareholder of some of those companies (e.g., the government owned 10% of HSBC) at the end of August, when hostilities ended with the closing of the August Hang Seng Index futures contract. In 1999, the Government started selling those shares by launching the Tracker Fund of Hong Kong, making a profit of about HK$30 billion (US$4 billion). Malaysia In July 1997, within days of the Thai baht devaluation, the Malaysian ringgit was heavily traded by speculators. The overnight rate jumped from under 8% to over 40%. This led to rating downgrades and a general sell off on the stock and currency markets. By end of 1997, ratings had fallen many notches from investment grade to junk, the KLSE had lost more than 50% from above 1,200 to under 600, and the ringgit had lost 50% of its value, falling from above 2.50 to under 4.57 on (23 January 1998) to the dollar. The then prime minister, Mahathir Mohamad imposed strict capital controls and introduced a 3.80 peg against the U.S. dollar. Malaysian moves involved fixing the local currency to the U.S. dollar, stopping the overseas trade in ringgit currency and other ringgit assets therefore making offshore use of the ringgit invalid, restricting the amount of currency and investments that residents can take abroad, and imposed for foreign portfolio funds, a minimum one-year "stay period" which since has been converted to an exit tax. The decision to make ringgit held abroad invalid has also dried up sources of ringgit held abroad that speculators borrow from to manipulate the ringgit, for example by "selling short". Those who did, had to repurchase the limited ringgit at higher prices, making it unattractive to them. It also fully suspended the trading of CLOB (Central Limit Order Book) counters, indefinitely freezing approximately $4.47 billion worth of shares and affecting 172,000 investors, most of them Singaporeans, which became a political issue between the two countries. In 1998, the output of the real economy declined plunging the country into its first recession for many years. The construction sector contracted 23.5%, manufacturing shrunk 9% and the agriculture sector 5.9%. Overall, the country's gross domestic product plunged 6.2% in 1998. During that year, the ringgit plunged below 4.7 and the KLSE fell below 270 points. In September that year, various defensive measures were announced to overcome the crisis. The principal measure taken were to move the ringgit from a free float to a fixed exchange rate regime. Bank Negara fixed the ringgit at 3.8 to the dollar. Capital controls were imposed while aid offered from the IMF was refused. Various task force agencies were formed. The Corporate Debt Restructuring Committee dealt with corporate loans. Danaharta discounted and bought bad loans from banks to facilitate orderly asset realization. Danamodal recapitalized banks. Growth then settled at a slower but more sustainable pace. The massive current account deficit became a fairly substantial surplus. Banks were better capitalized and NPLs were realised in an orderly way. Small banks were bought out by strong ones. A large number of PLCs were unable to regulate their financial affairs and were delisted. Compared to the 1997 current account, by 2005, Malaysia was estimated to have a $14.06 billion surplus. Asset values however, have not returned to their pre-crisis highs. Foreign investor confidence was still low, partially due to the lack of transparency shown in how the CLOB counters had been dealt with. In 2005 the last of the crisis measures were removed as taken off the fixed exchange system. But unlike the pre-crisis days, it did not appear to be a free float, but a managed float, like the Singapore dollar. Mongolia Mongolia was adversely affected by the Asian financial crisis of 1997–98 and suffered a further loss of income as a result of the Russian crisis in 1999. Economic growth picked up in 1997–99 after stalling in 1996 due to a series of natural disasters and increases in world prices of copper and cashmere. Public revenues and exports collapsed in 1998 and 1999 due to the repercussions of the Asian financial crisis. In August and September 1999, the economy suffered from a temporary Russian ban on exports of oil and oil products. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1997. The international donor community pledged over $300 million per year at the last Consultative Group Meeting, held in Ulaanbaatar in June 1999. Singapore As the financial crisis spread, the economy of Singapore dipped into a short recession. The short duration and milder effect on its economy was credited to the active management by the government. For example, the Monetary Authority of Singapore allowed for a gradual 20% depreciation of the Singapore dollar to cushion and guide the economy to a soft landing. The timing of government programs such as the Interim Upgrading Program and other construction related projects were brought forward. Instead of allowing the labor markets to work, the National Wage Council pre-emptively agreed to Central Provident Fund cuts to lower labor costs, with limited impact on disposable income and local demand. Unlike in Hong Kong, no attempt was made to directly intervene in the capital markets and the Straits Times Index was allowed to drop 60%. In less than a year, the Singaporean economy fully recovered and continued on its growth trajectory. Japan The crisis had also put pressure on Japan, whose economy is particularly prominent in the region. Asian countries usually ran a trade deficit with Japan because its economy was more than twice the size of the rest of Asia together; about 40% of Japan's exports go to Asia. The Japanese yen fell to 147 as mass selling began, but Japan was the world's largest holder of currency reserves at the time, so it was easily defended, and quickly bounced back. A run on the banks was narrowly averted on 26 November 1997 when TV networks decided not to report on long queues that had formed outside banks, before the central bank had ordered that they be let in. The real GDP growth rate slowed dramatically in 1997, from 5% to 1.6%, and even sank into recession in 1998 due to intense competition from cheapened rivals; also in 1998 the government had to bail out several banks. The Asian financial crisis also led to more bankruptcies in Japan. In addition, with South Korea's devalued currency and China's steady gains, many companies complained outright that they could not compete. Another longer-term result was the changing relationship between the United States and Japan, with the United States no longer openly supporting the highly artificial trade environment and exchange rates that governed economic relations between the two countries for almost five decades after World War II. United States The U.S. Treasury was deeply involved with the IMF in finding solutions. The American markets were severely hit. On 27 October 1997, the Dow Jones industrial plunged 554 points or 7.2%, amid ongoing worries about the Asian economies. During the crisis it fell 12%. The crisis led to a drop in consumer and spending confidence (see 27 October 1997 mini-crash). Nevertheless the economy grew at a very robust 4.5% for the entire year, and did very well in 1998 as well. Consequences Asia The crisis had significant macroeconomic-level effects, including sharp reductions in values of currencies, stock markets, and other asset prices of several Asian countries. The nominal U.S. dollar GDP of ASEAN fell by $9.2 billion in 1997 and $218.2 billion (31.7%) in 1998. In South Korea, the $170.9 billion fall in 1998 was equal to 33.1% of the 1997 GDP. Many businesses collapsed, and as a consequence, millions of people fell below the poverty line in 1997–1998. Indonesia, South Korea and Thailand were the countries most affected by the crisis. The above tabulation shows that despite the prompt raising of interest rates to 32% in the Philippines upon the onset of crisis in mid-July 1997, and to 65% in Indonesia upon the intensification of crisis in 1998, their local currencies depreciated just the same and did not perform better than those of South Korea, Thailand, and Malaysia, which countries had their high interest rates set at generally lower than 20% during the Asian crisis. This created grave doubts on the credibility of IMF and the validity of its high-interest-rate prescription to economic crisis. The economic crisis also led to a political upheaval, most notably culminating in the resignations of President Suharto in Indonesia and Prime Minister General Chavalit Yongchaiyudh in Thailand. There was a general rise in anti-Western sentiment, with George Soros and the IMF in particular singled out as targets of criticisms. Heavy U.S. investment in Thailand ended, replaced by mostly European investment, though Japanese investment was sustained. Islamic and other separatist movements intensified in Southeast Asia as central authorities weakened. New regulations weakened the influence of the bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese family-owned businesses that dominate the private sector of Southeast Asia. After the crisis, business relationships were more frequently based on contracts, rather than the trust and family ties of the traditional bamboo network. More long-term consequences included reversal of some gains made in the boom years just preceding the crisis. Nominal U.S. dollar GNP per capita fell 42.3% in Indonesia in 1997, 21.2% in Thailand, 19% in Malaysia, 18.5% in South Korea and 12.5% in the Philippines. Falls in income per capita with purchasing power parity were much smaller: in Indonesia by 15%, Thailand 12%, Malaysia 10%, South Korea 6%, Philippines 3%. In most countries recovery was fast. Between 1999 and 2005 average per capita annual growth was 8.2%, investment growth nearly 9%, foreign direct investment 17.5%. Precrisis levels of income per capita with purchasing power parity were exceeded in 1999 in South Korea, in 2000 in Philippines, in 2002 in Malaysia and Thailand, in 2005 in Indonesia. Within East Asia, the bulk of investment and a significant amount of economic weight shifted from Japan and ASEAN to China and India. The crisis has been intensively analyzed by economists for its breadth, speed, and dynamism; it affected dozens of countries, had a direct impact on the livelihood of millions, happened within the course of a mere few months, and at each stage of the crisis leading economists, in particular the international institutions, seemed a step behind. Perhaps more interesting to economists was the speed with which it ended, leaving most of the developed economies unharmed. These curiosities have prompted an explosion of literature about financial economics and a litany of explanations why the crisis occurred. A number of critiques have been leveled against the conduct of the IMF in the crisis, including one by former World Bank economist Joseph Stiglitz. Politically there were some benefits. In several countries, particularly South Korea and Indonesia, there was renewed push for improved corporate governance. Rampaging inflation weakened the authority of the Suharto regime and led to its toppling in 1998, as well as accelerating East Timor's independence. It is believed that 10,400 people committed suicide in Hong Kong, Japan and South Korea as a result of the crisis. In August 2001, the International Labour Organization arranged the Thirteenth Asian Regional Meeting with 39 member states as a result of the financial crisis. It focused on providing social protection, rights at work and creating new jobs. Outside Asia After the Asian crisis, international investors were reluctant to lend to developing countries, leading to economic slowdowns in developing countries in many parts of the world. The powerful negative shock also sharply reduced the price of oil, which reached a low of about $11 per barrel towards the end of 1998, causing a financial pinch in OPEC nations and other oil exporters. In response to a severe fall in oil prices, the supermajors that emerged in the late-1990s, undertook some major mergers and acquisitions between 1998 and 2002 – often in an effort to improve economies of scale, hedge against oil price volatility, and reduce large cash reserves through reinvestment. The reduction in oil revenue also contributed to the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which in turn caused Long-Term Capital Management in the United States to collapse after losing $4.6 billion in 4 months. A wider collapse in the financial markets was avoided when Alan Greenspan and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York organized a $3.625 billion bailout. Major emerging economies Brazil and Argentina also fell into crisis in the late 1990s (see Argentine debt crisis). The September 11 attacks contributed to major shockwave in developed and developing economies (see Stock market downturn of 2002) The crisis in general was part of a global backlash against the Washington Consensus and institutions such as the IMF and World Bank, which simultaneously became unpopular in developed countries following the rise of the anti-globalization movement in 1999. Four major rounds of world trade talks since the crisis, in Seattle, Doha, Cancún, and Hong Kong, have failed to produce a significant agreement as developing countries have become more assertive, and nations are increasingly turning toward regional or bilateral free trade agreements (FTAs) as an alternative to global institutions. Many nations learned from this, and quickly built up foreign exchange reserves as a hedge against attacks, including Japan, China, South Korea. Pan Asian currency swaps were introduced in the event of another crisis. However, nations such as Brazil, Russia, and India as well as most of East Asia began copying the Japanese model of weakening their currencies, and restructuring their economies so as to create a current account surplus to build large foreign currency reserves. This has led to ever-increasing funding for U.S. treasury bonds, allowing or aiding housing (in 2001–2005) and stock asset bubbles (in 1996–2000) to develop in the United States. See also 1998 Russian financial crisis, partly connected to the 1997 Asian financial crisis Bamboo network General: 1990s Chinese bank restructurings Financial contagion Liquidity crisis Financial crisis of 2007–08 Stock disasters in Hong Kong References Further reading Delhaise Philippe F. (1998) Asia in Crisis : The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems. John Wiley & Sons. Goldstein, Morris. The Asian financial crisis: Causes, cures, and systemic implications (Institute For International Economics, 1998). online Haggard Stephan: The Political Economy of the Asian Financial Crisis (2000) Hollingsworth, David Anthony (2007, rev. 2008) "The Rise, the Fall, and the Recovery of Southeast Asia's Minidragons: How Can Their History Be Lessons We Shall Learn During the Twenty-First Century and Beyond?" Lexington Books. (, 9780739119815) Kaufman, GG., Krueger, TH., Hunter, WC. (1999) The Asian Financial Crisis: Origins, Implications and Solutions. Springer. Khan, Saleheen, Faridul Islam, and Syed Ahmed. (2005) "The Asian crisis: an economic analysis of the causes." Journal of Developing Areas (2005): 169–190. online Muchhala, Bhumika, ed. (2007) Ten Years After: Revisiting the Asian Financial Crisis. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Asia Program. Noland, Markus, Li-gang Liu, Sherman Robinson, and Zhi Wang. (1998) Global Economic Effects of the Asian Currency Devaluations. Policy Analyses in International Economics, no. 56. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics. Pempel, T. J. (1999) The Politics of the Asian Economic Crisis. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Ries, Philippe. (2000) The Asian Storm: Asia's Economic Crisis Examined. (2000) Sharma, Shalendra. (2003): The Asian Financial Crisis: New International Financial Architecture: Crisis, Reform and Recovery (Manchester University Press, 2003) Tecson, Marcelo L. (2005) Puzzlers: Economic Sting (The Case Against IMF, Central Banks, and IMF-Prescribed High Interest Rates) Makati City, Philippines: Raiders of the Lost Gold Publication Fengbo Zhang: Opinion on Financial Crisis, 6. Defeating the World Financial Storm China Youth Publishing House (2000). Papers Ngian Kee Jin (March 2000). Coping with the Asian Financial Crisis: The Singapore Experience. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Tiwari, Rajnish (2003). Post-crisis Exchange Rate Regimes in Southeast Asia, Seminar Paper, University of Hamburg. Kilgour, Andrea (1999). The changing economic situation in Vietnam: A product of the Asian crisis? Stiglitz, Joseph (1996). Some Lessons From The East Asian Miracle. The World Bank Research Observer. Weisbrot, Mark (August 2007). Ten Years After: The Lasting Impact of the Asian Financial Crisis. Center for Economic and Policy Research. Tecson, Marcelo L. (2009), "IMF Must Renounce Its Weapon of Mass Destruction: High Interest Rates" (4-part paper on high-interest-rate fallacies and alternatives, emailed to IMF and others on 27 January 2009) External links Is Thailand on the road to recovery, article by Australian photo-journalist John Le Fevre that looks at the effects of the Asian Economic Crisis on Thailand's construction industry Women bear brunt of crisis, article by Australian photo-journalist John Le Fevre examining the effects of the Asian Economic Crisis on Asia's female workforce The Crash (transcript only), from the PBS series Frontline External links Impact on Indonesia from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives Congressional Research Service report for US Congress Asia's Financial Sector: 12 Things to Know Asian Development Bank 1990s economic history Asian Financial Crisis, 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, 1997 1997 in Thailand Economic history of Japan Economic history of Malaysia Economic history of South Korea Economic history of the People's Republic of China Economic history of the Philippines Economic history of Asia Economy of Indonesia Economy of Singapore Economy of South Korea Economic history of Thailand Finance in China Finance in Hong Kong History of Hong Kong Economic history of Singapore New Order (Indonesia) Stock market crashes 1997 in Japan Asian financial crisis

262236

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Esprit%20Radisson

Pierre-Esprit Radisson

Pierre-Esprit Radisson (1636/1640–1710) was a French fur trader and explorer in New France. He is often linked to his brother-in-law Médard des Groseilliers. The decision of Radisson and Groseilliers to enter the English service led to the formation of the Hudson's Bay Company. His career was particularly notable for its repeated transitions between serving Britain and France. There is no image of him other than that provided in his writings and those of the people who encountered him in New France, in Paris on the fringes of the court, on remote Hudson Bay, and in late Stuart London. Radisson should be considered in multiple contexts; for his achievement as a narrator of his own life, the range of his explorations, his experiences among the Indigenous peoples, and his social formation, both as a man of the early modern period for whom personal honour was an important value and as a working trader participating in the mercantile projects of the era. Radisson's life and writings have been interpreted from many different perspectives. Many French Canadians until the twentieth century accepted the verdict of his French contemporaries that he was a traitor to France. Early life Birth and emigration to New France Pierre-Esprit Radisson's birthplace is unclear, but was likely in France's lower Rhône region near the town Avignon. In a 1697 affidavit and a 1698 petition he reported his age as 61 and 62, respectively, suggesting birth in 1636. Yet a 1681 census in New France, Canada, reported his age as 41, suggesting birth in 1640. This coheres with baptismal records from Carpentras, a city near Avignon, that concern Radisson's father, Pierre-Esprit Radisson Sr. Radisson would trace his family, the Hayet-Radissons, to the town St. Malo, whereas records suggest either Paris or Avignon. According to Radisson, he emigrated from France to Canada on 24 May 1651. He may have arrived with his two sisters, Élisabeth and Françoise. They may also have been accompanied by their maternal half-sister Marguerite Hayet, who would eventually marry Radisson's later fur-trading partner, Médard Chouart des Groseilliers. By sometime in 1651, these three women were living together in Trois-Rivières. Capture, adoption, and torture by Iroquois In 1651 or 1652, while hunting fowl near his Trois-Rivières home, Radisson became separated from his hunting group. After discovering its several men killed by a Mohawk raiding party, he was captured by the warriors. Perhaps because of his youth, he received fairly mild treatment and, as he showed interest in Mohawk language and culture, was adopted and assimilated. In the Mohawk custom of adopting young captives, whether indigenous or European, to replace relatives lost to disease or warfare, Radisson joined a local Mohawk family near modern-day Schenectady in New York state. Not long after Radisson's integration, which took about six weeks, while out hunting with three Mohawk, he met an Algonquin man who convinced him to defect and return to Trois-Rivières. Together, they killed Radisson's Mohawk companions, traveled 14 days, and sighted the town, but were captured by patrolling Mohawk. The Mohawk killed the Algonquin and subjected Radisson, along with some 20 prisoners, to ritual torture. His adoptive, Mohawk family advocated for him and materially compensated the bereaved families to spare him execution and temper his torture. As the Iroquois despised cowardice and punished it with death, Radisson's adoptive parents advised him to be brave and yet not too brave, since the Iroquois also sometimes ate the hearts of exceptionally brave men to acquire their courage. Radisson's fingernails were pulled out while he was forced to sing, one finger was cut to the bone, and he watched ten Huron Indians get tortured to death. The next day, an old man burned Radisson, tied to a scaffold, and a young man drove a red-hot dagger through his foot. After three days of similar treatment, the Mohawk brought out Huron prisoners and, using tomahawks, bashed in the heads of some, whereas the rest were adopted by individual families. Once eventually released, the overwhelmed Radisson found that, as he would recall, "all my pains and griefs ceased, not feeling the least pain. [My father] bids me be merry, makes me sing, to wich I consented with all my heart." He felt deep gratitude to his adoptive parents, whom he described as very loving, for saving his life. By Iroquois standards, Radisson's torture had been moderate. Radisson recounts witnessing other torture: "They burned a Frenchwoman; they pulled out her breasts, and took a child out of her belly, with they broyled [broiled] and made the mother eat it, so in short she died". Sometime after his own wounds healed, Radisson spent some five months on a war-party expedition. Departure from Iroquois and missionary work With other Mohawk warriors, Radisson traveled to a trading ship at Fort Orange, then controlled by the Dutch, located in present-day Albany, New York. There, a governor recognized him as a Frenchman and offered to pay for his freedom. But Radisson returned to his Mohawk village. He escaped on 29 October 1653, "at 8 of the clock in the morning". Reaching Fort Orange, he met a Jesuit priest Joseph Antoine Poncet, who made him "a great offer", whereby he returned to Holland in early 1654 under an agreement now unclear but perhaps involving missionary work. Later that year, 1654, Radisson returned to Trois-Rivières in New France. Over the next three years, he would embark on several missionary expeditions. His writings largely ignored this period, so little is known about his whereabouts during it, apart from a documented a deed of sale that he signed in November 1655. In 1657, Radisson accompanied a joint Franco–Huron–Iroquois expedition into Onondaga territory to aid a local Jesuit mission and promote further fur trading. In 1658, under rising tensions with local Iroquois, the French left, ending the expedition. Radisson soon returned to Québec. Career Radisson's biggest influence in Canadian history dates from the period of 1658 to 1684, when he was an active coureur-des-bois, fur trader, and explorer. In August of 1659, Radisson persuaded his brother-in-law, Médard Chouart des Groseilliers, to hire him for his journey around Lake Superior. The year-long trip was planned to collect furs, in order to participate in the ever-lucrative fur trade. In the winter of 1659–1660, Radisson and Des Groseilliers lived just south of Lake Superior in what is now Wisconsin, associating with groups of Huron, Ottawa, Ojibwa and Sioux (Dakota) Indians. When Radisson arrived at an Ojibwa village on the shores of Lake Superior, where he spent much of the winter, he later reported giving three types of presents: to the men, women and children of the village. He gave each of the men "...a kettle, two hatchets [tomahawks], and six knives and a blade for a sword"; the women "...2 and 20 awls, 50 needles, 2 graters [scrapers] of castors, 2 ivory combs and 2 wooden ones, with red painte [vermilion], 6 looking-glasses of tin"; and to the children "...brasse rings, of small bells, and rasades [beads] of divers colors...". American historian Bruce White wrote that Radission and Des Groseilliers did not entirely understand Ojibwa society, as the kettles were typically used much more by the women for cooking than by the men. Giving paint and make-up only to women overlooked the fact that Ojibwa men used make-up and painted their faces just as much as Ojibwa women did. But Radisson may have learned that kettles were used prominently by the Huron in their Feast of the Dead, and thought that the Ojibwa men might use them in their own version of that feast. On the other hand, White notes that the two Frenchmen clearly understood some aspects of Ojibwa gender roles very well: the gift of tomahawks for the men acknowledged that Ojibwa men were hunters and warriors, while the gift of awls for the women reflected that Ojibwa women gathered rice, gardened, cooked, fished, built bark houses, and wove mats. Ojibwa women also played important roles in the fur trade. Some married winter partners or traders, establishing relations that gave advantages to their bands. Others used their sexuality as a way of establishing informal relations with the French in order to ensure the continued supply of European goods and prevent the French from trading with other Indians. Radisson reported on visiting one Ojibwa village in the spring of 1660, where there was a welcoming ceremony: "The women throw themselves backward on the ground, thinking to give us tokens of friendship and wellcome [welcome]". Radisson was confused at first by what the action meant, but as the women started to engage in more overtly sexual behavior, he quickly realized what they were offering. Several tribal elders informed Radisson that they did not want him trading with their enemies, the Dakota [Sioux], and that he and Des Groseilliers were free to sleep with the unmarried women of the village on condition that they did not trade with the Dakota. As Radisson's account was written for an English audience, he was vague as to whether he and Des Groseilliers took up this offer. When Radisson and Groseilliers returned to Québec on August 24, 1660 with many furs, the merchants waiting for them were delighted to be able to sail with the pelts to Europe, but the Governor was jealous of their success. In 1659 Groseilliers had met with Governor Pierre de Voyer d'Argenson to gain a year-long permit to explore New France; the governor granted it. Seeing the success of the trip and the number of furs they had brought back, d'Argenson levied high taxes on the men, ostensibly because they had exceeded the terms of their year-long permit by a couple of days. After seeking unsuccessfully in the courts to regain what had been confiscated by the Governor, Radisson and Groseilliers decided to go to Boston in the English Thirteen Colonies for their next explorations. They would seek English financing there to support their expedition. Trade and journeys to Hudson Bay Throughout their 1659–1660 voyage, the French explorers had heard references to a "salt sea" as an area with an abundance of good furs. They determined the reference must be to Hudson Bay and began to seek financing and sea-going ships for their new explorations. They could reach this destination by travel on waters outside the continent, instead of through a number of internal rivers. The first voyage to Hudson Bay was unsuccessful since the winter of that year came early, and they judged their rations on board insufficient to survive it. The pair were forced to return to Boston but were promised two ships and crew for a second attempt the following year. This second attempt was cancelled after one of the ships was destroyed in a storm. The two men were invited to England to meet King Charles II in 1665. There they passed the winter. In the spring, they left for the New World with ship's crew that the king had promised them. The vessel Eaglet, which was carrying Radisson to Hudson's Bay, nearly sank in an Atlantic storm and was forced to turn back to Plymouth, England. In September 1668, landed in the Rupert River region on the shores of James Bay, where Des Groseilliers used his knowledge of frontier living to build dwellings for the crew for wintering over. About 300 Cree Indians came up in the spring of 1669 to trade furs in exchange for European goods. Radisson sought the support of a royal patron to secure a crown monopoly on trade within the Hudson's Bay region. Prince Rupert of the Rhine, the king's first cousin and a war hero on the royalist side during the English Civil War, became that patron. Prince Rupert was not considered to be a good businessman and was not one of the king's closest friends, but he was the only member of the royal family prepared to champion the Radisson–Des Groseilliers project of fur trading at Hudson's Bay, and critical to their getting a royal charter from Charles II. While soliciting financing from the City of London, Radisson and des Groseilliers had the advantages of being the only men who knew how to survive in the North, and who also knew the local languages and customs of the Indians, and the geography. Foundation of the Hudson's Bay Company In 1670, Radisson was back in England and on 2 May received a royal charter giving him and his partners the exclusive rights to the land surrounding Hudson Bay; with this they founded the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC). During the next few years, they made a number of highly profitable trips between England and the Bay region. With the founding of the HBC, Radisson became forced to deal with a European context; there he had to struggle for survival among rival monarchs, competing courtiers, and the changing political and economic world in which they operated. King Charles II in his charter for the Hudson's Bay Company also founded a proprietary colony named Rupert's Land, declaring that the lands adjacent to Hudson's Bay or rivers flowing into Hudson's Bay now belonged to the Hudson's Bay Company. In theory, much of modern Canada than belonged to the Hudson's Bay Company, as Rupert's Land was a vast region. In practice, the company maintained a few trading forts on the sea coasts of northern Ontario and northern Québec, to which they later added forts on the sea coast of northern Manitoba. It was not until the late 18th century that the Hudson's Bay Company showed any interest in moving inland and making good its claims to control Rupert's Land. Both Radisson and Groseilliers operated within the HBC with the support of Prince Rupert and the Company's director Sir John Robinson. Radisson and Groseilliers were successful in having the HBC receive much capital from the City of London in order to fund its operations. In 1672, Radisson married Mary Kirke, the daughter of Sir John Kirke, one of the City investors in the HBC. As anti-French and anti-Catholic sentiment increased in England following discontent expressed in events such as the Bawdy House Riots of 1668, both Prince Rupert and Sir John decreased their support for the men. Although Radisson's reasons for doing so are not fully clear, he left London in 1675 with Grosseiliers to reenter the service of France, leaving his wife behind in England. In French service After leaving Britain, Radisson was unpopular in the royal court. In 1677 he decided to join the navy and to fund Marshal of France, Jean II d'Estrées's expedition in the Franco-Dutch War to conquer the island of Tobago, winning the man's favor. Following his involvement in the war, he borrowed 100 Louis d'or from the Marshal in a failed attempt to pay to arrange his wife's passage from Britain. He also failed to regain a position in the Hudson's Bay Company, as a further result of anti-French prejudice. In 1681 Radisson headed out to found a fort on the Nelson River under a French flag, albeit against the wishes of the French state. He did so as a means of capturing the market, fearing the construction of a British fort on the same river and thus further dominance of the bay by the Hudson's Bay Company. He recruited Grosseilliers the following year to build a more permanent base. In the winter of 1683 he and Groseilliers went to France to deal with their legal problems. (They had seized two English parties in time of peace and paid Québec tax on furs from Hudson Bay from their Nelson River fort, which may not have been part of New France.) Here they found themselves pawns in the events that led up to the Glorious Revolution. The English ambassador, Lord Preston, asked that they be punished. Compromise plans were made to send Radisson back to the Bay to pick up the remaining furs and divide the profits fairly. Lord Preston recruited Radisson back into the English service and Groseilliers returned to Québec. Working for the Hudson's Bay Company In 1684 Radisson sailed for the Hayes River in the vessel Happy Return, where he found Groseilliers' son Jean-Baptiste conducting a brisk trade with the Indians. He recruited Jean-Baptiste into joining HBC service and left for England in September, leaving John Abraham in charge of the fort. (Eight days later two ships belonging to Charles Aubert de La Chesnaye arrived from Québec. Although there was conflict, no blood was shed. The French wintered near the English and returned to Québec with a moderate load of furs.) Radisson's differences with various Hudson’s Bay Company underlings in the 1680s suggests that he was not admired by the English seamen who had to work with him, because of their rooted detestation of the French. In 1685 Radisson was made "Superintendent and Chief Director of the Trade at Port Nelson", where he seems to have accomplished little. In 1687 he made serious charges against the superintendent of York Factory. The HBC rejected the charges and Radisson was removed. Thereafter he lived in England on an HBC pension, which was irregularly paid. He died in 1710. In 1729 the company voted to pay ten pounds to his third wife, "she being ill and in great want." Legacy and honors Radisson wrote his Voyages in 1668 or 1669 in England after a storm prevented him from joining the first expedition into Hudson Bay. The original has been lost but an English translation was found among the papers of Samuel Pepys and is now held in the Bodleian Library. Its reliability as a historical source is contentious. Historian Germaine Warkentin considers Radisson to be primarily a reporter of the historical events he witnessed, and did not believe that he was always reliable. The towns of Radisson, Quebec; Radisson, Saskatchewan and Radisson, Wisconsin; a street and Metro station in Montreal; and the Radisson provincial electoral district in Manitoba, are all named after him. The Radisson Hotels group, starting with the Radisson Hotel in Minneapolis in 1909, is also named after him. The Canadian Coast Guard named after him. Representation in other media American writer Sinclair Lewis wrote several novels about Grand Republic, the seat of the fictitious Radisson County, Minnesota. Sterling North dramatized Radisson's life and adventures in his young adult novel Captured by the Mohawks. Radisson was portrayed by Paul Muni in the 1941 film Hudson's Bay. The CBC Television series Radisson (1957–1958) was based on the explorer's life. Jacques Godin played the character of Radisson. See also Coureur des bois Timeline of Quebec history (1663 to 1759) Pierre Allemand Voyageurs References Sources Also and Further reading External links CBC Television Series "Radisson" (1957–58) Pierre Esprit Radisson papers. 1651. 2 loose-leaf binders (photostat). At the University of Washington Libraries, Special Collections. 1636 births 1710 deaths Explorers of Canada French explorers of North America People of New France French explorers Canadian fur traders Hudson's Bay Company people Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)

262241

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Coape%20Sherbrooke

John Coape Sherbrooke

General Sir John Coape Sherbrooke, (29 April 1764 – 14 February 1830) was a British soldier and colonial administrator. After serving in the British army in Nova Scotia, the Netherlands, India, the Mediterranean (including Sicily), and Spain, he was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia in 1811. During the War of 1812, his policies and victory in the conquest of present-day Maine, renaming it the colony of New Ireland, led to significant prosperity in Nova Scotia. Early life John Coape Sherbrooke was born in Oxton, Nottinghamshire, on 29 April 1764, the third son of the wealthy country squire William Coape and his wife Sarah Sherbrooke. Upon his marriage Sherbrooke's father had taken his wife's surname as his own. Army career Early career Sherbrooke joined the British Army as an ensign in the 4th Regiment of Foot on 7 December 1780. He was promoted to lieutenant on 22 December 1781 and then transferred to the 85th Regiment of Foot when he became a captain on 6 March 1783. The end of the American Revolutionary War brought a number of reductions to the army and this included the disbanding of the 85th, and so on 23 June 1785 Sherbrooke transferred to the 33rd Regiment of Foot which was at the time serving in Halifax, Nova Scotia. He returned to England in 1786. When the French Revolutionary War began in 1793 Sherbrooke was still a captain but was quickly promoted twice so that by the end of May 1794 he was a lieutenant colonel in the 33rd and second in command to Colonel Arthur Wellesley. Under Wellesley he fought in the Flanders Campaign between March 1793 and April 1795, as a part of which he fought at the Battle of Boxtel on 13 September 1794 before participating in the retreat towards north-west Germany at the end of the year. After an attempt to join the West Indies Campaign in October 1795 was aborted due to large storms in the English Channel Sherbrooke and the 33rd were instead sent to serve in India, arriving at Calcutta in February 1797. Sherbrooke was promoted to colonel on 1 January 1798 and as such fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, participating in the final defeat of Tipu Sultan at the Siege of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799. His service in India was cut short when he fell ill with malaria which forced him to return to England, doing so in 1800. Sherbrooke's break in service was exacerbated by the Peace of Amiens in 1802, at which point he went on half pay. The Peace ended in May 1803 with the start of the Napoleonic Wars and Sherbrooke accordingly resumed active service, being given command of the 4th Battalion of the Army of Reserve, a home defence force created to prepare for a French invasion, based at Norman Cross. He was promoted to major general on 1 January 1805 and served under Wellesley in the Hanover Expedition between 8 November and 15 February. In June he was transferred to Sicily where he served as a subordinate to Lieutenant-General Sir John Moore and commanded at Messina; most of the troops (and Moore) were withdrawn from Sicily in October 1807, leaving Sherbrooke in command of British interests on the island. In February he had also became colonel of the Royal Sicilian Regiment. While the court of King Ferdinand urged Sherbrooke to make offensive manoeuvres towards mainland Italy with his troops, he instead began to improve Sicily's defences and prepare for a possible French invasion. He left the island in June 1808, having been superseded by Lieutenant-General Sir John Stuart. Peninsular War Sherbrooke was next given command of 4,000 men to assist Spanish patriots in Cadiz as part of the Peninsular War, in February 1809. The patriots did not want the British to interfere and so his force was redirected to Lisbon where he joined the main British army commanded by Wellesley, soon to become Lord Wellington. He was promoted to lieutenant general on 12 April and was the second-most senior general in the army behind Wellington. He fought at the Second Battle of Porto on 12 May with a formation of men that on 18 June was designated the 1st Division. The same month as the Second Battle of Porto, Sherbrooke became colonel of the 68th Regiment of Foot. With his division Sherbrooke fought at the Battle of Talavera in July where he successfully fought off the attacks of the French infantry but then lost control of three of his brigades in the subsequent charge, leaving a dangerous gap in the British line. At Talavera, Sherbrooke's 1st Division included four brigades: Henry Frederick Campbell's British Guards - 2,045 men, Alan Cameron of Erracht's British regulars - 1,364, Ernst Langwerth's King's German Legion (KGL) - 1,388, and Sigismund von Löw's KGL - 1,167. Early on 28 July 1809, the numerically superior French artillery took the British positions under fire. While in one sector, British units were withdrawn out of sight from the French guns, Sherbrooke's division occupied an exposed position and suffered casualties before gunsmoke hid its position. The main French attack occurred at 3:00 pm when the French divisions of Pierre Belon Lapisse and Horace Sebastiani advanced against the 1st Division. Sherbrooke ordered his infantry not to fire until the French came within and then to charge. These orders were carried out to the letter, causing tremendous casualties and compelling the French to hastily retreat. Apparently, Sherbrooke forgot to warn his officers not to advance too far and all the brigades except Cameron's recklessly rushed after their fleeing enemies. When the disordered Guards and the KGL came up against the intact French second line, it was their turn to take to their heels as the fresh French foot soldiers counterattacked. The day was saved by the appearance of John Randoll Mackenzie's reserve brigade and the 1st Battalion of the 48th Foot. Sherbrooke's routed troops quickly rallied behind the reinforcements and, after an extended exchange of musketry, the French counterattack was defeated. Losses were ghastly on both sides. Sebastiani's division suffered 2,100 casualties out of 8,000 while Lapisse's division lost 1,700 men out of 6,800, including Lapisse killed. In Sherbrooke's division, Langwerth was killed and his brigade reduced to 650 men, Löw's brigade lost 350 men, Cameron's brigade lost 500 men, and the Guards sustained 611 casualties. Mackenzie was killed and his brigade lost 632 men. Sherbrooke commanded the 1st Division through the retreat to Portugal, where he threatened to hang his commissary officer if he did not provide the required food for his division, and for his service at Porto and Talavera was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in September. A recurrence of Sherbrooke's malaria forced him to resign his command on 26 April 1810 and he was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia on 19 August 1811. War of 1812 Sherbrooke arrived at Halifax on 16 October 1811, as military commander of the Provinces of Nova-Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their Dependencies, including the Islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Bermuda. The area of command was referred to as the Halifax Command or Nova Scotia Command. When the War of 1812 began Sherbrooke initially fought a phoney war, allowing trade to continue with Maine to the benefit of British merchants. Having complained at the lack of defences available to protect the colony and that the extant fortifications were dilapidated, he mounted guns at harbour entrances across the colony and placed the militias in a state of readiness to repel attacks. Sherbrooke's tactic of informally continuing trade with the neighbouring American states while still making sure that his own territory was amply protected provided an opportunity for the Atlantic-facing provinces of Canada to enhance their place in international trade; they were able to flourish at a time when other areas were stifled by war. When the Napoleonic Wars ended in April 1814 more troops were made available for North America; Sherbrooke used this opportunity to attack the disputed area of Maine between Passamaquoddy Bay and the Penobscot River, landing an expeditionary force of 2,000 men at Castine that August and proceeding to subdue the area between the Penobscot and St Croix rivers. He renamed the region the royal colony of New Ireland. Sherbrooke was able to collect customs dues while he occupied Castine, and these funds were in later years used to finance the Cambridge Military Library in Halifax and to create Dalhousie College. New Ireland remained under the control of Britain until April 1815, although Sherbrooke himself only stayed there for four weeks, when the Treaty of Ghent restored it to the United States. For his service during the war he was elevated to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath. While the majority of Sherbrooke's tenure as Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia was spent concentrating on the war, he also made a significant effort to increase support for the Church of England, as most of the population were dissenters. While largescale changes were voted down by the Nova Scotia House of Assembly, he provided small sums of money for the Church via taxation and allotted undeveloped land to it for the construction of religious buildings. At the same time Sherbrooke was aware that his support of the Church was not popular and so he held a careful balance between the two religious factions, ensuring for example that religious appointments were taken up by moderates and not zealots. British North America His active defence of the colony during the War of 1812 combined with his proven ability to work competently with the civilian population led to his appointment as Governor General of British North America (fully Captain General and Governor in Chief in and over the Provinces of Lower-Canada, Upper-Canada, Nova Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their several dependencies, Vice-Admiral of the same, Lieutenant-General and Commander of all His Majesty’s Forces in the said Provinces of Lower-Canada & Upper-Canada, Nova-Scotia and New-Brunswick, and their several dependencies, and in the Islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, Cape Breton, and Bermuda, &c. &c. &c) in 1816. His talent as a mediator helped settle disputes between the Francophone and English political factions; he formed a good relationship with the leader of the Francophone faction, Bishop Joseph-Octave Plessis, while at the same time cementing the position of the Chief Justice of Lower Canada Jonathan Sewell despite Plessis' faction having previously impeached him. Similarly, he won the confidence of Louis-Joseph Papineau by providing him with a permanent salary but made sure to not show favour by doing the same for Sewell. Retirement and death Sherbrooke continued to work actively into 1817, concentrating on reforming the colony's public finances, but once again was set back by his failing health. He found that the cold Canadian winters helped bring on recurrences of his malaria, and also suffered a paralytic stroke on 6 February 1818. He handed over his duties to Charles Lennox, 4th Duke of Richmond on 30 July and sailed for home. He reached England in September and spent much time recuperating at the spas of Bath and Cheltenham while living at Calverton in Nottinghamshire. He was promoted to general on 27 May 1825 and died at Calverton on 14 February 1830. Family Sherbrooke married Katherina (died 15 May 1856), the daughter of Reginald Pyndar, rector of Madresfield, on 24 August 1811 at Areley Kings. They had no children. Personality and legacy Sherbrooke was well-known for his short temper and abrasive language, with Wellington noting that he was the most passionate man he had ever met. Henry Edward Bunbury said of him that: While he resided in Nova Scotia, his home was at Birch Cove on Bedford Basin, near Halifax. Named Sherwood, it eventually lent its name to the neighbourhoods of Sherwood Park and Sherwood Heights. The community of Sherbrooke, Nova Scotia also bears his name. Other honorific eponyms are listed below: Geographic locations Nova Scotia: Sherbrooke Nova Scotia: New Ross, formerly known as Sherbrooke Quebec: Sherbrooke Quebec: Rue Sherbrooke, Montreal Buildings Quebec: Sherbrooke Station, Montreal Sherbrooke Martello Tower (1814–1828; four guns), at McNabs Cove, opposite York Redoubt at Halifax harbour. Fort Sherbrooke (Maine) Vessels Sir John Sherbrooke Sir John Sherbrooke Barbados See also Military history of Nova Scotia The Sherbrooke Hussars Citations References Dawson, Joan (2007). The Mapmaker's Legacy: Nineteenth-century Nova Scotia Through Maps. Halifax: Nimbus. Heathcote, T.A. (2010). Wellington's Peninsular War Generals & Their Battles: A Biographical and Historical Dictionary. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword. External links National Assembly biography (in French) 1764 births 1830 deaths British Army generals British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars British Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars British people of the War of 1812 Governors of British North America Governors of the Colony of Nova Scotia People from Newark and Sherwood (district) 33rd Regiment of Foot officers 68th Regiment of Foot officers British military personnel of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Military history of Nova Scotia British Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War

262243

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle%20space

Cycle space

In graph theory, a branch of mathematics, the (binary) cycle space of an undirected graph is the set of its even-degree subgraphs. This set of subgraphs can be described algebraically as a vector space over the two-element finite field. The dimension of this space is the circuit rank of the graph. The same space can also be described in terms from algebraic topology as the first homology group of the graph. Using homology theory, the binary cycle space may be generalized to cycle spaces over arbitrary rings. Definitions Graph theory A spanning subgraph of a given graph G may be defined from any subset S of the edges of G. The subgraph has the same set of vertices as G itself (this is the meaning of the word "spanning") but has the elements of S as its edges. Thus, a graph G with m edges has 2m spanning subgraphs, including G itself as well as the empty graph on the same set of vertices as G. The collection of all spanning subgraphs of a graph G forms the edge space of G. A graph G, or one of its subgraphs, is said to be Eulerian if each of its vertices has an even number of incident edges (this number is called the degree of the vertex). This property is named after Leonhard Euler who proved in 1736, in his work on the Seven Bridges of Königsberg, that a connected graph has a tour that visits each edge exactly once if and only if it is Eulerian. However, an Eulerian subgraph does not need to be connected; for instance, the empty graph, in which all vertices are disconnected from each other, is Eulerian. The cycle space of a graph is the collection of its Eulerian spanning subgraphs. Algebra If one applies any set operation such as union or intersection of sets to two spanning subgraphs of a given graph, the result will again be a subgraph. In this way, the edge space of an arbitrary graph can be interpreted as a Boolean algebra. The cycle space, also, has an algebraic structure, but a more restrictive one. The union or intersection of two Eulerian subgraphs may fail to be Eulerian. However, the symmetric difference of two Eulerian subgraphs (the graph consisting of the edges that belong to exactly one of the two given graphs) is again Eulerian. This follows from the fact that the symmetric difference of two sets with an even number of elements is also even. Applying this fact separately to the neighborhoods of each vertex shows that the symmetric difference operator preserves the property of being Eulerian. A family of sets closed under the symmetric difference operation can be described algebraically as a vector space over the two-element finite field . This field has two elements, 0 and 1, and its addition and multiplication operations can be described as the familiar addition and multiplication of integers, taken modulo 2. A vector space consists of a set of elements together with an addition and scalar multiplication operation satisfying certain properties generalizing the properties of the familiar real vector spaces; for the cycle space, the elements of the vector space are the Eulerian subgraphs, the addition operation is symmetric differencing, multiplication by the scalar 1 is the identity operation, and multiplication by the scalar 0 takes every element to the empty graph, which forms the additive identity element for the cycle space. The edge space is also a vector space over if we use the symmetric difference as addition. As vector spaces, the cycle space and the cut space of the graph (the family of edge sets that span the cuts of the graph) are the orthogonal complements of each other within the edge space. This means that a set of edges in a graph forms a cut if and only if every Eulerian subgraph has an even number of edges in common with , and forms an Eulerian subgraph if and only if every cut has an even number of edges in common with . Although these two spaces are orthogonal complements, some graphs have nonempty subgraphs that belong to both of them. Such a subgraph (an Eulerian cut) exists as part of a graph if and only if has an even number of spanning forests. Topology An undirected graph may be viewed as a simplicial complex with its vertices as zero-dimensional simplices and the edges as one-dimensional simplices. The chain complex of this topological space consists of its edge space and vertex space (the Boolean algebra of sets of vertices), connected by a boundary operator that maps any spanning subgraph (an element of the edge space) to its set of odd-degree vertices (an element of the vertex space). The homology group consists of the elements of the edge space that map to the zero element of the vertex space; these are exactly the Eulerian subgraphs. Its group operation is the symmetric difference operation on Eulerian subgraphs. Replacing in this construction by an arbitrary ring allows the definition of cycle spaces to be extended to cycle spaces with coefficients in the given ring, that form modules over the ring. In particular, the integral cycle space is the space It can be defined in graph theoretic terms by choosing an arbitrary orientation of the graph, and defining an integral cycle of a graph to be an assignment of integers to the edges of (an element of the free abelian group over the edges) with the property that, at each vertex, the sum of the numbers assigned to incoming edges equals the sum of the numbers assigned to outgoing edges. A member of or of (the cycle space modulo ) with the additional property that all of the numbers assigned to the edges are nonzero is called a nowhere-zero flow or a nowhere-zero -flow. Circuit rank As a vector space, the dimension of the cycle space of a graph with vertices, edges, and connected components is . This number can be interpreted topologically as the first Betti number of the graph. In graph theory, it is known as the circuit rank, cyclomatic number, or nullity of the graph. Combining this formula for the rank with the fact that the cycle space is a vector space over the two-element field shows that the total number of elements in the cycle space is exactly . Cycle bases A basis of a vector space is a minimal subset of the elements with the property that all other elements can be written as a linear combination of basis elements. Every basis of a finite-dimensional space has the same number of elements, which equals the dimension of the space. In the case of the cycle space, a basis is a family of exactly Eulerian subgraphs, with the property that every Eulerian subgraph can be written as the symmetric difference of a family of basis elements. Existence By Veblen's theorem, every Eulerian subgraph of a given graph can be decomposed into simple cycles, subgraphs in which all vertices have degree zero or two and in which the degree-two vertices form a connected set. Therefore, it is always possible to find a basis in which the basis elements are themselves all simple cycles. Such a basis is called a cycle basis of the given graph. More strongly, it is always possible to find a basis in which the basis elements are induced cycles or even (in a 3-vertex-connected graph) induced cycles whose removal does not separate the remaining graph. Fundamental and weakly fundamental bases One way of constructing a cycle basis is to form a spanning forest of the graph, and then for each edge that does not belong to the forest, form a cycle consisting of together with the path in the forest connecting the endpoints of . The set of cycles formed in this way are linearly independent (each one contains an edge that does not belong to any of the other cycles) and has the correct size to be a basis, so it necessarily is a basis. A basis formed in this way is called a fundamental cycle basis. If there exists a linear ordering of the cycles in a cycle basis such that each cycle includes at least one edge that is not part of any previous cycle, then the cycle basis is called weakly fundamental. Every fundamental cycle basis is weakly fundamental (for all linear orderings) but not necessarily vice versa. There exist graphs, and cycle bases for those graphs, that are not weakly fundamental. Minimum weight bases If the edges of a graph are given real number weights, the weight of a subgraph may be computed as the sum of the weights of its edges. The minimum weight basis of the cycle space is necessarily a cycle basis, and can be constructed in polynomial time. The minimum weight basis is not always weakly fundamental, and when it is not it is NP-hard to find the weakly fundamental basis with the minimum possible weight. Planar graphs Homology If a planar graph is embedded into the plane, its chain complex of edges and vertices may be embedded into a higher dimensional chain complex that also includes the sets of faces of the graph. The boundary map of this chain complex takes any 2-chain (a set of faces) to the set of edges that belong to an odd number of faces in the 2-chain. The boundary of a 2-chain is necessarily an Eulerian subgraph, and every Eulerian subgraph can be generated in this way from exactly two different 2-chains (each of which is the complement of the other). It follows from this that the set of bounded faces of the embedding forms a cycle basis for the planar graph: removing the unbounded face from this set of cycles reduces the number of ways each Eulerian subgraph can be generated from two to exactly one. Mac Lane's planarity criterion Mac Lane's planarity criterion, named after Saunders Mac Lane, characterizes planar graphs in terms of their cycle spaces and cycle bases. It states that a finite undirected graph is planar if and only if the graph has a cycle basis in which each edge of the graph participates in at most two basis cycles. In a planar graph, a cycle basis formed by the set of bounded faces of an embedding necessarily has this property: each edge participates only in the basis cycles for the two faces it separates. Conversely, if a cycle basis has at most two cycles per edge, then its cycles can be used as the set of bounded faces of a planar embedding of its graph. Duality The cycle space of a planar graph is the cut space of its dual graph, and vice versa. The minimum weight cycle basis for a planar graph is not necessarily the same as the basis formed by its bounded faces: it can include cycles that are not faces, and some faces may not be included as cycles in the minimum weight cycle basis. There exists a minimum weight cycle basis in which no two cycles cross each other: for every two cycles in the basis, either the cycles enclose disjoint subsets of the bounded faces, or one of the two cycles encloses the other one. Following the duality between cycle spaces and cut spaces, this basis for a planar graph corresponds to a Gomory–Hu tree of the dual graph, a minimum weight basis for its cut space. Nowhere zero flows In planar graphs, colorings with distinct colors are dual to nowhere zero flows over the ring of integers modulo . In this duality, the difference between the colors of two adjacent regions is represented by a flow value across the edge separating the regions. In particular, the existence of nowhere zero 4-flows is equivalent to the four color theorem. The snark theorem generalizes this result to nonplanar graphs. References Algebraic graph theory

262244

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges%20Vanier

Georges Vanier

Georges-Philias Vanier (23 April 1888 – 5 March 1967) was a Canadian military officer and diplomat who served as Governor General of Canada, the first Quebecer and second Canadian-born person to hold the position. Vanier was born and educated in Quebec. In 1906, he was valedictorian when he graduated with a BA from Loyola College. After earning a university degree in law, he served in the Canadian army during the First World War; on the European battlefields, he lost a leg and was commended for his actions with a number of decorations from King George V. Subsequently, Vanier returned to Canada and remained in the military until the early 1930s, when he was posted to diplomatic missions in Europe. With the outbreak of the Second World War, Vanier once again became active in the military, commanding troops on the home front until the cessation of hostilities in 1945, whereupon he returned to diplomatic circles. He was appointed to replace Vincent Massey as governor general in 1959 by Queen Elizabeth II, on the recommendation of Canadian Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, and he occupied the post until his death in 1967. Vanier proved to be a popular governor general, with his war record earning respect from the majority of Canadians; however, as a Quebecer, he was met with hostility by Quebec separatists. Early life Vanier was born in the Little Burgundy neighbourhood of Montreal to an Irish mother, Margaret (Maloney), and a French-Norman father, Philias Vanier, who raised Vanier to be bilingual. After graduating from high school, he attended Loyola College, receiving in 1906 a Bachelor of Arts degree in church devotional fellowship, and then went on to earn his Bachelor of Laws degree in 1911 from the Montreal campus of the Université Laval. Vanier was called to the Quebec bar that year and, though he took up the practice of law, he considered entering the Catholic priesthood. However, with the outbreak of the First World War, he decided that offering his service to his country should take priority and thereafter enlisted in the Canadian Army. Vanier took on a prominent role in recruiting others, eventually helping to organise in 1915 the French Canadian 22nd Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force, of which he was commissioned as an officer, and which later, in 1920, became the Royal 22e Régiment. After Vanier, for his efforts, received the Military Cross (MC) on 3 June 1916, he continued fighting in the trenches. In July 1917, he was appointed a knight (chevalier) of the French Legion of Honour. In late 1918, he led an attack at Chérisy and was shot in the chest and both legs, resulting in the loss of his right leg due to a shell blast. His recovery was lengthy, though he spent it in France, refusing to be evacuated while his fellow soldiers remained fighting. With the cessations of hostilities, Vanier was mentioned in despatches and was awarded a Bar to his Military Cross for his bravery during this action: He was further appointed to the Distinguished Service Order (DSO): Thereafter, Vanier returned to Montreal and once more found employment practicing law. On 1 April 1920, he received a regular commission as a major in the Canadian Militia. On 29 September 1921, he married Pauline Archer and the couple had five children, including Thérèse Vanier and Jean Vanier. For four years beginning in 1921, Vanier acted as aide-de-camp to Governor General the Viscount Byng of Vimy, leaving this post when he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and took command of the Royal 22e Régiment at La Citadelle. Vanier occupied that position for only one year before again becoming aide-de-camp for Byng's viceregal successor, the Marquess of Willingdon. He then went to England where he attended the Staff College, Camberley from 1923−1924, where Harry Crerar, later Chief of the General Staff and commander of the First Canadian Army during World War II, was a fellow student and J. F. C. Fuller was an instructor. Diplomatic career In 1928, Vanier was appointed to Canada's military delegation for disarmament to the League of Nations and in 1930, he was named secretary to the High Commission of Canada in London, remaining at that post for nearly a decade, approximately half of which he spent serving the man who would eventually immediately precede him as governor general of Canada, Vincent Massey. In the tumultuous year of 1936, that King George V died; and his son, Prince Edward, Prince of Wales, acceded and then abdicated in favour of his younger brother, Prince Albert, Duke of York. On 12 May 1937, Vanier, along with his son, Jean, watched from the roof of Canada House the coronation parade of their new king, George VI. In the procession below, Vanier would have seen one of the future governors general of Canada, Harold Alexander, who was then the personal aide-de-camp to the King. In 1939, Vanier was elevated to the position of the King's Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to France. However, with the outbreak of Second World War and the Nazi occupation of France in 1940, Vanier and his wife fled to the United Kingdom and then back to Canada in 1941, where he was commissioned as commander of the military district of Quebec and began an early policy of bilingualism in the army. The next year Vanier was promoted to the rank of major general and then made the Canadian Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the governments of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and Yugoslavia, as well as the representative of the Canadian government to the Free French and later the Conseil National de la Résistance, all of which were governments in exile. Throughout that time, Vanier attempted to convey to officials in Canada the seriousness of the situation in Europe, especially regarding refugees from the Nazi regime. To the frustration of the Vaniers, these efforts were met predominantly with indifference and even anger, and Vanier's letters to Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, failed to induce a change in Canada's immigration policies. Following the fall of Vichy France in 1944 to the Allied forces, Vanier was posted as Canada's first ambassador to France. While serving in that role, as well as acting as Canada's representative to the United Nations, he toured in 1945 the recently liberated Buchenwald concentration camp and, on a return trip to Canada, delivered via the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation a speech expressing his shame over Canada's inaction, saying: "How deaf we were then, to cruelty and the cries of pain which came to our ears, grim forerunners of the mass torture and murders which were to follow." Back in Paris, he and his wife continued to help the refugees who arrived at the embassy, arranging for them food and temporary shelter. The couple, with the assistance of numerous others, eventually pushed the government of Canada to revise the regulations of immigration and more than 186,000 European refugees settled in Canada between 1947 and 1953. It was in 1953 that Vanier retired from diplomatic service and returned to Montreal, though he and his wife continued social work there. Vanier simultaneously sat as a director of the Bank of Montreal, the Credit Foncier Franco-Canadien, and the Standard Life Assurance Company, and served on the Canada Council for the Arts. Governor General of Canada Vanier was the first Quebec-born governor general of Canada, his bilingualism proving to be an asset to his mandate of fostering Canadian unity. Following on that of Vincent Massey, an anglophone, the appointment of Vanier established the tradition of rotating between French and English speaking persons. Although Vanier's bilingual upbringing made him as much of an anglophone as he is a francophone, his appointment was considered francophone representation. Vanier's tenure was marked by economic problems plaguing the country and a succession of minority governments, but the greatest threats to Confederation came from the rise of the Quiet Revolution, Quebec nationalism, and the Quebec sovereignty movement, including the terrorist actions of the Front de libération du Québec; indeed, as a Québécois representing the Canadian monarch and someone who promoted federalism, he was perceived by many Quebec separatists to be a traitor to his people. Amongst most other circles in the country, however, he was lauded as a distinguished viceroy. As governor general-designate The appointment of Vanier as governor general was announced on 1 August 1959, at Halifax, Nova Scotia, during a meeting of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada at which Queen Elizabeth II was present and, by commission under the royal sign-manual and Great Seal of Canada, approved of Vanier as her representative. In spite of the challenges of poor health and political unrest in Canada, the Major-General said of his commission to represent the Queen: "If God wants me to do this job, He will give me the strength to do it." As Vanier was a staunch Liberal Party supporter and the ministers of the Crown were at that time Progressive Conservatives, the announcement of the Major-General's appointment surprised Ottawa insiders and the media. The Prime Minister, John Diefenbaker, however, felt that more Francophone representation was needed in Canada's government; in his memoirs, Diefenbaker said he had considered a non-English-Canadian for the post and attributed his decision to put forward Vanier for appointment to a chance meeting with the Major-General. In office He was sworn in the Senate Chamber on 15 September 1959 in the presence of Prime Minister John Diefenbaker. He had presided over a farewell dinner for his predecessor the previous evening. During the ceremony, the commission by the Queen that was signed during her royal visit the prior month for Vanier's appointment was read aloud in the chamber. He was given a royal salute following the proceedings, provided by the 1st Battalion, Canadian Guards and the Band of the Royal Canadian Ordnance Corps. Upon taking up residence at Rideau Hall, Vanier asked that a bilingual sign be placed at the main gates to the royal and viceroyal residence and that a chapel for offering Mass be constructed somewhere on the property, two requests that reflected two dominant forces in Vanier's life: religion and Canadian unity. When he was in residence, Vanier would pray twice daily in the chapel that was eventually fit into the palace's second floor and, at a time when the Canadian federation was under threat from separatists factions in Quebec, Vanier delivered numerous speeches, in both French and English, and infused with words praising the co-habitation of Anglophone and Francophone Canadians; in one of the last orations he gave, he said: "The road of unity is the road of love: love of one's country and faith in its future will give new direction and purpose to our lives, lift us above our domestic quarrels, and unite us in dedication to the common good... I pray God that we may all go forward hand in hand. We can't run the risk of this great country falling into pieces." Words like these, though, earned Vanier the ire of Quebec nationalists, as demonstrated when, on Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day in 1964, he found himself the target of such people in Montreal, who held placards reading "Vanier vendu" ("Vanier traitor" or "Vanier sellout") and "Vanier fou de la Reine" ("Vanier Queen's jester"). Despite his poor health (Vanier had a heart condition), and his doctor's warnings about strain, Vanier travelled across Canada, gaining the affection of Canadians. As part of his official duties, Vanier, along with the Queen, attended the inauguration of the Saint Lawrence Seaway on 26 June 1959 and, in June 1965, the same year he inaugurated the new national flag, was made Chief Big Eagle of the Blackfoot tribe in Calgary. He was also active in encouraging children to achieve, using his role as Chief Scout of Canada to this end. His and his wife's concern for family life drew them to founding in 1964 the Canadian Conference of the Family, which eventually became the Vanier Institute of the Family. As the representative of the head of state, Vanier hosted a list of official guests, including United States president John Kennedy and Jacqueline Kennedy; the Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie; David Ben-Gurion, Prime Minister of Israel; the Shah of Iran; and General Charles de Gaulle, President of France. Death By 1966, though his itinerary remained unreduced, Vanier's strength was failing. On 4 March 1967, before watching a Montreal Canadiens game on television at Rideau Hall, Vanier had conversed with his prime minister at the time, Lester B. Pearson, and had expressed to him that he was willing to continue on as governor general until the end of the centennial year. Given Vanier's physical state, Pearson was hesitant to advise the Queen to act along those lines, but his worry was short lived, as the following day, after hearing the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and receiving Holy Communion in the chapel, the Governor General died. With Robert Taschereau, Chief Justice of Canada, acting as Administrator of the Government, more than 15,000 messages of sympathy were received at Rideau Hall. Following a state funeral at the Notre-Dame Cathedral Basilica on 8 March 1967, the Major-General was buried at La Citadelle's commemorative chapel on 5 May of the same year. Though Vanier had earlier hosted the French president at Government House, neither de Gaulle nor any representative was sent to attend the funeral, which was read by Canadian diplomatic officials as a hint that there had been a change in Canada–France relations and instigated the chain of events that would culminate in de Gaulle's "Vive le Québec libre" speech in Montreal later that year. Legacy When, in 1999, Maclean's compiled a list of the 100 most influential Canadians of all time, Vanier was placed by the editors at position number one. His time in the Office of the Governor General saw the creation of a number of awards that reflected the Major-General's interests. He was an avid fan of sport and, though his favourite was hockey and specifically the Montreal Canadiens, Vanier instigated in 1965 the Governor General's Fencing Award and the Vanier Cup for the university football championship in the Canadian Intercollegiate Athletic Union. To recognise excellence in more bureaucratic endeavours, Vanier initiated in 1962 the Vanier Medal of the Institute of Public Administration of Canada and, in 1967, the Vanier Awards for Outstanding Young Canadians, awarded to deserving individuals in the Canadian Junior Chamber of Commerce. Vanier and his wife, Pauline are seen by many Canadian Catholics as potential candidates for sainthood in the Catholic Church because of their piety and love for humanity, and the Newman Center at the University of Toronto has stained glass windows depicting the Vanier couple. Jon Kay noted that " Jeremy Kinsman argues that it was the francophone Georges Vanier—not his well-heeled anglophone nemesis, Vincent Massey—who fought for the Canadian admission of Jewish refugees in the aftermath of World War II, and who forged in the crucible of wartime suffering a humanist creed that foreshadowed modern Canadian multiculturalism." Ranks, honours, and arms Military ranks 1914–1915: Private 1914: Lieutenant 1915–1916: Temporary captain 1916–1918: Acting major 1918–1920: Temporary major 1920–1924: Major 1924–1942: Lieutenant colonel 1942–1967: Major general Honours and awards 1919 – 5 March 1967: Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) 15 September 1959 – 5 March 1967: Knight of Justice, Prior, and Chief Officer in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ) 15 September 1959 – 5 March 1967: Chief Scout of Canada 1959 – 5 March 1967: Honorary Member of the Royal Military College of Canada Club 1963 – 5 March 1967: Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (PC) 1965 – 5 March 1967: Chief of the Blackfoot Tribe Decorations 1916: Military Cross (MC) 1919: Military Cross (MC & Bar) 15 September 1959: Canadian Forces Decoration (CD) Medals 1919: 1914-15 Star 1919: British War Medal 1919: Victory Medal 1935: King George V Silver Jubilee Medal 1937: King George VI Coronation Medal : 1939–45 Star : Africa Star : France and Germany Star : Defence Medal 1953: Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal Foreign honours 1917: Knight of the National Order of the Legion of Honour 1946: Commander of the Legion of Merit 1959: Knight Grand Cross of Magistral Grace of the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta Monuments : Statue, Citadelle of Quebec, Quebec City Honorary military appointments 1921 – 1925: Personal Aide-de-Camp to His Excellency the Governor General (AdC) 1926 – 1928: Personal Aide-de-Camp to His Excellency the Governor General (AdC) 15 September 1959 – 5 March 1967: Colonel of the Governor General's Horse Guards 15 September 1959 – 5 March 1967: Colonel of the Governor General's Foot Guards 15 September 1959 – 5 March 1967: Colonel of the Canadian Grenadier Guards Honorary degrees : University of Toronto, Doctor of Laws (LLD) 13 May 1966: Saint Mary's University, Doctor of Laws (LLD) Honorific eponyms Awards : Vanier Award for Outstanding Achievement by a Canadian under 40 : Vanier Medal of the Institute of Public Administration of Canada : Vanier Cup : Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarships In 1963, Vanier became the first recipient of the Loyola Medal from Loyola College, one of Concordia University's founding institutions. Buildings : Vanier Hall, Prince George : Place Vanier, University of British Columbia, Vancouver : Place Vanier, Ottawa : Vanier Hall, University of Ottawa, Ottawa : Vanier Pavilion, Royal Military College Saint-Jean, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu Geographic locations : Vanier Drive, Prince George : Place Vanier, Vancouver : Vanier Park, Vancouver : Vanier Highway, Fredericton : Vanier Street, Dieppe : Vanier Boulevard, Bathurst : Rideau-Vanier Ward, Ottawa : Vanier Parkway, Ottawa : Vanier (merged with Ottawa in 2001) : Vanier Road, Aylmer : Georges-Vanier Métro station, Montreal : Chemin Vanier, Gatineau : Rue Georges-Vanier, Chicoutimi : Rue Georges-Vanier, Shawinigan : Vanier (merged with Quebec City in 2002) :Rue Général-Vanier, Magog, Quebec :Rue Général-Vanier, Asbestos, Quebec :Rue Général Vanier, Saint-Sauveur, Quebec : Vanier Drive and Place, Melville : Vanier Drive, Regina : Vanier Crescent, Saskatoon Organisations : Governor General Georges-P. Vanier Royal Canadian Air Cadet Squadron : Royal Canadian Legion Branch 472 Georges Vanier : Vanier Institute of the Family Schools : Georges P. Vanier Junior High School, Calgary : Georges P. Vanier Secondary School, Donnelly : Georges P. Vanier School, Medicine Hat (1960–2010) : Vanier Community Catholic School Edson : Georges P. Vanier Secondary School, Courtenay : Georges Vanier Elementary School, Surrey : General Vanier Elementary School, Winnipeg : General Vanier School, Winnipeg : Vanier Elementary School, St. John's : Vanier Middle School, Moncton (closed in 2005) Formerly École secondaire Vanier High School (1963-1972) : Georges P. Vanier Junior High School, Fall River : École Georges Vanier, Elliot Lake : École secondaire Georges-P.-Vanier, Hamilton : General Vanier Intermediate School, Cornwall : General Vanier Public School, Fort Erie : General Vanier Public School, Ottawa : Georges P. Vanier Catholic School, Chatham : Georges Vanier Catholic School, Belleville : Georges Vanier Catholic School, Ottawa : Georges Vanier Public School, Lively : Georges Vanier Secondary School, Toronto : L'École catholique Georges-Vanier, Smooth Rock Falls : Vanier College, York University, Toronto : Vanier Public School, Brockville : Vanier School of Nursing, Algonquin College, Ottawa : Ecole Primaire Georges-P.-Vanier, Brossard : École secondaire Georges-Vanier, Laval : General Vanier Elementary School, St. Leonard : Georges-Vanier High School, Montreal : Massey-Vanier High School, Cowansville : Vanier College, Montreal : Vanier Collegiate Institute, Moose Jaw : Georges Vanier School, Saskatoon : Vanier Catholic Secondary School, Whitehorse : École General Georges Vanier, Lahr, Germany (closed in 1993 Under honours Governor General Vanier would have received the 1939-1945 War Medal for 28 days service during the Second World War. It is missing on the ribbon chart. Arms References External links Generals of World War II 1888 births 1967 deaths Ambassadors of Canada to France Anglophone Quebec people Canadian amputees Canadian military personnel of World War I Canadian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Canadian Expeditionary Force officers Canadian members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Canadian Militia officers Canadian people of Irish descent Canadian people of Norman descent Canadian politicians with physical disabilities Canadian recipients of the Military Cross Canadian Roman Catholics Canadian Servants of God Chief Scouts of Canada French Quebecers Governors General of Canada Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley Loyola College (Montreal) alumni People from Le Sud-Ouest Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) Quebec people of Irish descent Quebecers of French descent Université de Montréal Faculty of Law alumni Université Laval alumni Georges-Philias Military personnel from Montreal Canadian military personnel of World War II Canadian Army generals of World War II Royal 22nd Regiment officers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%20meteorite

Lunar meteorite

A lunar meteorite is a meteorite that is known to have originated on the Moon. A meteorite hitting the Moon is normally classified as a transient lunar phenomenon. Discovery In January 1982, John Schutt, leading an expedition in Antarctica for the ANSMET program, found a meteorite that he recognized to be unusual. Shortly thereafter, the meteorite now called Allan Hills 81005 was sent to Washington, DC, where Smithsonian Institution geochemist Brian Mason recognized that the sample was unlike any other known meteorite and resembled some rocks brought back from the Moon by the Apollo program. Several years later, Japanese scientists recognized that they had also collected a lunar meteorite, Yamato 791197, during the 1979 field season in Antarctica. , 371 lunar meteorites have been discovered, perhaps representing more than 30 separate meteorite falls (i.e., many of the stones are "paired" fragments of the same meteoroid). The total mass is more than . All lunar meteorites have been found in deserts; most have been found in Antarctica, northern Africa, and the Sultanate of Oman. None have yet been found in North America, South America, or Europe. Lunar origin is established by comparing the mineralogy, the chemical composition, and the isotopic composition between meteorites and samples from the Moon collected by Apollo missions. Transfer to Earth Most lunar meteorites are launched from the Moon by impacts making lunar craters of a few kilometers in diameter or less. No source crater of lunar meteorites has been positively identified, although there is speculation that the highly anomalous lunar meteorite Sayh al Uhaymir 169 derives from the Lalande impact crater on the lunar nearside. Cosmic-ray exposure history established with noble-gas measurements have shown that all lunar meteorites were ejected from the Moon in the past 20 million years. Most left the Moon in the past 100,000 years. After leaving the Moon, most lunar meteoroids go into orbit around Earth and eventually succumb to Earth's gravity. Some meteoroids ejected from the Moon get launched into orbits around the Sun. These meteoroids remain in space longer, but eventually intersect the Earth's orbit and land. Scientific relevance All six of the Apollo missions on which samples were collected landed in the central nearside of the Moon, an area that has subsequently been shown to be geochemically anomalous by the Lunar Prospector mission. In contrast, the numerous lunar meteorites are random samples of the Moon and consequently provide a more representative sampling of the lunar surface than the Apollo samples. Half the lunar meteorites, for example, likely sample material from the farside of the Moon. At the time the first meteorite from the Moon was discovered in 1982, there was speculation that some other unusual meteorites that had been found previously originated from Mars. The positive identification of lunar meteorites on Earth supported the hypothesis that meteoroid impacts on Mars could eject rocks from that planet. There are also speculations about the possibility of finding "Earth meteorites" on the surface of the Moon. This would be very interesting because in this case stones from Earth older than 3.9 billion years, which are destroyed on Earth by various geological processes, may have survived on the Moon. Thus some scientists propose new missions to the Moon to search for ancient rocks from Earth. Observation history About one in every thousand newly discovered meteorites is a lunar meteorite, whereas the vast majority of meteorites are from the asteroid belt. In the early 19th century most scientists believed that all meteorites falling towards the Earth were from the Moon. Although today supported only by a minority of researchers, there are also theories that tektites are from the Moon and should therefore also be regarded as lunar meteorites. However, most scientists regard such theories as outdated. Private ownership Lunar meteorites collected in Africa and Oman are, for all practical purposes, the only source of moon rocks available for private ownership. This is because all rocks collected during the Apollo moon-landing program are property of the United States government or of other nations to which the U.S. conveyed them as gifts. Similarly, all lunar meteorites collected by the U.S. and Japanese Antarctic programs are, by treaty, held by those governments for research and education purposes only. Although there is no U.S. law specifically against the ownership of Apollo moonrocks, none has ever been (or is likely to ever be) given or sold by the U.S. government to private citizens. Even in the cases of plaques containing genuine Apollo moonrocks given in 2004 to astronauts and Walter Cronkite, NASA retained ownership of the rocks themselves. Most of the moonrocks collected by the Luna 16 probe are also unavailable for private ownership, although three tiny samples were sold at auction for $442,500 in 1993. See also Glossary of meteoritics Geology of the Moon List of lunar meteorites List of meteorites on Mars Martian meteorite Moon rocks References Scientific reference General references External links Lunar Meteorites, Washington Univ. St.Louis List of Lunar Meteorites Lunar Meteorites, Univ. of Arizona Lunar meteorite articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries

262246

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20War%20%2891%E2%80%9387%20BC%29

Social War (91–87 BC)

The Social War (from Latin , properly 'war of the allies'), also called the Italian War or the Marsic War, was fought from 91 to 87 BC between the Roman Republic and several of its autonomous allies () in Italy. The Italian allies wanted Roman citizenship, not only for the status and influence that came with it, but also for the right to vote in Roman elections and laws. They believed that they should be treated equally to the Romans, given that they had formed cultural and linguistic connections with the Roman civilization, and had been their loyal allies for over two centuries. The Romans strongly opposed their demands, and refused to grant them citizenship, thus leaving the socii with fewer rights and privileges. The situation escalated in 91 BC, leading to the outbreak of a devastating war, in which much of the Italian allies, headed by Samnites and Marsi, led a revolt against Roman rule for four years. Most of the Etruscan, Umbrian and Latin allies did not join the rebellion. In order to end the conflict, and to avoid future conflict of the same kind, the Romans decreed several laws by which the peoples and cities who remained loyal or surrendered to Rome would be awarded Roman citizenship. By 87 BC, Roman victory was complete, and citizenship had been extended to all of peninsular Italy. The Social War led to a complete Romanization of Italy. The Etruscans and the Italic peoples quickly integrated themselves into the Roman world after gaining Roman citizenship. Their own languages and cultures became extinct in the process, and the term "Roman" came to refer to all inhabitants of Italy. The Romans did not consider Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica part of Italy during this period. Cisalpine Gaul was also not legally considered Italian territory until 42 BC, when it had been merged into Roman Italy, as indicated in Caesar's unpublished acts (Acta Caesaris). Origins Roman victory in the Samnite Wars (343–290 BC) resulted in effective Roman dominance of the Italian peninsula. This dominance was expressed in a collection of alliances between Rome and the cities and communities of Italy, on more or less favorable terms depending on whether a given city had voluntarily allied with Rome or been defeated in war. These cities were theoretically independent, but in practice Rome had the right to demand from them tribute money and a certain number of soldiers: by the 2nd century BC the Italian allies contributed between one half and two-thirds of the soldiers in Roman armies. Rome also had virtual control over the allies' foreign policy, including their interaction with one another. Aside from the Second Punic War, where Hannibal had limited success in turning some Italian communities against Rome, for the most part the Italian communities were content to remain as client states of Rome in return for local autonomy. The Romans' policy of land distribution had led to great inequality of land-ownership and wealth. This led to the "Italic people declining little by little into pauperism and paucity of numbers without any hope of remedy" (Appian). A number of political proposals had attempted to address the growing discrepancy whereby Italians made a significant contribution to Rome's military force, while receiving disproportionately small shares of land and citizenship rights. These efforts came to a head under the impetus of Marcus Livius Drusus in 91 BC. His reforms would have granted the Italian allies Roman citizenship, giving them a greater say in the external policy of the Roman Republic. Most local affairs came under local governance and were not as important to the Romans as, for example, when the alliance would go to war or how they would divide the plunder. The response of the Roman senatorial elite to Drusus' proposals was to reject his ideas and assassinate him. This brusque dismissal of the granting of rights that the Italians considered to be long overdue greatly angered them, and communities throughout Italy attempted to declare independence from Rome in response, sparking a war. War The Social War began in 91 BC when the Italian allies revolted. The Latins as a whole remained largely loyal to Rome, with the one exception of Venusia. The Etruscans and Umbrians, who were the most powerful people amongst Socii, mostly stayed neutral at the beginning. They were soon offered citizenship by Rome to prevent them from joining the rebellion. The rebellious allies not only planned a formal separation from Rome, but also the re-organisation of Italia (the Roman term for the peninsula) as its own independent federation, with its own capital at Corfinium (in modern Abruzzo) that was renamed Italica. To pay for the troops, they created their own coinage that was used as propaganda against Rome. The coins depict eight warriors taking an oath, probably representing the Marsi, Picentines, Paeligni, Marrucini, Vestini, Frentani, Samnites and Hirpini. The Italian soldiers were battle-hardened, most of them having served in the Roman armies. The allies of Italia were originally able to field 120,000 men. The Italians divided this force according to their positions within Italy. Quintus Poppaedius Silo had overall command of the "Marsic Group", as consul. Gaius Papius Mutilus had overall command of the "Samnite Group", as consul. Titus Lafrenius commanded the Marsi in 90 BC, when he was killed in action. He was succeeded by Fraucus. Titus Vettius Scato commanded the Paeligni to 88 BC, when he was captured by the Romans and killed by his slave. Gaius Pontidius probably commanded the Vestini, probably at least until 89 BC. Herius Asinius commanded the Marrucini until 89 BC, when he was killed in action. He was succeeded by Obsidius who was also killed in action. Gaius Vidacilius commanded the Picentes until 89 BC, when he committed suicide. Publius Praesentius probably commanded the Frentani, probably throughout the war. Numerius Lucilius probably commanded the Hirpini until 89 BC, when he seems to have been succeeded by Minatus Iegius (or Minius Iegius). Lucius Cluentius commanded the Pompeiani in 89 BC when he was killed in action. Titus Herennius probably commanded the Venusini throughout the war. Trebatius may have commanded the Iapygii throughout the war. Marcus Lamponius commanded the Lucani throughout the war. Marius Egnatius commanded the Samnites until 88 BC when he was killed in action. He was succeeded by Pontius Telesinus who was also killed in action that year. The Roman strategy focused on surviving the first onslaught, while simultaneously trying to entice other Italian clients to remain loyal or refrain from defection, and then meet the threat of the revolt with troops raised from provinces as well as from client kingdoms. One of the two separate theatres of war was assigned to each of the consuls of 90 BC. In the north, the consul Publius Rutilius Lupus was advised by Gaius Marius and Pompeius Strabo; in the south the consul Lucius Julius Caesar had Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Titus Didius. Events in 91 BC Marcus Livius Drusus, a champion of the Italian cause, was assassinated by an unknown assailant. Drusus's death meant the end of his enfranchisement policy. When news of Drusus's assassination reached the Marsi, they decided on a show of force. Quintus Poppaedius Silo, a leader of the Marsi and a good friend of Drusus, led a march on Rome. They were met by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, the Pontifex Maximus, who persuaded them to go back. When Ahenobarbus returned to Rome he informed the Senate something had to be done quickly or there would be war. By mid-autumn, the peace had irrevocably broken down. Diplomacy and negotiations had failed; the Social War started. The first to rebel and take up arms were the Marsi. They were joined by the Vestini (a Sabine tribe), the Peligni (an Apennine mountain tribe) and the Marruncini. The second major group of Italians to rebel were the Samnites. They were quickly joined by more Italian tribes including the Hirpini, the Lucanians, Apulia and the Frentani. The Italian rebels chose two consuls to take command of the war. Quintus Poppaedius Silo commanded the 'northern' group, while Gaius Papius Mutilus commanded the 'southern' group. The Roman colonies of Alba Fucensis and Aesernia, which were in Italian territory, came under siege. When the rebels took Asculum, the first city to fall to them, they slaughtered every Roman they could find. The wives of the men who refused to join them were tortured and scalped. While marching his legions south through Picenum, Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, who had recruited troops (3–4 legions) on Rome's behalf in his native Picenum, was suddenly attacked by a large force of Picentes, Vestini and Marsi led by the rebel general Scato. Although the battle favoured neither side, Pompeius Strabo was heavily outnumbered and he decided to withdraw. Eventually he found himself blockaded in Picenum. The Romans elected Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus as consuls for the following year. Caesar was to command the southern front against the Samnites and their allies while Lupus was to command the northern front against the Marsi and their allies. Caesar was allocated Lucius Cornelius Sulla as senior legate (second-in-command) while Lupus was allocated Gaius Marius. Marius and Sulla were considered Rome's best military commanders. Events in 90 BC In central Italy, Gaius Perpenna, a lieutenant of the consul Publius Rutilius Lupus, suffered a defeat at the hands of the Italian general Presentius. Perpenna lost 4,000 men. The remnant of his force was transferred to the army of Marius. In Lucania, a lieutenant of the consul Lucius Julius Caesar lost 800 men when the Italians set fire to his camp. Sextus Julius Caesar attempted to head off Italian reinforcements going to the siege of Aesernia, but was beaten back with the loss of 2,000 men. Aesernia was taken by the Italians. The Italian 'consul' Mutilus invaded Campania and took the city of Nola (by betrayal). Afterwards, he starved his Roman prisoners (including the praetor Lucius Postumus) to death. Mutilus attacked Lucius Caesar's camp, but Caesar fought off the assault and killed 6,000 rebels. This was the first substantial defeat of the Italian rebels. The news of the victory caused the Senate to decree that the population should resume wearing togas again (they had stopped doing so as a sign their country was struggling at war). On 11 July, the consul Rutilius was ambushed by the Marsi led by Vettius Scato while crossing the River Tolenus. The rebels killed 8,000 of Rutilius's men, including the consul himself. Gaius Marius, in command of a separate division of Rutilius' army, arrived during the aftermath of the Marsi ambush, captured their camp, and then attacked the Marsi from the rear, routing them with heavy losses. Quintus Servilius Caepio defeated the Paeligni, a rebel tribe related to the Marruncini. The Senate then decided to give joint command to Marius and Caepio. Marius had expected sole command and he did not get along with Caepio with disastrous results. After having dealt with a raiding party of Marsi at Varnia, Caepio attempted to give Marius instructions, but Marius ignored them. Caepio left on his own was then obliged to move his legions back towards Caeoli. Once they reached the Anio at Sublaqueum they were attacked by the Marsi. Caepio's column was massacred. It is said he was killed by Quintus Poppaedius Silo himself. The Marsi and Marruncini were defeated in battle by Marius working in tandem with Sulla, his old subordinate from the Jugurthine and Cimbrian wars. Together they killed 6,000 rebels and the Marruncini general Herius Asinus. In the Volturnus valley (at the Melfa Gorge) the Samnites under Marius Egnatius ambushed Lucius Caesar who still managed to fight his way through to Teanum where he took up a defensive position. Lucius Caesar lost 8,000 of his 30,000 men in the ambush. Pompeius Strabo succeeded in breaking out of Picenum and drove the rebels all the way back to Asculum. He then started to besiege the city. The consul Lucius Caesar returned to Rome and pushed through the Lex Julia de civitate Latinis et sociis danda which gave Roman citizenship to any Italian with Latin rights, and made eligible for citizenship any Italian who had not taken up arms against the Romans. This marked the turning point of the war. Many Italians flocked to the Roman standards, depriving the rebels of manpower. Pompeius Strabo, who by now had been elected one of the consuls for the next year, attacked and defeated a rebel column trying to march into Etruria, killing 5,000 rebels. Another 5,000 died while trying to get back across the Apennines. Events in 89 BC Lucius Porcius Cato, who had been elected junior consul for 89 BC, took over the southern command from Lucius Caesar. Vidacilius, the leader of the rebels in southern Picenum, and his men (c. 4,000) managed to fight their way through the siege lines and reinforced Asculum. However, upon seeing the hopelessness of their cause he and his followers committed suicide. Sextus Caesar, now a lieutenant of the Senior Consul Pompeius Strabo, caught the rebels shifting camp outside Asculum and fell upon them, killing 8,000 and scattering the rest. The consul Cato engaged the Marsi in battle near Fucine Lake (close to Alba Fucensis). He died in an attempt to storm the enemy camp. Sulla then took command of the southern front. In a huge battle near Asculum, Pompeius Strabo defeated an Italian relief army of 60,000 men. The city capitulated soon after. In the south Sulla, now a praetor, moved on the offensive. He started to besiege Pompeii and Herculaneum. When the rebel general Cleuntius tried to reinforce the city, Sulla routed the rebel army, chased them to Nola, and there massacred 20,000 rebels in battle right in front of the walls. After his victory at Nola, Sulla turned on the Hirpini to the north. He quickly forced them to surrender. He then marched on Samnium. Sulla invaded Samnium by a circuitous route and thereby surprised and defeated Mutilus (the Samnite commander), attacking him from an unsuspected direction. With the Samnite army routed he marched on Bovianum, the Samnite capital, and stormed it in a three-hour assault. The praetor Gaius Cosconius caught the rebel general Trebatius and a Samnite army in mid-crossing at the Aufidius near Cannae, killing 15,000 rebels. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius captured Venusia, along with 3,000 rebel soldiers. After Sulla had returned to his sieges in Campania, Poppaedius Silo recaptured Bovianum. Silo then tried to eject Metellus from Apulia, but failed and died in the attempt. Herculaneum, Pompeii and several rebel cities in Campania surrendered to Sulla. Only Nola and Aesernia remained defiant. By the end of 89 BC most of the rebel leaders were dead. In the north the last pockets of resistance were being mopped up by Pompeius Strabo and in the south only the Samnites remained a threat. Aftermath in 88–87 BC: another war At the beginning of 88 BC, the war was largely over except for the Samnites, the old rivals of Rome, who still held out. It is likely that the war would have continued for some time had Rome not made concessions to their allies. Rome could now return their focus on the rest of their republic. In the East a new threat loomed; Mithridates, the king of Pontus, invaded the Roman province of Asia and slaughtered Romans and Italians alike. Rome's generals contended for the honour (and profit) of commanding the war against the eastern king. This led to Sulla's march on Rome. The Samnites would become major players in the civil strife that followed. The Samnites and Lucanians held out at Nola and Bruttium until 87 BC, when the conflict subsumed into the Roman civil war that broke out that year. Roman concessions to the Allies Lucius Julius Caesar sponsored the Lex Julia during his consulship, which he carried out before his office ended. The law offered full citizenship to all Latin and Italian communities who had not revolted. This was mainly done to prevent the Etruscans and Umbrians from joining the rebellion. However, the law offered the option of citizenship to whole communities and not to individuals. This meant that each individual community had to pass the law, most likely by a vote in assembly, before it could take effect. It was also possible under the Lex Julia for citizenship to be granted as a reward for distinguished military service in the field. It is assumed that the Lex Julia was closely followed by a supplementary statute, the Lex Plautia Papiria, which stated that a registered male of an allied Italian state could obtain Roman citizenship by presenting himself to a Roman praetor within 60 days of the passing of the law. This law granted Roman citizenship to fellow Italians who had rebelled against Rome. See also Coinage of the Social War Citations References Alberto Campana, La Monetazione degli insorti italici durante la Guerra Sociale (91-87 a.C.), Soliera, Edizioni Apparuti, 1987. 90s BC conflicts 80s BC conflicts 1st century BC in the Roman Republic Roman citizenship Roman Republican civil wars

262251

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Adamov

Arthur Adamov

Arthur Adamov (23 August 1908 – 15 March 1970) was a playwright, one of the foremost exponents of the Theatre of the Absurd. Early life Adamov (originally Adamian) was born in Kislovodsk in the Terek Oblast of the Russian Empire to a wealthy Armenian family.:92 At the outbreak of the First World War, the family was at risk of being interned as 'enemy citizens', and only 'through the special intervention of the King of Wurttemberg' were they able to escape to Geneva, Switzerland.:93 Adamov was educated in Switzerland and Germany,:93 with French as his primary language. In 1924, when he was sixteen years old, he moved to Paris.:93 There he met artists associated with the Surrealist Movement and edited the surrealist journal Discontinuité.:93 Postwar career He began to write plays at the end of World War II.:98 La Parodie (1947) was his first play, which Martin Esslin has identified as 'an attempt to come to terms with neurosis, to make psychological states visible in concrete terms.':98 His work, influenced by Bertolt Brechtand August Strindberg,:98 is often dream-like and later works in particular have a political element. The title character of one of his best known works, Le Professeur Taranne (1953), is accused of various things (public nudity, littering, plagiarism), all of which he strenuously denies, only to have his denials turned against him into more evidence of misdemeanours. This particular play was directly influenced by a dream Adamov had. Lesser known to the public is his prose work with short stories like Fin Août (in Je... Ils..., 1969). Their themes revolve around topics like masochism, which the author regarded as "immunisation against death". Adamov translated a number of works by German authors (Rilke, Büchner) and Russian classics (Gogol, Chekhov) into French. The Algerian war radicalised his political views and in the 1960s he became a Communist. During his later years, he began to drink and use drugs. Adamov's death in 1970 was due to an overdose of barbiturates. Selected works L'Aveu (The Confession, 1946) La Parodie (The Parody, 1950) L'Invasion (The Invasion, 1950) La Grande et la Petite Manoeuvre (The Grand and Small Manoeuvre, 1950) Le Sens de la Marche (The Way to Go, 1953) Tous contre tous (All against all, 1953) Le Professeur Taranne (Professor Taranne, 1953) Le Ping-Pong (Ping Pong, 1955) Paolo Paoli (1957) Le Printemps '71 (Spring '71, 1960) La Politique des Restes (The Politics of Rubbish, 1963) Ici et Maintenant (Here and Now, 1964) Sainte Europe (Holy Europe, 1966) M. le Modéré (Mr. Moderate, 1968) Off Limits (1969) Si l'été revenait (If Summer Came Again'', 1970) References 1908 births 1970 deaths People from Kislovodsk People from Terek Oblast Russian people of Armenian descent Soviet emigrants to France Russian–French translators 20th-century French dramatists and playwrights French people of Armenian descent Soviet Armenians Theatre of the Absurd Drug-related deaths in France 20th-century translators 1970 suicides Burials at Ivry Cemetery

262252

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis

The pyrolysis (or devolatilization) process is the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It involves a change of chemical composition. The word is coined from the Greek-derived elements pyro "fire", "heat", "fever" and lysis "separating". Pyrolysis is most commonly used in the treatment of organic materials. It is one of the processes involved in charring wood. In general, pyrolysis of organic substances produces volatile products and leaves char, a carbon-rich solid residue. Extreme pyrolysis, which leaves mostly carbon as the residue, is called carbonization. Pyrolysis is considered the first step in the processes of gasification or combustion. The process is used heavily in the chemical industry, for example, to produce ethylene, many forms of carbon, and other chemicals from petroleum, coal, and even wood, to produce coke from coal. It is used also in the conversion of natural gas (primarily methane) into non-polluting hydrogen gas and non-polluting solid carbon char, recently on an industrial scale. Aspirational applications of pyrolysis would convert biomass into syngas and biochar, waste plastics back into usable oil, or waste into safely disposable substances. Terminology Pyrolysis is one of the various types of chemical degradation processes that occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water or other solvents). It differs from other processes like combustion and hydrolysis in that it usually does not involve the addition of other reagents such as oxygen (O2, in combustion) or water (in hydrolysis). Pyrolysis produces solids (char), condensable liquids (tar), and uncondensing/permanent gasses. Types of pyrolysis Complete pyrolysis of organic matter usually leaves a solid residue that consists mostly of elemental carbon; the process is then called carbonization. More specific cases of pyrolysis include: methane pyrolysis, in the presence of catalytic molten metals for the direct conversion of methane to non-polluting hydrogen fuel and separable solid carbon hydrous pyrolysis, in the presence of superheated water or steam, producing hydrogen and also substantial atmospheric carbon dioxide, also used in oil refining dry distillation, as in the original production of sulfuric acid from sulfates destructive distillation, as in the manufacture of charcoal, coke and activated carbon caramelization of sugars high-temperature cooking processes such as roasting, frying, toasting, and grilling charcoal burning, the production of charcoal tar production by pyrolysis of wood in tar kilns cracking of heavier hydrocarbons into lighter ones, as in oil refining thermal depolymerization, that breaks down plastics and other polymers into monomers and oligomers ceramization involving the formation of polymer derived ceramics from preceramic polymers under an inert atmosphere catagenesis, the natural conversion of buried organic matter to fossil fuels and flash vacuum pyrolysis, used in organic synthesis. General processes and mechanisms Pyrolysis generally consists in heating the material above its decomposition temperature, breaking chemical bonds in its molecules. The fragments usually become smaller molecules, but may combine to produce residues with larger molecular mass, even amorphous covalent solids. In many settings, some amounts of oxygen, water, or other substances may be present, so that combustion, hydrolysis, or other chemical processes may occur besides pyrolysis proper. Sometimes those chemicals are added intentionally, as in the burning of firewood, in the traditional manufacture of charcoal, and in the steam cracking of crude oil. Conversely, the starting material may be heated in a vacuum or in an inert atmosphere to avoid chemical side reactions (such as combustion or hydrolysis). Pyrolysis in a vacuum also lowers the boiling point of the byproducts, improving their recovery. When organic matter is heated at increasing temperatures in open containers, the following processes generally occur, in successive or overlapping stages: Below about 100 °C, volatiles, including some water, evaporate. Heat-sensitive substances, such as vitamin C and proteins, may partially change or decompose already at this stage. At about 100 °C or slightly higher, any remaining water that is merely absorbed in the material is driven off. This process consumes a lot of energy, so the temperature may stop rising until all water has evaporated. Water trapped in crystal structure of hydrates may come off at somewhat higher temperatures. Some solid substances, like fats, waxes, and sugars, may melt and separate. Between 100 and 500 °C, many common organic molecules break down. Most sugars start decomposing at 160–180 °C. Cellulose, a major component of wood, paper, and cotton fabrics, decomposes at about 350 °C. Lignin, another major wood component, starts decomposing at about 350 °C, but continues releasing volatile products up to 500 °C. The decomposition products usually include water, carbon monoxide and/or carbon dioxide , as well as a large number of organic compounds. Gases and volatile products leave the sample, and some of them may condense again as smoke. Generally, this process also absorbs energy. Some volatiles may ignite and burn, creating a visible flame. The non-volatile residues typically become richer in carbon and form large disordered molecules, with colors ranging between brown and black. At this point the matter is said to have been "charred" or "carbonized". At 200–300 °C, if oxygen has not been excluded, the carbonaceous residue may start to burn, in a highly exothermic reaction, often with no or little visible flame. Once carbon combustion starts, the temperature rises spontaneously, turning the residue into a glowing ember and releasing carbon dioxide and/or monoxide. At this stage, some of the nitrogen still remaining in the residue may be oxidized into nitrogen oxides like and . Sulfur and other elements like chlorine and arsenic may be oxidized and volatilized at this stage. Once combustion of the carbonaceous residue is complete, a powdery or solid mineral residue (ash) is often left behind, consisting of inorganic oxidized materials of high melting point. Some of the ash may have left during combustion, entrained by the gases as fly ash or particulate emissions. Metals present in the original matter usually remain in the ash as oxides or carbonates, such as potash. Phosphorus, from materials such as bone, phospholipids, and nucleic acids, usually remains as phosphates. Occurrence and uses Cooking Pyrolysis has many applications in food preparation. Caramelization is the pyrolysis of sugars in food (often after the sugars have been produced by the breakdown of polysaccharides). The food goes brown and changes flavor. The distinctive flavors are used in many dishes; for instance, caramelized onion is used in French onion soup. The temperatures needed for caramelization lie above the boiling point of water. Frying oil can easily rise above the boiling point. Putting a lid on the frying pan keeps the water in, and some of it re-condenses, keeping the temperature too cool to brown for longer time. Pyrolysis of food can also be undesirable, as in the charring of burnt food (at temperatures too low for the oxidative combustion of carbon to produce flames and burn the food to ash). Coke, carbon, charcoals, and chars Carbon and carbon-rich materials have desirable properties but are nonvolatile, even at high temperatures. Consequently, pyrolysis is used to produce many kinds of carbon; these can be used for fuel, as reagents in steelmaking (coke), and as structural materials. Charcoal is a less smoky fuel than pyrolyzed wood. Some cities ban, or used to ban, wood fires; when residents only use charcoal (and similarly-treated rock coal, called coke) air pollution is significantly reduced. In cities where people do not generally cook or heat with fires, this is not needed. In the mid-20th century, "smokeless" legislation in Europe required cleaner-burning techniques, such as coke fuel and smoke-burning incinerators as an effective measure to reduce air pollution The coke-making or "coking" process consists of heating the material in "coking ovens" to very high temperatures (up to ) so that the molecules are broken down into lighter volatile substances, which leave the vessel, and a porous but hard residue that is mostly carbon and inorganic ash. The amount of volatiles varies with the source material, but is typically 25–30% of it by weight. High temperature pyrolysis is used on an industrial scale to convert coal into coke. This is useful in metallurgy, where the higher temperatures are necessary for many processes, such as steelmaking. Volatile by-products of this process are also often useful, including benzene and pyridine. Coke can also be produced from the solid residue left from petroleum refining. The original vascular structure of the wood and the pores created by escaping gases combine to produce a light and porous material. By starting with a dense wood-like material, such as nutshells or peach stones, one obtains a form of charcoal with particularly fine pores (and hence a much larger pore surface area), called activated carbon, which is used as an adsorbent for a wide range of chemical substances. Biochar is the residue of incomplete organic pyrolysis, e.g., from cooking fires. It is a key component of the terra preta soils associated with ancient indigenous communities of the Amazon basin. Terra preta is much sought by local farmers for its superior fertility and capacity to promote and retain an enhanced suite of beneficial microbiota, compared to the typical red soil of the region. Efforts are underway to recreate these soils through biochar, the solid residue of pyrolysis of various materials, mostly organic waste. Carbon fibers are filaments of carbon that can be used to make very strong yarns and textiles. Carbon fiber items are often produced by spinning and weaving the desired item from fibers of a suitable polymer, and then pyrolyzing the material at a high temperature (from ). The first carbon fibers were made from rayon, but polyacrylonitrile has become the most common starting material. For their first workable electric lamps, Joseph Wilson Swan and Thomas Edison used carbon filaments made by pyrolysis of cotton yarns and bamboo splinters, respectively. Pyrolysis is the reaction used to coat a preformed substrate with a layer of pyrolytic carbon. This is typically done in a fluidized bed reactor heated to . Pyrolytic carbon coatings are used in many applications, including artificial heart valves. Liquid and gaseous biofuels Pyrolysis is the basis of several methods for producing fuel from biomass, i.e. lignocellulosic biomass. Crops studied as biomass feedstock for pyrolysis include native North American prairie grasses such as switchgrass and bred versions of other grasses such as Miscantheus giganteus. Other sources of organic matter as feedstock for pyrolysis include greenwaste, sawdust, waste wood, leaves, vegetables, nut shells, straw, cotton trash, rice hulls, and orange peels. Animal waste including poultry litter, dairy manure, and potentially other manures are also under evaluation. Some industrial byproducts are also suitable feedstock including paper sludge, distillers grain, and sewage sludge. In the biomass components, the pyrolysis of hemicellulose happens between 210 and 310 °C. The pyrolysis of cellulose starts from 300–315 °C and ends at 360–380 °C, with a peak at 342–354 °C. Lignin starts to decompose at about 200 °C and continues until 1000 °C. Synthetic diesel fuel by pyrolysis of organic materials is not yet economically competitive. Higher efficiency is sometimes achieved by flash pyrolysis, in which finely divided feedstock is quickly heated to between for less than two seconds. Syngas is usually produced by pyrolysis. The low quality of oils produced through pyrolysis can be improved by physical and chemical processes, which might drive up production costs, but may make sense economically as circumstances change. There is also the possibility of integrating with other processes such as mechanical biological treatment and anaerobic digestion. Fast pyrolysis is also investigated for biomass conversion. Fuel bio-oil can also be produced by hydrous pyrolysis. Methane pyrolysis for hydrogen Methane pyrolysis is a non-polluting industrial process for "turquoise" hydrogen production from methane by removing solid carbon from natural gas. This one-step process produces non-polluting hydrogen in high volume at low cost (less than steam reforming with carbon sequestration). Only water is released when hydrogen is used as the fuel for fuel-cell electric heavy truck transportation, gas turbine electric power generation, and hydrogen for industrial processes including producing ammonia fertilizer and cement. Methane pyrolysis is the process operating around 1065 °C for producing hydrogen from natural gas that allows removal of carbon easily (solid non-polluting carbon is a byproduct of the process). The industrial quality solid carbon can then be sold or landfilled and is not released into the atmosphere, avoiding emission of greenhouse gas (GHG) or ground water pollution from a landfill. In 2015, a company called Monolith Materials built a pilot plant in Redwood City, CA to study scaling Methane Pyrolysis using renewable power in the process.  A successful pilot project then led to a larger commercial scale demonstration plant in Hallam, Nebraska in 2016.  As of 2020, this plant is operational and can produce around 14 metric tons of hydrogen per day.  In 2021, the US Department of Energy backed Monolith Materials’ plans for major expansion with a $1B loan guarantee.  The funding will help produce a plant capable of generating 164 metric tons of hydrogen per day by 2024. Volume production is also being evaluated in the BASF "methane pyrolysis at scale" pilot plant, the chemical engineering team at University of California - Santa Barbara and in such research laboratories as Karlsruhe Liquid-metal Laboratory (KALLA). Power for process heat consumed is only one seventh of the power consumed in the water electrolysis method for producing hydrogen. Ethylene Pyrolysis is used to produce ethylene, the chemical compound produced on the largest scale industrially (>110 million tons/year in 2005). In this process, hydrocarbons from petroleum are heated to around in the presence of steam; this is called steam cracking. The resulting ethylene is used to make antifreeze (ethylene glycol), PVC (via vinyl chloride), and many other polymers, such as polyethylene and polystyrene. Semiconductors The process of metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy (MOCVD) entails pyrolysis of volatile organometallic compounds to give semiconductors, hard coatings, and other applicable materials. The reactions entail thermal degradation of precursors, with deposition of the inorganic component and release of the hydrocarbons as gaseous waste. Since it is an atom-by-atom deposition, these atoms organize themselves into crystals to form the bulk semiconductor. Silicon chips are produced by the pyrolysis of silane: SiH4 → Si + 2 H2. Gallium arsenide, another semiconductor, forms upon co-pyrolysis of trimethylgallium and arsine. Waste management Pyrolysis can also be used to treat municipal solid waste and plastic waste. The main advantage is the reduction in volume of the waste. In principle, pyrolysis will regenerate the monomers (precursors) to the polymers that are treated, but in practice the process is neither a clean nor an economically competitive source of monomers. In tire waste management, tire pyrolysis is a well-developed technology. Other products from car tire pyrolysis include steel wires, carbon black and bitumen. The area faces legislative, economic, and marketing obstacles. Oil derived from tire rubber pyrolysis has a high sulfur content, which gives it high potential as a pollutant and should be desulfurized. Alkaline pyrolysis of sewage sludge at low temperature of 500 °C can enhance H2 production with in-situ carbon capture. The use of NaOH has the potential to produce H2-rich gas that can be used for fuels cells directly. In early November 2021, the U.S. State of Georgia announced a joint effort with Igneo Technologies to build an $85 million large electronics recycling plant in the Port of Savannah. The project will focus on lower-value, plastics-heavy devices in the waste stream using multiple shredders and furnaces using pyrolysis technology. Thermal cleaning Pyrolysis is also used for thermal cleaning, an industrial application to remove organic substances such as polymers, plastics and coatings from parts, products or production components like extruder screws, spinnerets and static mixers. During the thermal cleaning process, at temperatures between 310 C° to 540 C° (600 °F to 1000 °F), organic material is converted by pyrolysis and oxidation into volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons and carbonized gas. Inorganic elements remain. Several types of thermal cleaning systems use pyrolysis: Molten Salt Baths belong to the oldest thermal cleaning systems; cleaning with a molten salt bath is very fast but implies the risk of dangerous splatters, or other potential hazards connected with the use of salt baths, like explosions or highly toxic hydrogen cyanide gas. Fluidized Bed Systems use sand or aluminium oxide as heating medium; these systems also clean very fast but the medium does not melt or boil, nor emit any vapors or odors; the cleaning process takes one to two hours. Vacuum Ovens use pyrolysis in a vacuum avoiding uncontrolled combustion inside the cleaning chamber; the cleaning process takes 8 to 30 hours. Burn-Off Ovens, also known as Heat-Cleaning Ovens, are gas-fired and used in the painting, coatings, electric motors and plastics industries for removing organics from heavy and large metal parts. Fine chemical synthesis Pyrolysis is used in the production of chemical compounds, mainly, but not only, in the research laboratory. The area of boron-hydride clusters started with the study of the pyrolysis of diborane (B2H6) at ca. 200 °C. Products include the clusters pentaborane and decaborane. These pyrolyses involve not only cracking (to give H2), but also recondensation. The synthesis of nanoparticles, zirconia and oxides utilizing an ultrasonic nozzle in a process called ultrasonic spray pyrolysis (USP). Other uses and occurrences Pyrolysis is used to turn organic materials into carbon for the purpose of carbon-14 dating. Pyrolysis of tobacco, paper, and additives, in cigarettes and other products, generates many volatile products (including nicotine, carbon monoxide, and tar) that are responsible for the aroma and negative health effects of smoking. Similar considerations apply to the smoking of marijuana and the burning of incense products and mosquito coils. Pyrolysis occurs during the incineration of trash, potentially generating volatiles that are toxic or contribute to air pollution if not completely burned. Laboratory or industrial equipment sometimes gets fouled by carbonaceous residues that result from coking, the pyrolysis of organic products that come into contact with hot surfaces. PAHs generation Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can be generated from the pyrolysis of different solid waste fractions, such as hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, pectin, starch, polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). PS, PVC, and lignin generate significant amount of PAHs. Naphthalene is the most abundant PAH among all the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. When the temperature is increased from 500 to 900 °C, most PAHs increase. With increasing temperature, the percentage of light PAHs decreases and the percentage of heavy PAHs increases. Study tools Thermogravimetric analysis Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is one of the most common techniques to investigate pyrolysis with no limitations of heat and mass transfer. The results can be used to determine mass loss kinetics. Activation energies can be calculated using the Kissinger method or peak analysis-least square method (PA-LSM). TGA can couple with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and mass spectrometry. As the temperature increases, the volatiles generated from pyrolysis can be measured. Macro-TGA In TGA, the sample is loaded first before the increase of temperature, and the heating rate is low (less than 100 °C min−1). Macro-TGA can use gram-scale samples, which can be used to investigate the pyrolysis with mass and heat transfer effects. Pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry Pyrolysis mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) is an important laboratory procedure to determine the structure of compounds. History Pyrolysis has been used for turning wood into charcoal since ancient times. In their embalming process, the ancient Egyptians used methanol, which they obtained from the pyrolysis of wood. The dry distillation of wood remained the major source of methanol into the early 20th century. Pyrolysis was instrumental in the discovery of many important chemical substances, such as phosphorus (from ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate in concentrated urine) and oxygen (from mercuric oxide and various nitrates). See also Dextrin Gasification Hydrogen Hydrogen production Karrick process Pyrolytic coating Thermal decomposition Torrefaction Wood gas References External links In Situ Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis Technology Pathway National Renewable Energy Laboratory Organic reactions Chemical processes Industrial processes Oil shale technology Biodegradable waste management Waste treatment technology Fire protection

262253

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philly%20Joe%20Jones

Philly Joe Jones

Joseph Rudolph "Philly Joe" Jones (July 15, 1923 – August 30, 1985) was an American jazz drummer . Biography Early career As a child, Jones appeared as a featured tap dancer on The Kiddie Show on the Philadelphia radio Station WIP. He was in the US Army during World War II. In 1947 he became the house drummer at Café Society in New York City, where he played with the leading bebop players of the day including Tadd Dameron. Jones toured and recorded with Miles Davis Quintet from 1955 to 1958—a band that became known as "The Quintet" (along with Red Garland on piano, John Coltrane on sax, and Paul Chambers on bass). Davis acknowledged that Jones was his favorite drummer, and stated in his autobiography that he would always listen for Jones in other drummers. From 1958 Jones worked as a leader, but continued to work as a sideman with other musicians, including Bill Evans and Hank Mobley. Evans, like Davis, also openly stated that Jones was his all-time favorite drummer. Europe Between late 1967 and 1972 Jones lived in London and Paris, performing and recording with musicians including Archie Shepp, Mal Waldron and Hank Mobley. For two years (1967–69) Jones taught at a specially organized school in Hampstead, London, but was prevented from otherwise working in the UK by the Musicians' Union. His 1968 album Mo' Joe (also released as Trailways Express) was recorded in London with local musicians (including Peter King, Harold McNair, Chris Pyne, Kenny Wheeler and others). Later years Jones toured with Bill Evans in 1976 and 1978, recorded for Galaxy in 1977–79, and worked with Red Garland. From 1981 he helped to found the group Dameronia, dedicated to the music of the composer Tadd Dameron, and led it until his death in 1985. As leader 1957: Westlake Bounce The Music Of John Graas (Fresh Sound Records) – with Paul Chambers 1958: Blues for Dracula (Riverside) 1959: Drums Around the World (Riverside) 1959: Showcase (Riverside) 1960: Philly Joe's Beat (Atlantic) 1961: Together! (Atlantic) – with Elvin Jones 1968: Trailways Express (Black Lion) also released as Mo Joe and Gone, Gone, Gone 1969: Philly Joe Jones with the Jef Gilson Ensemble Disques Vogue 1969: Round Midnight (Lotus Records) released 1979 1969: Archie Shepp & Philly Joe Jones (America, 1969) with Archie Shepp 1977: Mean What You Say (Sonet) 1977: Philly Mignon (Galaxy) 1978: Drum Song (Galaxy) 1979: Advance! (Galaxy) 1981: Philly Joe Jones Octet - Filet de Sole (Marge) 1982: Philly Joe Jones Dameronia – To Tadd with Love (Uptown) 1983: Philly Joe Jones Dameronia – Look Stop Listen (Uptown) As sideman With Chris Anderson Inverted Image (Jazzland, 1961) With Chet Baker Chet Baker in New York (Riverside, 1958) Chet Baker Introduces Johnny Pace (Riverside, 1958) – with Johnny Pace With Evans Bradshaw Look Out for Evans Bradshaw! (Riverside, 1958) With Clifford Brown Memorial Album (Blue Note, 1953) With Kenny Burrell Ellington Is Forever Volume Two (Fantasy, 1975) With Joe Castro Mood Jazz (Atlantic, 1957) With Serge Chaloff Blue Serge (Capitol, 1956) With Paul Chambers Go (Vee-Jay, 1959) With Sonny Clark Cool Struttin' (Blue Note, 1958) Sonny Clark Trio (Blue Note, 1957) With John Coltrane Blue Train (Blue Note, 1958) With Miles Davis The Musings of Miles (Prestige, 1955) Miles: The New Miles Davis Quintet (Prestige, 1956) Cookin' with the Miles Davis Quintet (Prestige, 1956) Relaxin' with the Miles Davis Quintet (Prestige, 1956) Workin' with the Miles Davis Quintet (Prestige, 1956) Steamin' with the Miles Davis Quintet (Prestige, 1956) 'Round About Midnight (Columbia, 1957) Porgy and Bess (Columbia, 1958) Milestones (Columbia, 1958) Someday My Prince Will Come (Columbia, 1961) With Kenny Drew Kenny Drew Trio (Riverside, 1956) Pal Joey (Riverside, 1957) With Bill Evans Everybody Digs Bill Evans (Riverside, 1958) On Green Dolphin Street (Riverside, 1959) California Here I Come (Verve, 1967) Interplay (Riverside, 1962) Quintessence (Fantasy, 1976) With Art Farmer Art Farmer Quintet featuring Gigi Gryce (Prestige, 1955) Brass Shout (United Artists, 1959) With Red Garland Red's Good Groove (Jazzland, 1962) Keystones! (Xanadu, 1977) Crossings (Galaxy, 1978) With Benny Golson The Other Side of Benny Golson (Riverside, 1958) Benny Golson and the Philadelphians (United Artists, 1958) With Dexter Gordon Dexter Calling... (Blue Note, 1961) Landslide (Blue Note, 1961-62 [1980]) With Bennie Green Bennie Green with Art Farmer – with Art Farmer (1956) With Johnny Griffin Way Out! (Riverside, 1959) With Ernie Henry Seven Standards and a Blues (Riverside, 1957) Last Chorus (Riverside, 1956–57) With Elmo Hope The Elmo Hope Trio (Blue Note, 1953) Here's Hope! (Celebrity, 1961) High Hope! (Beacon, 1961) Homecoming! (Riverside, 1961) Sounds from Rikers Island (Audio Fidelity, 1963) The Final Sessions (Evidence, 1966 [1996]) With Freddie Hubbard Goin' Up (Blue Note, 1960) Hub Cap (Blue Note, 1961) Here to Stay (Blue Note, 1962) With Bobby Hutcherson Four Seasons (Timeless, 1983 [1985]) Good Bait (Landmark, 1985) With Milt Jackson and Wes Montgomery Bags Meets Wes! (Riverside, 1962) With Clifford Jordan The Rotterdam Session (Audio Daddio, 1985) With Duke Jordan Duke's Artistry (SteepleChase, 1978) The Great Session (SteepleChase, 1978 [1981]) With Abbey Lincoln It's Magic (Riverside, 1958) Abbey Is Blue (Riverside, 1959) With Herbie Mann Salute to the Flute (Epic, 1957) Herbie Mann's African Suite (United Artists, 1959) With Warne Marsh Warne Marsh (Atlantic, 1958) With Howard McGhee The Return of Howard McGhee (Bethlehem, 1955) That Bop Thing (Affinity, 1982) With Blue Mitchell Big 6 (Riverside, 1958) Smooth as the Wind (Riverside, 1961) With Yoshiaki Miyanoue Song for Wes (King Records, 1979) With Hank Mobley Hank (Blue Note, 1957) Poppin' (Blue Note, 1957) Workout (Blue Note, 1961) Another Workout (Blue Note, 1961) No Room for Squares (Blue Note, 1963) With J. R. Monterose J. R. Monterose (Blue Note, 1956) With Phineas Newborn Jr. Phineas' Rainbow (RCA Victor, 1956) A World of Piano! (Contemporary, 1961) With Art Pepper Art Pepper Meets the Rhythm Section (Contemporary, 1957) With Bud Powell Time Waits (Blue Note, 1958) With Sonny Rollins Tenor Madness (Riverside, 1956) Newk's Time (Blue Note, 1957) With Archie Shepp Blasé (BYG Actuel, 1969) Archie Shepp & Philly Joe Jones (America, 1969) With Jimmy Smith Softly as a Summer Breeze (Blue Note, 1958) With Sonny Stitt Sonny Stitt & the Top Brass (Atlantic, 1962) With Clark Terry Serenade to a Bus Seat (Riverside, 1957) In Orbit (Riverside, 1958) With Ben Webster Soulmates (Riverside, 1963) – with Joe Zawinul With Jack Wilson The Two Sides of Jack Wilson (Atlantic, 1964) With Phil Woods Pairing Off (Prestige, 1956) References External links Philly Joe Jones on Drummerworld.com 1923 births 1985 deaths African-American drummers American jazz drummers Bebop drummers Hard bop drummers Post-bop drummers Miles Davis Quintet members Musicians from Philadelphia Riverside Records artists 20th-century American drummers American male drummers Jazz musicians from Pennsylvania American male jazz musicians Dameronia members American expatriates in the United Kingdom American expatriates in France Black Lion Records artists Uptown Records (jazz) artists 20th-century American male musicians

262256

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasification

Gasification

Gasification is a process that converts biomass- or fossil fuel-based carbonaceous materials into gases, including as the largest fractions: nitrogen (N2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), and carbon dioxide (). This is achieved by reacting the feedstock material at high temperatures (typically >700 °C), without combustion, via controlling the amount of oxygen and/or steam present in the reaction. The resulting gas mixture is called syngas (from synthesis gas) or producer gas and is itself a fuel due to the flammability of the H2 and CO of which the gas is largely composed. Power can be derived from the subsequent combustion of the resultant gas, and is considered to be a source of renewable energy if the gasified compounds were obtained from biomass feedstock. An advantage of gasification is that syngas can be more efficient than direct combustion of the original feedstock material because it can be combusted at higher temperatures so that the thermodynamic upper limit to the efficiency defined by Carnot's rule is higher. Syngas may also be used as the hydrogen source in fuel cells, however the syngas produced by most gasification systems requires additional processing and reforming to remove the contaminants and other gases such as CO and to be suitable for low-temperature fuel cell use, but high-temperature solid oxide fuel cells are capable of directly accepting mixtures of H2, CO, , steam, and methane. Syngas is most commonly burned directly in gas engines, used to produce methanol and hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer–Tropsch process into synthetic fuel. For some materials gasification can be an alternative to landfilling and incineration, resulting in lowered emissions of atmospheric pollutants such as methane and particulates. Some gasification processes aim at refining out corrosive ash elements such as chloride and potassium, allowing clean gas production from otherwise problematic feedstock material. Gasification of fossil fuels is currently widely used on industrial scales to generate electricity. Gasification can generate lower amounts of some pollutants as SOx and than combustion. History Energy has been produced at industrial scale via gasification since the early 19th century. Initially coal and peat were gasified to produce town gas for lighting and cooking, with the first public street lighting installed in Pall Mall, London on January 28, 1807, spreading shortly to supply commercial gas lighting to most industrialized cities until the end of the 19th century when it was replaced with electrical lighting. Gasification and syngas continued to be used in blast furnaces and more significantly in the production of synthetic chemicals where it has been in use since the 1920s. The thousands of sites left toxic residue. Some sites have been remediated, while others are still polluted. During both world wars, especially the World War II, the need for fuel produced by gasification reemerged due to the shortage of petroleum. Wood gas generators, called Gasogene or Gazogène, were used to power motor vehicles in Europe. By 1945 there were trucks, buses and agricultural machines that were powered by gasification. It is estimated that there were close to 9,000,000 vehicles running on producer gas all over the world. Chemical reactions In a gasifier, the carbonaceous material undergoes several different processes: The dehydration or drying process occurs at around 100 °C. Typically the resulting steam is mixed into the gas flow and may be involved with subsequent chemical reactions, notably the water-gas reaction if the temperature is sufficiently high (see step #5). The pyrolysis (or devolatilization) process occurs at around 200–300 °C. Volatiles are released and char is produced, resulting in up to 70% weight loss for coal. The process is dependent on the properties of the carbonaceous material and determines the structure and composition of the char, which will then undergo gasification reactions. The combustion process occurs as the volatile products and some of the char react with oxygen to primarily form carbon dioxide and small amounts of carbon monoxide, which provides heat for the subsequent gasification reactions. Letting C represent a carbon-containing organic compound, the basic reaction here is The gasification process occurs as the char reacts with steam and carbon dioxide to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen, via the reactions and In addition, the reversible gas phase water-gas shift reaction reaches equilibrium very fast at the temperatures in a gasifier. This balances the concentrations of carbon monoxide, steam, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. In essence, a limited amount of oxygen or air is introduced into the reactor to allow some of the organic material to be "burned" to produce carbon dioxide and energy, which drives a second reaction that converts further organic material to hydrogen and additional carbon dioxide. Further reactions occur when the formed carbon monoxide and residual water from the organic material react to form methane and excess carbon dioxide (). This third reaction occurs more abundantly in reactors that increase the residence time of the reactive gases and organic materials, as well as heat and pressure. Catalysts are used in more sophisticated reactors to improve reaction rates, thus moving the system closer to the reaction equilibrium for a fixed residence time. Processes Several types of gasifiers are currently available for commercial use: counter-current fixed bed, co-current fixed bed, fluidized bed, entrained flow, plasma, and free radical. Counter-current fixed bed ("up draft") gasifier A fixed bed of carbonaceous fuel (e.g. coal or biomass) through which the "gasification agent" (steam, oxygen and/or air) flows in counter-current configuration. The ash is either removed in the dry condition or as a slag. The slagging gasifiers have a lower ratio of steam to carbon, achieving temperatures higher than the ash fusion temperature. The nature of the gasifier means that the fuel must have high mechanical strength and must ideally be non-caking so that it will form a permeable bed, although recent developments have reduced these restrictions to some extent. The throughput for this type of gasifier is relatively low. Thermal efficiency is high as the temperatures in the gas exit are relatively low. However, this means that tar and methane production is significant at typical operation temperatures, so product gas must be extensively cleaned before use. The tar can be recycled to the reactor. In the gasification of fine, undensified biomass such as rice hulls, it is necessary to blow air into the reactor by means of a fan. This creates very high gasification temperature, as high as 1000 C. Above the gasification zone, a bed of fine and hot char is formed, and as the gas is blow forced through this bed, most complex hydrocarbons are broken down into simple components of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Co-current fixed bed ("down draft") gasifier Similar to the counter-current type, but the gasification agent gas flows in co-current configuration with the fuel (downwards, hence the name "down draft gasifier"). Heat needs to be added to the upper part of the bed, either by combusting small amounts of the fuel or from external heat sources. The produced gas leaves the gasifier at a high temperature, and most of this heat is often transferred to the gasification agent added in the top of the bed, resulting in an energy efficiency on level with the counter-current type. Since all tars must pass through a hot bed of char in this configuration, tar levels are much lower than the counter-current type. Fluidized bed reactor The fuel is fluidized in oxygen and steam or air. The ash is removed dry or as heavy agglomerates that defluidize. The temperatures are relatively low in dry ash gasifiers, so the fuel must be highly reactive; low-grade coals are particularly suitable. The agglomerating gasifiers have slightly higher temperatures, and are suitable for higher rank coals. Fuel throughput is higher than for the fixed bed, but not as high as for the entrained flow gasifier. The conversion efficiency can be rather low due to elutriation of carbonaceous material. Recycle or subsequent combustion of solids can be used to increase conversion. Fluidized bed gasifiers are most useful for fuels that form highly corrosive ash that would damage the walls of slagging gasifiers. Biomass fuels generally contain high levels of corrosive ash. Fluidized bed gasifiers uses inert bed material at a fluidized state which enhance the heat and biomass distribution inside a gasifier. At a fluidized state, the superficial fluid velocity is greater than the minimum fluidization velocity required to lift the bed material against the weight of the bed. Fluidized bed gasifiers are divided into Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB), Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) and Dual Fluidized Bed (DFB) gasifiers. Entrained flow gasifier A dry pulverized solid, an atomized liquid fuel or a fuel slurry is gasified with oxygen (much less frequent: air) in co-current flow. The gasification reactions take place in a dense cloud of very fine particles. Most coals are suitable for this type of gasifier because of the high operating temperatures and because the coal particles are well separated from one another. The high temperatures and pressures also mean that a higher throughput can be achieved, however thermal efficiency is somewhat lower as the gas must be cooled before it can be cleaned with existing technology. The high temperatures also mean that tar and methane are not present in the product gas; however the oxygen requirement is higher than for the other types of gasifiers. All entrained flow gasifiers remove the major part of the ash as a slag as the operating temperature is well above the ash fusion temperature. A smaller fraction of the ash is produced either as a very fine dry fly ash or as a black colored fly ash slurry. Some fuels, in particular certain types of biomasses, can form slag that is corrosive for ceramic inner walls that serve to protect the gasifier outer wall. However some entrained flow type of gasifiers do not possess a ceramic inner wall but have an inner water or steam cooled wall covered with partially solidified slag. These types of gasifiers do not suffer from corrosive slags. Some fuels have ashes with very high ash fusion temperatures. In this case mostly limestone is mixed with the fuel prior to gasification. Addition of a little limestone will usually suffice for the lowering the fusion temperatures. The fuel particles must be much smaller than for other types of gasifiers. This means the fuel must be pulverized, which requires somewhat more energy than for the other types of gasifiers. By far the most energy consumption related to entrained flow gasification is not the milling of the fuel but the production of oxygen used for the gasification. Plasma gasifier In a plasma gasifier a high-voltage current is fed to a torch, creating a high-temperature arc. The inorganic residue is retrieved as a glass like substance. Feedstock There are a large number of different feedstock types for use in a gasifier, each with different characteristics, including size, shape, bulk density, moisture content, energy content, chemical composition, ash fusion characteristics, and homogeneity of all these properties. Coal and petroleum coke are used as primary feedstocks for many large gasification plants worldwide. Additionally, a variety of biomass and waste-derived feedstocks can be gasified, with wood pellets and chips, waste wood, plastics and aluminium, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), Refuse-derived fuel (RDF), agricultural and industrial wastes, sewage sludge, switch grass, discarded seed corn, corn stover and other crop residues all being used. Chemrec has developed a process for gasification of black liquor. Waste disposal Waste gasification has several advantages over incineration: The necessary extensive flue gas cleaning may be performed on the syngas instead of the much larger volume of flue gas after combustion. Electric power may be generated in engines and gas turbines, which are much cheaper and more efficient than the steam cycle used in incineration. Even fuel cells may potentially be used, but these have rather severe requirements regarding the purity of the gas. Chemical processing (Gas to liquids) of the syngas may produce other synthetic fuels instead of electricity. Some gasification processes treat ash containing heavy metals at very high temperatures so that it is released in a glassy and chemically stable form. A major challenge for waste gasification technologies is to reach an acceptable (positive) gross electric efficiency. The high efficiency of converting syngas to electric power is counteracted by significant power consumption in the waste preprocessing, the consumption of large amounts of pure oxygen (which is often used as gasification agent), and gas cleaning. Another challenge becoming apparent when implementing the processes in real life is to obtain long service intervals in the plants, so that it is not necessary to close down the plant every few months for cleaning the reactor. Environmental advocates have called gasification "incineration in disguise" and argue that the technology is still dangerous to air quality and public health. "Since 2003 numerous proposals for waste treatment facilities hoping to use... gasification technologies failed to receive final approval to operate when the claims of project proponents did not withstand public and governmental scrutiny of key claims," according to the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives. One facility which operated from 2009–2011 in Ottawa had 29 "emissions incidents" and 13 "spills" over those three years. It was also only able to operate roughly 25% of the time. Several waste gasification processes have been proposed, but few have yet been built and tested, and only a handful have been implemented as plants processing real waste, and most of the time in combination with fossil fuels. One plant (in Chiba, Japan using the Thermoselect process) has been processing industrial waste with natural gas and purified oxygen since year 2000, but has not yet documented positive net energy production from the process. In 2007 Ze-gen erected a waste gasification demonstration facility in New Bedford, Massachusetts. The facility was designed to demonstrate gasification of specific non-MSW waste streams using liquid metal gasification. This facility came after widespread public opposition shelved plans for a similar plant in Attleboro, Massachusetts. Today Ze-gen appears to be defunct, and the company website was taken down in 2014. Also in the US, in 2011 a plasma system delivered by PyroGenesis Canada Inc. was tested to gasify municipal solid waste, hazardous waste and biomedical waste at the Hurlburt Field Florida Special Operations Command Air Force base. The plant, which cost $7.4 million to construct, was closed and sold at a government liquidation auction in May 2013. The opening bid was $25. The winning bid was sealed. Current applications Syngas can be used for heat production and for generation of mechanical and electrical power. Like other gaseous fuels, producer gas gives greater control over power levels when compared to solid fuels, leading to more efficient and cleaner operation. Syngas can also be used for further processing to liquid fuels or chemicals. Heat Gasifiers offer a flexible option for thermal applications, as they can be retrofitted into existing gas fueled devices such as ovens, furnaces, boilers, etc., where syngas may replace fossil fuels. Heating values of syngas are generally around 4–10 MJ/m3. Electricity Currently Industrial-scale gasification is primarily used to produce electricity from fossil fuels such as coal, where the syngas is burned in a gas turbine. Gasification is also used industrially in the production of electricity, ammonia and liquid fuels (oil) using Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles (IGCC), with the possibility of producing methane and hydrogen for fuel cells. IGCC is also a more efficient method of CO2 capture as compared to conventional technologies. IGCC demonstration plants have been operating since the early 1970s and some of the plants constructed in the 1990s are now entering commercial service. Combined heat and power In small business and building applications, where the wood source is sustainable, 250–1000 kWe and new zero carbon biomass gasification plants have been installed in Europe that produce tar free syngas from wood and burn it in reciprocating engines connected to a generator with heat recovery. This type of plant is often referred to as a wood biomass CHP unit but is a plant with seven different processes: biomass processing, fuel delivery, gasification, gas cleaning, waste disposal, electricity generation and heat recovery. Transport fuel Diesel engines can be operated on dual fuel mode using producer gas. Diesel substitution of over 80% at high loads and 70–80% under normal load variations can easily be achieved. Spark ignition engines and solid oxide fuel cells can operate on 100% gasification gas. Mechanical energy from the engines may be used for e.g. driving water pumps for irrigation or for coupling with an alternator for electrical power generation. While small scale gasifiers have existed for well over 100 years, there have been few sources to obtain a ready-to-use machine. Small scale devices are typically DIY projects. However, currently in the United States, several companies offer gasifiers to operate small engines. Renewable energy and fuels In principle, gasification can proceed from just about any organic material, including biomass and plastic waste. The resulting syngas can be combusted. Alternatively, if the syngas is clean enough, it may be used for power production in gas engines, gas turbines or even fuel cells, or converted efficiently to dimethyl ether (DME) by methanol dehydration, methane via the Sabatier reaction, or diesel-like synthetic fuel via the Fischer–Tropsch process. In many gasification processes most of the inorganic components of the input material, such as metals and minerals, are retained in the ash. In some gasification processes (slagging gasification) this ash has the form of a glassy solid with low leaching properties, but the net power production in slagging gasification is low (sometimes negative) and costs are higher. Regardless of the final fuel form, gasification itself and subsequent processing neither directly emits nor traps greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Power consumption in the gasification and syngas conversion processes may be significant though, and may indirectly cause CO2 emissions; in slagging and plasma gasification, the electricity consumption may even exceed any power production from the syngas. Combustion of syngas or derived fuels emits exactly the same amount of carbon dioxide as would have been emitted from direct combustion of the initial fuel. Biomass gasification and combustion could play a significant role in a renewable energy economy, because biomass production removes the same amount of CO2 from the atmosphere as is emitted from gasification and combustion. While other biofuel technologies such as biogas and biodiesel are carbon neutral, gasification in principle may run on a wider variety of input materials and can be used to produce a wider variety of output fuels. There are at present a few industrial scale biomass gasification plants. Since 2008 in Svenljunga, Sweden, a biomass gasification plant generates up to 14 MWth, supplying industries and citizens of Svenljunga with process steam and district heating, respectively. The gasifier uses biomass fuels such as CCA or creosote impregnated waste wood and other kinds of recycled wood to produces syngas that is combusted on site. In 2011 a similar gasifier, using the same kinds of fuels, is being installed at Munkfors Energy's CHP plant. The CHP plant will generate 2 MWe (electricity) and 8 MWth (district heating). Examples of demonstration projects include: The 32 MW dual fluidized bed gasification of the GoBiGas project in Gothenburg, Sweden, produced around 20 MW of substitute natural gas from forest residues and fed it into the natural gas grid since December 2014. The plant was permanently closed due to technical and economical problems in April 2018. Göteborg Energi had invested 175 million euro in the plant and intensive attempts to sell the plant to new investors had failed for a year. Those of the Renewable Energy Network Austria, including a plant using dual fluidized bed gasification that has supplied the town of Güssing with 2 MW of electricity, produced utilising GE Jenbacher reciprocating gas engines and 4 MW of heat, generated from wood chips, since 2001. The plant was decommissioned in 2015. Go Green Gas' pilot plant in Swindon, UK has demonstrated methane production from waste feedstocks at 50 kW. The project has prompted the construction of a £25million commercial facility that aims to generate 22GWh per annum of grid-quality natural gas from waste wood and refuse derived fuel, due for completion in 2018. Chemrec's pilot plant in Piteå that produced 3 MW of clean syngas from entrained flow gasification of black liquor. The plant was closed down permanently due to financial problems in 2016 The High Temperature Winkler (HTW), a pressurized circulating fluidized bed gasification process. During the 1990s HTW was tested with a variety of different feedstocks, including low-rank coals and various forms of biomass; wood, refuse derived fuel (RDF) and municipal solid waste (MSW). The last HTW facility closed permanently in 2002. Since 2015 tests of the process continues at a 0.1 t/h pilot unit at Darmstadt University, while a redesigned full-scale unit is under erection in Amsterdam See also Coal gasification Fluidized bed combustion History of manufactured gas Isle of Wight gasification facility List of solid waste treatment technologies Plasma arc waste disposal Renewable natural gas Water gas Outdoor wood-fired boiler Chemical looping reforming and gasification References External links "Biomass Gasification Process" "Gasification Technologies Council" "Thermal Gasification of Biomass, International Energy Agency" Gasification Technology Energy conversion Power station technology Thermal treatment Waste treatment technology Fuel gas Gas technologies Synthetic fuel technologies Sustainable technologies Pyrolysis Industrial gases

262258

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadd%20Dameron

Tadd Dameron

Tadley Ewing Peake Dameron (February 21, 1917 – March 8, 1965) was an American jazz composer, arranger, and pianist. Biography Born in Cleveland, Ohio, Dameron was the most influential arranger of the bebop era, but also wrote charts for swing and hard bop players. The bands he arranged for included those of Count Basie, Artie Shaw, Jimmie Lunceford, Dizzy Gillespie, Billy Eckstine, and Sarah Vaughan. In 1940-41 he was the piano player and arranger for the Kansas City band Harlan Leonard and his Rockets. He and lyricist Carl Sigman wrote "If You Could See Me Now" for Sarah Vaughan and it became one of her first signature songs. According to the composer, his greatest influences were George Gershwin and Duke Ellington. In the late 1940s, Dameron wrote arrangements for Gillespie's big band, who gave the première of his large-scale orchestral piece Soulphony in Three Hearts at Carnegie Hall in 1948. Also in 1948, Dameron led his own group in New York, which included Fats Navarro; the following year Dameron was at the Paris Jazz Festival with Miles Davis. From 1961 he scored for recordings by Milt Jackson, Sonny Stitt, and Blue Mitchell. Dameron also arranged and played for rhythm and blues musician Bull Moose Jackson. Playing for Jackson at that same time was Benny Golson, who was to become a jazz composer in his own right. Golson has said that Dameron was the most important influence on his writing. Dameron composed several bop and swing standards, including "Hot House", "If You Could See Me Now", "Our Delight", "Good Bait" (composed for Count Basie) and "Lady Bird". Dameron's bands from the late 1940s and early 1950s featured leading players such as Fats Navarro, Miles Davis, Dexter Gordon, Sonny Rollins, Wardell Gray, and Clifford Brown. In 1956 he led two sessions based on his compositions, released as the 1956 album "Fontainebleau" and the 1957 album "Mating Call". The latter featured John Coltrane. Dameron developed an addiction to narcotics toward the end of his career. He was arrested on drug charges in 1957 and 1958, and served time (1959–60) in a federal prison hospital in Lexington, Kentucky. After his release, Dameron recorded a single notable project as a leader, The Magic Touch, but was sidelined by health problems; he had several heart attacks before dying of cancer in 1965, at the age of 48. He was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. Tributes In the 1980s drummer Philly Joe Jones and trumpeter Don Sickler founded Dameronia, a band which performed the music of Tadd Dameron. Saxophonist Dexter Gordon called him the "romanticist" of the bop movement. Music critic Scott Yanow called Dameron the "definitive arranger/composer of the bop era". Saxophonist Joe Lovano included five Dameron tunes on his 2000 album 52nd Street Themes. In 2006, trumpeter Peter Welker released Duke, Billy And Tadd as a tribute to Duke Ellington, Billy Strayhorn, and Dameron. Turkish drummer Ferit Odman released Dameronia with Strings, an album featuring eight Dameron tunes, in 2015. Trumpeter Joe Magnarelli's 2019 album If You Could See Me Now is a tribute to Dameron. In 2019, singer Vanessa Rubin released an album titled The Dream Is You: Vanessa Rubin Sings Tadd Dameron. Discography As leader/co-leader As sideman With John Coltrane John Coltrane Plays for Lovers (Prestige, 1966) Trane's Blues (Giants of Jazz, 1990) With Miles Davis At Birdland (Durium, 1976) The Early Days Vol. 1 (Giants of Jazz, 1985) Birdland Days (Fresh Sound, 1990) With Dexter Gordon New Trends of Jazz Volume 3 (Savoy, 1952) Long Tall Dexter (Savoy, 1976) Dexter Rides Again (Savoy, 1985) With Fats Navarro Memorial Album (Blue Note, 1951) New Trends of Jazz Vol. 5 (Savoy, 1952) Fats-Bud-Klook-Sonny-Kinney (Savoy, 1955) Fats Navarro Memorial Theodore "Fats" Navarro 1923–1950 Volume I (London, 1956) The Fabulous Fats Navarro Volume 1 (Blue Note, 1957) The Fabulous Fats Navarro Volume 2 (Blue Note, 1957) Fats Navarro Featured with the Tadd Dameron Quintet (Jazzland, 1961) Fats Navarro Memorial Volume 1 (CBS, 1964) Prime Source (Blue Note, 1975) Fat Girl (Savoy, 1977) Featured with the Tadd Dameron Band (Milestone, 1977) At Royal Roost Volume 1 (Jazz View, 1991) Fats Blows 1946–1949 (Giants of Jazz, 1991) Royal Roost Sessions 1948 (Fresh Sound, 1991) With Charlie Parker Bird Lives (Continental, 1962) Pensive Bird (Ember, 1969) Broadcast Performances Vol. 2 (ESP Disk, 1973) References Further reading Combs, Paul. (2012). Dameronia: The Life and Music of Tadd Dameron (Jazz Perspectives). University of Michigan Press. . External links Tadd Dameron biographical information at the Dameron/Damron Family Association web page. Jazzbiographies.com. Interview with Paul Combs, Author of DAMERONIA: THE LIFE AND MUSIC OF TADD DAMERON http://www.jazzhistorydatabase.com/content/musicians/combs_paul/interview.php 1917 births 1965 deaths African-American jazz pianists American jazz composers American male jazz composers American music arrangers Blue Note Records artists Musicians from Cleveland Jazz arrangers Deaths from cancer in New York (state) 20th-century American composers 20th-century American pianists Burials at Ferncliff Cemetery American male pianists Jazz musicians from Ohio 20th-century American male musicians Dameronia members 20th-century jazz composers 20th-century African-American musicians

262259

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE%20802.6

IEEE 802.6

IEEE 802.6 is a standard governed by the ANSI for Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN). It is an improvement of an older standard (also created by ANSI) which used the Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) network structure. The FDDI-based standard failed due to its expensive implementation and lack of compatibility with current LAN standards. The IEEE 802.6 standard uses the Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) network form. This form supports 150 Mbit/s transfer rates. It consists of two unconnected unidirectional buses. DQDB is rated for a maximum of 160 km before significant signal degradation over fiberoptic cable with an optical wavelength of 1310 nm. This standard has also failed, mostly for the same reasons that the FDDI standard failed. MANs are traditionally designed using Synchronous Optical Network (SONET), Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) or Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). Recent designs use native Ethernet or MPLS. References IEEE 802.06 Networking standards Metropolitan area networks

262260

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Vai

Steve Vai

Steven Siro Vai (; born June 6, 1960) is an American guitarist, composer, singer, songwriter, and producer. A three-time Grammy Award winner and fifteen-time nominee, Vai started his music career in 1978 at the age of eighteen as a transcriptionist for Frank Zappa, and played in Zappa's band from 1980 to 1983. He embarked on a solo career in 1983 and has released eight solo albums to date. He has recorded and toured with Alcatrazz, David Lee Roth, and Whitesnake, as well as recording with artists such as Public Image Ltd, Mary J. Blige, Spinal Tap, and Alice Cooper. Additionally, Vai has toured with live-only acts G3, Zappa Plays Zappa, and the Experience Hendrix tour, as well as headlining international tours. Vai has been described as a "highly individualistic player" and part of a generation of "heavy rock and metal virtuosi who came to the fore in the 1980s". He released his first solo album Flex-Able in 1984, while his most successful release, Passion and Warfare (1990), was described as "the richest and best hard rock guitar-virtuoso album of the '80s". He was voted the "10th Greatest Guitarist" by Guitar World magazine, and has sold over 15 million records. Biography Early life Steve Vai, a descendant of Italian immigrants, was born in Carle Place, New York on June 6, 1960. He is the fourth son of John and Theresa Vai. He described his first experiences with music as, "at the age of five I walked up to [a] piano, hit a note, and noticed that to the right the notes go higher and to the left the notes go lower. In that very moment, I had a full-on epiphany. I was flooded with the instinctual realization of how music was created and how it worked from a theoretical standpoint—the whole language of music was very obvious. I also understood immediately, instinctually, and unequivocally something that has only deepened through the years that the creation of music is an infinite personal expression. I realized that I could do this, I could make music, and it could be whatever I want." It was a year later, at the age of six, that Vai experienced his first introduction to the guitar, remembering that, "I saw this nine-year-old boy playing the guitar in my grade school auditorium, and that was another epiphany that I had. It was my first recognition of the instrument. When I saw that guitar and I saw this kid playing it, I knew instinctually that I was going to play the guitar someday, and that it would be my instrument. Don't ask me how I knew, I just knew. It was the coolest thing I had ever seen." As a young child, Vai was influenced by the music his parents had listened to. One album in particular that he cites as his "musical awakening" was the original motion picture soundtrack to the 1961 film West Side Story. At age eleven, Vai was introduced to the contemporary rock and progressive music of the era, and after hearing the guitar solo to Led Zeppelin's "Heartbreaker" at age twelve, decided to begin playing the guitar. In 1973, Vai began to take guitar lessons from fellow New York native Joe Satriani, and played in local bands (The Ohio Express, Circus, and Rayge) throughout his high school years. Vai cites artists such as Jimmy Page, Brian May, Ritchie Blackmore, Jeff Beck, Jimi Hendrix, as well as jazz fusion guitarists Allan Holdsworth and Al Di Meola as some of his major influences in that time period. In 1978, to further pursue his interest in music composition and theory, Vai attended Berklee College of Music in Boston, Massachusetts. While at Berklee, Vai began working for Frank Zappa as a transcriptionist, and in the middle of his fourth semester, moved to California to start his career as a session and touring artist for Zappa. Also while at Berklee, Vai met his future spouse Pia Maiocco, with whom he has been together since; they have two children. In 2003, Vai was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee. Early music career (1978–1986) In 1978, Vai sent both a notated transcription of Frank Zappa's "The Black Page", and a recording of his college band, Morning Thunder, to Zappa. Impressed by this, Zappa responded by putting Vai on salary to transcribe his work, which included pieces from the Joe's Garage and Shut Up 'n Play Yer Guitar albums. After leaving Berklee College of Music and moving to California, Vai auditioned for and became a full-time member of Zappa's band, going on his first tour with Zappa in late 1980. Zappa often referred to Vai as his "little Italian virtuoso", and Vai is frequently listed in the liner notes of Zappa's albums as having performed "stunt" or "impossible" guitar parts. Vai was a featured artist on the 1993 release Zappa's Universe, and in 2006, Vai appeared as a special guest on Dweezil Zappa's Zappa Plays Zappa tour; both projects won Vai a Grammy Award. After moving on from Zappa's employ in 1983, Vai bought a house in Sylmar, Los Angeles, where he built his first professional studio. During this period, Vai formed two bands (The Classified and 777) as well as writing and recording a large amount of music that was not originally intended for release. Out of this material, Vai compiled his first studio album Flex-Able. He created his own record label, Akashic Records (later Light Without Heat Records), which he used to take Flex-Able directly to distribution channels. Flex-Able was released in January 1984. Vai began his rise to public acclaim in 1983 when, shortly before the release of Flex-Able, his composition "The Attitude Song" was published in Guitar Player magazine. The song centered itself on a main guitar riff in the time signature 7/16, played over a rhythm section centered in 4/4. Each following section of the song showcased a number of specialized techniques (such as two-handed tapping, whammy bar acrobatics, sweep picking, alternate picking, multi-part harmonies, and odd phrasing) used in angular and exaggerated ways that were unique to the song at the time. Interest from the public eye grew more so when Vai's song "Blue Powder" (a demonstration for the Carvin X100b amplifier) was published in Guitar Player as well, which showed the virtuoso side of Vai's compositional process. Also in 1986, Vai was cast in the film Crossroads as the Devil's guitar player "Jack Butler". In the famous "duel scene" between Vai and Ralph Macchio's character, Vai wrote and performed all guitar parts with the exception of the slide guitar, which was performed by Ry Cooder. In between solo work, Vai replaced Yngwie Malmsteen in June 1984 as the lead guitarist of Alcatrazz, with whom he recorded the album Disturbing the Peace. Vai left shortly after the subsequent tour to join David Lee Roth's band. With David Lee Roth (1985–1989) In 1985, Vai joined David Lee Roth's post-Van Halen band as lead guitarist, together with former Talas bassist Billy Sheehan on bass; and former Maynard Ferguson drummer Gregg Bissonette on drums. The foursome's debut album Eat 'Em and Smile, released on July 7, 1986, was both a critical and commercial success, reaching number four on the Billboard 200 albums chart and selling over two million copies. Guitar World magazine editor Brad Tolinski commented on Vai's playing at the time, saying that "Steve Vai's guitar wizardry is so profound that in earlier times he would have been burned as a witch." Retrospectively, Eat 'Em and Smile is frequently evaluated as one of the greatest rock albums of the 1980s. The group's Eat 'Em and Smile Tour began in August 1986 and continued through February 1987. Roth's subsequent album Skyscraper, released in 1988, was produced by both Roth and Vai. Like its predecessor, the album was a commercial success, reaching number six on the Billboard 200 chart. In 1989, following the successful Skyscraper Tour, Vai departed from the band. He was replaced by Cacophony guitarist Jason Becker. In 1985, after having joined Roth's band, Vai designed the JEM guitar, a unique instrument that incorporated a series of groundbreaking designs that have since become staples in feature throughout the guitar industry. Vai began working with Ibanez in 1986 to develop the guitar, and the first production Ibanez JEM 777 guitars were released in 1987. 1990s From 1985 to 1990, Vai recorded Passion and Warfare at his home studio, his second studio solo album. After leaving Roth's band in 1989, Vai bought out of his Capitol Records contract and signed on with Relativity Records for the release of Passion and Warfare, which was completed shortly after he began recording the guitar parts for Whitesnake's Slip of the Tongue album, where he replaced the injured Adrian Vandenberg. Upon its release in November 1989, Slip of the Tongue sold over three million copies worldwide, reaching number 10 on the Billboard 200 while Vai joined the band on their thirteen-month world tour. In May 1990, Vai released Passion and Warfare through Relativity Records, and following its release, the album had reached number 18 in the Billboard 200, selling over a million and a half copies worldwide. Passion and Warfare won Vai a number of awards such as Guitar World and Guitar Player'''s "Best Album" and "Best Rock Guitarist" awards. Passion and Warfare has been cited as one of the most pertinent instrumental albums released. 1990 also saw the release of the Ibanez Universe seven-string guitar co-designed by Vai in conjunction with Ibanez. Vai left Whitesnake in 1990 to pursue his own musical avenues, and formed a band that included Devin Townsend on vocals, T. M. Stevens on bass, and Terry Bozzio on drums. The group released Sex & Religion on July 23, 1993, that was described as visceral in nature, combining a compositional and progressive metal rhythm section with Devin Townsend's vocal arrangements. After the following tour in support of the album, the group disbanded. Vai began working with Ozzy Osbourne in 1994, with whom he wrote and recorded the Ozzmosis album. Due to conflicts, the album was re-written and recorded with Zakk Wylde on guitar. In 1994, Vai won a Grammy award for his performance of "Sofa", from Zappa's Universe. While recording his fourth studio album Fire Garden, Vai took time to record and release the stripped down EP Alien Love Secrets. A departure from the often highly compositional and heavily produced style of his previous projects, the seven-track EP was recorded in four weeks and released through Relativity/Epic Records on March 21, 1995. Vai cites this record as one of his favorites, saying "The recording and release of Alien Love Secrets marked another turning point in my personal evolution. I was more concerned with making the record that I wanted to make, and not worry about what some others thought I should be doing." On September 17, 1996, Vai released Fire Garden, 19-track double album, through Epic, with the first half being primarily instrumental while the second half featured Vai on vocals. After the release of Fire Garden, Vai joined his former teacher Joe Satriani, along with guitarist Eric Johnson, for the second installment of the ongoing G3 concert tours. On each G3 tour, three guitar-centric headlining acts are chosen to perform their own sets, and then collectively jam to fan favorite songs at the end of the show. G3: Live in Concert, a video of the 1996 tour was filmed in Columbus, Ohio and released on June 3, 1997. In 1998, Vai independently released a performance footage DVD of Alien Love Secrets. Also in 1998, Vai started the Make a Noise Foundation with his then-manager Ruta Sepetys. The goal of the foundation was to provide funding for musical education to those otherwise unable to attain it. Today, Vai often auctions items in his possession with proceeds going to the foundation. At the close of the decade, Vai provided guitar for Joe Jackson's Symphony No. 1, released in 1999 and winner of the 2001 Grammy for Best Pop Instrumental Album. 2000s In December 2001, Vai recorded two performances at The Astoria in London, with his band The Breed (composed of former David Lee Roth bandmate Billy Sheehan, guitarist/pianist Tony MacAlpine, guitarist Dave Weiner, and drummer Virgil Donati). This live show was released independently in DVD format as Steve Vai: Live at the Astoria, London in 2003, and was Vai's first of many successful live concert DVD projects. In 2004, Vai released twelve tracks from the DVD in an online only release. 2001 saw the limited release of The Secret Jewel Box, a conceptual ten-CD box set containing unique material from various eras of Vai's career. Four compilation albums (The Elusive Light and Sound Vol. 1; Mystery Tracks – Archives Vol. 3; Various Artists – Archives Vol. 4; and Vai: Piano Reductions, Vol. 1) included as part of the box set, were released to the public both in 2001 and the years following. Also in 2001, Vai's record label Favored Nations released No Substitutions: Live in Osaka. The release, which Vai himself produced and engineered, won him his second Grammy award for Best Pop Instrumental Album in February 2002. While most widely recognized for his stature as a rock guitar player, Vai is also a musical composer fluent in the composition and arranging of orchestral music. In May 2004, Vai premiered "The Aching Hunger", a project commissioned by the Netherlands Programme Service and performed with the Netherlands' Metropole Orchestra. "The Aching Hunger" performances consisted of two parts: the first showcasing Vai's original contemporary orchestral compositions, and the second consisting of Vai (on guitar) playing newly arranged material from his catalog with the orchestra. This project yielded both the Visual Sound Theories DVD and the Sound Theories Vol. I & II album, which were recorded in 2005 during multiple "Aching Hunger" performances and released in June 2007. While "The Aching Hunger" and its following releases started Vai's public career as an orchestral composer, Vai had been composing since he began a music theory class (taught by Bill Westcott) in high school. In speaking of Westcott, Vai says "He taught me how to write, compose and appreciate music. There was no greater musical influence in my life." In 2005, Vai released Real Illusions: Reflections, the first installment in an ongoing three-part trilogy concept album. Each of the three installments to the series contain material (songs, lyrics, and both spoken and written narration) with particular relationships to the storyline, purposefully left out of order. Upon the release of the third installment, Vai intends to complete a fourth album of material, which will then be released with the previous three installments and completed storyline in order. In speaking of the storyline, Vai says "It's a human interest story, about the human condition. ... It's a story about this man who has a traumatic experience in his life, and it drives him insane. We see the story through his eyes. It also involves the town he lives in and this stranger that enters the town who's like a shaman; he builds this giant edifice, like a reflecting pond, and when people come to it they see aspects of their personalities and identities and discover things about themselves. There's some comedy involved, too, but it's pretty esoteric. It's about a lot of lofty principles, so it's not a bad idea to dish this all out slowly." The installments to the series will be released over periods of time, with the second, The Story of Light, having been released in 2012. In 2006, Vai joined the Zappa Plays Zappa tour as a special guest, alongside additional Zappa band alumni Terry Bozzio and Napoleon Murphy Brock. In 2008, for his performance of "Peaches en Regalia" from the Zappa Plays Zappa tour, Vai won his third Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance. Having always enjoyed the aspect of teaching and sharing his experiences in life and in the music business, Vai began a series of "Alien Guitar Secrets" masterclasses in 2006- a touring masterclass in which Vai holds open forum discussion about his own experiences in the music industry, explains the key principles to understanding success, plays to backing tracks (often inviting class attendees to jam with him), answers questions, articulates key points of guitar technique, and more importantly goes beyond the technique and into the more profound esoteric principles at play (see Notable contributions for more on this). In support of Sound Theories Vol. I & II and Visual Sound Theories, Vai put together a new band for a five-month world tour of the United States, Europe, South America, and Australia. While evaluating unique options for the band (which included ideas for a horn section or percussion section), Vai began auditioning violin players to complement the new lineup. This new band, known as the String Theories band, featured previous The Breed members Jeremy Colson (drums) and Dave Weiner (guitar and sitar), along with new members Bryan Beller (bass), Alex DePue (violin), and Ann Marie Calhoun (violin). During a month of twelve- to fifteen-hour a day rehearsals, Vai and the band perfected the performance (which consisted of pieces from Vai's catalog, arranged by Vai to include the two violins). The tour began in June 2007 and ended in December the same year. Midway through the String Theories tour in 2007, Vai recorded a performance at the State Theatre in Minneapolis, which yielded the acclaimed 2009 live concert DVD and Blu-ray release of Where the Wild Things Are. Certified gold in the United States and Canada, Where the Wild Things Are showcased the diverse musical range of the String Theories band, with pieces such as the visceral Grammy-nominated "Now We Run", to the dynamic ballad "Angel Food". 2007 also marked the 20th anniversary of the production of the Ibanez JEM guitar, a milestone which was commemorated with the 20th anniversary JEM model. Made of an acrylic body with three-dimensional "swirl painted" interior, this guitar can be seen in the beginning of the Where the Wild Things Are DVD. In 2008, Vai announced the release of his signature Ibanez Jemini distortion pedal, a twin distortion pedal with both a custom overdrive and lead distortion section. 2010s 2010 marked the twentieth anniversary of the production of the Ibanez Universe guitar, which was commemorated with a twentieth anniversary Universe model. A reissue of the early 1990s Universe 77 MC (multi-color swirl), the model included a new five-piece maple/bubinga Universe neck and original swirl-paint job by Darren Johansen (the painter of the original Universe 77 MC guitars). In February 2010, Vai announced the introduction of "VaiTunes", a platform used to release digital-only singles via iTunes and other digital media outlets. In April, Vai performed with Mary J. Blige, Orianthi, Randy Jackson, and Travis Barker for a rendition of the Led Zeppelin classic "Stairway to Heaven", on the hit television show American Idol. October 2010 saw more movement from Vai as a composer, with the premiere of two original symphonies at the Steve Vai Festival in Groningen, the Netherlands, and performed by the North Netherlands Orchestra. Shortly after the festival, Vai embarked on the Experience Hendrix tour (along with Eric Johnson, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Susan Tedeschi, Billy Cox, Vernon Reid, Robert Randolph, Jonny Lang, Brad Whitford, and others) for a nationwide tour of the United States. In March 2011, Vai (in conjunction with the online education division of Berklee College of Music) set a Guinness World Record for the world's largest online guitar lesson. The lesson was held as a promotion for Berklee's online "Steve Vai Guitar Techniques" course, which Vai helped to construct. In April 2011, Vai (along with music and technology entrepreneur Andy Alt) announced the launch of GuitarTV, an online streaming website dedicated to bringing free guitar-related content to the community of guitar players around the world. Vai's eighth studio album, The Story of Light, was released in August 2012 as the second installment in the Real Illusions concept album trilogy. The Story of Light tour, which began on the month of the album's release, spanned 254 engagements in 52 different countries, ending in September 2014. This tour yielded the 2015 release of Vai's fourth live DVD project Stillness in Motion, filmed in October 2012 during his Story of Light tour at the Club Nokia in Los Angeles. Released on April 7, the double-disc set contained a copy of the Stillness in Motion concert footage and a special bonus feature disc called The Space Between the Notes. The latter is a complete chronological timeline of the Story of Light tour, with a video or picture representation of each show of all of the 254 engagements attended. 2014 saw the announcement of a new, intensive guitar camp called the "Vai Academy", which was an evolution of the Alien Guitar Secrets masterclass. Each year the camp is held, Vai creates a syllabus with a particular theme and invites special guests to help him teach it. During the day, Vai and the special guests (of whom have included Guthrie Govan, Jeff Baxter, Vernon Reid, Eric Johnson, Sonny Landreth, and others) hold classes in which they add their insight and perspective to the theme. Each evening, Vai and the special guests jam with the campers. The themes have included 2014's Vai Academy- Song Evolution Camp, and 2015's Vai Academy: All About the Guitar. Vai has announced an upcoming 2016 release commemorating the 25th anniversary of Passion and Warfare. This release contains remastered songs from the album, as well as the inclusion of a new album of material written from the time between the recording of Passion and Warfare and his first solo album Flex-Able. After the release, Vai held a world tour in which he played the entire Passion and Warfare album, along with material from the new release. The tour would continue during the first half of 2017. In 2016, Vai played an uncredited guitar solo on the track "Go!," from the album Junk by French electronic band M83. In April an May of the same year, Vai took part in the Generation Axe tour, alongside Tosin Abasi, Nuno Bettencourt, Yngwie Malmsteen, and Zakk Wylde. Starting in June, Vai embarked on the Passion and Warfare 25th Anniversary World Tour, where he played the album in its entirety for the first time. Vai is a featured artist on the track "Do You Feel Love" from Jacob Collier's 2019 album Djesse Vol. 2. 2020–present On December 1, 2021, Steve Vai announced the release of his forthcoming tenth studio album, entitled Inviolate, alongside its lead single "Little Pretty." The album was released on January 28, 2022. Upon release, it debuted at No. 1 on the Current Hard Rock Albums chart - his first No. 1 album debut - No. 8 on Top Hard Rock Albums, and No. 40 on Top Album Sales. To support the album, Vai will embark upon a 54 date American tour of the same name. In 2021, Vai was also featured on a track called "Lost Children of the Universe" from the Star One Project of Ayreon. Also on the track are Roy Khan, Tony Martin, Marcela Bovio, and Irene Jansen. Media appearances Video games "Juice", from Alien Love Secrets, was featured on the 1996 video game Formula One for the PlayStation. Vai's guitar work also appeared in the 2002 video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City. David Lee Roth's "Yankee Rose" was featured on Vice Citys soundtrack, as well as "God Blessed Video" by Alcatrazz, as part of the Lazlow-led, 1980s rock/metal radio station "V-Rock." In 2004, Vai was featured on the soundtrack to the Xbox video game Halo 2, performing a heavy rock guitar rendition of the "Halo theme", known as "Halo Theme (MJOLNIR Mix)". He also performed on the track "Never Surrender". He later featured in the second volume of the soundtrack, where he performed on the track "Reclaimer". Vai returned to re-record his Halo work for the Halo 2 Anniversary Original Soundtrack, which was released in 2014 and included as part of the anniversary edition of Halo 2. In an interview shot during the development of Halo 2 Anniversary, Vai reveals that his part in the “MJOLNIR Mix” was a last minute inclusion in the song. In 2008, Vai's song "For the Love of God" and "Halo Theme (MJOLNIR Mix)" were featured as downloadable tracks for the game Guitar Hero 3. A live version of "For the Love of God" was also available on the Rock Band Network service, as well as the song "Get the Hell Out of Here" from his 2002 compilation album The Elusive Light and Sound Vol. 1 on March 4, 2010. "The Attitude Song" and a live version of "The Crying Machine" were both also added to the Rock Band Network. A re-recording of "Speeding" is featured in the 2010 video game Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock for Xbox 360, Wii and PlayStation 3. Films In 1986, Vai was cast in director Walter Hill's film Crossroads as the Devil's guitar player "Jack Butler." In the "cutting heads" scene between Vai's Jack Butler and Ralph Macchio's Eugene "Lightning" Martone, Vai wrote and performed all guitar parts with the exception of the slide guitar (which was performed by Ry Cooder). The main body of the final piece performed in the duel scene (the fast-paced neoclassical track "Eugene's Trick Bag") was based heavily on Niccolò Paganini's Capriccio number 5. The Crossroads duel appeared on the 2002 album The Elusive Light and Sound Vol. 1. In 1987, Vai performed "Amazing Grace" in the film Dudes. In 1991, Vai performed on the film Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey, as well as on 1992's Encino Man, PCU (1994), and John Carpenter's Ghosts of Mars (where he played on the tracks "Ghosts of Mars" and "Ghost Poppin'"). In 2010, Vai's record label Favored Nations produced and released the award-winning original motion picture Crazy. An independent film, Crazy was inspired by the life and music of the guitarist Hank Garland. Style and influence At the age of thirteen, after having purchased his first guitar and begun taking his first lessons from fellow New York native Joe Satriani, Vai became obsessed with the discipline of practice. Vai's practice routine, consisting of a rigid and structured regimen of ten-to-fifteen hour-a-day practice schedules, became the basis of his work ethic for the rest of his career. During his employment by Frank Zappa, Vai transcribed and played very rhythmically complex music, believing that if started slow and perfected, any piece of music could be played. Vai's first solo album, Flex-able, began his career as a solo artist in 1984. During the period of time that the album was recorded, Vai was heavily influenced by his previous tenure in Frank Zappa's band. Originally not intended for release, Flex-able expressed a certain creative "quirky" and "angular" freedom in the eclectic nature of Vai's writing style. Passion and Warfare, Vai's second solo album, expressed a more mature and evolved "signature" style but retained a certain freedom of unfettered inspiration that would continue to influence Vai's future releases. In speaking of his inspiration, Vai has said that it comes to him in many forms (even from the flowers pushed up against a fence outside of his studio, which he transcribed and used in the ninth track "Weeping China Doll", from The Story of Light. While expressing that he is not continuously inspired, Vai uses a concept he calls "musical meditation" to enter a state of consciousness that he calls "The Ultra Zone". When inside this un-critical frame of mind, Vai is able to achieve inspiration in the form of musical ideas (often in forms of melody or rhythm). For these moments of inspiration, Vai created what he calls the "Infinity Shelf", a drive of thousands of snippets of song ideas that he has collected over his entire career. These esoteric principles are taught by Vai during his Alien Guitar Secrets masterclasses, among a host of other information. Vai's playing style utilizes specialized guitar techniques (such as two-handed tapping, alternate picking, legato, hybrid picking, sweep picking, whammy bar acrobatics, and circular vibrato) in his music, as well as a wide range of recording techniques. Notable contributions Work with Frank Zappa As a transcriptionist for Frank Zappa, Vai transcribed some of Zappa's most rhythmically complex music, using a range of conceptualizations for the notation of rhythmic music. Vai says "While transcribing the material, I was often confronted with situations that led me to reach into the intuitional areas of my imagination to come up with various notational devices and constructions that I had never seen before. I soon discovered that many contemporary composers were then (and are still) using these notations". These concepts can be seen throughout the "Frank Zappa Guitar Book", which were composed of Vai's guitar and drum transcriptions from various Zappa albums. Vai toured with Zappa from 1980 to 1983, performing selections of this technically demanding music with Zappa's band at the time. JEM, PIA, and Universe guitars Vai designed the Ibanez JEM guitar, a unique instrument that incorporated a series of groundbreaking designs that have since become staples in feature throughout the guitar industry, in 1985. In speaking of the development of the guitar, Vai says, "Stratocasters had whammy bars—which were fantastic—but they were very limited, were always going out of tune, and had single-coil pickups. Les Pauls had humbuckers—which gave you that real scream in the bridge position—but no whammy bar, and I didn't like the way they sat. Neither guitar had twenty-four frets. So I went to a guitar shop in Hollywood, where I had these elements implemented into a guitar (what would have been considered a Superstrat at the time). The guitar was designed with a sharper body shape, a large cutaway around the neck, twenty-four frets, a fully floating tremolo system, a specially wired five-way pickup selector switch, and an output jack angled on the side of the body (so that when you step on the cable, it doesn't pull out of your guitar). I knew of course that these features would eventually be taken and used in other guitars, so I did something completely preposterous: I said, 'Put a handle in it!' That way, during videos and photoshoots I could swing the guitar around." Vai had several custom prototypes of these guitars built (which were used on the Eat 'Em and Smile tour) by Joe "Jem" Despagni, a custom guitar luthier and friend of Vai's. Due to Vai's highly coveted position in Roth's band, many guitar companies were eager to propose endorsement opportunities. In response to these offers, Vai sent out the specifications of the JEM guitar, detailing that the company that returned the best guitar would be given the endorsement. Dissatisfied with the guitars returned and unwilling to compromise, Vai held out on a guitar endorsement until Ibanez approached him, sending him an instrument superior to that of the other companies and willing to follow his instructions. After the pre-production prototypes were perfected, the first production Ibanez JEM 777 guitars were unveiled at the NAMM Show in 1987. Since its original 1987 release, the JEM has become one of the longest-running and most successful signature series guitars in history, with its sister guitar, the Ibanez RG, being the second highest-selling guitar (behind the Fender Stratocaster) on the market. Another design by Vai was the Ibanez Universe, the first production seven-string guitar, which was released in 1989. The Universe incorporated many of the aspects that made the JEM a unique instrument (2 octave fretboard, full floating tremolo, humbucker/single coil/humbucker pickup configuration, angled output jack and deeper body cutaways), with an added low 'B' string, allowing for new low-range sonic possibilities. Used by Vai on much of Passion and Warfare and all of Whitesnake's Slip of the Tongue, the Universe was a large stepping stone for the burgeoning Nu-metal genre (with bands such as Korn, Limp Bizkit, Fear Factory and Meshuggah having adopted the instrument and incorporating it into their signature sound). On April 4 of 2020 the Ibanez PIA was introduced, which Vai says is the modernisation and maturing of his original JEM. The PIA model (named after his wife Pia Maiocco), features an alder body and a 5-piece maple / walnut neck with 24 frets, rosewood fretboard with the usual floral inlays. The neck is styled in the classic Ibanez wizard III neck - 430mmR neck radius. The primary way model differs from the JEM for its softer body curves and a Petal Grip handle replacing the original Monkey Grip cutout. It also sports DiMarzio UtoPIA pickups in an HSH configuration, gold hardware and a Prestige locking vibrato unit. Alien Guitar Secrets masterclasses Having always enjoyed the aspect of teaching and sharing his experiences in life and in the music business, Vai began a series of "Alien Guitar Secrets" masterclasses in 2006- a touring masterclass in which Vai holds open forum discussion about his own experiences in the music industry, explains the key principles to understanding success, plays to backing tracks (often inviting class attendees to jam with him), answers questions, articulates key points of guitar technique, and more importantly goes beyond the technique and into the more profound esoteric principles at play. Vai details certain concepts he has discovered that have helped him in all areas of his life and career, both in playing guitar/ musically as well as spiritually. Vai accessibly shares these concepts with masterclass participants using examples from his own experiences, delving into the ongoing process of identifying the self-critical nature of one's own thoughts. Vai explains the techniques and exercises he uses to circumnavigate one's own insecurities and thoughts of self-doubt, and encourages masterclass participants to use these tools in their own lives. Often embarking on masterclass tours through Europe, South America, and Russia, Vai considers this ongoing series of classes as one of his most important contributions. Eventide H3000 Ultra-Harmonizer Guitar effects manufacturer Eventide approached Vai in the mid-1980s to contribute unique ideas for their H3000 effects unit. Vai suggested many specific concepts, such as diatonic pitch change and multi-voice harmony, that were used in the unit and have since become standard algorithms in guitar effects processors. DiMarzio pickups In 1993, Vai's signature series high-output "Evolution" humbucker pickup set was released by DiMarzio. The Evolution pickups use DiMarzio's patented "Dual-Resonance" design. The "EVO 2" humbucker, a lower output model, was released in 2004. Carvin Legacy amplifier In 1997, Vai had begun working with the Carvin Corporation to design a signature series of Legacy amplifiers, which were used on his 1999 Epic Records release The Ultra Zone. The original Legacy I model was released in 1999, with the most recent Legacy III being released in 2012. Touring In the 1990s, Vai began touring in European and Asian countries (such as Russia and China) as well as South America, often having been the first American rock act in history to have performed in these areas. In 2014, Vai performed on the Chinese television station BTV's Spring Festival Global Gala, a program broadcast to over two billion viewers. With the broadcasting of this event on January 26, 2014, Vai became the first rock artist ever broadcast on a Chinese television program. Equipment Vai's personal studio, The Harmony Hut, is a large edifice located in his backyard equipped with a full control room and performance room. The studio, built in 2011, is where Vai currently produces, records, and mixes his new material. Vai has two main signature series Ibanez JEM six-string guitars (dubbed "EVO" and "FLO III") that he uses live and in the studio. "EVO", a prototype Ibanez JEM 7VWH, was received in 1993 while developing Vai's signature DiMarzio Evolution pickups (hence the name of the guitar), and "FLO III" is a basswood Ibanez Los Angeles Custom Shop JEM 7VWH equipped with a Fernandes Sustainer system and a DiMarzio PAF Pro pickup in bridge position. Since early 2021, Steve has been frequently using the 1st prototype of the Onyx Black Ibanez PIA along with "EVO" and "FLO III", which he nicknamed "NILE" (as seen in the "Knappsack" video and various other appearances). NILE has been outfitted with Sustaniac system and a new lightly scalloped neck in January 2022, because Steve had another Onyx Black PIA made for touring purposes (with all modifications he needs on a "road" guitar), but still preferred NILE. His other favourite guitars include "BO", a JEM77BRMR prototype, also equipped with Fernandes Sustainer system and blue LED dot inlays, which was stolen in 2015, but recovered after; the original "FLO" guitar, a transformed original 77FP JEM to 7VWH specifications, also equipped with Fernandes Sustainer System and EVO 2 bridge pickup; and "Bruno" aka "For the Love of God" Ibanez Universe UV77MC seven-string guitar with burnt finish and mirror pickguard (this guitar was used in the For the Love of God music video). Vai uses his signature Carvin Legacy amplifier, as well as Morley Pedals, with whom he has his signature Bad Horsie and Bad Horsie II wah pedals, and Little Alligator volume pedal. Vai uses the Ibanez Jemini distortion pedal, a signature twin distortion pedal with separate overdrive and distortion sections. Before his endorsement with Ibanez, Vai was endorsed by Charvel guitars, most notably using a green and black San Dimas model. In addition, over the course of his career, Vai has used guitars made by various other companies, including Jackson, Fender, and Gavtone. Guitar rig and signal flow Vai's 2016 live guitar rig utilizes his signature Carvin Legacy amplifier (now on its third version), the Fractal Audio Axe-Fx II XL, and an MFC-101 foot controller. Depending on the location and venue, Vai will use either his Legacy I or Legacy III heads, and Carvin Legacy 4x12 speaker cabinets loaded with Celestion Vintage 30 speakers. Vai uses EL-34 tubes by Groove Tubes in his Legacy amps. Vai uses the Fractal Audio Axe-Fx II XL as the only modulation effects unit in his guitar rig. Generally for live use he utilizes the unit for stereo effects such as delay, chorus, and phase, with a separate preset for the parameters of each different song in his setlist. The Axe-Fx MFC-101 foot controller is set up in conjunction with the unit, allowing Vai to switch effects on and off in a fashion reminiscent to that of standard stompboxes. Vai's pedalboard consists of a wah-wah pedal (either his Morley Bad Horsie signature pedal, or a Dunlop Cry Baby 95q), an Ibanez Jemini twin distortion pedal, and DigiTech Whammy DT pitch shifting pedal. The centerpiece of the pedalboard is the Axe-Fx MFC-101 foot controller for the Axe-Fx II XL, which, as previously mentioned, controls the effects in a manner similar to switching on and off stompboxes. There are two expression pedals used for the Axe-Fx, one to act as a volume pedal, and the other to control the harmonizer built into the Axe-Fx unit. The signal from the guitar (usually one of the main guitars "EVO", "FLO III" or more recently, "NILE") goes into either the Morley Bad Horsie or Dunlop 95q wah pedal. From there, it goes directly into the Ibanez Jemini twin distortion pedal, and then to the Digitech Whammy DT. From the output of the Whammy, the signal heads into the input of the Carvin Legacy amplifier head. Out of the effects loop of the Legacy, the signal heads directly into the Axe-Fx II XL, where it is split into stereo and the effects are applied (and controlled via the MFC-101 foot controller). Out of the output of the Axe-Fx, one signal is sent back to the original Legacy head return, and a second is sent to a second Carvin Legacy head return, bypassing the preamp stage completely and acting as a slave power amp. Vai utilizes his stereo setup on effects like delay, where he sets up two separate delay times (one slower and one faster) and allows them to alternate back and forth. The signal is then sent from the amp to the 4x12 Carvin Legacy speaker cabinets loaded with Celestion Vintage 30 speakers. Vai uses AKG microphones to mic his amps, and uses a separate Carvin power amp to power a direct guitar monitor cabinet instead of relying on the PA. Detailed gear diagrams of both Vai's 1999 and 2007 guitar rigs are well-documented. Personal life Since the late 1990s, Vai has resided in Encino, Los Angeles with his family. Vai is married to Pia Maiocco, former bassist of the band Vixen (who can be seen in the 1984 film Hardbodies), with whom he has two children, Julian and Fire Vai. Vai is also a vegetarian and a beekeeper, regularly tending to the beehives kept on his Encino property. Band history Not including guest appearances.Early bands The Ohio Express (1971–1972) Circus ( 1973 to 1976) Ravge ( 1973 to 1976) Bold As Love (1977)Berklee bands Axis (1978–1979) Morning Thunder (1979)Professional bands Frank Zappa (1980–1982) The Out Band ( 1983) The Classified (1984) 777 (1984) Alcatrazz (1984–1985) David Lee Roth (1985–1989) Whitesnake (1989–1991)Solo band (1992–94)Sex & Religion albumVocals: Devin Townsend Guitar: Steve Vai Bass: TM Stevens Drums: Terry Bozzio"Sex & Religion" tourVocals, Guitar: Devin Townsend Guitar, Vocals: Steve Vai Bass: Scott Thunes Keys: Will Riley Drums: Abe Laboriel, Jr., then Toss Panos1995Guitar: Steve Vai Bass: Tony Pimental, then Scott Thunes Keys: Will Riley Drums: Chris Frazier This band toured Russia twice, South America and the US (opening for Bon Jovi).1996–99 Guitar, Vocals: Steve Vai Guitar, Vocals and Keys: Mike Keneally Fretted & Fretless Bass, Vocals: Philip Bynoe Drums: Mike Mangini2000Guitar, Vocals: Steve Vai Guitar, Vocals and Keys: Mike Keneally Guitar: Dave Weiner Fretted & Fretless Bass, Vocals: Philip Bynoe Drums: Mike Mangini Keyboards (South American Tour): Eric Goldberg Drums (South American Tour): Chris Frazier2001–02 – "The Breed" Guitar, Vocals: Steve Vai Bass, Vocals: Billy Sheehan Guitar, Vocals and Keys: Mike Keneally, then Tony MacAlpine Acoustic & Electric Guitars, Sitar: Dave Weiner Drums: Virgil Donati2003–05 – "The Breed" Guitar, Vocals: Steve Vai Bass, Vocals: Billy Sheehan Guitar, Vocals and Keys: Tony MacAlpine Acoustic & Electric Guitars, Sitar: Dave Weiner Acoustic & Electronic Drums & Percussion: Jeremy Colson2007 – "String Theories" Guitar, Vocals: Steve Vai Fretted & Fretless Bass: Bryan Beller (Philip Bynoe on the South American leg) Violin and Keys: Ann Marie Calhoun Violin and Keys: Alex DePue Acoustic & Electric Guitars, Sitar: Dave Weiner Acoustic & Electronic Drums & Percussion: Jeremy Colson2012 – "The Story of Light Band" Guitar, Vocals: Steve Vai Fretted & Fretless Bass, Vocals: Philip Bynoe Acoustic & Electric Harp: Deborah Henson-Conant Acoustic & Electric Guitars, Sitar: Dave Weiner Acoustic & Electronic Drums & Percussion: Jeremy Colson2013 – "The Story of Light Band, Australia, New Zealand and Asian Leg" Guitar, Vocals: Steve Vai Fretted & Fretless Bass, Vocals: Philip Bynoe Acoustic & Electric Guitars: Dave Weiner Acoustic & Electronic Drums & Percussion: Jeremy Colson Keyboards: Michael Arrom2015 – "Stillness in Motion: Live DVD Band" Guitar, Vocals: Steve Vai Fretted & Fretless Bass, Vocals: Philip Bynoe Acoustic & Electric Guitars: Dave Weiner Acoustic & Electronic Drums & Percussion: Jeremy Colson Sitar: Fire Vai Discography Vai started his recording career in 1980 with Frank Zappa, and has since recorded with a plethora of artists and bands. In 1983, Vai began his career as a solo artist with his release of Flex-Able, and solidified his place as a virtuoso rock guitarist with his acclaimed 1990 release of Passion and Warfare. His discography consists of nine studio albums, two EPs, two special albums, eight live albums, twelve soundtracks, twenty compilation albums, and six DVD releases.Studio albums:'Flex-Able (1984)Passion and Warfare (1990)Sex & Religion (1993)Fire Garden (1996)Flex-Able Leftovers (1998)The Ultra Zone (1999)Real Illusions: Reflections (2005)The Story of Light (2012)Modern Primitive (2016)Inviolate (2022) Grammy awards These are the three wins from Vai's 15 solo or collaborative nominations: 1993: Steve Vai - Best Rock Instrumental Performance for "Sofa" from Zappa's Universe2002: Steve Vai et al - Best Pop Instrumental Album for No Substitutions: Live in Osaka2008: Steve Vai et al'' - Best Rock Instrumental Performance for "Peaches en Regalia" single from a Zappa Plays Zappa tour See also List of rock instrumentals Steve Vai songs References External links Audio Interview with Steve Vai on Guitar Jam Daily [ Billboard.com discography of Steve Vai] Steve Vai Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2008) 1960 births 20th-century American guitarists 21st-century American guitarists American heavy metal guitarists Berklee College of Music alumni G3 (tour) Grammy Award winners American people of Italian descent Lead guitarists Living people Musicians from New York (state) People from Nassau County, New York Seven-string guitarists The Ozzy Osbourne Band members Whitesnake members Musicians Institute alumni People from Sylmar, Los Angeles Guitarists from New York (state) Alcatrazz members Generation Axe members Favored Nations artists

262261

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull%20Moose%20Jackson

Bull Moose Jackson

Benjamin Clarence "Bull Moose" Jackson (April 22, 1919 – July 31, 1989) was an American blues and rhythm-and-blues singer and saxophonist, who was most successful in the late 1940s. He is considered a performer of dirty blues because of the suggestive nature of some of his songs, such as "I Want a Bowlegged Woman" and "Big Ten Inch Record". Career Jackson was born Benjamin Joseph Jackson in Cleveland, Ohio. He played violin as a child but quickly became drawn to the saxophone and started his first band, the Harlem Hotshots, while he was still in high school. In 1943, he was recruited as a saxophonist by the bandleader Lucky Millinder, and the musicians in Millinder's band gave him the nickname "Bull Moose" for his appearance. He began singing when he was required to stand in for Wynonie Harris at a show in Lubbock, Texas. Millinder encouraged Jackson to sign a solo contract with Syd Nathan of King Records to play rhythm and blues. The first recording in his own right was "I Know Who Threw the Whiskey", in 1946, an answer song to Millinder's "Who Threw the Whiskey in the Well". The following year, his recording of "I Love You, Yes I Do" reputedly became the first R&B single to sell a million copies, holding the number 1 spot on the R&B chart for three weeks and crossing over to the pop chart, where it reached number 24. He formed his own group, the Buffalo Bearcats, and over the next five years recorded in a wide variety of musical styles, including both romantic crooning and bawdy jump blues. His big hits in 1948 included the double-sided hit "All My Love Belongs to You" / "I Want a Bowlegged Woman", and his biggest R&B chart hit, "I Can't Go on Without You", which stayed at number 1 on the R&B chart for eight weeks. He also made an appearance in the 1948 film Boarding House Blues, with Millinder. In 1949, Jackson covered "Why Don't You Haul Off and Love Me", a song that been successful for Wayne Raney and also for several country-and-western performers. Jackson toured throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s. Around 1951, his band included the bebop composer and arranger Tadd Dameron on piano and Benny Golson, another jazz musician, on saxophone. Some of Jackson's later risqué material, including "Big Ten Inch Record" and "Nosey Joe" (written by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller), caused a sensation during live performances but were too suggestive for the radio, and few of the records were sold. However, his band faithfully played "Big Ten Inch Record" at every show. By the mid-1950s, Jackson was tired of touring and retired from music to work for a catering firm in Washington, D.C., although he occasionally still performed at private parties. In 1961, he re-recorded "I Love You, Yes I Do" with modern high-fidelity equipment and had a minor hit. Twenty years later, the Flashcats, a blues band that performed in western Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia, regularly included "Big Ten Inch Record" in their performances. A local DJ reputedly told the Flashcats that he knew Bull Moose Jackson, and the band's frontman, Carl Grefensette, found him catering at Howard University. Grefensette convinced Jackson to perform with them, and they quickly became a sensation in western Pennsylvania. Jackson then made the Flashcats his backing band and began a revival of his career. He also recorded a comeback album, Moosemania! (1985). During the 1980s, Jackson, then in his 60s, had an extremely successful run performing in the United States and internationally. However, he fell ill with lung cancer in 1987 and retired from the touring circuit in the spring of 1988. An old girlfriend of his came back to care for him during his final illness. He died in Cleveland on July 31, 1989. See also List of jump blues musicians List of artists who reached number one on the Billboard R&B chart References External links Tribute site Recordings American rhythm and blues singers American blues saxophonists Jump blues musicians Dirty blues musicians 1919 births 1989 deaths Musicians from Cleveland Deaths from lung cancer Deaths from cancer in Ohio 20th-century African-American male singers

262262

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansgar%20Elde

Ansgar Elde

Ansgar Elde (27 November 1933 – 4 December 2000) was a Swedish artist famous for his work in ceramics. Elde was a member of the Situationist International (SI). On March 15, 1962, Elde was excluded from the SI along with Jørgen Nash. Both had been on the central committee and were accused of conspiring with certain art collectors. In fact, they had defended Ervin Eisch, Lothar Fischer, Dieter Kunzelmann, Renee Nele, Heimrad Prem, Gretel Stadler, Helmut Sturm and Hand-Peter Zimmer who had been excluded on February 10, 1962. He went on, with Jørgen Nash and others, to work on the Second Situationist International. Elde collaborated with Asger Jorn on the large ceramic work made in Albisola, Italy but transported to Aarhus, Denmark by train. In the early nineties Heike Arndt met Ansgar and accepted his invitation to Savona, Italy, where she developed her work. 1933 births 2000 deaths Swedish artists

262264

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea%20Gabrieli

Andrea Gabrieli

Andrea Gabrieli (1532/1533 – August 30, 1585) was an Italian composer and organist of the late Renaissance. The uncle of the somewhat more famous Giovanni Gabrieli, he was the first internationally renowned member of the Venetian School of composers, and was extremely influential in spreading the Venetian style in Italy as well as in Germany. Life Details on Gabrieli's early life are uncertain. He was probably a native of Venice, most likely the parish of S. Geremia. He may have been a pupil of Adrian Willaert at St. Mark's in Venice at an early age. There is some evidence that he spent time in Verona in the early 1550s, due to a connection with Vincenzo Ruffo, who worked there as maestro di cappella – Ruffo published one of Gabrieli's madrigals in 1554, and Gabrieli also wrote some music for a Veronese academy. Gabrieli is known to have been organist in Cannaregio between 1555 and 1557, at which time he competed unsuccessfully for the post of organist at St. Mark's. In 1562 he went to Germany, where he visited Frankfurt am Main and Munich; while there he met and became friends with Orlande de Lassus, one of the most wide-ranging composers of the entire Renaissance, who wrote secular songs in French, Italian, and German, as well as abundant Latin sacred music. This musical relationship proved immensely fruitful for both composers: while Lassus certainly learned from the Venetian, Gabrieli took back to Venice numerous ideas he learned while visiting Lassus in Bavaria, and within a short time was composing in most of the current idioms, including one which Lassus entirely avoided: purely instrumental music. In 1566 Gabrieli was chosen for the post of organist at St. Mark's, one of the most prestigious musical posts in northern Italy; he retained this position for the rest of his life. Around this time he acquired, and maintained, a reputation as one of the finest current composers. Working in the unique acoustical space of St. Mark's, he was able to develop his unique, grand ceremonial style, which was enormously influential in the development of the polychoral style and the concertato idiom, which partially defined the beginning of the Baroque era in music. His duties at St. Mark's clearly included composition, for he wrote a great deal of music for ceremonial affairs, some of considerable historical interest. He provided the music for the festivities accompanying the celebration of the victory over the Turks in the Battle of Lepanto (1571); he also composed music for the visit of several princes from Japan (1585). Late in his career he also became famous as a teacher. Prominent among his students were his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli; the music theorist Lodovico Zacconi; Hans Leo Hassler, who carried the concertato style to Germany; and many others. The date and circumstances of his death were not known until the 1980s, when the register containing his death date was found. Dated August 30, 1585, it includes the notation that he was "about 52 years old"; his approximate birth date has been inferred from this. His position at St. Mark's was not filled until the end of 1586, and a large amount of his music was published posthumously in 1587. Works Gabrieli was a prolific and versatile composer, and wrote a large amount of music, including sacred and secular vocal music, music for mixed groups of voices and instruments, and purely instrumental music, much of it for the huge, resonant space of St. Mark's. His works include over a hundred motets and madrigals, as well as a smaller number of instrumental works. His early style is indebted to Cipriano de Rore, and his madrigals are representative of mid-century trends. Even in his earliest music, however, he had a liking for homophonic textures at climaxes, foreshadowing the grand style of his later years. After his meeting with Lassus in 1562, his style changed considerably, and the Netherlander became the strongest influence on him. Once Gabrieli was working at St. Mark's, he began to turn away from the Franco-Flemish contrapuntal style which had dominated the music of the 16th century, instead exploiting the sonorous grandeur of mixed instrumental and vocal groups playing antiphonally in the great basilica. His music of this time uses repetition of phrases with different combinations of voices at different pitch levels; although instrumentation is not specifically indicated, it can be inferred; he carefully contrasts texture and sonority to shape sections of music in a way which was unique, and which defined the Venetian style for the next generation. Not everything Gabrieli wrote was for St. Mark's, though. He provided the music for one of the earliest revivals of an ancient Greek drama in Italian translation: Oedipus tyrannus, by Sophocles, for which he wrote the music for the choruses, setting separate lines for different groupings of voices. It was produced at Vicenza in 1585. Evidently Andrea Gabrieli was reluctant to publish much of his own music, and his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli published much of it after his uncle's death. Media References David Bryant: "Andrea Gabrieli", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed July 15, 2007), (subscription access) Denis Arnold, "Andrea Gabrieli," in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. Gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1954. Denis Arnold, Giovanni Gabrieli and the Music of the Venetian High Renaissance. London, Oxford University Press, 1979. Giuseppe Clericetti, "Le composizioni per strumenti a tastiera di Andrea Gabrieli. Catalogo, bibliografia, varianti" in "L'Organo" XXV-XXVI (1987-1988), 9-62. Giuseppe Clericetti, "Martin menoit son pourceau au marché: due intavolature di Andrea Gabrieli" in "Musicus Perfectus. Studi in onore di Luigi Ferdinando Tagliavini nella ricorrenza del LXV. compleanno", Bologna 1995, Pàtron, 147-183. Giuseppe Clericetti, "Una terra di nessuno: le tre Messe per organo di Andrea Gabrieli" in "Fiori Musicologici. Studi in onore di Luigi Ferdinando Tagliavini nella ricorrenza del suo LXX. compleanno", Bologna 2001, Pàtron, 139-170. Editions Sacrae Cantiones, Venezia, Angelo Gardano 1565, modern edition Verlag C. Hofius, Ammerbuch (Germany) 2013, ISMN 979-0-50248-001-1 Il Primo Libro di Madrigali a cinque voci, Venezia, Angelo Gardano 1566, modern edition Ricordi, Milano 2008 Il Secondo Libro di Madrigali a cinque voci, Venezia, Angelo Gardano 1570, modern edition Ricordi, Milano 1996 Primus Liber Missarum, Venezia, Angelo Gardano 1572, modern edition Verlag C. Hofius, Ammerbuch 2014, ISMN 979-0-50248-000-4. Libro Primo de Madrigali a tre voci, modern edition Ricordi, Milano 1999 Ecclesiasticum Cantionum quatuor vocum omnibus sanctorum solemnitatibus deservientium. Liber primus, Venezia, Angelo Gardano 1576, modern edition Ricordi, Milano 2001 Opere edite in vita: Psalmi Davidici, qui poenitentiales nuncupantur, tum omnis generis instrumentorum, Venezia, Angelo Gardano 1583, modern edition Ricordi, Milano 1988 Opera postume. Concerti di Andrea et di Gio. Gabrieli, Venezia, Angelo Gardano 1587, modern edition Ricordi, Milano 1989 Chori in musica composti sopra li chori della tragedia di Edippo Tiranno: recitati in Vicenza l'anno MDLXXXV, Venezia, Angelo Gardano 1588, modern edition Ricordi, Milano 1995 Il terzo Libro de Madrigali a cinque voci, con alcuni di Giovanni Gabrieli, Venezia, Angelo Gardano 1589, modern edition Ricordi, Milano 2012 Madrigali et ricecari a quattro voci, Venezia, Angelo Gardano 1589/90, modern edition Ricordi, Milano 2012 Le composizioni vocali di Andrea Gabrieli in intavolature per tastiera e liuto, modern edition Ricordi, Milano 1993/1999 Complete Keyboard Works (edited by Giuseppe Clericetti), 6 Vol. + Critical Report, Wien 1997-99, Doblinger (Diletto Musicale 1141-46, 09671). Notes External links 1530s births 1585 deaths 16th-century classical composers 16th-century Italian musicians 16th-century Venetian people Italian Baroque composers Italian male classical composers Italian musicians Renaissance composers Venetian School (music) composers

262267

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaokor%20Galaxy

Kaokor Galaxy

Kaokor Galaxy, also written as Khaokor Galaxy (Thai: เขาค้อ แกแล็คซี่, born, May 15, 1959) is a former Thai professional Bantamweight and World Boxing Association (WBA), earned twice world champion in his own right. He won World Bantam Title in May 1988 and July 1989, a weight class in combat sports (118-pound). Khaokor is the twin brother of boxing star Khaosai Galaxy (the record holder for the world's mostest Junior bantamweight title defense 19 times). Muay Thai career Khaokor Galaxy was born as "Virote Saenkham" (Thai: วิโรจน์ แสนคำ, nicknamed: Rote) and raised in Ban Chaliang Lab, Tambon Na Pha, Mueang Phetchabun, Phetchabun, Thailand) He was born after Khaosai as twins. They both are the son of Mr. Kan Seankam and Ms. Kam Seankam, they have five children. In fact, he was born after Khaosai. However, with the belief of Thai people since ancient times that twins the person who were born first was a younger brother, so he became Khaosai's older brother through this belief. Khaokor was graduated at Phetchabun Technical College same as Khaosai. Khaokor and Khaosai always liked boxing and flighting from the child. Their parents bought the Muay Thai Boxing Gloves for playing at home. Until their parents took them to meet their first Muay Thai Boxing trainers, Prakan Vornsiri and Mana Lhawpradit, they then started practicing Muay Thai particularly. Khaokor was named as Denja Mueangsritep (Thai: เด่นจ๋า เมืองศรีเทพ) for Muay Thai competition, which is related to Khaosai as Dawden Mueangsritep (Thai: ดาวเด่น เมืองศรีเทพ). Both of them got in the competition around Phetchabun and other provinces nearby. Khaokor started joining the competition before Khaosai and he used to join the contest in the name of Khaosai. Later, Niwat Lhawsuwanwat (Thai: นิวัฒน์ เหล่าสุวรรณวัฒน์) accepted and took them to Bangkok for the professional training program and joined many competitions in Bangkok. Boxing career Like his brother, Sura Saenkham started his career in the sport of kickboxing and later switched to orthodox boxing. After became a sport star in his native country, he followed a long-standing Thai custom of adopting an attention-getting ringname and thus became known as Khaokor Galaxy () after Khaokor, a renowned natural tourist attraction at his birthplace. As his professional international boxing career began after he had trained with his brother, Khaosai, until earned the Thailand Bantamweight (118-pound) by 1981. Khaokor wanted to go to the international contest, he also won and beat many top-ranking boxers. Khaosai won the Thailand Bantamweight title and claimed the WBA Junior bantamweight world champion, became popular and joined many international contests after then. Khaokor Galaxy made his professional boxing début in 1985, winning his first seven fights before capturing the Thailand Bantamweight title in July 1986. He held that crown until 9 May 1988, when he upset Puerto Rico's Wilfredo Vazquez to take the WBA Bantamweight title. With the victory, the Galaxy brothers became the first twins ever to be the world champions. Khaokor was also the first Thai boxer to be a world champion in this weight class. Before that, there have been many Thai boxers who have challenged the world championships in the Bantamweight category but without success, for example Chamroen Songkitrat in 1950s, Venice Borkhorsor and Thanomchit Sukhothai in 1970s. Khaokor lost the title three months later in his first defence against Korean Sung-Kil Moon, when an accidental clash of heads caused a sixth-round stoppage with Khaokor behind on points. He bounced back with five straight wins to earn a rematch with Moon on 9 July 1989. This match, Khaokor won easily, took all 12 rounds on two scorecards and eleven of the twelve on the third. Once again though, Khaokor lost the title in his first defence three months later, against Luisito Espinosa. Surprisingly, he retired at that point with a record of 24 wins and just two losses. The defeat to Espinosa was unexpected, but Khaokor was caught with a left hook, and about 20 seconds later just collapsed out of thin air. Retirement followed defeat, no doubt the possibility of severe injury was the uppermost thought in Khaokor's mind. After Khaokor and Khaosai were titled world championships, Tam Pai Doo, a variety TV show on Channel 9, organized a special contest to find between Khaokor and Khaosai who is the greatest boxer, the contest was produced at Rajadamnern Stadium, Bangkok, Khaosai beat Khaokor by the scores eventually via three rounds. Retirement After Khaokor lost the champion, two months later, Khaokor and Khaosai were heading to their home, Phetchabun. They had the event to meet their fans in Phetchabun, while driving went home, they had a car accident, driven by Khaosai. Khaokor got a serious injury, was in the ICU room for 21 days and got a big scar on his chin, but Khaosai just got a little bit injury and could come back to join the contest after that not very long. Khaokor decided to retire after his recovery from the car accident, but he still helped Khaosai train the boxing as same as before. Until Khaosai also decided to retire, Khaokor went back to look after his business full-time, snook club. A while his retirement, he got a film job as a main actor for a low-budget Thai movie titled "My name is..Mahingsa" (Thai: ข้าชื่อ..มหิงสา), and Khaokor was also a boxing trainer for Siriporn Thaweesuk (Thai: ศิริพร ทวีสุข), a first Thai female professional boxing world champion. In his retirement time, Khaokor had many businesses such as snook club, selling car roof accessories, and restaurant in Bangkok. Also he used to work as a recreation attendant for the Phetchabun Government and worked for pawnshop. Personal life Khaokor used to be very rich from boxing competitions but spent a lot of money with his ex-girlfriends. Once, he became very poor but still got many opportunities to get the jobs and becomes settled again. Currently, Khaokor married Tak Jirapwan (Thai: แต๊ก จีรวรรณ) and they have two sons, with four years age difference. Khaokor Galaxy opponents References External links 1959 births Living people Bantamweight boxers World bantamweight boxing champions World Boxing Association champions Kaokor Galaxy Kaokor Galaxy Kaokor Galaxy Kaokor Galaxy

262269

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards

1988 Governor General's Awards

Each winner of the 1988 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit received $5000 and a medal from the Governor General of Canada. The winners and nominees were selected by a panel of judges administered by the Canada Council for the Arts. English Language Fiction Winner: David Adams Richards, Nights Below Station Street Other Finalists: Margaret Atwood, Cat's Eye Joan Clark, The Victory of Geraldine Gull Mark Frutkin, Atmospheres Apollinaire Kenneth Radu, The Cost of Living Poetry Winner: Erín Moure, Furious Other Finalists: Lorna Crozier, Angels of Flesh, Angels of Silence Christopher Dewdney, Radiant Inventory David McFadden, Gypsy Guitar Peter Dale Scott, Coming to Jakarta Drama Winner: George F. Walker, Nothing Sacred Other Finalists: Dennis Foon, Skin from Skin and Liars Tomson Highway, The Rez Sisters Maureen Hunter, Footprints on the Moon Non-fiction Winner: Anne Collins, In the Sleep Room Other Finalists: Pierre Berton, The Arctic Grail Alan Borovoy, When Freedoms Collide Edith Iglauer, Fishing with John Children's Literature – Text Winner: Welwyn Wilton Katz, The Third Magic Other Finalists: Martha Brooks, Paradise Café and Other Stories Brian Doyle, Easy Avenue Jean Little, Little by Little Children's Literature – Illustration Winner: Kim LaFave, Amos's Sweater Other Finalists: Marie-Louise Gay, Angel and the Polar Bear Jillian Hulme Gilliland, How the Devil Got His Cat Dayal Kaur Khalsa, Sleepers Jan Thornhill, The Wildlife ABC Translation (From French to English) Winner: Philip Stratford, Second Chance Other Finalists: Arnold Bennett, The History of the Labour Movement in Quebec Jane Brierley, A Man of Sentiment: The Memoirs of Philippe-Joseph Aubert de Gaspé David Homel, How to Make Love to a Negro French Language Fiction Winner: Jacques Folch-Ribas, Le Silence ou le Parfait Bonheur Other Finalists: Noël Audet, L'Ombre de l'épervier Normand Chaurette, Scènes d'enfants Christian Mistral, Vamp Poetry Winner: Marcel Labine, Papiers d'épidémie Other Finalists: François Charron, Le Monde comme obstacle Louise Dupré, Bonheur Gilbert Langevin, La Saison hantée Drama Winner: Jean-Marc Dalpé, Le Chien Other Finalists: Normand Canac-Marquis, Le Syndrome de Cézanne Marie-Francine Hébert, Oui ou non Marco Micone, Déjà l'agonie André Ricard, Le Déversoir des larmes Non-fiction Winner: Patricia Smart, Écrire dans la maison du père Other Finalists: Jacques Desautels, Dieux et Mythes de la Grèce ancienne Lucien Parizeau, Périples autour d'un langage Fernande Roy, Progrès, harmonie, liberté Children's Literature – Text Winner: Michèle Marineau, Cassiopée ou l'Été polonais Other Finalists: Denis Côté, Les prisonniers du zoo Cécile Gagnon, Châteaux de sable André Vanasse, Des Millions pour une chanson Children's Literature – Illustration Winner: Philippe Béha, Les Jeux de Pic-Mots Other Finalists: Sylvie Daigle, Le Mot de passe Pierre Pratt, Peut-il, peut-elle? Gilles Tibo, Simon et les flocons de neige Translation (From English to French) Winner: Didier Holtzwarth, Nucléus Other Finalists: Gérard Boulad, Profession: Religieuse Jean Lévesque and Michèle Venet, Le Rêve d'une génération Michel Saint-Germain, Flagrant Délice Governor General's Awards Governor Generals Awards, 1988 Governor

262270

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave%20drag

Wave drag

In aeronautics, wave drag is a component of the aerodynamic drag on aircraft wings and fuselage, propeller blade tips and projectiles moving at transonic and supersonic speeds, due to the presence of shock waves. Wave drag is independent of viscous effects, and tends to present itself as a sudden and dramatic increase in drag as the vehicle increases speed to the critical Mach number. It is the sudden and dramatic rise of wave drag that leads to the concept of a sound barrier. Overview Wave drag is a component of pressure drag due to compressibility effects. It is caused by the formation of shock waves around a body. Shock waves create a considerable amount of drag, which can result in extreme drag on the body. Although shock waves are typically associated with supersonic flow, they can form at subsonic aircraft speeds on areas of the body where local airflow accelerates to supersonic speed. The effect is typically seen on aircraft at transonic speeds (about Mach 0.8), but it is possible to notice the problem at any speed over that of the critical Mach of that aircraft. It is so pronounced that, prior to 1947, it was thought that aircraft engines would not be powerful enough to overcome the enhanced drag, or that the forces would be so great that aircraft would be at risk of breaking up in midflight. It led to the concept of a sound barrier. Research In 1947, studies into wave drag led to the development of perfect shapes to reduce wave drag as much as theoretically possible. For a fuselage the resulting shape was the Sears–Haack body, which suggested a perfect cross-sectional shape for any given internal volume. The von Kármán ogive was a similar shape for bodies with a blunt end, like a missile. Both were based on long narrow shapes with pointed ends, the main difference being that the ogive was pointed on only one end. Reduction of drag A number of new techniques developed during and just after World War II were able to dramatically reduce the magnitude of wave drag, and by the early 1950s the latest fighter aircraft could reach supersonic speeds. These techniques were quickly put to use by aircraft designers. One common solution to the problem of wave drag was to use a swept wing, which had actually been developed before World War II and used on some German wartime designs. Sweeping the wing makes it appear thinner and longer in the direction of the airflow, making a conventional teardrop wing shape closer to that of the von Kármán ogive, while still remaining useful at lower speeds where curvature and thickness are important. The wing need not be swept when it is possible to build a wing that is extremely thin. This solution was used on a number of designs, beginning with the Bell X-1, the first manned aircraft to fly at the speed of sound. The downside to this approach is that the wing is so thin it is no longer possible to use it for storage of fuel or landing gear. Such wings are very common on missiles, although, in that field, they are often referred to as "fins". Fuselage shaping was similarly changed with the introduction of the Whitcomb area rule. Whitcomb had been working on testing various airframe shapes for transonic drag when, after watching a presentation by Adolf Busemann in 1952, he realized that the Sears-Haack body had to apply to the entire aircraft, not just the fuselage. This meant that the fuselage needed to be made narrower where it joined the wings, so that the cross-section of the entire aircraft matched the Sears-Haack body. Application of the area rule can also be seen in the use of anti-shock bodies on transonic aircraft, including some jet airliners. Anti-shock bodies, which are pods along the trailing edges of the wings, serve the same role as the narrow waist fuselage design of other transonic aircraft. Other drag reduction methods Several other attempts to reduce wave drag have been introduced over the years. The supercritical airfoil is a type that results in reasonable low speed lift like a normal airfoil, but has a profile considerably closer to that of the von Kármán ogive. All modern civil airliners use forms of supercritical aerofoil and have substantial supersonic flow over the wing upper surface. Mathematical formula For flat plate aerofoil For double-wedge aerofoil References Wave mechanics Drag (physics)

262278

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCD%20%28disambiguation%29

OCD (disambiguation)

OCD is an abbreviation that may stand for: Medical uses Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), a mental disorder Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), a mental disorder that is often mistakenly called OCD On-call duty, a long shift that may be assigned to medical residents Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics, an American company Osteochondritis dissecans, a painful joint condition in humans and animals Computing OCD, the file suffix used by OCAD mapping software Object collision detection On-chip debugging Offices and institutions Office of Civil Defense, the National Emergency Management Agency of the Philippines Office of Civilian Defense, a World War II-era U.S. government agency Office of Community Development, a part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's rural development activities OCD or O.C.D., the post-nominal initials for members of the Catholic order of Discalced Carmelites (from the Latin, Ordo Carmelitarum Discalceatorum) Other "O.C.D.", a song by Suicide Silence from their third album The Black Crown Obsessive Completion Distinction, an achievement demanding extraordinary attention to detail in the video game World of Goo Octavian County Day School, a school attended by characters of Lisi Harrison's The Clique books OCD overdrive pedal by Fulltone "OCD", a song by Logic featuring Dwn2Earth Offshore Development Center Okanogan Conservation District Oxford Classical Dictionary

262280

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8rgen%20Nash

Jørgen Nash

Jørgen Nash (March 16, 1920 – May 17, 2004) was a Danish artist, writer and central proponent of Situationism. Life He was born in Vejrum, Jutland, Denmark, baptized Jørgen Axel Jørgensen, the brother of Asger Jorn. He later changed his family name from Jørgensen to Nash. He was married three times and had six children. His last marriage was with the painter Lis Zwick and would last until his death in 2004. The last forty years of his life he lived in the artist collective Drakabygget outside Örkelljunga, Sweden. From 1948 to 1951 he was involved with CoBrA. He went on to join the Situationist International. In 1959 he produced Stavrim, Sonetter a book of poetry illustrated by Jorn. In 1960 he founded the Situationist Bauhaus based at the farm Drakabygget with Jorn. He is the editor of Drakabygget, a journal about art and social philosophy. In 1963 became an honorary artist of the Royal Danish Academy of Art. Exhibitions He has exhibited at: Galerias del Palacio de Belles Artes, Mexico City Kobe Art Museum, Kobe, Japan Museum of Modern Art New York Moderna Museet National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo Museum de Art Moderno, Mexico City Ueno Royal Museum, Tokyo Rooseum, Sweden The Modern Art Gallery Silkeborg, Denmark Museo Carillo Gil, Mexico City Klingspor-Museum, Offenbach am Main, Germany Yokohama City Art Hall, Yokohama, Japan Tessin Institute, Paris Museo National de Belles Artes and Centro Wifredo Lam, Havana, Cuba Skissernas Museum, Lund, Sweden Kongelige Kobberstiksamling, Copenhagen, Denmark Centre Pompidou, Paris Royal Academi of Art, Stockholm Museu Dárt Contemporani, Barcelona, Spain Exclusion from the SI On 10 February 1962, Nash voted with the majority of the Central Council of the Situationist International, for the exclusion of the Spur group. The majority was 5 to 1, with Dieter Kunzelmann be the only opposer. Nash rebuked those responsible for Spur, was initially in favor of them publishing a retraction, but stopped short of demanding an exclusion. After a debate on this subject, however, Nash decided on the option of exclusion. Kunzelmann too, the only opposing vote, and himself part of Spur, expressed his approval of all the Central Council's critiques towards the other Spur members. In Sweden, on March 1962, Jörgen Nash suddenly attacked the SI in the name of the Scandinavian section, with the tract Danger! Do Not Lean Out, and planned to convert the section in another Swedish "Bauhaus". Reckoning on the considerable geographical dispersion of the Scandinavian situationists, Nash had not even consulted with all of them before his putsch. Surprised at not being unanimously followed and at finding himself countered on the spot by the partisans of the SI majority — Jeppesen Victor Martin, who immediately circulated a definitive repudiation of his imposture — Nash at first feigned astonishment that things had gone to the point of a complete break with the situationists; as if the fact of launching a public surprise attack full of lies was compatible with carrying on a dialogue, on the basis of some sort of Nashist Scandinavian autonomy. According to the SI, Nash's main goal was to use the seal of "situationism" to attract a few highly profitable art dealers. The SI stated that this was confirmed by the fact that Nash's new Swedish "Bauhaus", which consisted of two or three Scandinavian ex-situationists plus "a mass of unknowns flocking to the feast", immediately plunged into "the most shopworn forms of artistic production". According to the SI, the development of this conspiracy was no doubt precipitated by the recent elimination of the SI's right wing, the Spur group, on whose support the Nashists had relied. In the tract Danger! Do Not Lean Out, Nash, with Ansgar Elde and Jacqueline de Jong, stated that although there may be grounds to criticise the Spur group (Ervin Eisch, Lothar Fischer, Dieter Kunzelmann, Renee Nele, Heimrad Prem, Gretel Stadler, Helmut Sturm and Hand-Peter Zimmer), the way they had been expelled, and the SI itself, were totalitarian. However, the decision followed a debate and was voted by the majority 5 to 1, with Nash also voting in favor of it. Nash also implied that Ansgar Elde was present at the Council and that Jacqueline de Jong was part of if, which was false. The SI, at the behest of Jeppesen Victor Martin, described those they had expelled as nashists. On 24 April 1964 Nash with other members of Bauhaus Situationniste decapitated the statue of The Little Mermaid in Copenhagen harbour. This manifestation was part of the movements campaign against consumerist society. Following his exclusion he became involved in the Second Situationist International and the creation in 1974 of the Situationist Antinational. See also Stewart Home See also Jorgen Nash, Hangegal. Gallisk Poesialbum, med illuminationer af J.V,MNartin og tegninger af Digteren. Edition Internationale Situationniste, 750 numerierte Exemplare References External links ArtNetGallery page Jakob Jakobsen & Mikkel Bolt : Expect Anything Fear Nothing: The Situationist Movement in Scandinavia and Elsewhere 2011 1920 births 2004 deaths Danish painters Modern painters Abstract painters Danish watercolourists 20th-century Danish artists 20th-century Danish writers 20th-century Danish male writers

262281

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernie%20Taupin

Bernie Taupin

Bernard John Taupin (born 22 May 1950) is an English songwriter. He is best known for his long-term collaboration with Elton John, having written the lyrics for most of John's songs. In 1967, Taupin answered an advertisement placed in the music paper New Musical Express by Liberty Records, a company that was seeking new songwriters. John responded to the same advertisement and they were brought together, collaborating on many projects since. Taupin and John were inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1992. Birth and childhood Taupin was born at Flatters House, a farmhouse located between the village of Anwick and the town of Sleaford, in the southern part of Lincolnshire, England, the son of Daphne (née Cort) and Robert Taupin. His paternal grandparents were French. Taupin's father was educated in Dijon and was employed as a stockman by a large farm estate near the town of Market Rasen. Taupin's mother worked as a nanny, having previously lived in Switzerland. The family later moved to Rowston Manor, a significant step up from Flatters farmhouse, which had no electricity. Taupin's father decided to try independent farming, and the family moved to the run-down Maltkiln Farm in the north-Lincolnshire village of Owmby-by-Spital. Taupin's 11-year-younger brother, Kit, was born there. Unlike his older brother, Tony, who attended a grammar school (selective secondary school), Taupin was not a diligent student, although he showed an early flair for writing. At age 15, he left school and started work as a trainee in the print room of the local newspaper, The Lincolnshire Standard, with aspirations of becoming a journalist. Taupin soon left that job, and spent the rest of his teenage years hanging out with friends, hitchhiking the country roads to attend youth club dances in the surrounding villages, playing snooker in the Aston Arms Pub in Market Rasen and drinking. Taupin had worked at several part-time jobs when, at age 17, he answered the advertisement that eventually led to his collaboration with Elton John. Early influences Taupin's mother had studied French literature and his maternal grandfather John Leonard Palchett "Poppy" Cort was a classics teacher and graduate of the University of Cambridge. They instilled in him an appreciation for nature and literature and narrative poetry, both of which influenced his early lyrics. Collaboration with Elton John In 1967, Taupin answered an advertisement for talent that was placed in the New Musical Express by Liberty Records A&R man Ray Williams. Elton John answered the same advert. Neither Taupin nor John passed the audition for Liberty Records. Elton told the man behind the desk that he could not write lyrics, so the man handed Elton a sealed envelope from the pile of people submitting lyrics, which he opened on the London Underground ride home. The envelope contained poems by Taupin. The duo have collaborated on more than thirty albums to date. The team took some time off from each other for a while between 1977 and 1979, while Taupin worked with other songwriters, including Alice Cooper, and John worked with other lyricists, including Gary Osborne and Tom Robinson. (The 1978 single-only A side "Ego" was their only collaboration of note during the period, although John/Taupin B-sides such as "Lovesick" and "I Cry at Night" were issued with the respective singles "Song for Guy" and "Part-time Love" from the album A Single Man.) John and Taupin resumed writing together on an occasional basis in 1980, with Taupin contributing lyrics to several songs on albums such as The Fox, 21 at 33 and Jump Up!. However, by 1983's Too Low for Zero, the two renewed their partnership on a full-time basis and from that point forward Taupin was again John's primary lyricist for his solo releases. John often works with other lyricists on specific theatrical or film projects such as 1994's The Lion King and 2000's Aida, both of which featured lyrics by Tim Rice, and 2005's Billy Elliot, which has script and lyrics by the original film's screenwriter, Lee Hall. Hall also wrote the screenplay for Elton John biopic Rocketman, in which Taupin features as a major character. Taupin wrote the lyrics for "Rocket Man", "Levon", "Crocodile Rock", "Honky Cat", "Tiny Dancer", "Candle in the Wind", "Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting", "Bennie and the Jets", "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road", "Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters", "Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me", "The Bitch is Back", "Daniel", and 1970's "Your Song", their first hit. Hits in the 1980s include "I'm Still Standing", "I Guess That's Why They Call It The Blues", "Sad Songs", and "Nikita." In the 1990s, Taupin and John had more hits, including "The One", "Simple Life", "The Last Song", "Club at the End of the Street" and "Believe." In September 1997, Taupin rewrote the lyrics of "Candle in the Wind" for "Candle in the Wind 1997", a tribute to the late Diana, Princess of Wales. The 1991 film documentary Two Rooms described the John/Taupin writing style, which involves Taupin writing the lyrics on his own and John then putting them to music, with no further interaction between the two. The process is still fundamentally the same, with John composing to Taupin's words, but the two interact on songs far more today, with Taupin joining John in the studio as the songs are written and occasionally during recording sessions. Taupin and John had their first Broadway musical open in March 2006 with Lestat: The Musical. Taupin wrote lyrics for 10 songs (and an 11th completed non-album track "Across the River Thames") for John's 2006 album The Captain & The Kid (sequel to Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy) and appeared on the cover with him for the first time marking their 40th anniversary of working together. ("Across the River Thames" was issued as an Internet-only download as a bonus with certain editions of The Captain & the Kid.) On 25 March 2007, Taupin made a surprise appearance at John's 60th birthday celebration at Madison Square Garden, briefly discussing their 40-year songwriting partnership. Of Taupin's importance to their careers, as recorded on the Elton 60 – Live at Madison Square Garden DVD, John told the audience that without Taupin there probably would not be an 'Elton John' as the public has come to know him. Taupin and John also composed several songs for The Union, a collaboration album between Elton and his longtime hero Leon Russell released in October 2010. They also collaborated on five original songs for the 2011 Miramax movie Gnomeo and Juliet, including the Golden Globe-nominated "Hello Hello". Taupin and John's most-recent album collaboration is Wonderful Crazy Night, released in 2016. In 2018, Taupin and John collaborated on two original songs for the animated film Sherlock Gnomes. In 2019, the movie Rocketman was released, containing an original song written by Taupin and John for the film, "(I'm Gonna) Love Me Again", which plays over the closing credits. The film depicts the personal friendship of Taupin (played by Jamie Bell) and John during the 1970s and 1980s. They later won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for the song "(I'm Gonna) Love Me Again". Collaboration with other artists In addition to writing for Elton John, Taupin has also written lyrics for use by other composers, with notable successes including "We Built This City", which was recorded by Starship, and "These Dreams," recorded by Heart (both of which were collaborations with English composer/musician Martin Page). In 1978, he co-wrote the album From the Inside with Alice Cooper. Taupin has also produced American Gothic for singer-songwriter David Ackles. Released in 1972, it did not enjoy big sales, but the album was highly acclaimed by music critics in the US and UK. The influential British music critic Derek Jewell of the UK Sunday Times described the album as being "the Sgt. Pepper of folk." Of Ackles's four albums, it was the only one recorded in England rather than in the United States. Taupin and Ackles had become acquainted when Ackles was selected to be the co-headlining act for Elton John's 1970 American debut at the Troubadour in Los Angeles. Taupin was mentioned specifically as being one of the reasons American Gothic was selected by the writers and editors for inclusion in the book, 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. He also collaborated on the book Burning Cold with photographer Gary Bernstein. In the late 1980s and early 1990s Taupin also collaborated with French American musician, Josquin Des Pres (20th century musician) on at least 13 songs in his collection that have been performed and recorded by artists worldwide. In 2002, Willie Nelson and Kid Rock recorded "Last Stand in Open Country" for Nelson's album The Great Divide. The song was the title track of the first album from Taupin's band Farm Dogs (see below). Nelson's album included two other Taupin songs, "This Face" and "Mendocino County Line". The latter, a duet between Nelson and Lee Ann Womack, was made into a video and released as the album's first single. The song won the 2003 Grammy for best vocal collaboration in country music. In 2004, he co-wrote Courtney Love's song "Uncool", from her 2004 debut solo album America's Sweetheart. In 2005, he co-wrote the title track to What I Really Want For Christmas with Brian Wilson for his first seasonal album. In 2006, he won a Golden Globe Award for his lyrics to the song "A Love That Will Never Grow Old" from the film Brokeback Mountain. The music of the song was composed by Argentine producer and songwriter Gustavo Santaolalla. Works as a performer Solo albums 1971 – Taupin 1980 – He Who Rides the Tiger 1987 – Tribe With Farm Dogs 1996 – Last Stand in Open Country 1998 – Immigrant Sons In 1971, Taupin recorded a spoken-word album titled Taupin, in which he recites some of his early poems against a background of impromptu, sitar-heavy music created by some members of Elton's band, including Davey Johnstone and Caleb Quaye. Side one, "Child", contains poems about his early childhood in southern Lincolnshire. The first poem, "The Greatest Discovery," which looks at his birth from the perspective of his older brother Tony, was also set to music by Elton John and included on Elton's eponymous second album, Elton John. There are poems about Taupin's first two childhood homes, Flatters and Rowston Manor, and others about his relationship with his brother and grandfather. Side Two includes a variety of poems of varying obscurity, from a marionette telling her own story to a rat catcher who falls victim to his prey. Taupin stated in interviews that he was not pleased with the album. In 1980, Taupin recorded his first album as a singer, He Who Rides the Tiger. The album failed to make a dent in the charts. Taupin later suggested in interviews that he did not have the creative control he would have liked over the album. In 1987, he recorded another album, Tribe. The songs were co-written with Martin Page. "Citizen Jane" and "Friend of the Flag" were released as singles. Videos of both singles featured Rene Russo, the sister of Toni, his wife at that time. In 1996, Taupin formed a band called Farm Dogs, whose two albums were conscious (and successful) throwbacks to the grittier, earthier sound of Tumbleweed Connection. While Taupin wrote the lyrics, the music was a collaborative effort among the band members. Their first album, 1996's Last Stand in Open Country, received critical praise but little airplay. The title track was later recorded by Willie Nelson and Kid Rock for Nelson's 2002 album The Great Divide. In 1998, Farm Dogs released its second and final album, Immigrant Sons. The album was unsuccessful despite a tour of small clubs across America. Non-musical projects In 1973, Taupin collected all his lyrics up through the Goodbye Yellow Brick Road album into a book, Bernie Taupin: The One Who Writes the Words for Elton John. In addition to the lyrics from the albums, this book contained the lyrics to all the single B-sides, various rarities, and Taupin's 1970 spoken-word album. The songs are illustrated by various artists, friends, and celebrity guests such as John Lennon and Joni Mitchell. The book is in black & white except for the cover. In 1977, Taupin collaborated with rock photographer David Nutter on It's A Little Bit Funny, adding text and helping chronicle Elton John's year-long Louder Than Concorde Tour. The now-collectible book was published in hard and soft cover editions by Penguin Books. It collects the better part of one year's worth of personal adventures and memories of Elton and the band, aboard his private plane, on the beaches of Barbados, at backstage gatherings and in some quieter off-stage moments with friends (including some famous faces that Elton and Bernie met and palled around with in their travels). In 1978, Taupin also appeared in an episode of The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries, "The Hardy Boys & Nancy Drew Meet Dracula", singing backup to Shaun Cassidy. In 1988, Taupin published an autobiography of his childhood, A Cradle of Haloes: Sketches of a Childhood. The book was released only in the UK. It tells the tale of a childhood fuelled by fantasy in rural Lincolnshire in the 1950s and 1960s, ending in 1969 as Taupin gets on the train to seek his fortune in London. In 1991, Taupin self-published a book of poems called The Devil at High Noon. In 1994, Taupin's lyrics up through the Made in England album were collected into a hardcover book, Elton John & Bernie Taupin: The Complete Lyrics, published by Hyperion. However, it does not appear that Taupin was intimately involved in this project, as it contains multiple misspellings and outright misrenderings of the lyrics. It is also missing some of the rarities and B-sides found in the earlier collection. As with the 1973 collection, the songs are illustrated by various artists, this time in full colour throughout. In 1992, Taupin was asked to produce a benefit for AIDS Project Los Angeles. The event featured no songs written by the writer, instead opening with an acoustic set of performances of material chosen by the performers followed by selections from the musical West Side Story, chosen for its "timeless message of tolerance that is relevant to every decade." Bibliography 1971 – The Songs of Elton John and Bernie Taupin (sheet music) 1973 – Bernie Taupin: The One Who Writes the Words for Elton John 1977 – Elton: It's a Little Bit Funny 1991 – Two Rooms: Elton John and Bernie Taupin Visual art career In addition to his music, much of his time is spent creating his visual art. Attributing his passion for art to his mother, Daphne, Taupin began displaying and selling his original artwork in 2010. Consisting of large, mixed media, contemporary assemblages, the art has been shown and collected across the United States and Canada. Taupin's artwork has been seen at Art Miami, Art Southampton, the LA Art Fair, and in various galleries. His artwork often incorporates the American flag. Personal life Taupin has been married four times, his first three marriages having ended in divorce. His wives were: Maxine Feibelman (1971–76); Toni Lynn Russo (1979–91), sister of actress Rene Russo; Stephanie Haymes Roven (1993–98), daughter of entertainers Dick Haymes and Fran Jeffries; and Heather Kidd (March 2004–present), with whom he has two daughters, Charley Indiana and Georgey Devon. Taupin moved to the United States from England in the mid-1970s and became a US citizen in 1990. He lives in Santa Barbara County, California. Taupin was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2022 New Year Honours for services to music. See also List of songs with lyrics by Bernie Taupin References External links Spots related to Taupin's life and career "Bernie Taupin: 'Lyricist? I think of myself as a storyteller'," The Telegraph, 16 September 2013 1950 births Living people Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters Golden Globe Award-winning musicians Elton John English lyricists English people of French descent English male poets English male singer-songwriters British soft rock musicians People from Sleaford, Lincolnshire Singers from London English emigrants to the United States People with acquired American citizenship Musicians from Lincolnshire People from Santa Barbara County, California Commanders of the Order of the British Empire

262283

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Tusser

Thomas Tusser

Thomas Tusser (c. 15243 May 1580) was an English poet and farmer, best known for his instructional poem Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry, an expanded version of his original title, A Hundreth Good Pointes of Husbandrie, first published in 1557. For Tusser the garden was the domain of the housewife, and the 1562 text expands on this theme. Scholars also consider it a text of interest for its defense of enclosures. It was among the best selling poetry books of the Elizabethan age. Early life Tusser was born in Rivenhall, Essex, about 1524, the son of William and Isabella Tusser. At a very early age he became a chorister in the St Nicholas collegiate chapel at Wallingford Castle, Wallingford, Oxfordshire. He appears to have been pressed for service in the King's Chapel, the choristers of which were usually afterwards placed by the king in one of the royal foundations at Oxford or Cambridge. But Tusser entered the choir of St. Paul's Cathedral, and from there went to Eton College. He has left a quaint account of his privations at Wallingford, and of the severities of Nicholas Udall at Eton. He was elected to King's College, Cambridge in 1543, a date which sets the earliest limit of his birth-year, as he would have been ineligible at nineteen. From King's College he moved to Trinity Hall, Cambridge. On leaving Cambridge, he went to court in the service of William Paget, 1st Baron Paget of Beaudesart, as a musician. After ten years of life at court, he married and settled as a farmer at Cattawade, Suffolk, near the River Stour. Literary career There he wrote A Hundreth Good Pointes of Husbandrie, a long poem in rhyming couplets recording the country year. This work was first printed in London in 1557 by the publisher Richard Tottel, and was frequently reprinted. Tottel published an enlarged edition Five Hundreth Pointes of Good Husbandrie in 1573. Tusser includes a homely mix of instructions and observations about farming and country customs which offer insight into life in Tudor England, and his work records many terms and proverbs in print for the first time. In this work, he also famously presents ten characteristics the perfect cheese must have: Not like Gehazi, i.e., dead white, like a leper Not like Lot's wife, all salt Not like Argus, full of eyes Not like Tom Piper, "hoven and puffed" Not like Crispin, leathery Not like Lazarus, poor Not like Esau, hairy Not like Mary Magdalene, full of whey or maudlin Not like the Gentiles, full of maggots Not like a Bishop, made of burnt milk He never remained long in one place. For his wife's health he removed to Ipswich. After her death he married again, and farmed for some time at West Dereham. He then became a singing man in Norwich Cathedral, where he found a good patron in the dean, John Salisbury. Samples Five Hundred Points contains these rhyming couplets: Swéete April showers, Doo spring Maie flowers. as well as At Christmas play and make good cheere, for Christmas comes but once a yeere. and A foole and his monie be soone at debate, which after with sorrow repents him too late. The latter is an early version of the proverb A fool and his money are soon parted. Later life After another experiment in farming at Fairstead, Essex, he moved once again to London, whence he was driven by the plague of 1572–1573 to find refuge at Trinity Hall, being matriculated as a servant of the college in 1573. At the time of his death he was in possession of a small estate at Chesterton, Cambridgeshire, and his will proves that he was not, as has sometimes been stated, in poverty of any kind, but had in some measure the thrift he preached. Thomas Fuller says he "traded at large in oxen, sheep, dairies, grain of all kinds, to no profit"; that he "spread his bread with all sorts of butter, yet none would stick thereon." Death Tusser died on 3 May 1580 at the age of about 55. An erroneous inscription at Manningtree, Essex, asserts that he was 65 years old. According to John Stow's Survey of London, Cheape Ward, Thomas Tusser was buried in the now lost church of St Mildred in the Poultry. The inscription on his tomb there was as follows: "Here Thomas Tusser, clad in earth, doth lie, That sometime made the pointes of Husbandrie; By him then learne thou maiest; here learne we must, When all is done, we sleepe, and turne to dust: And yet, through Christ, to Heaven we hope to goe; Who reades his bookes, shall find his faith was so." Stow's editor adds the following epigram on Tusser from a volume called The More the Merrier (1608), by 'H. P.': Ad Tusserum "Tusser, they tell me, when thou wert alive, Thou, teaching thrift, thyselfe couldst never thrive. So, like the whetstone, many men are wont To sharpen others, when themselves are blunt." Notes References W. J. Thoms (Ed.), Survey of London written in the year 1598 by John Stow. A new edition (Chatto and Windus, London 1876) (Based on 1798 edition). External links Full text of A Hundreth Good Pointes of Husbandrie Edition of Five Hundred Points 1520s births 1580 deaths Year of birth uncertain People educated at Eton College People from Braintree District Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge 16th-century English poets English farmers English male poets People from Chesterton, Cambridge

262288

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric%20difference

Symmetric difference

In mathematics, the symmetric difference of two sets, also known as the disjunctive union, is the set of elements which are in either of the sets, but not in their intersection. For example, the symmetric difference of the sets and is . The symmetric difference of the sets A and B is commonly denoted by or The power set of any set becomes an abelian group under the operation of symmetric difference, with the empty set as the neutral element of the group and every element in this group being its own inverse. The power set of any set becomes a Boolean ring, with symmetric difference as the addition of the ring and intersection as the multiplication of the ring. Properties The symmetric difference is equivalent to the union of both relative complements, that is: The symmetric difference can also be expressed using the XOR operation ⊕ on the predicates describing the two sets in set-builder notation: The same fact can be stated as the indicator function (denoted here by ) of the symmetric difference, being the XOR (or addition mod 2) of the indicator functions of its two arguments: or using the Iverson bracket notation . The symmetric difference can also be expressed as the union of the two sets, minus their intersection: In particular, ; the equality in this non-strict inclusion occurs if and only if and are disjoint sets. Furthermore, denoting and , then and are always disjoint, so and partition . Consequently, assuming intersection and symmetric difference as primitive operations, the union of two sets can be well defined in terms of symmetric difference by the right-hand side of the equality . The symmetric difference is commutative and associative: The empty set is neutral, and every set is its own inverse: Thus, the power set of any set X becomes an abelian group under the symmetric difference operation. (More generally, any field of sets forms a group with the symmetric difference as operation.) A group in which every element is its own inverse (or, equivalently, in which every element has order 2) is sometimes called a Boolean group; the symmetric difference provides a prototypical example of such groups. Sometimes the Boolean group is actually defined as the symmetric difference operation on a set. In the case where X has only two elements, the group thus obtained is the Klein four-group. Equivalently, a Boolean group is an elementary abelian 2-group. Consequently, the group induced by the symmetric difference is in fact a vector space over the field with 2 elements Z2. If X is finite, then the singletons form a basis of this vector space, and its dimension is therefore equal to the number of elements of X. This construction is used in graph theory, to define the cycle space of a graph. From the property of the inverses in a Boolean group, it follows that the symmetric difference of two repeated symmetric differences is equivalent to the repeated symmetric difference of the join of the two multisets, where for each double set both can be removed. In particular: This implies triangle inequality: the symmetric difference of A and C is contained in the union of the symmetric difference of A and B and that of B and C. Intersection distributes over symmetric difference: and this shows that the power set of X becomes a ring, with symmetric difference as addition and intersection as multiplication. This is the prototypical example of a Boolean ring. Further properties of the symmetric difference include: if and only if . , where , is 's complement, 's complement, respectively, relative to any (fixed) set that contains both. , where is an arbitrary non-empty index set. If is any function and are any sets in 's codomain, then The symmetric difference can be defined in any Boolean algebra, by writing This operation has the same properties as the symmetric difference of sets. n-ary symmetric difference The repeated symmetric difference is in a sense equivalent to an operation on a multiset of sets giving the set of elements which are in an odd number of sets. As above, the symmetric difference of a collection of sets contains just elements which are in an odd number of the sets in the collection: Evidently, this is well-defined only when each element of the union is contributed by a finite number of elements of . Suppose is a multiset and . Then there is a formula for , the number of elements in , given solely in terms of intersections of elements of : Symmetric difference on measure spaces As long as there is a notion of "how big" a set is, the symmetric difference between two sets can be considered a measure of how "far apart" they are. First consider a finite set S and the counting measure on subsets given by their size. Now consider two subsets of S and set their distance apart as the size of their symmetric difference. This distance is in fact a metric, which makes the power set on S a metric space. If S has n elements, then the distance from the empty set to S is n, and this is the maximum distance for any pair of subsets. Using the ideas of measure theory, the separation of measurable sets can be defined to be the measure of their symmetric difference. If μ is a σ-finite measure defined on a σ-algebra Σ, the function is a pseudometric on Σ. dμ becomes a metric if Σ is considered modulo the equivalence relation X ~ Y if and only if . It is sometimes called Fréchet-Nikodym metric. The resulting metric space is separable if and only if L2(μ) is separable. If , we have: . Indeed, If is a measure space and are measurable sets, then their symmetric difference is also measurable: . One may define an equivalence relation on measurable sets by letting and be related if . This relation is denoted . Given , one writes if to each there's some such that . The relation "" is a partial order on the family of subsets of . We write if and . The relation "" is an equivalence relationship between the subsets of . The symmetric closure of is the collection of all -measurable sets that are to some . The symmetric closure of contains . If is a sub--algebra of , so is the symmetric closure of . iff almost everywhere. Hausdorff distance vs. symmetric difference The Hausdorff distance and the (area of the) symmetric difference are both pseudo-metrics on the set of measurable geometric shapes. However, they behave quite differently. The figure at the right shows two sequences of shapes, "Red" and "Red ∪ Green". When the Hausdorff distance between them becomes smaller, the area of the symmetric difference between them becomes larger, and vice versa. By continuing these sequences in both directions, it is possible to get two sequences such that the Hausdorff distance between them converges to 0 and the symmetric distance between them diverges, or vice versa. See also Algebra of sets Boolean function Complement (set theory) Difference (set theory) Exclusive or Fuzzy set Intersection (set theory) Jaccard index List of set identities and relations Logical graph Separable sigma algebras Set theory Symmetry Union (set theory) References Bibliography Symmetric difference of sets. In Encyclopaedia of Mathematics Operations on sets Subtraction

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic%20progression

Harmonic progression

Harmonic progression may refer to: Chord progression in music Harmonic progression (mathematics) Sequence (music)

63743002

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20cricket%20in%201944%E2%80%9345

International cricket in 1944–45

The 1944–45 international cricket season was from September 1944 to April 1945. However, there were no any Test matches held during this period, except few domestic competitions due to prevailing Second World War. Season overview April India in Ceylon References International cricket competitions by season 1944 in cricket 1945 in cricket

262291

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faro%2C%20Yukon

Faro, Yukon

Faro is a town in the central Yukon, Canada, the home of the now abandoned Faro Mine. It was the largest open-pit lead–zinc mine in the world as well as a significant producer of silver and other natural resources. The mine was built by the Ralph M. Parsons Construction Company of the United States with General Enterprises Ltd. of Whitehorse being the main subcontractor. As of 2016, the population is 348, lower than its peak population of 1,652 in 1981. Faro was named after the card game of the same name. As these industries have declined over the past decade, Faro is attempting to attract ecotourism to the region to view such animals as Dall and Stone sheep. Both species of sheep almost unique to the surrounding area. Several viewing platforms have been constructed in and around the town. One unusual feature of Faro is that it has a golf course running through the main part of town. Lorne Greene, famous for his work in Bonanza and Lorne Greene's New Wilderness, once narrated a film about Faro called A New World in the Yukon. History The area was prospected in the 1950s and 1960s by Al Kulan, credited with discovering several significant deposits of lead and zinc ore and playing a major role in the discovery of the Faro Mine, which became Canada's largest lead-zinc mine. The Cyprus Anvil Mining Corporation established the first operations to mine the deposits, and established the town of Faro. A new highway was built between Carmacks and Ross River to serve the Faro area – initially numbered Highway 9, it is today part of the Robert Campbell Highway, Yukon Highway 4. A forest fire in 1969 destroyed the newly built homes, which had to be re-built. On 26 October 2021, two people were killed and another critically injured in an active shooter situation in Faro. A suspect, identified as a local resident, was taken into custody by police and charged with two counts each of first-degree murder, attempted murder, and aggravated assault. Flags were lowered to half-mast in Whitehorse and Dawson City in response to the killings. Geography Climate Faro has a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) with mild summers and severely cold winters. Extreme seasonal swings are common, although less severe than farther east in Canada due to the warm spells in summers and occasional mild spells in winter. Demographics In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Faro recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. Economy Faro Mine The mine was opened by the Cyprus Anvil Mining Corporation in 1969, which was formed to mine the deposit. From the late 1960s until 1982 the mine was one of the largest lead-zinc mines in the world. At one time it was the largest open-pit mine in the world. During its history, 320 million tonnes of waste rock was removed to reach the ore. The mine remained in more-or-less constant production until 1982. Trucks carried the ore concentrate from the mill by highway to Whitehorse, where the buckets were lifted from the trucks and lowered onto cars of the White Pass and Yukon Route railway. The trains took the buckets another to Skagway, Alaska, where the contents were poured out into the holds of ships. During those years, Cyprus Anvil was purchased by Dome Petroleum. World prices for metals fell in 1982, and the mine owners announced in May a two-month halt to production starting in June, 1982. In July, the mine owners extended the shutdown to four months. In September, the owners announced that the shutdown would be indefinite. The shock to the Yukon economy, where the mine produced approximately 40% of territorial GDP, was enormous. With government assistance an 18-month waste-rock stripping program was operated in 1983 and 1984. Curragh Resources purchased the property in 1985 and production resumed in 1986. This time, ore was trucked in ore pots from Faro directly to Skagway, bypassing the railway. This operation ended in 1993, not long after Curragh Resources suffered a coal mining disaster at the Westray Mine in Plymouth, Pictou County, Nova Scotia. A third operation, by the Anvil Range Mining Corporation, opened in 1995 and ceased production in January 1998, followed by the bankruptcy of Anvil Range. Much of the heavy mining and milling equipment was sold and removed from the Yukon. Any prospect for further mining of the lead-zinc resource would now require significant investment to bring in mining equipment, and it would need to come entirely by road unless a British Columbia-Alaska railway is built or the White Pass route is reopened to freight traffic to Whitehorse. Cost of clean-up is estimated at close to a billion dollars. When the mine closed it left 70 million tonnes of tailings and 320 million tonnes of waste rock that require remediation to protect the health of humans, land, water, and wildlife. With the bankruptcy of Anvil Range the clean up bill for the mine and tailings pond fell to the federal government. Early estimates put the cost at $450–590 million over 40 years. In 2016 the federal treasury reported that between $250 million and $350 million had been spent maintaining the mine site, without starting clean-up. The $40 million annual costs are to run pumps to prevent the tailings from breaching the dams and the construction and operations of three water treatment plants. The clean-up itself could cost a further $1-billion. In a report by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 2017, the Canadian government stated that they were prepared to embark on the remediation process of the Faro Mine. The concerns listed by federal officials include the leaching of toxic metals into the Pelly and Yukon rivers as the acidic rock drainage worsens over time. The remediation work will include rerouting regional creeks to avoid tailings and waste rock areas, treating contaminated water, and avoiding clean water from becoming contaminated. Infrastructure The town is served by the Faro Airport and the Robert Campbell Highway passes through just south of Faro. See also List of municipalities in Yukon Canadian Mining Hall of Fame References External links Mines in Yukon Lead mines in Canada Zinc mines in Canada Silver mines in Canada Mining communities in Yukon Surface mines in Canada Towns in Yukon

262293

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20company

Public company

A public company, publicly traded company, publicly held company, publicly listed company, or public limited company is a company whose ownership is organized via shares of stock which are intended to be freely traded on a stock exchange or in over-the-counter markets. A public (publicly-traded) company can be listed on a stock exchange (listed company), which facilitates the trade of shares, or not (unlisted public company). In some jurisdictions, public companies over a certain size must be listed on an exchange. In most cases, public companies are private enterprises in the private sector, and "public" emphasizes their reporting and trading on the public markets. Public companies are formed within the legal systems of particular states, and therefore have associations and formal designations which are distinct and separate in the polity in which they reside. In the United States, for example, a public company is usually a type of corporation (though a corporation need not be a public company), in the United Kingdom it is usually a public limited company (plc), in France a "société anonyme" (SA), and in Germany an Aktiengesellschaft (AG). While the general idea of a public company may be similar, differences are meaningful, and are at the core of international law disputes with regard to industry and trade. History In the early modern period, the Dutch developed several financial instruments and helped lay the foundations of the modern financial system. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) became the first company in history to issue bonds and shares of stock to the general public. In other words, the VOC was officially the first publicly traded company, because it was the first company ever to be actually listed on an official stock exchange. While the Italian city-states produced the first transferable government bonds, they did not develop the other ingredients necessary to produce a fully fledged capital market: corporate shareholders. Securities Usually, the securities of a publicly traded company are owned by many investors while the shares of a privately held company are owned by relatively few shareholders. A company with many shareholders is not necessarily a publicly traded company. In the United States, in some instances, companies with over 500 shareholders may be required to report under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934; companies that report under the 1934 Act are generally deemed public companies. Advantages and disadvantages Advantages Public companies possess some advantages over privately held businesses. Publicly traded companies are able to raise funds and capital through the sale (in the primary or secondary market) of shares of stock. This is the reason publicly traded corporations are important; prior to their existence, it was very difficult to obtain large amounts of capital for private enterprises - significant capital could only come from a smaller set of wealthy investors or banks willing to risk typically large investments. The profit on stock is gained in form of dividend or capital gain to the holders. The financial media, analysts, and the public are able to access additional information about the business, since the business is commonly legally bound, and naturally motivated (so as to secure further capital), to publicly disseminate information regarding the financial status and future of the company to its many shareholders and the government. Because many people have a vested interest in the company's success, the company may be more popular or recognizable than a private company. The initial shareholders of the company are able to share risk by selling shares to the public. If one were to hold a 100% share of the company, they would have to pay all of the business's debt; however, if an individual were to hold a 50% share, they would only need to pay 50% of the debt. This increases asset liquidity and the company does not need to depend on funding from a bank. For example, in 2013 Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg owned 29.3% of the company's class A shares, which gave him enough voting power to control the business, while allowing Facebook to raise capital from, and distribute risk to, the remaining shareholders. Facebook was a privately held company prior to its initial public offering in 2012. If some shares are given to managers or other employees, potential conflicts of interest between employees and shareholders (an instance of principal-agent problem) will be remitted. As an example, in many tech companies, entry-level software engineers are given stock in the company upon being hired (thus they become shareholders). Therefore, the engineers have a vested interest in the company succeeding financially, and are incentivized to work harder and more diligently to ensure that success. Public companies by their fiduciary duty are legally forbidden from taking or action that may decrease the stock price or failing to take any action that may increase it. Perpetual growth is the goal of every public company. Disadvantages Many stock exchanges require that publicly traded companies have their accounts regularly audited by outside auditors, and then publish the accounts to their shareholders. Besides the cost, this may make useful information available to competitors. Various other annual and quarterly reports are also required by law. In the United States, the Sarbanes–Oxley Act imposes additional requirements. The requirement for audited books is not imposed by the exchange known as OTC Pink. The shares may be maliciously held by outside shareholders and the original founders or owners may lose benefits and control. The principal-agent problem, or the agency problem is a key weakness of public companies. The separation of a company's ownership and control is especially prevalent in such countries as the UK and the US. Stockholders In the United States, the Securities and Exchange Commission requires that firms whose stock is traded publicly report their major shareholders each year. The reports identify all institutional shareholders (primarily, firms owning stock in other companies), all company officials who own shares in their firm, and any individual or institution owning more than 5% of the firm's stock. General trend For many years, newly created companies were privately held but held initial public offering to become publicly traded company or to be acquired by another company if they became larger and more profitable or had promising prospects. More infrequently, some companies — such as investment banking firm Goldman Sachs and logistics services provider United Parcel Service (UPS) — chose to remain privately held for a long period of time after maturity into a profitable company. However, from 1997 to 2012, the number of corporations publicly traded on American stock exchanges dropped 45%. According to one observer (Gerald F. Davis), "public corporations have become less concentrated, less integrated, less interconnected at the top, shorter lived, less remunerative for average investors, and less prevalent since the turn of the 21st century". Davis argues that technological changes such as the decline in price and increasing power, quality and flexibility of computer numerical control machines and newer digitally enabled tools such as 3D printing will lead to smaller and more local organization of production. Privatization In corporate privatization, more often called "going private", a group of private investors or another company that is privately held can buy out the shareholders of a public company, taking the company off the public markets. This is typically done through a leveraged buyout and occurs when the buyers believe the securities have been undervalued by investors. In some cases, public companies that are in severe financial distress may also approach a private company or companies to take over ownership and management of the company. One way of doing this would be to make a rights issue designed to enable the new investor to acquire a supermajority. With a super-majority, the company could then be relisted, i.e. privatized. Alternatively, a publicly traded company may be purchased by one or more other publicly traded companies, with the target company becoming either a subsidiary or joint venture of the purchaser(s), or ceasing to exist as a separate entity, its former shareholders receiving compensation in the form of either cash, shares in the purchasing company or a combination of both. When the compensation is primarily shares then the deal is often considered a merger. Subsidiaries and joint ventures can also be created de novo — this often happens in the financial sector. Subsidiaries and joint ventures of publicly traded companies are not generally considered to be privately held companies (even though they themselves are not publicly traded) and are generally subject to the same reporting requirements as publicly traded companies. Finally, shares in subsidiaries and joint ventures can be (re)-offered to the public at any time — firms that are sold in this manner are called spin-outs. Most industrialized jurisdictions have enacted laws and regulations that detail the steps that prospective owners (public or private) must undertake if they wish to take over a publicly traded corporation. This often entails the would-be buyer(s) making a formal offer for each share of the company to shareholders. Trading and valuation The shares of a publicly traded company are often traded on a stock exchange. The value or "size" of a company is called its market capitalization, a term which is often shortened to "market cap". This is calculated as the number of shares outstanding (as opposed to authorized but not necessarily issued) times the price per share. For example, a company with two million shares outstanding and a price per share of US$40 has a market capitalization of US$80 million. However, a company's market capitalization should not be confused with the fair market value of the company as a whole since the price per share are influenced by other factors such as the volume of shares traded. Low trading volume can cause artificially low prices for securities, due to investors being apprehensive of investing in a company they perceive as possibly lacking liquidity. For example, if all shareholders were to simultaneously try to sell their shares in the open market, this would immediately create downward pressure on the price for which the share is traded unless there were an equal number of buyers willing to purchase the security at the price the sellers demand. So, sellers would have to either reduce their price or choose not to sell. Thus, the number of trades in a given period of time, commonly referred to as the "volume" is important when determining how well a company's market capitalization reflects true fair market value of the company as a whole. The higher the volume, the more the fair market value of the company is likely to be reflected by its market capitalization. Another example of the impact of volume on the accuracy of market capitalization is when a company has little or no trading activity and the market price is simply the price at which the most recent trade took place, which could be days or weeks ago. This occurs when there are no buyers willing to purchase the securities at the price being offered by the sellers and there are no sellers willing to sell at the price the buyers are willing to pay. While this is rare when the company is traded on a major stock exchange, it is not uncommon when shares are traded over-the-counter (OTC). Since individual buyers and sellers need to incorporate news about the company into their purchasing decisions, a security with an imbalance of buyers or sellers may not feel the full effect of recent news. See also Forbes Global 2000 Government agency Non-departmental public body plc, public company under UK legislation Public bodies Publicly unlisted company Regulatory agency Statutory authority Statutory corporation Success trap UK company law References Types of business entity

262294

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary%20chord

Secondary chord

A secondary chord is an analytical label for a specific harmonic device that is prevalent in the tonal idiom of Western music beginning in the common practice period: the use of diatonic functions for tonicization. Secondary chords are a type of altered or borrowed chord, chords that are not part of the music piece's key. They are the most common sort of altered chord in tonal music. Secondary chords are referred to by the function they have and the key or chord in which they function. Conventionally, they are written with the notation "function/key". Thus, the most common secondary chord, the dominant of the dominant, is written "V/V" and read as "five of five" or "the dominant of the dominant". The major or minor triad on any diatonic scale degree may have any secondary function applied to it; secondary functions may even be applied to diminished triads in some special circumstances. Secondary chords were not used until the Baroque period and are found more frequently and freely in the Classical period, even more so in the Romantic period. Composers began to use them less frequently with the breakdown of conventional harmony in modern classical music—but secondary dominants are a cornerstone of popular music and jazz in the 20th century. Secondary dominant A secondary dominant (also applied dominant, artificial dominant, or borrowed dominant) is a major triad or dominant seventh chord built and set to resolve to a scale degree other than the tonic, with the dominant of the dominant (written as V/V or V of V) being the most frequently encountered. The chord that the secondary dominant is the dominant of is said to be a temporarily tonicized chord. The secondary dominant is normally, though not always, followed by the tonicized chord. Tonicizations that last longer than a phrase are generally regarded as modulations to a new key (or new tonic). According to music theorists David Beach and Ryan C. McClelland, "[t]he purpose of the secondary dominant is to place emphasis on a chord within the diatonic progression." The secondary-dominant terminology is still usually applied even if the chord resolution is nonfunctional. For example, the V/ii label is still used even if the V/ii chord is not followed by ii. Definition The major scale contains seven basic chords, which are named with Roman numeral analysis in ascending order. Because tonic triads are either major or minor, one would not expect to find diminished chords (either the vii in major or the ii in minor) tonicized by a secondary dominant. It would also not make sense for the tonic of the key itself to be tonicized. In the key of C major, the five remaining chords are: Of these chords, the V chord (G major) is said to be the dominant of C major. However, each of the chords from ii to vi also has its own dominant. For example, V (G major) has a D major triad as its dominant. These extra dominant chords are not part of the key of C major as such because they include notes that are not part of the C major scale.Instead, they are secondary dominants. The notation below shows the secondary-dominant chords for C major. Each chord is accompanied by its standard number in harmonic notation. In this notation, a secondary dominant is usually labeled with the formula "V of ..." (dominant chord of); thus "V of ii" stands for the dominant of the ii chord, "V of iii" for the dominant of iii, and so on. A shorter notation, used below, is "V/ii", "V/iii", etc. Like most chords, secondary dominants may be seventh chords or chords with other upper extensions. Dominant seventh chords are commonly used as secondary dominants. The notation below shows the same secondary dominants as above but with dominant seventh chords. Note that the triad V/IV is the same as the I triad. When a seventh is added (V7/IV), it becomes an altered chord because the seventh is not a diatonic pitch. Beethoven's Symphony No. 1 begins with a V7/IV chord: According to the principles exposed above, in fact, V7/IV, which means the C7 chord, i.e. the dominant seventh chord on the F major scale (C–E–G–B♭), does not represent the tonic because it contains a B♭, which isn't included in the main key, as Beethoven's Symphony No. 1 is written in the key of C major. The chord then resolves on the natural IV (F major) and in the following bar the V7, i.e. G7 (dominant seventh chord on the C major key), is presented. Chromatic mediants, for example VI is also a secondary dominant of ii (V/ii) and III is V/vi, are distinguished from secondary dominants with context and analysis revealing the distinction. History Before the 20th century, in the music of J.S. Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, and Brahms, a secondary dominant, along with its chord of resolution, was considered a modulation. Since this was a rather self-contradictory description, theorists in the early 1900s, such as Hugo Riemann (who used the term "Zwischendominante"—"intermediary dominant", still the usual German term for a secondary dominant), searched for a better description of the phenomenon. Walter Piston first used the analysis "V7 of IV" in a monograph entitled Principles of Harmonic Analysis. (Notably, Piston's analytical symbol always used the word "of"—e.g. "V7 of IV" rather than the virgule "V7/IV.) In his 1941 book Harmony, Piston used the term "secondary dominant". At around the same time (1946–48), Arnold Schoenberg created the expression "artificial dominant" to describe the same phenomenon, in his posthumously published book Structural Functions of Harmony. In the fifth edition of Walter Piston's Harmony, a passage from the last movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata K. 283 in G major serves as one illustration of secondary dominants. This passage has three secondary dominants. The final four chords form a circle of fifths progression, ending in a standard dominant-tonic cadence, which concludes the phrase. In jazz and popular music In jazz harmony, a secondary dominant is any dominant seventh chord on a weak beat and resolves downward by a perfect fifth. Thus, a chord is a secondary dominant when it functions as the dominant of some harmonic element other than the key's tonic and resolves to that element. This is slightly different from the traditional use of the term, where a secondary dominant does not have to be a seventh chord, occur on a weak beat, or resolve downward. If a non-diatonic dominant chord is used on a strong beat, it is considered an extended dominant. If it doesn't resolve downward, it may be a borrowed chord. Secondary dominants are used in jazz harmony in the bebop blues and other blues progression variations, as are substitute dominants and turnarounds. In some jazz tunes, all or almost all of the chords that are used are dominant chords. For example, in the standard jazz chord progression ii–V–I, which would normally be Dm–G7–C in the key of C major, some tunes will use D7–G7–C7. Since jazz tunes are often based on the circle of fifths, this creates long sequences of secondary dominants. Secondary dominants are also used in popular music. Examples include II7 (V7/V) in Bob Dylan's "Don't Think Twice, It's All Right" and III7 (V7/vi) in Betty Everett's "The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)". "Five Foot Two, Eyes of Blue" features chains of secondary dominants. "Sweet Georgia Brown" opens with V/V/V–V/V–V–I. Extended dominant An extended dominant chord is a secondary dominant seventh chord that resolves down by a fifth to another dominant seventh chord. A series of extended dominant chords continues to resolve downwards by the circle of fifths until it reaches the tonic chord. The most common extended dominant chord is the tertiary dominant, which resolves to a secondary dominant. For example, V/V/V (in C major, A(7)) resolves to V/V (D(7)), which resolves to V (G(7)), which resolves to I. Note that V/V/V is the same chord as V/ii, but differs in its resolution to a major dominant rather than a minor chord. Quaternary dominants are rarer, but an example is the bridge section of the rhythm changes, which starts from V/V/V/V (in C major, E(7)). The example below from Chopin's Polonaises, Op. 26, No. 1 (1835) has a quaternary dominant in the second beat (V/ii = V/V/V, V/vi = V/V/V/V). Secondary leading-tone In music theory, a secondary leading-tone chord or secondary diminished seventh (as in seventh scale degree or leading-tone, not necessarily seventh chord) is a secondary chord that is the leading-tone triad or seventh chord of the tonicized chord, rather than its dominant. In contrast to secondary dominant chords, these chords resolve up a half step. Fully diminished seventh chords are more common than half-diminished seventh chords and one may also find diminished triads (without sevenths). Secondary leading-tone chords may resolve to either a major or minor diatonic triad: In major keys: ii, iii, IV, V, vi In minor keys: III, iv, V, VI The type of diminished seventh chord is typically related to the type of tonicized triad: If the tonicized triad is minor, the leading-tone chord is fully diminished seventh chord. If it is major, the leading-tone chord may be either half-diminished or fully diminished, though fully diminished chords are used more often. Especially in four-part writing, the seventh should resolve downwards by step and if possible the lower tritone should resolve appropriately, inwards if a diminished fifth and outwards if an augmented fourth, as the example below shows. Because of their symmetry, secondary leading-tone diminished seventh chords are also useful for modulation; all four notes may be considered the root of any diminished seventh chord. Secondary leading-tone chords were not used until the Baroque period and are found more frequently and less conventionally in the Classical period. They are found even more frequently and freely in the Romantic period, but they began to be used less frequently with the breakdown of conventional harmony. The chord progression vii/V–V–I is quite common in ragtime music. Secondary supertonic The secondary supertonic chord, or secondary second, is a secondary chord that is on the supertonic scale degree. Rather than tonicizing a degree other than the tonic, as does a secondary dominant, it creates a temporary dominant. Examples include ii7/III (Fmin.7, in C major). Secondary subdominant The secondary subdominant is the subdominant (IV) of the tonicized chord. For example, in C major, the subdominant chord is F major and the IV of IV chord is B major. Others The other secondary functions are the secondary mediant, the secondary submediant, and the secondary subtonic. See also Barbershop seventh chord Backdoor progression Circle progression Common-tone diminished seventh chord ii–V–I progression Secondary development Subtonic References Further reading Nettles, Barrie & Graf, Richard (1997). The Chord Scale Theory and Jazz Harmony. Advance Music, Thompson, David M. (1980). A History of Harmonic Theory in the United States. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. Chromaticism Diatonic functions Dominant chords

262296

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh%20distribution

Rayleigh distribution

In probability theory and statistics, the Rayleigh distribution is a continuous probability distribution for nonnegative-valued random variables. Up to rescaling, it coincides with the chi distribution with two degrees of freedom. A Rayleigh distribution is often observed when the overall magnitude of a vector is related to its directional components. One example where the Rayleigh distribution naturally arises is when wind velocity is analyzed in two dimensions. Assuming that each component is uncorrelated, normally distributed with equal variance, and zero mean, then the overall wind speed (vector magnitude) will be characterized by a Rayleigh distribution. A second example of the distribution arises in the case of random complex numbers whose real and imaginary components are independently and identically distributed Gaussian with equal variance and zero mean. In that case, the absolute value of the complex number is Rayleigh-distributed. The distribution is named after Lord Rayleigh (). Definition The probability density function of the Rayleigh distribution is where is the scale parameter of the distribution. The cumulative distribution function is for Relation to random vector length Consider the two-dimensional vector which has components that are bivariate normally distributed, centered at zero, and independent. Then and have density functions Let be the length of . That is, Then has cumulative distribution function where is the disk Writing the double integral in polar coordinates, it becomes Finally, the probability density function for is the derivative of its cumulative distribution function, which by the fundamental theorem of calculus is which is the Rayleigh distribution. It is straightforward to generalize to vectors of dimension other than 2. There are also generalizations when the components have unequal variance or correlations (Hoyt distribution), or when the vector Y follows a bivariate Student t-distribution. Suppose is a random vector with components that follows a multivariate t-distribution. If the components both have mean zero, equal variance, and are independent, the bivariate Student's-t distribution takes the form: Let be the magnitude of . Then the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the magnitude is: where is the disk defined by: Converting to polar coordinates leads to the CDF becoming: Finally, the probability density function (PDF) of the magnitude may be derived: In the limit as , the Rayleigh distribution is recovered because: Properties The raw moments are given by: where is the gamma function. The mean of a Rayleigh random variable is thus : The standard deviation of a Rayleigh random variable is: The variance of a Rayleigh random variable is : The mode is and the maximum pdf is The skewness is given by: The excess kurtosis is given by: The characteristic function is given by: where is the imaginary error function. The moment generating function is given by where is the error function. Differential entropy The differential entropy is given by where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. Parameter estimation Given a sample of N independent and identically distributed Rayleigh random variables with parameter , is the maximum likelihood estimate and also is unbiased. is a biased estimator that can be corrected via the formula Confidence intervals To find the (1 − α) confidence interval, first find the bounds where:   then the scale parameter will fall within the bounds Generating random variates Given a random variate U drawn from the uniform distribution in the interval (0, 1), then the variate has a Rayleigh distribution with parameter . This is obtained by applying the inverse transform sampling-method. Related distributions is Rayleigh distributed if , where and are independent normal random variables. (This gives motivation to the use of the symbol "sigma" in the above parametrization of the Rayleigh density.) The magnitude of a standard complex normally distributed variable z will have the Rayleigh distribution. The chi distribution with v = 2 is equivalent to the Rayleigh Distribution with σ = 1. If , then has a chi-squared distribution with parameter , degrees of freedom, equal to two (N = 2) If , then has a gamma distribution with parameters and The Rice distribution is a noncentral generalization of the Rayleigh distribution: . The Weibull distribution with the "shape parameter" k=2 yields a Rayleigh distribution. Then the Rayleigh distribution parameter is related to the Weibull scale parameter according to The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution describes the magnitude of a normal vector in three dimensions. If has an exponential distribution , then The half-normal distribution is the univariate special case of the Rayleigh distribution. Applications An application of the estimation of σ can be found in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). As MRI images are recorded as complex images but most often viewed as magnitude images, the background data is Rayleigh distributed. Hence, the above formula can be used to estimate the noise variance in an MRI image from background data. The Rayleigh distribution was also employed in the field of nutrition for linking dietary nutrient levels and human and animal responses. In this way, the parameter σ may be used to calculate nutrient response relationship. In the field of ballistics, the Rayleigh distribution is used for calculating the circular error probable - a measure of a weapon's precision. In physical oceanography, the significant wave height may be derived analytically, since the distribution of wave heights approximately follows a Rayleigh distribution. See also Circular error probable Rayleigh fading Rayleigh mixture distribution Rice distribution References Continuous distributions Exponential family distributions

262299

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonchord%20tone

Nonchord tone

A nonchord tone (NCT), nonharmonic tone, or embellishing tone is a note in a piece of music or song that is not part of the implied or expressed chord set out by the harmonic framework. In contrast, a chord tone is a note that is a part of the functional chord (see: factor (chord)). Non-chord tones are most often discussed in the context of the common practice period of classical music, but they can be used in the analysis of other types of tonal music as well, such as Western popular music. Nonchord tones are often categorized as accented non-chord tones and unaccented non-chord tones depending on whether the dissonance occurs on an accented or unaccented beat (or part of a beat). Over time, some musical styles assimilated chord types outside of the common-practice style. In these chords, tones that might normally be considered nonchord tones are viewed as chord tones, such as the seventh of a minor seventh chord. For example, in 1940s-era bebop jazz, an F played with a C chord would be considered a chord tone if the chord were analyzed as C7(11). In European classical music, "[t]he greater use of dissonance from period to period as a result of the dialectic of linear/vertical forces led to gradual normalization of ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords [in analysis and theory]; each additional non-chord tone above the foundational triad became frozen into the chordal mass." Theory Chord and nonchord tones are defined by their membership (or lack of membership) in a chord: "The pitches which make up a chord are called chord-tones: any other pitches are called non-chord-tones." They are also defined by the time at which they sound: "Nonharmonic tones are pitches that sound along with a chord but are not chord pitches." For example, if an excerpt from a piece of music implies or uses a C-major chord, then the notes C, E and G are members of that chord, while any other note played at that time (e.g., notes such as F) is a nonchord tone. Such tones are most obvious in homophonic music but occur at least as frequently in contrapuntal music. According to Music in Theory and Practice, "Most nonharmonic tones are dissonant and create intervals of a second, fourth or seventh", which are required to resolve to a chord tone in conventional ways. If the note fails to resolve until the next change of harmony, it may instead create a seventh chord or extended chord. While theoretically in a three-note chord, there are nine possible nonchord tones in equal temperament, in practice nonchord tones are usually in the prevailing key. Augmented and diminished intervals are also considered dissonant, and all nonharmonic tones are measured from the bass note, or lowest note sounding in the chord except in the case of nonharmonic bass tones. Nonharmonic tones generally occur in a pattern of three pitches, of which the nonharmonic tone is the center: {| style="text-align: center;" |- | Chord tone || – || Nonchord tone || – || Chord tone |- |Preparation|| – ||Dissonance|| – ||Resolution |- |} Nonchord tones are categorized by how they are used. The most important distinction is whether they occur on a strong or weak beat and are thus either accented or unaccented nonchord tones. They are also distinguished by their direction of approach and departure and the voice or voices in which they occur and the number of notes they contain. Unaccented Anticipation An anticipation (ANT) occurs when this note is approached by step and then remains the same. It is basically a note of the second chord played early. In the example below, the dissonant B in bar 1 is approached by step and resolves when that same pitch becomes a chord tone in bar 2. A portamento is the late Renaissance precursor to the anticipation, though today it refers to a glissando. Neighbor tone A neighbor tone (NT) or auxiliary note (AUX) is a nonchord tone that passes stepwise from a chord tone directly above or below it (which frequently causes the NT to create dissonance with the chord) and resolves to the same chord tone: In practice and analysis, neighboring tones are sometimes differentiated depending upon whether or not they are lower or higher than the chord tones surrounding them. A neighboring tone that is a step higher than the surrounding chord tones is called an upper neighboring tone or an upper auxiliary note while a neighboring tone that is a step lower than the surrounding chord tones is a lower neighboring tone or lower auxiliary note. However, following Heinrich Schenker's usage in Free Composition, some authors reserve the term "neighbor note" to the lower neighbor a half step below the main note. The German term Nebennote is a somewhat broader category, including all nonchord tones approached from the main note by step. Escape tone An escape tone (ET) or echappée is a particular type of unaccented incomplete neighbor tone that is approached stepwise from a chord tone and resolved by a skip in the opposite direction back to the harmony. Passing tone A passing tone (PT) or passing note is a nonchord tone prepared by a chord tone a step above or below it and resolved by continuing in the same direction stepwise to the next chord tone (which is either part of the same chord or of the next chord in the harmonic progression). Where two nonchord tones are before the resolution they are double passing tones or double passing notes. Accented non-chord tones Passing tone A tone that sits between two chord tones and is between them. Neighbor tone A neighbour tone is where you step up or down from a note (or chord tone) and then move back to the original note. Suspension and retardation A suspension (SUS) (sometimes referred to as a syncope) occurs when the harmony shifts from one chord to another, but one or more notes of the first chord (the preparation) are either temporarily held over into or are played again against the second chord (against which they are nonchord tones called the suspension) before resolving downwards to a chord tone by step (the resolution). The whole process is called a suspension as well as the specific nonchord tone(s). Suspensions may be further described with two numbers: (1) the interval between the suspended note and the bass note and (2) the interval between the resolution and the bass note. The most common suspensions are 4–3 suspension, 7–6 suspension, or 9–8 suspension. Note that except for the 9–8 suspensions, the numbers are typically referred to using the simple intervals, so for instance, if the intervals are actually an 11th and a 10th (the first example below), you would typically call it a 4–3 suspension. If the bass note is suspended, then the interval is calculated between the bass and the part that is most dissonant with it, often resulting in a 2–3 suspension. Suspensions must resolve downwards. If a tied note is prepared like a suspension but resolves upwards, it is called a retardation. Common retardations include 2–3 and 7–8 retardations. Decorated suspensions are common and consist of portamentos or double eighth notes, the second being a lower neighbor tone. A chain of suspensions constitutes the fourth species of counterpoint; an example may be found in the second movement of Arcangelo Corelli's Christmas Concerto. Appoggiatura An appoggiatura (APP) is a type of accented incomplete neighbor tone approached skip-wise from one chord tone and resolved stepwise to another chord tone ("overshooting" the chord tone). Nonharmonic bass Nonharmonic bass notes are bass notes that are not a member of the chord below which they are written. Examples include the Elektra chord. An example of a nonharmonic bass from the third movement of Stravinsky's Symphony of Psalms. Involving more than three notes Changing tones Changing tones (CT) are two successive nonharmonic tones. A chord tone steps to a nonchord tone which skips to another nonchord tone which leads by step to a chord tone, often the same chord tone. They may imply neighboring tones with a missing or implied note in the middle. Also called double neighboring tones or neighbor group. Pedal point Another form of nonchord tone is a pedal point or pedal tone (PD) or note, almost always the tonic or dominant, which is held through a series of chord changes. The pedal point is almost always in the lowest voice (the term originates from organ playing), but it may be in an upper voice; then it may be called an inverted pedal. It may also be between the upper and lower voices, in which case it is called an internal pedal. Chromatic nonharmonic tone A chromatic nonharmonic tone is a nonharmonic tone that is chromatic, or outside of the key and creates half-step motion. The use of which, especially chromatic appoggiaturas and chromatic passing tones, increased in the Romantic Period. The example below shows chromatic nonharmonic tones (in red) in the first four measures of Frédéric Chopin's Prelude No. 21, op. 28. See also Ornament Non-harmonic arpeggio References Sources External links Musical terminology

262300

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20congressional%20delegations%20from%20Minnesota

United States congressional delegations from Minnesota

These are tables of congressional delegations from Minnesota to the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. The current dean of the Minnesota delegation is Representative Betty McCollum (MN-4), having served in the House since 2001. U.S. House of Representatives Current members The House delegation has 8 members, including 4 Democrats, and 3 Republicans. One seat is currently vacant. List of representatives Delegates from Minnesota Territory Representatives from Minnesota 1858–1883 1883–1903 1903–1933 1933–present United States Senate Key See also List of United States congressional districts References Minnesota Politics of Minnesota Congressional delegations

262301

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20T%C3%BCbingen

University of Tübingen

The University of Tübingen, officially the Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen (; ), is a public research university located in the city of Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The University of Tübingen is one of eleven German Excellence Universities. The University of Tübingen is especially known as a centre for the study of plant biology, medicine, law, archeology, ancient cultures, philosophy, theology, and religious studies as well as more recently as center of excellence for artificial intelligence. The university's noted alumni include presidents, EU Commissioners, and judges of the Federal Constitutional Court. The university is associated with eleven Nobel laureates, especially in the fields of medicine and chemistry. History The University of Tübingen was founded in 1477 by Count Eberhard V (Eberhard im Bart, 1445–1496), later the first Duke of Württemberg, a civic and ecclesiastic reformer who established the school after becoming absorbed in the Renaissance revival of learning during his travels to Italy. Its first rector was Johannes Nauclerus. Its present name was conferred on it in 1769 by Duke Karl Eugen who appended his first name to that of the founder. The university later became the principal university of the kingdom of Württemberg. Today, it is one of nine state universities funded by the German federal state of Baden-Württemberg. The University of Tübingen has a history of innovative thought, particularly in theology, in which the university and the Tübinger Stift are famous to this day. Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560), the prime mover in building the German school system and a chief figure in the Protestant Reformation, helped establish its direction. Among Tübingen's eminent students (and/or professors) have been the astronomer Johannes Kepler; the economist Horst Köhler (President of Germany); Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI), poet Friedrich Hölderlin, and the philosophers Friedrich Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. "The Tübingen Three" refers to Hölderlin, Hegel and Schelling, who were roommates at the Tübinger Stift. Theologian Helmut Thielicke revived postwar Tübingen when he took over a professorship at the reopened theological faculty in 1947, being made administrative head of the university and President of the Chancellor's Conference in 1951. The university rose to the height of its prominence in the middle of the 19th century with the teachings of poet and civic leader Ludwig Uhland and the Protestant theologian Ferdinand Christian Baur, whose circle, colleagues and students became known as the "Tübingen School", which pioneered the historical-critical analysis of biblical and early Christian texts, an approach generally referred to as "higher criticism." The University of Tübingen also was the first German university to establish a faculty of natural sciences, in 1863. DNA was discovered in 1868 at the University of Tübingen by Friedrich Miescher. Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, the first female Nobel Prize winner in medicine in Germany, also works at Tübingen. The faculty for economics and business was founded in 1817 as the "Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät" and was the first of its kind in Germany. Starting with the late 1990s at Tübingen University, the foundation work with mRNA-based substances (e.g. for cancer treatment and vaccines) were laid in the groups of H.-G. Rammensee and G. Jung which led through the Ph.D. work and later research of Ingmar Hoerr eventually to COVID-19 vaccine programs by BioNTech, Moderna and Curevac. Nazi period The University played a leading role in efforts to legitimize the policies of the Third Reich as "scientific". Even before the victory of the Nazi Party in the general election in March 1933, there were hardly any Jewish faculty and a few Jewish students. Physicist Hans Bethe was dismissed on 20 April 1933 because of "non-Aryan" origin. Religion professor Traugott Konstantin Oesterreich and the mathematician Erich Kamke were forced to take early retirement, probably in both cases the "non-Aryan" origin of their wives. At least 1158 people were sterilized at the University Hospital. After the war In 1966, Joseph Ratzinger, who would later become Pope Benedict XVI, was appointed to a chair in dogmatic theology in the Faculty of Catholic Theology at Tübingen, where he was a colleague of Hans Küng.In 1967, Jürgen Moltmann (b. 1926), one of the most influential Protestant theologians of the 20th century, was appointed Professor of Systematic Theology in the Faculty of Protestant Theology. Drafted in 1944 by Nazi Germany, he was an Allied prisoner of war 1945–1948. He was influenced by his colleague and friend Ernst Bloch, the Marxist philosopher. In 1970, the university was restructured into a series of faculties as independent departments of study and research after the manner of French universities. The university made the headlines in November 2009 when a group of left-leaning students occupied one of the main lecture halls, the Kupferbau, for several days. The students' goal was to protest tuition fees and maintain that education should be free for everyone. In May 2010, Tübingen joined the Matariki Network of Universities (MNU) together with Dartmouth College (USA), Durham University (UK), Queen's University (Canada), University of Otago (New Zealand), University of Western Australia (Australia) and Uppsala University (Sweden). Research focus The University of Tübingen undertakes a broad range of research projects in various fields. Among the more prominent ones in the natural sciences are the Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, which focuses on general, cognitive and cellular neurology as well as neurodegeneration, and the Centre for Interdisciplinary Clinical Research, which deals primarily with cell biology in diagnostics and therapy of organ system diseases. In the liberal arts, the University of Tübingen is noteworthy for having the only faculty of rhetoric in Germany – the department was founded by Walter Jens, an important intellectual and literary critic. The university also boasts continued pre-eminence in its centuries-old traditions of research in the fields of philosophy, theology and philology. Since at least the nineteenth century, Tübingen has been the home of world-class research in prehistoric studies and the study of antiquity, including the study of the ancient Near East; a particular focus of the research in these areas at the University of Tübingen has been Anatolia, e.g., through the continued excavations of the university at Troy. Campus The University of Tübingen is not a campus university, but is spread throughout the town: Tübingen is one of five classical "university towns" in Germany. The other four are Marburg, Göttingen, Freiburg and Heidelberg. In Tübingen there are four areas with a major concentration of university institutions. The university uses a number of buildings in the old town of Tübingen, some of which date back to the foundation of the university. Today, these are mainly used by smaller humanities departments, as is the adjacent medieval castle, Schloss Hohentübingen. Northeast of the old town, the Wilhelmstraße area surrounding the street of the same name is home to larger humanities departments as well as the university's administration. The main university library and main refectory are also in this area. A new campus for the sciences was built in the 1970s at Morgenstelle, a hill north of the historic centre of Tübingen. Facilities include a large refectory. The university's teaching hospitals are located between the Wilhelmstraße area and the Morgenstelle campus in an area collectively known as the Klinikum. The 17 hospitals in Tübingen affiliated with the university's faculty of medicine have 1,500 patient beds, and cater to 66,000 in-patients and 200,000 out-patients on an annual basis. Accommodation provided by the Tübingen Studentenwerk is in several locations throughout the town. The largest of the eleven halls of residence are in the city's northern neighbourhood of Waldhäuser Ost (1,700 rooms) and in the city's southeasternmost neighbourhood, Französisches Viertel (500 rooms). Museum Since 2006, the young Museum of the University of Tübingen (MUT) has made it its task to professionalize the 65 sometimes very old, singular teaching, show and research collections of the university from all faculties in terms of collection, curatorial and organizational aspects. In interdisciplinary exhibitions, both the broader public should be provided with insights into the history of science as well as researched in the field of science itself. In addition, the master's degree program "Museum & Collections" of the MUT, with the participation of six humanities and cultural studies subjects, offers the training of students in the field of exhibitions. Eight scientific teaching collections – Origins of Art, Pile Dwellings + Celts, Cuneiform, Gods + Tombs, Ancient Art, Ancient Coins, Ancient Sculptures – are open to the public in the Museum Alte Kulturen and in the permanent exhibition WeltKulturen in Hohentübingen Castle. In addition, there are other, partially accessible scientific teaching collections on Hohentübingen: Cradle of Biochemistry (Schlosslabor), BildBestand, Everyday Culture, AntikenBilder, Professor Gallery (partial), Castle Church and TonSteineScherben. The MUT – and thus the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen – is the only university institution in the world to house artefacts with world heritage status, such as the oldest surviving figurative works of art and musical instruments of humanity, mammoth ivory figures and fragments of bone flutes. These come from the Vogelherdhöhle (Swabian Alb), which has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage "Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura" since 2017. Libraries The University Library of Tübingen is not just available to those affiliated with the university, but also to the general public. The library provides more than three million individual volumes and more than 7,600 journals. Apart from the main library, more than 80 departmental libraries containing an additional three million volumes are also associated with the university. The main lending library is located on Wilhelmstraße and consists of several different parts which are connected through corridors and walkways: The Bonatzbau, the library's oldest building, was built in 1912 and currently houses the historical reading room (Historischer Lesesaal), the university archive, along with a number of manuscript collections. The library's main building, constructed in 1963, contains the information desk and research stations to access electronic catalogues and databases. The Ammerbau is the most recent addition to the library complex. Built in 2002, it offers users direct access to over 300,000 volumes and latest issues of newspapers, magazines and journals. It also contains numerous work places and separate individual rooms for group work. Organisation Faculties The university is made up of 7 faculties, some of which are subdivided into further departments. Protestant Theology Catholic Theology Law Medicine Humanities Economics and Social Sciences Science Governance The university is governed by three separate bodies sharing different functions and duties. However, some persons serve in more than one body. The Rectorate is the executive component of the university's governing body. The current rector, Professor Bernd Engler, is supported by four deputies consisting of three prorectors and one provost. All are also permanent members of the university senate. The Senate forms the legislative section of governance. Apart from the members of the rectorate, it includes the equal opportunities commissioner, the deans and 20 elected members representing the professors, lecturers, students and non-academic staff. Two advisors represent the university's teaching hospitals. The University Council (Hochschulrat or Universitätsrat) has 13 members, including its president and vice-president as well as five further internal and six external members. Rankings and reputation Since 2012, the University of Tübingen has been regarded as one of eleven German Excellence Universities that have been successful in the competition of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The award brings additional research funds for five years. With three successful research Clusters of Excellence approved by the German Universities Excellence Initiative in 2018, Tübingen is one of the three universities with the highest research output in Germany and leading among universities in South Germany. According to the funding report of the German Research Foundation (DFG) 2018, which breaks down the grants awarded to German universities from 2014 to 2016, the University of Tübingen was ranked 8th overall, 4th in humanities and social sciences, and 6th in life sciences including medicine. This ranking is based on a selection of best research projects nationwide and thus regarded as an indicator of the quality of research. In the Times Higher Education World University Ranking (2021), Tübingen was ranked 78th worldwide and 5th nationwide. US News Best Global Universities and QS World University Rankings also ranked Tübingen amongst the top ten universities in Germany overall in 2021. Traditionally, Tübingen has been particularly strong in the fields of humanities, especially in theology and religious studies, medicine, and law: In 2019, Tübingen was ranked 6th worldwide and 1st nationwide in the fields of theology and religious studies by QS World University Rankings. In the Times Higher Education World University Ranking (2021), Tübingen was ranked 24th worldwide and 3rd nationwide in arts and humanities. According to the QS World University Ranking (2021), Tübingen ranks among the world's top universities in the subjects of archaeology (21st), classics and ancient history (35th), and anthropology (49th). According to the Times Higher Education World University Ranking (2021), Tübingen also ranks among the top universities worldwide in life sciences (61st), psychology (65th), and medicine (75th). The Tübingen Law School was ranked second nationwide by the Wirtschaftswoche University Ranking. Also according to international rankings, Tübingen regularly ranks among the top ten law schools in Germany. In addition, since 2018, the University has been part of a wider artificial intelligence research initiative named Cyber Valley, which is a collaboration between, inter alia, the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems and various corporations such as Amazon, BMW, and Daimler. The University of Tübingen is the only university in the German-speaking world that teaches rhetoric as an independent subject of study. Controversies Since 2018, the University has been part of a wider artificial intelligence research initiative named Cyber Valley. Cyber Valley has seen investments from multinational companies poured into establishing research centers, research groups, and professorships in the city. The investing organisations and corporations include Google, Amazon, BMW, IAV, Daimler, Porsche, and Bosch. The Cyber Valley initiative has attracted criticism from student groups and activist groups alike, with many protest actions, including building occupations and demonstrations, having taken place decrying both the commercialisation of University research and the involvement of the University with organisations that are engaged in military research. Student life The university's students make up roughly a third of the total population of Tübingen and the town's culture can seem to be largely dominated by them. As a result there is a slump of activity during university holidays, particularly over the summer when a large number of otherwise regular events are not happening. Around 30 Studentenverbindungen, the German type of fraternities, are associated with the university. While famous for their parties, public academic lectures and the yearly "Stocherkahn-Rennen" punting-boat race on the Neckar river, some of them are the subject of ongoing controversy surrounding alleged rightwing policial views, leading to strong criticism from leftist groups. The university itself takes a neutral stance on this issue. However, all of Tübingen's fraternities distance themselves from the fraternities of the Deutsche Burschenschaft, which have been widely criticized as adhering to far-right principles. Also closely linked to the university are a number of student societies representing mainly the arts and political parties. Most notable are a number of choirs as well as student theatre groups affiliated with the faculty of Modern Languages, some of which perform in foreign languages. Radio Uniwelle Tübingen is the university's radio station, airing seven hours of programmes a week produced by students under the supervision of staff employed by the university. The university also offers gym and sports classes called Hochschulsport. Since Tübingen has a department of sports science with a broad range of facilities, students of other subjects have the possibility to participate in various kinds of sports courses in teams or as individuals. Furthermore, even exotic sports, such as parachuting or martial arts, are offered. Students may attend courses either for free or at reduced rates. The sports department is located close to the Wilhelmstraße area of university buildings and is served by a number of frequent bus routes. Unlike in some major cities, student discounts are not widely available in Tübingen. Cinemas and the town council's public library in particular do not offer discounts for students, and there are only a handful of restaurants which have reduced lunch deals. However, students may benefit from the Semesterticket, a heavily discounted public transport season pass offering six months of unlimited travel on trains and buses in the naldo Verkehrsverbund transport association for approximately €62.50. The Landestheater Tübingen theatre and all public swimming pools also have discounts for students. Nightlife in Tübingen is centered on the numerous pubs in the old town along with a number of clubs, most of which dedicate themselves to non-mainstream music. During the semester, the Studentenwerk-owned Clubhaus at the centre of the Wilhelmstraße university area hosts the weekly Clubhausfest on Thursday nights. This popular, free-entry club night is organized and promoted by student societies and Fachschaft student representative bodies and all proceeds go towards their activities in support of students. Notable faculty Eberhard Jüngel (1934–2021), German Lutheran theologian Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (born 1942), German developmental biologist and 1995 Nobel Prize-winner Notable alumni The University of Tübingen has a long list of notable alumni and staff. As of 2021, eleven Nobel Laureates, 16 Leibniz Laureates and four Alexander von Humboldt Professorships are affiliated with the University. Besides several Federal Ministers of Germany and Minister Presidents of German States, politicians associated with the University of Tübingen include six founding fathers of the Federal Republic of Germany, a Chancellor of Germany, two Presidents of Germany, and several European Commissioners. As Tübingen has traditionally been home to one of the most prestigious law schools in Germany, alumni in the legal profession include at least 19 judges of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, the first female German judge at the European Court of Justice, an Advocate General at the European Court of Justice, as well as several judges at the Federal Court of Justice, the Federal Fiscal Court, and the Federal Labour Court. Notable legal scholars associated with Tübingen include Dieter Medicus, Klaus Hopt and Wolfgang Ernst. Affiliates in the field of religious studies include many of the most influential theologians of the last centuries such as Pope Benedict XVI, Karl Barth, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Eduard Mörike, Miroslav Volv, Paul Tillich, David Strauss, Philip Melanchthon, and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling. Nobel laureates Faculty members and alumni who have been awarded with the Nobel Prize: William Ramsay (1904, Chemistry) Eduard Buchner (1907, Chemistry), faculty Karl Ferdinand Braun (1909, Physics), faculty Fritz Pregl (1923, Chemistry) Adolf Butenandt (1939, Chemistry), faculty Hans Bethe (1967, Physics), faculty Georg Wittig (1979, Chemistry), faculty Hartmut Michel (1988, Chemistry) Bert Sakmann (1991, Medicine) Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (1995, Medicine), faculty Günter Blobel (1999, Medicine) Quotes "Tübingen does not have a university, Tübingen is a university." – Walter Jens "One need merely say 'Tübingen Seminary' to understand what German philosophy is at bottom: an insidious theology. The Swabians are the best liars in Germany: they lie innocently." – Friedrich Nietzsche, 1888 See also List of medieval universities List of universities in Germany Friedrich Althoff Robert-Bosch-Hospital Pi-Chacán Plato's unwritten doctrines, for the influential Tübingen School of Plato interpretation References Bibliography Martin Biastoch, Tübinger Studenten im Kaiserreich. Eine sozialgeschichtliche Untersuchung: Contubernium – Tübinger Beiträge zur Universitäts- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Vol. 44 (Sigmaringen, 1996, ) Walter Jens, Eine deutsche Universität. 500 Jahre Tübinger Gelehrtenrepublik (Munich : Kindler, 1977) Tubingensia: Impulse zur Stadt- und Universitätsgeschichte. Festschrift für Wilfried Setzler zum 65. Geburtstag (Tübinger Bausteine zur Landesgeschichte, 10), edited by Sönke Lorenz and Volker [Karl] Schäfer (Ostfildern: Jan Thorbecke Verlag, 2008) External links University of Tubingen Official website Erasmus and exchange to Tübingen 1470s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire 1477 establishments in Europe Educational institutions established in the 15th century Tourist attractions in Tübingen Buildings and structures in Tübingen Universities and colleges in Baden-Württemberg

262303

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethicist

Ethicist

An ethicist is one whose judgment on ethics and ethical codes has come to be trusted by a specific community, and (importantly) is expressed in some way that makes it possible for others to mimic or approximate that judgment. Following the advice of ethicists is one means of acquiring knowledge (see argument, argument from authority). The term jurist describes an ethicist whose judgment on law becomes part of a legal code, or otherwise has force of law. This may be due to formal (de jure) state sanction. Some jurists have less formal (de facto) backing by an ethical community, e.g. a religious community. In Islamic Law, for instance, such a community following (taqlid) a specific jurisprudence (fiqh) of shariah mimics judgment of a prior jurist. Catholic Canon Law has a similar structure. Such a jurist may be a theologian or simply a prominent teacher. To those outside this tradition, the jurist is simply an ethicist who they may more freely disagree with, and whose input on any issue is advisory. However, they may find it hard to avoid a fatwa or excommunication or other such shunning by the religious community, so it may be hard advice to ignore. Other meanings "Ethicist" may also mean a person who subscribes to ethicism, which can be defined either as a philosophy based on ethics or "the view that a work of art's moral point of view affects the work's overall aesthetic evaluation". "Ethicist" may also mean a person with a tendency to moralize. See also List of ethicists, demonstrates the extreme range of people who claim to have made, or contributed to, ethical debates. Notes Ethics

262306

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamora%2C%20Spain

Zamora, Spain

Zamora () is a city and municipality of Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital of the province of Zamora. The city straddles the Duero river. With its 24 characteristic Romanesque style churches of the 12th and 13th centuries it has been called a "museum of Romanesque art". Zamora is the city with the most Romanesque churches in all of Europe. The most important celebration in Zamora is the Holy Week. Zamora is part of the natural comarca of Tierra del Pan and it is the head of the judicial district of Zamora. History After the Roman victory over the Lusitanian hero Viriathus the settlement was named by the Romans Occelum Durii or Ocellodurum (literally, "Eye of the Duero"). During Roman rule it was in the hands of the Vaccaei, and was incorporated into the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis. It was on the road from Emerita (modern Mérida) to Asturica Augusta (modern Astorga). (Ant. Itin. pp. 434, 439). Two coins from the reign of the Visigothic king Sisebuto, show that it was known at the time as "Semure". Following the campaigns of Musa ibn Nusayr in the 710s in the context of the Umayyad conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the town was conquered and a Berber garrison was left in the there, but following the Arab-Berber strifes, the territory was reportedly seized by Alfonso I of Asturias. Not much attention was paid however to the place in the chronicles from this period, as Asturian human resources at the time were mostly targeted at the Cantabrian coast and little is known about the inhabitants of the Duero Valley. According to the chronicle of Al-Andalus by , Alfonso III of Asturias determined the Christian repopulation of the place in 280 AH (893–894 AD) (although the dates of 881, 899 and 910 AD have been also reported). A diocese and a bishop were established in the town in the early 10th century. Mozarab builders came from Toledo. The city became one of the most thriving Christian cities in Iberia in the early 10th century, possibly even passing León. Zamora became the target of Ibn al-Qitt, who unsuccessfully tried to invade the city in 901 with help from Berbers. It was also attacked several times during the Caliphal era, and Almanzor eventually seized the city in 966. The place returned to Christian control during the reign of Alfonso V of León. Since the early 11th century, with the repopulation works by Raymond of Burgundy, the place saw planned repopulating efforts. A new perimeter of city walls was also erected in the 11th century. The population intramuros included the nobles and regal officers, the clergy, Frank settlers from Gascogne, Poitou and Provence who had installed in the city during the time of Raymond of Burgundy, settlers of Asturian, Leonese and Galician origin, as well as some Mozarabs. Zamora was granted a fuero in 1208. The most notable historic episode in Zamora was the assassination outside the city walls of the king Sancho II of Castile in 1072. Some decades before, king Ferdinand I of León had divided his kingdoms between his three sons. To his daughter, Doña Urraca, he had bequeathed the "well fortified city of Zamora" (or "la bien cercada" in Spanish). All three sons warred among themselves, till the ultimate winner, Sancho, was left victorious. Zamora, under his sister who was allied with Leonese nobles, resisted. Sancho II of Castile, assisted by El Cid, laid siege to Zamora. King Sancho II was murdered by a duplicitous noble of Zamora, Bellido Dolfos, who tricked the king into a private meeting. After the death of Sancho, Castile reverted to his deposed brother Alfonso VI of León. The event was commemorated by the Portillo de la Traición (Treason Gate). In the late middle ages, Zamora was one of the 17 cities (18 after the inclusion of Granada) that enjoyed a vote at the Cortes of Castile, actually speaking on behalf of all of Galicia since the early 15th century (Galicia did not have any city with representation until the 17th century). Zamora was also the scene of fierce fighting in the 15th century, during the conflict between the supporters of Isabella the Catholic and Juana la Beltraneja. The Spanish proverb, No se ganó Zamora en una hora, literally, Zamora wasn't won in an hour, is a reference to these battles. It is the Spanish equivalent of the English proverb "Rome wasn't built in a day." During the 12th century, the city was extraordinarily important for its strategic position in the wars between the Kingdom of León and the Almoravids and Almohads. As a result, the city preserves many churches and buildings from that time. In the 1140s and 1150s it was ruled by Prince Ponce Giraldo de Cabrera, who has a street named after him in the city today. Henry IV granted Zamora the epithet of "most noble and most loyal city". The city leaned towards support to the Revolt of the Comuneros in the northern hemisphere Fall of 1520. By September 1520, the corregidor appointed by the Crown was ousted and replaced by an alcalde designated by the community (a revolutionary development at the time). However, the hopes of the rebels across the Crown of Castile were handed a crushing blow at the Battle of Villalar on 23 April 1521. In the Early Modern Period, the city lost its political and economic relevance and suffered emigration, especially to South America (where many other cities called Zamora were founded). According to the Godoy Census, the city had a population of 10,171 in 1797. During the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), Zamora was from the start of the military rebellion a nationalist held city. The savagery of the repression against leftists and liberals is captured in Ramón Sender Barayón's 'A Death in Zamora', which tells of the extrajudicial murder of his mother, Amparo Barayon, the wife of the famous novelist Ramon Sender. Geography Location Located in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula, the city lies at about 649 metres above sea level, around a rocky hill near the Duero river some upstream of the Portuguese border. The municipality expands across a total area of 149.28 km2. Climate Zamora has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSk), with cool winters and warm to hot summers. Precipitation is mainly recorded during two seasons, spring and autumn, with summer characterized by droughts. The highest temperature ever recorded is 41.0 °C (105 °F) on 24 July 1995 while the minimum stood at −13.4 °C (8 °F) on 16 January 1945. Fog is common during winters, frequently decreasing morning temperatures. Main sights Main sights of Zamora include: Cathedral, in Romanesque style, dating to the 12th century, taking only 23 years to build. Medieval Castle of Zamora. Palacio de los Condes de Alba y Aliste, built in 1459 by the first Count of Alva y Aliste. It boasts a patio and staircase decorated with carvings by artists from Lombardy. Calle Balborraz. Church of San Pedro y San Ildefonso, built from the 11th century, probably over a Visigothic temple. It was reformed in Romanesque style in the 12th–13th centuries, but was much renovated in the 15th and 18th centuries. It has presently a single nave with cross vaults Church of Santa María Magdalena. The southern façade is in Romanesque style, dating back to the 13th century. Church of San Isidoro (12th century). It has one nave, having a square major chapel. The exterior features two ogival arcades with archivolts. Church of San Claudio de Olivares, known from the 12th century. Of small size, it has a single nave with a presbytery and a semicircular apse. The columns of the nave have carvings. Church of San Juan de Puerta Nueva (12th century stained glass circular window, symbol of Zamora). Church of Santa María la Nueva (12th century, baptistery dating back to the 13th century). Church of Santiago de los Caballeros (11th century), located outside the city walls. El Cid was created knight here. Church of Santiago El Burgo (Southern façade, 12th century Romanesque) City walls: three walled enclosures dating back to the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. Museo de Semana Santa de Zamora: Opposite the Church of Santa María la Nueva, dedicated to Semana Santa de Zamora the processions during which are celebrated with particular ceremony in Zamora. The museum holds a large collection of pasos, the figures which are carried in procession through the streets by various 'cofradías' or brotherhoods. See Holy Week in Zamora Museo de Zamora: Local history museum with an archeological collection and chronological displays ranging from prehistoric inhabitants of the region to Roman and modern models. Surroundings Arcenillas church (15th century panels) Hiniesta church (Gothic, sculptures and murals) The Church of San Pedro de la Nave, (village of El Campillo – 12 km, 7½ miles distant) was founded in the 7th century, rebuilt in the 12th century, and is one of the three best-preserved Visigothic churches in all of Spain. It was moved stone by stone and then re-erected, owing to the construction of a reservoir on its original site. Transportation The city is served by the Zamora Railway Station, located on one of the Spanish North-Northwestern high speed lines. All major Spanish bus companies and some local companies operate out of the Estación de Autobuses de Zamora, which connects Zamora to neighboring cities, such as Salamanca and Benavente, as well as nearby pueblos, major cities such as Valladolid and Madrid, and further destinations around Spain and Europe. Food Food specialties in Zamora include the pulses, the chickpeas or 'garbanzos' from Fuentesauco, the exquisite cheese made from sheep's milk, honey from Sanabria, asparagus from Guareña, peppers from Benavente, steak from Aliste, mushrooms, game, cold meats, cakes and sweets. Other specialties are the rice dishes from Zamora and the Toro wines (very dark, almost black, nowadays made using modern techniques – with a rapidly growing reputation for their taste and quality). Traditional dishes include bacalao a la tranca (a cod dish), pulpo a la sanabresa (an octopus dish), dos y pingada (two fried eggs with fried ham, usually served at Easter) and presas de ternera (a beef dish). For dessert there is the rebojo Zamorano, a very tasty though hard type of bun, and las natillas almendradas (Spanish style custard with almonds). Notable locals Predilect sons and daughters (honorary citizens) Ángel Nieto (1947–2017; posthumous recognition). Sister cities Bragança, Portugal (1984). Oviedo, Spain, since 2001. Yaritagua, Venezuela. Altagracia de Orituco, Venezuela References Citations Bibliography External links Tourism in Zamora Zamora travel guide Municipalities of the Province of Zamora Roman sites in Spain

262317

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLE

MLE

MLE may refer to: Organizations Media Lab Europe, former lab in Dublin, Ireland Major League Eating, competitive eating organization Marxistisk-Leninistisk Enhedsforbund, a Danish Maoist group 1972–1975 Military Liaison Element anti-terrorist special forces in US embassies Science and technology Mars Lander Engine of Mars Science Laboratory Multi-Lamellar Emulsion, in dermatology Maximum likelihood estimation, in statistics Managed learning environment, in e-learning Muconate lactonizing enzyme, in molecular biology Magazine Lee–Enfield, a rifle Maleless protein, involved in Dosage compensation in Drosophila, in genetics An error in Competitive programming meaning Memory Limit Exceeded. Machine learning engineer, a software engineer who specializes in machine learning Other uses Magister Legum Europae, i.e. Master of European Law, a European Master's degree in the field of European law Multicultural London English, in linguistics Velana International Airport, Malé, IATA code Mid-Level Exception, an NBA salary cap exception Model Law Engineer, a professional designation in the United States

262321

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20City%20Expressway

Atlantic City Expressway

The Atlantic City Expressway (officially numbered, but unsigned, as Route 446 and abbreviated A.C. Expressway, ACE, or ACX, and known locally as "the Expressway") is a , controlled-access toll road in the U.S. state of New Jersey, managed and operated by the South Jersey Transportation Authority (SJTA). It serves as an extension of the freeway part of Route 42 from Turnersville (which is itself an extension of Interstate 76) southeast to Atlantic City. It connects Philadelphia and the surrounding Delaware Valley with Atlantic City and other Jersey Shore resorts, and also serves other South Jersey communities, including Hammonton and Mays Landing. The expressway intersects many major roads, including Route 73 in Winslow Township, Route 54 in Hammonton, Route 50 in Hamilton Township, the Garden State Parkway in Egg Harbor Township, and U.S. Route 9 (US 9) in Pleasantville. The Atlantic City Expressway uses a barrier toll system, with two mainline toll plazas (Egg Harbor in Hamilton Township and Pleasantville) and seven exits with ramp tolls. Tolls can be paid using cash or the E-ZPass electronic toll collection system. The total cost to travel the length of the Atlantic City Expressway for passenger vehicles is currently $5.50. The expressway features one service plaza, the Frank S. Farley Service Plaza, in Hamilton Township a short distance west of the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza, as well as a gas station and mini-mart in Pleasantville. Plans for the road go back to the 1930s when a parkway was proposed between Camden and Atlantic City that was never built. Plans resurfaced for the road in the 1950s when a group of officials led by State Senator Frank S. Farley pushed for a road to help the area economy. The New Jersey Expressway Authority was created in 1962, tasked with building an expressway. The Atlantic City Expressway was built between 1962 and 1965 at a total cost of $48.2 million. The SJTA assumed control of the road in 1991 from the New Jersey Expressway Authority. Route description The Atlantic City Expressway begins at Route 42 in Turnersville in Washington Township, Gloucester County, where the freeway right-of-way continues north as the North–South Freeway, a part of Route 42. Here, Route 42 continues south on the Black Horse Pike and Route 168 continues north on the Black Horse Pike. A westbound exit provides a connection to northbound Route 168. The expressway then heads southeast as a four-lane road, straddling between Washington Township and Gloucester Township, Camden County. On the border between Gloucester Township and Winslow Township, the Atlantic City Expressway features a diamond interchange with County Route 689 (CR 689). Past this interchange, there is a full interchange with CR 536 Spur. The expressway passes under CR 536 and then features a partial interchange with CR 723, with an eastbound exit and a westbound entrance. It then meets Route 73 at another partial interchange, with a westbound exit and an eastbound entrance, where the roadway widens to six lanes. Past this interchange, the highway passes over the Southern Railroad of New Jersey's Southern Running Track line. The expressway crosses into the town of Hammonton in Atlantic County. Continuing to the southeast, it passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Beesleys Point Secondary before it encounters Route 54 at a full interchange. It then enters Hamilton Township and passes under CR 559. The lanes of the Atlantic City Expressway in both directions split for the Frank S. Farley Service Plaza, which is located in the median of the expressway and accessible from both directions. The Frank S. Farley Service Plaza, named for New Jersey State Senator Frank S. Farley, is the only service plaza on the highway. Run by Applegreen, it has a building containing several fast food restaurants, a gift shop, an ATM, tourist information, and a Sunoco gas station and mini-mart. Past the service plaza, the Atlantic City Expressway meets the mainline Egg Harbor Toll Plaza. It then features a full interchange with Route 50, with the westbound exit and eastbound entrance being E-ZPass only. It meets CR 670, with another partial interchange featuring an eastbound off-ramp and a westbound on-ramp. Next, it has an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for CR 575, which provides access to US 40, US 322, and the Hamilton Mall. To and from the east, a ramp runs from the Atlantic City Expressway to the US 40/US 322 split. The expressway then enters Egg Harbor Township. It has an interchange with CR 646, which provides access to the Atlantic City International Airport, and passes under CR 563. It then features a cloverleaf interchange with the Garden State Parkway and crosses into the city of Pleasantville. The expressway meets US 9 at a diamond interchange. It passes under CR 585 and features a partial interchange with North Franklin Boulevard, with a westbound exit and eastbound entrance. The expressway then continues to the Pleasantville Toll Plaza. Past the toll plaza, the travel lanes separate and a park and ride lot, used by Atlantic City casino employees, lies within the median of the expressway. It then encounters the former Atlantic City Visitor Welcome Center and a Sunoco gas station/mini-mart before it enters the city of Atlantic City. Upon entering Atlantic City, the expressway passes under the Southern Railroad of New Jersey's Pleasantville Industrial Track line and features an eastbound exit and westbound entrance to US 40/US 322. It then continues southeast, crossing the Beach Thorofare, and soon after encounters an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for the Atlantic City–Brigantine Connector, which provides access to the Atlantic City Convention Center, the Marina district, and the city of Brigantine. It then ends at a traffic light at the intersection with Baltic Avenue/Fairmount Avenue near Tanger Outlets The Walk, where it becomes the one-way pair of Missouri Avenue eastbound (also known as Christopher Columbus Boulevard and CR 692) and Arkansas Avenue westbound (CR 694). In 2015, the Atlantic City Expressway counted over 51 million toll-paying vehicles. The speed limit on the Atlantic City Expressway is with "conditions permitting" on the posted sign for most of the route. The Emergency Services Patrol provides motorist assistance along the expressway. Motorists needing assistance can dial #ACE or 609-965-7200 on their mobile phones. The entire length of the highway is part of the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility. Tolls The Atlantic City Expressway uses a barrier toll system, with mainline toll plazas and ramp tolls. As of January 1, 2022, all passenger vehicles currently must pay a $4.40 toll at the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza, which is located east of the Farley Service Plaza at milepost 17.5, and a $1.30 toll near Pleasantville. Both mainline toll plazas have Express E-ZPass lanes through the center of the plaza. Tolls are also collected at several entrances and exits. A $1.30 toll for cars is charged at the eastbound exits and westbound entrances at exits 5, 28, and 33 and the westbound exits and eastbound entrances at exits 9 and 12; in addition, a $0.65 toll for cars is charged at the eastbound exits and westbound entrances at exits 38 and 41. A $4.40 E-ZPass only toll is charged for the westbound exit and eastbound entrance at exit 17. E-ZPass users who frequently use the road receive a discount on their tolls. From 2014 to 2019, eastbound tolls were waived at the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza between 5:00 and 6:00 pm on Friday before Memorial Day to promote the unofficial beginning of the summer tourist season at the Jersey Shore. Chickie's & Pete's, a local sports bar chain, paid for the tolls collected during this hour. In October 2014, eastbound tolls were waived at the Egg Harbor and Pleasantville toll plazas on Tuesdays between 12:00 pm and 12:00 am to encourage midweek tourism to Atlantic City. History The road was planned as a parkway in 1932, running from the Ben Franklin Bridge in Camden to Atlantic City, but it never materialized. The idea for a limited access road between the Philadelphia area and Atlantic City resurfaced in the 1950s when South Jersey officials, led by State Senator Frank S. Farley. He pushed for an expressway between the two areas to help the economy of Southern New Jersey. The New Jersey State Highway Department authorized traffic studies for a toll road between Turnersville and Atlantic City in 1958 and 1959, and the New Jersey Expressway Authority Act in 1962 called for a five-member agency (the New Jersey Expressway Authority) with representatives from four Southern New Jersey counties to be responsible for issuing bonds to build and maintain the Atlantic City Expressway. Construction of the Atlantic City Expressway started in the middle of 1962. The design was to feature a 300- to 400-foot-wide roadway with 12-foot-wide travel lanes and right shoulders as well as 3-foot-wide left shoulders. The part between Route 42 in Turnersville and the Garden State Parkway in Egg Harbor Township was completed on July 31, 1964, and the part between the Garden State Parkway and Atlantic City was finished in July 1965. Construction of the Atlantic City Expressway cost a total of $48.2 million. Tolls on the Atlantic City Expressway initially cost $0.75 at the Egg Harbor toll plaza and $0.15 at the Pleasantville toll plaza. In 1991, the South Jersey Transportation Authority was created by the New Jersey Legislature to operate the Atlantic City Expressway, the Atlantic City International Airport, and operations of the Atlantic County Transportation Authority. In 2000, the Atlantic City Visitor Welcome Center opened in the median of the expressway near Atlantic City. Construction of the welcome center cost $3.5 million. The welcome center offered amenities including tourist information, T-shirts, restrooms, and E-ZPass sales. The Atlantic City Visitor Welcome Center closed on May 1, 2019 due to a lack of visitors. In recent years, many improvements have been made to the Atlantic City Expressway. A new interchange with CR 689 on the border of Gloucester Township and Winslow Township was completed in 2000 for $5 million. The Atlantic City–Brigantine Connector was completed on July 31, 2001, to connect the Atlantic City Expressway to the Marina district and Brigantine. In 2005, the Atlantic City Expressway added a third lane in both directions between the Garden State Parkway and Atlantic City and in the eastbound direction between Route 73 and the Garden State Parkway. Also, the Pleasantville Toll Plaza was reconstructed, replacing the older cash booths with newer technology. On November 21, 2008, construction began on the reconstruction of Interchange 17, with completion on June 18, 2010. As a result of reconstructing this interchange, the SJTA approved raising the interchange toll to $3.00. This new rate is charged to motorists heading to or from the east along the Atlantic City Expressway at Route 50. The proposal drew opposition from area officials who felt the proposed rate was too high. The westbound exit and eastbound entrance at Interchange 17 were designed to be E-ZPass only, the first such interchange on the Atlantic City Expressway. In 2007, it was announced that the mainline Expressway from milepost 7.0–31.0 would be widened in the westbound direction to accommodate a third lane from north of the Garden State Parkway to Route 73. Interchange 17 (Route 50) would be reconstructed to form a full movement interchange (completed June 18, 2010), and the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza would receive Express E-ZPass lanes to allow traffic to maintain highway speed. Construction on these three projects was financed by a $25 million bond. The first phase was completed in the middle of 2010 and the Express E-ZPass was completed in May 2011. The work under the widening project also included improvements to bridges, lighting, and guide signs. Also, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) technology, such as traffic cameras and variable-message signs, were added to the Atlantic City Expressway to enhance safety and aid in monitoring traffic. The first phase widened the road from the Garden State Parkway to the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza. The second phase widened the road from the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza to milepost 24.5. The third phase widened the road west to Route 73. The ITS components were installed along these sections of the roadway through the course of each phase. The widening work was completed in May 2014 and the third lane opened in its entirety by Memorial Day 2014. The fourth phase added ITS technology to the parts of the road that are not being widened. On September 13, 2020, tolls at the Egg Harbor Toll Plaza increased from $3.00 to $4.25 and the $0.75 tolls at the Pleasantville Toll Plaza and several interchanges increased to $1.25. Future The SJTA revealed plans for a major road improvement project that would link the Atlantic City International Airport to the Atlantic City Expressway, with construction beginning as early as 2013. The plan includes new ramps with two overpasses over the expressway. The road would connect Amelia Earhart Boulevard with an overpass above Airport Circle. Plans also call for building a service road with another overpass that would provide access to Delilah Road. Another project involves the installation of an overpass at the end of Amelia Earhart Boulevard next to the entrance to the FAA tech center. The proposed roadway would intrude upon a small section of a mobile home park and land owned by Egg Harbor Township. In 2020, the interchange's cost was projected at $60 million. The 2019 Statewide Transportation Improvement Plan included a project that would add a flyover ramp from the Garden State Parkway northbound to the Atlantic City Expressway westbound. Construction was estimated to cost $20 million. In April 2020, as part of a plan to raise tolls by 37% on the Expressway, the SJTA announced a $150 million plan to widen the Expressway to three lanes from Exit 31 to the western terminus with Route 42. The project would also replace the current tolling system with an all-electronic tolling system using E-ZPass or toll-by-plate, a tolling system which mails an invoice to license plates without E-ZPass. In 2022, a request for bids was issued to implement all-electronic tolling along the Atlantic City Expressway, which would serve as a pilot program for all-electronic tolling on toll roads in New Jersey. The system is planned to be implemented along the roadway by May 2025. Exit list Mileposts run from east to west. See also References External links Atlantic City Expressway (Official Website) The Roads of Metro Philadelphia: Atlantic City Expressway New Jersey Roads - Atlantic City Expressway New Jersey Roads - NJ State Highways - NJ 446 South Jersey Transportation Authority (Owner of Atlantic City Expressway) State highways in New Jersey Toll roads in New Jersey Limited-access roads in New Jersey Transportation in Atlantic County, New Jersey Transportation in Camden County, New Jersey Transportation in Gloucester County, New Jersey Transportation in the Pine Barrens (New Jersey) Streets in Atlantic City, New Jersey

262326

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heartbreaker%20%28Ryan%20Adams%20album%29

Heartbreaker (Ryan Adams album)

Heartbreaker is the debut solo studio album by American singer/songwriter Ryan Adams, released September 5, 2000 on Bloodshot Records. The album was recorded over fourteen days at Woodland Studios in Nashville, Tennessee. It was nominated for the 2001 Shortlist Music Prize. The album is said to be inspired by Adams' break-up with music industry publicist Amy Lombardi. According to Adams, the album's title originates from a poster of Mariah Carey: "My manager called and said, 'You have 15 seconds to name this record,' "My eyes focused on this poster of Mariah wearing a T-shirt that said HEARTBREAKER. I just shouted, 'Heartbreaker!'" A Deluxe Edition, featuring bonus recording session takes and pre-album demos, was released on May 6, 2016 on PAX-AM records. Critical reception Heartbreaker was considered by critics to be a fresh start for Ryan Adams after the demise of his previous band Whiskeytown. AllMusic's Mark Derning wrote that the album "is loose, open, and heartfelt in a way Whiskeytown's admittedly fine albums never were, and makes as strong a case for Adams' gifts as anything his band ever released", concluding that "the strength of the material and the performances suggest Adams is finally gaining some much-needed maturity, and his music is all the better for it." The A.V. Clubs Keith Phipps wrote: "Adams has recorded an intimate, largely quiet record that indisputably establishes his identity as an independent singer-songwriter". Pitchforks Steven Byrd called it "an album of astonishing musical proficiency, complete honesty and severe beauty." Rolling Stone'''s Anthony DeCurtis was less enthusiastic, stating that Adams' songs "too often fail to rise above their plain-spoken details to take on the symbolic power he yearns for". Robert Christgau of The Village Voice selected "To Be Young (Is to Be Sad, Is to Be High)" as a "choice cut", indicating a "good song on an album that isn't worth your time or money." The album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die and was placed at #23 on Paste Magazine's "The 50 Best Albums of the Decade" list. Track listing Personnel Musicians Ryan Adams - vocals, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, harmonica, piano, banjo Ethan Johns - drums, bass, Chamberlain, glockenspiel, B-3, vibes David Rawlings - backing vocals, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, banjo, tambourine Gillian Welch - backing vocals, banjo, acoustic guitar, electric bass, "voice of Lucy" Pat Sansone - piano (5, 9, 11), Chamberlin and organ (6), backing vocals (2) Emmylou Harris - backing vocals (5) Kim Richey - backing vocals (9) Allison Pierce - backing vocals (11) Production Ethan Johns – producer, engineer, mixer Patrick Himes – assistant engineer Doug Sax – mastering David McClister – photography Gina Binkley – design Other information "Shakedown on 9th Street" was covered on the Red Dirt band No Justice's Live at Billy Bob's album in 2007. "Oh My Sweet Carolina" has been covered at least twice. The song can be heard on the deluxe edition of Zac Brown Band's 2010 album You Get What You Give, as well as on the 2008 Portastatic release Some Small History. Contestant Paul McDonald sang "Come Pick Me Up" on American Idol. English DJ Mark Ronson remixed the song "Amy" for his 2007 album Version, of which singer Kenna provides vocals. The song "To Be Young (Is To Be Sad, Is To Be High)" is featured in the 2006 film Accepted, the 2002 film The Slaughter Rule, and the 2003 film Old School. A version of this song was also released in 2009 by David Rawlings on the Dave Rawlings Machine album A Friend of a Friend. "Come Pick Me Up" is featured in the film Elizabethtown (which also featured two other Ryan Adams songs) and in a Series 2 episode of Skins. It was also named #285 on Pitchfork Media's "Top 500 songs of the 2000s". Joan Baez would cover "In My Time of Need" in 2003. Elton John has famously credited the Heartbreaker'' album as helping to regenerate his career and in 2002 he performed songs from it with Ryan Adams and did a joint interview with him where he thanked Ryan. Charts Album References Ryan Adams albums 2000 debut albums Albums produced by Ethan Johns Bloodshot Records albums

262327

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold%20%28Ryan%20Adams%20album%29

Gold (Ryan Adams album)

Gold is the second studio album by Ryan Adams, released September 25, 2001 on Lost Highway Records. The album remains Adams' best-selling album, certifying Gold in the UK and going on to sell 364,000 copies in the U.S. and 812,000 worldwide. Adams noted that "with Gold, I was trying to prove something to myself. I wanted to invent a modern classic." Adams intended for the album to be a double album, but his record label, Lost Highway, condensed the album into a single disc. According to Adams, the label "took the last five songs, made it a bonus disc and put it on the first hundred and fifty thousand copies. Fucking my fans over and making them pay extra for a record I wanted to be a double album. They counted that as one record." This bonus disc is known as Side Four; the disc's title reflects the fact that the bonus material makes up the fourth side of the double LP edition of the album. The album includes "When the Stars Go Blue", which has been covered by artists such as The Corrs and Bono, Tyler Hilton, Bethany Joy Galeotti, Tim McGraw and as a duo by Kurt Nilsen featuring Venke Knutson. "New York, New York" became a notable MTV and VH1 favorite following the September 11 attacks. "The Rescue Blues" was featured in the end credits of the 2001 film Behind Enemy Lines. Adams' friend and former roommate Adam Duritz (lead singer of Counting Crows) lends background vocals to several tracks. Adams received three Grammy Award nominations in 2002: Best Rock Album, Best Male Rock Vocal Performance for "New York, New York", and Best Male Country Vocal Performance for "Lovesick Blues", a song recorded for the Hank Williams tribute album, "Timeless". Stephen King's 2006 book Lisey's Story includes part of the lyrics to "When the Stars Go Blue". Also, the song "The Rescue Blues" was featured in an episode of Scrubs. In 2011, "Answering Bell" was featured in the film and on the soundtrack to Bridesmaids. Critical reception Q listed Gold as one of the best 50 albums of 2001. Kludge included it on their list of the 25 best albums of 2001. Rolling Stone ranked "Gold" the 81st best record of the 2000s. NME ranked Gold at number 193 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Track listing Personnel Notes: D1 indicates Disk 1; S4 indicates Side 4 Ryan Adams – vocals (all tracks) acoustic guitar (D1: tracks 1-8, 11-13; S4: tracks 2, 3, 5). electric guitar (D:1 tracks 8, 10, 14, 15; S4: track 1), banjo (D1: track 3), piano (D1: track 3; S4: tracks 3, 4) Bucky Baxter – Steel guitar (D1: tracks 3, 13) Andre Carter – trumpet (D1: track 14; S4: track 4) Richard Causon – piano (D1: tracks 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 16) Jennifer Condos – bass (D1: tracks 2, 3, 4, 10, 12, 14; S4: tracks 1, 2, 4) Milo De Cruz – bass (D1: tracks 8, 11, 15) Adam Duritz – choir (D1: tracks 5, 14), background vocals (D1: track 3; S4: track 1) Keith Hunter – choir (D1: tracks 5, 14) Rami Jaffi – accordion (D1: track 13) Ethan Johns – Drums (D1: 1-15; S4: tracks 1, 4), electric guitar (D1: tracks 1, 2, 5, 6; S4: track 1), guitar (D1: track 3), chamberlain strings (D1: tracks 4, 7, 12, 13), lead guitar (D1: tracks 8, 13, 15), Hammond B-3 (D1: tracks 1, 6, 8; S4: track 5), background vocals (D1: tracks 6, 15; S4: track 3), acoustic guitar (D1: tracks 2, 6, 8; S4: track 5), 12-string guitar (D1: tracks 5, 7) mandocello (D1: tracks 6, 7; S4: track 2), vibes (D1: tracks 4, 12), string arrangement (D1: tracks 9, 16), slide guitar (D1: track 15), mandolin (D1: track 13; S4: track 2), bass (D1: track 5), electric piano (D1: track 7), celeste (D1: track 12), harmonium (D1: track 7; S4: track 2), congas (D1: track 1), banjo (S4: track 3) Jim Keltner – drums (S4: track 4) Rob McDonald – choir (D1: tracks 5, 14) Sid Paige – concert master (D1: tracks 9, 16) Julianna Raye – background vocals (D1: track 7), choir (D1: tracks 5, 14) Chris Stills – background vocals (D1: tracks 2, 6, 8, 13), electric guitar (D1: tracks 8, 11, 15), bass (D1: tracks 1, 13), acoustic guitar (D1: track 4), acoustic 12-string guitar (D1: track 12), guitar (S4: track 1) Benmont Tench – Hammond B-3 (D1: tracks 2, 3, 5, 14), piano (D1: tracks 2, 15) Kamasi Washington – saxophone (D1: tracks 1, 14; S4: track 4) C.C. White – background vocals (D1: tracks 8, 15), choir (D1: tracks 5, 14), solo vocals (D1: track 15) Charts Album Certifications Singles References External links Rolling Stone Interview 2001 albums Ryan Adams albums Lost Highway Records albums Albums produced by Ethan Johns

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20Military%20Command%20of%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China

Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China

Throughout the history of the People's Republic of China, the position that effectively reigned as the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces changed from time to time. During some periods, it was not exactly clear who was the supreme commander of the People's Liberation Army. Recently, Chairman of the Central Military Commission serves as the Commander-in-chief of the People's Liberation Army. The officeholder is usually the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) as well as the paramount leader. From 1954 to 1968, the ex officio commander-in-chief was the Chairman of the People's Republic of China (head of state), in his capacity as Chairman of the National Defence Council. However, a similar command structure inside the CCP known as the Party Central Military Commission, whose chairman was the de facto Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The Chairman of the Central Military Commission, Mao Zedong, who the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party served as the paramount leader. Chairman of the National Defence Council included Liu Shaoqi, who from 1959 to 1968, was PRC's president. Even though the President was the de jure supreme commander of the military, it nonetheless was a subordinate of the CMC Chairman. From 1975 to 1982, the head of the military was the Chairman of the CCP. This gave constitutional power to leader of the Chinese Communist Party. From 1982 onwards, the Commander-in-Chief was the Chairman of the Central Military Commission. This position, however did not always give the person entitled the top command as was the case with Chairman Hua Guofeng. Deng Xiaoping was able to effectively control the military as Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission and the Chief of Staff of the PLA from 1978 to 1981. References See also Politics of China Military of the People's Republic of China Politics of China Commanders in chief

262329

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demolition%20%28Ryan%20Adams%20album%29

Demolition (Ryan Adams album)

Demolition is the third studio album by alt-country singer-songwriter Ryan Adams, released on September 24, 2002, on Lost Highway. The album comprises tracks from Adams' unreleased studio albums, The Suicide Handbook, The Pinkheart Sessions and 48 Hours, as well as "You Will Always Be The Same" from The Stockholm Sessions. In 2009, Adams stated: "I don’t much care for this record. The rock songs are plodding and the quiet songs belonged to better records [...] to make Gold as a compromise then to have to watch those records get broken up for Demolition was heartbreaking." Track listing Personnel Ryan Adams – Vocals (all tracks), Guitar (tracks 2,3,4,5,7,9,11,12,13), Electric guitar (tracks 1,6,8,10), Harmonica (tracks 2,4), Bass (tracks 5,13), Piano (tracks 5,8), Synth (track 13), Drum Machine (track 13) Mikael Nord Andersson – Dobro (track 3) Bucky Baxter – Pedal Steel Guitar (tracks 1,6,8,10), Background vocals (tracks 5,7), Guitar (tracks 5,9) Michael Blair – Djembe Heartbeat (track 3) Sheldon Gomberg – Bass (tracks 2,4) Svante Henryson – Cello (track 3) Ethan Johns – Drums (tracks 2,4,12), Background vocals (track 2), Electric guitar (track 2), Ukulele (track 4), Bass (track 12), B3 (track 2) John Paul Keith – Guitar (tracks 6,10) Greg Leisz – Steel Guitar (tracks 2,4,12), Dobro (track 12) Billy Mercer – Bass (tracks 1,6,10) Brad Pemberton – Drums (tracks 1,6,8,10) David Rawlings – Guitar (track 11) Julianna Raye – Background vocals (track 4) Brad Rice – Electric guitar (tracks 1,8) Chris Stills – Background vocals (track 2), 12-String Acoustic Guitar (track 2), B3 (track 4) Gillian Welch – Background vocals (track 11) Charts Album Singles References External links Ryan Adams albums 2002 albums Lost Highway Records albums Albums produced by Ethan Johns

262332

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20E.%20Kelley

David E. Kelley

David Edward Kelley (born April 4, 1956) is an American television writer, producer, and former attorney, known as the creator of Doogie Howser, M.D., Picket Fences, Chicago Hope, The Practice, Ally McBeal, Boston Public, Boston Legal, Harry's Law, Goliath, Big Little Lies, Mr. Mercedes, Big Sky, and Nine Perfect Strangers as well as several films. Kelley is one of very few screenwriters to have created shows that have aired on all four top commercial U.S. television networks (ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC). Early life Kelley was born in Waterville, Maine, raised in Belmont, Massachusetts, and attended the Belmont Hill School. His father is Jack Kelley, a member of the United States Ice Hockey Hall of Fame. Kelley was a stick boy for the New England Whalers of the World Hockey Association in their inaugural season of 1972-1973 when his father coached the team. Kelley was captain of the Princeton Tigers men's ice hockey team at Princeton University, where he graduated in 1979 with a bachelor's degree in political science. Demonstrating early on a creative and quirky bent, in his junior year at Princeton, Kelley submitted a paper for a political science class about John F. Kennedy's plot to kill Fidel Castro, written as a poem. For his senior thesis, he turned the Bill of Rights into a play. "I made each amendment into a character", he said. "The First Amendment is a loudmouth guy who won't shut up. The Second Amendment guy, all he wanted to talk about was his gun collection. Then the 10th Amendment, the one where they say leave the rest for the states to decide, he was a guy with no self-esteem." Also while at Princeton, he was a member of the Princeton Triangle Club. He received his Juris Doctor (J.D.) from Boston University School of Law, where he wrote for the Legal Follies, a sketch comedy group composed of Boston University law students which still holds annual performances. He began working for a Boston law firm, mostly dealing with real estate and minor criminal cases. In 1983, while considering it only a hobby, Kelley began writing a screenplay, a legal thriller, which was optioned in 1986 and later became the Judd Nelson feature film From the Hip in 1987. Television work L.A. Law (1986–1994) In 1986, Steven Bochco was searching for writers with a law background for his new NBC legal series, L.A. Law. His agent sent him Kelley's movie script for From the Hip. Enthusiastic, Bochco made him a writer and story editor for the show. During this first year, Kelley kept his law office in Boston as a hedge. However, his involvement in the show only expanded. In the second year, he became executive story editor and co-producer. Finally, in 1989, Bochco stepped away from the series making Kelley the executive producer. While executive producer, Kelley received two Emmys for Outstanding Writing in a Dramatic Series and the show received the award for Outstanding Drama Series for both years. For the first five seasons that he was involved with the show, he wrote or co-wrote two out of three episodes. Kelley left after the fifth season in 1991 and ratings began to fall. As Newsday's TV critic wrote, "The difference between good and bad L.A. Law ... was David Kelley." Midway through the sixth season, both Bochco and Kelley were brought in as creative consultants after the show received bad press about its decline in quality. Picket Fences (1992–1996) In 1992, after co-creating Doogie Howser, M.D. with his mentor Steven Bochco, Kelley formed his own production company, David E Kelley Productions, making a three-series deal with CBS. Its first creation, Picket Fences, airing in 1992 and influenced by Twin Peaks and Northern Exposure, focused on the police department in the fictional quirky town of Rome, Wisconsin. Kelley wrote most of the episodes for the first three years. The show was critically acclaimed but never found a sizable audience. Picket Fences went on for four years, receiving a total of 14 Emmy awards including consecutive Emmys for Outstanding Drama Series for its first and second seasons. In 1995, the fourth and final season, Kelley wrote only two episodes. "We had almost 10 writers try to come in and take over for this one man", said Picket Fences actress Holly Marie Combs. "The quality was not nearly what it was." Chicago Hope (1994–2000) Under pressure from CBS to develop a second series even though he didn't feel ready to produce two shows simultaneously, Kelley launched the medical drama Chicago Hope, starring Mandy Patinkin and Adam Arkin, which premiered in 1994. Airing at the same time as the season's other new medical drama, NBC's ER, the ultimate ratings leader, Chicago Hope plotted "upscale medicine in a high-tech world run by high-priced doctors". During its six-year run, it won seven Emmys and generally high critical praise, but only middling ratings. Originally intending to write only the first several episodes in order to return full-time to Picket Fences, Kelley eventually wrote most of the material for both shows, a total of roughly 40 scripts. Expressing a desire to focus more on his production company and upcoming projects, Kelley ceased day-to-day involvement with both series in 1995, allowing others to write and produce. Towards the end of the fifth season in 1999, facing cancellation, Kelley fired most of the cast members added since he had left the show, brought back Mandy Patinkin and began writing episodes again. The Practice (1997–2004) In 1995, Kelley entered into a five-year deal with 20th Century Fox Television to produce shows for both the ABC and FOX television networks, each agreeing to take two series. If one network passed on a project, the other got first refusal. Kelley retained full creative control. Ally McBeal on FOX and The Practice on ABC were the first two projects to come from this deal. Premiering as a midseason replacement for the 1996-1997 season, The Practice was Kelley's chance to write another courtroom drama but one focusing on the less-glamorous realities of a small law firm. The Practice would be the first of four successful series by Kelley that were set in Boston, proximal to his hometown of Belmont, Massachusetts. Receiving critical applause (along with two Emmys for Outstanding Drama Series) but low ratings in its starting seasons, it eventually became a popular top 10 program. The New York Times described the show as "the profoundly realistic, unending battle between soul-searching and ambition". Full-time writers on the first season of The Practice included David Shore, later the creator of House, Stephen Gaghan, a future Oscar winner for Traffic, Michael R. Perry, the creator of the 2011-12 series The River, and Ed Redlich, co-creator of the 2011-12 series Unforgettable. Later the writing staff would grow to 10, most with law degrees. By the fifth season, he would usually only edit the final script and was generally not on the set during filming. In 2003, due to sagging ratings, ABC cut Kelley's budget in half for the eighth and final season. He responded by firing most of the cast and hiring James Spader for the role of Alan Shore, whom The New York Times described as "a lecherous, twisted antitrust lawyer with a breezy disregard for ethics." The final episodes of The Practice were focused on introducing the new characters from his next show, Boston Legal. Ally McBeal (1997–2002) When Ally McBeal premiered in 1997 on FOX, Kelley was also shepherding his other two shows, Chicago Hope and The Practice, although he was not actively participating in Chicago Hope at the time. The title character Ally is a young, attractive, impulsive, Harvard-educated lawyer described by a New York Times journalist as "stylish, sexy, smart, opinionated, and an emotional wreck." In contrast to The Practice and its idealistic lawyers, the law firm in Ally McBeal was founded only to make money. The New York Times felt that the show uniquely emphasised "character and caricature". The show lasted five seasons, seven Emmys (one for Outstanding Comedy Series for its second season), mostly positive reviews and a barrage of criticism for its portrayal of women, with many journalists saying that the character Ally was a giant step backwards. Parallel to The Practice, Kelley penned all the scripts for the first season, then brought in other writers in subsequent years although he continued to write many episodes himself. Portrayal of the Ally McBeal character When the program Ally McBeal first ran, many women lauded its portrayal of the lead character. Sharon Waxman, writing for The Washington Post, commented that Kelley had a keen insight into the human nature of both men and women. She quoted Dyan Cannon: "This man understands the way a woman thinks, ... the complex ways we've found to hide our fears." A New York Times writer used the character as an example of a strong television woman's role, another saw herself, at times, in the character's portrayal of self-absorption and reflection, her crafted neuroses, her vulnerabilities. Later, however, much press coverage was spent on the controversial nature of women in Ally McBeal. Time featured a cover story about the decline of feminism with a picture of Ally (among a pantheon of feminist heroines) on the cover. In the article, Ginia Bellafante used the McBeal character as a modern exemplar proving that "[M]uch of feminism has devolved into the silly." In response, author Erica Jong felt that the Time journalist diminished her argument by using only pop-cultural references and ignoring the majority of real-world women who have made significant progress. Writing in Salon.com, Joyce Millman disputed that Ally McBeal should even be described as a "women's show"—that its representations of women were, in fact, a male fantasy. She felt that Kelley treated his female characters "sadistically" in general, beginning all the way back to L.A. Law, saving only The Practice for positive remarks. Kelley's Ally McBeal was hugely successful in attracting the 18-to-34-year-old women audience demographic. The New York Times columnist, Maureen Dowd, quoted two young, professional women saying they liked shows with female characters like themselves, single, even obsessed. Dowd quoted the executive producer of Law & Order, Dick Wolf, "I think there is a wish-fulfillment factor when you put an attractive woman in a situation where she is doing real, adult stuff." Boston Public (2000–2004) In 2000, 20th Century Fox Television extended its arrangement with Kelley. The deal, which ran for six years, reportedly made Kelley the highest-paid producer in TV history—up to $40 million a year—in return for a first-look at his projects. Premiering on FOX in 2000, Boston Public, which follows the lives of teachers and administrators at a Boston inner-city high school, joined The Practice and Ally McBeal for the season, meaning Kelley was responsible for writing or overseeing 67 episodes. The program was initially considered a modest hit but received less than glowing reviews. The previous season, Kelley stumbled with both the short-lived Snoops, his first attempt at delegating most of the responsibilities to others, and with Ally, the experiment with 30-minute shortened episodes of Ally McBeal. The TV critic from the Fort Worth Star-Telegram opined that these failures and the weaknesses he saw in Boston Public were a sign that Kelley had lost the Midas touch. The show lasted four seasons, garnering one minor Emmy. Boston Legal (2004–2008) In addition to Snoops, Kelley continued to have a string of unsuccessful series: girls club in 2002, The Brotherhood of Poland, New Hampshire in 2003 and the reality show The Law Firm in 2005. All the while, he continued overseeing Boston Public and The Practice. Boston Legal on ABC, premiering in 2004, gave continuity and success to the Kelley franchise. It was a spin-off of his long-running legal drama The Practice, and followed attorney Alan Shore (a character who became the star of The Practice in its final season, played by James Spader) to his new law firm, Crane, Poole & Schmidt. It also starred veteran television actors Candice Bergen and William Shatner. Critically popular with less than spectacular ratings (ranked 27th for the first season, 46th for the second), the show was an "Emmy darling" during its run, winning seven times and being nominated over 25 times. The show won the Peabody Award in 2005 for its signature political commentaries. In 2007, Boston Legal began to see a rise of viewership as a result of its following ABC's popular Dancing with the Stars series, mostly ranking either first or second most-watched program of the evening in its ten o'clock time period, beating out CBS and NBC's shows. The fifth and final season began in 2008 with Kelley writing most of the episodes. The season only aired thirteen episodes, making a series run of 101 episodes. The 2-hour series finale drew 11 million viewers. Still, the show drew over 15 million viewers much of its first season—and Kelley felt ABC's treatment of the show over the years ultimately killed it, saying to TV Guide that ABC always treated the show like its "bastard child". Boston Legal aired on four different nights (Sunday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Monday) in its five-season run, with the ratings slipping after each move. In the second-to-last episode of the series, Kelley blatantly wrote a show questioning the legitimacy of the Nielsen ratings and the network's treatment of the show by including a plot about a lawsuit against an unnamed television network. In 2007, Kelley received the Justice in the Arts Award from Death Penalty Focus, an organization dedicated to the abolition of the death penalty. He previously received an award from this organization in 2000 for his work on the show The Practice. The Wedding Bells (2007) The Wedding Bells premiered in fall 2007 and was canceled after seven episodes. Additionally, Kelley worked on an Americanized version of the BBC show Life on Mars for the 2007–2008 season on ABC and also worked on an adaptation of Joseph Wambaugh's Hollywood Station. He later handed production to another creative crew. 2008–present In May 2008, Kelley signed a deal with Warner Bros. Television and later penned a spec script for another legal drama entitled Legally Mad in a comic vein. NBC ultimately rejected the series. NBC would pay a two million dollar penalty to Warner Bros. for Kelley's scripts. Kelley was the creator and executive producer of Harry's Law, which premiered on NBC on January 17, 2011. The series starred Kathy Bates in the titular role. The show was cancelled in 2012 even though it was the network's second most-watched drama, because its audience skewed too old as the more desirable 18–49 demographic viewership was very low. In 2011, Kelley wrote a script for the pilot episode of a new Wonder Woman TV series for Warner Bros. Television, but the pilot was rejected by NBC for its fall 2011 lineup. A new medical series, Monday Mornings, co-created with Sanjay Gupta, premiered February 2013 on TNT, the cable television channel owned by Time Warner. Set in Portland, Oregon, the show stars Ving Rhames, Alfred Molina and Jamie Bamber. In May 2013, the show was canceled by TNT. A new comedy series created by Kelley, The Crazy Ones, starring Robin Williams and Sarah Michelle Gellar, premiered on CBS on September 26, 2013. The show was cancelled after a season due to lukewarm reception. In 2015, Kelley created the Amazon Studios series Goliath. In 2017, Kelley spearheaded a new HBO series, Big Little Lies, which won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series. He is also a showrunner on the TV adaptation of the Stephen King novel Mr. Mercedes. In March 2018, it was announced that HBO had given a series order for The Undoing, a miniseries based on the 2014 novel You Should Have Known by Jean Hanff Korelitz. The series was written by Kelley, who also served as executive producer with Nicole Kidman (who starred alongside Hugh Grant and Donald Sutherland), Per Saari, and Bruna Papandrea. Susanne Bier directed. It premiered in October 2020, and was the most-watched show on HBO that year. In June 2019, Kelley wrote a script for a CBS crime drama series, The Lincoln Lawyer, based from the 2005 novel of the same name by Michael Connelly. However, on May 2, 2020, CBS announced that the pilot would not be moving forward. However, on January 11, 2021, the series was picked up by Netflix. Kelley was announced as the writer and showrunner on the ABC crime drama series Big Sky, based on the book The Highway by C. J. Box. Kelley would serve as writer, executive producer and showrunner on The Missing, an American adaptation of Israeli television series Missing File on Peacock. Methods Writing Kelley writes his first drafts longhand using a Bic ballpoint and yellow legal pad. He typically writes scripts in two to four days, initially working without collaboration, finding it faster and easier than trying to explain what he wants to others. Kelley has been criticised for not delegating. A Picket Fences writer described his time on the show as "the most boring period of my life—you'd write a scene... [and Kelley would] rewrite it completely. Or he just cut you out completely—you learned nothing. Having a writing staff was a needless expense for the network." Kelley gradually became more comfortable bringing in writers for ideas and taking over writing responsibilities. Kelley described this as a natural evolution: Story elements Kelley structures his episodes with multiple storylines. An episode may include a self-contained subplot plus other story arcs that either began in a previous episode or will continue subsequently—some will continue the entire season. The viewer is thereby rarely sure whether what appears as a simple incident will blossom into a major plot point. Kelley seeds his plots with political and social "hot-button" issues. One method is by introducing provocative legal cases. Episodes have covered the gamut of contemporary issues from the culpability of tobacco companies and gun makers to assisted-suicide crusaders. Another way is by undergirding the character's social interrelationships with serious explorations such as feminism, sexuality and divorce. Instead of lessons, Kelley strives to "raise moral and ethical questions without easy answers." He avoids a didactic narrative by not losing sight of the audience's desire to be entertained. He states: Instead of taking clear stands on issues, Kelley creates scenarios meant to challenge audience preconceptions. For example, an episode of Ally McBeal dealt with a female employee who sued for sexual harassment because she noticed that other prettier women were being promoted. There was deliberately no clear point of view. Kelley uses humor and the surreal and mixes tragedy with farce. He describes his strategy as follows: In Ally McBeal, Kelley utilized two techniques: a voiceover providing an interior monologue for the title character, and Walter Mitty fantasy sequences (ala Dream On as critics have noted) giving a humorous and often deeply honest (but sometimes ironic) explanation of the character's inner thoughts. Crossover episodes Kelley frequently crossed the cast of different shows. One crossover program event (which crossed networks also) involved characters from Kelley's Ally McBeal on the Fox network appearing on his ABC show, The Practice, and, in turn, The Practice characters appeared on Ally McBeal. This was done in spite of the two shows' different tones (one a comedy, the other a drama). This crossover was partially credited for raising ratings for The Practice, which it sustained after those episodes. Kelley repeated this maneuver with his Boston Public, Ally McBeal, and Boston Legal shows. Thereafter, many other crossovers occurred including shows not created by Kelley. Kelley's most elaborate crossover was only partially successful. He sought to crossover an episode of his Picket Fences with Chris Carter's The X-Files. Both shows aired Friday nights, but on different networks. The intent was to begin the story on one show, then hope viewers would switch channels to watch the conclusion on another network. CBS balked, and both scripts were rewritten, with The X-Files Fox Mulder no longer set to appear on Picket Fences. Yet, both episodes deal with Wisconsin and cows, with Fences referencing an FBI investigation in a neighboring town. CBS blurred the connection further by postponing the Fences episode by one week. Casting Kelley often uses regular actors from older shows in newer shows. For example, Anthony Heald and René Auberjonois both played judges on The Practice, and both went on to be regular cast members in later shows (Heald on Boston Public as a vice-principal and Auberjonois on Boston Legal as a partner at a law firm). Both Kathy Baker and Justin Shenkarow (Picket Fences) have been used in Boston Public. Kathy Baker as Meredith "The Hook Lady" Peters and Justin Shenkarow as the student Warren Dickson. In addition many actors who either had the main roles or major roles in Kelley's previous shows would make at least one guest appearance in Boston Legal. After the HBO series Big Little Lies, Kelley started a working relationship with Academy Award-winning actress Nicole Kidman. The pair have collaborated on several shows together, including Big Little Lies, The Undoing and Nine Perfect Strangers. Portrayal of real life Legal profession The Practice was considered more accurate in its portrayal of the law than L.A. Law or Ally McBeal . The importance of legal strategy, sometimes at the expense of the truth, rang true. One attorney said, "[I]t's really about the tactics and the mistakes that opposing counsel makes." Judges were represented as complex, less-than-perfect human beings, sometimes with emotional problems. Plots demonstrated how a defendant's personality would impact the adjudication of a case. Stuart Levine of Variety magazine said, "[The Practice] isn't afraid to paint the firm's clients as the dregs of society." Kelley said, Other aspects of the legal profession in Kelley's shows have been criticized as unrealistic. Attorneys have complained that: Ex parte meetings (where lawyers meet in a judge's chambers without opposing counsel present) do not happen. Judges would not allow attorneys to badger or attack witnesses. Shows overplayed prosecutorial and law enforcement misconduct. Time required to select and empanel a jury is not shown or in the story's timeline. Many of the cases would never have made it to trial. Public education Samuel G. Freedman, a professor of journalism at Columbia University, writing in The New York Times, praises Kelley's series Boston Public as an attempt to both reflect and change public opinion about public education, particularly the urban, overcrowded, underfinanced variety. He liked the realism of the setting, the mixed ethnicity of the faculty and (oftentimes antipathetic) student body and the bureaucratic struggles. He criticized Kelley, though, for pandering to stereotypes of teachers and students and for failing to show successful teaching strategies. Medicine In The New York Times, Arthur Caplan, professor of bioethics at the University of Pennsylvania, felt that medical dramas such as Kelley's Chicago Hope do a good job of addressing bioethical issues such as who should receive a liver transplant or when should a patient be allowed to die. However, there is a lack of discussion concerning the primary money issue: "How do people pay for this?" The show has been criticized for presenting a one-sided view of managed care, portraying HMOs as dramatically evil while glossing over the complexities. Doctors are too often shown as selfless patient advocates ready to battle whatever the financial cost. Catholicism Kelley has incorporated religious subject matter from the beginning, including issues involving Protestantism, Judaism, Scientology and Catholicism among others. With the widespread media coverage of child sexual abuse cases in the Roman Catholic Church during the mid-to-late 1990s, Kelley began to introduce this controversy into his scripts. For instance, the character Bobby Donnell on The Practice, a Catholic, became personally estranged from the Church over the issue of sexually abusive priests. While the conservative Catholic League did not object to this episode, they frequently complained of anti-Catholic bias in Kelley's shows because of his references to this subject. Feature films Besides his first film, From the Hip, which received poor reviews, Kelley wrote and produced three other films. 1996's To Gillian on Her 37th Birthday, a romance, co-starring his wife, Michelle Pfeiffer, received tepid critical and box office reception. In 1999, came two films: Lake Placid, a combination of suspense, horror and comedy, and Mystery, Alaska, about a fictional small-town ice hockey team that plays a game against the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League. Neither movie did well with either the critics or the audience. Personal life Although he is sometimes assumed to be a Catholic because his programs address Catholic issues, Kelley was raised a Protestant. In January 1993, actress Michelle Pfeiffer was set up on a blind date with Kelley. He took her to the movies to see Bram Stoker's Dracula the following week, and they began dating seriously. Pfeiffer had entered into private adoption proceedings before she met Kelley. In March 1993, she adopted a newborn daughter Claudia Rose. They married on November 13, 1993, and christened Claudia the same day. In August 1994, Pfeiffer gave birth to a son, John Henry.Levine, David E. Kelley: The Man Behind Ally McBeal. p. 34 David's brother, Mark Kelley, is the Director of Amateur Scouting for the Chicago Blackhawks. Filmography Films Television TimelineNote:''' The above timeline does not include the three additional episodes of Snoops broadcast in non-U.S. markets nor the short-lived Ally. Awards Emmy awards and nominations Notes Information from the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences online database Several shared writing nominations not included. In 1999, he was the first producer ever to take home Emmys for both Best Comedy Series (Ally McBeal) and Best Drama (The Practice). Emmy winning actors and actresses in Kelley's series Among the actors and actresses who have won Emmys for playing roles in Kelley's series are Peter MacNicol, Tracey Ullman, Sharon Stone, William Shatner, James Spader, Alfre Woodard, Charles S. Dutton, Michael Emerson, James Whitmore, Beah Richards, Edward Herrmann, Michael Badalucco, Holland Taylor, John Larroquette, Camryn Manheim, Christine Lahti, Héctor Elizondo, Mandy Patinkin, Kathy Baker, Ray Walston, Paul Winfield, Richard Kiley, Fyvush Finkel, Leigh Taylor-Young, Tom Skerritt, Richard Dysart, Paul McCrane, Christian Clemenson, Jimmy Smits, Larry Drake, Nicole Kidman, Alexander Skarsgård, and Laura Dern. Peabody awards The following information is from the Peabody Awards database. Television Hall of Fame In 2014, David E. Kelley was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame. References Bibliography Caldwell, John: "Convergence Television: Aggregating Form and Repurposing Content in the Culture of Conglomeration". Television after TV: Essays on a Medium in Transition. Ed. Lynn Spigel and Jan Olsson. Duke University Press, 2004 Caves, Richard E.: Switching Channels: Organization and Change in TV Broadcasting. Harvard University Press, 2005. Ellis, John: Seeing Things: Television in the Age of Uncertainty. I. B. Tauris, 2000 Levine, Josh: David E. Kelley: The Man Behind Ally McBeal. ECW Press, 1999 Orlik, Peter B.: Electronic Media Criticism: : Applied Perspectives. LEA, Inc., 2000 Tucker, Ken: Kissing Bill O'Reilly, Roasting Miss Piggy: 100 Things to Love And Hate About TV''. St. Martin's Press, 2005 External links 1956 births Living people Film producers from Massachusetts American Protestants American male screenwriters Television producers from Massachusetts American television writers Boston University School of Law alumni Edgar Award winners Primetime Emmy Award winners Massachusetts lawyers People from Belmont, Massachusetts People from Waterville, Maine Princeton University alumni Showrunners Articles which contain graphical timelines American male television writers Screenwriters from Maine 20th-century American screenwriters Screenwriters from Massachusetts 21st-century American screenwriters 20th-century American male writers Belmont Hill School alumni American men's ice hockey defensemen Cincinnati Stingers draft picks EHC Arosa players Princeton Tigers men's ice hockey players Ice hockey players from Massachusetts 21st-century American male writers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden%20State%20Parkway

Garden State Parkway

The Garden State Parkway (GSP) is a controlled-access toll road that stretches the north–south length of eastern New Jersey from the state's southernmost tip near Cape May to the New York state line at Montvale. Its name refers to New Jersey's nickname, the "Garden State". The parkway is designated by the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) as Route 444, although this designation is unsigned. At its north end, the road becomes the Garden State Parkway Connector, a component of the New York State Thruway system that connects to the Thruway mainline in Ramapo. The parkway is the longest highway in the state at approximately , and, according to the International Bridge, Tunnel and Turnpike Association, was the busiest toll road in the United States in 2006. The highway has a posted speed limit of for most of its length, and is primarily for passenger vehicle use; trucks weighing over are prohibited north of exit 105. The parkway was constructed between 1946 and 1957 to connect suburban northern New Jersey with the Jersey Shore resort areas along the Atlantic coast and to alleviate traffic on traditional north–south routes running through each town center, such as U.S. Route 1 (US 1), US 9, and Route 35. During planning, the road was to be a toll-free highway designated as the Route 4 Parkway. Most of the highway north of the Raritan River is like any other expressway built in the 1950s through heavily populated areas. Between the Raritan River and the township of Toms River, the highway passes through lighter suburban development, while south of Toms River, the road mostly runs through unspoiled wilderness in the Pine Barrens and swampland. The highway has seen many improvements over the years, including the addition and reconstruction of interchanges, bridge replacements, widening of the roadway, and removal of at-grade intersections. Previously, the road had been maintained by an agency known as the New Jersey Highway Authority (NJHA), however in 2003, the agency merged into the New Jersey Turnpike Authority (NJTA), which now maintains the parkway along with the New Jersey Turnpike. The parkway uses an open system of toll collection with flat-fee tolls collected at 11 toll plazas along the roadway, as well as at several entrances and exits. Tolls can be paid using cash or via the E-ZPass electronic toll collection system. Along the route are 11 service areas, providing food and fuel to travelers. Historically, the road had ten picnic areas along its length, but only one remains open today. Route description The Garden State Parkway begins at Route 109 in Cape May County. It runs north along the Jersey Shore, crossing the Great Egg Harbor Bay and passing to the west of Atlantic City. The parkway passes through the sparsely populated Pine Barrens until it reaches the township of Toms River in Ocean County. North of Asbury Park, the route splits into a local-express lane configuration, which it maintains through South Amboy. Here, the highway crosses the Raritan River into Woodbridge Township, where it meets the New Jersey Turnpike (Interstate 95 or I-95). North of here, the GSP passes through densely populated communities in Middlesex and Union counties and intersects I-78 near Newark. The parkway eventually passes to the south and east of Paterson and meets I-80 in Saddle Brook. After traversing the suburban northern section of Bergen County, the road enters the state of New York where it becomes the Garden State Parkway Connector, continuing north to the New York State Thruway mainline. The parkway serves as a major route connecting North Jersey with all of the state's shore points, and as such, is subject to frequent congestion. The number of lanes on the parkway ranges from four in Cape May, Atlantic, and Bergen counties, to 15 on the Driscoll Bridge. Much of the highway runs closely parallel to, or concurrently with US 9. The entire length of the Garden State Parkway carries the unsigned designation of Route 444, and is part of the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility. Cape May and Atlantic counties The parkway begins at an at-grade intersection with Route 109 in Lower Township, Cape May County, where Route 109 continues south towards the city of Cape May and west towards US 9 and the Cape May–Lewes Ferry. The GSP runs north as a four-lane controlled-access highway on the Cape May peninsula through the Cape Island Wildlife Management Area, running west of swampland, separating the highway from the Jersey Shore communities. Trees occupy the median and the sides of the road for the next several miles. After passing to the east of Cape May National Golf Club, crossing over Jones Creek, and passing a pond in the median, the highway enters Middle Township and has an interchange with Route 47, which serves The Wildwoods resort area and the community of Rio Grande. North of this point, the parkway crosses over the abandoned Wildwood Branch of the Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Lines (PRSL), and afterwards, the trees in the median disappear and the highway has a partial interchange with Route 147, which provides access to North Wildwood, Whitesboro, and Burleigh. Crossing into the county seat of Cape May Court House, the median narrows and US 9 appears within yards of the southbound lanes of the parkway as it passes west of the Wildwood Golf and Country Club. The two highways then split apart and the GSP bisects residential areas before reaching an interchange for County Route 657 (CR 657), which serves the Cape Regional Medical Center and the borough of Stone Harbor. Past this point, the road comes to an interchange for CR 609, which provides access to the Cape May County Park & Zoo and a building complex containing the Cape May County Technical School District. After a southbound entrance ramp from US 9, the parkway leaves Cape May Court House and returns to a desolate wooded setting with a wide tree-filled median. Continuing north, the parkway has an interchange with CR 601, serving the borough of Avalon and Swainton. North of this point, the highway enters Dennis Township and has a partial junction with CR 625, serving Sea Isle City before reaching the Toni Morrison Service Area in the median. Past the service area, the parkway enters Upper Township and reaches the Cape May Toll Plaza northbound immediately before meeting the southern terminus of Route 50, which serves Seaville, at a partial interchange. After passing east of several homes and a golf course, the parkway has the John B. Townsend Shoemaker Holly Picnic Area in the median before it crosses over the abandoned PRSL Ocean City Branch. Continuing north, the highway comes to a diamond interchange with US 9 and CR 623, which serves Ocean City and Marmora. North of this exit, US 9 begins to run concurrently with the GSP, and the two routes run east of the community of Beesleys Point before the median narrows, and they cross the Great Egg Harbor Bay on the Great Egg Harbor Bridge. The highway surfaces into the city of Somers Point, Atlantic County, where the southbound roadway has the Great Egg Toll Plaza before US 9 leaves the parkway at a partial junction. Past this point, the median widens and the parkway passes west of the Greate Bay Country Club and some homes before a partial interchange with Laurel Drive, which provides access to Somers Point and Ocean City. After passing to the west of more residences, the median briefly becomes a Jersey barrier as the route crosses the Patcong Creek into Egg Harbor Township, where developments begin to appear on the west side of the highway. Eventually, the parkway crosses into uninhabited area again before heading into a commercial area and widening to six lanes. Here, the road has a junction with US 40, US 322, and CR 563, marking the first of three interchanges with roads that serve Atlantic City, located to the east. The median then transitions to a Jersey barrier and the parkway passes over the abandoned PRSL Newfield Branch before a partial junction with CR 608 and a cloverleaf interchange with the controlled-access Atlantic City Expressway (which heads west towards Philadelphia), where the northbound and southbound roadways split apart again. Upon leaving the commercial area, the highway passes to the east of Atlantic City International Airport and crosses over a flume of the Atlantic City Reservoir, which has a basin on each side of the highway. Continuing north, the highway enters Galloway Township and passes over NJ Transit's Atlantic City Line before it comes to a partial interchange with US 30, serving the city of Absecon. North of this exit, the median is home to the Frank Sinatra Service Area, which also has a barrack of the New Jersey State Police. Immediately north of the service plaza, the parkway has an interchange with CR 561, serving the community of Pomona. The parkway then enters the sparsely populated Pine Barrens, passing to the east of Stockton University and reaching a junction with CR 575/CR 561 Alt. Past this point, the road turns northeast and crosses into the city of Port Republic as it winds north into the uninhabited Port Republic Wildlife Management Area. With some occasional development appearing along the sides of the road, the median narrows to a Jersey barrier as US 9 merges back onto the parkway, along with the Pine Barrens Byway, and the three routes cross the Mullica River. Burlington and Ocean counties The highway surfaces into Bass River Township, Burlington County, and US 9 and the Pine Barrens Byway depart at a partial interchange. Continuing northeast past the community of New Gretna, the parkway passes over US 9 with no access before crossing the Bass River and the median widens and contains a maintenance yard. Past this point, the median temporarily narrows again as the northbound lanes have the New Gretna Toll Plaza. Crossing northward through Bass River State Forest, the six-lane highway becomes desolate as it enters Little Egg Harbor Township, Ocean County. Here, the GSP interchanges with CR 539, which serves Tuckerton, before entering Eagleswood Township, where it crosses over Westecunk Creek and passes to the west of Eagles Nest Airport. Afterwards, the parkway enters Stafford Township where development along the road begins to increase. Here, the highway has an interchange with Route 72, which provides access to Manahawkin and Long Beach Island. The parkway then forms a border between residential neighborhoods to the west and forest to the east before passing to the east of a golf course and entering Barnegat Township, where the concentration of houses shifts to the east. After an interchange with CR 554, the parkway passes by residential neighborhoods on both sides of the highway before the median shortly narrows and the southbound roadway has the Barnegat Toll Plaza. Now in Ocean Township, the parkway meets CR 532 and crosses over Oyster Creek before entering Lacey Township, where it crosses the south, middle, and north branches of the Forked River before reaching an interchange with CR 614, serving the community of Forked River, and the Celia Cruz Service Area in the median. Father north, the road crosses over Cedar Creek and enters Berkeley Township, passing west of a golf course and Central Regional High School while traversing Double Trouble State Park. The route then crosses into the borough of Beachwood and passes west of several homes before entering the borough of South Toms River, where the median narrows and the parkway becomes concurrent with US 9 once again at a junction with CR 530. After crossing the Toms River and entering the township of Toms River, the highway passes west of the Toms River Bus Terminal serving NJ Transit buses. Past this point, the road crosses the abandoned Conrail Barnegat Branch and reaches an exit for CR 527 before passing trees and reaching a cloverleaf interchange with Route 37, which provides access to Lakehurst, Seaside Heights, and Island Beach State Park. After heading northwest between trees on the west and neighborhoods on the east, the GSP turns northeast as the median widens and contains a maintenance yard, and US 9 leaves the parkway at a junction with Route 166. Past the interchange, the parkway reaches the bi-directional Toms River Toll Plaza and passes by lighter suburban development in addition to parkland, with Ocean County College to the east. Upon entering Lakewood Township, the parkway has an interchange with Route 70, serving Brick Township and Point Pleasant Beach to the east; this interchange also serves CR 528. Running along the border of Lakewood and Brick townships, the route has an interchange with CR 549 before crossing the South Branch Metedeconk River and passing over Route 88 with no access. Now entirely within Brick Township, the route crosses the North Branch Metedeconk River and reaches a second exit for CR 549, where a pedestrian bridge for the Brick Park and Ride, located to the east, passes over the parkway. North of this interchange, the road widens to eight lanes and passes west of a solar farm. Monmouth and Middlesex counties Upon entering Wall Township, Monmouth County, the southbound lanes have a truck inspection area and the parkway passes west of Brick Township Reservoir through woods. The parkway crosses the Manasquan River and passes under the Capital to Coast Trail before reaching a large interchange near Allaire State Park. The interchange includes a pair of collector-distributor roads and serves the eastern terminus of I-195 (which runs west across Central Jersey towards Trenton), Route 34 (which runs southeast towards Point Pleasant Beach), and Route 138 (which runs east towards Belmar). A park and ride is present in the southeastern cloverleaf with Route 138. Passing to the west of Shark River Park, the median contains the Judy Blume Service Area, which provides a park and ride for commuters and access to CR 18. The parkway then enters Tinton Falls and has exits for Route 33, which runs east towards Bradley Beach and west towards Freehold Township, and Route 66, which heads east towards Asbury Park. Soon afterwards, the parkway passes to the west of the Jersey Shore Premium Outlets and has a partial exit for CR 16, where the road widens to ten lanes. North of this point, the parkway reaches the northbound Asbury Park Toll Plaza. Immediately north of the toll barrier, the road divides into a local-express lane configuration with two express and three local lanes in each direction. The parkway passes to the east of a solar farm before reaching an interchange with the Route 18 freeway and Route 36, which head north towards New Brunswick and east towards Long Branch, respectively. The connector road from the parkway to the terminus of Route 36 and CR 51 is designated by NJDOT as Route 444S. North of the interchange, the GSP passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations' (CSAO) Southern Secondary line and bisects residential neighborhoods before crossing the Swimming River into Middletown, where the road has an interchange with CR 520, which contains a park and ride and serves Red Bank and Lincroft. The parkway then passes over Normandy Road, which serves as a road and railroad link between the two sections of Naval Weapons Station Earle. Continuing northwest past houses and parks, the route has an interchange with CR 52 as it enters Holmdel Township, where it serves the PNC Bank Arts Center and the New Jersey Vietnam Veterans' Memorial. Upon entering Hazlet, the parkway crosses NJ Transit's North Jersey Coast Line before reaching an interchange for Route 35 and Route 36, which serves Keyport. At this point, the express roadway in each direction gains a third lane. Immediately north of here is a southbound exit and entrance at CR 3, where the parkway briefly enters Aberdeen Township and passes over the Matawan Creek before crossing the North Jersey Coast Line for a second time. Upon entering Old Bridge Township, Middlesex County, and reaching an interchange for CR 689 serving Matawan, the highway enters Cheesequake State Park. After crossing the Cheesequake Creek near a marina and leaving the park, the road enters Sayreville and has the Jon Bon Jovi Service Area in the median, with access to both the express and local lanes of the highway. Passing to the southwest of South Amboy, the parkway has a partial interchange with US 9 and passes over CSAO's Amboy Secondary line. After a northbound entrance and southbound exit at CR 670, the lanes, now as a 4-3-3-4 configuration, merge as they cross the abandoned Raritan River Railroad and reach the Raritan Toll Plaza southbound. North of the toll barrier is an exit for Chevalier Avenue; all southbound vehicles exiting here must have an E-ZPass transponder. Paralleling US 9 and Route 35, the parkway becomes 15 lanes as it crosses the Raritan River on the Driscoll Bridge, the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world. On the bridge, the northbound lanes are divided into two roadways; only the eastern roadway has access to exit 127, an interchange for US 9 and the Route 440 freeway, providing access to the Outerbridge Crossing to Staten Island. Just north of exit 127 in Woodbridge Township, the parkway runs in between the northbound and southbound lanes of US 9. After passing under CSAO's Perth Amboy Running Track, US 9 splits off to the east and the parkway reaches an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95). Running northwest through Woodbridge Township as a ten-lane roadway, the highway has a junction with US 1 and crosses under CSAO's Port Reading Secondary line as it enters the community of Iselin, passing to the east of several corporate offices. Immediately after passing under Amtrak's Northeast Corridor east of the Metropark station serving Amtrak and NJ Transit's Northeast Corridor Line, the GSP has an interchange with Route 27 (Lincoln Highway), which serves Rahway to the northeast. North of this point, the parkway curves northeast through densely populated neighborhoods, passing the Colonia South and Colonia North service areas. Union and Essex counties Crossing into Clark, Union County, the highway continues to pass through dense neighborhoods as a ten-lane roadway with a Jersey barrier. After crossing the Middlesex Reservoir and passing an interchange with CR 613, the southbound lanes have access to a maintenance yard. The highway then passes west of a park and Winfield Township before crossing the Rahway River into Cranford, where there is a junction with CR 607 and CR 615. After passing west of a business park and over CSAO's Lehigh Line and the inactive Rahway Valley Railroad, the parkway crosses NJ Transit's Raritan Valley Line and reaches a junction with Route 28, which serves Roselle Park to the east. Upon entering Kenilworth, the highway passes many businesses before the road meets CR 509, passes to the east of Galloping Hill Golf Course, and enters Union Township, where the parkway has a junction with CR 619. Immediately afterwards, the road comes to an interchange with US 22 and Route 82 serving Hillside, where the GSP briefly runs in between the carriageways of US 22 and the Union Watersphere appears on the east side of the parkway. Here, the parkway narrows to eight lanes, and the northbound lanes have access to the Whitney Houston Service Area. After the service area, the road crosses the Elizabeth River and briefly enters Hillside, where it reaches the northbound Union Toll Plaza before an interchange with I-78. Running northeast into Irvington, Essex County, the highway passes west of a park and east of many houses before reaching a pair of interchanges for local roads and passing through a short tunnel underneath a parking lot for Irvington Bus Terminal, serving NJ Transit buses. North of this point, the parkway gains frontage roads in each direction, which are mostly lined by residences. The frontage road for the northbound lanes is called Eastern Parkway, and the frontage road for the southbound lanes is called Western Parkway. After an interchange with CR 510, the frontage roads end, and the parkway briefly enters the city of Newark where it bisects Holy Sepulchre Cemetery, the northern end of which is in East Orange. After leaving the cemetery, the highway regains frontage roads which are known as Oraton Parkway. After passing East Orange General Hospital's Eastern Pavilion, the parkway comes to an interchange with I-280 and CR 508, which serve Downtown Newark. At the interchange, the GSP loses a lane in each direction and passes under NJ Transit's Morris & Essex Lines near East Orange station. The parkway continues to run in between frontage roads containing many houses before passing west of several apartment buildings and hospitals and crossing the abandoned Orange Branch of the New York and Greenwood Lake Railway. Winding into Bloomfield as a six-lane roadway, the GSP crosses NJ Transit's Montclair-Boonton Line and has an interchange with the Newark-Pompton Turnpike (CR 506 Spur), where the frontage roads end. After passing under Norfolk Southern's Boonton Line and reaching an exit for CR 506, the parkway enters a more suburban area and the southbound parkway has the Essex Toll Plaza. The highway then briefly enters Nutley before crossing back into Bloomfield, where the Jersey barrier becomes a grassy median and the parkway reaches a diamond interchange for CR 655 serving Montclair and passing the Larry Doby and Connie Chung service areas to the west of the Upper Montclair Country Club. Passaic and Bergen counties The parkway then crosses into Passaic County and the city of Clifton, where it reaches an interchange with Route 3. At this point, the space between the northbound and southbound roadways contains the Allwood Road Park and Ride serving NJ Transit buses. After passing under a set of power lines and bisecting a residential area, the route has an incomplete interchange with US 46. Immediately north, the parkway meets the southern terminus of the Route 19 freeway, which heads north towards the city of Paterson. Past this point, the highway curves northeast and passes over NJ Transit's Main Line before the median transitions to a Jersey barrier and the highway has a northbound exit and southbound entrance at CR 702, serving the city of Passaic. The parkway heads northeast past many homes before heading into a business district and crossing Norfolk Southern's Passaic Spur line. After passing many more residences near the route, the parkway reaches a partial interchange with the southern terminus of Route 20. Immediately afterwards, the parkway crosses the Passaic River and enters Elmwood Park, Bergen County, where it comes to a second interchange with US 46, serving Garfield. Passing more homes, followed by several businesses, the highway then passes over the New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway's New Jersey Subdivision line and under NJ Transit's Bergen County Line before reaching an interchange with I-80 and the northbound Bergen Toll Plaza in Saddle Brook. Continuing northeast, the road passes through Saddle River County Park and crosses the Saddle River tributary into Rochelle Park. After leaving the park, it crosses a pair of interchanges for Route 208 and Route 4 as it enters Paramus near the Westfield Garden State Plaza shopping mall. North of Route 4, the parkway passes east of the Arcola Country Club and runs closely parallel with Route 17 before interchanging with it. Past this interchange, the median becomes grass-filled. After passing east of businesses and west of homes, the parkway passes in between the Paramus Park shopping mall and New Bridge Medical Center before reaching a junction with CR 80, which serves Oradell and has a park and ride. After bisecting residential neighborhoods, the parkway has a partial junction with CR 110 before entering Washington Township where the southbound lanes have the Pascack Valley Toll Plaza – the northernmost toll plaza on the highway. North of the toll plaza, the median becomes substantially wider and trees begin to appear within it. The Garden State Parkway finally narrows from six to four lanes at the exit for CR 502, serving Westwood and Emerson. Winding through the Pascack Valley region of Bergen County past many homes and woodland, the parkway briefly enters Hillsdale before entering Woodcliff Lake, where there is a northbound exit and southbound entrance for Chestnut Ridge Road, which is accessed via CR S73 and serves the borough of Saddle River. The parkway then enters Montvale, where it reaches the James Gandolfini Service Area, the northernmost service area on the road. Immediately north is an exit for CR 94 serving Park Ridge; this is the northernmost exit of the Garden State Parkway, which crosses into the state of New York soon afterwards. From there, the route becomes the Garden State Parkway Connector, a component of the New York State Thruway system, which heads north towards the Thruway mainline (I-87/I-287) in Nanuet. History Early proposals and construction Following World War II, traffic increased substantially on highways along the New Jersey coast. Due to the high traffic volume and presence of numerous traffic lights, it took motorists over three hours to travel between Paterson and Atlantic City. In 1946, plans were made to construct a high-speed parkway to provide a bypass of Route 4, which, prior to 1953, ran from Cape May to the George Washington Bridge by way of Paterson, largely following present-day US 1, US 9, and Route 35. This parkway would be constructed using state funds and be known as the Route 4 Parkway. Construction began in 1947, and the first section to open was a section between Route 35 in Woodbridge Township, Middlesex County, and Centennial Avenue in Cranford, Union County, which opened in stages by November 1, 1950. This was soon extended north to Union Township. This segment, which now runs between exits 129 and 140, can be distinguished from the rest of the GSP by the stone facing on the overpasses. However, due to a lack of funds, construction of the Route 4 Parkway stalled. The solution was for the state to establish the New Jersey Highway Authority (NJHA) in 1952 to oversee construction and operation of the remainder of the parkway as a self-liquidating toll road from Cape May to the New York state line. The landscape architect and engineer in charge of the newly named Garden State Parkway was Gilmore David Clarke of the engineering firm Parsons Brinckerhoff, who had worked with Robert Moses on the parkway systems around New York City. Clarke's design prototypes for the parkway combined the example of the Pennsylvania Turnpike, a model of efficiency with parallels in the German Autobahn routes of the 1930s, with the Merritt Parkway model that stressed a planted "green belt" for beauty. Both design models featured wide planted medians to prevent head-on collisions and mask the glare of oncoming headlights. The Garden State Parkway was designed to have a natural feel. Many trees were planted, and the only signs were those for exits—there were no distracting billboards. Most of the signs were constructed from wood, or a dark-brown metal, instead of the chrome bars used on most other highways. The guardrails were also made from wood and dark metal. Most early overpasses were stone, but were later changed to concrete, with green rails and retro etchings, popular around the 1950s and 1960s. The parkway was designed to curve gently throughout its length so that drivers would remain alert and not fall asleep at the wheel. The bridge carrying the parkway over the Raritan River opened on July 30, 1954, and the bridge over the Passaic River opened on May 26, 1955. This extended the parkway's northern terminus to US 46 in present-day Elmwood Park. On July 1 of that year, the portion of the highway from US 46 to Route 17 in Paramus opened. Before the Great Egg Harbor Bridge was completed in 1956, the parkway temporarily detoured onto US 9 and over the Beesley's Point Bridge. That bridge was closed in 2004 and demolished in 2014; US 9 now detours onto the parkway instead. The final portion of the parkway to open from Paramus to the New York state line near Montvale was originally proposed as part of a northern extension of Route 101, a highway that was intended to run from Kearny to Hackensack. The extension, Route S101, would have continued northward from Hackensack to the state line via Paramus. Route 101 was never built, and only the Paramus–Montvale segment saw any later construction. This segment of the parkway opened in 1957 along with the Garden State Parkway Connector of the New York State Thruway. In December 1957, D. Louis Tonti, the Executive Director of the New Jersey Highway Authority, announced plans to construct the missing ramps at exit 154 in Clifton. These ramps would connect drivers from US 46 eastbound to the parkway northbound, and from the parkway southbound to US 46 westbound. In May 1958, the project bid went to Thomas Nichol Company, Inc. of Farmingdale, and construction began immediately. The new ramps opened in December, and the toll booths on the ramps opened the following month. The total cost of the project was $2.25 million, which was half a million higher than the original estimate. During 1959, traffic counts noted 1.5 million cars used the new ramps at exit 154. In June 1961, the Highway Authority announced plans to construct a new interchange at Red Hill Road in the Holmdel–Middletown area. This new interchange would help relieve local congestion with the opening of Bell Labs and more industrial parks in the area. As part of the plan, the ramp at exit 116 would be closed to non-emergency automobile traffic, despite disapproval from locals. On December 14, the Highway Authority made an appropriation of $50,000 for the engineering work for the new interchange. Construction began in July 1962, and it was completed by December. On December 23, 1963, the ramps connecting the parkway and I-80 opened to traffic. Construction of these ramps cost $4.5 million, and it replaced the preexisting interchange at Midland Avenue. Toll booths were constructed on the northbound exit and the southbound entrance to the parkway from I-80. On March 8, 1965, the northbound exit and southbound entrance at exit 30 in Somers Point was permanently closed, with traffic directed to use the intersection with US 9, which later became exit 29, to the south. The interchange at exit 30 was reconstructed with toll plazas on the southbound exit and northbound entrance. In May 1966, the borough of Paramus and the New Jersey Highway Authority agreed to a complete replacement of exit 165 (Ridgewood Avenue) to improve safety and capacity. The project, costing $3.7 million (equivalent to $ in ), would expand the two-ramp interchange to eight ramps, creating a collector-distributor road to serve both ramps. Construction on the new interchange began almost immediately, with the new southbound ramps opening on November 30, 1966. A month later, on December 29, the dual ramps on the northbound direction opened, and the tolls went into effect on February 13. On January 6, 1967, the ramps at exit 166 were closed to traffic, but they reopened in September. In early 1967, the parkway was expanded from four to six lanes between the Bergen Toll Plaza in Saddle Brook and the interchange with Route 4 in Paramus. The following year, the road was expanded to six lanes between Route 17 and Ridgewood Avenue/Oradell Avenue, and in 1969, the section between Route 4 and Route 17 was widened. This widening made the entire stretch from Ocean County to Paramus six lanes wide. The parkway was planned to be the southern terminus of the unbuilt Driscoll Expressway, a toll road that was planned in the early 1970s to run from Toms River to the New Jersey Turnpike in South Brunswick; this plan was abandoned in 1977. The parkway was also planned to be the southern terminus for Route 55 at milepost 19. This was canceled after the conclusion that the highway ran through too many wetland areas. The idea has since been revisited after frequent traffic jams on Route 47. 21st century On September 25, 2002, construction began on a new span of the Driscoll Bridge just west of the original spans, consisting of seven lanes and emergency shoulders. On May 3, 2006, all traffic was shifted onto the new span, and the original two were closed for rehabilitation. On May 20, 2009, all northbound traffic was shifted back onto the original spans, and the new one was made exclusively for southbound traffic. On July 9, 2003, Governor Jim McGreevey's plan to merge the operating organizations of the Garden State Parkway and the New Jersey Turnpike into one agency, the New Jersey Turnpike Authority (NJTA), was completed. In May 2005, Governor Richard Codey announced plans for a widening of the parkway between exit 63 in Stafford Township and exit 80 in the borough of South Toms River from two to three lanes in both directions. However, the NJTA later made plans to widen the parkway from exit 80 all the way south to exit 30 in the city of Somers Point. The project was divided into three phases. The first phase from exits 80 to 63 was complete in May 2011. The second phase from exits 63 to 48 was complete in November 2014. The third phase from exits 48 to 30 was completed in 2018, and included construction of new bridges across the Mullica River from the city of Port Republic to Bass River Township. In 2008, a $150 million project began to add new ramps at the interchange with I-78, supplying the missing movements between the two highways. Previously, the parkway northbound did not have an exit to I-78 westbound, and the parkway southbound did not have an exit to I-78 eastbound. The lack of connections was due to the cancellation of the extension of I-278 (which would have connected northbound parkway traffic with I-78 westbound) and Route 75 (which would have connected southbound parkway traffic with I-78 eastbound via I-280). In April 2008, the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) awarded the project contract to the engineering firm Gannett Fleming for the design, and to Union Paving & Construction Company for building the ramps. The ramp connecting the parkway northbound with I-78 westbound opened on September 16, 2009 with a ribbon cutting ceremony led by Governor Jon Corzine, and the ramp connecting the parkway southbound with I-78 eastbound opened on December 10, 2010. In 2011, talks began on whether to allow commercial traffic including trucks on the Garden State Parkway north of exit 105, which would have required the removal of the old stone arch overpasses in Middlesex and Union counties. As originally built, in Cape May County, the parkway had three traffic lights (at exits 9, 10, and 11), but these were eliminated in 2014–2015, with construction of three overpasses in Cape May Court House. Construction began in early 2013, years after the scheduled start date due to a wetland mitigation plan that had not been approved by the federal government. The project cost $125 million, and was complete by September 2015. The southbound bridge over the Great Egg Harbor Bay was replaced with a wider span parallel to the older span as part of a $79.3 million project. Construction began in 2013 and continued into 2019. The new southbound bridge temporarily carried both northbound and southbound traffic so the northbound bridge could receive new decking and strengthening. The project also included the addition of a mixed-use walkway along the new southbound span that will allow pedestrian and bicycle connections between Upper Township and Somers Point. However, NJDOT and the city of Somers Point blocked the path from opening until it could be linked with an existing path leading to Ocean City. In March 2020, NJDOT announced that the path was set to open on May 6, but it did not open until July 8. On July 22, 2014, the New Jersey Turnpike Authority filed a federal lawsuit against Jersey Boardwalk Pizza, a pizza chain in Florida, for using a logo too similar to the signs for the Garden State Parkway. Federal Judge William Martini dismissed the suit on March 26, 2015. In June 2018, an improvement project began at the interchange with I-280 and CR 508 (Central Avenue). The project involves widening the entrance ramp to the parkway southbound from one to two lanes and adding a second deceleration lane on the parkway northbound. To accommodate the wider roadway, the overpass carrying Central Avenue over the parkway is being rebuilt. Five nearby bridges are also being rehabilitated as part of the project. The project is expected to cost $63 million and be completed in August 2022. The New Jersey Turnpike Authority has plans to close exit 30 in Somers Point, which connects to Laurel Drive, a residential street that leads to US 9 and becomes Route 52, an access road to Ocean City. With the closure of exit 30, exit 29 will be converted to a full interchange to redirect traffic heading to Ocean City from points north along US 9 and CR 559 to reach Route 52. The planned closure of exit 30 is being made in order to reduce summertime traffic congestion along the parkway from vehicles exiting at the interchange along with reducing summertime traffic levels along Laurel Drive. The proposed closure of exit 30 and conversion of exit 29 to a full interchange has received opposition from officials in Somers Point and Ocean City along with residents along CR 559 fearing increased traffic congestion. Regulations The speed limit on the parkway is for most of its length. However, it is posted at on a section near Toms River and on a section between Sayreville and Paramus. The NJTA may temporarily reduce the speed limit when special hazards exist. Commercial trucks with a registered weight of over are not allowed to use the parkway north of exit 105, just past the Asbury Park Toll Plaza. South of this point, trucks are permitted, but must pay additional tolls. Buses are allowed for the entire length of the parkway. In April 2011, New Jersey Transportation Commissioner James Simpson announced the NJTA was looking into the possibility of allowing trucks on the northern portion of the Garden State Parkway. However, the idea was quickly abandoned after the agency found the road had engineering concerns that would make the consideration of allowing trucks on this segment impossible. On February 1, 1961, the NJHA outlawed motorcycles, scooters, and bicycles from the entire length of the parkway. The ban was enacted after a year involving 20 motorcycle accidents and two fatalities. Motorcyclists who used the highway faced a fine of $200 or a 30-day jail sentence. However, the motorcycle ban was lifted on November 1, 1975, after pressure from entrepreneur Malcolm Forbes and other motorcyclists. Tolls The Garden State Parkway uses an open system of tolling in which tolls are collected at somewhat regular intervals along its length and at certain entrances and exits. This contrasts with the New Jersey Turnpike, which uses a closed system in which a motorist receives a ticket with the toll rates at the highway's entrance, and turns in the ticket along with the toll upon exiting at toll gates. As of January 1, 2022, the standard car toll is $1.00 for cash and $0.98 for E-ZPass on the main road at two-way toll plazas and $2.00 for cash and $1.96 for E-ZPass at one-way toll plazas. Some entrances and exits require a toll of either $0.70, $1.00, $1.35, or $2.00 for cash and $0.67, $0.98, $1.34, or $1.96 for E-ZPass. There are three different lane types at the toll plazas. However, not all plazas have every type of lane at all times. The first type is full-service lanes. These lanes are staffed and toll collectors can provide change and receipts to drivers. The second type is exact-change lanes. In these lanes, motorists deposit coins in a toll basket and each coin is mechanically counted. Payment of tolls is enforced by photo, a system that went into effect on October 17, 2011. The Union Toll Plaza was the first to use an automated toll-collection machine; a plaque commemorating this event includes the first quarter collected at its toll booths. Historically, these lanes also accepted tokens, and were common on main roadway toll plazas. However, in 2018, exact-change lanes were discontinued on mainline toll plazas; they continue to be used for exit and entrance ramp toll plazas. The third type of lane is for the E-ZPass electronic toll collection system. Dedicated lanes only accept vehicles with E-ZPass tags. The speed limit in these lanes is , or in Express E-ZPass lanes. Full-service lanes also accept E-ZPass tags. Tokens, available for purchase at full-service toll plaza lanes, were introduced in 1981 at a price of $10 for a roll of 40 tokens; as the toll was 25 cents at the time, most drivers continued to use quarters. However, when the toll was increased to 35 cents in 1989, rolls were priced at 30 tokens for $10; between the slight discount and the convenience of using a single coin, tokens gained in popularity. There were also larger bus tokens, primarily for use by Atlantic City-bound buses. As E-ZPass became more widespread, tokens were phased out. Token sales were discontinued on January 1, 2002, and they were no longer accepted effective January 1, 2009. E-ZPass was first installed at the Pascack Valley Toll Plaza in December 1999, and the system was completed in August 2000. Beginning on November 19, 2001, E-ZPass customers were charged the approximate token rate of 33 cents during peak hours, or 30 cents during off-peak hours instead of 35 cents, the cash toll rate at the time. Due to tremendous cost overruns in implementing the E-ZPass system on New Jersey's toll highways, the discount was eliminated the next year. NJHA E-ZPass customers were charged a $1-per-month account fee, causing many customers to turn in their transponders and obtain one from an out-of-state authority which did not charge a monthly fee. E-ZPass discounts continue to be available for off-peak travel, senior citizens, drivers of green vehicles, and trailers. To reduce congestion, 10 of the 11 toll plazas on the roadway were converted into one-way plazas between September 2004 and February 2010, dubbed "one-way tolling". Under this program, the toll is doubled in one direction, and the other direction is toll-free. The Cape May (in Upper Township), Great Egg (in Somers Point), New Gretna (in Bass River Township), Barnegat (in Barnegat Township), Asbury Park (in Tinton Falls), Raritan (in Sayreville), Union (in Hillside), Essex (in Bloomfield), Bergen (in Saddle Brook), and Pascack Valley (in Washington Township) toll plazas had been converted to one-way toll plazas. The Toms River Toll Plaza (in Toms River) is the only location on the parkway mainline where a toll is collected in both directions. Literature from the time of construction indicates that the parkway would become toll-free once bonds used for its construction were paid off. However, additional construction projects, plus the expectation that the parkway will pay for its own maintenance and policing make it unlikely it will become toll-free in the foreseeable future. Picnic areas One of the objectives of the parkway was to become a state park its entire length, and its users would enjoy park-like aesthetics with minimal intrusion of urban scenery. Along the ride, users were permitted to stop and picnic along the roadway to further enjoy the relaxation qualities the parkway had to offer. All picnic areas had tall trees that provided shade and visual isolation from the roadway. Grills, benches, running water, and restrooms were provided. Over time as the parkway transformed into a road of commerce, the picnic areas were closed for a variety of reasons. Their ramp terminals became insufficient to accommodate the high-speed mainline traffic and in addition to the decreasing number of users, the picnic areas were becoming more effective as maintenance yards and were converted as such or closed altogether. The one remaining picnic area, John B. Townsend Shoemaker Holly, is closed from dusk to dawn. Posted signs within the picnic area prohibit fires and camping. There were ten operational picnic areas: Services Service areas All service areas are located in the center median, unless otherwise noted. In the 1950s, four petroleum companies were hired to provide gasoline and vehicular necessities—Esso, Texaco, Atlantic and Cities Service. The Cities Service company was the petroleum provider at Monmouth, Forked River, Atlantic City (Absecon at the time) and Ocean View (Seaville at the time) and offered a service where female employees were hired for those service area showrooms, wore uniforms and were known as the Park-ettes. Their duties included providing directions and other information to motorists as well as rendering odd bits of service such as sewing a missing button on a patron's coat. On July 27, 2021, the New Jersey Turnpike Authority unanimously voted in favor of renaming the service areas along the Garden State Parkway after New Jerseyans who were inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame. On January 2, 2022, two service areas that were operated by McDonald's in Brookdale and Union were closed after their contract expired in 2021. These services areas will be replaced by 2023. Emergency assistance On the Garden State Parkway, the emergency assistance number is #GSP, which is #477 in number form. The New Jersey State Police is the primary police agency that handles calls for service on the parkway. Other emergency services such as fire and first aid are usually handled by the jurisdictions in which that section of the parkway passes. Exit list Many entrances and exits have tolls. In general, exits have tolls when they precede a barrier toll, and exits are free when they follow a barrier toll. Conversely, entrances that precede a barrier toll are free, and tolls are paid at entrances just beyond a barrier toll. There are no tolls between exits 129 and 141, as this was the original road segment that predates the New Jersey Highway Authority. The parkway was the first highway in the United States to use mileage-based exit numbers. Historically, the exit numbers on the northbound and southbound roadways were not symmetrical. The New Jersey Highway Authority considered each as a separate road and as a result, many exits had non-matching numbers. See also References External links New Jersey Turnpike Authority & Garden State Parkway Official Website History of the Garden State Parkway   Straight Line Diagram Photos of the Garden State Parkway New Jersey Expressways and Tollways Garden State Parkway (NJ 444) (Greater New York Roads) Limited-access roads in New Jersey Parkways in the United States State highways in New Jersey Toll roads in New Jersey Transportation in Atlantic County, New Jersey Transportation in Bergen County, New Jersey Transportation in Burlington County, New Jersey Transportation in Cape May County, New Jersey Transportation in Essex County, New Jersey Transportation in Middlesex County, New Jersey Transportation in Monmouth County, New Jersey Transportation in Passaic County, New Jersey Transportation in the Pine Barrens (New Jersey) Transportation in Union County, New Jersey Transportation in Ocean County, New Jersey U.S. Route 9

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalen

Dalen

Dalen (Dutch Low Saxon: Daoln) is an old village and a former municipality in the northeastern Netherlands, in the province of Drenthe. Since 1998, Dalen has been part of the municipality of Coevorden. There are many shops and restaurants, bakeries and a pub called the D'aolle Bakkerij. The village is known for its two windmills, Jan Pol and De Bente, which are open to the public. There is a family resort from Center Parcs called 'De Huttenheugte' and next to the resort lies the theme park Plopsa Indoor. Dalen railway station has connections to Emmen and Coevorden/Zwolle. Notable people Famous residents have included: Albert Bouwers (1893-1972), optician (born) Karsten Kroon (b. 1976), road bicycle racer (born) Gerald Sibon (b. 1974), football striker References External links Map of the former municipality in 1868. Coevorden Populated places in Drenthe Former municipalities of Drenthe Municipalities of the Netherlands disestablished in 1998

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepenthes

Nepenthes

Nepenthes () is a genus of carnivorous plants, also known as tropical pitcher plants, or monkey cups, in the monotypic family Nepenthaceae. The genus comprises about 170 species, and numerous natural and many cultivated hybrids. They are mostly liana-forming plants of the Old World tropics, ranging from South China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines; westward to Madagascar (two species) and the Seychelles (one); southward to Australia (four) and New Caledonia (one); and northward to India (one) and Sri Lanka (one). The greatest diversity occurs on Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines, with many endemic species. Many are plants of hot, humid, lowland areas, but the majority are tropical montane plants, receiving warm days but cool to cold, humid nights year round. A few are considered tropical alpine, with cool days and nights near freezing. The name "monkey cups" refers to the fact that monkeys were once thought to drink rainwater from the pitchers. This is false; monkeys do not drink from them, and the pitchers are filled with digestive juices, rather than rainwater. Description Nepenthes species usually consist of a shallow root system and a prostrate or climbing stem, often several metres long and up to or more, and usually or less in diameter, although this may be thicker in a few species (e.g. N. bicalcarata). From the stems arise alternate, sword-shaped leaves with entire leaf margins. An extension of the midrib (the tendril), which in some species aids in climbing, protrudes from the tip of the leaf; at the end of the tendril the pitcher forms. The pitcher starts as a small bud and gradually expands to form a globe- or tube-shaped trap. The shapes can evoke a champagne flute or a condom. The trap contains a fluid of the plant's own production, which may be watery or more viscous, and is used to drown the prey. This fluid contains viscoelastic biopolymers that may be crucial to the retention of insects within the traps of many species. The viscoelastic fluid in pitchers is especially effective in the retention of winged insects. The trapping efficiency of this fluid remains high, even when significantly diluted by water, as inevitably happens in wet conditions. The lower part of the trap contains glands which absorb nutrients from captured prey. Along the upper inside part of the trap is a slick, waxy coating which makes the escape of its prey nearly impossible. Surrounding the entrance to the trap is a structure called the peristome (the "lip"), which is slippery and often quite colorful, attracting prey, but offering an unsure footing. The prey-capture effectiveness of the peristome is further enhanced in moist environments, where condensation may cause a thin water film to form on the surface of the peristome. When wet, the slippery surface of the peristome causes insects to ‘aquaplane’, or slip and fall, into the pitcher. Above the peristome is a lid (the operculum); in many species, this keeps rain from diluting the fluid within the pitcher, the underside of which may contain nectar glands which attract prey. Nepenthes species usually produce two types of pitchers, known as leaf dimorphism. Appearing near the base of the plant are the large, lower traps, which typically sit on the ground. The upper or aerial pitchers are usually larger, coloured differently, and possess different features from the lower pitchers. These upper pitchers usually form as the plant reaches maturity and the plant grows taller. To keep the plant steady, the upper pitchers often form a loop in the tendril, allowing it to wrap around nearby support. In some species (e.g. N. rafflesiana), different prey may be attracted by the two types of pitchers. This varied morphology also often makes identification of species difficult. Prey usually consists of insects, but the largest species (e.g. N. rajah and N. rafflesiana) may occasionally catch small vertebrates, such as rats and lizards. Records of cultivated plants trapping small birds have been made. Flowers occur in racemes or more rarely in panicles with male and female flowers on separate plants. Three species have symbiotic relationships with tree shrews, which eat the nectar produced by the plant and defecate into the pitchers, providing valuable nutrients. Nepenthes are insect-pollinated, the primary agents being flies (including blow flies, midges, and mosquitoes), moths, wasps, and butterflies. Their smells can range from sweet to musty or fungus-like. Seed is typically produced in a four-sided capsule which may contain 50–500 wind-distributed seeds, consisting of a central embryo and two wings, one on either side (though N. pervillei differs). The genus is cytologically diploid, with all studied species having a chromosome number of 2n=80. This high number is thought to reflect paleopolyploidy (likely 8x or 16x). Taxonomy About 170 species of Nepenthes are currently recognised as valid. This number is increasing, with several new species being described each year. Etymology The genus name Nepenthes was first published in 1737 in Carl Linnaeus's Hortus Cliffortianus. It references a passage in Homer's Odyssey, in which the potion "Nepenthes pharmakon" is given to Helen by an Egyptian queen. "Nepenthe" literally means "without grief" (ne = not, penthos = grief) and, in Greek mythology, is a drug that quells all sorrows with forgetfulness. Linnaeus explained: If this is not Helen's Nepenthes, it certainly will be for all botanists. What botanist would not be filled with admiration if, after a long journey, he should find this wonderful plant. In his astonishment past ills would be forgotten when beholding this admirable work of the Creator! [translated from Latin by Harry Veitch] The plant Linnaeus described was N. distillatoria, called bāndurā (බාඳුරා), a species from Sri Lanka. Nepenthes was formally published as a generic name in 1753 in Linnaeus's famous Species Plantarum, which established botanical nomenclature as it exists today. Nepenthes distillatoria is the type species of the genus. The name "monkey cups" was discussed in the May 1964 issue of National Geographic, in which Paul A. Zahl wrote: The carriers called them "monkey cups," a name I had heard elsewhere in reference to Nepenthes, but the implication that monkeys drink the pitcher fluid seemed farfetched. I later proved it true. In Sarawak, I found an orangutan that had been raised as a pet and later freed. As I approached it gingerly in the forest, I offered it a half-full pitcher. To my surprise, the ape accepted it, and with the finesse of a lady at tea, executed a delicate bottoms-up. The plants are often called kantong semar (Semar's pocket) in Indonesia and sako ni Hudas (Judas' money bag) in the Philippines. Evolution and phylogeny An absence of evidence of intermediate species, fossil or living (i.e. a missing link), does not allow forming a phylogenetical timeline for the development of the distinctive traits of modern Nepenthes, which include its relatively rare strict dioecy and carnivorous pitchers. Although Nepenthes is distantly related to several modern genera, among these, even the carnivorous relatives [the sundews (Drosera), Venus flytrap (Dionea muscipula), waterwheel plant (Aldrovanda), and dewy pine (Drosophyllum)], all lack those traits. Among known Nepenthes, no protomodern characteristics or large variations are found, which suggests that all extant species radiated from a single close ancestor bearing all the modern traits. Phylogenetic comparisons of the chloroplast matK gene sequences between Nepenthes species and with related species support this conclusion, long genetic distance between Nepenthes and others, and abruptly diverging "pom-pom" grouping of the Nepenthes species . Fossilized pollen of Nepenthes-like plants living on the northern Tethys Sea from 65 to 35 million years ago indicates that then-warmer Europe may have been where the proto-Nepenthes developed, and then escaped to Asia and India as Africa collided with Europe and the ensuing climate change wiped out the ancestral species in the original habitat. About 20 million years ago, Borneo, Sumatra, and Sulawesi and possibly even the Philippines were connected to mainland Asia, providing a bridge for the colonization of most sites of Nepenthes species radiation. The extensive landbridges in the area 20,000 years ago during the ice age would have provided access to the remaining sites of Nepenthes populations in Oceania. The main complication with this hypothesis is the presence of Nepenthes on the distant islands of Seychelles and Madagascar. The seeds were thought to have been transferred by seabirds and shorebirds, which rest during their migrations in swampy habitats and may have inadvertently picked up the seeds. This hypothesis is possibly reinforced by the success of the lowland swamp-dwelling N. distillatoria in colonizing so many locations. Distribution and habitat The genus Nepenthes is mostly found within the Malay Archipelago, with the greatest biodiversity found on Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines, especially in the Borneo montane rain forests. The full range of the genus includes Madagascar (N. madagascariensis and N. masoalensis), the Seychelles (N. pervillei), Sri Lanka (N. distillatoria), and India (N. khasiana) in the west to Australia (N. mirabilis, N. rowanae, and N. tenax) and New Caledonia (N. vieillardii) in the southeast. Most species are restricted to very small ranges, including some only found on individual mountains. These limited distributions and the inaccessibility of the regions often means some species go decades without being rediscovered in the wild (e.g. N. deaniana, which was rediscovered 100 years after its initial discovery). About 10 species have population distributions larger than a single island or group of smaller islands. Nepenthes mirabilis has the distinction of being the most widely distributed species in the genus, ranging from Indochina and throughout the Malay Archipelago to Australia. Because of the nature of the habitats that Nepenthes species occupy, they are often graded as either lowland or highland species, depending on their altitude above sea level, with the rough delineation between lowland and highland. Species growing at lower altitudes require continuously warm climates with little difference between day and night temperatures, whereas highland species thrive when they receive warm days and much cooler nights. Nepenthes lamii grows at a higher altitude than any other in the genus, up to . Most Nepenthes species grow in environments that provide high humidity and precipitation and moderate to high light levels. A few species, including N. ampullaria, prefer the dense, shaded forests, but most other species thrive on the margins of tree/shrub communities or clearings. Some species (e.g. N. mirabilis) have been found growing in clear-cut forest areas, roadsides, and disturbed fields. Other species have adapted to growing in savanna-like grass communities. The soils in which Nepenthes species grow are usually acidic and low in nutrients, being composed of peat, white sand, sandstone, or volcanic soils. Exceptions to these generalities include species that thrive in soils with high heavy metal content (e.g. N. rajah), on sandy beaches in the sea spray zone (e.g. N. albomarginata). Other species grow on inselbergs and as lithophytes, while others, such as N. inermis, can grow as epiphytes with no soil contact. Ecological relationships The most obvious interaction between Nepenthes species and their environments, including other organisms, is that of predator and prey. Nepenthes species certainly attract and kill their prey, albeit passively, through active production of attractive colours, sugary nectar, and even sweet scents. From this relationship, the plants primarily gain nitrogen and phosphorus to supplement their nutrient requirements for growth, given these soil nutrients are typically lacking. The most frequent prey is an abundant and diverse group of arthropods, with ants and other insects topping the menu. Other arthropods found frequently include spiders, scorpions, and centipedes, while snails and frogs are more unusual, but not unheard of. The most uncommon prey for Nepenthes species includes rats found in N. rajah. The composition of prey captured depends on many factors, including location, but can incorporate hundreds of individual insects and many different species. While many Nepenthes species are generalists in what they capture, at least one, N. albomarginata, has specialised and almost exclusively traps termites and produces nearly no nectar. Nepenthes albomarginata gains its name from the ring of white trichomes directly beneath the peristome. These trichomes—or "hairs"—are palatable to termites and will attract them to the pitcher. In the course of collecting the edible trichomes, hundreds or thousands of termites will fall into the pitcher. Symbioses N. bicalcarata provides space in the hollow tendrils of its upper pitchers for the carpenter ant Camponotus schmitzi to build nests. The ants take larger prey from the pitchers, which may benefit N. bicalcarata by reducing the amount of putrefaction of collected organic matter that could harm the natural community of infaunal species that aid the plant's digestion. N. lowii has also formed a dependent relationship, but with vertebrates instead of insects. The pitchers of N. lowii provide a sugary exudate reward on the reflexed pitcher lid (operculum) and a perch for tree shrew species, which have been found eating the exudate and defecating into the pitcher. A 2009 study, which coined the term "tree shrew lavatories", determined between 57 and 100% of the plant's foliar nitrogen uptake comes from the faeces of tree shrews. Another study showed the shape and size of the pitcher orifice of N. lowii exactly match the dimensions of a typical tree shrew (Tupaia montana). A similar adaptation was found in N. macrophylla, N. rajah, N. ampullaria, and is also likely to be present in N. ephippiata. Similarly, N. hemsleyana, which is native to Borneo, has a symbiotic partnership with Hardwicke's woolly bat. During the day, a bat may roost above the digestive fluid inside the pitcher. While a bat is inside, it may defaecate, and the plant can get nitrogen from the droppings. Infauna Organisms that spend at least part of their lives within the pitchers of Nepenthes species are often called Nepenthes infauna. The most common infaunal species, often representing the top trophic level of the infaunal ecosystem, are many species of mosquito larvae. Other infaunal species include fly and midge larvae, spiders, mites, ants, and even a species of crab (Geosesarma malayanum). Many of these species specialise to one pitcher plant species and are found nowhere else. These specialists are called nepenthebionts. Others, often associated with but not dependent on Nepenthes species, are called nepenthophiles. Nepenthexenes, on the other hand, are rarely found in the pitchers, but will often appear when putrefaction approaches a certain threshold, attracting fly larvae that would normally not be found in the pitcher infaunal community. The complex ecological relationship between pitcher plants and infauna is not yet fully understood, but the relationship may be mutualistic: the infauna is given shelter, food, or protection, and the plant that harbours the infauna receives expedited breakdown of captured prey, increasing the rate of digestion and keeping harmful bacterial populations repressed. Antimicrobial properties Nepenthes digestive fluids are sterile before pitchers open and contain secondary metabolites and proteins that act as bactericides and fungicides after the pitcher opens. While the digestive fluid is being produced, the pitcher is not yet open, so there is no chance of microbial contamination. During pitcher development, at least 29 digestive proteins including proteases, chitinases, pathogenesis-related proteins and thaumatin-like proteins are produced in the pitcher fluid. In addition to breaking down prey, these can act as antimicrobial agents. When the pitchers open, the fluid is exposed to bacteria, fungal spores, insects and rain. Often pitchers have a lid that covers the trap, excepting a few (e.g. N. lowii, N. attenboroughii and N. jamban), preventing rain water from entering. The lid inhibits rainwater from diluting the digestive fluid. Once the bacteria and fungi enter the fluid, secondary metabolites are produced in addition to antimicrobial proteins. Naphthoquinones, a class of secondary metabolite, are commonly produced, and these either kill or inhibit the growth and reproduction of bacteria and fungi. This adaptation could have evolved since Nepenthes plants that could produce secondary metabolites and antimicrobial proteins to kill bacteria and fungi were most likely more fit. Plants that produced antimicrobial compounds could prevent loss of valuable nutrients gained from insects within the pitcher. Since Nepenthes cannot digest certain bacteria and fungi, the bactericides and fungicides allow plants to maximize nutrient uptake. Botanical history The earliest known record of Nepenthes dates back to the 17th century. In 1658, French colonial governor Étienne de Flacourt published a description of a pitcher plant in his seminal work Histoire de la Grande Isle de Madagascar. It reads: It is a plant growing about 3 feet high which carries at the end of its leaves, which are 7 inches long, a hollow flower or fruit resembling a small vase, with its own lid, a wonderful sight. There are red ones and yellow ones, the yellow being the biggest. The inhabitants of this country are reluctant to pick the flowers, saying that if somebody does pick them in passing, it will not fail to rain that day. As to that, I and all the other Frenchmen did pick them, but it did not rain. After rain these flowers are full of water, each one containing a good half-glass. [translated from French in Pitcher-Plants of Borneo] Flacourt called the plant Amramatico, after a local name. More than a century later, this species was formally described as N. madagascariensis. The second species to be described was N. distillatoria, the Sri Lankan endemic. In 1677, Danish physician Thomas Bartholin made brief mention of it under the name Miranda herba, Latin for "marvellous herb". Three years later, Dutch merchant Jacob Breyne referred to this species as Bandura zingalensium, after a local name for the plant. Bandura subsequently became the most commonly used name for the tropical pitcher plants, until Linnaeus coined Nepenthes in 1737. Nepenthes distillatoria was again described in 1683, this time by Swedish physician and naturalist Herman Niklas Grim. Grim called it Planta mirabilis destillatoria or the "miraculous distilling plant", and was the first to clearly illustrate a tropical pitcher plant. Three years later, in 1686, English naturalist John Ray quoted Grim as saying: The root draws up moisture from the earth which with the help of the sun's rays rises up into the plant itself and then flows down through the stems and nerves of the leaves into the natural utensil to be stored there until used for human needs. [translated from Latin in Pitcher-Plants of Borneo] One of the earliest illustrations of Nepenthes appears in Leonard Plukenet's Almagestum Botanicum of 1696. The plant, called Utricaria vegetabilis zeylanensium, is undoubtedly N. distillatoria. Around the same time, German botanist Georg Eberhard Rumphius discovered two new Nepenthes species in the Malay Archipelago. Rumphius illustrated the first one, now considered synonymous with N. mirabilis, and gave it the name Cantharifera, meaning "tankard-bearer". The second, referred to as Cantharifera alba, is thought to have been N. maxima. Rumphius described the plants in his most famous work, the six-volume Herbarium Amboinense, a catalogue of the flora of Ambon Island. However, it would not be published until many years after his death. After going blind in 1670, when the manuscript was only partially complete, Rumphius continued work on Herbarium Amboinensis with the help of clerks and artists. In 1687, with the project nearing completion, at least half of the illustrations were lost in a fire. Persevering, Rumphius and his helpers first completed the book in 1690. However, two years later, the ship carrying the manuscript to the Netherlands was attacked and sunk by the French, forcing them to start over from a copy that had fortunately been retained by Governor-General Johannes Camphuijs. The Herbarium Amboinensis finally arrived in the Netherlands in 1696. Even then, the first volume did not appear until 1741, 39 years after Rumphius's death. By this time, Linnaeus's name Nepenthes had become established. Nepenthes distillatoria was again illustrated in Johannes Burmann's Thesaurus Zeylanicus of 1737. The drawing depicts the end of a flowering stem with pitchers. Burmann refers to the plant as Bandura zeylanica. The next mention of tropical pitcher plants was made in 1790, when Portuguese priest João de Loureiro described Phyllamphora mirabilis, or the "marvellous urn-shaped leaf", from Vietnam. Despite living in the country for around 35 years, it seems unlikely that Loureiro observed living plants of this species, as he stated the lid is a moving part, actively opening and closing. In his most celebrated work, Flora Cochinchinensis, he writes: [...] (the) leaf-tip ends in a long hanging tendril, twisted spirally in the middle, from which hangs a sort of vase, oblong, pot-bellied, with a smooth lip with a projecting margin and a lid affixed to one side, which of its own nature freely opens and closes in order to receive the dew and store it. A marvellous work of the Lord! [translated from French in Pitcher-Plants of Borneo] Phyllamphora mirabilis was eventually transferred to the genus Nepenthes by Rafarin in 1869. As such, P. mirabilis is the basionym of this most cosmopolitan of tropical pitcher plant species. Loureiro's description of a moving lid was repeated by Jean Louis Marie Poiret in 1797. Poiret described two of the four Nepenthes species known at the time: N. madagascariensis and N. distillatoria. He gave the former its current name and called the latter Nepente de l'Inde, or simply "Nepenthes of India", although this species is absent from the mainland. In Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's Encyclopédie Méthodique Botanique, he included the following account: This urn is hollow, as I have just said, usually full of soft, clear water, and then closed. It opens during the day and more than half the liquid disappears, but this loss is repaired during the night, and the next day the urn is full again and closed by its lid. This is its sustenance, and enough for more than one day because it is always about half-full at the approach of night. [translated from French in Pitcher-Plants of Borneo] With the discovery of new species and Sir Joseph Banks' original introduction of specimens to Europe in 1789, interest in Nepenthes grew throughout the 19th century, culminating in what has been called the "Golden Age of Nepenthes" in the 1880s. However, the popularity of the plants dwindled in the early 20th century, before all but disappearing by World War II. This is evidenced by the fact that no new species were described between 1940 and 1966. The revival of global interest in the cultivation and study of Nepenthes is credited to Japanese botanist Shigeo Kurata, whose work in the 1960s and 1970s did much to bring attention to these plants. Cultivation [[File:2005-12-18 N rajah 034.jpg|thumb|Cultivated Nepenthes rajah, Nepenthes aristolochioides and other species]]Nepenthes may be cultivated in greenhouses. Easier species include N. alata, N. ventricosa, N. khasiana, and N. sanguinea. These four species are highlanders (N. alata has both lowland and highland forms), some easy lowlander species are N. rafflesiana, N. bicalcarata, N. mirabilis, and N. hirsuta. Highland forms are those species that grow in habitats generally higher in elevation, and thus exposed to cooler evening temperatures. Lowland forms are those species growing nearer to sea level. Both forms respond best to rainwater (but some tap water works as long as it is flushed monthly with rainwater or water low in dissolved solid and chemicals), bright light (though some species can grow in full sun), a well-drained medium, good air circulation and relatively high humidity, although easier species such as N. alata can adapt to lower humidity environments. Highland species must have night-time cooling to thrive in the long term. Chemical fertilisers are best used at low strength. Occasional feeding with frozen (thawed before use) crickets may be beneficial. Terrarium culture of smaller plants, such as N. bellii, N. × trichocarpa and N. ampullaria, is possible, but most plants will get too large over time. Plants can be propagated by seed, cuttings, and tissue culture. Seeds are usually sown on damp chopped Sphagnum moss, or on sterile plant tissue culture media once they have been properly disinfected. The seeds generally become nonviable soon after harvesting, so seed are not usually the preferred method of propagation. A 1:1 mixture of orchid medium with moss or perlite has been used for germination and culture. Seed may take two months to germinate, and two years or more to yield mature plants. Cuttings may be rooted in damp Sphagnum moss in a plastic bag or tank with high humidity and moderate light. They can begin to root in one to two months and start to form pitchers in about six months. Tissue culture is now used commercially and helps reduce collection of wild plants, as well as making many rare species available to hobbyists at reasonable prices. Nepenthes species are considered threatened or endangered plants and all of them are listed in CITES appendices 2, with the exception of N. rajah and N. khasiana which are listed in CITES appendix 1. Hybrids and cultivars There are many hybrid Nepenthes and numerous named cultivars. Some of the more well-known, artificially produced hybrids and cultivars include:N. × coccinea ((N. rafflesiana × N. ampullaria) × N. mirabilis)N. × ventrata (N. ventricosa × N. alata)N. × 'Bloody Mary' (N. ventricosa × N. ampullaria)N. 'D'amato' (N. lowii × N. ventricosa)N. × mixta (N. northiana × N. maxima)N. 'Syurga' (N. ventricosa × N. northiana)N. 'Menarik' (N. rafflesiana × N. veitchii)N. 'Emmarene' (N. khasiana × N. ventricosa)N. 'Judith Finn' (N. spathulata × N. veitchii) See also Nepenthes classification Nepenthes infauna List of Nepenthes endophyte species References Danser's Monograph on Nepenthes (covers species from Malaysia, Indonesia and New Guinea, but not elsewhere) Nepenthaceae in: Watson, L., and M. J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The Families of Flowering Plants. Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, Information Retrieval. Further reading Beaver, R.A. 1983. The communities living in Nepenthes pitcher plants: fauna and food webs. In: J.H. Frank & L.P. Lounibos (eds.) Phytotelmata: Plants as Hosts for Aquatic Insect Communities. Plexus Publishing, New Jersey. pp. 129–159. Boulay, J. 1997. Les Nepenthes. Dionée 38. External links Nepenthes - the Monkey Cups from the Botanical Society of America Nepenthes: The Interactive Guide at CarnivorousPlants.co.uk Nepenthes photographs at the Carnivorous Plant Photo Finder A video about Nepenthes rajah from The Private Life of Plants'' The Carnivorous Plant FAQ: Nepenthes by Barry Rice Evolution -- Nepenthes Phylogeny from the International Carnivorous Plant Society Inner World of Nepenthes from the John Innes Centre Caryophyllales genera Dioecious plants Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Articles containing video clips

262346

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptismal%20font

Baptismal font

A baptismal font is an article of church furniture used for baptism. Aspersion and affusion fonts The fonts of many Christian denominations are for baptisms using a non-immersive method, such as aspersion (sprinkling) or affusion (pouring). The simplest of these fonts has a pedestal (about tall) with a holder for a basin of water. The materials vary greatly consisting of carved and sculpted marble, wood, or metal. The shape can vary. Many are eight-sided as a reminder of the new creation and as a connection to the practice of circumcision, which traditionally occurs on the eighth day. Some are three-sided as a reminder of the Holy Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Fonts are often placed at or near the entrance to a church's nave to remind believers of their baptism as they enter the church to pray, since the rite of baptism served as their initiation into the Church. In many churches of the Middle Ages and Renaissance there was a special chapel or even a separate building for housing the baptismal fonts, called a baptistery. Both fonts and baptisteries were often octagonal (eight-sided), octagonal fonts becoming more common from the 13th century and the rule from the 14th century. Saint Ambrose wrote that fonts and baptisteries were octagonal "because on the eighth day, by rising, Christ loosens the bondage of death and receives the dead from their graves". Saint Augustine similarly described the eighth day as "everlasting... hallowed by the resurrection of Christ". The quantity of water is usually small (about ). There are some fonts where water pumps, a natural spring, or gravity keeps the water moving to mimic the moving waters of a stream. This visual and audible image communicates a "living waters" aspect of baptism. Some church bodies use special holy water while others will use water straight out of the tap to fill the font. A special silver vessel called a ewer can be used to fill the font. The mode of a baptism at a font is usually one of sprinkling, pouring, washing, or dipping in keeping with the Koine Greek verb βαπτιζω. Βαπτιζω can also mean "immerse", but most fonts are too small for that application. Some fonts are large enough to allow the immersion of infants, however. Regional types In certain regions of England, a common historic type of font design can be identified. In South East England the "Aylesbury font" can be seen in several churches in Buckinghamshire and the surrounding area. These fonts, which date from the late 12th Century around the years 1170 to 1190, are typically chalice-shaped, ornately carved around the rim with fluting below, and are considered fine examples of English Norman architecture. They are named after the font found in the Church of St Mary the Virgin, Aylesbury. Other identifiable types include the Early English "table-top" font, also found in Buckinghamshire; the "Bodmin font" in Cornwall, the "Seven Sacrament fonts" in East Anglia; and "Chalice fonts" in Herefordshire. Immersion fonts The earliest baptismal fonts were designed for full immersion, and were often cross-shaped with steps (usually three, for the Trinity) leading down into them. Often such baptismal pools were located in a separate building, called a baptistery, however, this baptismal practice was then relocated to be administered near the entrance of the church, mostly nearby the main door to signify entrance to the Church. As infant baptism became more common, fonts became smaller. Denominations that believe only in baptism by full immersion tend to use the term "baptismal font" to refer to immersion tanks dedicated for that purpose, however in the Roman Catholic tradition a baptismal font differs from an immersion. Full-immersion baptisms may take place in a man-made tank or pool, or a natural body of water such as a river or lake. The entire body is fully immersed, dunked, submerged or otherwise placed completely under the water. This practice symbolizes the death of the old nature, as found in Romans . In the Eastern Orthodox Church, baptism is always by full triple immersion, even in the case of infant baptism (aspersion or pouring is permitted only in extremis). For this reason, Eastern baptismal fonts tend to be larger than Western, and are often shaped like a large chalice (significant since the Orthodox administer Holy Communion to infants after baptism), and are normally fashioned out of metal rather than stone or wood. During the baptismal service, three candles will be lit on or around the baptismal font, in honor of the Holy Trinity. In many Orthodox churches, a very special kind of holy water, called "Theophany Water", is consecrated on the Feast of Theophany (Epiphany). The consecration (literally, "Great Blessing") is performed twice: the first time on the eve of the feast, in a baptismal font; the second, on the day of the feast, in a natural body of water. In the Roman Catholic Church, especially after its Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), greater attention is being given to the form of the baptismal font. Currently, the Roman Catholic Church encourages baptismal fonts that are suitable for the full immersion of an infant or child, and for at least the pouring of water over the whole body of an adult. The font should be located in a space that is visibly and physically accessible, and should preferably make provision for flowing water. Baptisms of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are usually done in a simple font located in a local meetinghouse, although they can be performed in any body of dank water in which the person may be completely immersed. In Latter-day Saint temples, where proxy baptisms for the dead are performed, the fonts rest on the sculptures of twelve oxen representing the twelve tribes of Israel, following the pattern of the Molten Sea in the Temple of Solomon (see 2 Chronicles 4:2-5). Examples Aspersion and affusion fonts Immersion fonts See also Bronze laver (Temple) Holy water font Nipson anomemata me monan opsin References Notes Citations Further reading External links Church Furniture article in Christian Cyclopedia The Baptismal font of Renier d'Huy in Leige, Belgium Church architecture Furniture

262349

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEPTA

SEPTA

The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA) is a regional public transportation authority that operates bus, rapid transit, commuter rail, light rail, and electric trolleybus services for nearly 4 million people in five counties in and around Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It also manages projects that maintain, replace and expand its infrastructure, facilities and vehicles. SEPTA is the major transit provider for Philadelphia and the counties of Delaware, Montgomery, Bucks and Chester. It is a state-created authority, with the majority of its board appointed by the five Pennsylvania counties it serves. While several SEPTA commuter rail lines terminate in the nearby states of Delaware and New Jersey, additional service to Philadelphia from those states is provided by other agencies: the PATCO Speedline from Camden County, New Jersey is run by the Delaware River Port Authority, a bi-state agency; NJ Transit operates many bus lines and a commuter rail line to Philadelphia's Center City; and DART First State runs feeder bus lines to SEPTA stations in the state of Delaware. SEPTA has the 6th-largest U.S. rapid transit system by ridership, and the 5th largest overall transit system, with about 302 million annual unlinked trips as of fiscal year 2018. It controls 290 active stations, over of track, 2,350 revenue vehicles, and 196 routes. It also oversees shared-ride services in Philadelphia and ADA services across the region, which are operated by third-party contractors. SEPTA is one of only two U.S. transit authorities that operates all of the five major types of terrestrial transit vehicles: regional (commuter) rail trains, rapid transit (subway/elevated) trains, light rail vehicles (trolleys), trolleybuses, and motorbuses. (The other is Boston's Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, which runs ferryboat service as well.) SEPTA's headquarters are at 1234 Market Street, Philadelphia. History Formation SEPTA was created by the Pennsylvania legislature on August 17, 1963, to coordinate government subsidies to various transit and railroad companies in southeastern Pennsylvania. It commenced on February 18, 1964. On November 1, 1965, SEPTA absorbed two predecessor agencies: The Passenger Service Improvement Corporation (PSIC), created January 20, 1960, to work with the Reading Company and Pennsylvania Railroad to improve commuter rail service and help the railroads maintain otherwise unprofitable passenger rail service. The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Compact (SEPACT), created September 8, 1961, by the City of Philadelphia and the Counties of Montgomery, Bucks, and Chester to coordinate regional transport issues. By 1966, the Reading Company and Pennsylvania Railroad commuter railroad lines were operated under contract to SEPTA. On February 1, 1968, the Pennsylvania Railroad merged with the New York Central railroad to become Penn Central, only to file for bankruptcy on June 21, 1970. Penn Central continued to operate in bankruptcy until 1976, when Conrail took over its assets along with those of several other bankrupt railroads, including the Reading Company. Conrail operated commuter services under contract to SEPTA until January 1, 1983, when SEPTA took over operations and acquired track, rolling stock, and other assets to form the Railroad Division. Subsequent expansion Like New York's Second Avenue Subway, the original proposal for the Roosevelt Boulevard Subway dates to 1913, but construction has remained elusive. Instead, after completing the Frankford Elevated, transit service in and around the city stagnated until the early 2000s. On September 30, 1968, SEPTA acquired the Philadelphia Transportation Company (PTC), which operated a citywide system of bus, trolley, and trackless trolley routes, the Market–Frankford Line (subway-elevated rail), the Broad Street Line (subway) and the Delaware River Bridge Line (subway-elevated rail to City Hall, Camden, NJ) which became SEPTA's City Transit Division. The PTC had been created in 1940 with the merger of the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company (formed in 1902) and a group of smaller, then independent transit companies operating within the city and its environs. On January 30, 1970, SEPTA acquired the Philadelphia Suburban Transportation Company, also known as the Red Arrow Lines, which included the Philadelphia and Western Railroad (P&W) route now called the Norristown High-Speed Line, the Media and Sharon Hill Lines (Routes 101 and 102) and several suburban bus routes in Delaware County. Today, this is the Victory Division, though it is sometimes referred to as the Red Arrow Division. On March 1, 1976, SEPTA acquired the transit operations of Schuylkill Valley Lines, which is today the Frontier Division. Meanwhile, SEPTA gradually began to take over the Pennsylvania Railroad and Reading Company commuter trains. SEPTA primarily sought to consolidate the formerly-competing services, leading to severe cutbacks in the mid-1980s. Subsequent proposals have been made to restore service to Allentown, Bethlehem, West Chester and Newtown, with support from commuters, local officials and pro-train advocates. SEPTA's planning department focused on the Schuylkill Valley Metro, a "cross-county metro" that would re-establish service to Phoenixville, Pottstown and Reading without requiring the rider to go into Philadelphia. However, ridership projections were dubious, and the FRA refused to fund the project. Many derelict lines under SEPTA ownership have been converted to rail trails, postponing any restoration proposals for the foreseeable future. Proposals have also been made for increased service on existing lines, including later evenings and Sundays to Wilmington and Newark in Delaware. Maryland's MARC commuter rail system is considering extending its service as far as , which would allow passengers to connect directly between SEPTA and MARC. Other recent proposals have focused on extending and enhancing SEPTA's other transit services. Senator Bob Casey has supported recent proposals expanding the Broad Street Line to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. , SEPTA had completed an Environmental Impact Statement to extend the Norristown High Speed Line to the King of Prussia area. In 2021, SEPTA proposed rebranding their rail transit service (Market–Frankford Line, Broad Street Line, Subway–Surface trolley lines, Norristown High-Speed Line, Route 15 trolley, and Routes 101 and 102 trolley) as "SEPTA Metro", in order to make the system easier to navigate. Under this proposal, the routes would be rebranded by a letter and a color (for example, the Market–Frankford Line will be rebranded as the "L" line with blue color). Different service patterns of a lettered route will be coded with numbers (for example, Broad Street Line local trains will be rebranded "B1", express trains will be rebranded "B2", and Broad–Ridge Spur trains will be rebranded as "B3"). The Subway–Surface trolley lines and Route 101 and 102 trolley will be branded as the same letter, with numbers for different lines (for example, the Subway–Surface trolley lines will be rebranded as the "T" line, with Route 10 rebranded as "T1"). Governance SEPTA is governed by a 15-member board of directors: The City of Philadelphia appoints two members: one member is appointed by the Mayor, the other by the City Council President. These two board members can veto any item that is approved by the full SEPTA board because the city represents more than two-thirds of SEPTA's local subsidy, fare revenue, and ridership. However, the veto may be overridden with the vote of at least 75% of the full board within 30 days. Bucks, Chester, Delaware, and Montgomery counties appoint two members each. These members are appointed by the county commissioners in Bucks, Chester, and Montgomery and by the county council in Delaware. The majority and minority leaders of the two houses of the Pennsylvania State Legislature (the Senate and the House of Representatives) appoint one member each, for a total of four members. The governor appoints one member. The members of the SEPTA Board are: The day-to-day operations of SEPTA are handled by the general manager, who is appointed and hired by the board of directors. The general manager is assisted by nine department heads called assistant general managers. The present general manager is Leslie Richards. Past general managers include Jeffrey Knueppel, Joseph Casey, Faye L. M. Moore, Joseph T. Mack, John "Jack" Leary, Louis Gambaccini, and David L. Gunn. Past acting general managers include James Kilcur and Bill Stead. SEPTA is a member of the Northeast Corridor Commission, a federal commission on Northeast Corridor rail service. Routes and ridership Ridership Overall annual ridership for the fiscal year of 2020 was 223.5 million individual rides. 17.1 million were rides on SEPTA's "suburban" network. 26.3 million were rides on SEPTA's "regional rail" network. 180.1 million were rides on SEPTA's "city transit" network. Ridership had decreased 13% from 2014 to 2019 due to many factors. Some explanations mentioned by SEPTA for this decrease are "increased competition, structural changes in ridership patterns, and moderate gas prices." The 24% decrease in ridership from FY 2019 to FY 2020 was mostly due to the impact of government-implemented lock-downs in response to the COVID-19 pandemic that started mid-March 2020. Rapid transit Market–Frankford Line (Blue Line or El): subway and elevated line from the Frankford Transportation Center (rebuilt in 2003) in the Frankford section of Philadelphia to 69th Street Transportation Center in Upper Darby, via Center City Philadelphia. Weekday ridership averaged 191,716 in 2018. Broad Street Line and Broad–Ridge Spur (Orange Line): subway line along Broad Street in Philadelphia from Fern Rock Transportation Center to NRG Station/Sports Complex (formerly Pattison Station and AT&T Station), via Center City Philadelphia. Weekday ridership averaged 139,950 in 2018. Both rapid transit lines run from 5:00 a.m. to 1:00 a.m. Monday through Thursday, with "Night Owl" bus service running along the line from 1:00 a.m. to 5:00 a.m. The lines run nonstop from 5:00 a.m. on Friday to 1:00 on Monday morning. Interurban transit Norristown High Speed Line (Purple Line): formerly known as the Philadelphia & Western (P&W) Railroad and Route 100, this former interurban heavy rail line is powered by third rail and has high level platforms. Daily ridership averaged 10,895 in 2018. It runs from 5:00 a.m. to 1:00 a.m. seven days a week. Trolley and light rail Subway–Surface Trolley Lines (Green Line): Five Subway-Surface Trolley Routes—10, 11, 13, 34 and 36 run in a subway in Center City and fan out along on street-level as Surface Trolley Lines in West and Southwest Philadelphia, and the Darby and Yeadon boroughs of Delaware County, Pennsylvania. Weekday ridership averaged 62,242 in 2018. All run 24 hours a day, though Route 11 is truncated from 12:30 a.m. to 5:00 a.m. Routes 101 and 102 (Suburban Trolley Lines): two trolley routes in Delaware County which run mostly on private rights-of-way but also have some street running. Daily ridership averaged 8,476 in 2018. Routes 15, 23 and 56: Three surface trolley routes that were suspended in 1992. Routes 23 and 56 are currently operated with buses. Trolley service on Route 15 (the Girard Avenue Line) resumed in September 2005, operating as a heritage streetcar line but was suspended again for at least eighteen months due to maintenance issues and major roadwork; it last operated in January 2020. 4 out of the 18 trolleys passed internal mechanical inspection before everything was converted to bus. Route 23 has long been SEPTA's most heavily traveled surface route, with daily ridership averaging 21,500 in 2010. The route has now split into Route 23 (northern portion remains) and Route 45 (southern portion). SEPTA has the largest trolley system in the United States. Trackless trolley (trolleybus) Trolleybuses, or trackless trolleys as they are called by SEPTA, operate on routes 59, 66, and 75. Service resumed in spring 2008 after a nearly five-year suspension. Until June 2002, five SEPTA routes were operated with trackless trolleys, using AM General vehicles built in 1978–79. Routes 29, 59, 66, 75 and 79 used trackless trolleys, but were converted to diesel buses for an indefinite period starting in 2002 (routes 59, 66, 75) and 2003 (routes 29, 79). The aging AM General trackless trolleys were retired and in February 2006, SEPTA placed an order for 38 new low-floor trackless trolleys from New Flyer Industries—enough for routes 59, 66 and 75 only—and the pilot trackless trolley arrived in June 2007, for testing. The vehicles were delivered between February and August 2008. Trackless trolley service resumed on Routes 66 and 75 on April 14, 2008, and on Route 59 the following day, but was initially limited to just one or two vehicles on each route, as new trolley buses gradually replaced the motorbuses serving the routes over a period of several weeks. The SEPTA board voted in October 2006 not to order additional vehicles for Routes 29 and 79, and those routes permanently became non-electric. Bus SEPTA lists 121 bus routes, not including over 50 school trips, with most routes in the City of Philadelphia proper. SEPTA generally employs lettered, one and two-digit route numbering for its City Division routes; 90-series and 100-series routes for its Suburban Division routes; 200-series routes for its Regional Rail connector routes (Routes 201, 204, and 206 in Montgomery & Chester Counties); 300-series routes for other specialized or third-party contract routes; and 400-series routes for limited-service buses to schools within Philadelphia. Commuter rail On January 1, 1983, SEPTA took over the commuter rail services formerly operated by Conrail under contract and reorganized them as Regional Rail. This division operates 13 lines serving more than 150 stations covering most of the five-county southeastern Pennsylvania region. It also runs trains to Wilmington and Newark, Delaware as well as Trenton and West Trenton, New Jersey. Daily ridership averaged over 120,000 in 2018, with over 30% of ridership on the Paoli/Thorndale and Lansdale/Doylestown lines. Most of the cars used on the lines were built between 1976 and 2013. After building delays, the first Silverliner V cars were introduced into service on October 29, 2010. These cars represent the first new electric multiple units purchased for the Regional Rail system since the completion of the Silverliner IV order in 1976 and the first such purchase to be made by SEPTA. As of March 19, 2013, all Silverliner V cars are in service and makeup almost one-third of the current 400 car Regional Rail fleet, which are replacing the older, aging fleet. At the start of July 2016, however, a serious structural flaw (cracks in a weight-bearing beam on a train car's undercarriage) was discovered during an emergency inspection to exist in more than 95% of the 120 Silverliner V cars in the SEPTA regional rail fleet which the company announced would take "the rest of the summer" to repair and would thus reduce the system's capacity by as much as 50%. In addition to regular commuter rail service, the loss of system capacity was also expected to cause transportation issues for the Democratic National Convention being held in Philadelphia on the week of July 25, 2016. Accessibility All of SEPTA's buses are fully accessible under the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). As of February 2022, about 46% of its subway and commuter rail stations combined are ADA-compliant, which is the second-lowest accessibility rate for rail stops in the country (the New York City Subway, at 28% as of September 2021, has the lowest in the nation). The trolleys themselves, meanwhile, are fully inaccessible, meaning that no trolley stop can possibly be compliant with the ADA. SEPTA was sued successfully over its lack of accessibility back in 2009. Divisions SEPTA has three major operating divisions: City Transit, Suburban, and Regional Rail. These divisions reflect the different transit and railroad operations that SEPTA has assumed. SEPTA also offers CCT Connect paratransit ⎌service. City Transit Division The City Transit Division operates routes mostly within the City of Philadelphia, including buses, subway–surface trolleys, surface Trolley Lines, the Market–Frankford Line and the Broad Street Line. SEPTA City Transit Division surface routes include bus and trackless trolley lines. Some city division routes extend into Delaware, Montgomery, and Bucks counties. This division is the descendant of the Philadelphia Transportation Company. There are eight operating depots in this division: five of these depots only operate buses, one is a mixed bus/trackless trolley depot, one is a mixed bus/streetcar depot and one is a streetcar-only facility. Suburban Division Victory District The Victory District operates suburban bus and trolley (or light rail) routes that are based at 69th Street Transportation Center in Upper Darby in Delaware County. Its light rail routes comprise the Norristown High Speed Line (Route 100) that runs from 69th Street Transportation Center to Norristown Transportation Center and the SEPTA Surface Media and Sharon Hill Trolley Lines (Routes 101 and 102). This district is the descendant of the Philadelphia Suburban Transportation Company, also known as the Red Arrow Lines. Some residents of the Victory District operating area still refer to this district as the "Red Arrow Division." Frontier District The Frontier District operates suburban bus routes that are based at the Norristown Transportation Center in Montgomery County and bus lines that serve eastern Bucks County. This district is the descendant of the Schuylkill Valley Lines in the Norristown area and the Trenton-Philadelphia Coach Lines in eastern Bucks County. SEPTA took over Schuylkill Valley Lines operations on March 1, 1976. SEPTA turned over the Bucks County routes (formerly Trenton-Philadelphia Coach Line Routes, a subsidiary of SEPTA) to Frontier Division in November 1983. Suburban contract operations Krapf Transit operates one bus line under contract to SEPTA in Chester County: Route 204 between Paoli Regional Rail Station and Eagleville. This route is operated from Krapf's own garage, located in West Chester, Pennsylvania. Krapf has operated three other bus routes for SEPTA in the past. Route 202 (West Chester to Wilmington), Route 207 (The Whiteland WHIRL) and Route 208 (Strafford Train Station to Chesterbrook) are no longer operating. SEPTA contracted bus operations before in Chester County. SEPTA and Reeder's Inc. joined forces in 1977 to operate three bus routes out of West Chester. These routes were Route 120 (West Chester to Coatesville), Route 121 (West Chester to Paoli), and Route 122 (West Chester to Oxford). Bus service between West Chester and Coatesville was a replacement for the previous trolley service operated by West Chester Traction. SEPTA did replace two of the routes with their own bus service. Route 122 service was replaced by SEPTA's Route 91 on July 6, 1982, after only one year of service, Route 91 was eliminated due to lack of ridership. Route 121 was replaced by SEPTA's Route 92 on October 11, 1982, and this service continues to operate today. Since ridership on the Route 120 was strong it continued to operate under the operations of Reeder's Inc. even after SEPTA pulled the funding source. Krapf purchased the Reeder's operation in 1992 and designated the remaining (West Chester to Coatesville) bus route as Krapf Transit "Route A". Route 205 (Paoli Station to Chesterbrook) was formerly operated by Krapf until late 2019 when it was merged into SEPTA's own Route 206 (Paoli Station to Great Valley). Railroad Division The Railroad Division operates 13 commuter railroad routes that begin in Central Philadelphia and radiate outwards, terminating in intra-city, suburban and out-of-state locations. This division is the descendant of the six electrified commuter lines of the Reading Company (RDG), the six electrified commuter lines of the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR, later Penn Central: PC) and the new Airport line constructed by the City of Philadelphia between 1974 and 1984. With the construction and opening of the Center City Commuter Connection Tunnel in 1984, lines were paired such that a former Pennsylvania Railroad line was coupled with a former Reading line. Seven such pairings were created and given route designations numbered R1 through R8 (with R4 not used). As a result, the routes were originally designed so that trains would proceed from one outlying terminal to Center City, stopping at 30th Street Station, Suburban Station and (formerly Market East Station), then proceed out to the other outlying terminal assigned to the route. Since ridership patterns have changed since the implementation of this plan, SEPTA removed the R-numbers from the lines in July 2010 and instead refers to the lines by the names of their termini. The out-of-state terminals offer connections with other transit agencies. The Trenton Line offers connections in Trenton, New Jersey to NJ Transit (NJT) or Amtrak for travel to New York City. Plans exist to restore NJT service to West Trenton, New Jersey, thus offering a future alternate to New York via the West Trenton Line and NJT. Another plan offers a connection for travel to Baltimore and Washington, D.C. via MARC, involving extensions of the SEPTA Wilmington/Newark Line from Newark, Delaware, an extension of MARC's Penn service from Perryville, Maryland, or both. CCT Connect CCT Connect is a paratransit service from SEPTA that offers a Shared-Ride Program for senior citizens and ADA Paratransit Service for people with disabilities. The Shared-Ride Program provides a door-to-door ridesharing service through advance reservations for senior citizens age 65 or older in the city of Philadelphia for travel within the city and to points within of the city's borders. The ADA Paratransit Service provides door-to-door service through advance reservations for people with disabilities in accordance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), allowing for travel across the SEPTA service area within of fixed-route transit service when such service operates. CCT Connect is operated by third-party contractors for SEPTA. Easton Coach, First Transit, MV Transportation, and Total Transit Corp. operate CCT Connect service in Philadelphia County; Easton Coach operates CCT Connect service in Bucks County; Krapf Transit operates CCT Connect service in Chester County; Community Transit of Delaware County operates CCT Connect service in Delaware County; and First Transit operates CCT Connect service in Montgomery County. Financing SEPTA is considered a non-profit. SEPTA gets income from passenger fares, investments, and multiple government agencies to cover operating costs. Operating Costs SEPTA had $1,530,984,000 in total operating expenses for the fiscal year of 2021. $1,088,773,000 (71.1%) of those expenses are considered "Labor and Fringe Benefits." $331,432,000 (21.6%) of those expenses are "Material and Services" costs. $27,313,000 (1.8%) are due to "Propulsion Power" costs. $26,026,000 (1.7%) are due to "Fuel" costs. $24,711,000 (1.6%) are for "Injury and Damage Claims." $23,875,000 (1.6%) are due to "Depreciation/Contributed Capital" costs. The last $8,854,000 (.5%) in costs are due to "Vehicle and Facility Rentals". Operating Revenue To cover 35% of their operating costs, SEPTA receives $541,768,000 in operating revenue, which includes: $480,574,000 (88.7%) from passenger revenue, $16,250,000 (3%) from SEPTA's "Shared Ride Program," $42,188,000 (7.8%) from "Other Income," and $2,756,000 (.5%) from "Investment Income". Government Subsidies To make up for the $989,200,000 gap in operating expenses for FY2021, SEPTA receives 65% of its FY2021 income from federal, state, and local government subsidies. SEPTA receives this financial support in the form of direct subsidies, grants, income from a Pennsylvanian sales tax, proceeds from state bond programs, and lease subsidies. $779,842,000 (78.8%) of SEPTA's funding short-fall is covered by a combination of state government subsidies. $111,986,000 (11.3%) of SEPTA's funding short-fall is covered by local government programs. $93,028,000 (9.4%) of SEPTA's funding short-fall is covered by the Federal government. $4,360,000 (.5%) of the gap is covered by "Other" means. Fares The SEPTA Key card is a smart card that can be used for fares and passes on SEPTA's transit services and Regional Rail. The card replaced tokens, paper tickets, and paper passes. The cash fare to ride on SEPTA's transit services (buses, rapid transit, trolleys, trackless trolleys) is $2.50, which must be paid in exact change. SEPTA offered tokens as a discount to cash, with each token costing $2; tokens could only be purchased in packs of 2, 5, or 10. Token sales were discontinued in 2018 with an exception for CCT users but are still accepted on transit services. The Travel Wallet on the SEPTA Key card offers single rides on transit for $2. Transfers from one SEPTA transit service to another are available with a SEPTA Key card with money loaded on the Travel Wallet; the first transfer is free while the second transfer costs $1. A number of interchanges between rapid transit lines can be used for free, without a transfer. Fares for CCT Connect service cost $4.25. On Regional Rail, fares can be paid with the Travel Wallet on a SEPTA Key card or onboard the train from a conductor using cash. Sales of paper tickets were discontinued in 2020; however, valid tickets are still accepted on trains until April 1, 2021. As of April 2, 2021, previously purchased paper tickets will no longer be accepted on Regional Rail. Fares using a SEPTA Key card are cheaper than fares purchased on board. Fares on Regional Rail are based on fare zones reflecting the station's distance from Center City Philadelphia. Fares are higher during the day on weekdays and lower on evenings and weekends. SEPTA also offers intermediate fares for trips on Regional Rail that do not go through Center City Philadelphia along with via Center City Philadelphia fares that can be used between two outlying stations that require travel through Center City Philadelphia. Various passes are offered by SEPTA that can be used on transit and Regional Rail services. These passes are available on a SEPTA Key card. The TransPass costs $25.50 weekly and $96 monthly and can be used for all transit rides within the time period. The TransPass is not valid on Regional Rail. The TrailPass is available either weekly or monthly and can be used on Regional Rail up to the zone printed on the pass along with all transit rides within the time period. Prices for the TrailPass are based on fare zones reflecting distance from Center City Philadelphia. TrailPasses have anywhere privileges on weekends and holidays. The Cross County Pass costs $30.75 weekly and $115 monthly and can be used for all transit rides and all Regional Rail trips outside Center City Philadelphia within the time period. The pass can be used with a payment of an additional Zone 1 fare for travel into Center City Philadelphia. Cross County Passes have anywhere privileges on weekends and holidays. The One-Day Independence Pass can be used for up to 10 trips in one day on transit and Regional Rail services, with an individual pass $13 and a three-pass bundle $36. An additional charge of $3.75 per individual pass must be paid for Regional Rail travel in New Jersey. The One-Day Convenience Pass allows for 8 rides on transit services in one day for $9, while the Three-Day Convenience Pass allows for 24 rides on transit services in a 72-hour period for $18.00. SEPTA allows senior citizens to ride transit services and Regional Rail trains in Pennsylvania for free with identification; fares on Regional Rail trains operating to Delaware or New Jersey are half the weekday fare. Disabled persons may ride transit services for half price and Regional Rail trains for half the weekday fare with identification. SEPTA allows all children under the age of 12 to ride for free with a fare-paying adult; children riding alone must pay regular fares. SEPTA offers special fares for students in K–12 schools who ride SEPTA to get to school. The SEPTA Key Student Fare Card program provides students with a SEPTA Key card that can be used for up to 8 trips per school day. Cards can be upgraded to be used on Regional Rail. SEPTA offers the SEPTA Key University Pass as a discount transit pass for college students at participating colleges. Colleges participating in the SEPTA Key University Pass program include University of Pennsylvania, Temple University, Drexel University, University of the Arts, and University of the Sciences. The Freedom Share Card farecard used by PATCO Speedline is accepted on all SEPTA services except Regional Rail. The card is read at SEPTA Key card readers. Transit police SEPTA established the current Transit Police Department in 1981. It now has about 260 officers operating in seven patrol zones. It maintains a patrol, bicycle and police dog unit, as well as a "Special Operations Response Team" trained to deal with hostage situations. Equipment Buses In 1982, SEPTA ordered buses from Neoplan USA, a purchase that was both the largest for Neoplan at the time and SEPTA's largest to date. These buses were used throughout the SEPTA service area. SEPTA changed its specifications on new bus orders each year. The Neoplan AK's (numbered 8285–8410), which was SEPTA's first Neoplan order, had longitudinal seating: all of the seats face towards the aisle. However, their suburban counterparts (8411–8434) had longitudinal seating only in the rear of the bus. The back door has a wheelchair ramp, which forced SEPTA officials to limit its use and specify wheelchair lifts in their next order. These buses had a nine-liter 6v92 engine and Allison HT-747 transmission. In 1983, SEPTA, along with other transit operators in Pennsylvania, ordered 1,000 Neoplan buses of various lengths. SEPTA ultimately received 450 buses from this order: 425 were buses (BD 8435–8584 and CD 8601–8875), which came without wheelchair lifts, and 25 buses (BP 1301–1325). SEPTA purchased additional Neoplans in 1986. The first two groups (3000–3131 and 3132–3251) came without rear wheelchair lifts; the last two groups, one in late 1987 (3252–3371) and another in 1989 (3372–3491), included them. All Neoplans built between 1986 and 1989 were equipped with a ZF 4HP-590 transmission. By the early 1990s, SEPTA had 1,092 Neoplan AN440 coaches in active service, making it the largest transit system in North America with a fleet primarily manufactured by Neoplan USA. These buses dominated the streets of Philadelphia through late 1997 when the earlier fleet of AK and BD Neoplans (8285–8581) was replaced by 400 buses built by American Ikarus and – the same company after a 1996 reorganization – North American Bus Industries. The older GMC RTS 35- and 40-foot buses were also replaced in this order, with the sole remaining exception of No. 4462, a 35-foot coach. More replacements occurred when SEPTA received its first low-floor fleet and retired the last AN440 buses on June 20, 2008. The Neoplan model had not entirely vanished from Philadelphia's streets by the start of the 21st century; in 1998, SEPTA ordered 155 articulated buses from the company. These buses replaced the 1984 Volvo 10BM 60-foot articulated buses. These buses have now been retired since late 2015, replaced by the 2013–2016 NovaBus LFS-A HEV. The 1998 purchase also included 89 29-foot Transmark-29 buses from National-Eldorado (4501–4580, 4581 received later), the first of which began to arrive in late 2000. Most of these buses ran on suburban routes occasionally entering the city, but some are in the "LUCY" service in the University City section of West Philadelphia, in a special paint scheme, and others on lighter lines within Philadelphia. SEPTA had decided to buy from Metrotrans Legacy, SEPTA's first choice in small buses, but the company filed for bankruptcy in 1999. A fleet of buses known as "cutaways" were also purchased. These buses were built on Ford van chassis, with bodies similar to those seen on car rental shuttles at various airports. These buses were retired around 2003 and replaced with slightly larger cutaway buses on a Freightliner truck chassis. After evaluating sample buses from New Flyer and NovaBus in 1994–96, SEPTA ordered 100 low-floor buses (nos. 5401–5500) from New Flyer in 2001. Trackless trolley (trolley bus) service was suspended in 2003 and the 110 AM General vehicles that had provided service on SEPTA's five trackless trolley routes never returned to service. However, in early 2006 SEPTA ordered 38 new low-floor trackless trolleys from New Flyer, which entered service in 2008, restoring trackless service on routes 59, 66 and 75. These buses replaced SEPTA Neoplan EZs, ending Neoplan's 26-year domination. SEPTA placed an order with delivery starting in 2008 for 400 New Flyer hybrid buses—with options for up to 80 additional buses to replace the NABI Ikarus buses at the end of their 12-year life. These will not be the first hybrid buses, since SEPTA purchased two small groups of hybrids, 5601H–5612H, which arrived in 2003, and 5831H–5850H in 2004. Before the 2008 purchase, SEPTA borrowed an MTA New York City Transit Orion VII hybrid bus # 6365 to evaluate it in service. SEPTA was the first to purchase New Flyer DE40LFs equipped with rooftop HVAC units. SEPTA delivered 525 2017-2022 NFI XDE40 hybrid buses to replace all the diesel buses that were delivered between 2001 and 2004. Additionally, SEPTA is replacing cloth seats with plastic seats on their buses that were delivered since and after 2008 in an effort to combat bed bug infestations. SEPTA's revenue from advertisements on the backs of its buses leads the authority to order mainly buses equipped with a rooftop HVAC and with their rear route-number sign mounted on the roof, especially on 2008–2009 New Flyer DE40LFs and future orders. In 2016, SEPTA launched a pilot program that would see battery electric buses replace diesel buses on former trackless trolley routes 29 and 79. Using a $2.6-million Federal Transit Administration grant, the agency ordered 25 such buses from Proterra, Inc. of California, together with two overhead fast-charging stations. They are expected to enter service in 2017, returning electric propulsion to these routes after nearly 15 years of diesel operation. However, these same busses were sidelined in February, 2020 for an undisclosed reason, but multiple agency sources blamed a defect in the buses’ plastic chassis that led to a cracking problem. Subway The Broad Street Line uses cars built by Kawasaki between 1982 and 1984. These cars, known as B-IV as they are the fourth generation used on the line, are stainless steel and include some cars with operating cabs at both ends, as well as some with only a single cab. The Market-Frankford Line uses a class of car known as M-4, as they, like the Broad Street B-IV's, represent the line's fourth generation of cars and were built from 1997 to 1999 by Adtranz. These cars are built to the unusual broad gauge of , known as "Pennsylvania trolley gauge". In 2017, 90 of the cars had have emergency welding to fix cracking steel beams. Then in 2020 all the cars, including the ones temporarily repaired in 2017, had to have more permanent welding to fix cracking steel beams. Trolley The SEPTA trolley fleet has three different types of cars. The 112 vehicles used on SEPTA's Subway-Surface trolleys were built by Kawasaki beginning in 1981 after a 1980 prototype was delivered and tested. Known as "K-cars", they use the Pennsylvania trolley gauge of . Larger than the replaced PCC cars they are 50 feet long and capable of 40 miles per hour. This fleet of cars (112 + 29=141) was the first in North America to have unitized roof-mounted air conditioners. The 112 city cars were the first to have electronic control of switches at junctions, using the Philips VETAG system. The city cars operate out of two locations known as Elmwood and Callowhill. Uniquely, the Girard Street Line uses PCC II trolleys, originally built in 1947 by the St Louis Car Company, which were rebuilt by Brookville for the line's reopening in 2003 so as to include air conditioning and provisions for accommodating mobility devices for lesser-abled passengers in accordance with ADA regulations. The Girard line has the same track gauge as the Subway-Surface lines and operates out of Callowhill depot. The suburban trolley lines use 29 Kawasaki-built vehicles similar to, but slightly larger than, the Subway-Surface trolleys. They use a slightly wider Pennsylvania trolley gauge track than the city lines but the same wheel gauge. Wheel profiles are different and different gear ratios provide higher speeds. Notably, they are double-ended, unlike the Subway-Surface trolleys, as these lines lack any loops to turn the vehicles at their suburban terminals. Unlike the city cars, which use traditional trolley pole power collectors, the suburban cars use pantographs and can achieve 50 miles per hour. Interurban The Norristown High Speed Line uses a unique class of 26 cars known as N-5s. They were delivered in 1993 by ABB after significant production difficulties and a change of assembly locations. These cars are powered by a nominally 600 volt top-contact third rail. They run on a standard gauge track. They are the first fleet of cars in North America to have Alternating Current (AC) traction motors. Additionally, they have running gear (trucks) incorporating design elements used on the Swedish High-Speed trains. Axle suspensions provide flexibility that allows axles to steer themselves around curves as small as 5 degrees. Designed for 80 miles per hour, the signal system allows 70 miles per hour. Regional Rail SEPTA uses a mixed fleet of General Electric and Hyundai Rotem "Silverliner" electric multiple unit self-operated cars. It also uses push-pull equipment consisting of coaches built by Bombardier and hauled by Siemens ACS-64 electric locomotives for express and rush-hour service. Push-pull trains were previously hauled by AEM-7 or ALP-44 electric locomotives. The aging locomotives, which have already been retired by their other operators, Amtrak and NJ Transit, were replaced by 15 Siemens ACS-64 locomotives in 2018. Maintenance-of-way vehicles C-145 snow sweeper (1923) Harsco Track Technologies Corporation work car – overhead wire snow and ice removal PCC work car 2194 – trolley line SEPTA Railroad OPS-3161 crane railroad work car SEPTA Railroad OPS-6214 Fairmont rail grinder RRD 520 MOW Hi-Rail Truck R-2 (ex 1922 Brill) Market Street revenue car W-56 flatbed and crane work car W-61 flatbed work car 2 Market–Frankford Line M4 work cars Maintenance facilities Transit Divisions 69th Street Yard (City Transit Division/ Market–Frankford Line, the facility is actually located in Delaware County) Allegheny Depot (City Transit Division/ articulated and standard size buses; formerly housed Nearside, double-ended, and PCC streetcars) Berridge Shops (formerly Wyoming Shops, bus maintenance, and overhauls) Bridge Street Yard (City Transit Division/ Market–Frankford Line) Callowhill Depot (City Transit Division/ bus and streetcar; formerly housed Nearside, Peter Witt, double-ended, and PCC streetcars) Comly Depot (City Transit Division/ articulated and standard size buses) Elmwood Depot (City Transit Division/ streetcar, also used as a station. Replaced former Woodland Depot) Fern Rock Yard (City Transit Division/ Broad Street Line) Frankford Depot (City Transit Division/ bus and trackless trolley; formerly housed Nearside, double-ended, and PCC streetcars) Frontier Depot (Suburban Transit Division/ bus) Germantown Brakes Maintenance Facility (Germantown Depot, City Transit Division/ bus maintenance) Midvale Depot (City Transit Division/ articulated, standard size, and formerly housed buses. Replaced former Luzerne Depot) Southern Depot (City Transit Division/ articulated and standard size buses: SEPTA board voted to not have trackless trolleys return to South Philly; formerly housed Nearside, double-ended and Peter Witt streetcars) Victory Depot (69th Street, Suburban Transit Division/ bus and light rail) Woodland Maintenance Facility (streetcar overhaul and repairs. Site of former Woodland Depot, which formerly housed Nearside, double-ended, and PCC streetcars) Regional Rail Connecting transit agencies in the Philadelphia region Local services The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit line that runs from Center City Philadelphia to Camden, New Jersey and terminates in Lindenwold, New Jersey. At the 8th Street station, one can transfer to the Market–Frankford Line and Broad–Ridge Spur with an additional transfer fare. Paid transfers are also available at PATCO's 12th–13th Street station and 15th–16th Street station with SEPTA's Broad Street Line Walnut–Locust station. The PATCO Speedline crosses over the Delaware River via the Ben Franklin Bridge. It is owned by the Delaware River Port Authority. In the western Philadelphia suburbs, Krapf's Transit runs regularly scheduled buses for the TMACC between Coatesville, Downingtown, Exton and West Chester. SEPTA Routes 92 and 104 connect with this service in West Chester, and route 92 also connects with this service at the Exton Square Mall. Krapf's also provides contract services to SEPTA on route 204. They also operate a free express shuttle bus from Center City to the Navy Yard in South Philadelphia as well as a free shuttle bus loop within the Navy Yard itself. In King of Prussia, the Greater Valley Forge Transportation Management Association runs a community shuttle, the Rambler, which connects with SEPTA at the King of Prussia Transit Center. In the northwestern Philadelphia suburbs, Pottstown Area Rapid Transit (PART, formerly known as Pottstown Urban Transit) operates five bus routes within Pottstown Borough and the neighboring townships of Douglass, Limerick, Lower Pottsgrove, Upper Pottsgrove, and West Pottsgrove in Montgomery County and North Coventry Township in Chester County. PART and SEPTA have an agreement allowing transfers between PART service and SEPTA Route 93 buses in Pottstown. Regional services NJ Transit runs buses from Philadelphia to New Jersey points. Many NJT buses stop at the Philadelphia Greyhound Terminal, which is immediately north of Jefferson Station or at other locations in Center City Philadelphia. NJT also operates the River Line light rail line between Camden and Trenton, the Northeast Corridor Line between Trenton and New York, and the Atlantic City Line between 30th Street Station and Atlantic City. Both the Northeast Corridor Line and River Line connect with SEPTA's Regional Rail Trenton Line at the Trenton Transit Center. SEPTA Route 127 connects with NJT bus and rail services here also. DART First State provides bus service in Delaware. This service connects with SEPTA's Wilmington/Newark Line Regional Rail service in Wilmington and Newark. In 2007, SEPTA bus Route 306 began service, connecting the Great Valley Corporate Center and West Chester with the Brandywine Town Center; service between West Chester and Brandywine Town Center was discontinued in 2010 due to low ridership. In February 2009, SEPTA bus Route 113 commenced connecting bus service with DART at the Tri-State Mall, allowing service between Delaware County and the State of Delaware, and connecting with DART First State's #1 (now #13) and #61 bus at the Tri-State Mall. National and international services Amtrak provides rail service between 30th Street Station and Lancaster, Harrisburg, Pittsburgh, and Chicago to the west, Baltimore and Washington, D.C. to the southwest, and New York, Boston, and Montreal to the northeast. Amtrak's service overlaps to some degree with the Wilmington/Newark Line, Paoli/Thorndale Line and Trenton Line. All Regional Rail routes stop at 30th Street Station's upper platform. It is a short walk down a ramp to Amtrak's gates. Other shared Amtrak/Regional Rail stations include and on the Wilmington/Newark Line, , , , and on the Paoli/Thorndale Line, and Trenton on the Trenton Line. Amtrak also offers limited service from and , which are also on Trenton Line. Amtrak is faster than SEPTA, but significantly more expensive, particularly for services along the Northeast Corridor. Greyhound and a variety of interregional bus operators, most of which are part of the Trailways system, stop at the Philadelphia Greyhound Terminal. In addition to being adjacent to Jefferson Station, the terminal is one block from the Market–Frankford Line's station and various SEPTA bus routes. Major destinations served with one-seat rides to/from the terminal include Allentown, Atlantic City, Baltimore, Harrisburg, Newark (New Jersey), New York, Pittsburgh, Reading, Scranton, Washington and Wilmington. In addition, six NJ Transit bus routes (313, 315, 316, 317, 318, and 551) originate and terminate from this terminal. SEPTA serves Philadelphia International Airport with local bus service and with the Airport Line from Center City. Criticism and recognition SEPTA's 50-year history has often been a tumultuous one, a direct result of the agency being governed at the county level rather than the state one. Railpace Newsmagazine contributor Gerry Williams observed that SEPTA regularly staggers from crisis to crisis, with little support or oversight originating at the state level in Harrisburg. It has a long history of being at odds with the riding public and both county and state officials. SEPTA has engaged in more labor strikes than any other transit agency in the U.S., occurring in 1977, 1981, 1983, 1986, 1995, 1998, 2005, 2009, 2014, and 2016. Williams commented that there is a notable lack of "any group... influential enough to bring shame on SEPTA," adding that SEPTA's chronic ills "merely reflect the broader problems of local provincialism and petty political squabbles which are so rampant within the (Delaware Valley) region." The five counties it serves regularly have various hidden agendas working in the background, often at cross purposes with one another than as a unified region, a problem that has resulted in many services being severed mid-route without regard to the affected counties. This factor is regularly influenced by the changing political winds at the state capital in Harrisburg. SEPTA made improvements in the 21st century that helped reverse the downward trend. $191 million of funds made available from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 were utilized to make over 30 major improvements to the system, including renovations of the Spring Garden and Girard Avenue subway stations and building the first Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) station at Fox Chase terminal in 2010. SEPTA also inaugurated a consolidated, multi-modal control center that helps manage all aspects of the system. SEPTA was voted the best large transit agency in North America by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA) in July 2012. The award was criticized by Next City columnist Diana Lind, stating that despite some outward appearances of improvement, SEPTA still largely operates under a cloud of non-transparency and continues to lack a system-wide expansion program for the future. This is most notable in the regional rail division, which suffered severe cutbacks in the 1980s and whose affected routes have been converted into rail trails, preventing a restoration of those services for the foreseeable future. When asked to produce data pertaining to SEPTA's repeated attempts to consolidate bus stops, Lind observed "the report on the project barely elaborates on the information. SEPTA’s trials deserve public attention and input. The public deserves the data—show us the average times before and after the pilot. Give reader surveys. Tell us why you haven’t tried another pilot on another bus line." Between 2009 and 2013 SEPTA was criticised for its use of sex identification markers on the SEPTA-issued monthly transit passes, as some transgender and gender-queer people had experienced discrimination related to the markers. These markers, SEPTA said, were an anti-fraud measure designed to prevent people in the same household sharing a monthly pass. However, the lobby group SEPTA Riders Against Gender Exclusion (SEPTA R.A.G.E) said that the sex identification markers had resulted in harassment, violence, and discrimination for those who did not physically match the stated sex on the pass. The markers on the monthly passes were stopped in June 2013. In October 2020, SEPTA trialled the use of lean benches instead of traditional seating at some of its stations. This was criticized by some as lean benches are widely considered to be hostile architecture, designed to stop homeless populations using the stations to sleep. SEPTA stated that the use of the lean benches was to encourage social distancing to prevent the spread the COVID-19. These trials concluded in September 2021 with the removal of the lean benches. See also Doe v. Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority List of metro systems List of United States rapid transit systems by ridership Commuter rail in North America List of suburban and commuter rail systems List of United States commuter rail systems by ridership List of light rail transit systems List of United States light rail systems by ridership List of United States local bus agencies by ridership Further reading John F. Tucker Transit History Collection (1895-2002) at Hagley Museum and Library.(includes records of the pre-SEPTA Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company and the Philadelphia Transportation Company for the period 1907–1968.) References 1965 establishments in Pennsylvania Intermodal transportation authorities in Pennsylvania Bus transportation in Pennsylvania Commuter rail in the United States Light rail in Pennsylvania Rapid transit in Pennsylvania Passenger rail transportation in Pennsylvania Passenger rail transportation in Delaware Passenger rail transportation in New Jersey Transportation in Philadelphia Municipal authorities in Pennsylvania Tram, urban railway and trolley companies Public benefit corporations based in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott%20Bay

Elliott Bay

Elliott Bay is a part of the Central Basin region of Puget Sound. It is in the U.S. state of Washington, extending southeastward between West Point in the north and Alki Point in the south. Seattle was founded on this body of water in the 1850s and has since grown to encompass it completely. The waterway it provides to the Pacific Ocean has served as a key element of the city's economy, enabling the Port of Seattle to become one of the busiest ports in the United States. History The Duwamish people lived in the vicinity of Elliott Bay and the Duwamish River for thousands of years and had established at least 17 settlements by the time white settlers came in the 1850s. Among the earliest white settlements was by the Denny Party at New York Alki, which is in the present-day neighborhood of Alki in West Seattle, however after a hard winter they shifted across Elliott Bay near the present-day Pioneer Square, which became Seattle. Over the years the city expanded to cover all of the waterfront on Elliott Bay and codified it as one of its fairways (a navigable waterway). The bay was named during the Wilkes expedition in 1841, after an uncertain namesake. Candidates include members of the expedition: ship's chaplain Jared Elliott, ship's boy George Elliott, and midshipman Samuel Elliott. The last has been deemed the most likely namesake. Commodore Jesse Elliott has also been proposed as a possible source of the name. The bay has been referred to as Duwamish Bay and Seattle Harbor, especially before the US Board on Geographic Names officially settled on the name "Elliott Bay" in 1895. A local legend says that the Puget Sound Mosquito Fleet, which peaked in the early 20th century, was so-named by a Seattleite who looked out over Elliott Bay and remarked that the activity resembled that of mosquitoes. Two notable sinkings related to the Mosquito Fleet occurred in the bay: the Dix in 1906, taking with it dozens of lives, and the Multnomah in 1911. Eventually these commercial passenger services faded as automobiles and ferries rose in popularity. The last remaining model of the Boeing 307 ditched into Elliott Bay in 2002 during a final test flight from Boeing Field to Everett. The craft, named the Flying Cloud, had been the subject of an eight-year restoration project meant to ready it for display at the National Air and Space Museum. Despite the incident, the aircraft was again restored, flew to the Smithsonian, and was put on display. Features West Point and Alki Point are the headlands into Puget Sound recognized as the northern and southern entrances of Elliott Bay respectively. A line drawn between these two points demarcates the bay to the east from the open sound to the west. More precisely, the bay has been defined as being east from a line drawn from Duwamish Head north to Magnolia Bluff. The Duwamish River empties into the southeastern part of the bay. This area was extensively modified by human development in the 20th century to channelize the river and fill in tideflats to create Harbor Island, which was once the world's largest artificial island. West of the river delta the land juts north into the bay at Duwamish Head. To the east running north and northwest is the heart of Seattle, the Alaskan Way Seawall, the Central Waterfront, and Smith Cove. Elliott Bay is home to the Port of Seattle, which, in 2002, was the 9th busiest port in the United States by TEUs of container traffic and the 46th busiest in the world. Cruise ship business, serving Alaskan cruises, became increasingly important in the 2000s. The bay is also home to Colman Dock, the main Seattle terminal of the state's ferry system, the largest in the country. Sailings regularly depart from Seattle to Bainbridge Island and Bremerton. The Seattle–Winslow (Bainbridge Island) route is the most heavily used in the state ferry system in terms of number of vehicles and passengers transported. The King County Water Taxi, a passenger ferry, runs across the bay, connecting Downtown Seattle with West Seattle (Seacrest Dock) and Vashon Island. Two marinas are in Elliott Bay. The larger of them is the privately owned Elliott Bay Marina, in the Magnolia/Interbay neighborhoods at Smith Cove, with 1,200 slips. Bell Harbor Marina, operated by the Port of Seattle, is in the Central Waterfront along Belltown. Up to 70 vessels can be moored there. Numerous piers extend into the bay, especially along Seattle's Central Waterfront. Piers 57 and 59 house tourist destinations, including the Seattle Great Wheel and the Seattle Aquarium. On Pier 67 is The Edgewater Hotel. Pier 86 is a major grain shipping terminal operated by the Louis Dreyfus Group. Grain is carried to docked cargo ships by passing over Elliott Bay Trail and a narrow shoreline park, which also features a public fishing pier near Smith Cove. In the cove is Terminal 91, which has served a variety of purposes over the years, including storage for imported automobiles and fish, and most recently became a dock for Alaskan cruise ships. To the south, in West Seattle's Seacrest Park, is another public fishing pier and a dive site. As a prominent aspect of Seattle's geography, the bay has frequently been referenced in media. The Real World: Seattle, the 1998 season of the MTV reality television series, was filmed on Pier 70 on the bay. The fictional Elliott Bay Towers, home of Frasier Crane on the TV series Frasier, are named after the bay. In Season 3 of the Seattle-set crime drama The Killing, suspect Ray Seward is incarcerated in the fictional Elliott Bay Penitentiary. A simplified map of Elliott Bay is used as the "Maps" icon in Microsoft's Windows Phone 7 Smartphone Operating System. Microsoft has its headquarters in the Seattle metropolitan area. Ecology Elliott Bay has been a focus for environmental concern. Urban and industrial development along its shores, and on the banks of the Duwamish River that leads into it, have caused concern over the levels of contaminants entering the water. On the southern shoreline are two Superfund cleanup sites: Harbor Island and the former location of Lockheed West Seattle. Several other sites have been designated for cleanup, including the Pacific Sound Resources site, and others along the lower Duwamish. The downtown waterfront offers a poor habitat for the juvenile salmon that migrate from the Duwamish River, due to the darkness under the piers and the lack of food along the vertical Alaskan Way Seawall. The seawall redevelopment project aims to improve the habitat by installing underwater structures to create shallows where salmon can find food and glass blocks in the sidewalk (cantilevered over the bay) so that sunlight can illuminate the shallows even at the piers. Another issue that is currently prevalent in Elliot Bay is noise pollution. The level of noise that is currently present in Elliott Bay is legally considered to be harassment of marine mammals (Van, 2016; Welch, 2013; Wilson, 2015). It is also important to note that marine vehicles enter and exit the port twenty-four hours a day. This noise is continuous, and this can cause distress to marine mammals (Van, 2016; Welch, 2013; Wilson, 2015). References External links

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raglan%2C%20New%20Zealand

Raglan, New Zealand

Raglan is a small beachside town located 48 km west of Hamilton, New Zealand on State Highway 23. It is known for its surfing, and volcanic black sand beaches. History The Ngāti Māhanga iwi occupied the area around Raglan in the late 18th century. There are at least 81 archaeological sites in the area, mainly near the coast. Limited radiocarbon dating puts the earliest sites at about 1400AD. The Māori people named the site ("the long pursuit"). One tradition says that Tainui priest, Rakataura, crossed Whāingaroa on his way to Kāwhia. Another says it was among the places the early Te Arawa explorer, Kahumatamomoe, with his nephew Īhenga, visited on their expedition from Maketū. The first Europeans to settle in the area, the Rev James and Mary Wallis, Wesleyan missionaries, were embraced and welcomed by local Māori in 1835. European settlement, including large scale conversion of land to pasture, began in the mid-1850s after a large sale of land by Chief Wiremu Neera Te Awaitaia. The name "Raglan", adopted in 1858, honours Fitzroy Somerset, 1st Lord Raglan (1788–1855), who had commanded the British forces in the Crimean War of 1853–1856. The Raglan economy initially featured flax and timber exports, followed by farming which remains the mainstay of the area. Raglan's first coach link to Hamilton began in 1880 and a telegraph wire was put up beside the road in 1884. In 1904 Raglan was linked to Hamilton telephone exchange. Mains electricity came in 1935 and a sewage scheme in 1977. Tourism and the arts are significant contributors to the current economy. Raglan and District Museum contains historic artefacts and archives from the region. A new museum building was built in 2011. Airfield The town became the scene of public civil disobedience campaigns in the 1970s. In 1941, during World War II (1939–1945), the New Zealand Government took local ancestral land from indigenous Māori owners to construct a military airfield. When no longer required for defence purposes, part of the land, a block, was not returned to the owners, but instead was transferred to Raglan County Council in 1953 and became the public Raglan golf-course in 1968. There ensued widespread protest and attempts to reoccupy the land; in 1978, 20 Māori protesters were arrested on the ninth hole of the golf course. The land was eventually returned to the owners. It became a focus for local job-training and employment programs, as well as for the Māori sovereignty movement. In 2021 the council suggested return of the rest of the land could still "take a number of years". Local government Raglan Highway Board existed from 1868 and merged with the Karioi Board between 1888 and 1892. Raglan Town Board started in 1878 and merged with the highways boards into Raglan County Council in 1889. It was re-inaugurated as Raglan Town Board in 1906 and continued until 1938, when the Board again merged into the County Council. In 1954 Raglan became a county township, administered by a committee of 7 under the jurisdiction of the county council. On 26 March 1957 Raglan Town Committee resigned due to the unsympathetic attitude of the council. Within a month more than 100 ratepayers had petitioned the Governor-General to establish a town board. The Local Government Act 1974 brought about Raglan Community Council, which was replaced by Raglan Community Board in 1989, when Waikato District Council was formed. Demographics In 1859 the local magistrate, F. D. Fenton, reported the population of Whaingaroa as 424. That was the number shown in the 1858 census for the Ngāti Mahanga population of Raglan. That accords with Ferdinand von Hochstetter's account of his 1859 tour, when he said that the Māori population was estimated at 400 and said that he had been told there were 122 Europeans, including 20 farmer-families. Hochstetter said there were six or eight houses, with a tavern and a store in Raglan and a Māori village and an old pā at Horea on the north shore. Many of the Europeans were evacuated in 1860 and again in 1863, when war threatened and it was said 95 inhabitants remained. After that, as the graph below shows, Raglan's population recovered slowly until the main road from Hamilton was completelymetalled in 1921 and then grew again after completion of tar-sealing in 1961. The population of the Raglan ward (covering most of the harbour catchment area) was 4680 in 2006. It had increased to 4920 in 2013. The figures and sources are: Raglan had a population of 3,279 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 573 people (21.2%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 651 people (24.8%) since the 2006 census. There were 1,251 households. There were 1,602 males and 1,677 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.96 males per female. The median age was 39.6 years, with 672 people (20.5%) aged under 15 years, 477 (14.5%) aged 15 to 29, 1,620 (49.4%) aged 30 to 64, and 507 (15.5%) aged 65 or older. The proportion of people born overseas was 21.4%, compared with 27.1% nationally. Although some people objected to giving their religion, 61.8% had no religion, 25.1% were Christian, 0.3% were Hindu, 0.2% were Muslim, 0.8% were Buddhist and 3.7% had other religions. Of those at least 15 years old, 732 (28.1%) people had a bachelor or higher degree, and 402 (15.4%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $27,200. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 1,173 (45.0%) people were employed full-time, 522 (20.0%) were part-time, and 87 (3.3%) were unemployed. Growth by about 500 households is expected by 2045 and to 12,500 by 2070. Property prices have risen sharply since 2000, for example by 49.6% from 2014 to 2017 and a further 42% to 2020. That coincides with a decline in the Māori proportion of the population – By 2018 there were 6 fewer unoccupied private dwellings at 471, but those occupied had increased to 1,275. Employment and commuting increased between 2006 and 2013, as shown in this table. Marae Raglan has several marae within , affiliated with hapū of Waikato Tainui: Poihākena Marae and Tainui a Whiro meeting house is a meeting place for Ngāti Tāhinga and Tainui hapū Te Kōpua Marae is a meeting place of Tainui hapū and does not have a meeting house, as it was destroyed on 12 August 1941 to create the airfield Te Kaharoa or Aramiro Marae and Te Kaharoa meeting house is a meeting place of Ngāti Māhanga and Ngāti Tamainupō, near the head of the Waitetuna valley The hapū of Ngāti Tamainupō also have a meeting place, Mai Uenuku ki te Whenua Marae, in the inner harbour, between Te Uku and Waingaro. In 2018, it produced a local history book about prominent Waikato chief Ngaere and how Ngāruawāhia and the Hakarimata Ranges were named in the late 1600s. In October 2020, the Government committed $414,300 from the Provincial Growth Fund to upgrade Mai Uenuku ki te Whenua Marae, creating 8 jobs. Geography Raglan is associated with Whaingaroa Harbour (also known as Raglan Harbour) on the west coast of the Waikato region in New Zealand's North Island. The harbour catchment extends as far north as Glen Afton, covers and the harbour covers and has , or , of coastline. It runs 12 km inland from the entrance, for the most part is less than 2 km wide, has a high-tide area of , a low-tide area of , 2–4 m tidal range, with a spring-tide range of 2.8 m and neap 1.8 m, spring tide flow around 46 x 106 m3 and neap 29 x 106 m3. A 2005 survey said on average water stays in the harbour 1.1 days at spring-tides, but a 2015 study showed a median residence time for whole estuary of 39.4 days with median river flows, ranging between 18 and 45 days. It is the northernmost of three large inlets in the Waikato coast (the others, also drowned river valleys, are Aotea Harbour and Kawhia Harbour). 15 significant rivers and streams run into the harbour, including the largest, Waingaro and Waitetuna, accounting for 60% of catchment area, and the smaller Opotoru and Tawatahi rivers. Total length of the streams is . A study for Regional Council said, "Whaingaroa Harbour began to fill with sediment at least 8000 years before present (B.P.) and before the sea had reached its present level 6500 years B.P. Rapid sedimentation in the harbour before 6500 years B.P. is attributed to the formation of now relict intertidal shore platforms up to 700-m wide and ≤10 m below present-day mean high water level. These coastal landforms were rapidly formed 8000-6500 years B.P. by physical weathering of soft mudstone cliffs and wave action. Consequently, all but the upper two metres of the present day sediment column was deposited before 6000 years B.P. and thousands of years before the arrival of Maori some 700 years ago. Today, the harbour has largely infilled with catchment sediment up to ~8-m thick, with 70% of its high tide surface area being intertidal." It concluded that most sediment is now swept up to 20 km out to sea. 70% of the land in the harbour catchment is used for farming, 20% of it is under native vegetation, 14% under forestry, 7% mānuka/kānuka and 0.3% wetlands. 68% of land has slopes greater than 1 in 4. Southwest of the township stands the extinct volcano of Mt Karioi. According to Māori legend the Karioi was a jilted Māori Princess who, upon discovering that love was lost, lay down and rests. North of the harbour mouth there are extensive dunes and dune-dammed lakes. Like the beaches, the dunes are rich in ironsand and have been considered for mining several times. Threats of seabed mining following passage of the Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004 resulted in formation of the opposition group KASM, based in Raglan (see also Mining in New Zealand#Opposition and Sand mining#New Zealand). The area is also home to the popular tourist destination, Bridal Veil Falls, which is located 20 kilometres southeast of the township and the unusual Lake Disappear 4 km further on. Climate Average annual rainfall at Raglan 1984–2004 was 1.354m a year. Average temperature and rainfall graphs show an average high of 24C in February and an average low of 8C in July. Raglan usually has no more than a degree of frost and then only for a few hours on occasional winter mornings. Education Raglan Area School is a co-educational state composite school covering years 1 to 13, with a roll of as of There have been schools at Raglan since 1866. The current school opened as Raglan District High School in 1937. There are also primary schools in the nearby settlements of Te Mata, Te Uku and Waitetuna. Surf breaks Raglan is best known for its surf. Eight kilometres from the Raglan township is a series of surf breaks including Indicators, Whale Bay, Manu Bay, Vortex Bay. Manu Bay was featured in the 1966 movie The Endless Summer and in the 2010 movie Last Paradise. The traditional name for Manu Bay is 'Waikeri', meaning surging or swirling waters. The former native reserve was bought for a recreation reserve in 1971. Indicators is a left hand point break that breaks for up to 600m, from 2 to 10 feet+ (Hawaiian scale). It is a long-walled, fast wave with occasional barrels, particularly on the low tide. It picks up a lot of swell and is very consistent. On big days the wave can link up with the next break called Whale Bay. Whale Bay is a left hand point break that breaks up to 200m in length, from about 2 to 8 feet+. It has two sections, an inside hollow section up to about 4 feet that breaks very close to the rocks, and an outside, slower section from 4 feet up. It has been rumoured by locals to link up with the next break further down-Manu Point-but only on very large swells, making a potential ride of up to 2 km from the top of Indicators, which locals say has only been achieved once. Manu Point is a left hand point break which works from 2 to 10 feet+, breaking over 300m. It has alternate hollow and wall sections, occasional barrels, and is usually about 2/3 the size of Indicators. Vortex Bay is a soft peak east of the boat ramp that sometimes breaks on low tide when the swell is too large for the main three points. There is also a beach break further down from Manu Point. Ruapuke is another beach break well to the west around the point. Raglan has hosted a world championship surfing event at Manu Bay in 1998. Raglan is also home to New Zealand's first sanctioned surf school, the Raglan Surfing School which was established in 1999. Arts Visual artists hold regular exhibitions at the Raglan Old School Art Centre. Fabric artists show their creations in the biennial ArtoWear competition. There is also a Raglan Arts Trail Guide with an Open Studio Weekend in late January. For Matariki there are displays of Māori art. Local art is on display in the Show Off Gallery, Kanuka Design, Matapihi Gallery, local cafes and the Raglan Old School Arts Centre. The Arts Centre is in a 19th-century heritage building, the former Raglan School. Markets There is a regular market on the second Sunday of every month at the Raglan Old School Arts Centre in Stewart Street. This Raglan Creative Market specialises in local crafts, food and art. Music There's a live music scene in Raglan. The International Soundsplash Eco Reggae Festival ran yearly in summer on the Wainui Reserve, between 2001 and 2008 and more recently, and attracted some of the biggest names in roots, reggae and dub, as well as local acts. The main venue in Raglan for live music is the Yot Club, a regular stop for NZ musicians on national tours. There is also live music at the Orca Restaurant and Bar, the Harbour View Hotel, the Raglan Club and The Old School. The New Zealand reggae bands Cornerstone Roots and Zionhill were formed in Raglan. Walking Whaingaroa has a variety of walks, from an easy stroll over the footbridge to the more strenuous Mount Karioi tracks. Walking has been a popular activity here since at least 1915, when the guidebook said, "An hour's walk brings one to the harbour entrance and to the sea coast. Here there is a wide sandy beach with a background of bush-covered cliffs, and the picturesque Mount Karioi close at hand" and went on, "Many suitable landing places are to be found where parties may leave the launch for a ramble ashore or may picnic ‘neath the shade of the kowhai trees". (see also Walking trip resources below) Cycling Whaingaroa has no cycle lanes, but Te Ara Kākāriki Ocean Trails opened on 3 December 2016, providing about of mountain bike trails in a pine forest on Wainui Reserve. A to bike race, mainly on gravel roads around Mt Karioi, takes place each July. About from Raglan, Pipiwharauroa Way has of cycle/walking track, which links to a very difficult paper road to Waitetuna. Environment Whaingaroa has a high proportion of environmentalists, as evidenced by the existence of several high-profile environmental groups. The proportion of environmentalists in Raglan is indicated by the size of the Green Party vote, which was 28% in 2011 and rose to 30% in 2014 (266 of 867 in the Taranaki-King Country constituency vote and 40 of 152 in Hauraki-Waikato). In 2017 it dropped to 20% (433), but the Labour vote rose from 18% to 40% (872), when Labour also highlighted environmental issues. The environmentalism has been recognised in local government policy as, "passionate about the arts and protecting its environment". Whāingaroa Harbour Care Whāingaroa Harbour Care has planted more than 2 million trees since it started in 1995. After discussions in 1994 with the local MP and Minister for the Environment, Simon Upton, about the poor environmental state of the harbour, a meeting was held on 24 March 1995, leading to the formation of Whāingaroa Harbour Care Incorporated Society in July 1995. A plant nursery was set up on Wainui Reserve to collect eco-sourced (with genes better adapted to local conditions) local seeds, grow them into native trees and plant them densely beside streams, to reduce run-off of nutrients and other pollutants by up to 60%. By 2013 over 40 farmers had fenced and planted about of riparian areas. (see also Environmental organisations below) Recycling Recycling in Raglan is managed by a non-profit organization called Xtreme Zero Waste. Xtreme's stated goal is to create a waste management system for the Raglan/Whaingaroa community in which none of the waste is stored in landfills. The organization was founded in 2000, after Raglan's landfill closed and the town decided to find an alternative to transporting its waste elsewhere. Xtreme Waste has recycled an increasing volume and percentage of waste every year, and as of 2010, it diverts nearly three-quarters of the town's waste from reaching the landfill. It operates a recycling center, which is open to the public and offers group tours. Actor Antonio Te Maioha, who lives in Raglan, has publicly spoken about his own involvement and Raglan's leadership in recycling. He mentioned that Raglan is one of the few towns in New Zealand with recycling bins in the main street, and describes how people he knew became involved in recycling because of Xtreme Waste's programs. Water supply Raglan's water supply comes from a well and the nearby Waipatukahu (or Riki) Spring between Te Hutewai Rd and Omahina Creek, about south of Raglan, where water which has sunk into the volcanic rocks, seeps along the contact with the Tertiary beds. Water is chlorinated, pumped to a tank and distributed through about of pipes. Tanks at Bow St () and Cornwall Rd, () maintain pressure. Demand has been forecast at per day by 2034, based on a Waikato University population prediction assuming consumption of /person/day. However, in December 2015 use was averaging a day. The capacity of the spring is per day. Consent allows up to /day (the remainder maintains a flow in the short stream below the spring) from the spring and /day from the well. Despite using less than half the consented water, water meters are planned to be installed and operational by 2017. When last rated Raglan's water got a poor 'Ed' (unsatisfactory level of risk) rating, but work was done in 2014 to upgrade the quality. History The spring was long used as a source of fresh water. In 1862 a dam was built and it was used to power an waterwheel for a flaxmill. In the early 1950s the spring was again used to power a water-wheel, this time pumping water for use on the farm. Several residents had bores drilled, but over half (1000) relied on tank water. A 2½ in. bore behind the Harbour View Hotel had /day rising to about below the surface, though rather hard and tinged with iron. Of its the first 50 ft. was in clay, 4 ft. in hard blue shingle tightly packed with a minimum of sandy matrix and 106 ft in papa. The deep, 3 in. bore for the dairy factory, 70 ft. above sea-level in Rose St, was polluted with ammoniacal nitrogen and chlorides too were high. As early as 1927 the government was being asked for help with water and sewage. In 1938, ratepayers petitioned the council for a water supply and in 1938 DSIR reported on Waipatukahu Spring where, "Beautifully clear water rises in a pool perhaps 6 ft. across on the floor of Omahina Creek at a point some up from the south end of the tidal flat and a few chains above sea-level" and flow had been measured at /day, close to the 4,800 mentioned above. In 1938 the Council said the annual cost of a loan would be £700 for an estimated total cost of £10,000. Another sewage and water scheme was considered in 1949, but still the cost of a loan was too high. Despite pollution, the Rose St bore was connected to the low areas of town and the camping ground. Council put in a new pump, but it could only pump /day, so in the 1959 a bore was drilled at Warihi Park, but abandoned in 1962 due to problems with flow and gas in the water. A 1959 £100,000 estimate for Riki springs supply was still considered too expensive. Finally, in 1961 Council got a £62,000 loan to bring water from Riki Springs, for a pump to lift water up the hill to tanks (another large reservoir was added in 1981), from where it ran by gravity to the top of Bow St. In October 1963, 4 weeks of dry weather resulted in council carting water to fill empty tanks. By Christmas 1963 household tanks were being filled by long hoses connected to the half-finished mains. On 8 July 1964, the first householders were invited to apply for a supply. There were problems with Christmas peak supplies and an upgrade was installed in 1972. In 1981 an extra reservoir was built in Cornwall Rd quarry. In the late 1980s, the Community Arts Council got a mural painted on the water tower. It was restored in 2015. Notable people Angeline Greensill (born 1948), Māori political rights campaigner and academic Anna Coddington, contemporary musician Antonio Te Maioha (born 1970), actor Dave Currie (born 1945), sports administrator Hallyburton Johnstone (1897–1970), MP and farmer David Pretty (1878–1947), champion axeman and athlete Edward Puttick (1890–1976), retired soldier Eva Rickard (1925–1997), Māori rights campaigner Cort and Annie Jane Schnackenberg, 1860s–1870s missionaries See also Raglan Chronicle, local newspaper List of radio stations in Waikato Hauauru ma raki proposed windfarm Surf Life Saving Northern Region Strawberry Fields Music Festival, held at venues around Raglan in the 1990s and until the early 2000s (decade). Raglan Harbour Board Empowering Act Futuro, fibreglass "spaceship" house (moved to Christchurch in 2015) References External links Raglan Weather Raglan Area School Environmental organisations Whaingaroa Harbour Care Whaingaroa Environment Centre Karioi restoration project Te Mauri Tau Whaingaroa Environmental Defence Friends of Wainui Bush Park Transportation Civil Aviation Authority bulletin on safety at Raglan airfield Public transportation from Raglan to Hamilton Walking trip resources 1:50,000 map, also with walking access information Walks on Wainui Reserve Department of Conservation brochure for Karioi, Bryant Reserve, Karamu Walkway, Bridal Veil and Pirongia Heritage strolls in Raglan Webcams Raglan Beach webcams: Raglan A and Raglan B, NIWA Populated places in Waikato Populated coastal places in New Zealand Surfing locations in New Zealand Waikato District Beaches of Waikato

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloris%20Planitia

Caloris Planitia

Caloris Planitia is a plain within a large impact basin on Mercury, informally named Caloris, about in diameter. It is one of the largest impact basins in the Solar System. "Calor" is Latin for "heat" and the basin is so-named because the Sun is almost directly overhead every second time Mercury passes perihelion. The crater, discovered in 1974, is surrounded by the Caloris Montes, a ring of mountains approximately tall. Appearance Caloris was discovered on images taken by the Mariner 10 probe in 1974. Its name was suggested by Brian O'Leary, astronaut and member of the Mariner 10 imagery team. It was situated on the terminator—the line dividing the daytime and nighttime hemispheres—at the time the probe passed by, and so half of the crater could not be imaged. Later, on January 15, 2008, one of the first photos of the planet taken by the MESSENGER probe revealed the crater in its entirety. The basin was initially estimated to be about in diameter, though this was increased to based on subsequent images taken by MESSENGER. It is ringed by mountains up to high. Inside the crater walls, the floor of the crater is filled by lava plains, similar to the maria of the Moon. These plains are superposed by explosive vents associated with pyroclastic material. Outside the walls, material ejected in the impact which created the basin extends for , and concentric rings surround the crater. In the center of the basin is a region containing numerous radial troughs that appear to be extensional faults, with a crater, Apollodorus, located near the center of the pattern. The exact cause of this pattern of troughs is not currently known. The feature is named Pantheon Fossae. Formation The impacting body is estimated to have been at least 100 km (62 miles) in diameter. Bodies in the inner Solar System experienced a heavy bombardment of large rocky bodies in the first billion years or so of the Solar System. The impact that created Caloris must have occurred after most of the heavy bombardment had finished, because fewer impact craters are seen on its floor than exist on comparably-sized regions outside the crater. Similar impact basins on the Moon such as the Mare Imbrium and Mare Orientale are believed to have formed at about the same time, possibly indicating that there was a 'spike' of large impacts towards the end of the heavy bombardment phase of the early Solar System. Based on MESSENGERs photographs, Caloris' age has been determined to be between 3.8 and 3.9 billion years. Antipodal chaotic terrain and global effects The giant impact believed to have formed Caloris may have had global consequences for the planet. At the exact antipode of the basin is a large area of hilly, grooved terrain, with few small impact craters that are known as chaotic terrain (also "weird terrain"). It is thought by some to have been created as seismic waves from the impact converged on the opposite side of the planet. Alternatively, it has been suggested that this terrain formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at this basin's antipode. This hypothetical impact is also believed to have triggered volcanic activity on Mercury, resulting in the formation of smooth plains. Surrounding Caloris is a series of geologic formations thought to have been produced by the basin's ejecta, collectively called the Caloris Group. Emissions of gas Mercury has a very tenuous and transient atmosphere, containing small amounts of hydrogen and helium captured from the solar wind, as well as heavier elements such as sodium and potassium. These are thought to originate within the planet, being "out-gassed" from beneath its crust. The Caloris basin has been found to be a significant source of sodium and potassium, indicating that the fractures created by the impact facilitate the release of gases from within the planet. The unusual terrain is also a source of these gases. Gallery See also Geology of Mercury Skinakas basin References Impact craters on Mercury

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Sammamish

Lake Sammamish

Lake Sammamish is a freshwater lake east of Seattle in King County, Washington, United States. The lake is long and wide, with a maximum depth of and a surface area of . It lies east of Lake Washington and west of the Sammamish Plateau, and stretches from Issaquah in the south to Redmond in the north. At Issaquah it is fed by Issaquah Creek, and at Redmond it drains to Lake Washington via the Sammamish River, named after the native people who once lived along its entire length. The Lake Sammamish watershed stretches from Redmond through Bellevue, and Issaquah to Preston and Hobart, and consists of numerous creeks which flow into the lake. Issaquah Creek is the largest tributary, furnishing over 70% of the lake's inflow. Development The area surrounding Lake Sammamish has been, in recent times, the most rapidly growing suburban district in the Greater Seattle Metropolitan Area. During the late 1990s and early 2000s, the cities of Redmond, Snoqualmie, Fall City, Issaquah and Bellevue have grown substantially. The city of Sammamish was incorporated in 1999 because of suburban growth. Ecology and conservation Historically, runoff from the high precipitation in the lake's watershed (nearly twice the 35 inches that Seattle gets each year) was absorbed by the surrounding forests. Loose, sponge-like forest soils virtually eliminated runoff during winter storms and recharged groundwater aquifers which then released fresh water to streams in the dry summer months. With rapid urbanization the forests have been replaced by impervious surfaces—roofs, roads, parking lots—and stormwater runoffs have increased flooding. The stormwater runoff carries sediment loads and toxic pollutants into streams and ultimately the lake, which generally has a negative impact on lake water clarity as well as fishes and wildlife. In May, 2010 the federal government asked the town of Sammamish to restrict development within from the lakeshore to protect local salmon and steelhead (Oncorhyncus mykiss) species. The report did not include Lake Sammamish kokanee salmon (Oncorhyncus nerka) among the species in trouble, although environmentalists and scientists said development along Lake Sammamish and tributary creeks have pushed the fish to the brink of extirpation. Despite resistance to the report by the city of Sammamish, Issaquah already limits development within of the lake, Issaquah Creek and the East Fork of Issaquah Creek under the Shoreline Management Program. It is estimated that fewer than 100 Kokanee salmon remain in Lake Sammamish. Beavers The recent return of beaver (Castor canadensis) to Lake Sammamish worries City of Issaquah and Lake Sammamish State Park officials who state that the mammals will cause flooding and burrow under roadways. These officials are recommending relocation of the beaver families. On July 6, 2010, officials of the City of Issaquah have asked Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife to tear out a beaver dam on Tibbetts Creek in Lake Sammamish State Park because of concerns about potential flooding and barriers to salmon migration. In contrast, research on watersheds in the Northern United States and Canada shows that beavers provide ecological benefits by creating ponds that increase fish and bird abundance and diversity. Research in the Stillaguamish River basin, approximately north of Lake Sammamish, found that extensive loss of beaver ponds resulted in an 89% reduction in coho salmon smolt summer production and an almost equally detrimental 86% reduction in critical winter habitat carrying capacity. Recreation and parks Lake Sammamish is bordered by Marymoor Park at the lake's north end, Lake Sammamish State Park at its south end, and the East Lake Sammamish Trail. Lake Sammamish State Park provides nine public boat launches that can be accessed through a separate park entrance, for a fee, with parking and restroom facilities on site. The public can access the lake's west shores at Redmond's Idylwood Park. The privately owned Vasa Park Resort, located in Bellevue, provides access from the west for a fee. Vasa Park offers one ramp for launching watercraft. Several housing developments own small, private parks that provide lake access for their residents. The main leisure activities include rowing, fishing, waterskiing, wakeboarding, wakesurfing, tubing, and jet skiing. There is a public slalom course for waterskiing at the far north end of the lake, running from the west to the east. In the mid-1980s, local radio personality Pat O'Day proposed that the Seafair Cup hydroplane races be moved to Lake Sammamish from Lake Washington, an effort that was unsuccessful. Lake Sammamish offers fishing enthusiasts a variety of species to pursue, including perch, smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, cutthroat trout, salmon, and steelhead trout, among others. Events Pirates vs Vikings is a massive water balloon fight between boats on lake Sammamish followed by an after party on a floating dance floor until 4am. Participants dress as either a pirate or Viking. 2015 was the 7th consecutive year. Serial killer Ted Bundy abducted two women in broad daylight from the beach at Lake Sammamish State Park in 1974 by faking an injury and asking for their help. Wife killer Randy Roth drowned his fourth wife Cynthia at Lake Sammamish in 1991 after taking off in a raft from Redmond's Idylwood Park. References External links Lake Sammamish Overview and Detailed Graphs, King County, Washington Save Lake Sammamish website Lake Sammamish Regional Information Lakes of Washington (state) Lakes of King County, Washington

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crater

Crater

Crater may refer to: Landforms Impact crater, a depression caused by two celestial bodies impacting each other, such as a meteorite hitting a planet Explosion crater, a hole formed in the ground produced by an explosion near or below the surface Subsidence crater, a depression from an underground (usually nuclear) explosion Pit crater, a crater that forms through sinking of the surface and not as a vent for lava Volcanic crater, a roughly circular depression in the ground caused by volcanic activity Caldera, a large cauldron-like depression formed following the evacuation of a magma chamber/reservoir Maar, a type of volcanic crate caused by a phreatic eruption or explosion Volcanic crater lake, including a list of lakes that formed in a volcanic or impact crater Music Crater (Daniel Menche and Mamiffer album), 2016 Crater (Fission album), 2004 Places Crati or Crater, a river of southern Italy Crater, California, U.S. Crater (Aden), a district of the Aden Governorate, Yemen Other uses Crater (constellation) The Crater (novel) an 1847 novel by James Fenimore Cooper Joseph F. Crater (fl. 1889–1930), New York judge who disappeared in 1930 See also Crater lake (disambiguation) Cratering (disambiguation) Krater, a Greek vessel used to mix wine and water (the original meaning) Machtesh, a crater-like formation created by erosion

262372

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohol%20Sea

Bohol Sea

The Bohol Sea, also called the Mindanao Sea, is located between the Visayas and Mindanao islands in the Philippines. It lies south of Bohol and Leyte and north of Mindanao. Siquijor and Camiguin are its two major islands. The major cities along the coastline of the sea are Cagayan de Oro, Iligan, Butuan, Dumaguete, Ozamiz and Tagbilaran. The sea connects to the Philippine Sea through the Surigao Strait, to the Camotes Sea both through the Canigao Channel and Cebu Strait, and to the Sulu Sea through the strait between Negros Island and Zamboanga Peninsula. Scuba diving The Bohol Sea is home to a large variety of premier scuba diving locations, dive charter boats, and hotels that cater to divers. Around the area of Tagbilaran and Balicasag Island there are numerous wall dives that range from . Water temperatures are very warm and most divers use a 3/2 shorty wetsuit to dive the location. Sea life is abundant and includes clownfish, lionfish, barracuda, dolphins, huge coral formations, and other common tropical sealife. Rorquals, including blue whales, have returned to the Bohol Sea, which is a rare trend in any Asian waters. References External links Seas of the Philippines Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean Geography of Mindanao Geography of the Visayas Maritime Southeast Asia Underwater diving sites in the Philippines

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Federer

Roger Federer

Roger Federer (; born 8 August 1981) is a Swiss professional tennis player. He has been ranked world No. 1 by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) for 310 weeks, including a record 237 consecutive weeks, and has finished as the year-end No. 1 five times. He has won 103 ATP singles titles, the second most of all time after Jimmy Connors, including 20 Grand Slam men's singles titles, a record eight Wimbledon titles, and a record six year-end championships. Federer has played in an era where he dominated men's tennis along with Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic. Referred to as the Big Three, they are considered by some to be the three greatest tennis players of all time. A Wimbledon junior champion in 1998, Federer won his first major singles title at Wimbledon in 2003 at age 21. In 2004, he won three of the four major singles titles and the ATP Finals, a feat he repeated in 2006 and 2007. From 2005 to 2010, he made 18 out of 19 major singles finals. During this span, he won five consecutive titles at both Wimbledon and the US Open. He completed the career Grand Slam at the 2009 French Open after three previous runner-up finishes to Nadal, his main rival until 2010. At age 27, he surpassed Pete Sampras's record of 14 major men's singles titles at Wimbledon in 2009. Although Federer remained in the top 3 during most of the early 2010s, the success of Djokovic and Nadal ended his dominance over grass and hard courts. From mid-2010 through the end of 2016, he only won one major title. During this period, he and Stan Wawrinka led the Switzerland Davis Cup team to their first title in 2014, adding to the gold medal the pair won together in doubles at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Federer also won a silver medal in singles from the 2012 London Olympics, where he finished runner-up to Andy Murray. After taking half a year off in late 2016 to recover from knee surgery, he had a renaissance at the majors, winning three more major singles titles over the next two years, including the 2017 Australian Open over Nadal and a record eighth men's singles Wimbledon title later in 2017. In 2018, he became the oldest ATP world No. 1 at age 36. A versatile all-court player, Federer's perceived effortlessness has made him highly popular among tennis fans. Originally lacking self-control as a junior, he transformed his on-court demeanor to become well-liked for his general graciousness, winning the Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award 13 times. He has also won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year award a record five times. Outside of competing, he played an instrumental role in the creation of the Laver Cup team competition. He is also an active philanthropist. He established the Roger Federer Foundation, which targets impoverished children in southern Africa, and has raised funds in part through the Match for Africa exhibition series. He is routinely one of the top ten highest-paid athletes in any sport and ranked first among all athletes with $100 million in endorsement income in 2020. Personal life Childhood and early life Federer was born on 8 August 1981 in Basel, Switzerland. His Swiss-German father, Robert Federer, is from Berneck in the Canton of St. Gallen, and his Afrikaner mother, Lynette Federer (née Durand), is from Kempton Park, Gauteng, in South Africa. He has one sibling, his older sister, Diana, the mother of twins. Since Federer's mother is South African, he holds both Swiss and South African citizenship. He grew up in nearby Birsfelden, Riehen, and then Münchenstein, close to the French and German borders, and speaks Swiss German, Standard German, English and French fluently as well as functional Italian and Swedish. Swiss German is his native language. He was a ball boy at his hometown Basel tournament, the Swiss Indoors, in 1992 and 1993. Like all male Swiss citizens, Federer was subject to compulsory military service in the Swiss Armed Forces. However, in 2003 he was ruled "unsuitable" and was subsequently not required to fulfill his military obligation. Instead, he served in the civil protection force and was required to pay 3% of his taxable income as an alternative. He grew up supporting FC Basel and the Swiss national football team. He also credits his hand-eye coordination to the wide range of sports he played as a child, including badminton and basketball. Family Federer is married to former Women's Tennis Association player Miroslava Federer (née Vavrinec), whom he met while they were both competing for Switzerland at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Usually called Mirka, she retired from the tour in 2002 because of a foot injury. They were married at Wenkenhof Villa in Riehen near Basel on 11 April 2009, surrounded by a small group of close friends and family. In 2009, she gave birth to identical twin girls. They had another pair of identical twins in 2014, this time boys. Tennis career 1993–1998: Junior years Federer played his first junior match in 1996 at the age of 14 at a grade 2 tournament in Switzerland. His main accomplishments as a junior player came at Wimbledon in 1998, where he won both the boys' singles final over Irakli Labadze, and in doubles teamed with Olivier Rochus, defeating the team of Michaël Llodra and Andy Ram. In addition, he reached the US Open Junior final in 1998, losing to David Nalbandian. Federer won four ITF junior singles tournaments in his career, including the prestigious Orange Bowl, where he defeated Guillermo Coria in the final. He ended 1998 with the No. 1 junior world ranking and was awarded ITF junior World Champion. He ended his junior career at the end of 1998 with a high-ranking of No. 1 in singles and No. 7 in doubles (both attained on December 31, 1998) and a win-loss record of 78–20 in singles and 36–21 in doubles. Junior Grand Slam results – Singles: Australian Open: SF (1998) French Open: 1R (1998) Wimbledon: W (1998) US Open: F (1998) Junior Grand Slam results – Doubles: Australian Open: SF (1998) French Open: 1R (1998) Wimbledon: W (1998) US Open: 1R (1998) 1998–2002: Early professional career Federer made his ATP debut at the 1998 Swiss Open Gstaad in his home country of Switzerland where he lost to Lucas Arnold Ker in the first round. Later that year, he won his first ATP match in Toulouse against Guillaume Raoux. He then got a wildcard into the 1998 Swiss Indoors where he lost in the first round to 4th seed and former world number 1 Andre Agassi. As of 2021, he is a 10-time champion of the tournament. Federer entered the top 100 ranking for the first time on 20 September 1999 and started at the 1999 Marseille Open defeating the reigning champion of the 1998 French Open, Spaniard Carlos Moyá. His first final came at the Marseille Open in 2000, where he lost to fellow Swiss Marc Rosset. Federer won the 2001 Hopman Cup representing Switzerland, along with world No. 1 Martina Hingis. The duo defeated the American pair of Monica Seles and Jan-Michael Gambill in the finals. Federer later said that his experience with Hingis "definitely helped me to become the player I am today." Federer's first singles win was at the 2001 Milan Indoor tournament, where he defeated Julien Boutter in the final. Although he won his first title already in 1999 on the Challenger tour, winning the doubles event in Segovia, Spain with Dutchman Sander Groen, the final was played on Federer's 18th birthday. In 2001, Federer made his first Grand Slam quarterfinal at the French Open, losing to former world No. 2 and eventual finalist Alex Corretja. His run to the French quarterfinals launched him into the top 15 for the first time in his career. His international breakthrough came at the 2001 Wimbledon Championships, where the 19-year-old Federer faced the four-time defending champion and all-time Grand Slam leader Pete Sampras. Federer beat the No. 1 seed in a five-set match to reach the quarterfinals. In the quarters he faced Englishman Tim Henman, eventually losing in a fourth-set tiebreaker. The first final he reached at the Masters level came at the 2002 Miami Masters event, where he lost to former and future No. 1 Andre Agassi on hard court. Federer won his first Master Series event at the 2002 Hamburg Masters on clay, over Marat Safin; the victory put him in top 10 for the first time. Federer made 10 singles finals between 1998 and 2002, of which he won four and lost six. He also made six finals in doubles. He finished 2001 with an ATP ranking of No. 13, and 2002 was the first year he was ranked within the top 10, finishing at No. 6. 2003: Grand Slam breakthrough at Wimbledon In 2003, Federer won his first Grand Slam singles title at Wimbledon, beating Andy Roddick in the semifinals and Mark Philippoussis in the final. In August he had a chance to take over the No. 1 ranking for the first time from Andre Agassi if he made it to the Montreal final. However, he fell in the semifinals to Roddick, in a final-set tiebreaker, leaving him 120 points behind Agassi. This, coupled with early losses to David Nalbandian at Cincinnati and the US Open, denied Federer the chance to become No. 1 for the duration of the season. Federer won his first and to date only doubles Masters event in Miami with Max Mirnyi and made it to one singles Masters event in Rome on clay, which he lost. Federer made it to nine finals on the ATP Tour and won seven of them, including the 500 series events at Dubai and Vienna. Lastly, Federer won the year-end championships over Andre Agassi, finishing the year as world No. 2, narrowly behind Andy Roddick by only 160 points. 2004: Imposing dominance During 2004, Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles and became the first person to do in one season so since Mats Wilander in 1988. His first major hard-court title came at the Australian Open over Marat Safin, making him the world No. 1 for the first time. He then won his second Wimbledon crown over Andy Roddick. At the US Open, Federer defeated the 2001 champion, Lleyton Hewitt, for his first title there. Federer won three ATP Masters events, one on clay in Hamburg, and the other two on hard surfaces at Indian Wells and in Canada. Federer took the ATP 500 series event at Dubai and wrapped up the year by winning the year-end championships for the second time. He also won his first tournament on home soil by capturing the Swiss Open in Gstaad. His 11 singles titles were the most of any player in two decades, and his record of 74–6 was the best since Ivan Lendl in 1986. He reached the year-end No. 1 ranking for the first time. 2005: Consolidating dominance In 2005, Federer failed to reach the finals of the first two Grand Slam tournaments, losing the Australian Open semifinal to eventual champion Safin after holding match points, and the French Open semifinal to eventual champion Rafael Nadal. However, Federer reestablished his dominance on grass, winning Wimbledon for a third time by defeating Andy Roddick. At the US Open, Federer defeated Andre Agassi in the latter's last major final. Federer also took four Masters wins: Indian Wells, Miami and Cincinnati on hard court, and Hamburg on clay. The win in Miami was particularly noteworthy as it was the first final contested between Federer and Nadal. Federer recovered from two sets and a break down to take the final in five sets. Furthermore, Federer won two ATP 500 series events at Rotterdam and Dubai. Federer lost the year-end championships to David Nalbandian in five sets while playing through a foot injury that sidelined him for almost the rest of the season after September. He maintained his position as No. 1 for the entire season. Federer won 11 singles titles, which ties his 2004 season. Federer's 81 match victories were the most since Pete Sampras in 1993, and his record of 81–4 (95.2%) remains the third-best winning percentage in the Open Era behind John McEnroe's 1984 and Jimmy Connors's 1974. 2006: Career-best season The 2006 season was statistically the best season of Federer's career. In November 2011, Stephen Tignor, chief editorial writer for Tennis.com, ranked Federer's 2006 season as statistically the second-best season of all time during the Open Era, behind Rod Laver's Grand Slam year of 1969. Federer won 12 singles titles (the most of any player since Thomas Muster in 1995 and John McEnroe in 1984) and had a match record of 92–5 (the most wins since Ivan Lendl in 1982). Federer reached the finals in an astounding 16 of the 17 tournaments he entered during the season. In 2006, Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles and reached the final of the other, with the only loss coming against Nadal in the French Open. This was Federer and Nadal's first meeting in a Grand Slam final. He was the first man to reach all four finals in a calendar year since Rod Laver in 1969. Federer defeated Nadal in the Wimbledon Championships final. In the Australian Open, Federer defeated Marcos Baghdatis, and at the US Open, Federer defeated 2003 champion Roddick. In addition, Federer reached six Masters finals, winning four on hard surfaces and losing two on clay to Nadal. Federer, however, consistently pushed Nadal to the limit on clay throughout the season taking him to fourth-set tiebreakers in Monte-Carlo and Paris, and a thrilling match in Rome that went to a deciding fifth-set tiebreaker. Federer won one ATP 500 series event in Tokyo and captured the year-end championships for the third time in his career, again finishing the year as world No. 1. Federer only lost to two players during 2006, to Nadal four times in finals, and to 19-year-old Andy Murray in the second round of the 2006 Cincinnati Masters, in what was Federer's only defeat before the final of a tournament that year. Federer finished the season on a 29-match winning streak, as well as winning 48 of his last 49 matches after the French Open. Near the end of the season he won his hometown tournament, the Swiss Indoors in Basel, Switzerland for the first time, having finished runner up in 2000 and 2001, and missing the tournament in 2004 and 2005 due to injuries. 2007: Holding off young rivals In 2007, Federer reached all four Grand Slam singles finals, winning three of them again. He won the Australian Open without dropping a set, beating Fernando González in the final. This made him the first man in the 21st century to accomplish the feat, as Björn Borg at the 1980 French Open was the last to win a Grand Slam tournament without the loss of a set. Federer had entered the year on a huge winning streak and after capturing his fourth Dubai crown Federer's winning streak stood at 41 matches, the longest of his career and only five shy of the record. Federer entered Indian Wells as the three-time defending champion, but his streak ended in controversy. He was defeated by an Argentine, Guillermo Cañas, who had failed a drug test for illegal doping. This surprising first-round loss marked the first time he was defeated since August 2006, a period spanning over 7 months. During the clay season, Federer's victory in the Hamburg Masters final was particularly impressive, as it snapped Nadal's 81-match winning streak on clay, an Open-era record. Federer turned the match around from a set down to sweep 12 of the final 14 games, including a final set bagel. At the French Open, some anticipated that Federer could become the first man in almost 40 years to hold all four majors simultaneously, having just resoundingly defeated young rival Nadal on clay entering the tournament. However, in a repeat of the previous year Federer played a tough four-set final against Nadal, but was undone by going 1/17 on break-point chances. At Wimbledon, Federer entered the tournament not only as the four-time defending champion, but also riding a 48-match winning streak on grass. Once again, he defeated Rafael Nadal for a second consecutive year in the final, this time in a thrilling five-set encounter that many analysts hailed as the greatest Wimbledon final since 1980. Victory at Wimbledon equaled him with Björn Borg for the record of five consecutive championships at the All England Club. Federer reached the final in Montreal before playing a young and relatively unknown Serbian named Novak Djokovic. Djokovic proved his potential by beating the world No. 1 in a final-set tiebreaker upset. Federer rebounded in Cincinnati to capture his fifth title of the year. Federer entered the US Open as the three-time defending champion and faced Djokovic in the final. This time, Federer prevailed in a close straight-set match. Victory in New York moved him ahead of Laver and Borg for third on the all-time list of major championship victories. Throughout the tournament, the American press labelled him Darth Federer for his all-black attire (which included tuxedo-striped shorts) and the tournament played "The Imperial March" from Star Wars when he was announced onto the court for each of his matches. He closed out the year with victories in Basel and the Year End Championships in Shanghai. He finished the season as the year-end No. 1 for the fourth year in a row, demonstrating his dominance, and during these four years he won 11 Grand Slam singles titles. After his phenomenal triple Grand Slam season yet again, Federer became the only player in history to win three majors in a year for three years (2004, 2006, 2007). It was the third consecutive season that Federer held the No. 1 ranking for all 52 weeks of the year. 2008: Illness, Olympic Gold, and fifth US Open Federer's success in 2008 was severely hampered by a lingering bout of mononucleosis, which he suffered during the first half of the year. At the end of the year he suffered a back injury. In 2008, Federer captured one Grand Slam, a singles title at the US Open over Andy Murray. Federer was defeated by Nadal in two Grand Slam finals, the French Open and Wimbledon, which was regarded as the best match of tennis history by many, when he was going for six straight wins to break Björn Borg's record. He came back from two sets down to force a fifth set, where he fell just two points from the title. At the Australian Open, Federer lost in the semifinals to eventual winner Djokovic, which ended his record of 10 consecutive finals. He lost twice in Masters finals on clay to Nadal, at Monte Carlo and Hamburg. Federer captured three titles in 250-level events at Estoril, Halle, and Basel. At the Olympic Games, Federer and Stan Wawrinka won the gold medal in doubles, after beating the Bryan brothers American team in the semifinals and the Swedish duo of Simon Aspelin and Thomas Johansson in the final. However, Federer could reach only the quarterfinals in the singles draw, bowing out to then No. 8 James Blake, ceding his No. 1 ranking to Nadal after being at the top for a record 237 consecutive weeks. He ended the year ranked No. 2. 2009: Career Grand Slam and major title record Federer entered the 2009 season with 13 Grand Slams, only one behind Pete Sampras' all-time record. The season began with a loss to Nadal in the final of the Australian Open in a hotly contested five-set match. Federer struggled following the defeat in Melbourne and entered the clay season without a title. Federer's season turned around in the final Masters event of the clay season when he defeated Nadal on clay for only the second time to capture the Madrid Masters. Federer entered the French Open with few predicting him to win the elusive Parisian title having lost to Nadal in the final weekend for the past four seasons. After Nadal's unexpected defeat to Robin Söderling, Federer became the overwhelming favorite. In his next match, he came from two sets and break point down in the third set to defeat Tommy Haas in five sets. He also fought back from a two-sets-to-one deficit against a young Juan Martín del Potro to win a five setter in the semifinals. In the final, he faced Söderling, and with straight sets victory, he finally captured the Coupe des Mousquetaires and career Grand Slam. This victory also tied him with Pete Sampras for the most Grand Slam singles titles. Federer turned his sights to the grass courts of Wimbledon, where he breezed his way up to the final. In the championship match he faced long-time rival Andy Roddick in what was their eighth and final meeting at a Grand Slam. Roddick pushed Federer into a record-setting fifth set, which Federer claimed 16–14 to win his 15th Grand Slam singles title, breaking the all-time record of Pete Sampras. Federer continued his summer run by winning his third title on the lightning-fast courts of the Cincinnati Masters, defeating Novak Djokovic in the final. At the US Open he defeated Söderling in the quarters and Djokovic, for the third consecutive year, in the semifinals. On the penultimate point of the Djokovic match he hit what many consider to be the greatest shot of his career, a tweener winner, to set up match points. Federer was defeated by del Potro in the final despite leading two sets to one and falling just two points from the title in the fourth set. The 2009 season was perhaps the most historically relevant of Federer's career as he completed a career Grand Slam by winning his first French Open title and won a men's record fifteenth Grand Slam singles title at Wimbledon, surpassing Pete Sampras's mark of fourteen. The Wimbledon final was also historic for being the longest Grand Slam final in terms of games played with Federer prevailing 16–14 in the fifth set. Federer finished the season as the year-end No. 1 for the fifth time in his career. 2010: Fourth Australian Open Federer started the year with a win at the Australian Open, where he defeated Andy Murray in the final, extending the Grand Slam singles record to sixteen titles and matching Andre Agassi's record of four Australian Open titles. Since Wimbledon 2005 Federer had made 18 out of 19 finals in Grand Slam tournaments, a period of sustained excellence unparalleled in the Open Era. This tournament, however, marked the end of his dominance at the majors. At the French Open, Federer won his 700th tour match and 150th tour match on clay. However, he failed to reach a Grand Slam semifinal for the first time since the 2004 French Open, losing to Söderling in the last 8 and relinquishing his No. 1 ranking, having been just one week away from equalling Pete Sampras's record of 286 weeks as world No. 1. In a huge upset at Wimbledon, Federer lost in the last 8 again to Tomáš Berdych and fell to No. 3 in the rankings for the first time in 6 years and 8 months. Towards the middle of July, Federer hired Pete Sampras' old coach Paul Annacone on a trial basis to put his tennis game and career back on track. At the 2010 US Open, Federer reached the semifinals, where he lost a five-set match to Novak Djokovic after holding two match points. Federer made it to four Masters finals, prevailing at the Cincinnati Masters against Mardy Fish. Federer finished the year in strong form, winning indoor titles at the Stockholm Open, Swiss Indoors, and the ATP Finals in London, which brought his tally to 66 career titles. Federer won the year-end championships in London by beating rival Rafael Nadal for his fifth title at the event. He beat all contenders except Nadal in straight sets. It remains the only tournament in his career where Federer defeated all fellow members of the Big Four. In 2010 Federer finished in the top two for the eighth consecutive season. 2011: Tour Finals title record The year 2011 was a lean year for Federer, although great by most player's standards. He was defeated in straight sets in the semifinals of the 2011 Australian Open by eventual champion Novak Djokovic, marking the first time since July 2003 that he did not hold any of the four major titles. In the French Open semifinals, Federer ended Djokovic's undefeated streak of 43 consecutive wins with a four-set victory. Federer then lost in the final to Rafael Nadal. At Wimbledon, Federer advanced to his 29th consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal, losing to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. It marked the first time in his career that he had lost a Grand Slam tournament match after winning the first two sets. At the US Open, Federer lost in the semifinals to Novak Djokovic in five sets. In a repeat of previous year's semifinal event, Federer again squandered two match points on his own serve before losing after winning first two sets for second consecutive time in the year. The loss meant that it was the first time since 2002 that Federer had not won any of the four grand slam titles. In September 2011, in a South African poll, Federer was voted the second most trusted and respected person in the world, next to Nelson Mandela. Federer finished the season successfully in the indoor season, winning his last three tournaments of the year at the Swiss Indoors, Paris Masters, and ATP Finals, forming a 16 match winning streak. Federer finished the year ranked No. 3. 2012: Wimbledon title, return to No. 1, and Olympic silver The 2012 season for Federer had his most match wins since 2006 and his highest winning percentage and number of titles won since 2007. Federer reached the semifinal of the 2012 Australian Open, setting up a 27th career meeting with Nadal, a match he lost in four sets. He then won the Rotterdam Open for the first time since 2005, defeating Juan Martín del Potro. Federer played in the 2012 Dubai Tennis Championships, where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and won the championship title for the fifth time in his career. Federer then moved on to the Indian Wells Masters, where he defeated Rafael Nadal in the semifinals, and John Isner in the final. Federer won the title for a record fourth time, and, in doing so, equalled Nadal's record of 19 ATP Masters titles. Federer went on to compete at the Madrid Masters on the new blue clay surface, where he beat Tomáš Berdych in the final, thus regaining the No. 2 ranking from Rafael Nadal. In the French Open, Federer made the semifinals before losing to Djokovic in straight sets, in a rematch of previous year's semifinal. At Wimbledon, Federer had a five-set match in the third round against Julien Benneteau on his way to the winning the tournament. Federer defeated Andy Murray in four sets in the 2012 Wimbledon final, regaining the No. 1 ranking in the process. "It's amazing. It equals me with Pete Sampras, who's my hero. It just feels amazing", Federer said of winning his seventh Wimbledon championship, tying Sampras' Open Era record. By defeating top-ranked Djokovic in the semifinals and winning in the finals, Federer returned to the top spot in the world rankings and, in doing so, broke Sampras' record of 286 weeks atop the list. In the 2012 Summer Olympics, Federer played a 4-hour 26-minute semifinal against del Potro where Federer won 19–17 in the third and final set. In a lopsided match, he lost to Murray in straight sets in the final, winning a silver medal for his country. Federer won the Cincinnati open in August, beating Novak Djokovic in the final. In the US Open, five-time champ Federer was defeated by Tomáš Berdych in the quarterfinals. At the Shanghai Masters, after defeating Wawrinka in the third round, Federer confirmed his 300th week at No. 1. Federer made it to the finals of the ATP Finals, where he lost to Djokovic in two sets. 2013: Injury struggles and fall in rankings Federer developed back injuries in March and July and his ranking dropped from No. 2 to No. 6. Federer's first and only title of 2013 came at the Gerry Weber Open (defeating Mikhail Youzhny), where he also played doubles with good friend Tommy Haas. With the victory in Halle, he tied John McEnroe for the third-most ATP titles won by a male player in the Open Era. Federer, however, was unable to maintain his form into Wimbledon, suffering his worst Grand Slam tournament defeat since 2003 in the second round against Sergiy Stakhovsky. Not only did the loss end Federer's record streak of 36 consecutive quarterfinals at Grand Slam tournaments, it meant he would drop out of the top 4 for the first time since July 2003. During the summer, he experimented with various different racquets and played the German Open with a blacked-out 98-inch Wilson racquet, instead of his regular Pro Staff 6.1 90 BLX racquet with the smaller 90-inch hitting area. He returned to his regular racquet for the second half of the season. After Wimbledon, Federer continued to be upset early in tournaments in Hamburg and Gstaad because of a serious back injury through October, when he announced that he was parting ways with Paul Annacone, his coach for the last three years. Federer made the final in Basel, succumbing to Juan Martín del Potro in three sets, and indicated it was a mistake to have played certain tournaments while suffering from a back injury. On 27 December 2013, Federer announced that Stefan Edberg was joining his team as co-coach with Severin Lüthi. 2014: Davis Cup glory Federer began the season by changing rackets for the first time in his career, from his longtime frame of 90 square inches to one measured at 97 square inches. He had long been at a comparative disadvantage in equipment as almost the entire tour, including his top rivals Nadal and Djokovic, used more powerful frames of between 95 and 100 square inches. At the Australian Open, Federer defeated Jo-Wilfried Tsonga and Andy Murray to reach his 11th consecutive semifinal in Melbourne, before losing to Rafael Nadal in straight sets. At the Dubai Tennis Championships, he defeated Novak Djokovic in the semifinals, and then defeated Tomáš Berdych in the final to win his sixth Dubai crown and his first title since Halle in 2013. Federer made the final at the Indian Wells Masters, but lost to Novak Djokovic in a final-set tiebreaker. At the Davis Cup quarterfinals, Federer won both of his singles rubbers against Kazakhstan, the second of which was the first live deciding rubber of his Davis Cup career. Federer then took a wild card into the Monte-Carlo Masters defeating Novak Djokovic on his way to the finals, but lost to compatriot Stan Wawrinka in a tight final. In June, Federer announced that after the end of his third term, he would resign as President of the ATP Players Council, a position he had held since 2008. At the Halle Open, Federer reached both the singles and the doubles finals and won his seventh Halle singles title, beating Alejandro Falla in the final. At Wimbledon, Federer reached a record ninth final, but he was defeated by Djokovic in an epic five-set match. Federer made the final of the Canadian Open but was defeated by Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. Federer defeated Spain's David Ferrer in three sets to capture his sixth Cincinnati crown and 22nd ATP Masters title, his first in Cincinnati since 2012. He then reached the semifinals at the US Open but lost in straight sets to eventual champion Marin Čilić. At the Davis Cup semifinals, Federer won both his singles matches against Italy in straight sets and led Switzerland to the final for the first time since 1992. Federer then played in the Shanghai Masters. He beat Novak Djokovic in the semifinals, ending the Serb's 28-match unbeaten run on Chinese soil. He battled Frenchman Gilles Simon in his second Shanghai final, defeating him in two tiebreak sets and collected the 23rd Masters title of his career. The victory saw Federer return to the No. 2 ranking for the first time since May 2013. Federer then played the Swiss Indoors in October, where he won a record sixth title and his 82nd ATP men's singles title overall. Federer also reached the finals of the 2014 ATP Finals to face Djokovic again, but withdrew from the final because of another back injury from his semifinal match against Stan Wawrinka. Despite his injury, Federer finished the season on a high by defeating Richard Gasquet to clinch the Davis Cup for Switzerland for the first time in its history. The final was held at the Stade Pierre-Mauroy in Lille, France attracting over 27,000 spectators per match; this broke attendance record for the highest ever officially sanctioned competition tennis match. 2015: 1,000th victory and finals at the US Open and Wimbledon Federer started his season at the Brisbane International. He defeated Milos Raonic in the final, thereby becoming only the third man in the Open Era to have 1,000 or more wins, joining Jimmy Connors and Ivan Lendl, as well as the first man in the Open Era to win at least one title in each of 15 consecutive years. In Dubai, Federer successfully defended his title with a straight-set victory over Novak Djokovic in the final, marking his seventh title at the tournament and, after Wimbledon and Halle, was the third time he had won seven or more titles in a tournament. Additionally, Federer became the fourth person since 1991 to surpass 9,000 career aces. In March, he reached the final of the Indian Wells but lost in three sets to defending champion Djokovic. Federer won his third title of the season at the inaugural Istanbul Open clay-court tournament, ending a title drought on red clay since the 2009 French Open. Federer made it to the final of the Italian Open in May, but was unable to win his first title there, losing to Djokovic in the final. In the French Open, he made it through the first rounds losing just one set, to Gaël Monfils in the 4th. In the quarterfinals, he was eventually beaten in straight sets by the later champion Stan Wawrinka. As the new expanded grass season began, Federer won his record eighth Gerry Weber Open and become only the third man in the Open Era to win a title eight times. Federer entered Wimbledon as the second seed. He played a flawless match to defeat Andy Murray in straight sets in the semifinals and advance to his 10th Wimbledon final in a repeat against Novak Djokovic. Federer lost the match in four sets. He defeated Andy Murray and Novak Djokovic in straight sets to win the Cincinnati Masters for the seventh time. This marked the first time that Federer had beaten the top two players in the world at the same tournament. At the US Open, he advanced to his first final there since 2009 without dropping a set, including a win over Stan Wawrinka in the semifinals. In the final, he was once again defeated by top seed Djokovic in four sets. At the Swiss Indoors tournament in Basel, Federer won his sixth singles title of the year, and his 88th ATP title, defeating his old rival Rafael Nadal in the final. It was the seventh time he had captured his hometown tournament. In December, Federer announced that he would enter the 2016 ATP Tour season with a new-look coaching team, having additionally announced that Stefan Edberg would not be travelling with him next year. While countryman Severin Lüthi remained Federer's head coach, joining the team in 2016 was Croatian former world No. 3 player Ivan Ljubicic. Federer revealed that Edberg originally signed on to the coaching team for one season only in 2014 but agreed to stay on in 2015. 2016: Knee surgery, back injury, and long recovery hiatus Federer started his season in the Brisbane International as the defending champion, despite having a virus when the tournament started. However, in a rematch of the previous year's final, he lost in the final to Milos Raonic in straight sets. Federer then participated at the 2016 Australian Open and rebounded from his third round defeat by Andreas Seppi in 2015 by reaching the semifinals but lost to eventual champion Novak Djokovic in four sets. The day after his loss to Djokovic, Federer sustained a knee injury and in early February, he underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair a torn meniscus in his knee and missed the tournaments in Rotterdam, Dubai and Indian Wells in February and March. He was scheduled to return to action in Miami. Due to a stomach virus he had to withdraw from Miami thus prolonging his time on the sidelines. Federer made his comeback at the Monte-Carlo Masters, losing in the quarterfinals to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in three sets. In Madrid, he suffered a back injury during practice and withdrew shortly after arriving. He then participated in the Internazionali BNL d'Italia where he lost in the third round to Dominic Thiem. His withdrawal from the French Open broke a record run of 65 consecutive participations in the main draw of Grand Slam tournaments, stretching back to the 2000 Australian Open. Still suffering from recurring knee pain during the grass season he lost in the semifinals of Stuttgart and Halle. On 6 July, he came back from two sets down to defeat Marin Čilić in five sets in the 2016 Wimbledon quarterfinals, equalling Jimmy Connors' all-time records of eleven Wimbledon semifinals and 84 match wins. He suffered his first defeat in a Wimbledon semifinal two days later in a five-set loss to Raonic, re-injuring his knee in the fifth set. On 26 July, Federer announced that he would miss the 2016 Summer Olympics and the remainder of the 2016 season to fully recover from his knee injury. The sudden withdrawal not only implied that 2016 was his first season since 2000 that Federer failed to win a title, but it also meant that he would have to drop out of top ten for the first time in fourteen years. This, combined with a grand slam drought spanning over four years, led to many analysts believing that his outstanding career was finally coming to an end and he would never win any major titles again. 2017: Renaissance with Australian Open and Wimbledon titles Federer's 2017 season marked a return to Grand Slam wins since 2012, the most titles since 2007, and the highest win percentage since 2006. Statistically, this season was his best since 2007. Federer played in the Hopman Cup and Australian Open in January 2017. His withdrawal from most of the injury affected 2016 season lead his ranking slip to No. 17 at the start of Australian Open, his lowest in over fifteen years. At the Australian Open, he beat top-10 players Tomáš Berdych and Kei Nishikori on his way to semifinals, making Federer the oldest man to compete in a grand slam semi-final since Jimmy Connors in 1991. In the semi-finals, he defeated Stanislas Wawrinka in five sets, making him the oldest player to compete in a Grand Slam final since Ken Rosewall in 1974. Coming back from a break down in the fifth set, Federer defeated Rafael Nadal to win the Australian Open, which also marked Federer's 100th match at the Australian Open; it was the first time Federer had won a match against Nadal in a Grand Slam event since the 2007 Wimbledon final, and also marked Federer's first ever Grand Slam victory over Nadal outside the grass courts of Wimbledon. With this victory, he re-entered the top ten. In March, Federer won his 25th Masters title at Indian Wells, defeating Wawrinka in the final and gaining another victory over Nadal in the 4th round. This was also Federer's 90th career title and he climbed to No. 6 in the ATP rankings. Federer collected his 26th Masters title by defeating Nadal in the final of the Miami Masters in straight sets and climbed to No. 4 in the ATP rankings. This marked the third time Federer had won in Indian Wells and Miami back-to-back, colloquially referred to as the Sunshine Double (2005, 2006 and 2017). Due to concerns about his longevity, Federer decided that he would skip the entire clay-court season. He returned to the tour at the beginning of the grass-court season in Stuttgart, where he suffered a shock defeat to Tommy Haas in the second round despite holding match points, the lowest-ranked player (No. 302) to beat him since No. 407 Bjoern Phau in 1999. He rebounded the following week by winning a record-extending ninth title at the Gerry Weber Open in Halle, doing so without the loss of a set. In the 2017 Wimbledon Championships, Federer made it to the final without dropping a set, defeating Milos Raonic in the quarterfinals and Tomáš Berdych in the semifinals. In the final, Federer defeated a physically and mentally out of sorts Marin Čilić in straight sets to win a record-breaking eighth Wimbledon gentlemen's singles title and his record-extending 19th major title overall, becoming the oldest male player to win Wimbledon in the Open era. Federer became the second man in the Open era to win Wimbledon without dropping a set after Björn Borg in 1976. It marked the second time in his career that he had won a grand slam tournament without losing a set, matching his performance at the 2007 Australian Open. Federer moved up to become No. 3 in the ATP Rankings after the event and qualified for the ATP Finals for a record 15th time. At the opening of the summer hard court swing Federer was defeated in the final of the Montreal Masters by Alexander Zverev after injuring his back during the match. Due to the injury, he opted to withdraw from the Cincinnati Masters to be fit for the US Open. However, Federer lost to del Potro in the quarterfinals at the US Open, in a tournament characterized by inconsistent play from Federer, unlike the major portion of the season. Federer's next participation was in September in the inaugural Laver Cup, representing team Europe. Federer won both his singles matches against Sam Querrey and Nick Kyrgios, with the latter win sealing the cup for Europe. The tournament was also notable for Federer playing doubles teaming with longtime rival Nadal for the first time. The two legends emerged victorious against world duo of Sam Querrey and Jack Sock. At the Shanghai Masters, Federer captured his third Masters title of the season, defeating No. 1 Rafael Nadal in the final. This was Federer's fifth straight victory over Nadal in their rivalry and his 94th career title, drawing him level with 2nd-placed Ivan Lendl. During the indoor season, Federer defeated Juan Martin Del Potro in the final of his hometown tournament, the Swiss Indoors in Basel, earning a record eighth championship there and winning his 95th career title, surpassing Ivan Lendl in number of career titles. Federer qualified for the 2017 ATP Finals, but was beaten by David Goffin in the semifinals in three sets. 2018: 20th major title and 310 weeks at No. 1 Federer started his season winning the Hopman Cup partnering with Belinda Bencic. This was his second Hopman Cup title, having won previously in 2001 with Martina Hingis. At the 2018 Australian Open, Federer reached the final without dropping a set, and successfully defended his title beating Marin Čilić in a five-set final. It was Federer's sixth title at the Australian Open, equaling the then record held by Roy Emerson and Novak Djokovic, which was surpassed by Djokovic in 2019. He also became the first man to win twenty Grand Slam titles. It was also the first time since the 2008 US Open that Federer successfully defended a major title. In mid-February, Federer won his third Rotterdam Open title to return to No. 1 in the ATP rankings, clinching the spot with a quarterfinal victory over Robin Haase. He beat Grigor Dimitrov in straight sets in the final. At 36 years and 195 days of age, he became the oldest ATP world No. 1 by more than three years. He also broke the ATP record for the longest span between a player's first and last weeks to attain the No. 1 ranking at 14 years and 17 days apart, as well as the most time between two successive reigns at No. 1 at 5 years and 106 days. In March, Federer entered the Indian Wells Masters as defending champion. He defeated Chung Hyeon in the quarterfinals, ensuring that he retained the world No. 1 ranking, and Borna Ćorić in the semifinals, solidifying a career-best start to a season at 17–0. His previous best season start was n 16–0 during the 2006 season. Despite holding three championship points, Federer was defeated by Juan Martin Del Potro in a close three-set final. At the Miami Open, Federer received a first-round bye, but lost in the second round to Thanasi Kokkinakis. With this early exit from the tournament, Federer lost his No. 1 ranking to Nadal on 2 April. He announced that he would miss the clay court season, including the French Open, for the second consecutive season. Nevertheless, he regained the No. 1 ranking in May after Nadal failed to defend one of his Masters titles at the Madrid Open. He then lost the top spot the following week after Nadal won the title at the Italian Open. In June, Federer regained the No. 1 ranking after defeating Nick Kyrgios in the semifinals at the Stuttgart Open. He then won the tournament, defeating Milos Raonic in the final in straight sets. However, he lost his No. 1 ranking the following week when he failed to defend his Halle Open title, losing in the final to Borna Ćorić in three sets. At Wimbledon, Federer was looking to defend his 2017 title and was seeded first at a Grand Slam for the first time since the 2012 US Open but lost in the quarterfinals against South African Kevin Anderson in five sets, despite winning the first two sets and having a match point in the third set. This was only his second Wimbledon defeat after winning the first two sets, the other being his defeat to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga at the 2011 Wimbledon Championships. Federer next played in Cincinnati where he lost in the final to Novak Djokovic, who won a record Career Golden Masters, in straight sets. The loss ended Federer's run of 100 consecutive service holds and 14-match winning streak in Cincinnati. Federer entered the US Open as the second seed but was upset by John Millman in the 4th round, citing extreme conditions of heat and humidity that took a toll on his body. Federer then played at the Laver Cup where he successfully helped Team Europe defend their title, winning both his singles matches against Nick Kyrgios and John Isner. He also paired up with Djokovic for the first time in doubles, losing their match against Jack Sock and Kevin Anderson in three sets. Federer then played at the 2018 Shanghai Masters as the defending champion but lost in the semifinals to Borna Ćorić in straight sets. At the Swiss Indoors in October, Federer shared that he had sustained a hand injury in training prior to the grass season that had caused severe pain up his forearm. He stated that this injury significantly hindered his play, particularly his forehand, since the Stuttgart Open. Federer went on to defend his title with a straight-sets win over Marius Copil in the final, winning his ninth title at the event and his 99th career singles title. Federer entered the Paris Masters, continuing his good run of form defeating Fabio Fognini and Kei Nishikori in straight sets. In the semi-finals, he played a very close match with Novak Djokovic, but ultimately lost to him in three sets. At the Nitto ATP Finals, Federer lost in straight sets to Alexander Zverev in the semifinal. 2019: Hopman Cup record, 100 titles, 1,200 match wins, and 12th Wimbledon final Federer opened his campaign by retaining the Hopman Cup alongside Belinda Bencic, becoming the first player to win the mixed-gender event three times. Federer was seeded third at the 2019 Australian Open, entering as the two-time defending champion. He defeated Denis Istomin, Dan Evans, and Taylor Fritz to reach the fourth round, where he faced 14th seed Stefanos Tsitsipas. In a stunning upset, Tsitsipas defeated Federer in four close sets. Critically, Federer was unable to convert any of the twelve break points he held throughout the match, including four set points in the second set. After the match Federer announced he would play the clay court season for the first time since 2016. At the Dubai Tennis Championships, Federer won his 100th Career Singles Title, beating Tsitsipas in straight sets in the final. It was his eighth title in Dubai and he became only the second man after Jimmy Connors to reach the three figure mark in the Open Era. Federer then reached the final of the 2019 Indian Wells Masters where he lost to Dominic Thiem in three sets. On 31 March, Federer defeated John Isner at the 2019 Miami Open in straights sets to win his 4th Miami Open title and 28th Masters title. Federer then played his first clay court tournament in three years at the 2019 Madrid Open and secured his 1200th career win, beating Gael Monfils in the third round. In the quarterfinals he lost to Dominic Thiem again in three sets, despite having two match points in the second set. Federer then played at the Italian Open and reached the quarterfinals but was forced to withdraw from his quarterfinal match against Stefanos Tsitsipas due to a right leg injury. Federer next played at the French Open for the first time in 4 years and seeded 3rd in the draw. Federer achieved comfortable straight-set victories against Lorenzo Sonego, Oscar Otte, Casper Ruud and Leonardo Mayer to reach the quarterfinals, where he faced good friend and compatriot Stan Wawrinka. Federer managed to avenge his loss to Wawrinka at the same stage of the tournament 4 years ago, winning in 4 sets after 3 hours and 35 minutes. With the victory Federer returned to the semifinals of the French Open for the first time since 2012, where he lost to defending and 11-time champion Rafael Nadal in straight sets. Federer then began his grass court season at the Halle Open where he won his tenth title at the event, defeating David Goffin in the final in straight sets. This marked the first time Federer had won a singles tournament ten times or more. At Wimbledon, Roger Federer reached his record 12th final at the tournament after ousting his nemesis Rafael Nadal in four sets in the semifinal; thus, exacting revenge for his earlier defeat to him at the French Open. This was also the first time Federer played Nadal at Wimbledon since the 2008 Wimbledon final, a match regarded by some as the greatest match in the history of tennis. Federer then faced Novak Djokovic in the final, against whom he lost in a five set thriller lasting 4 hours and 57 minutes, despite having two championship points on serve in the fifth set. The match also marked the first time a fifth set tiebreaker was played at 12 games all in the men's singles and was the longest men's final in Wimbledon history. Federer next played at the 2019 Cincinnati Masters and reached the third round where he lost in straight sets to Andrey Rublev. This was his quickest defeat in 16 years, taking just 62 minutes. At the 2019 US Open, he was seeded third. He dropped the first set against both Sumit Nagal and Damir Džumhur in the first two rounds, but pulled out convincing straight sets wins over Dan Evans and David Goffin in the third and fourth. In the quarterfinals, he faced Grigor Dimitrov, who was ranked No. 78 going into the tournament. Despite taking a two sets to one lead, Federer ultimately lost the match in five sets. At the 2019 Shanghai Masters, Federer defeated David Goffin in straight sets to reach the quarterfinal. However, he lost the quarterfinal to Alexander Zverev in three sets. Federer advanced to the Swiss Indoors as the two-time defending champion. His first round match, against Peter Gojowczyk, was remarkable for being the 1500th match of his career. In the final, he defeated Alex de Minaur in straight sets for a record-extending tenth Swiss Indoors title. Federer then played in the Björn Borg group at the 2019 ATP Finals where in the round robin, he lost his opening match to Dominic Thiem in straight sets but beat Matteo Berrettini and Djokovic (his first win over Djokovic since 2015) in straight sets to qualify for the semifinals. He then lost the semifinal to Stefanos Tsitsipas in straight sets. 2020: Australian Open semifinals and right knee surgery Federer began his 2020 season at the 2020 Australian Open. He reached the semifinals after straight sets wins over Steve Johnson and Filip Krajinović, a five-set win over John Millman and a four-set win over Márton Fucsovics. Federer saved seven match points in his five-set quarterfinal win over Tennys Sandgren. Federer then lost his semifinal match to Djokovic in straight sets, having sustained a groin injury earlier in the tournament. In February, Federer underwent arthroscopic surgery for a right knee injury and subsequently withdrew from Dubai, Indian Wells, Miami and the French Open to give time for his knee to recover, announcing that he would return in the grass season. On 10 June, due to a setback from his initial rehabilitation from the knee injury suffered earlier in the year, Federer announced that he had to have an additional arthroscopic procedure on his right knee. Therefore, he officially shut down his season to take the necessary time to recover, vowing to return in 2021. This is only the second year in Roger Federer's career since he won his first title that he finished without a title. 2021: Wimbledon quarterfinal and injuries In January, Federer withdrew from the 2021 Australian Open due to still recovering from knee surgery and strict COVID-19 quarantine measures in Australia. On 8 March, Novak Djokovic moved past him for the highest number of career weeks spent as the ATP number 1 ranked player. On 10 March, he made his return to the ATP Tour at the Qatar Open. He won his first ATP match in 14 months against Dan Evans, but lost to Nikoloz Basilashvili in the quarter-finals. Federer then played at the Geneva Open where he lost his second round match to Pablo Andujar in three sets. After defeating Dominik Koepfer of Germany in four sets in the third round, Federer advanced to the round of sixteen at the French Open. However, he withdrew from the tournament before his fourth-round match citing knee problems and defaulted to Matteo Berrettini of Italy in a walkover. In 2021 Halle Open where he was seeded 5th, he lost in the second round to Félix Auger-Aliassime. Federer was playing against the 20-year-old for the first time. Their 19 years age difference was the biggest in Federer's 1,521 career matches. This was the earliest exit at this tournament for Federer who was seeking his 70th match win in Halle, and his 18th quarterfinal at this event in as many appearances. At Wimbledon, 39-year-old Federer advanced to the quarterfinals and thus became the oldest Wimbledon quarterfinalist in the Open Era, breaking the record held by Ken Rosewall, following wins over Adrian Mannarino by retirement, Richard Gasquet, 29th seed Cameron Norrie, and 23rd seed Lorenzo Sonego. However, he was then upset by 14th seed Hubert Hurkacz in the quarterfinal in straight sets. This was the first time in 19 years at Wimbledon he lost in straight sets, and only the second time he lost a set 6–0 in the 21st century (the previous occasion was against Nadal in the 2008 French Open final). On 15 August, Federer announced that he underwent another knee surgery after further injury during the grass court season. He withdrew from the US Open and stated that he would be off the tour for "many months", but he also hopes to make a return to the tour in 2022. National representation Olympic Games Federer made his Olympic debut at Sydney in 2000, where he entered the singles competition. He surprised many by reaching the semifinals but lost to Tommy Haas in the semifinals and then to Arnaud Di Pasquale in the bronze medal match, causing Federer to leave Sydney empty handed. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Federer was the clear favorite after claiming the world No. 1 ranking earlier in the year and capturing the Australian Open and Wimbledon titles. However, he lost in the second round to 18-year-old Tomáš Berdych. In doubles, he and compatriot Yves Allegro lost in the second round. At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, Federer was again the top seed and favorite, but lost in the quarterfinals to James Blake. He found more success in men's doubles, winning the gold medal with compatriot Stan Wawrinka, defeating Simon Aspelin and Thomas Johansson of Sweden. At both the Athens and Beijing Olympics, Federer was the flagbearer for Switzerland in the opening ceremony. At London 2012, Federer won his first singles medal, losing to Andy Murray in the final to claim silver. He and Wawrinka failed to defend their gold medal in doubles, losing in the second round to Jonathan Erlich and Andy Ram of Israel. Federer did not compete in the 2016 Rio Olympics after taking the rest of the season off after Wimbledon to recover from a knee injury. Similarly, Federer chose not to compete in the 2020 Tokyo Olympics due to a setback to recovering from a knee surgery. Davis Cup Federer made his Davis Cup for Switzerland debut in the World Group first round against Italy in 1999 at 17 years of age. In his first match he defeated Davide Sanguinetti in four sets and recorded a second singles victory in a dead rubber two days later for Switzerland to advance to the World Group quarterfinals. There, Federer suffered his first Davis Cup loss when he was defeated by Belgian Christophe Van Garsse in five sets. The Swiss team went on to lose the rubber 3–2. A year later, Federer competed in his first Davis Cup doubles rubber where he teamed with countryman Lorenzo Manta to defeat Australians Wayne Arthurs and Sandon Stolle in four sets. Despite the doubles victory, Federer lost both singles rubbers to Mark Philippoussis and Lleyton Hewitt which saw Switzerland sent to the World Group Playoffs for the first time in Federer's career. He returned for the playoffs in July 2000 and led Switzerland to a 5–0 win over Belarus by recording wins in singles and doubles. His first Davis Cup highlight came in 2003 as the newly crowned Wimbledon champion led his country to an historic semifinal run. After recording five wins in ties against the Netherlands and France, the Swiss team traveled to Melbourne to play the highly rated Australians. Federer once again defeated Wimbledon runner-up Mark Philippoussis in the second rubber but dropped the doubles rubber in five sets. Federer then played Lleyton Hewitt in a sudden death situation for Switzerland and despite leading two sets to love, lost in five sets. Australia went on to claim the Davis Cup title as Federer's interest in Davis Cup began to wane and his focus shifted to his personal career. He skipped many ties over the years but often competed in the World Group Playoffs in order for Switzerland to maintain their place in the top division. The emergence of countryman Stanislas Wawrinka as a Grand Slam singles champion in 2014 renewed hope for Federer in his Davis Cup quest, and the pair both committed to playing each tie that year. Their commitment paid off as wins over Serbia, Kazakhstan and Italy allowed the Swiss team to advance to the 2014 Davis Cup Final. Leading up to the final, Federer was suffering from a back injury that threw serious doubt over Switzerland's chance to claim the title, and lost in straight sets to Gaël Monfils. However, a rejuvenated Federer returned the next day to help claim the doubles rubber, which set up a fourth rubber singles tie between Federer and Richard Gasquet. Federer defeated Gasquet in straight sets and in doing so won Switzerland its first (and only to date) Davis Cup title. Federer holds many Davis Cup records for Switzerland that includes most total wins, most singles wins and most years played. Hopman Cup Federer won the Hopman Cup in 2001 representing Switzerland, along with Martina Hingis. The duo defeated the American pair of Monica Seles and Jan-Michael Gambill in the finals. He also played the next year along with his current wife Mirka Vavrinec, but they lost in the round robin stage. Federer played at the Hopman Cup again in 2017 with Belinda Bencic. They won all of their ties except the last one, and as a result did not make the final. In 2018, Federer won his second Hopman Cup title and third overall for Switzerland, partnering Belinda Bencic again. The Swiss team won all its ties and Federer won every match he played. They defeated the German pair, Alexander Zverev and Angelique Kerber, in the final 2–1. Federer won his third and second consecutive Hopman Cup title in 2019 alongside Belinda Bencic. They again defeated Alexander Zverev and Angelique Kerber of Germany in the final, and won the final tie 2–1 by a tiebreak in the decisive set (5–4). Federer again won all of his singles matches. The Swiss team only lost one tie to Greece (1–2). Federer has won three Hopman Cup titles, more than any other player. International representation Laver Cup Federer founded the Laver Cup, which pits Europe against the rest of the world. The tournament is named in honor of Rod Laver and the inaugural edition was played in 2017. Europe won the inaugural Laver Cup in 2017. Federer played his first singles match on day two, when he dispatched Sam Querrey in straight sets. Later on day two, he partnered with his rival Nadal in doubles, where they defeated the Team World duo of Sam Querrey and Jack Sock in the match tie breaker, which took place at one set all. This was the first time Federer and Nadal competed on the same side of a doubles match. On day three, Federer competed in the final match of the tournament, where he sealed victory for Team Europe by defeating Nick Kyrgios in the champion's tiebreak (saving a match point). With three wins and seven points, Federer was the most accomplished player of the tournament. The second edition was played in 2018. The European team led by Federer retained the title after defeating Team World, 13–8. Federer won both his singles matches, against Nick Kyrgios and John Isner, but lost both his doubles matches. In 2019 the ATP announced that the Laver Cup would be an official event on the ATP Tour, with match wins and losses to be counted as official on every player's career record in singles and doubles. The third edition was held in Geneva, Switzerland. Federer and the European team captured their third consecutive title. Team World was closer than ever to win their first title, losing 11–13 after having led during the final day. Like in 2018, Federer won singles matches against Kyrgios and Isner. He went 1–1 in doubles. Rivalries Federer vs. Nadal Federer and Rafael Nadal have played 40 times, with Federer trailing 16–24. Federer has a winning record on grass 3–1 and hard courts 11–9, while Nadal leads on clay 14–2. Because tournament seedings are based on rankings, 24 of their matches have been in tournament finals which have included an all-time record nine Grand Slam finals (tied with Nadal–Djokovic matches). Federer and Nadal have been playing each other since 2004, and their rivalry is a significant part of both men's careers. The latest encounter was at the 2019 Wimbledon Championships, where Federer won to reach the final. They held the top two rankings on the ATP Tour from July 2005 until 17 August 2009, when Nadal fell to No. 3 (Andy Murray became the new No. 2), and again from 11 September 2017 until 15 October 2018 (Novak Djokovic became the new No. 2). They are the only pair of men to have ever finished six consecutive calendar years at the top. Federer was ranked No. 1 for a record 237 consecutive weeks beginning in February 2004. Nadal, who is five years younger, ascended to No. 2 in July 2005 and held it for 160 consecutive weeks, before surpassing Federer in August 2008. From 2006 to 2008, they played in every French Open and Wimbledon final. They then met in the 2009 Australian Open final, the 2011 French Open final, and the 2017 Australian Open final. Nadal won six of the nine, losing the first two Wimbledon finals and the second Australian Open final. Four of these finals were five-set matches (2007 and 2008 Wimbledon, 2009 and 2017 Australian Open), with the 2008 Wimbledon final being lauded as the greatest match ever by many long-time tennis analysts. Of their 40 meetings, 13 have reached a deciding set. They have also played in 12 Masters Series finals, including their lone five-hour match at the 2006 Rome Masters which Nadal won in a fifth-set tie-break, having saved two match points. Federer vs. Djokovic Federer and Novak Djokovic have played 50 times, with Federer trailing 23–27. They are tied 4–4 on clay while Federer trails 18–20 on hard-courts and 1–3 on grass. The Federer–Djokovic rivalry is the largest rivalry in men's Grand Slam tournament history with a joint-record 17 matches played against each other (tied with Djokovic–Nadal). Djokovic is the only player besides Nadal to defeat Federer in consecutive Grand Slam tournaments (2010 US Open and 2011 Australian Open, also 2015 Wimbledon, US Open and 2016 Australian Open), and the only player besides Nadal and Murray who has double-figure career wins over Federer. Djokovic is one of two players (the other again being Nadal) on tour to have defeated Federer in straight sets at a Grand Slam event multiple times (2008 Australian Open, 2011 Australian Open, 2012 French Open, 2020 Australian Open), but Djokovic alone has done so four times. Federer and Djokovic first played in a Grand Slam final at the 2007 US Open where the three-time reigning champion and No. 1 Federer emerged victorious in straight sets. Federer ended Djokovic's perfect 41–0 start to the 2011 season in the semifinals of the French Open, but Djokovic was able to avenge this loss at the 2011 US Open in five sets after saving two match points against Federer for the second straight year. In the semifinals of Wimbledon 2012, Federer beat defending champion and No. 1 Djokovic in four sets. The two met again during the finals of the 2014 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic emerging victorious after five sets. Federer also ended Djokovic's 28 straight wins in China at 2014 Shanghai Open. Federer and Djokovic rematched in the 2015 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic once again claiming victory in four sets. The pair met once more for the final major of the season, the 2015 US Open and once more Djokovic prevailed in four sets. At the 2019 Wimbledon Championships, Djokovic bested Federer in an almost 5-hour match, whose final set went to a tiebreak. This was the fifth consecutive time that Djokovic defeated Federer in Grand Slam matches. Some experts have included the rivalry between Federer and Djokovic as one of the best rivalries in the Open Era. Federer vs. Murray Federer and Andy Murray have played 25 times, with Federer leading 14–11. Federer leads 12–10 on hard courts, and 2–1 on grass. They have never met on clay. After Federer won the first professional match they played, Murray dominated the first half of the rivalry, leading 8–5 in 2010, while the second half of the rivalry has been dominated by Federer, who leads 9–3 since 2011. The two have met six times at the Grand Slam tournament level, with Federer leading 5–1. Their first three Grand Slam matches were finals, with Federer winning all three of these matches; at the 2008 US Open and the 2010 Australian Open, both of which he won in straight sets, and at the 2012 Wimbledon Championships in which Murray took the opening set, but went on to lose in four sets. However, Murray won their encounter in the semifinals of the 2013 Australian Open, defeating Federer for the first time at a Grand slam tournament in five sets. At the 2014 Australian Open, Federer reversed that result, defeating Murray in four sets in the quarterfinals. The most recent meeting between the two in a major was in the semifinals of the 2015 Wimbledon Championships, where a dominant Federer triumphed in straight sets. They met in the final of the 2012 Summer Olympics, in which Murray defeated Federer in straight sets, denying Federer a career Golden Slam. Murray also leads 6–3 in ATP 1000 tournaments, 2–0 in finals. They have also met five times at the ATP Finals, with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008, and Federer in London in 2009, 2010, 2012, and 2014. Murray is one of only three players to have recorded ten or more victories over Federer (the other two being Nadal and Novak Djokovic). Federer vs. Roddick Federer and Andy Roddick played 24 times, and Federer leads their head-to-head 21–3. Roddick lost his No. 1 ranking to Federer after Federer won his first Australian Open in 2004. Their rivalry includes four Grand Slam event finals, three at Wimbledon and one at the US Open, all won by Federer. Roddick himself said it was not much of a rivalry, being so one-sided. In the 2009 Wimbledon final, Roddick lost to Federer in five sets. The match included a 30-game fifth set (a Grand Slam final record) and lasted over four hours. In the final game of the deciding set, Roddick's serve was broken for the first time in the match. With that victory, Federer broke Pete Sampras' record of 14 Grand Slam singles titles, and Roddick apologised to Sampras (who was in attendance) for not being able to stop Federer. Federer vs. Hewitt Federer and Lleyton Hewitt played 27 times, with Federer leading 18–9. Early in their careers, Hewitt dominated Federer, winning seven of their first nine meetings, including a victory from two sets down in the 2003 Davis Cup semifinal which allowed Australia to defeat Switzerland. This marked a turning point in the rivalry, as Federer won 16 of the next 18 meetings from 2004 onwards. This is Hewitt's longest rivalry as these two first played each other as juniors in 1996. They met in one Grand Slam tournament final, the 2004 US Open final, where Federer won his first US Open title in a lopsided encounter in which Federer scored a bagel on both sides of a second-set tiebreak. Federer met Hewitt at six of the Grand Slam tournaments in which he lifted the trophy, including all five of his triumphs between 2004 and 2005. Their last meeting was at the 2014 Brisbane International, where Hewitt triumphed over Federer in three sets for his first title since 2010, when he also beat Federer to the Halle title. Hewitt and Federer teamed up in the men's doubles at Wimbledon in 1999. They lost in the third round to Jonas Björkman and Pat Rafter. Federer vs. Nalbandian Federer and David Nalbandian played 19 times, with Federer leading 11–8. David Nalbandian was Federer's biggest rival in his early career. Nalbandian dominated early on, winning their first five matches from 2002 to 2003. Federer reversed this trend at the 2003 Masters Cup, where he recorded his first victory, and went on to win 11 of their last 14 meetings. Federer leads 6–5 on hard courts, 1–0 on grass, and 3–1 on clay courts, while Nalbandian leads 2–1 on carpet. Notable meetings include Nalbandian's win in a fifth-set tiebreaker to win the 2005 Masters Cup, and Federer's win in the 2006 French Open semifinals. They met each other six times in Grand Slam tournaments, with Federer leading 4–2. Federer vs. Safin Marat Safin and Federer played 12 times, with Federer leading 10–2. Federer and Safin turned pro within one year of each other, with Safin turning pro in 1997 and Federer in 1998. Federer leads 4–1 on hard courts, 3–0 on grass, and 3–0 on clay courts, while Safin leads 1–0 on carpet. Notable meetings include Federer's defeating Safin at the 2002 Hamburg Masters to win the first Masters title of his career, as well as Federer's emerging victorious in the semifinals of the 2004 Tennis Masters Cup, after winning a tiebreak 20–18 on his eighth match point. Federer also defeated Safin in the finals of the 2004 Australian Open to capture his first Australian Open and second Grand Slam tournament title. However, Safin defeated Federer in the 2005 Australian Open semifinals, having saved one match point in the fourth-set tiebreak, to end a 26-match winning streak by Federer. They met each other five times in Grand Slam tournaments, with Federer leading 4–1. Federer vs. Agassi Federer and Andre Agassi played 11 times, and Federer leads their head-to-head 8–3. This was Federer's most significant rivalry with a dominant player of the previous generation. They first met in only the third tournament of Federer's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer's hometown, with Andre Agassi prevailing over the 17-year-old. Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Masters in 2002. Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003, when he defeated Agassi in both the round robin and the final. They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over two days, with Federer eventually prevailing in five sets. At the 2005 Dubai Championships, Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two men play on a helipad almost 220 meters above sea level at the hotel Burj al-Arab. Their final match was at one of the most prestigious platforms in the sport when they played in the finals of the 2005 US Open. Federer was victorious in four sets, claiming the 6th Grand Slam tournament of his career and denying Agassi his 9th. Federer vs. Wawrinka Federer and his fellow Swiss player Stan Wawrinka have played each other 26 times, with Federer leading 23–3. Federer leads 7–1 in Grand Slam tournaments, 17–0 on hard courts, 1–0 on grass courts and 5–3 on clay courts. The pair are 1–1 in finals. Their first meeting in a final came at 2014 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters where Wawrinka defeated Federer in three sets to win his first Masters title before Federer avenged his loss at the 2017 BNP Paribas Open by beating him in the final. While the rivalry is one-sided in Federer's favour, the two have contested some close matches. Wawrinka defeated Federer in straight sets during the 2015 French Open quarterfinals en route to winning his first French Open title, although Federer then won a straight-sets victory in the 2015 US Open semifinals. Other close matches include the 2012 Shanghai Masters and the 2013 Indian Wells Masters, both of which Federer won in three sets, the 2014 Wimbledon quarterfinal, which Federer won in four sets, the 2014 ATP Finals semifinal, which Federer won in three sets after saving four match points, and the 2017 Australian Open semifinal, which Federer won in five sets. Despite their on-court rivalry, they are friends off court, and they have played doubles together on numerous occasions, most notably when they won the doubles Olympic Gold at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and when winning the 2014 Davis Cup. Federer vs. del Potro Juan Martín del Potro and Roger Federer have played 25 times, with Federer leading 18–7. They have met seven times in Grand Slam tournaments, with Federer leading 5–2. Their two most famous Grand Slam tournament meetings came in 2009. The first was in the French Open semifinals, when Federer survived a five-set clash when he was on his way to the only French title of his career. The second was in the final of the US Open, where del Potro beat five-time defending champion Federer in five sets, ending his 20-match winning streak at Grand Slams. Another high-profile match was in the semifinals of the 2012 London Olympics, where Federer prevailed 19–17 in the final set to secure the Olympic silver medal. They also met in the finals of the Swiss Indoors in 2012, 2013 and 2017, with del Potro prevailing on first two occasions, and Federer on last one of them in tight three-set matches. In the 2017 U.S. Open quarterfinals, in a rematch of the 2009 US Open final, Del Potro again beat Federer in four sets to end his unbeaten streak in grand slams that year. With this win, Del Potro also denied the first Federer-Nadal match at US Open, as in 2009 where he beat Nadal in straight sets in the semifinals. Federer, however avenged this loss at the Shanghai Masters semifinals, where he beat del Potro in three sets after coming from a set down. In the final at the 2018 BNP Paribas Open del Potro beat Federer in three close sets, after facing match points in the third set. With this win del Potro won his first Masters title of his career. Federer vs. Berdych Tomáš Berdych and Federer played 26 times, with Federer leading 20–6. Federer leads 12–5 on hard courts, 3–1 on grass courts, 4–0 on clay courts, and 1–0 on carpet. Berdych won their first professional match, notably upsetting then-No. 1 Federer at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Federer then went on to win their next eight meetings, before Berdych ended the losing streak in 2010. Between 2010 and 2013, Berdych won 5 of 8 meetings. Federer again dominated the matchup after 2014, leading 9–0 since then. They met ten times in Grand Slam tournaments, with Federer leading 8–2, and Berdych is one of five players, along with Arnaud Clément, Álex Corretja, David Nalbandian, and Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, to defeat Federer multiple times in majors before the semifinal stage. Their most notable Grand Slam matches took place in the 2009 Australian Open, when Federer prevailed in five sets after dropping the first two sets, the 2010 Wimbledon Championships and the 2012 US Open, both of which Berdych won in four sets. Berdych went on to reach the only Grand Slam final of his career after the Wimbledon quarterfinal victory, ending Federer's run of seven consecutive finals at Wimbledon dating back to 2003. Federer vs. Tsonga Jo-Wilfried Tsonga and Federer have played 18 times, with Federer leading 12–6. Federer leads 5–3 on outdoor hard courts and 4–0 on indoor hard. They are 1–1 on grass and 2–2 on clay courts. The pair have met six times in Grand Slam tournaments, including their five-set matches in the quarterfinals of 2011 Wimbledon and 2013 Australian Open. They have also one Grand Slam semifinal meeting in the 2010 Australian Open, with Federer winning in straight sets. Federer and Tsonga have played in the 2011 ATP Finals final, with Federer winning his record-sixth Year-end championship in three sets. The pair have also met in two Masters finals. The first was in the 2011 BNP Paribas Masters, with Federer winning his first title in Bercy, and the second was in the 2014 Rogers Cup, with Tsonga winning his second Masters title. Federer vs. Čilić Federer and Marin Čilić have played 11 times, with Federer leading 10–1. Čilić's only victory came in the 2014 US Open semifinals, after which he went on to win the Grand Slam title. Their first encounter was in the 3rd round in the 2008 Paris Masters, which Federer won in straight sets. They have played six Grand Slam matches, two in Wimbledon, two in the US Open, one at the 2018 Australian Open and one at the 2021 French Open; Federer leads these matches 5–1. Two of these have been Grand Slam finals – the 2017 Wimbledon final, which Federer won in straight sets, and the 2018 Australian Open final, which Federer won in five sets. Achievements Federer and Novak Djokovic have won the second most Grand Slam tournament titles (20), railing only Rafael Nadal (21). He is the first men's singles player to have reached ten consecutive Grand Slam tournament finals and a total of 31 Grand Slam finals. He has earned a men's doubles gold medal, and a men's single silver medal at the Olympics in 2008 and 2012, respectively. He has spent the second-most time at the top of the ATP Rankings (310 weeks). He also holds the record for the most titles (6) at the year-end tournament, where only the year-end eight highest-ranked players participate. Federer was ranked among the top eight players in the world continuously for 14 years and two weeks—from 14 October 2002 until 31 October 2016, when injuries forced him to skip much of the 2016 season. Federer has won the ATP Player of the Year five times (2004–07, 2009), and has become ITF World Champion five times (2004–07, 2009). He has won the ATPWorldTour.com Fans' Favourite Award a record 18 times consecutively (2003–20), and has won the Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award (voted for by the players) a record 13 times (2004–09, 2011–17), both being awards indicative of respect and popularity. He also won the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year Award twice (2006, 2013), the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year five times (2005–08, 2018), and the Laureus World Comeback of the Year once, following his 2017 renaissance. Federer is one of the founders, via his management company TEAM8, of the Laver Cup; the annual team tennis tournament which pits Europe against the rest of the world. He co-founded the tournament in honor of tennis legend Rod Laver and the inaugural edition was played in 2017. Legacy and cultural impact Federer has huge popularity in the world of sport, and is widely considered one of the greatest tennis players of all time, with many players and analysts in the period between 2009 and 2018 considering him to be the greatest player ever. He has also been called the greatest athlete of his generation. Tennis.com listed him as the greatest male player of the Open Era. Federer himself has downplayed these claims, stating in 2012 that it is impossible to compare tennis players from different eras and that past champions are needed to pave the way for future champions. In May 2020, the Tennis Channel ranked Federer as the greatest male tennis player of all time. In May 2021, Serena Williams described Federer as a "genius" and the "greatest". In July 2021, BBC Sport users picked Federer as the greatest male tennis player of all time. During an interview with L'Équipe in July 2021, Richard Gasquet said 'aesthetics and grace' are more important than the number of Grand Slam titles when it comes to deciding who is the greatest. He named Federer, Djokovic and Nadal as the three best players in history, but singled out Roger Federer as the greatest. Until 2020, no other male tennis player had won 20 major singles titles (the record has since been surpassed by Rafael Nadal and tied by Novak Djokovic). Federer has also been in a record 31 major finals, including a record 10 in a row. He has held the world No. 1 spot in the ATP rankings for the second-longest amount of time for a male player, behind Novak Djokovic. He was ranked No. 1 at the age of 36 and has won a record eight Wimbledon titles. He won five consecutive US Open titles, which is the most in the Open Era. He has been voted by his peers to receive the tour Sportsmanship Award a record 13 times and voted by tennis fans to receive the ATP Fans' Favorite award for 17 consecutive years. He has been named the Swiss Sports Personality of the Year a record seven times. He has been named the ATP Player of the Year and ITF World Champion five times, and has won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year award a record five times, including four consecutive awards from 2005 to 2008. He is also the only person to win the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year award four times. Federer helped to lead a revival in tennis known by many as the Golden Age, leading to increased interest in the sport and higher revenues for many tennis venues. Rising revenues led to exploding prize money: When Federer first won the Australian Open in 2004, he earned $985,000. When he won in 2018, the prize had increased to AUD 4million. On winning the 2009 French Open and completing the career Grand Slam, Federer became the first male tennis player to grace the cover of Sports Illustrated since Andre Agassi in 1999. He was also the first non-American player to appear on the cover of the magazine since Stefan Edberg in 1992. He again made the cover of Sports Illustrated following his record-breaking 8th Wimbledon title and second Grand Slam of 2017, becoming the first male tennis player to be featured on the cover since himself in 2009. Federer has been nicknamed the "Federer Express" (shortened to "Fed Express" or "FedEx"), and the "Swiss Maestro." He has also been referred to as "King Roger" on occasion. In October 2021, the city of Basel inaugurated a tram named after him, the "Federer-Express". Philanthropy and outreach Roger Federer Foundation In 2003, he established the Roger Federer Foundation to help disadvantaged children and to promote their access to education and sport. Since May 2004, citing his close ties with South Africa (his mother is South African) he has been supporting the South Africa-Swiss charity IMBEWU, which helps children better connect to sports as well as social and health awareness. In 2005, he visited South Africa to meet children who had benefited from his support. Also in 2005, he auctioned his racquet from his US Open championship to aid victims of Hurricane Katrina. At the 2005 Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, Federer arranged an exhibition with several top players from the ATP and WTA tour called Rally for Relief, whose proceeds went to the victims of the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. In December 2006, he visited Tamil Nadu, one of the areas in India most affected by the tsunami. He was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador by UNICEF in April 2006 and has appeared in UNICEF public messages to raise public awareness of AIDS. In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Federer arranged a collaboration with fellow top tennis players for a special charity event during the 2010 Australian Open called 'Hit for Haiti', whose proceeds went to Haiti earthquake victims. He participated in a follow-up charity exhibition during the 2010 Indian Wells Masters, which raised $1million. The Nadal vs. Federer "Match for Africa" in 2010 in Zurich and Madrid raised more than $4million for the Roger Federer Foundation and Fundación Rafa Nadal. In January 2011, Federer took part in Rally for Relief, an exhibition to raise money for the victims of the Queensland floods. In 2014, the "Match for Africa 2" between Federer and Stan Wawrinka, again in Zurich, raised £850,000 for education projects in Southern Africa. Special edition stamps In 2007, Swiss Post in Basel released a special edition stamp for Federer. Three years later, in 2010, Federer was awarded a special edition stamp by Austria's Postal Service. World's most respected, admired and trusted personalities In 2011, on the Reputation Institute's study of the World's most respected, admired and trusted personalities, Federer ranked No. 2 just behind Nelson Mandela but ahead of Bill Gates, Steve Jobs, Oprah Winfrey and Bono. Roger Federer streets In 2012, the city of Halle, in Germany, unveiled "Roger-Federer-Allee" in recognition of Federer's success on the grass at the Gerry Weber Open. In 2016, the city of Biel, Switzerland, location of the national centre for Swiss Tennis where Federer trained as a junior, named the street in his honour as "1 Allée Roger Federer". Switzerland's most recognizable personalities In July 2016, Federer ranked No. 1 in the list for the most recognizable people in Switzerland, surpassing personalities such as Albert Einstein and William Tell. In a poll of more than 9,000 people from 15 countries, Federer topped the list of most recognizable Swiss with 600 more votes than the country's second national hero, William Tell, who came up second. Federer got 916 votes, Tell got 316 and Einstein ranked third with 204. The other three in the first six were Henry Dunant, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and novel character Heidi. World's most marketable sports person In January 2017, Federer named the Most Marketable Sports Person for 2016 by researchers of London School of Marketing. He earned £49.2 million in endorsements and sponsorships. Honorary doctorate On 24 November 2017, Federer received an honorary doctorate from his home university, the University of Basel, in recognition of his role in increasing the international reputation of Basel and Switzerland, and for his work for children in Africa through his charitable foundation. Swiss coin In December 2019, Federer became the first living person to be celebrated on Swiss coins. His face will be on the 20-franc coin and in May 2020, Swissmint issued a Federer 50-franc gold coin featuring a different design. Most stylish man of the decade In December 2019, Federer was voted by GQ readers as the Most Stylish Man of the Decade (2010–2019), ahead of celebrities including Timothée Chalamet, LeBron James, Harry Styles, David Beckham, Justin Bieber, Kanye West and Ryan Gosling. World's highest paid athlete In 2020, Federer topped Forbes list of the world's highest paid athletes, with $106.3 million in total earnings from salary, winnings and endorsements. As of the 2021 list, he has also appeared in the top-10 every year since 2012. Figure in Swiss history On 20 July 2020 Federer was featured by Swiss National Museum in their 100-part chronicle of Swiss history and culture. Playing style Federer's versatility has been described by Jimmy Connors: "In an era of specialists, you're either a clay court specialist, a grass court specialist, or a hard court specialist... or you're Roger Federer." An elite athlete, Federer is an all-court, all-around player known for his speed, fluid style of play, and exceptional shot making. Federer mainly plays from the baseline but is also comfortable at the net, being one of the best volleyers in the game. He has a powerful, accurate smash and very effectively performs rare elements of professional tennis, such as the backhand smash and skyhook, half-volley, jump smash (slam dunk) and an aggressive serve return known affectionately as SABR (Sneak Attack By Roger, a half-volley attack on an opponent's second serve). David Foster Wallace compared the brute force of Federer's forehand motion with that of "a great liquid whip", while John McEnroe referred to Federer's forehand as "the greatest shot in our sport." Federer is also known for his efficient, deceptively effortless movement around the court and excellent footwork, which enables him to run around shots directed to his backhand, usually considered his weaker wing, and instead hit a powerful and penetrating inside-out or inside-in forehand, one of his best shots. He also has great variety with his forehand, able to hit with topspin or pace (or both) in opening up the court and going into the forecourt for aggressive volleys. Federer plays with a single-handed backhand, which gives him great variety. He employs the slice, occasionally using it to lure his opponent to the net and deliver a passing shot. Federer can also fire topspin winners and possesses a 'flick' backhand, with which he can generate pace with his wrist. This is usually used to pass the opponent at the net. He has averaged 90% of service games won throughout his career, oftentimes coming up victorious in clutch or pressure service games. His serve is difficult to read as he always uses a similar ball toss, regardless of what type of serve he is going to hit and where he aims to hit it, and turns his back to his opponents during his motion. He is often able to produce big serves on key points in a match. His first serve is usually about 200km/h (125mph), but he is capable of serving at 220km/h (137mph). Federer is also accomplished at serve and volleying, and employed this tactic frequently in his early career. Later in his career, Federer added the drop shot to his arsenal and can perform a well-disguised one off both wings. He sometimes uses a between-the-legs shot, which is colloquially referred to as a "tweener" or "hotdog". His most notable use of the tweener was in the semifinals of the 2009 US Open against Novak Djokovic, bringing him triple match point. Federer is one of the top players who employ successfully the "squash shot", when he gets pushed deep and wide on his forehand wing. Since Stefan Edberg joined his coaching team at the start of the 2014 season, Federer has played a more offensive game, attacking the net more often, and improved his volley shots. In the lead-up to the 2015 US Open, Federer successfully added a new unique shot to his arsenal called SABR (Sneak Attack by Roger), in which he charges forward to receive the second serve and hits a return on the service line. The SABR is a unique shot that Federer owns, in the way that he manages to add enough power and placement into the shot, which makes it very difficult, or close to impossible for the opponent to reach it. With the switch to a bigger 97 inch racket from 90 inches, Federer has gained easy power while relinquishing some control on his shots. The bigger racket has enabled easier serving and better defense on both wings with fewer shanks. However this has diminished control and power on his forehand, slice backhand and dropshot. Since his comeback in 2017, Federer is noted for his improved backhand both down the line and cross court which was cited as the reason for his win against Nadal in the 2017 Australian Open Final and Indian Wells 4th round. Federer is also noted for his cool demeanour and emotional control on the court. In contrast to his early career, most of his professional game has been characterised by lack of outbursts or emotional frustration at errors, which gives him an advantage over less controlled opponents. Federer declared: Equipment and apparel Equipment Federer plays with his signature Wilson Pro Staff RF97 Autograph racquet. It has a 97 square inch head, 16x19 string pattern, 366 gram strung weight, 340 gram swing weight, 68 RA stiffness, and 9 point head light balance. Federer strings his racquets using Wilson Natural Gut 16 gauge for his main strings and Luxilon ALU Power Rough 17 gauge (polyester) for his cross strings. In an interview in November 2017, Federer stated his favorite stringing tension is mains & crosses. As a junior player, Federer played with a Wilson Pro Staff 6.0 85 square inch head racquet. He switched to a bigger custom-built Wilson 90 square inch head racquet in 2003. His grip size was inches (L3). When asked about string tensions, Federer stated "this depends on how warm the days are and with what kind of balls I play and against who I play. So you can see– it depends on several factors and not just the surface; the feeling I have is most important." Apparel Federer first signed with Nike footwear and apparel in 1994. For the 2006 championships at Wimbledon, Nike designed a jacket emblazoned with a crest of three tennis racquets, symbolising the three Wimbledon Championships he had previously won, and which was updated the next year with four racquets after he won the Championship in 2006. At Wimbledon 2008, and again in 2009, Nike continued this trend by making him a personalised cardigan that also had his own logo, an R and an F joined, which was originally designed by his wife, Mirka. Federer's contract with Nike expired in March 2018, and he later signed a deal with Uniqlo. It was reported that Uniqlo signed Federer for roughly $300million for 10 years ($30million per year), as opposed to Nike's previous deal with Federer, which was for roughly $10million per year. Since 2021, Federer has worn tennis shoes produced by On, a Swiss-based athletic shoe and sports apparel manufacturer in which he became a shareholder in November 2019. A limited edition lifestyle shoe named “The Roger” was released by On in July 2020. Endorsements In May 2020, Federer became the first tennis player to reach the top of Forbes list of highest-paid athletes in the world. He is endorsed by Japanese clothing company Uniqlo and Swiss companies , Credit Suisse, On, Rolex, Lindt, Sunrise, and Jura Elektroapparate. In 2010, his endorsement by Mercedes-Benz China was extended into a global partnership deal. His other sponsors include Gillette, Wilson, Barilla, and Moët & Chandon. Previously, he was an ambassador for Nike, NetJets, Emmi AG, and Maurice Lacroix. Career statistics Grand Slam tournament performance timeline Current through the 2022 Australian Open. Year–End Championships performance timeline Olympic gold medal matches Records All-time tournament records Guinness World Records As of 2019 Federer holds the third highest number of Guinness World Records within one discipline, a total of 30, which include 18 performance based records. Open Era records These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis. Records in bold indicate peerless achievements. Professional awards ITF World Champion: 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009. ATP Player of the Year: 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009. See also Roger Federer career statistics List of career achievements by Roger Federer List of Grand Slam men's singles champions Tennis Masters Series records and statistics List of ATP number 1 ranked singles players (since 1973) World number 1 ranked male tennis players (all time, based on recognized tennis authorities) All-time tennis records – men's singles Open Era tennis records – men's singles (since 1968) ATP World Tour records (since 1990) ATP World Tour Awards 2004 Summer Olympics national flag bearers 2008 Summer Olympics national flag bearers Notes References Further reading Video Wimbledon Classic Match: Federer vs Sampras. Standing Room Only, DVD release date: 31 October 2006, run time: 233 minutes, . Wimbledon 2007 Final: Federer vs. Nadal (2007). Kultur White Star, DVD release date: 30 October 2007, run time: 180 minutes, . Wimbledon–The 2008 Finals: Nadal vs. Federer. Standing Room Only, DVD release date: 19 August 2008, run time: 300 minutes, . External links Profiles 1981 births Australian Open (tennis) champions French Open champions Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles Hopman Cup competitors Living people Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics Münchenstein Olympic gold medalists for Switzerland Olympic medalists in tennis Olympic silver medalists for Switzerland Olympic tennis players of Switzerland People from Basel-Stadt South African people of Afrikaner descent South African people of Swiss descent Sports world record holders Swiss male tennis players Swiss people of South African descent Swiss Roman Catholics Tennis players at the 2000 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2004 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2008 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors US Open (tennis) champions Wimbledon champions Wimbledon junior champions World No. 1 tennis players Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' singles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' doubles BBC Sports Personality World Sport Star of the Year winners Laureus World Sports Awards winners

262377

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%2075%20%28cocktail%29

French 75 (cocktail)

French 75 is a cocktail made from gin, champagne, lemon juice, and sugar. It is also called a 75 Cocktail, or in French simply a Soixante Quinze (Seventy Five). The drink dates to World War I, and an early form was created in 1915 at the New York Bar in Paris—later Harry's New York Bar—by barman Harry MacElhone. The combination was said to have such a kick that it felt like being shelled with the powerful French 75mm field gun. History The drink with its current name and recipe developed over the 1920s, though similar drinks date to the 19th century. In the 19th century, the champagne cup was a popular cocktail, consisting of champagne, lemon juice, sugar, and ice. Gin was sometimes added, yielding a drink much like the French 75. The drink was first recorded as the "75" in Harry's ABC of Mixing Cocktails, 1922 edition, by Harry MacElhone, and in the same year in Robert Vermeire's Cocktails: How to Mix Them, which credits the drink to MacElhone. However, the recipes differed from the current form – MacElhone's version consisted of Calvados, gin, grenadine, and absinthe, while Vermeire added lemon juice. The recipe took its now-classic form and "French 75" name in Here’s How, by Judge Jr. (1927), consisting of gin, sugar, lemon juice, and champagne. This recipe was republished with the name "French 75" in The Savoy Cocktail Book (1930), which helped popularize the drink. Some later cocktail books use cognac instead of gin, such as The Fine Art of Mixing Drinks by David A. Embury. The French 75 was popularized in America at the Stork Club in New York. It appears in the movie Casablanca (1942) and is referenced twice in the John Wayne films A Man Betrayed (1941) and Jet Pilot (1957). In 2016, it appears in the ITV series Mr. Selfridge, which is set in London in the 1910s and 1920s. A fanciful alternative story of the invention of the French 75 was related by humorist Jean Shepherd on November 17, 1969, wherein he credits Gervais Raoul Lufbery as the inventor. The mixture, as related by Shepherd, is champagne and cognac on ice with perhaps a twist of lemon. This version is not credible, given the documented earlier version. Similar drinks The recipe of the French 75 is very similar to one of the most popular cocktails, the Tom Collins, with champagne replacing carbonated water. According to the recipe in Harry MacElhone's book Harry's ABC of Mixing Cocktails, a French 75 is supposed to be served in a highball glass. The highball glass, which the Tom Collins cocktail is also served in, supports the theory of the French 75 being a variation of the Tom Collins. References External links Cocktails with Champagne Cocktails with gin

262380

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarp

Scarp

Scarp may refer to: Landforms and geology Cliff, a significant vertical, or near vertical, rock exposure Escarpment, a steep slope or long rock that occurs from erosion or faulting and separates two relatively level areas of differing elevations Fault scarp, the topographic expression of faulting attributed to the displacement of the land surface by movement along faults Other Scarp, Scotland, an island in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland Scarp and counterscarp, the inner and outer sides of a ditch or moat used in fortifications SS-9 Scarp, the NATO reporting name for the R-36 ICBM Scarp, a 2013 book by the British writer Nick Papadimitriou See also Scarpe (disambiguation)

262383

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Hogan

Ben Hogan

William Ben Hogan (August 13, 1912 – July 25, 1997) was an American professional golfer who is generally considered to be one of the greatest players in the history of the game. He is notable for his profound influence on golf swing theory and his ball-striking ability. Hogan's nine career professional major championships tie him with Gary Player for fourth all-time, trailing only Jack Nicklaus (18), Tiger Woods (15) and Walter Hagen (11). He is one of only five players to have won all four majors: the Masters Tournament, The Open Championship (despite only playing once), the U.S. Open, and the PGA Championship. The other four are Nicklaus, Woods, Player, and Gene Sarazen; Hogan's first major win came at age 34. Early life and character Hogan was born in Stephenville, Texas, the third and youngest child of Chester and Clara (Williams) Hogan. His father was a blacksmith and the family lived southwest in Dublin until 1921, when they moved northeast to Fort Worth. When Hogan was nine years old in 1922, his father Chester committed suicide with a self-inflicted gunshot at the family home. By some accounts, Chester committed suicide in front of him, which some (including Hogan biographer James Dodson) have cited as the cause of his introverted personality in later years. The family incurred financial difficulties after his father's suicide, and the children took jobs to help their seamstress mother make ends meet. Older brother Royal quit school at age 14 to deliver office supplies by bicycle, and nine-year-old Ben sold newspapers after school at the nearby train station. A tip from a friend led him to caddying at age eleven at Glen Garden Country Club, a nine-hole course to the south. One of his fellow caddies at Glen Garden was Byron Nelson, later a tour rival. The two would tie for the lead at the annual Christmas caddie tournament in December 1927, when both were fifteen. Nelson sank a putt to tie on the ninth and final hole. Instead of sudden death, they played another nine holes; Nelson sank another substantial putt on the final green to win by a stroke. The following spring, Nelson was granted the only junior membership offered by the members of Glen Garden. Club rules did not allow caddies age 16 and older, so after August 1928, Hogan took his game to three scrubby daily-fee courses: Katy Lake, Worth Hills, and Z-Boaz. Turns professional Hogan dropped out of Central High School during the final semester of his senior year. He turned pro in the golf industry six months shy of his 18th birthday at the Texas Open in San Antonio, in late January 1930. Hogan met Valerie Fox in Sunday school in Fort Worth in the mid-1920s, and they reacquainted in 1932 when he landed a low-paying club pro job in Cleburne, where her family had moved. They married in April 1935 at her parents' home. Hogan's early years as a pro were very difficult; he went broke more than once. He did not win his first tournament (as an individual) until March 1940, when he won three consecutive events in North Carolina at age 27. Although it took a decade for Hogan to secure his first victory, his wife Valerie believed in him, and this helped see him through the tough years when he battled a hook that he later cured. Despite finishing 13th on the money list in 1938, Hogan took an assistant pro job at Century Country Club in Purchase, New York. He worked at Century as an assistant and then as the head pro until 1941, when he took the head pro job at Hershey Country Club in Hershey, Pennsylvania. Career-threatening accident During Hogan's prime years of 1938 through 1959, he won 63 professional golf tournaments despite the interruption of his career by World War II and a near-fatal car accident. Hogan served in the U.S. Army Air Forces from March 1943 to June 1945; he was stationed locally at Fort Worth and became a utility pilot with the rank of lieutenant. Driving home to Fort Worth after a Monday playoff loss at the 1949 Phoenix Open, Hogan and his wife Valerie survived a head-on collision with a Greyhound bus east of Van Horn, Texas. On the morning of Wednesday, February 2, Hogan had reduced his speed in the limited visibility ground fog; the bus was attempting to pass another vehicle on a narrow bridge, which left no place to avoid the crash. Hogan threw himself across Valerie in order to protect her. He would have been killed had he not done so, because the steering column punctured the driver's seat of their new Cadillac sedan. This accident left Hogan, age 36, with a double-fracture of the pelvis, a fractured collar bone, a left ankle fracture, a chipped rib, and near-fatal blood clots: he would suffer lifelong circulation problems and other physical limitations. His doctors said he might never walk again, let alone play golf competitively. While Hogan was in the hospital in El Paso, his life was endangered by a blood clot problem that led doctors to tie off the vena cava. He left the hospital on the first of April, 59 days after the accident, and returned to Fort Worth by train. Hogan regained his strength by extensive walking and resumed his golf activities in November 1949. He returned to the PGA Tour to start the 1950 season at the Los Angeles Open, where he tied with Sam Snead over 72 holes, but lost the 18-hole playoff, held over a week later (due to course conditions). The "Triple Crown" season The win at Carnoustie was only a part of Hogan's watershed 1953 season, a year in which he won five of the six tournaments he entered, including three major championships (a feat known as the Triple Crown of Golf). It still stands among the greatest single seasons in the history of professional golf. Hogan, 40, was unable to enter—and possibly win—the 1953 PGA Championship (to complete the Grand Slam) because its play (July 1–7) overlapped the play of The Open at Carnoustie (July 6–10), which he won. It was the only time that a golfer had won three major professional championships in a year until Tiger Woods won the final three majors in 2000 (and the first in 2001). Hogan often declined to play in the PGA Championship; he skipped it more and more often as his career wore on. There were two reasons for this. First, the PGA Championship was, until 1958, a match play event, and Hogan's particular skill was "shooting a number"—meticulously planning and executing a strategy to achieve a score for a round on a particular course (even to the point of leaving out the 7-iron in the U.S. Open at Merion, saying "there are no 7-iron shots at Merion"). Second, the PGA required several days of 36 holes per day competition, and after his 1949 auto accident, Hogan struggled to manage more than 18 holes a day. After the win at Carnoustie, Hogan and his wife Valerie were passengers on the SS United States westbound to New York City, where he received a ticker tape parade down Broadway on July 21. Hogan's golf swing Ben Hogan is widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest ball strikers who ever played golf. Although he had a formidable record with 64 PGA tour victories, it is Hogan's ball-striking ability that mostly underpins his modern reputation. Hogan was known to practice more than any of his contemporary golfers and is said to have "invented practice". On this matter, Hogan himself said, "You hear stories about me beating my brains out practicing, but... I was enjoying myself. I couldn't wait to get up in the morning, so I could hit balls. When I'm hitting the ball where I want, hard and crisply, it's a joy that very few people experience." He was also one of the first players to match particular clubs to yardages, or reference points around the course such as bunkers or trees, in order to improve his distance control. Hogan thought that an individual's golf swing was "in the dirt" and that mastering it required plenty of practice and repetition. He is also known to have spent years contemplating the golf swing, trying a range of theories and methods before arriving at the finished method which brought him his greatest period of success. The young Hogan was badly afflicted by hooking the golf ball. Although slight of build at 5'8½" and 145 pounds – attributes that earned him the nickname "Bantam", which he thoroughly disliked – he was long off the tee early in his career. Like many professional golfers of his day, he competed in long drive contests as well as matchplay and strokeplay events. It has been alleged that Hogan used a "strong" grip, with hands more the right of the club grip in tournament play prior to his accident in 1949, despite often practicing with a "weak" grip, with the back of the left wrist facing the target, and that this limited his success, or, at least, his reliability, up to that date. Jacobs alleges that Byron Nelson told him this information, and furthermore that Hogan developed and used the "strong" grip as a boy in order to be able to hit the ball as far as bigger, stronger contemporaries. This strong grip is what resulted in Hogan hitting the odd disastrous snap hook. Hogan's late swing produced the famed "Hogan Fade" ball flight, lower than usual for a great player and from left to right. This ball flight was the result of his using a "draw" type swing in conjunction with a "weak" grip, a combination that all but negated the chance of hitting a hook. Hogan played and practiced golf with only bare hands, i.e., without wearing gloves. Moe Norman did the same, playing and practicing without gloves. The two were arguably the greatest ball strikers golf has ever known; even Tiger Woods quoted them as the only players ever to have "owned their swings", in that they had total control of it and, as a result, the ball's flight. In May 1967, the editor of Cary Middlecoff's 1974 book The Golf Swing watched every shot that 54-year-old Hogan hit in the Colonial National Invitational in Fort Worth, Texas. "Hogan shot 281 for a third-place tie with George Archer. Of the 281 shots, 141 were taken in reaching the greens. Of the 141, 139 were rated from well-executed to superbly executed. The remaining two were a drive that missed the fairway by some 5 yards and a 5-iron to a par-3 hole that missed the green by about the same distance. It was difficult, if not impossible to conceive of anybody hitting the ball better over a four-day span." Hogan's secret In the spring of 1953, Hogan announced he had discovered a "secret" that made his swing nearly automatic. There are many theories as to its exact nature. The earliest theory is that the "secret" was a special wrist movement known as "cupping under". This information was revealed in a 1955 Life magazine article. However, many believed Hogan did not reveal all that he knew at the time. It has since been alleged in Golf Digest magazine, and by Jody Vasquez in his book "Afternoons With Mr Hogan", that the second element of Hogan's "secret" was the way in which he used his right knee to initiate the swing and that this right knee movement was critical to the correct operation of the wrist. Hogan revealed later in life that the "secret" involved cupping the left wrist at the top of the backswing and using a weaker left-hand grip (thumb more on top of the grip as opposed to on the right side). Hogan did this to prevent himself from ever hooking the ball off the tee. By positioning his hands in this manner, he ensured that the club face would be slightly open upon impact, creating a fade (left to right ball flight) as opposed to a draw or hook (right to left ball flight). Hand Dominance Many believed that although he played right-handed as an adult, Hogan was actually left-handed. In his book "Five Lessons," in the chapter entitled "The Grip," Hogan said "I was born left-handed -- that was the normal way for me to do things. I was switched over to doing things right-handed when I was a boy but I started golf as a left-hander because the first club I ever came into possession of, an old five-iron, was a left-handed stick." This belief also seemed to be corroborated by Hogan himself in his earlier book "Power Golf." However, some mystery still remains about this since Hogan in subsequent interviews said that the belief of his being left-handed was actually a myth (noted in what was probably his last video interview and in his 1987 Golf Magazine interview). In these interviews Hogan said that he was indeed a right-handed player who early on practiced/played with a left-hand club that had been given to him because it was all that he had and that it was this issue that brought about the myth that he was left-handed. This may be the reason that his early play with right-handed equipment found him using a cross-handed grip (right hand at the end of the club, left hand below it). In "The Search for the Perfect Golf Swing", researchers Cochran and Stobbs held the opinion that a left-handed person playing right-handed would be prone to hook the ball. Famous 1-iron shot Hy Peskin, a staff photographer for Sports Illustrated, took a famous photo of Ben Hogan playing a 1-iron shot to the green at the 72nd hole of the 1950 U.S. Open. It was ranked by Sports Illustrated as one of the greatest sports photographs of the 20th century. "Five Lessons" and golf instruction Hogan believed that a solid, repeatable golf swing involved only a few essential elements, which, when performed correctly and in sequence, were the essence of the swing. His book Five Lessons: The Modern Fundamentals of Golf (written with Herbert Warren Wind) is perhaps the most widely read golf tutorial ever written, although Harvey Penick's Little Red Book would also have a claim to that title, and the principles therein are often parroted by modern "swing gurus". In the Five Lessons, Hogan breaks down the swing into four parts: The Fundamentals, The Grip, Stance and Posture, and The Swing. "The Fundamentals" Hogan explains that the average golfer underestimates himself. He believes that beginners place too much emphasis on the long game. If you have a correct, powerful and repeating swing, then you can shoot in the 70s. "The average golfer is entirely capable of building a repeating swing and breaking 80." Through years of trial and error, Ben has developed techniques that have proved themselves under various types of pressure. "The Grip" Hogan says, "Good golf begins with a good grip." Without a good grip, one cannot play to his or her potential. The grip is important because it is the only direct physical contact you have with the ball via your golf club. A bad grip can cause dipping of the hands at the top of the swing and a decrease in club head speed. This can cause a loss of power and accuracy. The following describes the perfect golf grip in the eyes of Mr. Hogan: "With the back of your left hand facing the target, place the club in the left hand so that, 1) The shaft is pressed up under the muscular pad at the inside heel of the palm, and 2) The shaft also lies directly across the top joint of the forefinger". "Crook the forefinger around the shaft and you will discover that you can lift the club and maintain a fairly firm grip on it by supporting it just with the muscles of that finger and the muscles of the pad of the palm." "Now just close the left hand-close the fingers before you close the thumb-and the club will be just where it should be." "To gain a real acquaintance with this preparatory guide to correct gripping, I would suggest practicing it five or 10 minutes a day for a week until it begins to become second nature." "To obtain the proper grip with the right hand, hold it somewhat extended, with the palm facing your target. Now-your left hand is already correctly affixed-place the club in your right hand so that the shaft lies across the top joint of the four fingers and definitely below the palm." "The right hand is a finger grip. The two fingers which should apply most of the pressure are the two middle fingers." "Now with the club held firmly on the fingers of your right hand, simply fold your right hand over your left thumb." "Stance and Posture" The right stance not only allows for proper alignment, but also for a balanced swing, prepared usage of the proper muscles, and the maximum strength and control over your swing. We align our body to the target only after we have aligned the club head to the target. A proper stance starts with your feet being aligned at the target, followed by your knees, hips and shoulders. Your feet should be shoulder width apart, your front foot should be slightly opened towards the target and your back foot should be perpendicular to the target. As you increase in club, your stance should widen for further stability. Your shoulders will be naturally open to the target line because your arms are not at equal length while holding the club. Make sure to close your shoulders slightly to stay aligned with the target line. The proper stance affects how controlled the backswing is, governs the amount of hip turn in the backswing, and allows for the hips to clear through the downswing. Your front arm should be extended at all times to allow the club to travel in its maximum arc. "The elbows should be tucked in, not stuck out from the body. At address, the left elbow should point directly at the left hipbone and the right elbow should point directly at the right hipbone. Furthermore, there should be a sense of fixed jointness between the two forearms and the wrists, and it should be maintained throughout the swing." "You should bend your knees from the thighs down. As your knees bend, the upper part of the trunk remains normally erect, just as it does when you sit down in a chair. In golf, the sit-down motion is more like lowering yourself onto a spectator-sports-stick. Think of the seat of the stick as being about two inches or so below your buttocks." "The Swing" "The Backswing" Hogan advocates the use of a waggle not only because it helps you loosen your muscles, but also because it allows for your hands and arms to remember where to go for the first part of your backswing. The angle of the swing should feel like you are swinging under a slanting plane of glass. The "glass" has a hole for your head while it rests on your shoulders and touches the ground on top of your ball. Also, the backswing should be slightly steeper than the downswing. At the top of your backswing, your back should be facing the target. "On the backswing, the order of movement goes like this: hands, arms, shoulders, hips." "Actually, the hands start the club head back a split second before the arms start back. And the arms begin their movement a split second before the shoulders begin to turn." "Just before your hands reach hip level, the shoulders, as they turn, automatically start pulling the hips around. As the hips begin to turn, they pull the left leg in to the right." "When you have turned your shoulders all the way, your back should face squarely toward your target." "When you finish your backswing, your chin should be hitting against the top of your left shoulder." "As you begin the backswing, you must restrain your hips from moving until the turning of the shoulders starts to pull the hips around…It is this increased tension that unwinds the upper part of the body. It unwinds the shoulder, the arms and the hands in that order, the correct order. It helps the swing so much it makes it almost automatic." "If he executes his backswing properly, as his arms are approaching hip level, they should be parallel with the plane and they should remain parallel with the plane, just beneath the glass, till they reach the top of the backswing. At the top of his backswing, his left arm should be extended at the exact same angle (to the ball) as the glass." "The Downswing" Hogan believes the second part of the swing, the downswing, is initiated by the hips starting to turn. A baseball player throws a ball by transferring his weight and rotates his hips. Then his shoulders and arm follow after. Hogan thinks that the downswing is very similar to this action. The downswing is at a slightly shallower angle and therefore the arms and hands should come from the inside-out on the downswing. The club head reaches its maximum speed, not at impact, but right after, when both arms are fully extended. "At impact the back of the left hand faces toward your target. The wrist bone is definitely raised. It points to the target and, at the moment the ball is contacted, it is out in front, nearer to the target than any part of the hand." "At impact the right arm is still bent slightly." "At that point just beyond impact where both arms are straight and extended the club head reaches its maximum speed." "The hips lead the shoulders all the way on the downswing." The Five Lessons were initially released as a five-part series in Sports Illustrated magazine, beginning with the issue of March 11, 1957. It was compiled and printed in book form later that year and is currently in its 64th printing. Even today it continues to maintain a place at or near the top of the Amazon.com golf book sales rankings. The book was co-authored by Herbert Warren Wind, and illustrated by artist Anthony Ravielli. Playing style Hogan is widely acknowledged to have been one of the finest ball strikers that ever played the game. Hogan's ball striking has also been described as being of near miraculous caliber by other very knowledgeable observers such as Jack Nicklaus, who only saw him play some years after his prime. Nicklaus once responded to the question, "Is Tiger Woods the best ball striker you have ever seen?" with, "No, no - Ben Hogan, easily". Further testimony to Hogan's (and Moe Norman's) status among top golfers is provided by Tiger Woods, who said that he wished to "own his (golf) swing" in the same way as Moe Norman and Hogan had. Woods claimed that this pair were the only players ever to have "owned their swings", in that they had total control of it and, as a result, of the ball's flight. By most accounts, Ben Hogan was the best golfer of his era and still stands as one of the greatest of all time. "The Hawk" possessed fierce determination and an iron will, which combined with his unquestionable golf skills, formed an aura that could intimidate opponents into competitive submission. In Scotland, Hogan was known as "The Wee Ice Man", or, in some versions, "Wee Ice Mon," a moniker earned during his famous British Open victory at Carnoustie in 1953. It is a reference to his steely and seemingly nerveless demeanor, itself a product of a golf swing he had built that was designed to perform better the more pressure he put it under. Hogan rarely spoke during competition, and mostly kept to himself. Hogan was also highly respected by fellow competitors for his superb course management skills. During his peak years, he rarely if ever attempted a shot in competition which he had not thoroughly honed in practice. Although his ball striking was perhaps the greatest ever, Hogan's putting skills are thought to have been below average, though he was capable of putting very well. Solid and sometimes spectacular in his early and peak years, Hogan by his later years deteriorated to the point of being an often poor putter by professional standards, particularly on slow greens. The majority of his putting problems developed after his 1949 car accident, which nearly blinded his left eye and impaired his depth perception. Toward the end of his career, he often stood over the ball inordinately long before drawing his putter back. While he suffered from the "yips" in his later years, Hogan was known as an effective putter from mid to short range on quick, U.S. Open style surfaces at times during his career. Career and records Ben Hogan won ten tournaments in 1948 alone, including the U.S. Open at Riviera Country Club, a course known as "Hogan's Alley" because of his success there. His 8-under par score in 1948 set a U.S. Open record that was matched only by Jack Nicklaus in 1980, Hale Irwin in 1990, and Lee Janzen in 1993. It was not broken until Tiger Woods shot par in 2000 (Jim Furyk also shot par in the 2003, Rory McIlroy set the current record with 16-under par in 2011, which was matched by Brooks Koepka in 2017). Hogan remains the only player to win at least 10 PGA tour events in a year twice (13 in 1946 and 10 in 1948). Hogan owns the longest streaks of consecutive major attempts finishing in both the top 5 with 12 (1940–1947) and the top 10 with 18 (1948–1956). He is the only player to win as many as 8 majors in as few as 11 attempts (1948–1953). Hogan owns the longest streak of consecutive U.S Open attempts finishing in the top 10 with 16 (1940–1960). The next longest streak is 7. Hogan is one of only two players to win 3 consecutive U.S. Opens in 3 attempts (the other is Willie Anderson). Hogan finished in the top 10 in 12 consecutive U. S. Open attempts (1941–1956) which is the longest such streak in Open history. He achieved this on 12 different courses and won 5 times. Colonial Country Club in Fort Worth, a modern PGA Tour tournament venue, is also known as "Hogan's Alley" and may have the better claim to the nickname as he won its tour event five times. It was his home course after his retirement, and he was an active member of Colonial as well for many years. The sixth hole at Carnoustie, a par five on which Hogan took a famously difficult line off the tee during each of his rounds in the 1953 Open Championship, has also recently been renamed Hogan's Alley. Prior to the 1949 accident, Hogan never truly captured the hearts of his galleries, despite being one of the best golfers of his time. Perhaps this was due to his perceived cold and aloof on-course persona. But when Hogan shocked and amazed the golf world by returning to tournament golf only eleven months after his accident, and took second place in the 1950 Los Angeles Open after a playoff loss to Sam Snead, he was cheered on by ecstatic fans. "His legs simply were not strong enough to carry his heart any longer," famed sportswriter Grantland Rice said of Hogan's near-miss. However, he proved to his critics (and to himself, especially) that he could still win by completing his famous comeback five months later, defeating Lloyd Mangrum and George Fazio in an 18-hole playoff at Merion near Philadelphia to win his second U.S. Open title. Hogan went on to achieve what is perhaps the greatest sporting accomplishment in history, limping to twelve more PGA Tour wins (including six majors) before retiring. In 1951, Hogan entered just five events, but won three of them – the Masters, U.S. Open, and World Championship of Golf, and finished second and fourth in his other two starts. He finished fourth on that season's money list, barely $6,000 behind the season's official money list leader Lloyd Mangrum, who played over twenty events. That year also saw the release of a biopic starring Glenn Ford as Hogan, called Follow the Sun: The Ben Hogan Story. He even received a ticker-tape parade in New York City in 1953, upon his return from winning the British Open, the only time he played the event. With that victory, Hogan became just the second player, after Gene Sarazen, to win all four of the modern major championships—the Masters, U.S. Open, British Open, and PGA Championship. Hogan remains the only player to win the Masters, U.S. Open, and British Open in the same calendar year (1953). His 14-under par at the 1953 Masters set a record that stood for a dozen years; as of 2018, he remains one of just twelve (Jack Nicklaus, Raymond Floyd, Ben Crenshaw, Tiger Woods, David Duval, Phil Mickelson, Charl Schwartzel, Jordan Spieth, Justin Rose, Rickie Fowler, and Patrick Reed) to have recorded such a low score in the tournament. In 1967, at age 54, Hogan shot a record 30 on the back nine at the Masters; the record stood until 1992. In 1945, Hogan set a PGA Tour record for a 72-hole event at the Portland Open Invitational by shooting 27-under-par. The record stood until 1998, when it was broken by John Huston (it has since been surpassed by nine others, including most recently Phil Mickelson's 28-under in the 2013 Waste Management Phoenix Open). Hogan never competed on the Senior PGA Tour, as that circuit did not exist until he was in his late sixties. According to his PGA Tour profile, Hogan earned just $332,516 in official PGA events, however, a 2021 study concluded that Hogan's tournament performances could have earned him $91.8M if he had played in the modern era. Five U.S. Opens? Many supporters of Hogan and some golf historians feel that his victory at the Hale America Open in 1942 should be counted as his fifth U.S. Open and 10th major championship, since the tournament was to be a substitute for the Open after its cancellation by the USGA. The Hale America National Open was held in the same time slot and was run like the U.S. Open with more than 1,500 entries, local qualifying at 69 sites and sectional qualifying at most major cities. The top players, who were not away fighting in World War II, participated and the largest purse of the year was awarded. Included in the field were the very top players of the day including Byron Nelson, Gene Sarazen, Jimmy Demaret, Lloyd Mangrum, and defending Open champion Craig Wood. The only player of that level who did not play was Sam Snead, but the field did also include Bobby Jones who had competed in his own Masters event in April of that year. Distinctions and honors A special room is dedicated to Hogan's career, comeback, and accomplishments at the United States Golf Association Museum and Arnold Palmer Center for Golf History in Far Hills, New Jersey. He was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974. In 1976, Ben Hogan was voted the Bob Jones Award, the highest honor given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship in golf. Hogan helped to design the original plans for the Trophy Club Country Club Golfcourse in Trophy Club and 18 of the course's 36 holes are designated as the "Hogan" Course. Hogan played on two U.S. Ryder Cup teams, 1947 and 1951, and captained the team three times, 1947, 1949, and 1967, famously claiming on the last occasion to have brought the "twelve best golfers in the world" to play in the competition. (This line was used by subsequent Ryder Cup captain Raymond Floyd in 1989. In 1989, playing at The Belfry, the two sides halved at 14 points each and Team Europe retained the cup.) Hogan ranked 38th in ESPN's SportsCentury 50 Greatest Athletes of the 20th Century in 1999. Hogan won the Vardon Trophy for lowest scoring average three times: 1940, 1941, and 1948. In 1953, Hogan won the Hickok Belt as the top professional athlete of the year in the United States. In 2000, Hogan was ranked as the second greatest player of all time by Golf Digest magazine. Jack Nicklaus was first, and Sam Snead was third. In 2009, Hogan was ranked as the fourth greatest player of all time by Golf Magazine. Jack Nicklaus was first, Tiger Woods was second, and Bobby Jones was third. The Ben Hogan Award is given annually by the Golf Writers Association of America to a golfer who has stayed active in golf despite a physical handicap or serious illness. The first winner was Babe Zaharias. The Ben Hogan Award is given by Friends of Golf and the Golf Coaches Association of America to the best college golf player since 1990. The Ben Hogan Museum, located in Hogan's childhood hometown of Dublin, Texas, pays homage to the legendary golfer—the boy, the businessman, the golfer. It highlights his early experiences and their resulting impact on his private and professional life. As the son of the local blacksmith, Hogan learned from an early age the way metal could be forged to best accomplish specific tasks. He is thought to have used that knowledge to his advantage, later in life, as he went on to design and manufacture optimum golf equipment. The Ben Hogan Golf Equipment Company Following his most successful season, Hogan started his golf club company in the fall of 1953 in Fort Worth. Production began in the summer of 1954, with clubs targeted toward "the better player." Always a perfectionist, Hogan is said to have ordered the entire first production run of clubs destroyed because they did not meet his exacting standards. In 1960, he sold the company to American Machine and Foundry (AMF), but stayed on as chairman of the board for several more years. AMF Ben Hogan golf clubs were sold continuously from 1960 to 1985 when AMF was bought by Minstar who sold The Ben Hogan company in 1988 to Cosmo World, who owned the club manufacturer until 1992, when it was sold to another independent investor, Bill Goodwin. Goodwin moved the company out of Fort Worth, and a union shop, to Virginia so it would be close to his home of operations for other AMF brands and, incidentally, a non-union shop in an effort to return the company to profitability. Goodwin sold to Spalding in 1997, closing the sale in January 1998. Spalding returned manufacturing to Hogan's Fort Worth before eventually including the company's assets in a bankruptcy sale of Spalding's Top Flite division to Callaway in 2004. Callaway now owns the rights to the Ben Hogan brand. After over a half century and numerous ownership changes, the Ben Hogan line was discontinued by Callaway in 2008. In May 2014, Eidolon Brands approached Perry Ellis International and got the rights to use Ben Hogan's name for a line of golf clubs. Ownership timeline 1953 – company founded 1960 – sold to AMF, Hogan retained as president 1984 – sold to Irwin Jacobs for $15 million 1988 – sold to Cosmo World of Japan for $55 million, initial sponsor of the Ben Hogan Tour from 1990 to 1992 1992 – sold to Bill Goodwin of Richmond, Virginia 1997 – sold to Spalding Top-Flite 2003 – sold to Callaway Golf, Hogan line discontinued in 2008 2014 – name licensed by Eldolon for a revived Ben Hogan line. Led by CEO Terry Koehler. Company failed late 2016 2017 – Ben Hogan Golf Equipment Company reemerges as golf's first & only direct-to-consumer-only golf equipment company. Death Hogan died at age 84 in Fort Worth on July 25, 1997; his wife Valerie died two years later, and they are interred at Greenwood Memorial Park in Fort Worth. Professional wins PGA Tour wins (64) 1938 (1) Hershey Four-Ball (with Vic Ghezzi) 1940 (4) North and South Open, Greater Greensboro Open, Asheville Land of the Sky Open, Goodall Palm Beach Round Robin 1941 (5) Asheville Open, Chicago Open, Hershey Open, Miami Biltmore International Four-Ball (with Gene Sarazen), Inverness Invitational Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret) 1942 (6) Los Angeles Open, San Francisco Open, North and South Open, Asheville Land of the Sky Open, Hale America Open, Rochester Times-Union Open 1945 (5) Nashville Invitational, Portland Open Invitational, Richmond Invitational, Montgomery Invitational, Orlando Open 1946 (13) Phoenix Open, San Antonio Texas Open, St. Petersburg Open, Miami International Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret), Colonial National Invitation, Western Open, Goodall Round Robin, Inverness Invitational Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret), Winnipeg Open, PGA Championship, Golden State Open, Dallas Invitational, North and South Open 1947 (7) Los Angeles Open, Phoenix Open, Colonial National Invitation, Chicago Victory National Open, World Championship of Golf, Miami International Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret), Inverness Invitational Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret) 1948 (10) Los Angeles Open, PGA Championship, U.S. Open, Inverness Invitational Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret), Motor City Open, Reading Open, Western Open, Denver Open, Reno Open, Glendale Open 1949 (2) Bing Crosby Pro-Am, Long Beach Open 1950 (1) U.S. Open 1951 (3) Masters Tournament, U.S. Open, World Championship of Golf 1952 (1) Colonial National Invitation 1953 (5) Masters Tournament, Pan American Open, Colonial National Invitation, U.S. Open, The Open Championship 1959 (1) Colonial National Invitation Major championships are shown in bold. Source: Other wins (9) this list is probably incomplete 1936 Land of the Sky Open 1937 Land of the Sky Open 1940 Westchester Open, Westchester PGA Championship 1950 Greenbrier Pro-Am 1956 World Cup of Golf individual; World Cup of Golf team Major championships Wins (9) Note: The PGA Championship was match play until 1958 1Defeated Mangrum and Fazio in 18-hole playoff; Hogan 69 (−1), Mangrum 73 (+3), Fazio 75 (+5). Results timeline NT = no tournament WD = Withdrew CUT = missed the half-way cut (3rd round cut in 1960 PGA Championship) R64, R32, R16, QF, SF = Round in which player lost in PGA Championship match play "T" indicates a tie for a place Summary Longest streak of top-10s – 18 (1948 Masters – 1956 U.S. Open) Most consecutive cuts made – 35 (1939 Masters – 1956 U.S. Open) U.S. national team appearances Professional Ryder Cup: 1947 (winners, playing captain), 1949 (winners, non-playing captain), 1951 (winners), 1967 (winners, non-playing captain) Canada Cup: 1956 (winners, individual winner), 1958 See also Career Grand Slam Champions List of golfers with most PGA Tour wins List of golfers with most wins in one PGA Tour event List of men's major championships winning golfers Longest PGA Tour win streaks Most PGA Tour wins in a year References Further reading "Ben Hogan: "Players Were Afraid"" (1999). In ESPN SportsCentury. Michael MacCambridge, Editor. New York: Hyperion ESPN Books. pp. 142–3. External links Ben Hogan's official site World Golf Hall of Fame profile Ben Hogan - Daily Telegraph obituary Ben Hogan - Photos by A Ravielli Taken For The Five Lessons of Golf American male golfers PGA Tour golfers Winners of men's major golf championships Ryder Cup competitors for the United States Men's Career Grand Slam champion golfers World Golf Hall of Fame inductees Golf writers and broadcasters Golfers from Texas United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II United States Army Air Forces officers Military personnel from Texas People from Stephenville, Texas Sportspeople from Fort Worth, Texas 1912 births 1997 deaths

262390

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snoqualmie%20River

Snoqualmie River

The Snoqualmie River is a long river in King County and Snohomish County in the U.S. state of Washington. The river's three main tributaries are the North, Middle, and South Forks, which drain the west side of the Cascade Mountains near the town of North Bend and join near the town of Snoqualmie just above the Snoqualmie Falls. After the falls the river flows north through rich farmland and the towns of Fall City, Carnation, and Duvall before meeting the Skykomish River to form the Snohomish River near Monroe. The Snohomish River empties into Puget Sound at Everett. Other tributaries of the Snoqualmie River include the Taylor River and the Pratt River, both of which enter the Middle Fork, the Tolt River, which joins at Carnation, and the Raging River at Fall City. Many of the Snoqualmie River's headwaters originate as snowmelt within the Alpine Lakes Wilderness. On August 8, 2007, U.S. Representative Dave Reichert (WA-08), King County Executive Ron Sims, and others announced a proposal to expand the Alpine Lakes Wilderness to include the valley of the Pratt River, a tributary of the Middle Fork, near the town of North Bend. The proposal would also give the Pratt River National Wild and Scenic River status. South Fork The South Fork, approximately long, begins at the outlet of tiny Source Lake, , and flows southeast before soon turning southwest and continuing to flow in that direction until after Denny Creek joins. It then flows west for a bit before turning northwest and continuing in that general direction until it merges with the Snoqualmie River Proper just above Snoqualmie Falls. It drops over a total of 6 waterfalls (many would argue 8 because many people divide the final one into three portions). Middle Fork The Middle Fork, approximately long, originates from Chains Lakes, , and flows south to Williams Lake, then in a westerly direction until it meets with the North Fork near North Bend. It receives the waters of the Taylor River and the Pratt River in short order about halfway between its source and its mouth. It has one major waterfall along its course. The upper reaches of the Middle Fork, Taylor, and Pratt river valleys are within the boundaries of the Alpine Lakes Wilderness area. The Middle Fork Valley is a popular recreational area since it is accessible during the winter due to its low altitude and close proximity to Seattle. For many years the Middle Fork Road extended 24 miles to Hardscrabble Creek, but was gated at Dingford Creek in June 2007, 18 miles in. The gate at Dingford Creek was a controversial part of the Access and Travel Management plan adopted by the US Forest Service in 2005. Much of the road's route is on the 1920s and 30's era railroad grade of the North Bend Timber Company. The paved portion of the Middle Fork road was extended by 9.7 miles during a 3-year construction project from 2014-2016, extending pavement to just before the Taylor River bridge. The Middle Fork Valley was heavily logged starting in 1923 and continued up through the 1970s. The obvious railroad grades, pilings, and related debris are from the North Bend Timber Company's activity from 1923 to 1941. North Fork The North Fork, approximately long, originates at the outlet of small, rarely visited Lake Kanim, . Almost directly after exiting the lake it drops over Kanim Falls. The river then flows east before making a wide turn north. Just before its confluence with the Middle Fork the river flows through a canyon near Ernie's Grove. There are several waterfalls within this canyon including Fantastic Falls. Waterfalls The Snoqualmie River has quite a few major waterfalls. By far the most famous waterfall in Washington, receiving over 1 million visitors every year, is the high Snoqualmie Falls. However, the three forks of the upper Snoqualmie River also have notable waterfalls. The north fork has Fantastic Falls (35 ft) and Kanim Falls (200 ft). The middle fork has Nellie Falls (150 ft). And, the south fork has Twin Falls (135 ft), Middle Twin Falls, Upper Twin Falls, Weeks Falls, Upper Weeks Falls, Denny Camp Falls, Franklin Falls (135 ft), and Fall-into-the-Wall Falls (22 ft). Snoqualmie Falls was featured on the television series Twin Peaks. Shots of upriver Snoqualmie also feature in some of the show's title sequences. Whitewater kayaking, canoeing and rafting The Snoqualmie River has quite a few sections suitable for whitewater kayaking and rafting. It features run rate Class II to Class V+. The nearby Raging River also features a kayaking run. Flooding The Snoqualmie River is prone to flooding and typically sees multiple flood events annually that inundate local farmland and close low-lying roads. During record level floods, all road access to the towns of Carnation and Duvall becomes closed off. The last four times this happened were during the floods of 2020, 2009, 2006, and 1990. The river level of the Snoqualmie River is monitored by six USGS streamgages, one on each fork, one just above the falls, one below Carnation, and one near Duvall. Data from the streamgages are used by the National Weather Service for flood forecasting and warning. The Tolt River and the Raging River are also monitored by USGS streamgages. The Snoqualmie Flood Reduction Project was a controversial Army Corps of Engineers project completed in 2005 to reduce the effect of floods in the town of Snoqualmie by widening the river just above the falls. See also List of Washington rivers Cities on the river North Bend, Washington Snoqualmie, Washington Fall City, Washington Carnation, Washington Duvall, Washington References External links Snoqualmie River Status from Floodzilla NOAA - Snoqualmie Stations King County/USGS - Snoqualmie River Flooding Information Snoqualmie Flood Reduction Project (a.k.a. Snoqualmie 205 Project) Historical information on the Middle Fork Valley Rivers of King County, Washington Rivers of Washington (state) Rivers of Snohomish County, Washington Wild and Scenic Rivers of the United States

262391

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow%20mule

Moscow mule

A Moscow mule is a cocktail made with vodka, spicy ginger beer, and lime juice, garnished with a slice or wedge of lime. It is a type of buck; therefore, sometimes called a vodka buck. The Moscow mule is popularly served in a copper mug, which takes on the cold temperature of the liquid. Some public health advisories recommend copper mugs be plated with nickel or stainless steel on the inside and the lip, but it has been disputed whether the time and acidity involved in the drinking of a Moscow mule would be enough to leach out the 30 milligrams of copper per litre needed to cause copper toxicity. Variations Due to the popularity of the Moscow mule, other buck cocktails with different liquors have been labeled with the "mule" name in recent years. Variations with the name changed accordingly: Portuguese mule: Pinguça. Kentucky mule, Horsefeather: Bourbon. New Orleans mule: Bourbon and coffee liqueur. Gin-gin mule, London mule, Munich mule, Foghorn: Gin. Mexican mule: Tequila. Jamaican mule: Spiced rum. Aussie mule: Bundaberg Rum. Irish mule: Irish whiskey. Glasgow mule: Blended Scotch whisky and St-Germain liqueur. Bohemian mule: Absinthe. Dead man's mule: Absinthe and cinnamon schnapps. French mule: Cognac and angostura bitters. Prickly pear mule: Pear liqueur and Poire Williams. Southern mule: Southern Comfort liqueur. Tuscan mule: Tuaca liqueur. Oslo mule: Akvavit. Mistletoe mule: Garnished with rosemary and cranberries. Mississippi mule: Cathead Honeysuckle vodka. Manila mule: Lambanog and calamansi instead of lime. Mezcal mule: Mezcal. Berlin Mule: Jägermeister Westphalian Mule: Korn, Apple juice instead of lime and cucumber Another variation uses ginger syrup instead of ginger beer. Other ingredients, such as carrot juice and angostura bitters, can also be added. The addition of raspberry syrup or crème de framboise liqueur turns a Moscow mule into a Floradora. A variant which uses Mountain Dew soda in place of the ginger beer is known as a Moscow Mole. History George Sinclair's 2007 article on the origin of the drink quotes the New York Herald Tribune from 1948: The mule was born in Manhattan but "stalled" on the West Coast for the duration. The birthplace of "Little Moscow" was in New York's Chatham Hotel. That was back in 1941 when the first carload of Jack Morgan's Cock 'n' Bull ginger beer was railing over the plains to give New Yorkers a happy surprise… The Violette Family helped. Three friends were in the Chatham bar, one John A. Morgan, known as Jack, president of Cock 'n' Bull Products and owner of the Hollywood Cock 'n' Bull Restaurant; one was John G. Martin, president of G.F. Heublein Brothers Inc. of Hartford, Conn., and the third was Rudolph Kunett, president of the Pierre Smirnoff, Heublein's vodka division. As Jack Morgan tells it, "We three were quaffing a slug, nibbling an hors d'oeuvre and shoving toward inventive genius". Martin and Kunett had their minds on their vodka and wondered what would happen if a two-ounce shot joined with Morgan's ginger beer and the squeeze of a lemon. Ice was ordered, lemons procured, mugs ushered in and the concoction put together. Cups were raised, the men counted five and down went the first taste. It was good. It lifted the spirit to adventure. Four or five days later the mixture was christened the Moscow mule... This story was well known for years, however in 2007 a new version of the invention of the Moscow mule cocktail was published. In this story the cocktail's inventor was Wes Price, Morgan's head bartender and the drink was born out of a need to clear the bar's cellar, packed with unsold inventory, including vodka and ginger beer. Eric Felten quotes Wes Price in an article that was published in 2007 in The Wall Street Journal "I just wanted to clean out the basement," Price would say of creating the Moscow mule. "I was trying to get rid of a lot of dead stock." The first one he mixed he served to the actor Broderick Crawford. "It caught on like wildfire," Price bragged." The Moscow mule is often served in a copper mug. The popularity of this drinking vessel is attributable to Martin, who went around the United States to sell Smirnoff vodka and popularize the Moscow mule. Martin asked bartenders to pose with a specialty copper mug and a bottle of Smirnoff vodka, and took Polaroid photographs of them. He took two photos, leaving one with the bartender for display. The other photo was put into a collection and used as proof to the next bar Martin visited of the popularity of the Moscow mule. The copper mug remains, to this day, a popular serving vessel for the Moscow mule. According to a 1942 Insider Hollywood article, the Moscow mule was most popular in Los Angeles, where it originated. The Nevada State Journal (October 12, 1943) reinforced the mule's popularity in reporting: "Already the mule is climbing up into the exclusive handful of most-popular mixed drinks". It became known as a favorite drink of Reno casino owner William F. Harrah. In his book Beat the Dealer (1964), Edward O. Thorp did not name the Tahoe casino where he thought he had been poorly treated as a card counter. Instead, he wrote, "Immediately I had a Moscow mule", subtly hinting that the location was Harrah's Lake Tahoe, due to Harrah's then well-known proclivity for the drink. Copper vessel plating The ingredients in Moscow mule cocktails are acidic, and the resulting beverage has a pH well below 6.0. This creates a problem when using traditional copper mugs, as copper can start dissolving into acidic solutions. Copper in solution is considered toxic at concentrations above 1 mg/L. On July 28, 2017, the Iowa Alcoholic Beverages Division issued a statement that pure copper vessels should not be used to serve acidic drinks, but that "copper mugs lined on the interior with another metal, such as nickel or stainless steel, are allowed to be used and are widely available". The U.S. Food and Drug Administration 2013 Food Code states that copper and copper alloys such as brass "may not be used in contact with a food that has a pH below 6 such as vinegar, fruit juice, or wine or for a fitting or tubing installed between a backflow prevention device and a carbonator." The U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s Model Food Code specifically prohibits copper from "coming into direct contact with foods that have a pH below 6.0.” The advisory relates only to solid copper mugs. Copper mugs that are lined with stainless steel or other food-safe materials are exempt from the advisory. See also Highball References External links Cocktails with vodka Articles containing video clips Cocktails with ginger beer Food and drink introduced in 1941 Sweet cocktails

262392

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situationist%20Times

Situationist Times

The Situationist Times ran to six issues edited and published by Jacqueline de Jong between May 1962 and December 1964 in Hengelo (Netherlands), Copenhagen and Paris, in editions of between 1,000-2,000. Contributors include: Theo Wolvecamp, de Jong, Armando, Vanderkamm, Gruppe SPUR, de Boer, Edle Hansen, Singer, Gordon Fazarkely, Max Bucaille, G. Hay, Asger Jorn, P. Schat, Noël Arnaud, Pierre Alechinsky, Boris Vian, and many others. No. 3 This issue is the "International British Edition", dedicated to "The Typology of Knots". No. 4 This issue deals with labyrinths; No. 5 This issues deals with the Ring, the interlaced ring and consequently the Chain. a letter from Luc d'Heusch, Mind and Sense by Asger Jorn Der Kleine Bootsmann (17th century Danish poem) Art and Orders by Asger Jorn Regular forms of closed non-orientabe surfaces by Lech Tomaszewski Extract from Het Verleden van Oost-Europa by Dr. Z. R. Diettrich Extract from Topology by Patterson Cosmogonie annulaires, Port d'Anneau and Structure d'Anneau by Max Bucaille Von den Polyeder zu den gekrümmten Flächen by Professor W. Lietzmann Origin et géénéologie d'Anneau by Max Bucaille Forgotten knowledge of the universe in the children's hopscotch by Virtus Schade L'infini du doigt by Max Bucaille L'anneau retrouvé - folk tale from Kashmir Cercles mysterieux by Max Bucaille Ringsleken en Ringrijden - Children's game Noeds et dénouments by D. G. Emmerich Die Legende des Heiligen Oswald Cinétisations by Pol Bury What goes up still goes down by Dr Narlikar and Professor Fred Hoyle Kreisen, Kreissegementen und Wellenlinien usw. by F. van der WaalsDie Parabel des 3 Ringe (Nathan der Weise) Gotthold Ephraim LessingSome mathematical aspects by H. C. DoetsTournures by D. G. EmmerichVenus de l'île by Mérimée Extract from the Opera The Labyrinth by Peter Schat Drawings b Karl Pelgram Poems and drawings by Jim RyanNo happy returns for me'' by E. Mazman No. 6 (International Parisian Edition) contains 33 lithographs (Alechinsky, Peter Klasen, Jorn, Wifredo Lam, Roberto Matta, Roland Topor, Antonio Saura.) References Further reading Situationist Times. https://monoskop.org/Situationist_Times 1962 establishments in the Netherlands 1964 disestablishments in the Netherlands Defunct newspapers published in the Netherlands Dutch-language newspapers Publications established in 1962 Publications disestablished in 1964 Situationist International

262393

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbo

Garbo

Garbo may refer to: People Greta Garbo (1905–1990), Swedish actress Gunnar Garbo (1924–2016), Norwegian journalist and politician Ingvald Garbo (1891–1941), member of the Norwegian Resistance in WWII Raffaellino del Garbo (b c1466), Florentine painter Codename for Juan Pujol García (1912–1988), WWII British double agent Garbo (singer) (born 1958), Italian singer Greg Garbowsky (born 1986), bassist for the Jonas Brothers Garbo, character in US TV drama Dirt Places Għarb, a village in Gozo, Malta Garbo, Tibet, a village in Tibet Garbo (Puerto Vallarta), a gay bar in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico Films Garbo (film), 1992 Australian comedy film about two garbagemen Garbo, a 2005 documentary film about Greta Garbo co-directed and co-written by Kevin Brownlow Other uses "Garbo", Australian slang for a Waste collector Garbo (Darawiish), a Darawiish administrative division

262396

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Duncombe%20%28Upper%20Canada%20Rebellion%29

Charles Duncombe (Upper Canada Rebellion)

Charles Duncombe (28 July 1792 – 1 October 1867) was a leader in the Upper Canada Rebellion in 1837 and subsequent Patriot War. He was an active Reform politician in the 1830s, and produced several important legislative reports on banking, lunatic asylums, and education. Early life He was the eldest son of Thomas and Rhoda Tyrill Duncombe, born July 28, 1792, in Stratford, Connecticut. He studied medicine at the college of the One Hundred and One Members of the Medical Society of the City of New York, graduating in 1819. He then settled in Delaware, Upper Canada, and in 1824 he established the first medical school in Upper Canada with Dr John Rolph, in St. Thomas, under the patronage of Colonel Thomas Talbot. Freemasonry Debates within Upper Canada on the nature of the relationship of the provincial Grand Lodge and the English Grand Lodge paralleled political discussions on the colony's constitution. Those Freemasons who immigrated from the United States favoured an independent Provincial Grand Lodge. Duncombe was a Freemason, serving as first master of the Mount Moriah lodge at Westminster. In 1836, in a move that presaged the Rebellion, he set up a Grand Lodge independent from the British lodges and became its first Grand Master. Duncombe's Grand Lodge was short-lived, but he soon helped found another during the Patriot War that followed the Rebellion: the Hunters' Lodge. The Hunters' Lodge was patterned on Freemasonry. His last known Masonic activity was to establish a Masonic lodge in Sacramento in 1852. Reform politics Upper Canada Legislature Duncombe was elected in 1830 to the Legislative Assembly as a representative for Oxford County. He was originally a Reformer in the same vein as Robert Baldwin, but was attracted by William Lyon Mackenzie's more radical reform movement. In 1836, Duncombe made extensive reports to a parliamentary committee of reformers on prisons, asylums and education based on an extensive tour of American facilities. In his report on prisons, Duncombe argued crime was the result of social injustice, and not just the product of individual error. He argued that government had the responsibility to not merely punish the offender, but to rectify the social conditions that produced the offender. This, he argued, was particularly true for juvenile offenders. He viewed penitentiaries as "schools for criminals" and sought their eradication. "Doctor Charles Duncombe's Report upon the Subject of Education, made to the Parliament of Upper Canada, 25th February, 1836." called for a radical expansion of common school education in the province. He rejected the grammar school model pursued by the Family Compact and argued for practical education; the classics were of limited use in the real world for which education should kill students. A bill based on Duncombe's report passed the assembly on 4 April 1836, only to be rejected by the Family Compact-dominated legislative council. Many of its provisions, however, would be introduced under after the Rebellion including elective school boards, female education, creation of normal schools, prescribed textbooks, and non-sectarian religious instruction. The 1836 provincial elections were marked by widespread violence by the Orange Order, and claims of voter fraud. The Lt. Governor, Sir Francis Bond Head was in charge of the elections but intervened directly in favour of the Tories in the campaign. The Reformers complained that he issued illegal land patents to new immigrants to entice them to vote for Tory candidates. When the new Tory dominated Assembly refused to hear their petition, Duncombe was charged with presenting it to the British government. He travelled to London, England in the summer of 1836 but was refused an audience by the Colonial Office. Duncombe was all the more disillusioned when his 14-year-old son was killed before his return in November. Like Samuel Lount, his fellow reform assemblyman and rebellion organizer, he virtually withdrew from public life in 1837. Rebellion & Hunters' Lodges In December 1837, Duncombe heard reports of Mackenzie's rebellion in Toronto. Duncombe, with Robert Alway, Finlay Malcolm, Eliakim Malcolm, Enoch Moore and Joshua Doan, gathered about 200 men on 8 December and marched towards Toronto; this is sometimes known as the Western Rising. A few hundred more rebels joined them on their march, but they dispersed near Hamilton on December 13 when they learned of Mackenzie's defeat, and that a militia under Colonel Allan MacNab was on their way to stop them. Duncombe and Eliakim Malcolm fled to the United States. Duncombe was a central organizer of the Hunters' Lodge, a secret Masonic-like military organization with its Grand Lodge in Cleveland. This organization inducted more than 40,000 men into lodges spread across the Great Lakes and St Lawrence region. They launched the Patriot War in 1838–39, almost bringing the United States and the United Kingdom to war. The organization also declared a provisional Republic of Canada at a convention in Cleveland in September 1838, at which Duncombe established a Republican Bank of Canada to finance the war. Duncombe remained there for the rest of his life, despite being pardoned in 1843. Joshua Doan was executed in 1839. The Story of His Escape Main Article: The History of the County Brant, 1883, p. 395 Local History of Burford Township Ontario speaks of Dr. Charles Duncombe and his escape from Canada. A writer was able to give it from the statement of the gentleman who, by his intrepidity and knowledge of the Western part of the Ontario frontier, aided an escape and which recalls those of some of Scott's Jacobite heroes a century before. Charles Tilden, Uncle of Dr. Hagel of Toronto, Ontario, was, with several of the Hagel family among the Scotland insurgents. Living near Amherstberg, he happened to be specially well acquainted with the entire western frontier, and noticed that although Sir Francis Head's agents had placed guards all along the line to prevent the escape of "rebels", now that a month had passed from the first excitement, the vigilance was much relaxed. Tilden went to see Duncombe, who, in the depth of winter (January, 1838, was a specially cold season), was kept hid in a hay-loft, and supplied with food by stealth by those who left the house as if to feed the cattle. Tilden urged him to attempt escape disguised as a woman, which Duncombe's smooth round face rendered it possible enough. The attempt was dangerous; a reward had been offered for his head, and all over the country the noble savages of the Grand River reserve were on the lookout for his scalp and the blood-money it would bring. They left the house next day in an old-fashioned farmers box sleigh. Tilden drove, Mrs. Shennick and Duncombe sat side by side, the latter disguised as an elderly farmer's wife. Mrs. Shennick's little girl, a child of nine years, was taught to address him as "Auntie". All day they drove along without molestation; at night they stopped at a country hotel, where there not being sufficient accommodation, Charles Tilden had to sleep in another a room for the hotel staff, while the three women had a room to themselves. Unable to sleep from the excitement of his position, Dr. Duncombe sat up all night. At early dawn they drove away breakfastless, and arrived after several hours' drive at the crossing place, which was at a village opposite what is now Marine City, Michigan. They drove into the yard of the tavern where were the soldiers of a party in command of a sergeant, posted there to watch the crossing place, and if possible arrest the "rebel Chief". Very calmly Tilden watered his horses, and then addressing the sergeant in command as "Captain", asked if the ice was safe. The sergeant asked whence he came. Tilden replied, truly enough, that he came from London, and he was going with his Aunt and Mother to visit some friends, whose names he mentioned, on the opposite coast of Michigan. The sergeant ordered one of his men to accompany them across the ice. Then they get half way for the rest of the river, the young soldier said that they could easily find their way for the rest of the track, and was about to leave them. Dr. Duncombe handed Charles Tilden fifty cents for the soldier, and while the latter was thanking them, felt very much inclined to send Dr. Duncombe's compliments to the sergeant who had furnished them with a guide, but refrained lest he should spoil the chance of some other unfortunate who might try the same stratagem for evading the blood-hounds of the Family Compact Government. In a few minutes he stood "a free man" on a free soil." They entered a store to buy some food, and Duncombe careless about preserving his disguise soon attracted attention. It became known that the Canadian Republican, Dr. Duncombe, a crowd gathered. He escaped capture, which in those days would have been certain death. He had a long and prosperous career in the U.S. lay before him. He was included in the general amnesty, and his Buford property was restored to him. Charles Tilden's son lived in possession of a farm of two hundred acres which Dr. Duncombe deeded to him as an acknowledgment of his father's generous friendship. Dr. Duncombe was the first known physician in Sacramento, California practicing medicine in 1851. He would later be elected to State Legislature in 1858, but was denied a seat for not being a citizen. He was elected the following year but was denied a seat. It was in 1862 he became a citizen, he took his place in the State Assembly. Free Banking Until 1835, all banks in Upper Canada required a legislative charter; this left them subject to political corruption and manipulation, as was the case with the largest of them, the Bank of Upper Canada. The Bank of Upper Canada was controlled by the Family Compact and used by them to control the province's money supply and trade. Reformers tried several legislative strategies, including attempts to incorporate credit unions such as the Farmers' Storehouse company. This came to an end in 1835 when Charles Duncombe produced a "Report on Currency" for the Legislative Assembly which demonstrated the legality of the Scottish joint-stock bank system in Upper Canada. The difference between the English chartered banks and the Scottish joint stock banks is that the Scottish banks were considered partnerships and hence didn't need a legislated Act in order to operate. The joint stock banks thus lacked limited liability, and every partner in the bank was responsible for the bank's debts to the full extent of their personal property. The chartered banks, in contrast, protected their shareholders with limited liability and hence from major loss; they thus encouraged speculation. The Scottish joint-stock banks followed a "hard money policy." They avoided speculative risk because if they failed, their shareholders were responsible for the full loss. Since the banks did not require a legislated charter, many more banks could be founded, and they were more competitive and freer from political influence and corruption. Following Duncombe's report, the Farmers' Bank and the Bank of the People were founded on a joint stock basis, until the Family Compact conspired to make them illegal in 1838. The Bank of the People funded William Lyon Mackenzie newspaper, The Constitution in 1836. Similar issues existed in the United States, where the chartered banks were accused of creating a "monied aristocracy" responsible for the financial panic of 1837–1838. The Equal Rights Party (the Locofocos) called for the introduction of the Scottish system, called by them "Free Banking". The Patriot War has been described as "Locofocoism with a Gun." When the Hunters' Lodges held their convention in Cleveland in September 1838, Duncombe presented "An address to the Different Lodges on the Subject of a Joint-Stock Company Bank" in which he proposed financing the Patriot War with a republican bank. The bank was established for a short period. Duncombe continued to pursue the idea of joint stock banking after the end of the Patriot War, publishing a lengthy book on the subject: Duncombe’s Free Banking: An essay on Banking, Currency, Finance, Exchanges and Political Economy (Cleveland: Sanford & Co., 1841). In it, he argued that a democratic state depended upon Free Banking. California State Assembly After his activity in the Patriot War, Duncombe moved from Cleveland to Rochester, in 1841. He practised medicine there until he moved to Sacramento County, California in 1849 at the beginning of the California Gold Rush. Although one of the first doctors to arrive in Sacramento, he did not qualify to practise in the state until 1851. He married Lucy Millard of California in 1857. He was elected to the Sacramento city council. In 1859, he was elected to the California State Assembly as one of four members from Sacramento County, but was disqualified because it was argued that he gave up his American citizenship when he allowed himself to be elected to a foreign (Canadian) legislature. He became an American citizen and was elected again in 1863 as one of the county's five representatives. He died in Hicksville, California, in 1867 after a severe case of sunstroke and buried in the Masonic Section of the Sacramento Historic City Cemetery in Sacramento, California. References 1792 births 1867 deaths Members of the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada Duncombe Charles Upper Canada Rebellion people People from Stratford, Connecticut Politicians from Sacramento, California Deaths from hyperthermia Place of birth missing 19th-century American politicians

262400

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armando%20%28artist%29

Armando (artist)

For the online writer/blogger, see Daily Kos. Armando (18 September 1929 – 1 July 2018), born Herman Dirk van Dodeweerd, was a Dutch painter, sculptor and writer. Biography Armando was born in Amsterdam, and as child moved to Amersfoort. There he saw, during the German occupation of the Netherlands, how the Nazis set up a "transition camp" for prisoners who were to be sent to concentration camps. The suffering of the victims and the cruelty of the Nazi camp guards, so near his home, influenced him for the rest of his life. After the liberation (1945), he studied art history at the University of Amsterdam. His first solo exhibition was at the Galerie Le Canard, Amsterdam, in 1954. At this time he also started to write poetry. He was influenced by the CoBrA art group, and made abstract drawings—with his left hand, in the dark. He was also influenced by Jean Dubuffet and Jean Fautrier, producing thickly impastoed paintings. In 1958 he was one of the founding members of the Nederlandse Informele Groep (Informelen), with the painters , , Henk Peeters, and others. By 1959 he had joined the Situationist International (SI) and attended their Third conference, held in Munich 17–20 April 1959. With Anton Alberts, Constant and Har Oudejans he wrote First proclamation of the Dutch Section of the SI. However, he was expelled from the SI in the Spring of 1960, though continuing to contribute to other Situationist publications like the Situationist Times. He also contributed to Podium, Gard Sivik, De Nieuwe Stijl, and Barbarber. He lived partly in Amsterdam, partly in Amersfoort, and until 1989 also in Berlin. Fire at the Armando museum, 2007 Amersfoort, the place of his childhood, hosted a museum devoted to his work. On 22 October 2007 a large fire struck the museum and burned thirteen Armando paintings. At the time of the fire there was also an exhibition with works of painters like Ruisdael, Dürer, Seghers and Kiefer, which were all lost, with damages estimated at about three million euros (US$4,000,000). (Source: Dutch TV News NOS, 24 October 2007) A final balance of the damage by the fire was made on Tuesday 20 November 2007. According to a Dutch newsarticle, 63 paintings were lost, 8 were recovered. 6 of the recovered paintings are badly damaged, two are lightly damaged. The new Armando museum: Museum Oud Amelisweerd (MOA) Since 2014 the Armando Collection has been housed in a new home, the Museum Oud Amelisweert near Bunnik (NLD). The MOA regularly organizes exhibitions with works by Armando, sometimes in relation with works by other artists. Honours and awards Honours 1990 - Knight of the Order of Oranje-Nassau 2006 - Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion 2009 - The Honorary medal for Arts and Science of the Order of the House of Orange Awards 1987 - The Gouden Ganzenveer voor his contribution to the Dutch culture and the distribution throughout Europa. References 1929 births 2018 deaths Dutch artists Modern artists Artists from Amsterdam Ferdinand Bordewijk Prize winners Recipients of the Order of the House of Orange Knights of the Order of Orange-Nassau Knights of the Order of the Netherlands Lion Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin

262401

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation%20%28biology%29

Translation (biology)

In molecular biology and genetics, translation is the process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins after the process of transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell's nucleus. The entire process is called gene expression. In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded in a ribosome, outside the nucleus, to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide. The polypeptide later folds into an active protein and performs its functions in the cell. The ribosome facilitates decoding by inducing the binding of complementary tRNA anticodon sequences to mRNA codons. The tRNAs carry specific amino acids that are chained together into a polypeptide as the mRNA passes through and is "read" by the ribosome. Translation proceeds in three phases: Initiation: The ribosome assembles around the target mRNA. The first tRNA is attached at the start codon. Elongation: The last tRNA validated by the small ribosomal subunit (accommodation) transfers the amino acid it carries to the large ribosomal subunit which binds it to the one of the precedingly admitted tRNA (transpeptidation). The ribosome then moves to the next mRNA codon to continue the process (translocation), creating an amino acid chain. Termination: When a stop codon is reached, the ribosome releases the polypeptide. The ribosomal complex remains intact and moves on to the next mRNA to be translated. In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), translation occurs in the cytosol, where the large and small subunits of the ribosome bind to the mRNA. In eukaryotes, translation occurs in the cytoplasm or across the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum in a process called co-translational translocation. In co-translational translocation, the entire ribosome/mRNA complex binds to the outer membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the new protein is synthesized and released into the ER; the newly created polypeptide can be stored inside the ER for future vesicle transport and secretion outside the cell, or immediately secreted. Many types of transcribed RNA, such as transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, and small nuclear RNA, do not undergo translation into proteins. A number of antibiotics act by inhibiting translation. These include anisomycin, cycloheximide, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, streptomycin, erythromycin, and puromycin. Prokaryotic ribosomes have a different structure from that of eukaryotic ribosomes, and thus antibiotics can specifically target bacterial infections without any harm to a eukaryotic host's cells. Basic mechanisms The basic process of protein production is addition of one amino acid at a time to the end of a protein. This operation is performed by a ribosome. A ribosome is made up of two subunits, a small subunit and a large subunit. These subunits come together before translation of mRNA into a protein to provide a location for translation to be carried out and a polypeptide to be produced. The choice of amino acid type to add is determined by an mRNA molecule. Each amino acid added is matched to a three nucleotide subsequence of the mRNA. For each such triplet possible, the corresponding amino acid is accepted. The successive amino acids added to the chain are matched to successive nucleotide triplets in the mRNA. In this way the sequence of nucleotides in the template mRNA chain determines the sequence of amino acids in the generated amino acid chain. Addition of an amino acid occurs at the C-terminus of the peptide and thus translation is said to be amine-to-carboxyle directed. The mRNA carries genetic information encoded as a ribonucleotide sequence from the chromosomes to the ribosomes. The ribonucleotides are "read" by translational machinery in a sequence of nucleotide triplets called codons. Each of those triplets codes for a specific amino acid. The ribosome molecules translate this code to a specific sequence of amino acids. The ribosome is a multisubunit structure containing rRNA and proteins. It is the "factory" where amino acids are assembled into proteins. tRNAs are small noncoding RNA chains (74–93 nucleotides) that transport amino acids to the ribosome. tRNAs have a site for amino acid attachment, and a site called an anticodon. The anticodon is an RNA triplet complementary to the mRNA triplet that codes for their cargo amino acid. Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases (enzymes) catalyze the bonding between specific tRNAs and the amino acids that their anticodon sequences call for. The product of this reaction is an aminoacyl-tRNA. In bacteria, this aminoacyl-tRNA is carried to the ribosome by EF-Tu, where mRNA codons are matched through complementary base pairing to specific tRNA anticodons. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases that mispair tRNAs with the wrong amino acids can produce mischarged aminoacyl-tRNAs, which can result in inappropriate amino acids at the respective position in protein. This "mistranslation" of the genetic code naturally occurs at low levels in most organisms, but certain cellular environments cause an increase in permissive mRNA decoding, sometimes to the benefit of the cell. The ribosome has two binding sites for tRNA. They are the aminoacyl site (abbreviated A), the peptidyl site/ exit site (abbreviated P/E). With respect to the mRNA, the three sites are oriented 5’ to 3’ E-P-A, because ribosomes move toward the 3' end of mRNA. The A-site binds the incoming tRNA with the complementary codon on the mRNA. The P/E-site holds the tRNA with the growing polypeptide chain. When an aminoacyl-tRNA initially binds to its corresponding codon on the mRNA, it is in the A site. Then, a peptide bond forms between the amino acid of the tRNA in the A site and the amino acid of the charged tRNA in the P/E site. The growing polypeptide chain is transferred to the tRNA in the A site. Translocation occurs, moving the tRNA in the P/E site, now without an amino acid; the tRNA that was in the A site, now charged with the polypeptide chain, is moved to the P/E site and the tRNA leaves and another aminoacyl-tRNA enters the A site to repeat the process. After the new amino acid is added to the chain, and after the tRNA is released out of the ribosome and into the cytosol, the energy provided by the hydrolysis of a GTP bound to the translocase EF-G (in bacteria) and a/eEF-2 (in eukaryotes and archaea) moves the ribosome down one codon towards the 3' end. The energy required for translation of proteins is significant. For a protein containing n amino acids, the number of high-energy phosphate bonds required to translate it is 4n-1. The rate of translation varies; it is significantly higher in prokaryotic cells (up to 17–21 amino acid residues per second) than in eukaryotic cells (up to 6–9 amino acid residues per second). Even though the ribosomes are usually considered accurate and processive machines, the translation process is subject to errors that can lead either to the synthesis of erroneous proteins or to the premature abandonment of translation, either because a tRNA couples to a wrong codon or because a tRNA is coupled to the wrong amino acid. The rate of error in synthesizing proteins has been estimated to be between 1 in 105 and 1 in 103 misincorporated amino acids, depending on the experimental conditions. The rate of premature translation abandonment, instead, has been estimated to be of the order of magnitude of 10−4 events per translated codon. The correct amino acid is covalently bonded to the correct transfer RNA (tRNA) by amino acyl transferases. The amino acid is joined by its carboxyl group to the 3' OH of the tRNA by an ester bond. When the tRNA has an amino acid linked to it, the tRNA is termed "charged". Initiation involves the small subunit of the ribosome binding to the 5' end of mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF). In bacteria and a minority of archaea, initiation of protein synthesis involves the recognition of a purine-rich initiation sequence on the mRNA called the Shine-Delgarno sequence. The Shine-Delgarno sequence binds to a complementary pyrimidine-rich sequence on the 3' end of the 16S rRNA part of the 30S ribosomal subunit. The binding of these complementary sequences ensures that the 30S ribosomal subunit is bound to the mRNA and is aligned such that the initiation codon is placed in the 30S portion of the P-site. Once the mRNA and 30S subunit are properly bound, an initiation factor brings the initiator tRNA-amino acid complex, f-Met-tRNA, to the 30S P site. The initiation phase is completed once a 50S subunit joins the 30 subunit, forming an active 70S ribosome. Termination of the polypeptide occurs when the A site of the ribosome is occupied by a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) on the mRNA, creating the primary structure of a protein. tRNA usually cannot recognize or bind to stop codons. Instead, the stop codon induces the binding of a release factor protein. (RF1 & RF2) that prompts the disassembly of the entire ribosome/mRNA complex by the hydrolysis of the polypeptide chain from the peptidyl transferase center of the ribosome Drugs or special sequence motifs on the mRNA can change the ribosomal structure so that near-cognate tRNAs are bound to the stop codon instead of the release factors. In such cases of 'translational readthrough', translation continues until the ribosome encounters the next stop codon. The process of translation is highly regulated in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. Regulation of translation can impact the global rate of protein synthesis which is closely coupled to the metabolic and proliferative state of a cell. In addition, recent work has revealed that genetic differences and their subsequent expression as mRNAs can also impact translation rate in an RNA-specific manner. Clinical significance Translational control is critical for the development and survival of cancer. Cancer cells must frequently regulate the translation phase of gene expression, though it is not fully understood why translation is targeted over steps like transcription. While cancer cells often have genetically altered translation factors, it is much more common for cancer cells to modify the levels of existing translation factors. Several major oncogenic signaling pathways, including the RAS–MAPK, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, MYC, and WNT–β-catenin pathways, ultimately reprogram the genome via translation. Cancer cells also control translation to adapt to cellular stress. During stress, the cell translates mRNAs that can mitigate the stress and promote survival. An example of this is the expression of AMPK in various cancers; its activation triggers a cascade that can ultimately allow the cancer to escape apoptosis (programmed cell death) triggered by nutrition deprivation. Future cancer therapies may involve disrupting the translation machinery of the cell to counter the downstream effects of cancer. Mathematical modeling of translation The transcription-translation process description, mentioning only the most basic ”elementary” processes, consists of: production of mRNA molecules (including splicing), initiation of these molecules with help of initiation factors (e.g., the initiation can include the circularization step though it is not universally required), initiation of translation, recruiting the small ribosomal subunit, assembly of full ribosomes, elongation, (i.e. movement of ribosomes along mRNA with production of protein), termination of translation, degradation of mRNA molecules, degradation of proteins. The process of amino acid building to create protein in translation is a subject of various physic models for a long time starting from the first detailed kinetic models such as or others taking into account stochastic aspects of translation and using computer simulations. Many chemical kinetics-based models of protein synthesis have been developed and analyzed in the last four decades. Beyond chemical kinetics, various modeling formalisms such as Totally Asymmetric Simple Exclusion Process (TASEP),Probabilistic Boolean Networks (PBN), Petri Nets and max-plus algebra have been applied to model the detailed kinetics of protein synthesis or some of its stages. A basic model of protein synthesis that took into account all eight 'elementary' processes has been developed, following the paradigm that "useful models are simple and extendable". The simplest model M0 is represented by the reaction kinetic mechanism (Figure M0). It was generalised to include 40S, 60S and initiation factors (IF) binding (Figure M1'). It was extended further to include effect of microRNA on protein synthesis. Most of models in this hierarchy can be solved analytically. These solutions were used to extract 'kinetic signatures' of different specific mechanisms of synthesis regulation. Genetic code Whereas other aspects such as the 3D structure, called tertiary structure, of protein can only be predicted using sophisticated algorithms, the amino acid sequence, called primary structure, can be determined solely from the nucleic acid sequence with the aid of a translation table. This approach may not give the correct amino acid composition of the protein, in particular if unconventional amino acids such as selenocysteine are incorporated into the protein, which is coded for by a conventional stop codon in combination with a downstream hairpin (SElenoCysteine Insertion Sequence, or SECIS). There are many computer programs capable of translating a DNA/RNA sequence into a protein sequence. Normally this is performed using the Standard Genetic Code, however, few programs can handle all the "special" cases, such as the use of the alternative initiation codons which are biologically significant. For instance, the rare alternative start codon CTG codes for Methionine when used as a start codon, and for Leucine in all other positions. Example: Condensed translation table for the Standard Genetic Code (from the NCBI Taxonomy webpage). AAs = FFLLSSSSYY**CC*WLLLLPPPPHHQQRRRRIIIMTTTTNNKKSSRRVVVVAAAADDEEGGGG Starts = ---M---------------M---------------M---------------------------- Base1 = TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG Base2 = TTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGG Base3 = TCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAG The "Starts" row indicate three start codons, UUG, CUG, and the very common AUG. It also indicates the first amino acid residue when interpreted as a start: in this case it is all methionine. Translation tables Even when working with ordinary eukaryotic sequences such as the Yeast genome, it is often desired to be able to use alternative translation tables—namely for translation of the mitochondrial genes. Currently the following translation tables are defined by the NCBI Taxonomy Group for the translation of the sequences in GenBank: The standard code The vertebrate mitochondrial code The yeast mitochondrial code The mold, protozoan, and coelenterate mitochondrial code and the mycoplasma/spiroplasma code The invertebrate mitochondrial code The ciliate, dasycladacean and hexamita nuclear code The kinetoplast code The echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code The euplotid nuclear code The bacterial, archaeal and plant plastid code The alternative yeast nuclear code The ascidian mitochondrial code The alternative flatworm mitochondrial code The Blepharisma nuclear code The chlorophycean mitochondrial code The trematode mitochondrial code The Scenedesmus obliquus mitochondrial code The Thraustochytrium mitochondrial code The Pterobranchia mitochondrial code The candidate division SR1 and gracilibacteria code The Pachysolen tannophilus nuclear code The karyorelict nuclear code The Condylostoma nuclear code The Mesodinium nuclear code The peritrich nuclear code The Blastocrithidia nuclear code The Cephalodiscidae mitochondrial code See also Cell (biology) Cell division DNA codon table Epigenetics Expanded genetic code Gene expression Gene regulation Gene Genome Life Protein methods Start codon References Further reading External links Virtual Cell Animation Collection: Introducing Translation Translate tool (from DNA or RNA sequence) Molecular biology Protein biosynthesis Gene expression Cellular processes

262402

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation%20%28disambiguation%29

Translation (disambiguation)

Translation is the conversion of text from one language to another. Science Translation studies, the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization Translation (biology), part of the biological process of protein biosynthesis from messenger RNA Frequency translation, converting a radio signal from one frequency to another by mixing the input signal with a second signal Broadcast translator, rebroadcasting a radio signal at a different frequency Translation (physics), movement that changes the position of an object, moving every point the same distance in the same direction, without rotation, reflection or change in size Translation operator is an alternative name for the displacement operator in quantum optics Translational research Translation (sociology) Mathematics Translation (geometry), moving points the same distance in the same direction Shift operator, a translation within the real line Translation (group theory), the operation of multiplying by a group element Computing Address translation Port address translation, allows a single public IP address to be used by many hosts on a private network Network address translation, transceiving network traffic through a router by re-writing the source and/or destination IP addresses Virtual-to-physical address translation Program transformation The translation phase of a compiler (or, by extension, the entire process of compilation) Translate Toolkit, freeware localization toolkit Translator (computing), multiple meanings Bing Translator, online machine translation service in Bing.com Google Translate, online machine translation service in Google Literature and entertainment Translation (rhetoric device) a form of parody, where a sarcastic paraphrase of a source quotation is given to mock its author Translations (play), 1980 play by Brian Friel The Translator, 1999 novel by Leila Aboulela Universal translator, science fiction device which translates between any languages "...In Translation", seventeenth episode of the first season of Lost "Translators", a poem by Patti Smith from her 1973 book Witt Translate, 2006 album by Sexy Sadie Translator (band), a San Francisco new wave band Translator (album), their third album Translation (album), 2020 album by Black Eyed Peas Translate, 2020 album by Luke Abbott Religion Translation (relic), the removal of holy objects from one locality to another Translation (Mormonism), in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the change of a person from mortality to immortality without death Translation (ecclesiastical), the transfer of a bishop from one diocese or episcopal see to another See also Conversion (disambiguation) Interpretation (disambiguation) Transformation (disambiguation)

262407

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20H.%20Rosenthal

David H. Rosenthal

David H. Rosenthal (1945–1992) was an American author, poet, editor, and translator. He wrote mostly on the history of jazz music and was also an important translator of Catalan literature. Among his translations was the first English rendering of the Catalan epic "Tirant Lo Blanch," of which Cervantes said," I swear to you, my friend, it's the best book of its kind in the world." Selected books Eyes on the Street (1974) Modern Catalan Poetry (editor, 1979) Loves of the Poets: Poems (1989) Hard Bop: Jazz and Black Music 1955–1965 (1992) The Journey: Poems (1992) Four Postwar Catalan Poets (editor, 1994) References External links Catalan Biography David H. Rosenthal legacy New York Times obituary American book editors American writers about music Catalan–English translators Spanish–English translators Portuguese–English translators 1945 births 1992 deaths 20th-century American poets 20th-century translators 20th-century American non-fiction writers

262408

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20Jung-geun

An Jung-geun

An Jung-geun, sometimes spelled Ahn Joong-keun (; 2 September 1879 – 26 March 1910; baptismal name: Thomas An ), was a Korean-independence activist, nationalist, and pan-Asianist. He is famous for assassination of Itō Hirobumi, the first Prime Minister of Japan. On 26 October 1909, he assassinated Prince Itō Hirobumi, a four-time Prime Minister of Japan, former Resident-General of Korea, and then President of the Privy Council of Japan, following the signing of the Eulsa Treaty, with Korea on the verge of annexation by Japan. He was imprisoned and later executed by Japanese authorities on 26 March 1910. An was posthumously awarded the Order of Merit for National Foundation in 1962 by the South Korean government, the most prestigious civil decoration in the Republic of Korea, for his efforts for Korean independence. Biography Early accounts An was born on 2 September 1879, in Haeju, Hwanghae Province, the first son of An Taehun (안태훈; 安泰勳) and Cho Maria (조마리아, 趙性女), of the Sunheung Ahn clan (순흥 안씨; 順興 安氏). Ahn is the 26th great-grandson of Ahn Hyang. His childhood name was (안응칠; 安應七; ). The name originated from seven dots on the chest and stomach, meaning that it was born in accordance with the energy of the Big Dipper. As a boy, he learned Chinese literature and Western sciences, but was more interested in martial arts and marksmanship. Kim Gu (김구; 金九), the future leader of the Korean independence movement who had taken refuge in An Tae-hun's house at the time, wrote that young An Jung-geun was an excellent marksman, liked to read books, and had strong charisma. At the age of 16, An entered the Catholic Church with his father, where he received his baptismal name "Thomas" (토마스), and learned French. While fleeing from the Japanese, An took refuge with a French priest of the Catholic Church in Korea named Wilhelm (Korean name, Hong Seok-gu; 홍석구; 洪錫九) who baptized and hid him in his church for several months. The priest encouraged An to read the Bible and had a series of discussions with him. He maintained his belief in Catholicism until his death, going to the point of even asking his son to become a priest in his last letter to his wife. At the age of 25, he started a coal business, but devoted himself to the education of Korean people after the Eulsa Treaty by establishing private schools in northwestern regions of Korea. He also participated in the National Debt Repayment Movement. In 1907 he exiled himself to Vladivostok to join in with the armed resistance against the Japanese colonial rulers, where he learned fluent Russian. He was appointed a lieutenant general of an armed Korean resistance group and led several attacks against Japanese forces before his eventual defeat. Assassination of Itō Hirobumi In October 1909, An passed the Imperial Japanese guards at the Harbin Railway Station. Itō Hirobumi had come back from negotiating with the Russian representative on the train. An shot him three times with an FN M1900 pistol on the railway platform. He also shot Kawagami Toshihiko (川上俊彦), the Japanese Consul General, Morita Jirō (森泰二郞), a Secretary of Imperial Household Agency, and Tanaka Seitarō (田中淸太郞), an executive of South Manchuria Railway, who were seriously injured. After the shooting, An yelled out for Korean independence in Russian, stating "Корея! Ура!" (Korea! Hooray!), and waving the Korean flag. Afterwards, An was arrested by Russian guards who held him for two days before turning him over to Japanese colonial authorities. When he heard the news that Itō had died, he made the sign of the cross in gratitude. An was quoted as saying, "I have ventured to commit a serious crime, offering my life for my country. This is the behavior of a noble-minded patriot." Wilhelm gave last rites to An, ignoring the bishop of Korea's order not to. An insisted that the captors call him by his baptismal name, Thomas. In court, An claimed to be a lieutenant general of the Korean resistance army and demanded to be treated as a prisoner of war and not a suspected criminal. He insisted he did nothing wrong, reciting a list of 15 execution-worthy offenses he believed Itō had committed. An mistakenly believed Itō had ordered the assassination of Empress Myeongseong, an order which is attributed to Miura Gorō, although Miura Gorō did send a report to Itō after the execution. Imprisonment and death An's Japanese captors showed sympathy to him. He recorded in his autobiography that the public prosecutor, Mizobuchi Takao, exclaimed "From what you have told me, it is clear that you are a righteous man of East Asia. I can't believe a sentence of death will be imposed on a righteous man. There's nothing to worry about." He was also given New Year's delicacies and his calligraphy was highly admired and requested. After six trials, An was sentenced to death by the Japanese colonial court in Ryojun (Port Arthur). An was angered at the sentence, though he expected it. He had hoped to be viewed as a prisoner of war instead of an assassin. On the same day of sentencing at two o'clock in the afternoon, his two brothers Jeong-geun and Gong-geun met with him to deliver their mother's message, "Your death is for the sake of your country, and don't ask for your life in a cowardly manner. Your brave death for justice is final filial regard to your mother." Judge Hirashi, who presided over An's trial, had promised An that a stay of execution for at least a few months would be granted, but Tokyo ordered prompt action. Before his execution, An made two final requests: that the wardens help him finish his essay, "On Peace in East Asia", and for a set of white silk Korean clothes to die in. The warden granted the second request and resigned shortly afterwards. An requested to be executed as a prisoner of war, by firing squad. But instead, it was ordered that he should be hanged as a common criminal. The execution took place in Ryojun, on 26 March 1910. His grave in Lu Shun has not been found. Views Some historians hold that Itō's death resulted in the acceleration of the final stage of the colonization process, but the claim has been disputed by some. According to Donald Keene, author of Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912, An Jung-Geun was an admirer of Emperor Meiji of Imperial Japan. One of the 15 charges An leveled against Itō was that he had deceived the Emperor of Japan, whom An felt desired peace in East Asia and Korean independence. An requested that Meiji be informed of his reasons for his execution of Itō in the hopes that if Meiji understood his reasons, the emperor would realize how mistaken Itō's policies were and would rejoice. An also felt sure that most Japanese felt similar hatred for Itō, an opinion he formed from talking with Japanese prisoners in Korea. During An's prison sentence and trial, many Japanese prison guards, lawyers, and even prosecutors were inspired by him. Legacy The assassination of Itō by An was praised by Koreans and many Chinese as well, who were struggling against Japanese invasion at the time. Well-known Chinese political leaders such as Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen, and Liang Qichao wrote poems acclaiming An. In the 2010 An Jung-Geun Symposium in Korea, Wada Haruki (和田春樹), an activist who once worked at Tokyo University, evaluated An by quoting Itō Yukio (伊藤之雄), a fellow history scholar in Kyoto University. In his text published in 2009, Itō Yukio claims that the reign by Itō Hirobumi resulted in strong resistance from Koreans as it was considered the first step for the annexation of Korea due to the cultural differences, and that An is not to be blamed even if he assassinated Itō without understanding Itō's ideology (2009, Itō). On 26 March 2010, a nationwide centenary tribute to An was held in South Korea, including a ceremony led by the Prime Minister Chung Un-Chan and tribute concerts. Ancestry An's family produced many other Korean independence activists. An's cousin An Myeong-Geun (안명근; 安明根) attempted to assassinate Terauchi Masatake, the first Japanese Governor-General of Korea (조선총독; 朝鮮總督) who executed the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910. He failed, however, and was imprisoned for 15 years; he died in 1926. An's brothers An Jeong-Geun (안정근; 安定根) and An Gong-Geun (안공근; 安恭根), as well as An's cousin An Gyeong-Geun (안경근; 安敬根) and nephew An Woo-Saeng (안우생; 安偶生), joined the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai, China, which was led by Kim Gu, and fought against Japan. An Chun-Saeng (안춘생; 安春生), another nephew of An's, joined the National Revolutionary Army of China, participated in battles against Japanese forces at Shanghai, and joined the Korean Liberation Army in 1940. Later, he became a lieutenant general of the Republic of Korea Army and a member of the National Assembly of South Korea. Meanwhile, An Jung-Geun's youngest son, Ahn Jun-Saeng (안준생;安俊生) became a prominent businessman and Chinilpa during the Japanese occupation of Korea. He died in 1952 from Tuberculosis, with his children immigrating to the United States of America after the war. Grandfather An In-su (안인수, 安仁壽) Father An Tae-hun (안태훈, 安泰勳) Mother Jo Maria (趙瑪利亞, 조마리아) of the Baecheon Jo clan (배천 조씨) (6 May 1862 - 25 July 1927) Sister Younger sister: An Seong-nyeo (안성녀) (1881 - 1954) Brother Younger brother: An Jeong-geun (안정근, 安定根) (17 January 1887 - 17 March 1949) Sister-in-law: Yi Jeong-seo (이정서) Nephew: An Won-saeng (안원생) Niece: An Mi-saeng (안미생) Nephew: An Jin-saeng (안진생) (28 January 1916 - 24 December 1988) Niece-in-law: Park Tae-jeong (박태정) Grandniece: An Gi-su (안기수) Grandniece: An Gi-ryeo (안기려) Younger brother: An Gong-geun (안공근, 安恭根) (11 July 1889 - 30 May 1939) Nephew: An Woo-saeng (안우생, 安偶生) (1907 - 1997) Nephew: An Nak-saeng (안낙생, 安樂生) (22 June 1913 - 1950) Niece: Lady An Nephew-in-law: Han Ji-seong (한지성, 韓志成) Niece: Lady An Wife Kim Ah-ryeo (김아려, 金亞麗) Children Son: An Mun-saeng (안문생, 安文生) Daughter: An Hyeon-saeng (안현생) (1902 - 1959) Son-in-law: Hwang Il-cheong (황일청) Granddaughter: Hwang Eun-ju (황은주) Granddaughter: Hwang Eun-sil (황은실) Son: An Jun-saeng (안준생, 安俊生) (1907 - November 1951) Daughter-in-law: Jeong Ok-nyeo (정옥녀, 鄭玉女) (1905 - ?) Grandson: An Ung-ho (안웅호, 雄浩) Granddaughter: An Yeon-ho (안연호) (1938 - 6 February 2011) Granddaughter: An Seon-ho (안선호) (? - 2003) Cousins An Myeong-geun (안명근,安明根) (1879 - 1927) An Hong-geun (안홍근) An Bong-geun (안봉근, 安奉根) Grandnephew: An Chun-saeng (안춘생, 安椿生) (12 August 1912 - 26 January 2011) Pan-Asianism An strongly believed in the union of the three great countries in East Asia, China, Korea, and Japan in order to counter and fight off Western imperialism, namely, Western countries that controlled parts of Asia, and restore East Asian independence. He followed the progress of Japan during the Russo-Japanese War and claimed that he and his compatriots were delighted at hearing of the defeat of one of the agents of western imperialism, but were disappointed that the war ended before Russia was totally subjugated. An felt that with the death of Itō, Japan and Korea could become friends because of the many traditions that they shared. He hoped that this friendship, along with China, would become a model for the world to follow. His thoughts on Pan-Asianism were stated in his essay, "On Peace in East Asia" (東洋平和論; 동양평화론) that he worked on and left unfinished before his execution. In this work, An recommends the organization of combined armed forces and the issue of joint banknotes among Korea, Japan, and China. Sasagawa Norikatsu (笹川紀勝), a Professor of Law at Meiji University, highly praises An's idea as an equivalent of the European Union and a concept that preceded the concept of the League of Nations by 10 years. Calligraphic works An is highly renowned for calligraphy works. While he was in prison, many prison guards such as Chiba Toshichi (千葉十七) who respected him, made requests to An for calligraphy works. He left many calligraphy works which were written in the jail of Lushun although he hadn't studied calligraphy formally. He would leave on his calligraphy works a signature of "大韓國人" (Great Korean) and a handprint of his left hand, which was missing the last joint of the ring finger, which he had cut off with his comrades in 1909 as a pledge to kill Itō. Some of the works were designated as Treasure No. 569 of the Republic of Korea in 1972. One of his famous works is "一日不讀書口中生荊棘" (일일부독서 구중생형극; Unless one reads every day, thorns grow in the mouth), a quote from the Analects of Confucius. Memorial Halls Memorial halls for An were erected in Seoul in 1970 by the South Korean government and in Harbin by the Chinese government in 2006. South Korean President Park Geun-Hye raised the idea of erecting a monument for An while meeting with Chinese President Xi Jinping during a visit to China in June 2013. Thus another memorial hall honoring An Jung-Geun was opened on Sunday, 19 January 2014 in Harbin. The hall, a 200-square meter room, features photos and memorabilia. Annual activities in memorial of An are held in Lüshun, where he was imprisoned and executed. According to local sources in China dated on 22 March 2017, the An Jung-geun Memorial Hall located at Harbin Railway Station was recently relocated to a Korean art museum in Harbin City amid China's retaliation over South Korea's deployment of the U.S. THAAD antimissile system. The Memorial Hall has since been reopened in the Harbin Railway Station after renovation work. Controversies Historically, the Japanese government has generally deemed An Jung-geun as a terrorist and criminal, while South Korea has upheld An as a national hero. In January 2014, Yoshihide Suga, then a Japanese government spokesperson and former Japanese Prime Minister, described the Harbin memorial hall honoring An in China as "not conducive to building peace and stability" between East Asian countries. China, on the other hand has declared that An was a "famous anti-Japanese high-minded person" while South Korea's foreign ministry stated An was a "highly respected figure." In February 2017, South Korean police were criticized for using a picture of An in posters put up in the city of Incheon. The poster warned of terrorism, and many South Korean citizens online criticized the police, asking "if it was meant to imply if An was a terrorist". A police officer in the Korea Times apologized and clarified that there was no intention to associate An with terrorism, and all posters were taken down. In popular culture The North Korean film An Jung Gun Shoots Itō Hirobumi is a dramatized story of the event. The South Korean film Thomas An Jung-geun (토마스 안중근) is another dramatized story of the event. Released on September 10, 2004, it is directed by Seo Se-won. An Jung-Geun is played by actor Yu Oh-seong and Itō Hirobumi is played by Yoon Joo-sang. A Chinese-South Korean co-production, "The Age of Heroes," is being planned as a Korean Drama for 2019. “The Age of Heroes” is planned to be 24 episodes long and entirely pre-produced with an impressive budget of 30 billion won. Filming will begin by the end of 2018 with locations in South Korea, China, and North Korea. See also Korean independence movement Lee Bong-chang Yun Bong-gil References Chung, K. (1910/2004). 대한계년사 9 [History of Korean Empire Vol. 9]. Seoul, South Korea: Somyung. Itō, Y. (2009). 伊藤博文 近代日本を創った男 [Itō Hirobumi – A man who modernized Japan]. Tokyo, Japan: Kodansha. . Jansen, M. B. (1961). Sakamoto Ryoma and the Meiji Restoration. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Kang, J. (2007). 한국근대사산책 5 [Modern history of Korea Vol.5]. Seoul, South Korea: Inmulgwa Sasang. Kim, G. (1928/1997). 백범일지 [Baekbeomilji]. Seoul, Korea: Hakminsa. Nam, K. (1999). 종횡무진 동양사 [History of Eastern Asia] Seoul, South Korea: Greenbee. Ravina, M. (2004). The last samurai: The life and battles of Saigo Takamori. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Notes External links An Jung Geun Memorial Hall Scholarly introduction to An Jung-geun's Treatise on Peace in the East An Jung-geun's Treatise on Peace in the East (1910) Hero: the Musical, Lincoln Center, New York, 2011 1879 births 1910 deaths People from Haeju Korean Roman Catholics Korean assassins Korean expatriates in Russia Korean independence activists Nationalist assassins 19th-century Korean people Recipients of the Order of Merit for National Foundation 20th-century executions by Japan People executed by Japan by hanging Executed Korean people Executed assassins Pan-Asianists Converts to Roman Catholicism Sunheung An clan Korean nationalism

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Rosenthal

David Rosenthal

David Rosenthal may refer to: David Rosenthal (musician) (born 1962), American keyboardist, music producer, and songwriter David H. Rosenthal (1945–1992), American author, poet, editor and translator David M. Rosenthal (philosopher) (fl. 1970s to present), philosopher at the City University of New York David M. Rosenthal (director) (born 1969), American filmmaker, writer and director David S. Rosenthal (fl. 1990s to present), American television producer David S. H. Rosenthal (born 1948), computer scientist See also David Rosenthall, Archdeacon of Singapore 1945-1947

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton%20Alberts%20%28architect%29

Anton Alberts (architect)

Anton (Ton) Alberts (6 July 1927 – 16 August 1999) was a Dutch architect best known for the ING Bank (1982) in the Bijlmer district of Amsterdam and the Gas Corporation headquarters in Groningen. Alberts was involved with Situationist International before being expelled in 1960. He had been involved with fellow Situationists Constant and Har Oudejans in setting up a labyrinth in the Stedelijk Museum of Amsterdam, but the project fell apart amidst acrimony. Officially he was expelled for designing churches, although Asger Jorn relates the expulsion more to the "Amsterdam affair". In 1963 he founded the firm Alberts and Van Huut with Max van Huut, guided by the principles of organic architecture. His work also has its roots in the anthroposophical architecture of Rudolf Steiner. Alberts offered to work for free on the Peace Parks in Bosnia and Herzegovina but was only able to create sketches before he died, aged 72, in Amsterdam. Still, by Albert's sketches the Peace Flame House, a community centre, was built in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, as a gift by Peace Flame Foundation Netherlands to this after-war community. Notes External links Official website of Alberts & van Huut (portions in English) 1927 births 1999 deaths 20th-century Dutch architects Organic architecture Architects from Amsterdam

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Bond%20Head

Francis Bond Head

Sir Francis Bond Head, 1st Baronet KCH PC (1 January 1793 – 20 July 1875), known as "Galloping Head", was Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada during the rebellion of 1837. Biography Head was an officer in the corps of Royal Engineers of the British Army from 1811 to 1825; as such he earned a Waterloo Medal. Afterwards, he attempted to set up a mining company in Argentina. He married Julia Valenza Somerville in 1816, and they eventually had four children. Head was born to parents James Roper Mendes Head and Frances Anne Burgess. He was descended from the Spanish Jew Fernando Mendes, who accompanied as her personal physician Catherine of Braganza in 1662 when she came to England to marry Charles II. His grandfather Moses Mendes married Anna Gabriella Head and took on the Head name following the death of his wife's father Sir Francis Head, 4th Bt. In 1834, Head was appointed as an assistant Poor Law Commissioner in Kent. While serving in this capacity, he drew up a document called Plan of a Rural Workhouse for 500 Persons, which established separate areas for males and females but mingled sick and well, young and old, sane and insane. He argued that provisions for the poor should not be superior to those earned by the independent labourer. The rooms, for example, were to hold eight residents in a 15' x 10' space, and the diet was to be strictly for subsistence, resulting in the kind of gruel portrayed in the workhouse scenes of Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens. Head was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada in 1835 in an attempt by the British government to appease the reformers in the colony, such as William Lyon Mackenzie, who wanted responsible government. He appointed reformer Robert Baldwin to the Executive Council, but that appointment was opposed by the more radical Mackenzie. In any case, he ignored Baldwin's advice, and Baldwin resigned; the Legislative Assembly of the 12th Parliament of Upper Canada then refused to pass any money bills and so Head dissolved the government. In the subsequent election campaign, he appealed to the United Empire Loyalists of the colony, proclaiming that the reformers were advocating American republicanism. The Conservative party, led by the wealthy landowners known as the "Family Compact", won the election to the 13th Parliament of Upper Canada. In December 1837, Mackenzie led a brief and bungled rebellion in Toronto. Sir Francis Bond Head later boasted that despite the evidence that poured in from every district in the province, he allowed Mackenzie to prepare a revolt. He further claimed that he encouraged the outbreak by sending all the troops from the province, laying a trap for Mackenzie, despite there being no troops, and the York Militia had been preparing for an attack. Head sent the colonial militia to put down the rebellion, which they did within four days. In response to the rebellion, Britain replaced Head as Lieutenant-Governor with Sir George Arthur and then Lord Durham. Head returned to England and settled down to write books and essays. In later life Head lived at Duppas Hall, overlooking Duppas Hill in Croydon, where he organised protests against the proposed outlawing of horse-riding in the area. He was appointed to the Privy Council in 1867. Legacy Several places in Ontario are named for Sir Francis Bond Head: An unincorporated area northwest of Toronto in the town of Bradford West Gwillimbury, Simcoe County A cape on Lake Ontario in the municipality of Clarington, Regional Municipality of Durham, to the east of Toronto, which gives its name to a neighbourhood and local park west of the cape and east of the Port of Newcastle harbour. Three streets in the town of Oakville, Ontario named Francis, Bond, and Head. (Only Bond and Head remain.) Two streets in the city of St. Catharines, Ontario named 'Bond' and 'Head'. Though both streets are short, they intersect. The community of Frankford, on the Trent River, was named after Head after he crossed the river there while travelling. Works Life of Bruce (London, 1830), a biography of Scottish traveler James Bruce Bruce, James, Travels (1830), an abridged version of the 1790 work, edited by F. Bond Head. Head, Francis Bond. (1826). Rough Notes Taken during some Rapid Journeys across the Pampas and among the Andes. Murray (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ) "Bubbles from the Brunnens of Nassau, by an Old Man" (1834), travel in Germany Head, Francis Bond. (1846). The Emigrant. London: John Murray. Head, Francis B[ond]. (1852). A Fortnight in Ireland. ''The Defenceless State of Great Burray, 1869. References External links Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Life of Bruce, the African Traveller (1830 edition), full text at Archive.org 1793 births 1875 deaths Royal Engineers officers Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom People from Croydon English people of Spanish-Jewish descent Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom British Army personnel of the War of 1812 British Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars Recipients of the Waterloo Medal

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan%20Bulgarian%20Airlines

Balkan Bulgarian Airlines

Balkan Bulgarian Airlines () was Bulgaria's government-owned flag carrier between 1947 and 2002. During the 1970s, the airline became a significant European carrier. The company encountered financial instability following the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe. Despite managing to continue operations, following the start of the 21st century and a controversial privatisation, it declared bankruptcy in 2002. Balkan was liquidated in late . Bulgaria Air was appointed Balkan's successor in . History Early years Bulgaria had a short-lived airline (Bunavad) in 1927, yet the country could not afford investing in modern air transport until after World War II. In 1946, the Ministry of Transport and Communications formed an Administration of Air Communications (, ). Since Bulgaria was regarded as a combatant on the defeated Axis side, the DVS could only contract with France for the supply of several Atelier d'Avions Coulombe Toucan aircraft (French-built versions of the Junkers Ju 52). In interpretation of their delivery, Bulgarian airmen practised by flying the nation's first long-distance flights: to Paris, transporting government officials to peace negotiations, being conducted there. These flights used German-built Ju 52 aircraft (Bulgarian service designation Сова or Sova, = Owl), delivered before the war to the На Негово Величество Въздушни войски [НВВВ] or His majesty's Air Force, and captured during the war from retreating German forces. DVS officially launched services under the Bulgarian Air Lines (, ) name on 29 June 1947 with a Ju 52 flight from Sofia via Plovdiv to Burgas. Other services soon followed. By the close of the year, the DVS had ordered several Soviet-built Lisunov Li-2 variants of the Douglas DC-3 and at least 13 were operated until 1968. The Soviet forces stationed in Bulgaria took interest in DVS, and by late 1947, had taken DVS into joint ownership, as had been done with all airlines of East-European countries formerly allied with Nazi Germany. The resulting airline was called TABSO (), an acronym for "Transportno-aviacionno balgaro-savetsko obedinenie" (, Bulgarian-Soviet Transport Aviation Corporation). The Ju 52s gradually phased out from service as TABSO re-equipped with Li-2s. These more modern planes allowed the airline to expand services. The 1950s and 1960s Soviet equity in TABSO was reacquired by the Bulgarian government in 1954. The airline with this brand name survived until the end of 1967, often in the shadow of the headline phrase Bulgarian Air Transport. In 1956, TABSO bought its first Ilyushin Il-14 aircraft. These aircraft, along with Li-2s, were deployed on services to seven domestic destinations, including Burgas, Gorna Oryahovitsa, Ruschuk, Plovdiv, Sofia, Stara Zagora and Varna; and international destinations Amsterdam, Athens, Beirut, Belgrade, Berlin, Bucharest, Budapest, Damascus, Frankfurt, Kiev, Moscow, Odessa, Prague, Vienna and Warsaw. In 1962, it began services with the Ilyushin Il-18; these and the expansion of Bulgaria's inclusive-tour tourism industry began to put the airline's name on the European and world map. The turboprop type crossed the Equator to Kenya and the Atlantic to Peru. By 1967, Antonov An-24s had arrived for domestic and regional flights. By the mid-1960s, tourism was a major hard currency earner for Bulgaria and TABSO faced home-grown competition. Executives of the Teksim trading company had decided to start their own aviation business which included crop-spraying and inclusive-tour charter airline operations under the name of Булер (Bulair). Despite trying to buy Sud Aviation Caravelle jet airliners, Bulair ended up buying more Il-18s turboprops under heavy Soviet and Bulgarian political pressure. These were operated to several Western European countries to bring holiday makers to Bulgarian resorts. The Teksim venture proved a success and a thorn in the side of TABSO. By 1967, TABSO had the inside track in government circles, and the Teksim operation was largely disbanded by 1970. Amid rumours of scandal and embezzling several Teksim directors were sent to jail, accused of performing capitalism-ruled economic behaviour. Their venture had operated under the TABSO banner for reasons of expediency (not least international rights). The last Bulair-branded aircraft had been rebranded as TABSO machines by 1972. The carrier bought three Tupolev Tu-134 jets in late 1967. On 1 January 1968, TABSO was rebranded Balkan Bulgarian Airlines (, ). The wider commercial aviation scene was put under Balkan's control via subsidiaries such as the aforementioned Bulair, Селскостопанска авиация [ССА] or Selskostopanska aviacia [SSA] (the Agricultural Aviation Company) and a separate profit centre which performed ad hoc aviation contracting, mostly with helicopters. The first Tu-134 was put into service in , initially flying scheduled services between Sofia and London. The airline became the first foreign customer of the type, leading to a close association with the Tupolev design bureau that lasted two decades. There were several reasons why Bulgaria was allowed to put a new Soviet type into service ahead of more important Soviet-bloc nations. Andrei Tupolev was President of the Soviet-Bulgarian Society. He had cemented personal links with his Bulgarian counterpart, formidable wartime Resistance figure and Politburo member Tsola Dragoycheva. She lobbied him for delivery preferences in return for campaigning before the Bulgarian authorities to buy his products rather than Western or other Soviet aircraft types. Indeed, Balkan never bought the Ilyushin Il-62 long-range airliner, preferring to misuse its Tu-154s for long-range work. Similarly, it eschewed Ilyushin's Il-86 wide-body despite arguably having the precise role for it on its sea or ski charter flights. The 1970s At , Balkan served countries in Africa, Asia and Europe plus domestic destinations. At this time, the fleet included Antonov An-2s, An-10s and An-24Bs, Ilyushin Il-14s and Il-18s, Tupolev Tu-134s, Z-37 Cmelaks and Mil helicopters. Lazar Beloukhov was the general manager. On 18 January 1971, an Ilyushin Il-18 crashed and caught fire while attempting to land at Kloten Airport in fog; only two people survived the crash. During 1971, Balkan was the first airline beyond the USSR borders to operate the Tupolev Tu-134A. On 21 December, the crash of another Il-18 during takeoff left fatalities. Again in 1972, this time with the Tupolev Tu-154, the carrier became the first foreign customer to incorporate a new Tupolev aircraft into its fleet. The latter type was deployed first on charter flights, and later on scheduled services. By the same year, Balkan had two of these aircraft in service. It also launched non-Soviet use of the Tu-154A, Tu-154B, Tu-154B-2 and Tu-154M. Balkan was a useful test-bed for new ideas by the Tupolev bureau. The airline pioneered the use of three-person flightdeck crews on the Tu-154 by removing navigators (flight crew members whom the designers had intentionally inserted into the Tu-134 and Tu-154) between 1972 and 1976. Balkan also removed the Tu-154's concrete ballast trim on which conservative Tupolev engineers had insisted. In the mid-1980s, a team of Bulgarian engineers interlinked the automatic flight control systems of the airline's Tu-154s with OMEGA Navigation System receivers, enabling very accurate automatic long-range overwater navigation. In the 1990s, Balkan was among the first to fit GPS navigation to its Tu-154 fleet. A Tu-154B was flown non-stop from Montreal to Sofia, a distance of over and a record for the type, during a charter flight. As the Soviet-bloc economies gradually entered into stagnation in the 1970s, Balkan continued growing apace. In 1974, the airline's route network was long. By the mid/late 1970s, it was carrying three million passengers a year, more than any Soviet-bloc airline other than some Directorates of Aeroflot. The fleet comprised aforementioned types plus Antonov An-12s for cargo (since late 1969) and Yakovlev Yak-40 regional jets for short-haul routes (since 1974). The comprehensive route system covered Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. With the delivery of more Tu-154s, Balkan opened longer-range routes, including ones to Zimbabwe, Angola and Nigeria in sub-Equatorial Africa, and to Sri Lanka and Vietnam in Southern Asia. The 1980s In 1986, Balkan was restructured as part of a wholesale shakeup of the late Socialist economy in an attempt to make it more productive and manageable. The airline was divorced from functions such as running airports. It had suffered disastrous traffic falls after the Comecon fuel crisis of 1979, when the number of passengers carried collapsed to under a million. By the late 1980s, loads were back up to 1970s levels. Of the three million annual passengers, a third were carried on domestic services, another third on charter flights, and the remaining million on scheduled international routes. Balkan joined the International Air Transport Association (IATA) in 1988, becoming its 175th member worldwide. On 10 November 1989, Bulgaria's long-ruling leader Todor Zhivkov was removed from power and Bulgaria began moving away from the Soviet bloc. Within a year, Balkan had been restructured yet again, with Hemus Air emerging from within it as a "second force" state-owned airline with mainly domestic and regional flights. Private airlines began to appear, most important among them Singapore-backed Jes Air which launched services to New York and Singapore using Airbus A310s. The 1990s By mid-1991, Balkan had leased two Boeing 767-200ERs from Air France to compete with failing Jes Air on North American and Southern Asian routes. At the same time Balkan acquired four Airbus A320s from Oryx. The Soviet-build types remained in service alongside the new arrivals. The 1990s were a time of headlong decline at Balkan. The airline suffered in Bulgaria's transition to a market economy. Former managers of state-owned industry began forming private companies to supply the industries they had once managed (at high prices), and yet other private companies to purchase their production (at low prices). The aim was to control both supply and sales, charging high prices and paying low prices to strangle state companies and then privatise them at very low prices. The entire Bulgarian economy was in deep recession. This was due to severe political instability at home and protracted wars and economic sanctions in neighbouring Yugoslavia. These factors upset potential investment and tourism and cut off Bulgaria from many trading partners. In , Balkan had a fleet of four Airbus A320-200s, three Antonov An-12Fs, fourteen Antonov An-24s, three Boeing 737-500s, two Boeing 767-200ERs, six Ilyushin Il-18s, five Tupolev Tu-134A-3s, fifteen Tupolev Tu-154B-2s and seven Tupolev Tu-154Ms. At this time, the company had 3,889 employees and the route network included 52 destinations. By 1998, Balkan's 767s returned to Air France and the A320s were passed on to other lessees. The Tu-154B fleet was overdue for replacement, and the Tu-154M was aging. Bulgaria's government appeared to pledge some funds for Airbus A310 acquisition so that long-range services could be sustained, but nothing came of this. Late in 1998, the company was ready to be sold to a holding named Balkan Air, comprising Bulgarian and US investors, but the transaction was later suspended. All through the decade, there had been rumours of investor interest in Balkan. These rumours consistently named Russian and German airline interests which were said to be eager to buy the carrier. There was also lobbying by the airline's managers for a management buyout. Nevertheless, a consortium comprising two Israeli companies —the Zeevi investment group and Knafaim-Arkia (the owner of Arkia Israel Airlines) — was assigned a 75 percent stake in Balkan Bulgarian in mid-1999 for a bargain price of , with the commitment of investing  million in the airline over the following ten years. Arkia left the consortium once title in the airline was transferred. It was disclosed in 2001 that Balkan had been declared bankrupt months prior to the sale. 2000 and beyond Balkan had 3,889 employees at . At this time, the fleet included three Antonov An-12s; six Antonov An-24Bs and an An-24RV; two Boeing 737-300s and three 737-500s; an Ilyushin Il-18 and an Il-18D; three Let L 410 UVP-Es; and fourteen Tupolev Tu-154Bs and ten Tu-154Ms. These operated services to Abu Dhabi, Accra, Algiers, Amsterdam, Athens, Bahrain, Bangkok, Belgrade, Berlin, Bourgas, Brussels, Budapest, Cairo, Casablanca, Chisinau, Colombo, Copenhagen, Dubai, Frankfurt, Helsinki, Istanbul, Kyiv, Kuwait, Lagos, Larnaca, London, Madrid, Male, Malta, Milan, Moscow, Paris, Prague, Rome, Sofia, Stockholm, Tehran, Tel Aviv, Tripoli, Varna, Vienna, Warsaw and Zürich. The Israeli connection led to difficulties in operating the Arab routes. Its assets seemed to be being sold-off in an asset-stripping manner and by early 2001, Balkan's fleet was not even up to the task of meeting the airline's summer charter commitments, despite taking on some used 737-300s. In , the Zeevi group ceased funding the carrier and initiated legal action against the Bulgarian government over a  million debt. Although the company was grounded and entered receivership, it resumed flying later that year. Short of cash, in 2002 Balkan's six weekly slots for Heathrow airport were sold to British Airways for  million. In that year, creditors turned down a restructuring plan and voted for the closure of the airline, which was liquidated. The number of employees at the time of closure was 1,269. Balkan was succeeded as Bulgaria's national carrier by the newly formed Bulgaria Air. Destinations Fleet Until 1990, Balkan's signs were carried both by normal airliners and special government detachment, agricultural aviation, sanitary wings, cargo planes. Here follows the fleet except An-2 /281 pieces/ and Ка-26, as well as civil Mi-8s /17 pieces/, Mi-17 /1 piece/, Mi-2, training L-410s. Accidents and incidents , Aviation Safety Network records 15 occurrences and four hijackings for Balkan, and two fatal accidents plus one hijacking for TABSO. Only events that led to fatalities, wrote off the aircraft involved, or both, are presented in the list below. See also Transport in Bulgaria References External links Historical timetables Video at AirlineFan Defunct airlines of Bulgaria Airlines established in 1946 Airlines disestablished in 2002 1946 establishments in Bulgaria 2002 disestablishments in Bulgaria

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapper

Sapper

A sapper, also called pioneer or combat engineer, is a combatant or soldier who performs a variety of military engineering duties, such as breaching fortifications, demolitions, bridge-building, laying or clearing minefields, preparing field defenses, and road and airfield construction and repair. They are also trained to serve as infantry personnel in defensive and offensive operations. A sapper's duties are devoted to tasks involving the facilitation of movement, defense and survival of allied forces and impeding those of enemies. The term "sapper" is used in the British Army and Commonwealth nations and the U.S. military. The word "sapper" comes from the French word sapeur, itself being derived from the verb saper (to undermine, to dig under a wall or building to cause its collapse). Historical origin Sapping A sapper, in the sense first used by the French military, was one who dug trenches to allow besieging forces to advance towards the enemy defensive works and forts, over ground that is under the defenders' musket or artillery fire. This digging was referred to as sapping the enemy fortifications. Saps were excavated by brigades of trained sappers or instructed troops. When an army was defending a fortress with cannons, they had an obvious height and therefore range advantage over the attacker's guns. The attacking army's artillery had to be brought forward, under fire, so as to facilitate effective counter-battery fire. This was achieved by digging what the French termed a sappe (derived from the archaic French word for spade or entrenching tool). Using techniques developed and perfected by Vauban, the sappers began the trench at such an angle so as to avoid enemy fire enfilading the sappe by firing down its length. As they pressed forward, a position was prepared from which a cannon could suppress the defenders on the fort's bastions. The sappers would then change the course of their trench, zig-zagging toward the fortress wall. Each leg brought the attacker's artillery closer until the besieged cannon would be sufficiently suppressed for the attackers to breach the walls. Broadly speaking, sappers were originally experts at demolishing or otherwise overcoming or bypassing fortification systems. Miner An additional term applied to sappers of the British Indian Army was "miner.” The native engineer corps were called "sappers and miners,", for example, the Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners. The term arose from a task done by sappers to further the battle after saps were dug. The saps permitted cannon to be brought into firing range of the besieged fort and its cannon, but often the cannon themselves were unable to breach the fort walls. The engineers would dig a tunnel from the forward-most sap up to and under the fort wall, then place a charge of gunpowder and ignite it, causing a tremendous explosion that would destroy the wall and permit attacking infantry to close with the enemy. This was dangerous work, often lethal to the sappers, and was fiercely resisted by the besieged enemy. Since the two tasks went hand in hand and were done by the same troops, native Indian engineer corps came to be called "sappers and miners". Specific usage Commonwealth of Nations Sapper (abbreviated Spr) is the Royal Engineers' equivalent of private. This is also the case within the Indian Army Corps of Engineers, Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers, Royal Canadian Engineers, Royal Australian Engineers, South African Army Engineer Formation, Jamaica Defence Force Engineer Regiment, and Royal New Zealand Engineers. The term "sapper" was introduced in 1856, when the Corps of Royal Sappers and Miners was amalgamated with the officer corps of the Royal Engineers to form the Corps of Royal Engineers. During the course of the First World War, some Royal Marines also took the rank of Sapper. This was adopted as tradition in the Royal Marine Divisional Engineers of the Royal Naval Division. Australia During the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I, Australian sappers repaired a bridge at the historic crossing of the Jordan River at Jisr Benat Yakub (also known as Jacob's Ford). Here the retreating Ottoman and German rearguard had blown up the bridge's central arch, which was repaired in five hours by sappers attached to the Australian Mounted Division. While the light horse brigades forded the river, continuing the Desert Mounted Corps' advance to Damascus, the sappers worked through the night of 27/28 September 1918, to repair the bridge to enable the division's wheeled vehicles and guns to follow on 28 September. Canada In the Canadian Forces, sappers exist both in the regular force and reserve force. The rank of sapper is used instead of private trained to signify completion of the Engineer DP1 course. Canadian sappers have been deployed in many major conflicts in recent history including World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the War in Afghanistan. The roles of a sapper entail: Bridge building with the ACROW, Bailey, or Medium Girder Bridge bridging systems; explosive ordnance disposal; operating the advanced reverse-osmosis water purification unit, used mainly in domestic operations; maintaining roadways and airfields; combat diving; tactical breaching; and erecting and tearing down friendly living spaces. Ultimately, the objective of the sappers is to facilitate the living, moving, and to fight for friendly troops on the battlefield and denying the same to enemy forces. The motto of the Canadian Military Engineers is Ubique () a motto shared with the Royal Canadian Artillery. The patron saint of combat engineers is Saint Barbara, and 4 December is the corps' day of celebration. Indian Army The term "sappers", in addition to the connotation of rank of engineer private, is used collectively to informally refer to the Engineer Corps as a whole and also forms part of the informal names of the three combat engineer groups, viz. Madras Sappers, Bengal Sappers and the Bombay Sappers. Each of these groups consist of about twenty battalion-sized engineer regiments and additional company-sized minor engineer units. The three sapper groups are descended from the sapper and miner groups of the East India Company and later the British Indian Army of the British Raj. Israel In the Israel Defense Forces a sapper (in Hebrew: פלס, palas) is the military profession of a combat soldier who went through basic combat engineering training. Most of the sappers are soldiers of the Combat Engineering Corps, but there are also infantry sappers, who are part of the infantry brigades and are organized in engineering companies called פלחה"ן (palchan). These companies are integral part of the infantry brigades. Combat engineering corps sappers are arranged in battalions. Each sapper goes through high level infantry training, which qualifies him as rifleman 06 (רובאי 06). Combat engineering sappers are qualified as "sapper 06" (פלס 06). They are skilled in infantry combat, basic sabotage, landmine planting and demining, use of explosives, breaching and opening routes, trench warfare, and operating the IDF Puma combat engineering vehicle. Combat engineering commanders are qualified as "sapper 08" while combat engineering officers are qualified as "sapper 11". Both go through additional advance training to gain the skills needed for high level sapper profession. The Israel Police also maintains a bomb disposal specialist unit. All police sappers must graduate from a 10-month training program at the bomb disposal training center in Beit Shemesh, which includes operational exercises, theoretical studies, and fieldwork. France In France, sapper (sapeur) is the title of military combat engineers and firefighters, both civil and military, (sapper-fireman or sapeur-pompier). Military sappers fall under the umbrella of the Engineering Arm or Arme du Génie. A related title is pioneer (pionnier), used only in the Foreign Legion. Sapper : title of combat engineers in most Engineer Regiments (3rd, 13th, 19th and 31st), except in the Foreign Legion (1st Foreign Engineer Regiment and 2nd Foreign Engineer Regiment) Air Sapper (sapeur de l'air) : title of the privates of the 25th Air Engineering Regiment, an Army regiment seconded to the Air Force. Parachute Sapper (sapeur parachutiste) : title of the privates of the 17th Parachute Engineer Regiment, the combat engineering unit of the 11th Parachute Brigade Marine Sapper (sapeur de marine) : since 2006, title of the privates of the 6th Engineer Regiment, the combat engineering unit of the 9th Light Armoured Marine Brigade. Sapper firefighter (sapeur-pompier) : title of the firefighters in the civilian fire services and the Paris Fire Brigade. Sapper-miner (sapeur-mineur) : since World War Two, combat engineers specialized in demining. History The French Corps of Engineers was created under the command of Marshall Vauban during the late 17th century. Its members were called sappers if their function was to destroy enemy fortifications by using trenches or sape and miners if they engaged in tunnel warfare or mine. The Corps of the Engineers was suppressed during two short periods (1720-1729 and 1769-1793) and sappers and miners were part of the Artillery regiments. In 1793, the Corps was reorganized into companies of miners and battalions of sappers, each assigned to a particular division. Eventually, as the missions of the Corps grew more diversified, additional titles were used by combat engineers, such as Conductor (sapeur-conducteur) in 1810, entrusted with the logistics of the Corps, Firefighter (sapeur-pompier) in 1810 or telegraph sapper (sapeur-télégraphiste). In 1814, the companies of miners were integrated into the sapper battalions, themselves organized in Engineers Regiments (régiments du génie). In 1875, the distinction between miners and sappers was abolished and all members of the Corps of Engineers were titled sappers-miners, though only sapper was used in common usage. In 1894, the pontonniers or bridgemakers were transferred from the Artillery Corps to the Engineers, thus creating the title sapeurs-pontonniers. In 1909, the Engineering Arm of the Army Staff was entrusted the burgeoning Air Service (Aérostation militaire), its personal was titled sapper-airman (sapeur-aérostier). The titled was disused in 1914 when the Air Service took its independence from the Engineering Arm. Firefighters The first fire company created by Napoléon I was a military sapper company of the French Imperial Guard, created in 1810. This company was tasked with the protection of the Imperial palaces after the tragic fire of the Austrian embassy in Paris on 1 July 1810. The Paris Fire Service (gardes-pompes), a civilian institution, was re-organized as a military unit in September 1811, becoming the Paris Sappers-Firefighters Battalion. Other cities kept or created civilian firefighters services but used the military ranks and organization of the Paris Battalion. In 1831, National Guard engineers companies became the reserve components of the Fire Services and kept their military organization even after the disappearance of the National Guard in 1852. Sapper-firefighter is the common title of the civilian and Paris firefighters in France, but the other military firefighters units, such as the Marseille Naval Fire Battalion, do not use the sapper title, as they had no military engineers lineage. Pioneers Since the 18th century, every grenadier battalion in the French Army had a small unit of pioneers, sometimes called sappers-pioneers (sapeurs-pionniers). They had the mission to advance under enemy fire in order to destroy the obstacles drawn by the enemy and to clear the way for the rest of the infantry. The danger of such missions resulted in pioneers having short life expectancies. Because of this, the army allowed them certain privileges such as the authorization to wear beards. In addition to their beards and axes, they traditionally wear leather aprons and gloves. The pioneers units disappeared during the mid-20th c. century, their last appearance being the short-lived Pioneers Regiments of 1939–1944, a military public works service using the older draftees in the army. Only the Foreign Legion kept using a pioneer unit, mainly for representation duty. The current pioneer unit of the Legion reintroduced the symbols of the Napoleonic pioneers: the beard, the axe, the leather apron, the crossed-axes insignia, and the leather gloves. If the parades of the Legion are opened by this unit, it is to commemorate the traditional role of the pioneers "opening the way" for the troops. The pioneer unit is made up for parades of selected men taken in both the Infantry and the Engineers regiments of the Legion. Greece In the Hellenic Army, there is the "mechanic" or "Corps of Engineers" (μηχανικό; michaniko). Italy The Italian Army uses the term "Guastatori" for its combat engineers, "Pionieri" for its construction engineers, "Pontieri" for its bridging engineers, and "Ferrovieri" for its railroad engineers. 2nd Alpine Engineer Regiment 32nd Alpine Engineer Regiment 8th Parachute Assault Engineer Regiment Portugal In Portugal, the term "sapper" is used both in the military and in the civilian environment. In the Portuguese Army, a sapador de engenharia (engineering sapper) is a soldier of the engineer branch that has specialized combat engineer training. A sapador de infantaria (infantry sapper) is a soldier of the infantry branch that has a similar training and who usually serves in the combat support sapper platoon of an infantry battalion. A sapador NBQ (NBC sapper) is an engineer branch soldier specialized in nuclear, biological and chemical warfare. The bombeiros-sapadores ("sapper-firefighters") are the civil municipal professional firefighters that exist in the main cities of the country. The largest unit of this type is the Regimento de Bombeiros Sapadores ("sapper-firefighters regiment") maintained by the Lisbon municipal council. The sapadores florestais (forest sappers) are the professionals maintained by the government, local authorities and large private forestry companies, who cleans and maintain forests and prevents and fights forest fires. Pakistan Army In the Pakistan Army, sapper officers perform combat and normal engineer duties. The Corps is led by the Engineer-in-Chief who is a Lt Gen. The current Engineer-in-Chief is Lt Gen Khalid Asghar. The Frontier Works Organization, Military Engineering Service and the Survey of Pakistan is part of the corps. Initially part of the Indian Corps of Engineers, it dates back to 1780 but came to its modern form in 1947 following the Independence of Pakistan. Since then it has taken part in all wars including 1965 War, 1971 War and Kargil War. It has completed the Pakistan portion of Karakoram Highway. The corps is taking part in Operation Zarb-e-Azb United States Army In the United States Army, sappers are combat engineers who support the front-line infantry, and they have fought in every war in U.S. history. For example, after the Battle of Yorktown, General Washington cited Louis Lebègue Duportail, the chief of engineers, for conduct that afforded "brilliant proofs of his military genius." Designation as a "sapper" is also earned as an additional proficiency. The U.S. Army authorizes four skill tabs for permanent wear above the unit patch on the left shoulder (Army Regulation 670-1 Chapter 29–13, Sub-Paragraph f). Along with the Sapper Tab, the Special Forces Tab, Ranger Tab, and President's Hundred Tab identify soldiers who have passed a demanding course of military instruction and have demonstrated their competence in particular specialties and skills. To wear the Sapper Tab, a soldier must graduate from the Sapper Leader Course, which is operated by the U.S. Army Engineer School at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri. The Sapper Leader Course is a demanding 28-day leadership development course for combat engineers that reinforces critical skills and teaches advanced techniques needed across the army. It is also designed to build esprit de corps by training soldiers in troop-leading procedures, demolitions (conventional and expedient), and mountaineering operations. The course culminates in an intense field-training exercise that reinforces the use of the battle drills and specialized engineer techniques learned throughout the course. The course is open to enlisted soldiers in the grades of E-4 (P) (Army specialists and corporals on the list for promotion to sergeant) through E-7, cadets, and officers O-3 (Captain) and below. The course is primarily for U.S. Army and USMC combat engineers, but may be attended by all service members with an approved waiver. PAVN and Viet Cong PAVN (People's Army of Vietnam) and Viet Cong sappers, as they were called by US forces, are better described as commando units. The Vietnamese term đặc công can be literally translated as "special task". Thousands of specially trained elite fighters served in the PAVN and Viet Cong commando–sapper units which were organized as independent formations. While not always successful due to lack of appropriate personal weapon types for combat and assault like other special forces, they were still capable of inflicted heavy damage with their non-firearms arsenal. During the Vietnam War, they were armed with various types of bombs, mines, explosive charges, grenades and even steel-pellet mines which proved especially devastating. These are still the main weapons of the đặc công. These elite units served as raiders against American/ARVN troops, and infiltrated spearheads during the final Ho Chi Minh Campaign in 1975, where they seized key road and bridge assets, destroyed installations, attacked command and control nodes located deep inside enemy territory, planted explosives on U.S. water craft, and otherwise helped the PAVN's rapid mobile forces advance. A typical PAVN/VC đặc công organization is shown in the diagram. The raiding force was usually grouped into assault teams, each broken down into several 3–5-man assault cells. Overall, there were generally four operational echelons. An instance of a successful sapper attack conducted by the Viet Cong was the during the Battle of Fire Base Mary Ann. A small number of sappers, through surprise and deft coordination, conducted a successful attack on a superior US force. The battle was described as a "rampage of VC who threw satchels at the command bunker, knifed Americans in their sleep and destroyed all communications equipment. Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire had an infantry corp named Lağımcılar Ocağı (literally: Sapper Corps). These infantries were used in most of the Empire's sieges, demolishing enemy fortifications and defences. Honors Sapper Island, St. Joseph Channel, Algoma District, Ontario was named in honour of sappers, especially those who graduated from the Royal Military College of Canada. In fiction In the 1978 song by Australian rock band Cold Chisel, "Khe Sanh", the narrator (a fictional Australian army Vietnam War veteran) says "I left my heart to the sappers round Khe Sanh". However, the only sappers or combat engineers present at the historical Battle of Khe Sanh belonged to US, South Vietnamese and (opposing) North Vietnamese units. In the 2008 science-fiction novel The Last Colony, a fictitious "sapper field" technology is used to disrupt enemy weapons operation. In popular culture Rudyard Kipling's poem "Sappers" (1896) detailed some of the duties of Sappers in the British Army of Victorian times. The notes on this poem further explain the duties referenced. See also Pioneer sergeant Assault pioneer Trooper (rank) Viet Cong and PAVN Sapper attacks References Citations Bibliography External links Royal Engineers Museum – History of the Royal Engineers (The Sappers) Royal Engineers Museum – Origins of the term "Sapper" - Site for tracking down former members of the Royal Engineers. Dec 1918 Popular Science World War 1 article about a French engineer using a ground stethoscope to listen for German sappers – Listening to Enemy Sappers, Popular Science monthly, January 1919, page 27, Scanned by Google Books Sapper-Museum, virtual museum of Russian engineering troops A.-M. Zielenski , Colonel (sapper), Military Engineer Adventures Of A Revolutionary Soldier, first person account of the Revolutionary War, as a continental soldier, which includes references to sappers and miners. Land warfare Combat occupations Military engineering Military ranks of the Commonwealth Military ranks of British India

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family%20Compact

Family Compact

The Family Compact is the term used by historians for a small closed group of men who exercised most of the political, economic and judicial power in Upper Canada (today’s Ontario) from the 1810s to the 1840s. It was the Upper Canadian equivalent of the Château Clique in Lower Canada. It was noted for its conservatism and opposition to democracy. The Family Compact emerged from the War of 1812 and collapsed in the aftermath of the Rebellions of 1837–1838. Its resistance to the political principle of responsible government contributed to its short life. At the end of its lifespan, the compact would be condemned by Lord Durham, a leading Whig, as "a petty corrupt insolent Tory clique". Etymology Thomas Dalton described the ruling class in Kingston, Ontario, as "all one family compacted junto." The term Family Compact appeared in a letter written by Marshall Spring Bidwell to William Warren Baldwin in 1828. Family did not mean relations by marriage, but rather a close brotherhood. Lord Durham noted in 1839 "There is, in truth, very little of family connection among the persons thus united". The phrase was popularised by William Lyon Mackenzie in 1833 in its use to describe the elite in York. "Gentlemanly capitalism" and British colonialism The historians P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins have emphasized that the British empire at "the mid-nineteenth century represented the extension abroad of the institutions and principles entrenched at home". Upper Canada, created in the very "image and transcript" of the British constitution is but one example. Like that of the United Kingdom, the constitution of Upper Canada was established on the mixed monarchy model. Mixed monarchy is a form of government that integrates elements of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. Upper Canada, however, had no aristocracy. The methods pursued to create one were similar to that used in Britain itself. The result was the Family Compact. Cain and Hopkins point out that "new money", the financiers rather than the industrial "barons", were gradually gentrified through the purchase of land, intermarriage and the acquisition of titles. In the United Kingdom, the control exercised by the aristocracy over the House of Commons remained undisturbed before 1832 and was only slowly eroded thereafter, while its dominance of the executive lasted well beyond 1850." Hopkins and Cain refer to this alliance of aristocracy and financiers as "gentlemanly capitalism": "a form of capitalism headed by improving aristocratic landlords in association with improving financiers who served as their junior partners." A similar pattern is seen in other colonial empires, such as the Dutch Empire. This same process is seen in Upper Canada. The historian J. K. Johnson's analysis of the Upper Canadian elite between 1837 and 1840 measured influence according to overlapping leadership roles on the boards of the main social, political and economic institutions. For example, William Allan, one of the most powerful, "was an executive councillor, a legislative councillor, President of the Toronto and Lake Huron Railroad, Governor of the British American Fire and Life Assurance Company and President of the Board of Trade." Johnson's conclusion contests the common assertion that "none of the leading members of the Compact were business men, and ... the system of values typical of the Compact accorded scant respect to business wealth as such." The overlapping social, political and economic leadership roles of the Family Compact demonstrates, he argues, that "they were not a political elite taking political decisions in a vacuum, but an overlapping elite whose political and economic activities cannot be entirely separated from each other. They might even be called 'entrepreneurs', most of whose political views may have been highly conservative but whose economic outlook was clearly 'developmental'." The Family Compact's role in the Welland Canal is one example. Elite Upper Canadians sought "gentility" including the acquisition of landed estates, roles as Justices of the Peace, military service, the pursuit of "improved farming", grammar school education, ties to the Church of England – all in combination with the acquisition of wealth through the Bank of Upper Canada amongst others. It is through the pursuit of gentility that the Family Compact was born. Constitutional context Upper Canada did not have a hereditary nobility. In its place, senior members of Upper Canada bureaucracy, the Executive Council of Upper Canada and Legislative Council of Upper Canada, made up the elite of the compact. These men sought to solidify their personal positions into family dynasties and acquire all the marks of gentility. They used their government positions to extend their business and speculative interests. The origins of the Family Compact lay in overlapping appointments made to the Executive and Legislative Council of Upper Canada. The Councils were intended to operate independently. Section 38 of the Constitutional Act of 1791 referred to the independence of the offices indirectly. While Sir Guy Carleton, Lieutenant Governor of Lower Canada, pointed out that the offices were intended to be separate, Lord Grenville set the wheels in motion with John Graves Simcoe Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada by pointing out that there was no legal impediment to prevent cross-appointments. Simcoe used the vague statement in Section 38 to make the following appointments The Family Compact exerted influence over the government through the Executive Council and Legislative Council, the advisers to the Lieutenant Governor, leaving the popularly elected Legislative Assembly with little real power. As became clear with Lieutenant Governor Sir Francis Bond Head, the influence of the Family Compact could be quite limited as well. Members ensured their conservative friends held the important administrative and judicial positions in the colony through political patronage. Membership The centre of the compact was York (later renamed Toronto), the capital. Its most important member was Bishop John Strachan; many of the other members were his former students, or people who were related to him. The most prominent of Strachan's pupils was Sir John Beverley Robinson who was from 1829 the Chief Justice of Upper Canada for 34 years. The rest of the members were mostly descendants of United Empire Loyalists or recent upper-class British settlers such as the Boulton family, builders of the Grange. A triumvirate of lawyers, Levius Sherwood (speaker of the Legislative Council, judge in the Court of King's Bench), Judge Jonas Jones, and Attorney General Henry John Boulton were linked by professional and business ties, and by marriage; both Sherwood and Boulton being married to Jones’ sisters. Collectively, their extended family (if we include the Robinsons, and James B. Macaulay, Boulton’s former clerk) comprise three quarters of the "Family Compact" listed by Mackenzie in 1833. Loyalist ideology The uniting factors amongst the compact were its loyalist tradition, hierarchical class structure and adherence to the established Anglican church. Leaders such as Sir John Robinson and John Strachan proclaimed it an ideal government, especially as contrasted with the rowdy democracy in the nearby United States. Not all views of the elite were universally shared, but a critical element was the idea of "loyalty". The original members of the Family Compact were United Empire Loyalists who had fled the United States immediately after the Revolutionary War. The War of 1812 led the British to suspect the loyalty of the so-called "Later Loyalists" – "Americans" who had emigrated after 1800 for land. The issue came to a head around 1828 in the "Alien Question". Following the war, the colonial government took active steps to prevent Americans from swearing allegiance, thereby making them ineligible to obtain land grants. Without land they could not vote or hold office. The issue became a provincewide complaint in 1828 when Barnabas Bidwell was deprived of his seat in the Legislative Assembly. Educated at Yale, he practiced law in western Massachusetts and served as treasurer of Berkshire County. He served in the state legislature, and was the state attorney general from 1807 to 1810, when irregularities in the Berkshire County books prompted his flight to Upper Canada. There he won a seat in the provincial assembly, but was denied on account of his status as a fugitive from justice. A provincewide petitioning campaign by these numerically superior "aliens" led the British government to grant them citizenship retroactively. In the minds of the Family Compact, they remained politically suspect and barred from positions of power. Levers of power In the absence of a landed elite, these men believed that the law should be the basis of social preeminence. Bound by the ideals of public service and a spirit of loyalty to king, church and empire, solidified in the crucible of the War of 1812, they used the Law Society of Upper Canada as a means of regulating entry to elite positions of power. Government position Executive and Legislative Councils The Executive Council was composed of local advisers who provided the colonially appointed Lieutenant Governor with advice on the daily workings of government, and especially with appointments to the administration. Members of the Executive Council were not necessarily members of the Legislative Assembly but were usually members of the Legislative Council. The longest serving members were James Baby (1792–1833), John Strachan (1815–1836), George Markland (1822–1836), and Peter Robinson (1823–1836). The Legislative Council of Upper Canada was the upper house governing the province of Upper Canada. It was modelled after the British House of Lords. Members were appointed, often for life. The longest serving members were James Baby (1792–1833), Jacob Mountain Anglican Bishop of Quebec (1794–1825), John Strachan (1820–1841), George Markland (1822–1836), Peter Robinson (1823–1836), Thomas Talbot (1809–1841), Thomas Clark (1815–1841), William Dickson (1815–1841), John Henry Dunn (1822–1841), William Allan (1825–1841). Magistracy and Courts of Quarter Sessions Justices of the Peace were appointed by the Lieutenant Governor. Any two justices meeting together could form the lowest level of the justice system, the Courts of Request. A Court of Quarter Sessions was held four times a year in each district composed of all the resident justices. The Quarter Sessions met to oversee the administration of the district and deal with legal cases. They formed, in effect, the municipal government and judiciary until an area was incorporated as either a Police Board or a City after 1834. The men appointed to the magistracy tended to be United Empire Loyalists or "Half-pay" military officers who were placed in semi-retirement after the Napoleonic Wars. Law Society and Juvenile Advocate's Society The Law Society was created in 1797 to regulate the legal profession in the province. The society is headed by a Treasurer. Every Treasurer of the society before 1841 was a member of the Family Compact with the exception of William Warren Baldwin. The control that the Family Compact exerted over the legal profession and the corruption that resulted was most clearly demonstrated in the "Types Riot" in 1826, in which the printing press of William Lyon Mackenzie was destroyed by the young lawyers of the Juvenile Advocate's Society with the complicity of the Attorney General, the Solicitor General and the magistrates of Toronto. Mackenzie had published a series of satires under the pseudonym of "Patrick Swift, nephew of Jonathan Swift" in an attempt to humiliate the members of the Family Compact running for the board of the Bank of Upper Canada, and Henry John Boulton the Solicitor General, in particular. Mackenzie's articles worked, and they lost control. In revenge they sacked Mackenzie's press, throwing the type into the lake. The "juvenile advocates" were the students of the Attorney General and the Solicitor General, and the act was performed in broad daylight in front of William Allan, bank president and magistrate. They were never charged, and it was left to Mackenzie to launch a civil lawsuit instead. There are three implications of the Types riot according to historian Paul Romney. First, he argues the riot illustrates how the elite's self-justifications regularly skirted the rule of law they held out as their Loyalist mission. Second, he demonstrated that the significant damages Mackenzie received in his civil lawsuit against the vandals did not reflect the soundness of the criminal administration of justice in Upper Canada. And lastly, he sees in the Types riot "the seed of the Rebellion" in a deeper sense than those earlier writers who viewed it simply as the start of a highly personal feud between Mackenzie and the Family Compact. Romney emphasizes that Mackenzie's personal harassment, the "outrage", served as a lightning rod of discontent because so many Upper Canadians had faced similar endemic abuses and hence identified their political fortunes with his. Church of England Established church In 1836, as he was preparing to leave office, Lt Governor John Colborne endowed 44 Church of England rectories with about of land each ( in all) in an effort to make the church more self-sufficient and less dependent on government aid. Clergy reserves The Clergy Corporation was incorporated in 1819 to manage the Clergy Reserves. After John Strachan was appointed to the Executive Council, the advisory body to the Lieutenant Governor, in 1815, he began to push for the Church of England's autonomous control of the clergy reserves on the model of the Clergy Corporation created in Lower Canada in 1817. Although all clergymen in the Church of England were members of the body corporate, the act prepared in 1819 by Strachan's former student, Attorney General John Beverly Robinson, also appointed the Inspector General and the Surveyor General to the board, and made a quorum of three for meetings; these two public officers also sat on the Legislative Council with Strachan. These three were usually members of the Family Compact. Upper Canada College and Kings College Grammar schools provided a classical education and were preparation for higher learning and entry into the law or the ministry. Entrance was limited by high tuition fees, even though they were government supported. Common schools for teaching basic education received little support or regulation in comparison at this time. Working class education was trades based through the Master-journeyman-apprentice relationship. Upper Canada College was the successor to the Home District Grammar School taught by John Strachan, which became the Royal Grammar School in 1825. Upper Canada College was founded in 1829 by Lieutenant Governor Sir John Colborne (later Lord Seaton), to serve as a feeder school to the newly established King's College. It was modelled on the great public schools of Britain, most notably Eton. The school began teaching in the original Royal Grammar School and for several years the two organizations were essentially unified. On March 15, 1827, a royal charter was formally issued for King's College (now the University of Toronto). The granting of the charter was largely the result of intense lobbying by John Strachan, who took office as the first president of the college. The original three-storey Greek Revival school building was constructed on the present site of Queen's Park. Upper Canada College merged with King's College for a period after 1831. Under Strachan's guidance, King's College was a religious institution that closely aligned with the Church of England and the Family Compact. Bank of Upper Canada The Bank of Upper Canada's principal promoters were John Strachan and William Allan. Allan, who became president, was also an Executive and Legislative Councillor. He, like Strachan, played a key role in solidifying the Family Compact, and ensuring its influence within the colonial state. Henry John Boulton, the solicitor general, author of the bank incorporation bill, and the bank's lawyer, admitted the bank was a "terrible engine in the hands of the provincial administration". The government, its officers, and legislative councillors owned 5,381 of its 8,000 shares. The Lieutenant Governor appointed four of the bank's fifteen directors making for a tight bond between the nominally private company and the state. Forty-four men served as bank directors during the 1830s; eleven of them were executive councillors, fifteen of them were legislative councillors, and thirteen were magistrates in Toronto. More importantly, all 11 men who had ever sat on the Executive Council also sat on the board of the bank at one time or another. Ten of these men also sat on the Legislative Council. The overlapping membership on the boards of the Bank of Upper Canada and on the Executive and Legislative Councils served to integrate the economic and political activities of church, state, and the "financial sector". These overlapping memberships reinforced the oligarchic nature of power in the colony and allowed the administration to operate without any effective elective check. Despite these tight bonds, the Receiver General, the reform leaning John Henry Dunn, refused to use the bank for government business. The Bank of Upper Canada held a near monopoly, and as a result, controlled much of the trade in the province. Land and agriculture The role of speculation in the vacant lands of Upper Canada ensured the development of group solidarity and cohesion of interest among the members of the Family Compact. Of the 26 largest landowners in Peel County between 1820 and 1840, 23 were absentee proprietors, of whom 17 were involved in the administration of the province; of these 17, 12 were part of the Family Compact. Society and politics in Upper Canada were dominated by interest and connection based on landed property, and only secondarily affected by ideologies and personalities. Members of the Family Compact were interested in building up estates in which they imitated the "improved farming" methods of the English aristocracy. "Improved farming" refers to a capital-intensive form of farming introduced by the "improving landlords" of Great Britain on large estates that were beginning to be farmed as capitalist enterprises. These improved farming methods were introduced to Upper Canada by the half-pay military officers from aristocratic background who tended to become magistrates in Upper Canada and build large estates. "Mixed or improved farming was one part of a total life-style ... As well as permitting them to practice improved farming and to develop a reasonably elegant life-style, their financial independence allowed them the leisure time necessary for them to act as 'leaders' of their community." The city of Toronto was surrounded by the estates of the Family Compact. One of these estates, the Grange, was owned by Boulton and was one of the chief centres of the Family Compact. Although many meetings took place at the Grange, John Ross Robertson noted the small dining room, which could not hold more than 14 people, probably meant that many of the stories about the Family Compact gatherings were probably exaggerated. Opposition Reform movement The Family Compact was one of many, distinguished primarily by its access to the offices of state. Other compact groups, such as the Baldwin-Russell-Sullivan family, in fact, shared many of the same values. The primary opposition to the Family Compact and these loyalist ideals came from the reform movement led by William Lyon Mackenzie. His ability to agitate through his newspaper The Colonial Advocate and petitioning was effective. Speeches and petitions led directly to the redress of grievances in Upper Canada that otherwise had no means of redress. Mackenzie's frustration with Compact control of the government was a catalyst for the failed Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837. Their hold on the government was reduced with the creation of the united Province of Canada and later the installation of the system of Responsible Government in Canada. Colborne Clique The Colborne Clique, named for John Colborne, 1st Baron Seaton, was a federation united by geography in Goderich, Ontario, Scottish heritage, time of immigration to Upper Canada, and an association with the Dunlop brothers William "Tiger" Dunlop and Robert Graham Dunlop. Although their prime animosity was towards the Canada Company, the Canada Company and the Family Compact were seen as one and the same thing causing the Colbornites to align themselves firmly against the Family Compact. Post-Rebellion decline After the Rebellions of 1837, Lord Durham was sent to Canada to make recommendations on reform. Durham's Report on the Affairs of British North America states that it is impossible "To understand how any English statesman could have ever imagined that representative and irresponsible government could be successfully combined." However, rather than pursue the Reformers' dream of responsible government, the British imposed the Union of the Canadas. The aim of the new Governor General, Charles Poulett Thomson was to strengthen the power of the Governor General, to minimize the impact of the numerically superior French vote, and to build a "middle party" that answered to him, rather than the Family Compact or the Reformers. Thomson was a Whig who believed in rational government, not "responsible government". But he was also intent on marginalizing the influence of the Family Compact. The Family Compact began to reconfigure itself after 1841 as it was squeezed out of public life in the new Province of Canada. The conservative values of the Family Compact was succeeded by the Upper Canada Tories after 1841. The current Canadian establishment grew out of the Family Compact. Although the families and names changed, the basic template for power and control remained the same through to the end of World War II. With greater immigration from a variety of nations and cultures came the meritocracy so desired during the early years of Upper Canada. However, as John Porter noted, a form of Family Compact in Canadian business and politics is to be expected. Canada is probably not unlike other western industrial nations in relying heavily on its elite groups to make major decisions and to determine the shape and direction of its development. The nineteenth-century notion of a liberal citizen-participating democracy is obviously not a satisfactory model by which to examine the processes of decision-making in either the economic or the political contexts. ... If power and decision-making must always rest with elite groups, there can at least be open recruitment from all classes into the elite. References Bibliography John G. Bourinot. Canada under British Rule 1790—1900. Toronto, Copp, Clark Company, 1901. Patrick Brode. Sir John Beverley Robinson: Bone and Sinew of the Compact, 1984. G. M. Craig. Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784–1841 (1963). Donald Creighton. John A. Macdonald The Young Politician. Toronto: Macmillan & Co. 1952. David W. L. Earl, ed. The Family Compact: Aristocracy or Oligarchy?, 1967. David Gagan. "Property and 'Interest'; Some Preliminary Evidence of Land Speculation by the 'Family Compact' in Upper Canada 1820–1840," Ontario History, March 1978, Vol. 70 Issue 1, pp. 63–70 A. Ewart and J. Jarvis, Canadian Historical Review, The Personnel of the Family Compact 1926. Robert C. Lee. The Canada Company and the Huron Tract, 1826—1853 Personalities, Profits and Politics Toronto: Natural Heritage Books, 2004. Kathleen Macfarlane Lizars. In the Days of the Canada Company: The Story of the Settlement of the Huron Tract and a view of the Social Life of the Period, 1825—1850. Nabu Public Domain Reprints. David Mills. Idea of Loyalty in Upper Canada, 1784–1850. 1988. . Graeme Patterson. An Enduring Canadian Myth: Responsible Government and the Family Compact / 1989 Gilbert Parker and Claude G. Bryan. Old Quebec. London: Macmillan & Co. 1903. W. Stewart Wallace. The Family Compact (Toronto, 1915). W. Stewart Wallace, ed., The Encyclopedia of Canada, Vol. II, Toronto, University Associates of Canada, 1948, 411 p., p. 318. Further reading Wrong, George M., Canada and the American Revolution: The Disruption of the First British Empire (1935) External links Library and Archives Canada: Search Terms: Family Compact Archives of Ontario, Canada Company Fonds. Historical Narratives of Early Canada by W.R. Wilson L’Encyclopédie de l'histoire du Québec: Family Compact Political parties in Upper Canada Political history of Ontario

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Guard%20%28Finland%29

White Guard (Finland)

The White Guard or Civil Guard (, , lit. protection corps) was a voluntary militia, part of the Finnish Whites movement, that emerged victorious over the socialist Red Guards in the Finnish Civil War of 1918. They were generally known as the "White Guard" in the West due to their opposition to the "communist" Red Guards. In the White Army of Finland many participants were recruits, draftees and German-trained Jägers – rather than part of the paramilitary. The central organization was named the White Guard Organization, and the organization consisted of local chapters in municipalities. The Russian revolution of 1905 led to social and political unrest and a breakdown of security in Finland, which was then a Grand Duchy under the rule of the Russian Tsar. Citizen militias formed as a response, but soon these would be transformed along political (left-right) lines. The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent independence of Finland (declared in December 1917) also caused conflicts in the country. On January 27, 1918, the Finnish government ordered the disarming of all remaining Russian garrisons by the forces of the White Guard, and on the same day the Reds proclaimed revolution, leading to a bloody civil war. White Guards, led by Gen. C. G. E. Mannerheim, constituted the bulk of the victorious White Army during the Finnish Civil War (1918). After the war the Finnish Defence Forces and a regular police service were founded. From 1919–1934 White Guards were considered a voluntary part of the army, and separate Guard formations served in the reserve, but in 1934 all defence was consolidated into the regular army and the Guard became a voluntary defence-training organization only. Politically it was neutral, although unofficially it was anti-leftist, clearly anti-Communist, conservative, largely rejected by the labour movement and by the political left. However, units of it formed the main forces of the Lapua Movement's abortive coup d'état (the Mäntsälä Rebellion) in 1932. White Guardsmen served in the regular army during the Second World War. The White Guard was disbanded according to the terms of the 1947 Finno-Soviet peace treaty after the Second World War. Similar militias operated in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, lands that, like Finland, came under Russian sovereignty until the collapse of Tsarist Russia in 1917. These militias remained in existence until World War II, evolving somewhat into home-guard militias. The phenomenon should be distinguished from the Freikorps established in Germany after its defeat in World War I, although some similarities exist. Historical context During the first years of the 20th century, Russia had been working on the abolition of Finland's autonomous status. As a result, there was strong discontent in Finnish society. In 1905 Russia lost the Russo-Japanese War. This stunning and unexpected defeat led to the Russian Revolution of 1905. In Finland the unrest was expressed in the Finnish general strike of 1905. During the strike Finnish police forces were effectively disbanded, as they had been closely associated with the occupying Russian authorities. Municipal, mostly unarmed, security guards were spontaneously organised by individuals associated with the constitutional and Social Democratic parties. At first all political groups were able to work together, but towards 1906 the civil guards of large towns had become divided along party lines. The first violent clash between Red and White Guards occurred in July 1906 in Helsinki, but after the return of Finnish autonomy the moderate Social Democrats and the whole constitutional party withdrew from military activities. However, the radicalized Red Guard of Helsinki did not disband, despite an order from the Social Democratic leadership to do so, and took part in the mutiny at Viapori fortress alongside revolutionary, anti-imperial Russian soldiers. In the ensuing fighting Czarist Russian troops destroyed the Red Guard as an organisation. The February Revolution in Russia in 1917 caused the collapse of Russian political and military power in Finland. Again, the Russian-associated Finnish police were effectively disbanded, while the largely undisciplined Russian troops engaged in violence, mostly towards their own officers. During the summer of 1917 paramilitary groups were formed for protection and to preserve order. Although the founding of these "fire brigades" was often done in a non-partisan manner, they often split into two opposing factions during the autumn of 1917. The initially unarmed Red and White Guards strove to obtain weapons. The Red Guards usually were able to get arms from revolutionary Russian military units, while the White Guards got theirs from Swedish and German supporters abroad. At the same time, political tensions between socialists and non-socialists escalated. Inside the Social Democratic party, the official leadership was derailed while the executive committee of the Red Guards and the labour unions gained more power. The White Guards in the Civil War The Senate, led by Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, proposed a Declaration of Independence, which the Parliament adopted on December 6, 1917. Declaring independence was one thing, but exercising control over the territory was another. Svinhufvud's "White Senate" had nothing but the White Guards to rely on as yet. There were 42,500 Russian soldiers in Finland. Although the Imperial Russian Army was slowly disintegrating and had already started to withdraw its units from Finland, the demoralized, poorly trained and undisciplined Russian military forces in the country posed a substantial challenge to Finnish authority. In parliament the question on forming a new security force was hotly debated. On January 13, 1918, the non-socialist majority gave authorization to the Senate (Finnish cabinet) to organize a police force of the White Guard. Soon the Senate asked General Mannerheim to form a new Finnish army on the basis on the White Guard militia. In southern Karelia the White and Red Guards clashed in small-scale engagements as both sides attempted to secure the railway to St. Petersburg. During the night of January 27–28, 1918, the White Guards started to disarm and arrest the Russian garrisons in Ostrobothnia. During the night the executive committee of the Red Guards declared the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic in Helsinki. The Civil War of Finland had begun. Neither the Red nor the White Guard were trained for combat. Structures had to be built in extreme haste by both parties. The White Army had a better foundation for this, as it received the Finnish Jaeger troops, some 2,000 men trained by Germany since 1915. These soldiers were able to act as instructors and officers, forming the officer and NCO corps of the new conscript army. In addition, the White side had 1,200 volunteers from Sweden (many of whom were officers), and a significant number of Finnish officers who had previously served in the imperial Russian Army but returned home after the revolution. Although in the beginning of the war the White Guard formed the bulk of the White army, the conscript units very soon matched the White Guard units in number. These troops, which were much better disciplined and trained than the volunteer Guards, proved to be crucial for the outcome of the war. The Red side never accomplished conscription, which was one of the reasons for its demise. After four months of bitter fighting, the Red Guards were defeated and the White Guards were recognized as one of the key agents in the victory, downplaying for political reasons the role of the German intervention units and the German-trained 2,000 Jaegers. The Civil War was portrayed as a liberation from Russian control after a 20-year-long Russification programme, with the Whites stressing the links of the Reds to the Russian Bolshevik regime. However the White victory was achieved with assistance from the Germans. German influence after the war was so strong that the independence of Finland was greatly in question until the end of World War I. There were reparations in the aftermath of the Civil War. As the Reds had murdered some 1,100 people in their zone of control (the so-called Red terror), the Whites retaliated ruthlessly, executing some 7,370 people after the recapture of the Red areas (the so-called White terror). Approximately 4,000 Whites and 4,500 Reds were killed in action. The famine of 1918 claimed another 20,000 lives. Of those who perished, some 13,000 died in the prison camps. Because of their ruthlessness and eagerness to retaliate, the White Guards earned the title Lahtarikaarti (Butcher Guard) among the Reds. The White Guards after the Civil War After the Civil War the function of the White Guards was unclear. In some municipalities the local White Guard was understood to be a part of the municipal administration. In others, the organisation was considered to have a primarily political role in safeguarding the result of the war. The organisation was given a legal basis on August 2, 1918 by a decree of the Finnish Council of State. Changes to the decree were made later, refining the organisation's structure. From the beginning, the White Guard was considered to be a voluntary part of the Finnish military. The local White Guards' function in the following 20 years—up to the Winter War—was a mixture of Veteran Corps and Home Guards. After 1921 the White Guard organisation consisted of the General Staff, White Guard districts and local White Guard chapters. Every municipality had at least a single chapter, which in part acted as an NGO (non-governmental organization) but in military affairs was part of the national chain of command. In an economical sense, each chapter was responsible for its own funding, although it received a minor grant from the state budget. The White Guard was active in numerous areas of Finnish life. It organised sports activities, especially cross-country skiing, shooting, orienteering and Finnish baseball. For fundraising, the chapters organised numerous informal events and lotteries. It is estimated that about one-fifth of all get-togethers in Finland were organised by the White Guard. To this end, the White Guard chapters had several hundred choirs, orchestras and theatre groups. The Chief of the White Guard and the district chiefs were selected by the President of Finland. From 1921 until the organisation's demise, this post was occupied by Gen. Lauri Malmberg. Usually, the district chiefs and most officers in the district headquarters were from the regular army. Only able-bodied males between 17 and 40 years of age could be full members of the White Guard. Every member was required to attend a specified amount of training on pain of losing membership. The members were required to buy their own equipment and rifle, but the local chapters helped their members if the chapters had funds for it. Until 1934 the White Guard would have formed a division in the full-scale mobilisation. In 1934 the Finnish mobilisation system was changed. The new system was based on military districts acting as the local mobilization centers. In practice, the military districts coincided with the White Guard districts. In case of mobilisation these two would be unified to act as a single home front district. After the change, the White Guard members formed the cadre of all wartime units, but no specific guard units were planned for mobilisation. On the other hand, the separate wartime White Guard units were removed from the mobilisation plans. The aim of the White Guard was no longer to provide ready fighting units but to act as a voluntary training organisation for reservists. Only the Guard chapters immediately adjacent to the eastern border had responsibility for starting the initial defence against invasion. This effectively ended the role of the White Guard as a separate, political armed force. During the war the Guard membership mostly served at the front. In the home area the Guard districts formed the local headquarters for the military districts and the oldest and youngest Guard members served in guard and anti-aircraft duties. There were some small anti-desant actions on the home front, e.g. in Hollola in 1941. After the Continuation War, the Finnish White Guards were disbanded in 1944, as demanded by the Soviet Union. However, the military district system as the basis for mobilisation was retained, now fully as an army structure. In the Winter War the White Guard was responsible for the carrying out of the mobilisation. A quarter of the manpower of the field army consisted of Guard members. This contribution proved important, as Guard members were the best trained and equipped personnel in an army which lacked even basic supplies. Strength Relations with politicians The frosty relations between White Guards and Socialists started to ease during the 1930s. During the 1920s Socialists had demanded the White Guards be demobilised, but as the Guard leadership and the overwhelming majority of the members remained loyal to the government during Mäntsälä rebellion, the demands were changed to making the Guards an official part of the army. The political rift between the White Guard and the labour movement was ultimately healed during the Winter War, when leadership of the Guard and the Social Democratic Party issued a joint statement February 15, 1940, in which the Guard leadership recommended local Guards to recruit Socialists and the Party leadership recommended to its members that they join the Guards. At the same time, the employers' associations conceded to collective-bargaining agreements with the trade unions. The White Guards' relations towards non-socialist parties were mostly warm. The Guard did not distinguish between any non-socialist political views and received the support of all non-socialist parties. Only during the Mäntsälä rebellion did these relations deteriorate, as some more radical parts of the Guard were linked with the extreme right-wing. Heritage One of the chapters of the Treaty of Paris (1947) was disbandment of all "fascist-like organizations". The Soviet Union considered that the White Guard and Lotta Svärd were fascist organizations, and they were disbanded. The disbanding of the White Guard effectively ended all Finnish voluntary military training for the next several decades. The sports activities of the Guard were taken over by ordinary civilian sports associations, while the psychological work of instilling a national defence spirit was continued by the reservists' associations. However, the Guard itself is a contentious issue, which still divides the people along political lines. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Finland unilaterally renounced the military articles of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947. Following this, the NGOs working in fields with connections to total defence formed the National Defence Training Association of Finland (), which started to organise supplemental voluntary training primarily for Finnish Defence Forces reservists in conjunction with the Defence Forces. The legal basis for the activities was given by changing the Act on Defence Forces in 1994. More accurate basis was given by the Act on Voluntary Defence Work of 2007, which will make the Association a nominally independent public organization under political state control. As the heritage of the White Guard in Finland is very mixed, the National Defence Training Association does not consider itself to be the successor of the White Guard. In 2007 formation of Territorial Forces was started, a volunteer military organization composed of reservists. Some political groups have criticized formation of these units, saying that they are too close to White Guards that were abolished as fascist organization in 1944. However, unlike the White Guard, local defense troops are not a separate organization, but fully in the control of the Finnish Defence Forces. Dress and insignia The first ad hoc symbols were a white armband and a small, three-branched shoot from a spruce branch, placed into the hat. The basic insignia was an embroidered badge with a white "S" topped by three single shoots of spruce branches. The badge and the "S" were embroidered with a gold-colored border. The symbol worn by General C.G.E. Mannerheim had a blue field, but in the provinces, the field was divided (party per sinister), with two or three colors representing each province. The white armband also bore the name of the municipality. Each chapter had its own flag, but generally it was a symmetric variant of the modern State Flag of Finland where the cross was extended with small swastika arms, the "S" symbol in the canton and local symbols instead of the coat of arms. The rank insignia was rather different from modern Finnish insignia. In principle, the enlisted did not have a rank system, and there was only one officer rank (suojeluskuntaupseeri), marked by a single metal spruce branch worn on the collar. However, task-specific insignia was used instead. Underofficers wore a chevron pointed downwards, and chiefs of local chapters wore 1–4 horizontal bars, the number depending on the size of the chapter. It must be kept in mind that Suojeluskunnat were a civilian organization and many members did not have formal military training. Those members who had served in the military held a separate rank in reserve. Uniforms were Swedish and German-style and in "field gray" (Feldgrau) color. See also Jyväskylä Defence Corps Building Local Defence troops (Finland) Lotta Svärd – voluntary auxiliary organisation for women Seinäjoki Civil Guard House, now housing the Civil Guard & Lotta Svärd Museum Red Guards (Finland) Explanatory notes References External links THE SUOJELUSKUNTA: A History of the Finnish Civil Guard by Jarkko Vihavainen 1917 establishments in Finland Anti-communist organisations in Finland Finnish anti-communists Finnish Civil War Finnish nationalism Military units and formations disestablished in 1944 Military units and formations of the Russian Civil War Paramilitary organisations based in Finland

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanns%20Eisler

Hanns Eisler

Hanns Eisler (6 July 1898 – 6 September 1962) was an Austrian composer (his father was Austrian, and Eisler fought in a Hungarian regiment in World War I). He is best known for composing the national anthem of East Germany, for his long artistic association with Bertolt Brecht, and for the scores he wrote for films. The Hochschule für Musik "Hanns Eisler" is named after him. Family background Johannes Eisler was born in Leipzig in Saxony, the son of Rudolf Eisler, a professor of philosophy, and Marie Ida Fischer. His father was Atheist and his mother was Lutheran. In 1901, the family moved to Vienna. His brother, Gerhart, was a Communist journalist, and his sister, Elfriede, was a leader of the German Communist Party in the mid-1920s. After emigrating to America, she turned into an anti-Stalinist, writing books against her former political affiliation, and even testifying against her brothers before the House Un-American Activities Committee. At age 14 Eisler joined a socialist youth group. Early years and Bertolt Brecht During the Great War, Hanns Eisler served as a front-line soldier in the Austro-Hungarian army and was wounded several times in combat. Returning to Vienna after Austria's defeat, he studied from 1919 to 1923 under Arnold Schoenberg. Eisler was the first of Schoenberg's disciples to compose in the twelve-tone or serial technique. He married Charlotte Demant in 1920; they separated in 1934. In 1925, he moved to Berlin—then a hothouse of experimentation in music, theater, film, art and politics. There he became an active supporter of the Communist Party of Germany and became involved with the November Group. In 1928, he taught at the Marxist Workers' School in Berlin and his son Georg Eisler, who would grow up to become an important painter, was born. His music became increasingly oriented towards political themes and, to Schoenberg's dismay, more "popular" in style with influences drawn from jazz and cabaret. At the same time, he drew close to Bertolt Brecht, whose own turn towards Marxism happened at about the same time. The collaboration between the two artists lasted for the rest of Brecht's life. In 1929, Eisler composed the song cycle Zeitungsausschnitte, Op. 11. The work is dedicated to Margot Hinnenberg-Lefebre. Though not written in the twelve-tone technique, it was perhaps the forerunner of a musical art style later known as "News Items" (or perhaps better characterized as "news clippings") – musical compositions that parodied a newspaper's content and style, or that included lyrics lifted directly from newspapers, leaflets, magazines or other written media of the day. The cycle parodies a newspaper's layout and content, with the songs comprising it given titles similar to headlines. Its content reflects Eisler's socialist leanings, with lyrics memorializing the struggles of ordinary Germans subject to post–World War I hardships. Eisler wrote music for several Brecht plays, including The Decision (Die Maßnahme) (1930), The Mother (1932) and Schweik in the Second World War (1957). They also collaborated on protest songs that celebrated, and contributed to, the political turmoil of Weimar Germany in the early 1930s. Their Solidarity Song became a popular militant anthem sung in street protests and public meetings throughout Europe, and their Ballad of Paragraph 218 was the world's first song protesting laws against abortion. Brecht-Eisler songs of this period tended to look at life from "below"—from the perspective of prostitutes, hustlers, the unemployed and the working poor. In 1931–32 he collaborated with Brecht and director Slatan Dudow on the working-class film Kuhle Wampe. In exile After 1933, Eisler's music and Brecht's poetry were banned by the Nazi Party. Both artists went into exile. While Brecht settled in Svendborg, Denmark, Eisler traveled for a number of years, working in Prague, Vienna, Paris, London, Moscow, Spain, Mexico and Denmark. He made two visits to the US, with speaking tours from coast to coast. In 1938, Eisler finally managed to emigrate to the United States with a permanent visa. In New York City, he taught composition at New School for Social Research and wrote experimental chamber and documentary music. In 1942, he moved to Los Angeles where he joined Brecht, who had arrived in California in 1941 after a long trip eastward from Denmark across the Soviet Union and the Pacific Ocean. In the U.S., Eisler composed music for various documentary films and for eight Hollywood film scores, two of which — Hangmen Also Die! and None but the Lonely Heart — were nominated for Oscars in 1944 and 1945 respectively. Also working on Hangmen Also Die! was Bertolt Brecht, who wrote the story along with director Fritz Lang. From 1927 to the end of his life, Eisler wrote the music for 40 films, making film music the largest part of his compositions after vocal music for chorus and/or solo voices. On 1 February 1940, he began work on the "Research Program on the Relation between Music and Films" funded by a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, which he got with the help of film director Joseph Losey and The New School. This work resulted in the book Composing for the Films which was published in 1947, with Theodor W. Adorno as co-author. In several chamber and choral compositions of this period, Eisler returned to the twelve-tone method he had abandoned in Berlin. His Fourteen Ways of Describing the Rain — composed for Arnold Schoenberg's 70th birthday celebration — is considered a masterpiece of the genre. Eisler's works of the 1930s and 1940s included Deutsche Sinfonie (1935–57)—a choral symphony in eleven movements based on poems by Brecht and Ignazio Silone—and a cycle of art songs published as the Hollywood Songbook (1938–43). With lyrics by Brecht, Eduard Mörike, Friedrich Hölderlin and Goethe, it established Eisler's reputation as one of the 20th century's great composers of German lieder. The HUAC investigation Eisler's promising career in the U.S. was interrupted by the Cold War. He was one of the first artists placed on the Hollywood blacklist by the film studio bosses. In two interrogations by the House Committee on Un-American Activities, the composer was accused of being "the Karl Marx of music" and the chief Soviet agent in Hollywood. Among his accusers was his sister Ruth Fischer, who also testified before the Committee that her other brother, Gerhart, was a Communist agent. The Communist press denounced her as a "German Trotskyite." Among the works that Eisler composed for the Communist Party was the "Comintern March", including the words "The Comintern calls you / Raise high the Soviet banner / In steeled ranks to battle / Raise sickle and hammer." His supporters Eisler's supporters—including his friend Charlie Chaplin and the composers Igor Stravinsky, Aaron Copland and Leonard Bernstein—organized benefit concerts to raise money for his defense fund, but he was deported early in 1948. Folksinger Woody Guthrie protested the composer's deportation in his lyrics for "Eisler on the Go"—recorded fifty years later by Billy Bragg and Wilco on the Mermaid Avenue album (1998). In the song, an introspective Guthrie asked himself what he would do if called to testify before the House Committee on Un-American Activities: "I don't know what I'll do / I don't know what I'll do / Eisler's on the come and go / and I don't know what I'll do." On departing from the U.S. On 26 March 1948, Eisler and his wife, Lou, departed from LaGuardia Airport and flew to Prague. Before he left, he read the following statement: I leave this country not without bitterness and infuriation. I could well understand it when in 1933 the Hitler bandits put a price on my head and drove me out. They were the evil of the period; I was proud at being driven out. But I feel heartbroken over being driven out of this beautiful country in this ridiculous way. In East Germany Eisler returned to Austria, and later moved to East Berlin. In East Germany, he composed the national anthem of the German Democratic Republic, a cycle of cabaret-style songs to satirical poems by Kurt Tucholsky and incidental music for theater, films, television and party celebrations. His most ambitious project of the period was the opera Johannes Faustus on the Faust theme. The libretto, written by Eisler himself, was published in the fall of 1952. It portrayed Faust as an indecisive man who betrayed the cause of the working class by not joining the German Peasants' War. In May 1953, Eisler's libretto was attacked by a major article in Neues Deutschland, the SED organ, which disapproved of the negative depiction of Faust as a renegade and accused the work of being "a slap in the face of German national feeling" and of having "formalistically deformed one of the greatest works of our German poet Goethe" (Ulbricht). Eisler's opera project was discussed in three of the bi-weekly meetings "Mittwochsgesellschaft" [Wednesday club] of a circle of intellectuals under the auspices of the Berlin Academy of Arts beginning on 13 May 1953. The last of these meetings took place on Wednesday, 10 June 1953. A week later, the East German uprising of 1953 pushed those debates from the agenda. Eisler fell into a depressive mood, and did not write the music for the opera. In his last work, "Ernste Gesänge" (Serious Songs), written between spring 1961 and August 1962, Eisler attempted to work through his depression, taking up the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union with its demise of the Stalin cult, as a sign of hope for a future enabling to "live without fear". Although he continued to work as a composer and to teach at the East Berlin conservatory, the gap between Eisler and the cultural functionaries of East Germany grew wider in the last decade of his life. During this period, he befriended musician Wolf Biermann and tried to promote him (but in 1976, Biermann would be stripped of his GDR citizenship while on concert tour in West Germany). Eisler collaborated with Brecht until the latter's death in 1956. He never recovered completely from his friend's demise, and his remaining years were marred by depression and declining health. He died of a heart attack (his second) in East Berlin in September 1962, and is buried near Brecht in the Dorotheenstadt cemetery. Compositions 1918: Gesang des Abgeschiedenen ("Die Mausefalle") (after Christian Morgenstern); "Wenn es nur einmal so ganz still wäre" (after Rainer Maria Rilke) 1919: Drei Lieder (Li-Tai-Po, Klabund); "Sehr leises Gehn im lauen Wind"; 1922: Allegro moderato and Waltzes; Allegretto and Andante for Piano 1923: Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 1 1923: Divertimento; Four Piano Pieces 1923: Divertimento for wind quintet, Op. 4 1924: Piano Sonata No. 2, Op. 6 1925: Eight Piano Pieces 1926: Tagebuch des Hanns Eisler (Diary of Hanns Eisler); 11 Zeitungsausschnitte; Ten Lieder; Three Songs for Men's Chorus (after Heinrich Heine) 1928: "Drum sag der SPD ade"; "Lied der roten Matrosen" ("Song of the Red Sailors", with Erich Weinert); Pantomime (with Béla Balázs); "Kumpellied"; "Red Sailors' Song"; "Couplet vom Zeitfreiwilligen"; "Newspaper's Son"; "Auch ein Schumacher (verschiedene Dichter)"; "Was möchst du nicht" (from Des Knaben Wunderhorn); "Wir sind das rote Sprachrohr" 1929: Tempo der Zeit (Tempo of Time) for chorus and small orchestra, Op. 16; Six Lieder (after Weinert, Weber, Jahnke and Vallentin); "Lied der Werktätigen" ("Song of the Working People"; with Stephan Hermlin) 1930: Die Maßnahme (The Measures Taken, Lehrstück, text by Bertolt Brecht), Op. 20; Six Ballads (after Weber, Brecht, and Walter Mehring); Four Ballads (after B. Traven, Kurt Tucholsky, Wiesner-Gmeyner, and Arendt); Suite No. 1, Op. 23 1931 incidental music for Die Mutter (The Mother) by Bertolt Brecht (after Maxim Gorky), for small theatre orchestra 1931: "Lied der roten Flieger" (after Semyon Kirsanov); Four Songs (after Frank, Weinert) from the film Niemandsland; film music for Kuhle Wampe (texts by Brecht) with the famous "Ballad of the Pirates", "Song of Mariken", Four Ballads (with Bertolt Brecht); Suite No. 2, Op. 24 ("Niemandsland"); Three Songs after Erich Weinert; "Das Lied vom vierten Mann" ("The Song of the Fourth Man"); "Streiklied" ("Strike Song"); Suite No. 3, Op. 26 ("Kuhle Wampe") 1932: "Ballad of the Women and the Soldiers" (with Brecht); Seven Piano Pieces; Kleine Sinfonie (Little Symphony); Suite No. 4, Music for the Russian film Pesn' o geroyakh (Song of Heroes) by Joris Ivens with "Song from the Urals" (after Sergei Tretyakov); reissued as instrumental piece Op. 30 ("Die Jugend hat das Wort") 1934: "Einheitsfrontlied" ("United Front Song"); "Saarlied" ("Saar Song"), "Lied gegen den Krieg" ("Song Against War"), "Ballade von der Judenhure Marie Sanders" ("Ballad of the Jews' Whore Marie Sanders"), songs from Die Rundköpfe und die Spitzköpfe; "Sklave, wer wird dich befreien" ("Slave, who will liberate you"; with Brecht); "California Ballad"; Six Pieces; Prelude and Fugue on B–A–C–H (string trio); Spartakus 1919, Op. 43 1935: Die Mutter (The Mother) rewritten as cantata for chorus, solo voices and two pianos for a New York stage production 1935: Lenin Requiem for solo voices, chorus and orchestra 1936 : Cantata Gegen den Krieg 1937: Seven cantatas based on texts taken from Ignazio Silone's novels Bread and Wine and Fontamara for solo voice, strings and woodwind instruments Die Römische Kantate, Op. 60; Kantate im Exil (Man lebt von einem Tag zu dem andern), Op. 62; Kantate "Nein" (Kantate im Exil No. 2); Kantate auf den Tod eines Genossen, Op. 64; Kriegskantate, Op. 65; Die den Mund auf hatten; Die Weißbrotkantate "Friedenssong" ("Peace Song", after Petere); "Kammerkantaten" ("Chamber Cantatas"); Ulm 1592; "Bettellied "("Begging Song", with Brecht); "Lenin Requiem" (with Brecht) 1938: Cantata on Herr Meyers' First Birthday; String Quartet; Fünf Orchesterstücke ; Theme and Variations "Der lange Marsch" 1939: Nonet No. 1 1940: Music for the documentary film White Flood (Frontier Films), reissued as Chamber Symphony (Kammersymphonie) 1941: Music for the documentary film A Child went forth (directed by Joseph Losey), reissued as Suite for Septet No. 1, op. 92a 1940/41: Film music for The Forgotten Village (directed by Herbert Kline and Alexander Hammid, written by John Steinbeck) 1940/41: Nonet No. 2 1941: Woodbury-Liederbüchlein (Woodbury Songbook, 20 children songs for female choir written in Woodbury, Connecticut); "14 Arten den Regen zu beschreiben" (14 ways to describe rain) (for the Joris Ivens film Rain, later dedicated to Arnold Schoenberg for his 70th birthday) 1942: "Hollywood-Elegien" ("Hollywood Elegies"; with Brecht) in the Hollywooder Liederbuch (Hollywood Songbook) 1943: Film music for Hangmen Also Die!; Piano Sonata No. 3 1943: Songs for Schweik in the Second World War; "Deutsche Misere" (with Brecht) 1943: Piano sonata no. 3 1945: Film score for The Spanish Main, directed by Frank Borzage 1946: "Glückliche Fahrt" ("Prosperous Voyage", after Goethe); Songs and ballad for Brecht's play Life of Galileo. 1946: Film scores for A Scandal in Paris and Deadline at Dawn 1947: Septet No. 2 1947: Music for The Woman on the Beach, film directed by Jean Renoir 1948: Incidental music for Johann Nestroy's play Höllenangst 1948: "Lied über die Gerechtigkeit" ("Song of Justice", after W. Fischer) 1949: Berliner-Suite; Rhapsody; "Lied über den Frieden" ("Song about Peace"); Auferstanden aus Ruinen (National Anthem of the DDR (text by Becher)); "Treffass" 1950: "Mitte des Jahrhunderts" (after Becher); Four Lieder on Die Tage der Commune; Children's Songs (with Brecht) 1952: "Das Lied vom Glück" ("The Song of Happiness"; after Brecht); "Das Vorbild" (after Goethe) 1954 : Winterschlacht-Suite 1955: Night and Fog, music for the film Herr Puntila and His Servant Matti; Puntila-Suite; "Im Blumengarten" ("In the flower garden"); "Die haltbare Graugans"; Three Lieder after Brecht; music for the 1955 film Bel Ami 1956: Vier Szenen auf dem Lande (Katzgraben) ("Four Scenes from the Country", after Erwin Strittmatter); Children's Songs (after Brecht); "Fidelio" (after Beethoven) 1957: Sturm-Suite für Orchester; Bilder aus der Kriegsfibel; "Die Teppichweber von Kujan-Bulak" ("The Carpetweavers of Kujan-Bulak", with Brecht); "Lied der Tankisten" (text by Weinert); "Regimenter gehn"; "Marsch der Zeit" ("March of Time", after Vladimir Mayakovsky); Three Lieder (after Mayakovsky and Peter Hacks); "Sputnik-Lied" ("Sputnik Song", text of Kuba (Kurt Barthel)); film music for Les Sorcières de Salem (The Crucible) 1935-1958: Deutsche Sinfonie (after texts of Bertolt Brecht and Ignazio Silone) 1958: "Am 1. Mai" ("To May Day", with Brecht) 1959: 36 more songs on texts by Kurt Tucholsky for Gisela May and Ernst Busch; 1962: "Ernste Gesänge" ("Serious Songs"), seven Lieder after Friedrich Hölderlin, Berthold Viertel, Giacomo Leopardi, Helmut Richter, and Stephan Hermlin Writings A Rebel in Music: selected writings. New York: International Publishers, 1978 References Works cited Further reading Alonso, Diego. (6 December 2019) "From the People to the People: The Reception of Hanns Eisler's Critical Theory of Music in Spain through the Writings of Otto Mayer-Serra", in: Musicologica Austriaca. Journal for Austrian Music Studies () Boyd, Caleb (2013). "They Called Me An Alien": Hanns Eisler's American Years, 1935–1948. M.A. thesis. Arizona State University. Horn, Eva, "Bertolt Brecht and the Politics of Secrecy", p. 17 External links The International Hanns Eisler Society North American Hanns Eisler Forum Orel Foundation Hanns Eisler – biography, bibliography, works and discography. Hanns Eisler Complete Edition (projected publication of all his scores and writings) Hanns Eisler Project Georg Eisler Gallery Hanns Eisler FBI File 1898 births 1962 deaths 20th-century classical composers Austrian classical composers German classical composers German male classical composers Twelve-tone and serial composers German film score composers Male film score composers Second Viennese School German military personnel of World War I Musicians from Leipzig German communists Hollywood blacklist People deported from the United States Recipients of the National Prize of East Germany People from the Kingdom of Saxony Pupils of Arnold Schoenberg 20th-century German composers National anthem writers Political music artists Austrian emigrants to East Germany Hochschule für Musik Hanns Eisler Berlin faculty 20th-century German male musicians

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weissenstein

Weissenstein

The Weissenstein (1,395 m) is a mountain of the Jura, located north of Solothurn in the Swiss canton of Solothurn. The culminating point of the chain is distinguished by the name Röti. It is the easternmost summit above 1,300 metres in the Jura Mountains. Until the end of 2009 there was a chairlift (length: 2339 m) from Oberdorf to the spa hotel on the 1,284 metre-high summit near the Weissenstein Pass. It was replaced by a gondola lift at the end of 2014. The tunnel of the railway line Solothurn-Moutier from Oberdorf to Gänsbrunnen on the other side was opened in 1908. The gondola lift crosses the railway track in front of the tunnel portal at Oberdorf, which is the only setting of this kind in Switzerland. The pass road leading from the village of Oberdorf across the Weissenstein Pass (1279 m) to Gänsbrunnen is one of the steepest in Switzerland (22%). References External links Seilbahn Weissenstein, the gondola lift operator, in German. Weissenstein on Hikr Mountains of Switzerland Mountains of the canton of Solothurn Mountains of the Jura One-thousanders of Switzerland

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.%20Lee%20Ermey

R. Lee Ermey

Ronald Lee Ermey (March 24, 1944 – April 15, 2018) was an American actor and Marine drill instructor. He achieved fame for his role as Gunnery Sergeant Hartman in the 1987 film Full Metal Jacket, which earned him a Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Ermey was also a United States Marine Corps staff sergeant and an honorary gunnery sergeant. Ermey was often typecast in authority figure roles, such as Mayor Tilman in the film Mississippi Burning, Bill Bowerman in Prefontaine, Sheriff Hoyt in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre remake, Jimmy Lee Farnsworth in Fletch Lives, a police captain in Se7en, plastic army men leader Sarge in the first three films of the Toy Story franchise (1995–2010), Lt. "Tice" Ryan in Rocket Power, a prison warden in an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants, and John House in House. On television, Ermey hosted two programs on the History Channel: Mail Call, in which he answered viewers' questions about various military issues both modern and historic; and Lock n' Load with R. Lee Ermey, which concerned the development of different types of weapons. He also hosted GunnyTime on the Outdoor Channel. Early life Ermey was born in Emporia, Kansas, on March 24, 1944, to John Edward and Betty Ermey. He grew up with five brothers on a farm outside Kansas City, Kansas. In 1958, when Ermey was 14, he and his family moved to Zillah, Washington. As a teenager, Ermey often got into trouble with the authorities, and he was arrested twice for criminal mischief by the age of 17. After his second arrest, a judge gave him a choice between the military and jail; Ermey chose the military. Military career In 1961, at age 17, Ermey enlisted in the United States Marine Corps and went through recruit training at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego in San Diego, California. He served in the aviation support field for a few years before becoming a drill instructor in India Company, 3rd Recruit Training Battalion, at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, where he was assigned from 1965 to 1967. Ermey then served in Marine Wing Support Group 17 at Marine Corps Air Station Futenma in Okinawa, Japan. In 1968, he was ordered to South Vietnam with MWSG-17, and spent 14 months in-country. The remainder of his service was on Okinawa, where he was advanced to staff sergeant (E-6). He was medically retired in 1972 because of several injuries. On May 17, 2002, he received an honorary promotion to gunnery sergeant (E-7) by the Commandant of the Marine Corps, General James L. Jones. Ermey continued to visit Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego in San Diego, California and Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island in Beaufort, South Carolina to visit with and speak with recruits. Ermey filmed an episode of Mail Call at Parris Island. Acting career Films Ermey was cast in his first film while attending the University of Manila in the Philippines, using his G.I. Bill benefits. He played a First Air Cavalry helicopter pilot in Apocalypse Now, and doubled as a technical advisor to director Francis Ford Coppola. Ermey then was cast as a Marine drill instructor in Sidney J. Furie's The Boys in Company C. For the next few years, Ermey played a series of minor film roles until 1987, when he was cast as drill instructor Gunnery Sergeant Hartman in Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket. Initially, he was intended to be only the technical advisor. Kubrick changed his mind after Ermey put together an instructional tape, in which he went on an extended tirade at several extras, convincing Kubrick he was the right man for the role. Breaking his word to original actor Tim Colceri, Kubrick gave Colceri's part to R. Lee Ermey. Seeking authenticity for the film, Kubrick allowed Ermey to write or edit his own dialogue and improvise on the set, a notable rarity in a Kubrick film. Kubrick later indicated that Ermey was an excellent performer, often needing just two or three takes per scene, also unusual for a Kubrick film. Ermey's performance won critical raves and he was nominated for a Golden Globe Award as Best Supporting Actor. Ermey later played a drill instructor in the pilot episode of Space: Above and Beyond and the ghost of a drill instructor in the film The Frighteners, both similar to his character in Full Metal Jacket. Ermey subsequently appeared in about 60 films, including Purple Hearts, Mississippi Burning, The Siege of Firebase Gloria, Dead Man Walking, Se7en, Fletch Lives, Leaving Las Vegas, Prefontaine, Saving Silverman, On Deadly Ground, Sommersby, Life, Man of the House, Toy Soldiers, and The Salton Sea, as well as the remake of Willard, and as an evil sadist in two of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre films. Ermey also lent his voice to The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy, Toy Story, Toy Story 2 and Toy Story 3, as well as Roughnecks and X-Men 3. He usually appeared in a commanding military role, for shows such as Kim Possible, The Simpsons, Family Guy, SpongeBob SquarePants, Rocket Power, The Angry Beavers, Fillmore!, Miami Vice, House, Scrubs, My Life as a Teenage Robot, and Invader Zim. His voice was also briefly heard through a voice disguise machine in Recess: School's Out. In addition, he hosted the documentary series Mail Call and Lock n' Load with R. Lee Ermey. Television In 1993 Ermey appeared as the father of Bruce Campbell's character in The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. for two episodes (1 and 8) of season one. On December 14, 1994, Ermey played a sheriff in Tales from the Crypt, season six, episode nine, "Staired in Horror". He also played the role of Reverend Patrick Findley, a minister, on The X-Files season 3, episode 11, "Revelations". On Mail Call, Ermey discussed weaponry, tactical matters, and military history. Mail Calls subject matter was dictated by viewer emails; one episode focused on an M1 Abrams tank, while others involved World War II secrets, and others focused on elements of medieval warfare. The set consisted of a military tent, other military gear and weapons, and a World War II jeep. He had an uncredited role as Sergeant Major Frank Bougus, USMC in the pilot of Space: Above and Beyond. Ermey traveled to Kuwait in June 2003 during the first phase of Operation Iraqi Freedom to film mail distribution by the Defense Department to service personnel for an episode of Mail Call. According to a 2005 episode of Mail Call filmed at Whiteman Air Force Base, he was the 341st person to fly in the B-2 stealth bomber. He also guest-starred in the episode "Second Chance" of Human Target. Ermey also made guest appearances on the television drama House, playing the role of Dr. Gregory House's father, who was a decorated naval aviator while serving in the Marine Corps ("Birthmarks", "Daddy's Boy"), and the sitcom Scrubs, playing the Janitor's father. He also voiced Wildcat in several episodes of Batman: The Brave and the Bold. In two episodes of The Simpsons entitled "Sideshow Bob's Last Gleaming" and "Waiting for Duffman", Ermey voiced Colonel Leslie "Hap" Hapablap. In the episode of SpongeBob SquarePants "Inmates of Summer", he voiced an irate warden of a maximum-security island prison who demoralized the inmates whenever he could. In the episode of The Angry Beavers "Fancy Prance", he voiced the Lipizzaner stallions' instructor, Drill Sergeant Goonther. In 2009, Ermey hosted a second History Channel show entitled Lock n' Load with R. Lee Ermey, which discussed the history of various weapons used by militaries of today. In late 2010, Ermey starred in a GEICO commercial as a drill-instructor-turned-therapist who insults a client, in a parody of some of his iconic characters. Ermey was also featured each week on ESPN's College GameDay. His role was to insult the experts' incorrect picks from the previous week. In that same year, Ermey appeared in the Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode "Trophy" as a paroled sex offender. In 2011, Ermey starred as a drill instructor on the X-Play special on Bulletstorm. In the Family Guy episode "Grumpy Old Man", Ermey guest-starred, again as a drill instructor. Ermey served as host of GunnyTime, a program that debuted on Outdoor Channel in 2015. Video games In 1993, Ermey played Lyle The Handyman in the full motion video game Mega-CD/Sega CD game Double Switch. In 1996, he was the player character's superior officer in Earthsiege 2. Ermey lent his voice to several video games, including Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel (as General Barnaky) and Crash Bandicoot: The Wrath of Cortex (as Wa-Wa). He also made a cameo in Real War: Air, Land, Sea, a real-time strategy video game based on the official Joint Chiefs of Staff training game. In 2014, he did voice-over work for Call of Duty: Ghosts. Several characters have made references to Ermey and the character of Hartman. In the game Fallout 3, a recruitable companion is named Sergeant RL-3, a modified military robot with a personality very similar to Ermey (the companion's name is a reference to Ermey's initials wherein the 3 is leetspeak for the letter E). In the World of Warcraft: Cataclysm expansion there is a character named "Lieutenant Emry" that speaks some of Ermey's signature lines from Full Metal Jacket. In Half-Life: Opposing Force, the drill sergeant from the initial boot camp stage had dialogue and mannerisms very similar to Ermey's character in Full Metal Jacket. Commercials Ermey was an official spokesman for Black Book (National Auto Research), Glock firearms, TRU-SPEC apparel, Tupperware, Victory Motorcycles, Hoover, SOG Specialty Knives, WD-40, Young Marines, and appeared in commercials for Coors Light, Dick's Sporting Goods, GEICO, and pistachio nuts. He provided the introduction for the Professional Bull Riders. He can be seen giving a service announcement for Alamo Drafthouse Cinemas, demanding that viewers be quiet during the film. He was a board member for the National Rifle Association. Personal life Ermey married his wife, Nila, in 1975. They had four children and remained married until his death. Business venture Ermey was a co-founder of Bravery Brewing in Lancaster, California. Military appearances On May 17, 2002, Ermey received an honorary post-service promotion to gunnery sergeant (E-7) from the Commandant of the Marine Corps General James L. Jones in recognition of his continuing support to Americans in military service. He conducted morale tours, visiting United States troops in locations such as Al Kut, Iraq, and Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan, in which he filmed parts for his television show Mail Call. While at Bagram Airfield, he held a USO-type show in which he portrayed GySgt Hartman and conducted a comedy routine. He also did the same at Doha, Qatar and Camp Doha, Kuwait City, Kuwait, in 2003. Political views Ermey described himself as an independent. In the 2008 presidential election, Ermey voted for Barack Obama, but subsequently criticized his economic policies, accusing him of attempting to "impose socialism" on the American people and "destroying the country." Ermey said in a 2015 interview that he supported Texas Senator Ted Cruz for president. He said, "You know what, I just watched Ted Cruz – I mean, what a tough act to follow. I'm not going to tell you who I'm going to vote for, but I'm going to let you guess [...] and the first two guesses don't count!" He would later endorse presidential candidate Donald Trump. Ermey was a strong supporter of the Second Amendment and a board member of the National Rifle Association. Death Ermey died at a hospital in Santa Monica, California, from complications related to pneumonia on the morning of April 15, 2018, three weeks after his 74th birthday. His funeral was held in Arlington National Cemetery on Friday, January 18, 2019, where his ashes are buried. Awards and decorations Ermey was retroactively awarded the Marine Corps Drill Instructor Ribbon after he retired from the military due to his prior service as a Marine Corps recruit training instructor. Ermey's military awards included: Filmography Other media Ermey recorded voice lines for a "talking" 12-inch tall "motivational action figure" depicting him in USMC drill instructor uniform, which replays his signature put-downs with the press of an electronic button on the back. Sideshow Collectibles manufactured the figure in two versions, one with (somewhat) family-friendly language and one with "extra-salty" remarks that include profanity; the latter is packaged with an R rating as a warning to consumers. One of these figures appears occasionally on Mail Call, wherein it is often referred to as 'Mini-Lee' by the host, and is sometimes seen berating a G.I. Joe. In the early 1990s, he appeared as a Martian pilot in a training video for Virtual World Entertainment's game Red Planet. In the Green Lantern series of comics published by DC, it is revealed that Green Lantern Kilowog, who trains all new Green Lantern recruits, was in turn trained by a Green Lantern named Ermey. He had a notable appearance on The Howard Stern Show in October 2002, appearing on the show as GySgt Hartman. He provided the voice of the DLC drill instructor in Call of Duty: Ghosts. He starred in an instructional training video for Lockheed Martin dealing with the problems caused by Foreign Object Damage in manufacturing military equipment. See also References External links 1944 births 2018 deaths 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American expatriates in the Philippines American male film actors American male television actors American male voice actors Burials at Arlington National Cemetery California Independents Deaths from pneumonia in California Kansas Independents Male actors from Kansas Military personnel from Kansas People from Emporia, Kansas People from Palmdale, California People from Yakima County, Washington United States Marine Corps personnel of the Vietnam War United States Marine Corps non-commissioned officers University of Manila alumni

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katie%20Price

Katie Price

Katrina Amy Alexandra Alexis "Katie" Price (née Infield; born 22 May 1978) is an English media personality, model and businesswoman. She initially gained recognition in 1996 for her glamour modelling work with frequent appearances on Page 3 in the British tabloid The Sun, billed under the pseudonym Jordan. Price appeared on the third series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! in 2004, and the following year, she was runner-up in the search for the UK's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest. In 2006, she released her debut studio album, A Whole New World, in collaboration with Peter Andre. Price has also starred in her own reality series, including Jordan (2002–2004), Katie & Peter (2004–2009), Katie (2009–2012), Signed by Katie Price (2011), and Katie Price: My Crazy Life (2017–present). She returned to the ninth series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! in 2009, and was the winner of the fifteenth series of Celebrity Big Brother in 2015. Price has also released six autobiographical books, eleven novels, and two series of children's books. Her Angel novel series topped The Sunday Times bestseller list. Early life Born Katrina Amy Alexandra Alexis Infield in Brighton, East Sussex, in southeast England, Price was the only child of Ray and Amy Infield (née Charlier). Her father left the family when she was four, and in 1988 her mother married builder Paul Price, after which she acquired his surname. She has an older half-brother named Daniel and a younger half-sister named Sophie. She is of Italian, Spanish, English and Jewish descent. Price's maternal grandmother was Jewish, but she is not religious. Price attended Blatchington Mill School in Hove in East Sussex. She excelled at sport, swimming for Sussex in regional competitions. During her childhood, she also developed a passion for horses and horse-riding. She began modelling as a child, and at 13 she modelled for a clothing line. At age 17, she changed her name to Katie Price. Career Modelling At a friend's suggestion, Price had professional photographs taken and decided to pursue a modelling career. The pictures were sent to a modelling agency in London, and in 1996 she appeared, billed as "Jordan", on Page 3 in the British newspaper The Sun. As Jordan, Price was famed for her surgically-enhanced breasts. At 20, she had the first in a succession of breast-enhancement surgeries, increasing her natural 32B to a 32FF. Price also regularly appeared in the Daily Star, FHM, the British edition of Playboy, Nuts, Maxim, Loaded, Vogue and Esquire and also ran as a candidate in Stretford and Urmston during the 2001 UK general election, receiving 713 votes, 1.8% of the votes cast. In 2002, she appeared on the September cover of the American edition of Playboy magazine. In January 2022 Price joined OnlyFans, but raised just £150 from one of her posts, despite pleading with followers to sign-up for the subscription service. Television Price made cameo appearances as herself in the television dramas Dream Team and Footballers' Wives in 2004. She also appeared on Top Gear'''s "Star in a Reasonably Priced Car" in 2004, completing the lap in one minute and fifty-two seconds. Early in her career, Price appeared on The Big Breakfast, and she was a guest host on the first series of The Friday Night Project. In December 2005, she released an exercise fitness DVD, The Jordan Workout, featuring "The Juice Master" Jason Vale. Price was a contestant on the third series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!, between the months of January and February in 2004. It was there that she met Peter Andre, whom she would eventually marry and later divorce. In 2007, with Andre, she hosted the short-lived late-night chat show Katie & Peter: Unleashed. In November 2009, Price made a return visit to I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! in its ninth series. Presenters Ant & Dec insinuated during the broadcast that the surprise of her return had been ruined by the media, and she left the show voluntarily after nine days. Price has also been the subject of many reality television series that chronicle her domestic life. This started with a trio of Channel 4 documentaries by film-maker Richard Macer: Jordan: The Truth About Me (2002), Jordan: The Model Mum and Jordan: You Don't Even Know Me (both 2004), and was followed Jordan Gets Even on Five in 2004. She later appeared in the documentary Jordan: Living With a Dream (Channel 4) and then launched the Katie & Peter franchise on ITV2, which documented the lives of Price and Andre and included several fly-on-the-wall reality series: When Jordan Met Peter, Jordan & Peter: Laid Bare and Jordan & Peter: Marriage and Mayhem between 2004 and 2005; Katie & Peter: The Next Chapter, Katie & Peter: The Baby Diaries and Katie & Peter: Unleashed in 2007; Katie & Peter: Down Under and Katie & Peter: African Adventures in 2008; and Katie & Peter: Stateside in 2009. The pair's separation in 2009 resulted in their individual shows being recorded: What Katie Did Next continued on ITV2 until 2011. Price was runner-up in the selection contest for a representative for the United Kingdom at the 2005 Eurovision Song Contest. In 2006 she released her debut studio album, A Whole New World, in collaboration with Peter Andre. Since 2006, Price has been an occasional panelist on the talk show Loose Women. Price danced with her then-boyfriend Leandro Penna on the Argentine television programme Bailando por un Sueño 2012, a spin-off of Strictly Come Dancing. In 2015, Price appeared on the fifteenth series of Celebrity Big Brother. She had been previously invited to appear on the show. On 6 February 2015, Price finished as the winner of the series. Price's 15 show An Audience with Katie Price toured the UK from September to December 2017. Business ventures Price has launched a range of nutrition supplements, including meal replacement shakes, that are promoted with unsupported claims about their wholesomeness and benefit. The British Dietetic Association named Katie Price Nutritional Supplements as constituting one of the "top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018", noting they were expensive and unnecessary for anybody wanting to lose weight. In 2007 Price launched her first perfume, "Stunning". In 2008 she signed a deal with Derby House to launch her equestrian range of clothing named "KP Equestrian". In 2009 Price was named as the patron of a charity polo match played near Epping, Essex. Music Price was runner-up in the selection contest for a representative for the United Kingdom at the 2005 Eurovision Song Contest. The selection process, named Making Your Mind Up, was broadcast live on television in March 2005. Price sang a song titled "Not Just Anybody". In July 2010, Price released "Free to Love Again", a non-album single. About the release, she explained: "I'm not a singer, this is just something that I'm doing for fun. It's not like I'm worried about getting a chart position or number one, this is purely for fun. Whether people like it or not, I'm doing it." Books Price was in the top 100 best-selling authors of the decade for book sales between 2000 and 2009, with nearly three million sales. Price's books were ghostwritten by Rebecca Farnworth. She released her first autobiography, Being Jordan, in May 2004. Price conducted a 10-day book-signing tour which helped to propel her to first position in the Nielsen BookScan hardback sales chart and to sell 97,090 copies in one year, and over 1,000,000 as of January 2007. Her second autobiography, A Whole New World, was published in January 2006. It reached number two in the hardback general category and sold 198,105 copies by 1 April 2006. Price's second novel, Crystal, about a young woman's efforts to become a singer, sold 159,407 copies during the first three months after its release in June 2007. In July 2008, Price released her third novel, Angel Uncovered. In July 2009, Price released a novel entitled Sapphire which was number 1 on the hardback fiction chart for four consecutive weeks and sold 42,215 copies in its first two weeks in the UK alone. Price released her fifth novel, Paradise, in July 2010. In 2014, she released her tenth novel, Make My Wish Come True. In 2006 Price signed a £300,000 advance with Random House for Katie Price's Perfect Ponies, a series of children's books, with the first six released in 2007. New books in the series have been released to a total of 12 as of 2017. Price's daughter Princess was signed by publishers for her own book deal at the age of nine in 2017. Price had a regular advice column in OK! magazine until 2009. In 2012, she obtained her own column in The Sun on Sunday. Politics and campaigning In the 2001 UK general election, Price stood as an independent candidate in the Stretford and Urmston constituency. She gained 713 votes. The seat was won by Labour's Beverley Hughes with 23,836 votes. Following online abuse focused on her son Harvey, Price began a campaign to make online abuse a specific criminal offence. She took her campaign to Parliament in 2018. Helen Jones, chairman of the parliamentary Petitions Committee subsequently commented: "The law on online abuse is not fit for purpose and it is truly shameful that disabled people have been forced off social media while their abusers face no consequences. There is no excuse for the continued failure to make online platforms as safe for disabled people as non-disabled people. Self-regulation has failed disabled people and the law must change to ensure more lives are not destroyed." and went on to make recommendations for legislation. The Government was expected to respond to the recommendations by the end of March 2019. Personal life Relationships and children Price gave birth to her first child, son Harvey, in Brighton in May 2002. Harvey's father is retired footballer Dwight Yorke. Harvey was found to be blind, with septo-optic dysplasia, which makes optic nerve development unpredictable. He has additionally been diagnosed on the autistic spectrum and to have Prader-Willi syndrome. Price and Peter Andre began a relationship after appearing on I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! and they married in September 2005 at Highclere Castle, Hampshire. In June 2005, Price gave birth by Caesarean section to her second son, Junior Savva Andreas. In June 2007, she gave birth to her third child, daughter Princess Tiaamii Crystal Esther. In April 2009, Price suffered a miscarriage when 10 weeks into pregnancy. In May 2009, they announced that they were separating and divorced in September 2009. In July 2009, Price began dating MMA fighter and actor Alex Reid. They married on 2 February 2010 in a private ceremony at the chapel in the Wynn Hotel in Las Vegas. They later also formally had their union blessed in a church in the UK; the ceremony was filmed for a TV series. In January 2011, Reid and Price separated and their divorce was finalised in March 2012. On 16 January 2013 Price married her third husband Kieran Hayler at the Sandals Royal Bahamian Resort and Spa in the Bahamas, after Hayler proposed on Christmas Day 2012. The couple had a wedding blessing in Weston-super-Mare in March 2013. In August 2013 Price gave birth to her third son, Jett Riviera Hayler. On 4 August 2014 she gave birth to a second daughter, Bunny Hayler, two weeks prematurely. In May 2014 Price accused Hayler of having an extramarital affair and announced she was beginning divorce proceedings. They reconciled on the condition that Hayler attend therapy for sex addiction and renewed their wedding vows at Long Furlong Wedding Barn, near Worthing, West Sussex in February 2015. In July 2017 the couple renewed their wedding vows for the second time in the Maldives. In October 2017, in Barbados, Price and Hayler renewed their wedding vows for the third time. In May 2018 Price announced she was starting divorce proceedings over an extramarital affair. In July 2019, Price announced she was engaged to Kris Boyson; the couple split up a month later. Surgery In 2002, Price was treated for a leiomyosarcoma on her finger. The cancerous tumour was removed at a Nuffield Hospital near her Brighton home. In December 2007, Price underwent surgery in the United States to reduce the size of her breast implants and also had rhinoplasty. However, she was unhappy with the results of her breast implants, so she returned to Beverly Hills, California in July 2008 for corrective surgery. She returned to the United Kingdom with much smaller size 32C breasts. In 2019, Price said she "got a new pair of boobs" with an implant size of 750CC but that she did not know what bra size she was. After trying on bras, she confirmed her bra size as 34E. Criminal record - driving In June 2008, Price was convicted of driving while using a mobile phone in April 2008; she received three points on her driving licence. In July 2010, Price was convicted and fined £250 for speeding after her claim that she was being hounded by paparazzi was rejected by magistrates. In September 2010, Price was convicted for failing to be in proper control of a vehicle, and in December 2010, she was banned from driving for six months by Crawley Magistrates court after speeding in Pyecombe, West Sussex the prior year. In April 2012 Price won an appeal against a conviction for two counts of failing to give information regarding a driver’s identity regarding speeding tickets issued to her relating to offences in London in 2011. Price argued she had not seen the tickets as she did not open her own post.In July 2015 Price was convicted of failing to stop at a red light at Buck Barn in West Sussex. Price was given three points and in fined £700, costs of £450 and a victim surcharge of £70. In February 2018 Price was banned from driving for six months under totting up of points on her licence. In July 2018 Price reported herself to the police for driving while disqualified. In January 2019, Price faced a three-month ban on driving after breaching the conditions of a previous ban, and the following month, the ban was extended an additional three months after her blood alcohol level tested near twice the legal limit. Price had been found by police in the backseat of a vehicle in August 2018 after it had crashed, but charges of being drunk in charge of a vehicle were dropped due to a lack of evidence. In October 2019, Price was convicted of failing to provide details of the driver of the vehicle involved and was banned from driving for two years, which was later reduced to 18 months. In September 2021, Price was taken to hospital after a car crash near Partridge Green, which is located close to her home in Horsham. No other vehicle was involved. Later that month, Price pleaded guilty to driving drunk without insurance and while disqualified. In December, she was given a 16-week suspended sentence, with a condition of unpaid work, and a two-year driving ban. The District Judge commented that Price had one of the worst driving records she had seen. Rape claim, assault charges and abuse conviction In October 2003 charges against Price, for an alleged assault in a nightclub, were dropped when police failed to arrest her within the statutory time limit of 12 weeks. In September 2009 Price claimed that she had previously been raped by a "famous celebrity", but had not reported the incident. Price said that she would "absolutely never" reveal who the attacker was. Surrey Police stated that they had not contacted Price: "No allegation of rape has been made and Miss Price will not be making a statement to police". In June 2019 Price was fined after shouting abuse at a woman in a school playground, in Shipley, West Sussex. Price was issued with a five-year restraining order against her which banned her from making any contact with the woman. Price was additionally ordered to pay £606 in fines and court costs. Nanny, personal debt, bankruptcy and housing In 2006, Joanne Hillman, a nanny employed by Price, was charged with benefit fraud. Hillman was initially tried in 2007 and Price was subsequently summoned to give evidence. As a result of media reporting, the trial collapsed. Hillman was retried in 2008 but no evidence was offered and Hillman was acquitted. In December 2019, Price was declared bankrupt. Her debts were listed as totalling more than £3.5 million – £2 million being owed in legal fees and £1 million relating to a working farm. In August 2018, Price had a bankruptcy hearing at the High Court hearing which was adjourned to give her three months to pay off her debts through an Individual Voluntary Arrangement. Also in June 2019 Horsham District council began enforcement action against Price for demolition and construction works undertaken at her property. The enforcement action concluded in October 2019 when Price was given 30 days to remove the new construction and restore the demolished structures. Drug use In an interview in February 2019, Price admitted having used cocaine for approximately six months as a result of stress in 2018, and said that she had voluntarily entered treatment for addiction at The Priory hospital. Filmography Television Guest appearances Shooting Stars (2002) – 2 episodes Dream Team (2003) – 1 episodeBo' Selecta! (2003) – 1 episode This Morning (2004–2019) – 40 episodesFootballers' Wives (2004) – 1 episode Top Gear (2004) – Episode: "Star in a Reasonably Priced Car" Hell's Kitchen (2004) – 15 episodesAnt & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway (2004–2018) – 4 episodesThe Friday Night Project (2005) – 1 episodeFriday Night with Jonathan Ross (2005–2008) – 3 episodesCelebrity Juice (2008–2012) – 5 episodesPiers Morgan's Life Stories (2009) – 1 episodeThe Graham Norton Show (2009) – 2 episodesAlan Carr: Chatty Man (2010) – 2 episodesBritain and Ireland's Next Top Model (2011) – 1 episode Daybreak (2011–2014) – 4 episodesLet's Dance For Comic Relief (2011) – 3 episodesThe Wright Stuff (2012) – 2 episodes Celebrity Catchphrase (2014) – 1 episode Keep It in the Family (2014) – 1 episode Safeword (2015) – 1 episodeAll Star Family Fortune (2015) – 1 episode Room 101 (2016) – 1 episodeUp Late with Rylan (2016) – 1 episodeLip Sync Battle UK (2017) – 1 episodeTipping Point: Lucky Stars (2017) – 1 episodeCelebs Go Dating (2017) – 1 episode Good Morning Britain (2017–2019) – 5 episodesThrough the Keyhole (2018) – 1 episodeCelebrity Crystal Maze (2018) – 1 episode Jeremy Vine (2019) – 1 episode Steph's Packed Lunch (2021) – 2 episodesRuPaul's Drag Race: UK Versus the World (2022) - 1 episode Discography Albums Singles Awards and nominations Bibliography The first 14 of Price's books were ghostwritten by Rebecca Farnworth. Autobiographies Being Jordan (2004) A Whole New World (2006) Pushed to the Limit (2008) You Only Live Once (2010) Love, Lipstick and Lies (2013) Reborn (2016) Novels Angel (2006) Crystal (2007) Angel Uncovered (2008) Sapphire (2009) Paradise (2010) The Comeback Girl (2011) Santa Baby (2011) In the Name of Love (2012) Hes the One (2013) Make my wish come true (2014) Playing with fire (2018) Children series Perfect Ponies (2007–present) Here Comes the Bride, Little Treasures, Fancy Dress Ponies, Pony Club Weekend, The New Best Friend, Ponies to the Rescue, My Pony Care Book, Star Ponies, Pony 'n' Pooch, Pony in Disguise, Stage Fright!, Secrets and Surprises, Wild West Weekend (in order of publication date) Mermaids & Pirates (2008–present) Follow the Fish, I Spy, Let's Build a Sandcastle, A Sunny Day, Telescope Overboard, Time for a Picnic, All Around, Hide and Seek, Katie the Mermaid, Katie's Day, Peter's Friends, Pirate Olympics (in order of publication date) Fashion book Standing Out'' (2009) See also List of glamour models References External links – official site 1978 births Living people English autobiographers English female models Price, Katie English people of Jewish descent English people of Spanish descent English people of Italian descent English socialites English television personalities English victims of crime English women in business English women novelists Association footballers' wives and girlfriends Independent British political candidates Musicians from Sussex Page 3 girls People from Brighton Peter Andre Reality show winners I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (British TV series) participants 21st-century English novelists English children's writers

262459

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob%20Halford

Rob Halford

Robert John Arthur Halford (born 25 August 1951) is an English singer and songwriter. He is the lead vocalist of the heavy metal band Judas Priest, which was formed in 1969 and has received accolades such as the 2010 Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance. He has been noted for his powerful, wide-ranging voice and trademark leather-and-studs image, both of which have become iconic in heavy metal. He has also been involved with several side projects, including Fight, Two, and Halford. AllMusic said of Halford, "There have been few vocalists in the history of heavy metal whose singing style has been as influential and instantly recognizable... able to effortlessly alternate between a throaty growl and an ear-splitting falsetto." He was ranked at No. 33 on the list of greatest voices in rock by Planet Rock listeners in 2009. He has also been nicknamed "Metal God" by fans. Career Early years Robert John Arthur Halford was born on 25 August 1951 in Sutton Coldfield. He grew up in nearby Walsall, where he was raised on the Beechdale housing estate. His early influences included Little Richard, Janis Joplin, and Robert Plant. Judas Priest Halford was introduced to Judas Priest bassist and co-founder Ian Hill by his sister Sue, who was dating Hill at the time. Halford, a manager of a Men's clothing store, joined the band as singer, bringing with him drummer John Hinch from his previous band Hiroshima. Halford and Hinch played their first show with Judas Priest in May 1973 at the Townhouse in Wellington. The show was recorded and part of it released in 2019 on the compilation Downer-Rock Asylum on the Audio Archives label. In 1974, he made his recording debut on the band's first album Rocka Rolla. He continued to front Judas Priest throughout the 1970s and 1980s. In 1990, Halford emerged with all-new tattoos, including a bent Judas Priest cross on his right arm and ring around his other, as well as a few on his shoulders. He also began shaving his head. On the last date of the tour for Painkiller in August 1991 at a show in Toronto, Halford rode onstage on a large Harley-Davidson motorcycle, dressed in motorcycle leathers, as part of the show. The stage riser malfunctioned and he collided with a half-raised drum riser and fell off of it, breaking his nose in the process. He was left unconscious for a short time while the band was performing the first song. After regaining consciousness, Halford returned and finished the show. Halford had been wanting to do a solo project and had the blessing of his band members to do so. A studio exec told him he would have to technically 'resign' from Judas Priest in order to do so and he wrote a statement citing his interest in a solo project. The letter was leaked and taken out of context in that he was quitting the band. Due to personal challenges with conflict, he was unable to clarify what happened and it was over ten years before he reconnected with the band and rejoined. Fight Shortly after Halford's departure, he formed the band Fight with Judas Priest drummer Scott Travis, bassist Jack "Jay Jay" Brown and guitarists Brian Tilse and Russ Parrish. The first album War of Words was released in 1993, followed by the Mutations EP in 1994. A tour took place in support of the album in 1994. The second album A Small Deadly Space was released in 1995, with a tour taking place in support of that album as well. While War of Words was a straightforward, tough and solid metal record, A Small Deadly Space had a grungier sound, making it less appealing to fans who had developed a taste for War of Words. As the band were preparing to being work on the third album, they split-up, thus ending their business with their label Epic Records. A brief reunion with half of the original members took place on 20 December 1997 for a one-off performance before disbanding once again. In a 2015 interview, Halford contemplated Fight's reformation. 2wo In 1997, Halford collaborated with guitarist John Lowery to form an industrial-influenced project called 2wo. They released their only album Voyeurs in 1998, which was released on Trent Reznor's Nothing Records label. Halford In 1999, Halford returned to his metal roots and formed a solo band. The album Resurrection was released in 2000 to critical acclaim. The band embarked on a tour with Iron Maiden and Queensrÿche to support the album. A live album titled Live Insurrrection was released in 2001. It was followed up by the second album Crucible in 2002. In 2010, Halford released a live DVD titled Live in Anaheim and the fourth studio album Halford IV: Made of Metal. Reunion with Judas Priest Halford's reunion with Judas Priest came about from years of speculation about when he was no longer in the line-up, at least since the release of the Resurrection album, which some critics claimed sounded more like Judas Priest than the band's previous album Jugulator (1997). Halford initially ruled it out, but then reconsidered, stating in 2002 that "Gut instinct tells me that at some point it will happen". In July 2003, Halford returned to Judas Priest and embarked on a tour in 2004 in celebration of his return. The band released Angel of Retribution in 2005. A world tour accompanied the release and marked the band's 30th anniversary. In 2008, Nostradamus was released. In 2011, Judas Priest embarked upon what was billed as their final world tour as a group, titled the "Epitaph" tour. Subsequent to the tour's announcement, Halford stated that he would continue to move forward with his solo band. Despite the "final tour" announcement in 2011, Halford and Judas Priest (minus K. K. Downing, who left the group prior to the Epitaph tour) recorded another album, Redeemer of Souls, which was released in 2014, the album supported by a concert tour. In 2017, Judas Priest began to work on another studio album with Halford. The album Firepower was released 9 March 2018. Live appearances Halford performed as the vocalist for Black Sabbath for three shows. He replaced Ronnie James Dio for two nights in November 1992, when Dio elected not to open a show for Ozzy Osbourne. Halford also filled in for Osbourne in Black Sabbath on 26 August 2004 (one day after Halford's 53rd birthday) at an Ozzfest show in Camden, New Jersey, since Osbourne could not perform due to bronchitis. Halford joined Sum 41 on stage in 2001 for a televised concert for MTV's 20th anniversary with drummer Tommy Lee to perform "You've Got Another Thing Comin'" as the final song a medley. Halford joined Metallica on stage three times where they performed the song "Rapid Fire"; in 1994 on the last date of the Shit Hits the Sheds Tour, in 2011 at The Fillmore for the band's 30th anniversary celebration and in 2013 at the fifth annual Revolver Golden Gods awards in Los Angeles. Halford joined Pantera on stage twice. The first performance was in 1992 where he sang on the songs "Metal Gods" and "Grinder", and again in 1997 where he sang on "Grinder". Halford joined queercore band Pansy Division on stage in July 1997 to perform the song "Breaking the Law". Halford joined Babymetal on stage on 18 July 2016 at the Alternative Press Music Awards in Cleveland where they performed a medley of "Painkiller" and "Breaking the Law". Other activities Halford made an appearance in the 2002 film Spun where he played a retail clerk at a sex shop. In 2006, Halford split with Sanctuary Records and founded Metal God Entertainment to produce and license any future material. All Fight and Halford material were released in remastered format, which also includes DVDs from both bands. Halford provided voice-over for the characters General Lionwhyte and the leader of the Fire Barons on the 2009 video game Brütal Legend. The Baron's appearance and personality is based on Halford. Halford developed the clothing line Metal God Apparel with plans to develop retail sales through 2010. Halford had a brief cameo in a 2010 commercial for Virgin Mobile, where he appeared as a priest. In 2019, Halford was working on an autobiography. The autobiography, titled Confess, was originally announced to be published in October 2020, but received its official date for 29 September 2020 via Hachette Books. In August 2020, Halford confirmed that he had completed an audiobook version of the publication, to be made available at the same time as the physical release. Personal life Hobbies As of 2014, Halford divided his time between homes in the United States and his home town of Walsall. Halford is able to play several instruments such as guitar, bass, harmonica, keyboards, and drums, though he rarely does so on stage. In an interview with Motor Trend, Halford revealed that he has owned a variety of classic cars, including a 1970s Aston Martin DBS, a Chevrolet Corvette, and a Mercury Cougar. He did not gain his driving licence until the age of 38. In 2010, he stated that his main car was a 2006 Cadillac DTS. In May 2021, Halford was made a Kentucky Colonel by Governor Andy Beshear. Sexuality In 1998, Halford publicly revealed his homosexuality on MTV. He broke down in tears saying, "It's a wonderful moment when you walk out of the closet. Now I've done that and I've freed myself. It's a great feeling for me to finally let go and make this statement—especially to The Advocate, because this magazine has brought me so much comfort over the years. Obviously this is just a wonderful day for me." Halford later explained that he did not have a plan or an agenda when coming in to do his interview with MTV. He mainly spoke about and promoted the Voyeurs album he made with ex-Marilyn Manson guitarist John 5, when he slipped out his sexuality after being asked a question from the studio's producer. He cited it being "kind of a big leap forward." At the time Halford revealed his sexuality, he was concerned that he would lose his fanbase as a result. He explained that he cannot return to certain places of the world in fear of lapidation. He described the 1970s and 1980s as "incredibly difficult", but not counting it as important music-wise. Halford jokingly claimed that he cannot be replaced by a straight man, bringing up late Queen vocalist Freddie Mercury, saying that "if Freddie hadn't have been gay, Queen would've been a totally different band. But that's a really important part of my life that I have to get down on paper at some point." Halford describes himself as "the stately homo of heavy metal", and said that his announcement was "the greatest thing I could have done for myself." He also explained that he did not announce it sooner due to the fear that it was going to be troublesome for himself. Halford speaks negatively about the discrimination that the LGBT community still faces in some parts of the world. He recalled that his announcement came as a surprise, and questioned if he would've told the members of Judas Priest while he was in the band. Halford said that after he completed his interview, he began to fear negative reactions, but was quickly inundated with messages of support from his colleagues and fans. Halford says that society has not changed as much as he hoped since his announcement, "You'd think there would have been some kind of change and people would have moved on after such a long time. Now that I'm moving through my OAP heavy metal years (laughs), I thought a lot of it would be gone by now. And it's a shame. We don't really get to spend a lot of time on this planet together, so there's no point in wasting it being divided." The subject matter of his lyrics had not changed since his coming out, and he avoided addressing it in Judas Priest's lyrics. However, the song "Raw Deal" from the 1977 album Sin After Sin speaks about Fire Island. He felt that the lyrics were "just too much", but was approved by the other members of the band. "But you listen to that song, it really is almost like a coming-out experience for me. And it never really registered. [Laughs] It's only been in recent years that people have picked up on that song. That's the one," he said. He is currently married to his husband Thomas. Halford has previously spoken about the level of acceptance of his sexuality within the metal community, calling it accepting and inclusive. Health In the Behind the Music documentary series, Halford said that hiding his sexuality during Judas Priest's career caused him a lot of depression and isolation which led to his alcohol and drug abuse. During the making of the band's 1986 album Turbo, Halford struggled with increasing substance abuse and violent feuds with his romantic partner. The singer entered rehab in January 1986 following a painkiller overdose and even managed to stay sober after his partner committed suicide. He says that he has been clean and sober since then. He made an energetic recovery and his live performances during the subsequent Fuel for Life Tour was described as some of his strongest ever. He was born and raised in a Christian household, and said that his upbringing "has become more important since I became clean and sober on 6 January 1986. That was 25 years ago and I think that's probably more important to me now, on a daily basis." When asked in 2016 what part sobriety has played in the band's longevity, he responded, "Without it? Oh, I'd be dead. Literally, I would be dead." Despite being clean and sober since 1986, he confessed that he did have the desire to "have a drink" and "have a smoke and do a line. I wish I could do all that, but I can't. I've done all that. I've done all that and it nearly killed me. I wish I could do that because when I'm with my friends and they're having a good time and there's this little devil on your shoulder, 'Just have a quick shot. Do a shot of Jack.'" He pointed out to those who are recovering from their abuse about dealing with the "little devil on your shoulder or the monkey on your back", and that being clean and sober was "the greatest gift I was given. It was a gift. I can't do this by myself. There's another source helping. That's just a thrill to share with the music at this point." Halford underwent back surgery in 2013 and umbilical hernia surgery in 2014. Halford battled prostate cancer during the COVID-19 lockdowns after experiencing symptoms in 2017. He underwent prostatectomy in July 2020. After more cancer was found, he went through radiation treatments in April and May that year and was cleared in June before traveling to England to visit family. He also had a appendectomy after a tumor was discovered in his appendix. Singing style and influences Halford possesses a powerful voice with a wide vocal range which is marked by his high-pitched screams and strong vibrato. However, with age, his lower range has matured and become more powerful. Along with Ronnie James Dio and Bruce Dickinson, Halford is one of the pioneers of the pseudo-operatic vocal style later to be adopted by power metal vocalists and regularly appears near the top in lists of the greatest metal vocalists/front-men of all time. Halford describes himself as "a huge Queen fan" since they began and saw their very early shows. He has called Freddie Mercury, the late lead singer of the band, his "ultimate hero" and expressed regret that he never got to know him. As a vocalist, Halford was influenced by Little Richard, Elvis Presley, Janis Joplin and Robert Plant. He was also influenced by the music of Jimi Hendrix, the Beatles, David Bowie, King Crimson, the Rolling Stones, John Mayall and Alice Cooper. Discography Judas Priest Rocka Rolla (1974) Sad Wings of Destiny (1976) Sin After Sin (1977) Stained Class (1978) Killing Machine (1978) Unleashed in the East (1979) British Steel (1980) Point of Entry (1981) Screaming for Vengeance (1982) Defenders of the Faith (1984) Turbo (1986) Priest...Live! (1987) Ram It Down (1988) Painkiller (1990) Angel of Retribution (2005) Nostradamus (2008) A Touch of Evil: Live (2009) Redeemer of Souls (2014) Battle Cry (2016) Firepower (2018) Fight K5 – The War of Words Demos (1992) (released in 2007) War of Words (1993) Mutations (1994) A Small Deadly Space (1995) 2wo Voyeurs (1998) Halford Resurrection (2000) Live Insurrection (2001) Crucible (2002) Metal God Essentials, Vol. 1 (2007) Live in Anaheim (2010) Halford III: Winter Songs (2009) Halford IV: Made of Metal (2010) Miscellaneous The Complete Albums Collection (2017) Rob Halford with Family and Friends Celestial (2019) Guest appearances Krokus – Headhunter – backing vocals on "Ready to Burn" (1983) Surgical Steel – Surgical Steel (demo), vocals on "Smooth and Fast" (1984) Hear 'n Aid (1986) Recorded the song "Light comes out of Black" with Pantera for the Buffy the Vampire Slayer soundtrack (1992) Ugly Kid Joe – America's Least Wanted – backing vocals on "Goddamn Devil" (1992) Skid Row – B-Side Ourselves – vocals on "Delivering the Goods" in a live version (1992) Background vocals on the song "Hex 'n' Sex" for the album with the same title by the German band Brings (1993) Bullring Brummies, a studio session line-up that came together to contribute to the Nativity in Black tribute compilation album of Black Sabbath cover songs (1994). Queens of the Stone Age – Rated R – vocals on "Feel Good Hit of the Summer" (2000) Furious IV – Is That You? (2002) Spun motion picture (2002) – "Pornclerk" character Brütal Legend (2009) – Voicing the main villain Emperor Doviculus' minion General Lionwhyte, who is strongly based on the culture of glam metal. Also voiced the leader of the Fire Barons, who was directly modeled after his younger appearance Five Finger Death Punch's album The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell, Volume 1 (2013) – vocals on "Lift Me Up", performed live in Revolver Golden God Awards (2013) Ronnie James Dio tribute album, This Is Your Life (2014) – vocals on "Man on the Silver Mountain" The Simpsons – Singing a rendition of "Breaking the Law" in the episode "Steal This Episode" (2014) In This Moment's album Ritual (2017) – vocals on "Black Wedding" Phil Campbell – Old Lions Still Roar (2019) – vocals on "Straight Up" References External links Rob Halford interview @ Metalpaths.com 2010 Judas Priest official website Rob Halford Interview @ Chaos Control Rob Halford Interview on Music Business Radio Interview @ Revenge of Riff Raff 1951 births Living people 20th-century English male singers 21st-century English male singers English expatriates in the United States English male singer-songwriters English heavy metal singers English rock singers English gay musicians Judas Priest members LGBT singers from the United Kingdom LGBT songwriters Musicians from Birmingham, West Midlands People from Walsall Halford (band) members 20th-century LGBT people 21st-century LGBT people

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Stringfellow

Peter Stringfellow

Peter James Stringfellow (17 October 1940 – 7 June 2018) was an English businessman who owned several nightclubs. Early life Stringfellow was born in the City General Hospital, Sheffield, South Yorkshire, on 17 October 1940, to Elsie Bowers and James William Stringfellow, a steelworker who served in the Royal Scots Greys during World War II. He was the eldest of four brothers, Geoffrey, Paul and Terry. The family lived in Andover Street, Pitsmoor, Sheffield, until 1948 when they had moved to Marshall Street, Pitsmoor. Peter Stringfellow attended Pye Bank Church of England Primary School. He failed his 11 plus and so attended Burngreave Secondary School for one year. He then passed the exam for Sheffield Central Technical College and he left three years later at the age of 15 with a 4th grade Technical Diploma. Career When Stringfellow was 13 years old, he worked at a cinema on The Wicker arterial street. His first job after leaving school was as an assistant tie salesman at Austin Reed. After some casual jobs he enrolled as an apprentice in the Merchant Navy, at the age of 16. His Merchant Navy career lasted two years. On his return to Sheffield, he worked briefly in various jobs. While at Dobson's Furnishings Company he was convicted of selling stolen carpets and served two weeks in Armley Prison, Leeds, in June 1962 and six weeks in Ford Open Prison. After his conviction and imprisonment he was unable to find regular work. This led to his business career running clubs. Nightclub management In 1962, Stringfellow rented St Aidan's Church Hall in Sheffield every Friday night, operating the Black Cat Club. Several bands played in the club, such as the Pursuers, Dave Berry and the Cruisers, Johnny Tempest and the Cadillacs and from London, Screaming Lord Sutch, the Savages, Count Lindsay and Gene Vincent. His fortunes changed when The Beatles played on 2 April 1963. The demand for concert tickets was so great that Stringfellow rented a larger venue, the Azena Ballroom in Sheffield. On that night he sent the Beatles a telegram congratulating them on their first album, Please Please Me. In 1963 Stringfellow began another club, the Blue Moon, at St. John's Church Hall in Sheffield. The opening act was the Marauders who had a record in the British top 30. More bands followed such as the Kinks. Other bands that played at the club and who later became famous were Freddie Starr and the Midnighters, the Searchers, Shane Fenton and the Fentones, Wayne Fontana, Long John Baldry and the Hoochie Coochie Men, Rod Stewart and the Soul Agents, Vance Arnold & The Avengers, Dean Marshall and the Deputies. In 1964, Stringfellow opened the highly successful Mojo Club, later renamed the King Mojo Club in Sheffield. During its three and half years of business, many bands played at the club, including The Who, Pink Floyd, The Brian Auger Trinity, The Graham Bond Organisation, John Mayall's Bluesbreakers, The Yardbirds, Zoot Money's Big Roll Band, The Hollies, The Merseybeats, the Spencer Davis Group, The Pretty Things, Manfred Mann, The Small Faces, Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames, and The Jimi Hendrix Experience. Other American acts who played in the club included the first Tamla/Motown acts to play in the UK, Ben E. King, Sonny Boy Williamson, Tina Turner, Inez and Charlie Foxx, John Lee Hooker, and Little Stevie Wonder. In 1968, he went into another business venture with Down Broadway, just under the Stylo's shoe shop in the centre of Sheffield. On 4 November 1968 Jethro Tull was the first act to play at Down Broadway and John Peel was booked to play as the Star DJ. Progressive rock group Yes also played at the club. In 1969, Stringfellow acquired the first alcohol licence for another of his clubs called the Penthouse Sheffield. The club only lasted for a year due to trouble with overcrowding and objections from the local police. This prompted him to sell it and move to Leeds. In 1970, he opened Cinderella's in Leeds. This was Stringfellow's first super club, mixing recorded music and live bands. In 1972, Stringfellow acquired a space next door to Cinderella's to create another club called Rockafella's. This was the first and last of his super cabaret and super clubs. Comedy duo Mike & Bernie Winters and magician Paul Daniels performed at the club. The two clubs were combined in 1973 and given the name Cinderella Rockafella's, and Stringfellow dropped the cabaret and put in full-time DJs such as Chris Crossley and Peter Tyler. He and his brother, Paul Stringfellow, also served as DJs. In 1976, Stringfellow and his then business partner and brother, Geoffrey Stringfellow, sold the Cinderella Rockafella's to Mecca and moved to Manchester, where they opened the Millionaire Club. There were no live bands in the Millionaire Club. However, the Stringfellows hired named DJs including Peter Tyler and Brett Sinclair. In 1980, he sold the Millionaire Club to Granada Ltd and he then moved with his whole family to London. There he opened Stringfellows Covent Garden. It was an immediate success as a nightclub in London, where celebrities, international film stars, TV personalities, rock stars, models, paparazzi and national newspaper journalists partied for the next 15 years. In 1983, he took over the old cabaret club, Talk of the Town, which had closed. He reopened it with its original name Hippodrome and it became the "World's Greatest Disco". The Hippodrome introduced its first gay night at the venue under his management. He also started Hippodrome Records and one of his acts to sign was Dusty Springfield who released the single Sometimes Like Butterflies. In 1986, he opened Stringfellow's New York, which was frequented by New York celebrities and managed with his daughter Karen. In 1989, he opened Stringfellow's Miami, and then Stringfellow's Los Angeles in 1990. He sustained huge financial losses due to the American economic recession in 1989. In 1996, Stringfellow's autobiography, King of Clubs, was published by Little, Brown. It was serialised in the Baltimore Sun newspaper and became a best-seller. Adult clubbing In 1990, Stringfellow introduced table dancing to his New York club with a licensing deal with Michael J. Peters. This became Stringfellow's Presents Pure Platinum. In 1996, Cabaret of Angels, a table-side dancing club was opened for three nights a week at Stringfellow's Covent Garden. In 2006, Stringfellow opened his second adult entertainment club named Angels in Wardour Street, Soho. He was the first club owner to gain a fully nude licence from Westminster City Council. In 2009, he criticised the Policing and Crime Act 2009, saying the licensing changes with regards to lap dancing were "unnecessary" and he would be appealing to the European Court of Human Rights if his current licences were not renewed. In 2012, he was granted the necessary sexual entertainment venue (SEV) Licence for Stringfellow's Covent Garden and Angels Soho, and was able to successfully market Angels as providing rooms for the entertainment "in privacy" of young women in lingerie. Television Stringfellow first appeared on television as a warm-up act on Ready Steady Go! in 1964. He contributed to numerous programmes, both radio and television, in subsequent decades. He appeared on the celebrity edition of Come Dine with Me, with the first broadcast on 17 September 2008. Stringfellow appeared in season 1, episode 2 on Trigger Happy TV. He also appeared in season 15 episode 1 of Top Gear, which was broadcast on 27 June 2010, where he had to help Jeremy Clarkson when he was stuck in a rolled over Reliant Robin. Personal life He married Norma Williams in 1960. They had a daughter, Karen, who was involved with Stringfellow's businesses for many years and is now a boutique owner in Florida. After Stringfellow and Williams divorced, he married Coral Wright in 1967. They had one son together before divorcing: Scott, a former racecar driver. Stringfellow married Bella Wright in 2009. They had a daughter, Rosabella, in 2013 and a son, Angelo, in 2015. Stringfellow had four grandchildren: Taylor, Jaime, Thomas and Isabelle. Stringfellow lived in Gerrards Cross, Cheadle Hulme and in Mallorca. He was a donor to the UK Conservative Party, and supported a UKIP candidate in 2012. However he publicly disavowed the Conservative Party in 2018 over Brexit stating that the "price is too high" and said he would support the Liberal Democrats if the Conservatives' advocacy of leaving the European Union continued. Stringfellow was treated for lung cancer in 2008, but was healthy until he was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer in late 2017. He died on 7 June 2018 at the age of 77, at King Edward VII's Hospital in London. References External links Stringfellows Covent Garden Official Website 1940 births 2018 deaths 20th-century English businesspeople British Merchant Navy personnel Conservative Party (UK) people Deaths from cancer in England Deaths from lung cancer English expatriates in Spain Nightclub owners People from Burngreave UK Independence Party people Businesspeople from Sheffield