| { | |
| "paper_id": "2020", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T03:14:48.756988Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "Scalar vs. mereological conceptualizations of the N-BY-N and NUM-BY-NUM adverbials", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Lucia", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Vl\u00e1\u0161kov\u00e1", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "Masaryk University Brno", | |
| "location": { | |
| "country": "Czech Republic" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "l.vlaskova@gmail.com" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Mojm\u00edr", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Do\u010dekal", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "Masaryk University", | |
| "location": { | |
| "country": "Czech Republic" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "docekal@phil.muni.cz" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "The multiword adverbials N-BY-N and NUM-BY-NUM (as English brick by brick and one by one, respectively) are event modifiers which require temporal sequencing of the event they modify into a linearly ordered series of sub-events. Previous studies unified these two constructions under a single semantic analysis and adopted either a mereological or a scalar approach. However, based on a corpus study examining new Slavic language material and a binomial logistic regression modelling of the manually annotated data, we argue that two separate analyses are needed to account for these constructions, namely a scalar analysis for the N-BY-N construction and a mereological one for the NUM-BY-NUM construction.", | |
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| "paper_id": "2020", | |
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| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "The multiword adverbials N-BY-N and NUM-BY-NUM (as English brick by brick and one by one, respectively) are event modifiers which require temporal sequencing of the event they modify into a linearly ordered series of sub-events. Previous studies unified these two constructions under a single semantic analysis and adopted either a mereological or a scalar approach. However, based on a corpus study examining new Slavic language material and a binomial logistic regression modelling of the manually annotated data, we argue that two separate analyses are needed to account for these constructions, namely a scalar analysis for the N-BY-N construction and a mereological one for the NUM-BY-NUM construction.", | |
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| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| ], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "Sentences in (1) both contain constructions traditionally analyzed as adverbials consisting of multiple words. In (1-a), it is a so-called N-BY-N construction, where two identical nouns are connected by a preposition; in (1-b), a so-called NUM-BY-NUM construction, where a preposition connects two numerals. It is these multiword adverbials, their semantic analysis and a new formal description that will be the focus of this paper.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Background", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(1) a. The workers built the house brick by brick. N-BY-N b. They laid the bricks one by one.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Background", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "NUM-BY-NUM", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Background", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Formal semantic descriptions of both N-BY-N and NUM-BY-NUM constructions are of the two general types: a mereological and a scalar one. The mereological approach assumes a division of the main event into a sequence of temporally ordered sub-events, either with the help of a particular syntactic structure at the LF level (Beck and von Stechow, 2007) or by utilizing relevant \u03b8-roles (Brasoveanu and Henderson, 2009) . In result, both events and participating pluralities are simultaneously divided and linked together in a distributive manner.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 322, | |
| "end": 350, | |
| "text": "(Beck and von Stechow, 2007)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 384, | |
| "end": 416, | |
| "text": "(Brasoveanu and Henderson, 2009)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF2" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Previous analyses", | |
| "sec_num": "1.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "On the other hand, the scalar approach developed mainly by Henderson (2013) and also Braginsky and Rothstein (2008) formalizes the contribution of the adverbial as a fixation of a scalar change. More precisely, the adverbials in question require the event to be divided into a plurality of temporally sequenced sub-events, just like the mereological accounts, but the sub-events here are distinguished by the scalar interval that sets the unit of the scalar change (the N in N-BY-N) that the theme of the main verb undergoes, without necessarily dividing the theme itself. Furthermore, Henderson (2013) ties the N-BY-N modification closely to the verbs of scalar change, that is, incremental theme verbs (John ate the pie), change of state verbs (The crack widened) and inherently directed motion verbs (John walked to the store), arguing for their unified scalar semantics based on the accessible N-BY-N modification.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 59, | |
| "end": 75, | |
| "text": "Henderson (2013)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 85, | |
| "end": 115, | |
| "text": "Braginsky and Rothstein (2008)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 586, | |
| "end": 602, | |
| "text": "Henderson (2013)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Previous analyses", | |
| "sec_num": "1.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Although sometimes differences between the N-BY-N and NUM-BY-NUM construction are acknowledged, the usual tacit assumption of both mereological and scalar approaches is that one framework is expressive enough to describe both types of constructions. We challenge this assumption and claim that a realistic description of the N-BY-N and the NUM-BY-NUM constructions must be both mereological and scalar.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Previous analyses", | |
| "sec_num": "1.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Our empirical arguments for a new analysis come from a corpus query, manual annotation, and binomial logistic regression modelling of the tagged data.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "New data", | |
| "sec_num": "1.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We worked with Czech, a West Slavic language with around 13 million native speakers and rich morphology that reveals some properties obscured in English. Let us look more closely on the Czech equivalent of the previous example in (2).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "New data", | |
| "sec_num": "1.2" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "(2) a Firstly, it is important to note that there are two alternative realizations of the prepositions in either N-BY-N or NUM-BY-NUM construction: the preposition po \"after\", seen in (2-a), and the preposition za \"after\", seen in (2-b), which will be the focus of our research, although both variants behave similarly with respect to their frequency and collocations. The existence of alternative prepositions is recognized also in English where the possible candidates are: by, after, upon, over, within (Beck and von Stechow, 2007) . Due to relatively transparent morphology, we see that the case on the nouns and numerals is assigned by the respective preposition. Moreover, the gender agreement of the relevant expressions (nouns/numerals) is active only in the NUM-BY-NUM construction where it is guided by the corresponding noun (bricks in (2-b)) and applies to both numerals, hence a mix of two genders within a single construction is not grammatical.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 506, | |
| "end": 534, | |
| "text": "(Beck and von Stechow, 2007)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "New data", | |
| "sec_num": "1.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The most noticeable distinctive property in (2-b) is the usage of different lemmas within the construction, i.e. jeden \"one\" and druh\u00fd \"second\", as opposed to English one repeated in both slots. In this respect, the Czech construction is similar to English one after the other, which is considered to be semantically closely related to the NUM-BY-NUM construction (Beck and von Stechow, 2007) , but contrary to English, the Czech adverbial with the same lemma, *jeden za jedn\u00edm, is not grammatical.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 364, | |
| "end": 392, | |
| "text": "(Beck and von Stechow, 2007)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "New data", | |
| "sec_num": "1.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In this section, we will focus on the excerpting and further handling of the data, as well as describing the process of statistical modelling.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Excerpting and modelling", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We worked with the Czech National Corpus (K\u0159en et al., 2015) , which has approximately 120 million tokens. Firstly, all the N-BY-N and NUM-BY-NUM occurrences were extracted via CQL and regex queries 1 which resulted in 2 264 and 537 hits, respectively. An example of two such occurences is in (3). The occurrences were randomized and then a manageable number of them was selected to be annotated later. Overall, we were working with 300 NUM-BY-NUM and 600 N-BY-N constructions (the unequal number of selected constructions illustrates the unequal number of natural occurences).", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 41, | |
| "end": 60, | |
| "text": "(K\u0159en et al., 2015)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Excerpting and modelling", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "( The annotation was carried out manually and each sentence was judged by 4 criteria listed below, all with their respective factor names used later in the statistical model.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Excerpting and modelling", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Is there a local antecedent for the adverbial, such as bloky \"blocks\" for jeden za druh\u00fdm \"one by one\" in (3-b)? (the mereological approaches decompose the local argument) 2. PREDICATETYPE: Is the predicate scalar? (scalar approaches work with the incremental degree change, \u03b4)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "ANTECEDENT:", | |
| "sec_num": "1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "3. ACCOMPLISHMENTSTATUS: Is the main verb an accomplishment? (Braginsky and Rothstein (2008) claim that the N-BY-N/NUM-BY-NUM modification is eligible only with accomplishments) 4. PLURACTIONALITYSTATUS: Is the main verb pluractional?", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 61, | |
| "end": 92, | |
| "text": "(Braginsky and Rothstein (2008)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF1" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| "section": "ANTECEDENT:", | |
| "sec_num": "1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "After the tagging, we fitted a logistic regression model 2 and a generalized linear model 3 to recognize which of the 4 factors that differentiate between the two constructions are really distinctive.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "ANTECEDENT:", | |
| "sec_num": "1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Our hypothesis was that speakers choose between using either the N-BY-N or the NUM-BY-NUM adverbial on the basis of their conceptualization of the given event. If they view the sequence of subevents from the mereological perspective, they tend to use the NUM-BY-NUM construction. On the other hand, the N-BY-N construction is chosen for scalar perspectives.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "ANTECEDENT:", | |
| "sec_num": "1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In both logistic models, the response variable was CONSTRUCTION and the 4 criteria were the predictors (of factor type). The lrm() model reported outstanding discrimination: the concordance index C = 0.902. Table 1 displays the log odds of coefficients, standard errors, p-values and the exponentiated values of the coefficients for each predictor. The coefficients and the p-values show that only two conditions, ANTECEDENT and PREDICATETYPE, were statistically significant. The two other conditions, ACCOMPLISHMENTSTATUS and PLURACTIONALITYSTATUS do not show significant differentiation between the N-BY-N and NUM-BY-NUM construction. This is also confirmed by the 95 % confidence interval visualised in Table 2 The two distinguishing predictors, ANTECEDENT and PREDICATETYPE, show very similar strength. Moreover, the odds of the N-BY-N vs. NUM-BY-NUM construction (the latter was the reference level) in sentences without an antecedent are approximately 38, and in sentences with scalar verbs are approximately 37, thus the odds are similar as well. This shows us that in sentences with clear antecedent and non-scalar verb, speakers strongly tend to select the NUM-BY-NUM construction, whereas in sentences with a scalar verb and without antecedent they strongly prefer the N-BY-N adverbial. The two other factors are statistically non-significant. ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 207, | |
| "end": 214, | |
| "text": "Table 1", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 706, | |
| "end": 713, | |
| "text": "Table 2", | |
| "ref_id": "TABREF4" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "ANTECEDENT:", | |
| "sec_num": "1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In this section, we turn to the formal semantic analysis of the constructions in question, which was modified on the basis of the statistical modelling of the corpus data. We will introduce the essential pieces of instruments which can deal with the new Slavic data and by hypothesis can scale-up to analogical types of constructions and other natural languages, too.", | |
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| "section": "Analysis and discussion", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "First, we claim, unlike previous authors, that speakers of natural language differentiate between the two constructions and conceptualize linearly ordered pluralities of events either as mereological (resulting in NUM-BY-NUM preference) or as scalar (preferring the N-BY-N construction).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Analysis and discussion", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For mereological semantics we follow Brasoveanu and Henderson (2009) and for the NUM-BY-NUM construction in example (2-b), we propose the semantics in (4-a). The contribution of the adverbial is highlighted with the . . . notation and it essentially requires: i) the sub-events e' (of the plural event e) to be temporally sequenced; ii) each sub-event (lay) to have its own patient and there to be a plurality of them; iii) each sub-event to be individuated by a particular brick.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 37, | |
| "end": 68, | |
| "text": "Brasoveanu and Henderson (2009)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF2" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| "section": "Analysis and discussion", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For the scalar semantics we assume basically Henderson's (2013) scalar analysis, but we add to it an incrementality requirement formalized in (4-c). (4-b) exemplifies a scalar semantics for the N-BY-N construction, demonstrated here with (2-a), and requires: i) a plurality of events; ii) a linear order; iii) for each increase in the difference function over the \u03b8-role ( th \u03b4 ) to measure exactly one brick; iv) each subevent to be smaller than the main event; v) each event e in the time following any event e , to properly contain the event e (indicated by incr in (4-c)).", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 45, | |
| "end": 63, | |
| "text": "Henderson's (2013)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
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| "section": "Analysis and discussion", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "The incrementality addition is our contribution, and we intend it as a fix for too weak truth conditions of Henderson's (2013) scalar semantics, because for Henderson, the incrementality of events is not mapped from the difference function over degrees. That means that (2-a) would be true, for example, if the house was built brick after brick without creating the whole structure. The incrementality is partially inspired by Braginsky and Rothstein (2008) , but it is weaker in order to avoid their accomplishment incrementality prediction, which turns out to be empirically wrong.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 108, | |
| "end": 126, | |
| "text": "Henderson's (2013)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 427, | |
| "end": 457, | |
| "text": "Braginsky and Rothstein (2008)", | |
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| "section": "Analysis and discussion", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(4) a. \u2203e (LIE(e) \u2227 pat(e) = \u03c3x. * BRICKS(x) \u2227 linear.order({e \u2264 e : atom(e )} \u2227 |{pat(e ) : e \u2264 e \u2227 atom(e )}| > 1 \u2227 \u2200e \u2264 e(atom(e ) \u2192 BRICK(pat(e ) ) b. \u2203e[BUILD(e) \u2227 ag(e) = x \u2227 th(e) = \u03c3x. * HOUSE(y) \u2227 |atoms(e)| > 1 \u2227 linear.order(atoms(e)) \u2227 \u2200e e[atom(e ) \u2192 BRICK(BUILD th \u03b4 )(e )) = 1] \u2227 \u2200e e[BRICK(BUILD th \u03b4 (e )) < BRICK(BUILD th \u03b4 (e)]] \u2227 incr(BUILD, e)) ] c. incr(P, e) \u2194 \u2200e , e e[(P (e ) \u2227 P (e ) \u2227 \u03c4 (e ) \u227a \u03c4 (e )) \u2192 e e ]", | |
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| "section": "Analysis and discussion", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The aim of this paper was to show that native speakers prefer the NUM-BY-NUM construction when conceptualizing the sequence of sub-events as divided into the parts corresponding to the relevant objects, and that they choose the N-BY-N construction if they conceptualize the main event as a plurality of subevents developing along a scalar dimension. Theoretically speaking, we propose that both mereological and scalar approaches to NUM-BY-NUM and N-BY-N are correct, but each for a different type of data. In Czech, the difference between the theories maps to the two discussed constructions. In the future, we want to investigate whether this approach can scale up to a wider range of data (such as reciprocal constructions or reduplicative event modifiers like time after time) discussed by Beck & von Stechow (2007) . Nevertheless, the mereological approach of Beck & von Stechow (2007) yields the wrong truth conditions if applied to degree achievements and verbs of motion, as shown convincingly by Henderson (2013) . Still, the linguistic work on these adverbials is far from concluded, since several other aspects remain to be clarified. It would be worth examining, for example, what is the relationship between the alternating prepositions and whether they differ somehow in their semantic contribution to the construction. Future research could also try to answer the question whether the proposed analyses can scale up to a wider variety of cross-linguistic data.", | |
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| { | |
| "start": 794, | |
| "end": 819, | |
| "text": "Beck & von Stechow (2007)", | |
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| "text": "Beck & von Stechow (2007)", | |
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| "text": "Henderson (2013)", | |
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| "section": "Summary", | |
| "sec_num": "4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Search for N-BY-N: 1: [tag=\"N. * \"] [lemma=\"za\"] 2:[tag=\"N. * \"] & 1.lemma=2.lemma; and for NUM-BY-NUM: [lemma=\"jeden\"] [lemma=\"za\"] [lemma=\"druh\u00fd\"].", | |
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| "text": "We used the lrm() function from the R add-on package rms(Harrell Jr., 2020) and the following formula: m.lrm \u2190 lrm(Construction~Antecedent + PredicateType + AccomplishmentStatus + PluractionalityStatus, data = NzaN)3 We used the glm() function from the R base package (R Core Team, 2013) and the following formula: m.glm \u2190 glm(Construction~Antecedent + PredicateType + AccomplishmentStatus + PluractionalityStatus, data = NzaN, family = binomial)4 The values here are retrieved by the confint(m.glm) function. m.glm() resulted in similar coefficients and other values as m.lrm.5 In bothTable 1 and Table 2, we report the intercept values which (as usually both in linear and logistic models) represent the expected value of the response variable CONSTRUCTION when all the predictors are at their reference levels.", | |
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| "back_matter": [], | |
| "bib_entries": { | |
| "BIBREF1": { | |
| "ref_id": "b1", | |
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| "authors": [ | |
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| "first": "Pavel", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Braginsky", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
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| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Rothstein", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
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| "year": 2008, | |
| "venue": "Journal of Slavic linguistics", | |
| "volume": "", | |
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| "pages": "3--55", | |
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| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Pavel Braginsky and Susan Rothstein. 2008. Vendlerian classes and the Russian aspectual system. Journal of Slavic linguistics, pages 3-55.", | |
| "links": null | |
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| "BIBREF2": { | |
| "ref_id": "b2", | |
| "title": "Varieties of distributivity: 'One by One' vs 'Each", | |
| "authors": [ | |
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| "first": "Adrian", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Brasoveanu", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
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| { | |
| "first": "Robert", | |
| "middle": [], | |
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| "year": 2009, | |
| "venue": "Semantics and Linguistic Theory", | |
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| "pages": "55--72", | |
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| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Adrian Brasoveanu and Robert Henderson. 2009. Varieties of distributivity: 'One by One' vs 'Each'. In Semantics and Linguistic Theory, volume 19, pages 55-72.", | |
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