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She grew up always doubtful about the love from her mother, who looked nothing like her and who died nine years before. | ⵜⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ. |
In the 1976 Ira Levin novel The Boys from Brazil and its 1978 film adaptation, Josef Mengele uses cloning to create copies of Adolf Hitler. | ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵕⴰ ⵍⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1976 ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⴰⵣⵉⵍ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⵓⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ 1978, ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⵎⵉⵏⵊⵍ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⵀⵉⵜⵍⵉⵕ. |
"In Doctor Who, an alien race of armour-clad, warlike beings called Sontarans was introduced in the 1973 serial ""The Time Warrior""." | ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ "ⵓⴷⵓⴽⵟⵓⵕ ⵀⵓ", ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴱⴱⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⵜⵕⴰⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973 "ⴰⵎⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏ"." |
"The concept of cloned soldiers being bred for combat was revisited in ""The Doctor's Daughter"" (2008), when the Doctor's DNA is used to create a female warrior called Jenny." | ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵄⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵄⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⴽⵟⵓⵕ" (2008), ⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ". |
The 2005 Kazuo Ishiguro novel Never Let Me Go and the 2010 film adaption are set in an alternate history in which cloned humans are created for the sole purpose of providing organ donations to naturally born humans, despite the fact that they are fully sentient and self-aware. | ⴳ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵣⵓⵡⵓ ⵉⵛⵓⴳⵓⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2005 ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⵃⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ 2010 ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴼⵛⵛⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ. |
"In the futuristic novel Cloud Atlas and subsequent film, one of the story lines focuses on a genetically-engineered fabricant clone named Sonmi~451, one of millions raised in an artificial ""wombtank"", destined to serve from birth." | ⴳ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⵍⴰⵙ ⴽⵍⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵏⵖⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵙⵓⵏⵎⵉ~451, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ "wombtank", ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ. |
In the film Us, at some point prior to the 1980s, the US Government creates clones of every citizen of the United States with the intention of using them to control their original counterparts, akin to voodoo dolls. | ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵓⵣ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1980 ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⴷⵙⵉⵃ, ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵉⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵓⴷⵓ ⴷⵓⵍⵙ. |
In the present day, the clones launch a surprise attack and manage to complete a mass-genocide of their unaware counterparts. | ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴽⵏ. |
Genes have been transferred within the same species, across species (creating transgenic organisms), and even across kingdoms. | ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ (ⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ), ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ. |
Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism and combine it with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and often a selectable marker. | ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵓⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵔⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵇⴱⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ. |
Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973, a bacterium resistant to the antibiotic kanamycin. | ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵀⴰⵕⴱⵕⵜ ⴱⵓⵢⵕ ⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⵀⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⴱⴱⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵙⵉⵏ. |
The first genetically modified animal to be commercialized was the GloFish (2003) and the first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was the AquAdvantage salmon in 2015. | ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵎ ⵏ ⴳⵍⵓⴼⵉⵛ (2003) ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵓⵙⵓⵢ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⵍⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2015. |
Fungi have been engineered with much the same goals. | ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ. |
There are proposals to remove the virulent genes from viruses to create vaccines. | ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵄⴰⵡⵔⴹⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ. |
The majority are engineered for herbicide tolerance or insect resistance. | ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ. |
Animals are generally much harder to transform and the vast majority are still at the research stage. | ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴱⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ. |
Livestock is modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance, and survival. | ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⵉ, ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵓⵎ, ⴰⴽⵯⴼⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ. |
Although human gene therapy is still relatively new, it has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis. | ⵡⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⵓⵔⵖ ⴷⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵛⵛⴰⵔⵜ ⵢⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵎⵎⵓⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵓⵙⵉⵙ. |
Other concerns are the objectivity and rigor of regulatory authorities, contamination of non-genetically modified food, control of the food supply, patenting of life and the use of intellectual property rights. | ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵍⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⵓⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵖⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ. |
Countries have adopted regulatory measures to deal with these concerns. | ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ. |
"A broad definition of genetic engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection.""," | ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ.," |
For example, the grain crop triticale was fully developed in a laboratory in 1930 using various techniques to alter its genome. | ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎⴰ ⵜⵔⵉⵜⵉⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1930 ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ. |
"Modern biotechnology is further defined as ""In vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family.""" | ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⵔⵓ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴷⵢⵓⴽⵙⵉⵔⵉⴱⵓⵏⵓⵢⵉⴽ (ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵔⵔⵉⴱⵓⵣⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ) ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ."" |
The definitions focus on the process more than the product, which means there could be GMOS and non-GMOs with very similar genotypes and phenotypes. | ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ GMOS ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ-GMOS ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ. |
It also poses problems as new processes are developed. | ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ. |
Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism. | ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ. |
The gene is then combined with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and a selectable marker. | ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ. |
DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors. | ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵉⵎⴽⵕⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵜⵜⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ. |
In plants this is accomplished through tissue culture. | ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ. |
Traditionally the new genetic material was inserted randomly within the host genome. | ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵏⴰⵢ. |
There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR). | ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ: ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵥⵥⵏⴽ, ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵥⵣⵏⴽ, ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵍ (TALENs), ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ Cas9-guideRNA (ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵙⴳ CRISPR). |
In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of the lambda virus. | ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⵙⵏ 1972 ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵓⵍ ⴱⵉⵔⴳ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵔⵉⴱⵓⵣⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵖⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⴱⴰⴷⴰ. |
The bacteria that had successfully incorporated the plasmid was then able to survive in the presence of kanamycin. | ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴼⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵉⵏ. |
In 1974 Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal. | ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1974 ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵕⵓⴷⵍⵓⴼ ⴷⵊⵉⵏⵉⵛ ⴰⵖⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵉⵊⵉ ⵙ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ. |
Mice with genes removed (termed a knockout mouse) were created in 1989. | ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1989 ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵔⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏ (ⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ). |
In 1983 the first genetically engineered plant was developed by Michael W. Bevan, Richard B. Flavell and Mary-Dell Chilton. | ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1983 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⴳⵉ ⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵡ. ⴱⵉⴼⵏ, ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴱ.ⴼⴰⵍⴱⵍ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵔⵉ-ⴷⵉⵍⵍ ⵛⵉⵍⵟⵓⵏ. |
In 2000, Vitamin A-enriched golden rice was the first plant developed with increased nutrient value. | ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵕⵕⵓⵣ ⴰⵡⵔⵖ ⴰⵙⴱⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⵓⵜⵛⵉ. |
The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982. | ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1982, ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵕⵥⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⵎⵓⵍⵉⵏ. |
In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato, the first genetically modified food. | ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1994 ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴽⴰⵍⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵎⵟⴰⵎ ⴼⵍⴰⴼⵕ ⵙⴰⴼⵕ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵓⵜⵛⵓ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ. |
In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial genome. | ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2010, ⵙⵙⵓⴹⵔⴻⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵀ ⴳⵔⵉⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ. |
It was released to the US market in 2003. | ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵖ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ "ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ" ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003. |
Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be added to a plasmid and inserted into bacteria for storage and modification. | ⵉⵥⴰⴹ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏⵜ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ |
A large number of custom plasmids make manipulating DNA extracted from bacteria relatively easy. | ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⴰ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴷⴷ. |
Scientists can easily manipulate and combine genes within the bacteria to create novel or disrupted proteins and observe the effect this has on various molecular systems. | ⵥⴷⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵄⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⵚ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵢⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵏ. |
Bacteria have been used in the production of food for a long time, and specific strains have been developed and selected for that work on an industrial scale. | ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ. |
Most food-producing bacteria are lactic acid bacteria, and this is where the majority of research into genetically engineering food-producing bacteria has gone. | ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⴽⵜⵉⴽⵉ, ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⵊⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ. |
The majority are produced in the US and even though regulations are in place to allow production in Europe, as of 2015 no food products derived from bacteria are currently available there. | ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ "ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ" ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴹⴼⵕⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⵓⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2015 ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ. |
The bacteria are then harvested and the desired protein purified from them. | ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ. |
Many of these proteins are impossible or difficult to obtain via natural methods and they are less likely to be contaminated with pathogens, making them safer. | ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏⵜⵏⵖ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴹⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵡⵓⵍⵓⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ. |
Outside of medicine they have been used to produce biofuels. | ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴱⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵓⵏⴷⵉⵔ. |
Ideas include altering gut bacteria so they destroy harmful bacteria, or using bacteria to replace or increase deficient enzymes or proteins. | ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵅⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵣⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵙ. |
Enabling the bacteria to form a colony could provide a more long-term solution, but could also raise safety concerns as interactions between bacteria and the human body are less well understood than with traditional drugs. | ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴷⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⴽⵚⵚⴰⴹ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵜⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵙⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ. |
For over a century bacteria have been used in agriculture. | ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ. |
With advances in genetic engineering, these bacteria have been manipulated for increased efficiency and expanded host range. | ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡ. |
Pseudomonas strains of bacteria cause frost damage by nucleating water into ice crystals around themselves. | ⵜⴰⴷⴼⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵖⵛⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵛⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ. |
Other uses for genetically modified bacteria include bioremediation, where the bacteria are used to convert pollutants into a less toxic form. | ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴽⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵎⵍⵓⴼⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵓ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ. |
In the 1980s artist Jon Davis and geneticist Dana Boyd converted the Germanic symbol for femininity (ᛉ) into binary code and then into a DNA sequence, which was then expressed in Escherichia coli. | ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1980 ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵏⴰ ⴱⵓⵢⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵜⵎⵜ (ᛉ) ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵎⴷ ⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴷⴼⴼⵔ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵉⵛⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵉ". |
Researchers can use this to control for various factors; including the target location, insert size, and duration of gene expression. | ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ; ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ. |
Although primarily still at trial stages, there has been some successes using gene therapy to replace defective genes. | ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵔⵉⵏ. |
As of 2018, there are a substantial number of clinical trials underway, including treatments for hemophilia, glioblastoma, chronic granulomatous disease, cystic fibrosis and various cancers. | ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2018, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴽⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵉⵎⵓⴼⵓⵍⵉⵢⴰ, ⴳⵍⵉⵢⵓⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵓⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴹⵕⴹⵓⵕ ⵉⵅⵛⵏⵏ, ⵙⵢⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⴰⴼⵉⴱⵔⵓⵙⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ. |
Herpes simplex viruses make promising vectors, having a carrying capacity of over 30kb and providing long term expression, although they are less efficient at gene delivery than other vectors. | ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵀⴰⵔⴱⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵀⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵥⵉⴹⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ 30 ⴽⵉⵍⵓⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵅⴰⵜⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ. |
Other viruses that have been used as vectors include alphaviruses, flaviviruses, measles viruses, rhabdoviruses, Newcastle disease virus, poxviruses, and picornaviruses. | ⵙⴳ ⵍⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵉⵏ : ⴰⵍⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ, ⵍⴼⵍⴰⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙ, ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ, ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵀⴰⴱⴷⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ, ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⴽⴰⵙⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵉⴽⵔⵓⵏⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ. |
This does not affect the viruses infectivity, invokes a natural immune response and there is no chance that they will regain their virulence function, which can occur with some other vaccines. | ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵓⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵏⴰⵙⵎⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⴳⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵥⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ. |
The most effective vaccine against Tuberculosis, the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, only provides partial protection. | ⴰⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⴽⵉⵍⵓⵙ ⴽⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⵜ-ⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ (BCG), ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏ. |
Other vector-based vaccines have already been approved and many more are being developed. | ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ. |
In 2004, researchers reported that a genetically modified virus that exploits the selfish behaviour of cancer cells might offer an alternative way of killing tumours. | ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2004, ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⵅⴼ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵎⵏⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ. |
The virus was injected into orange trees to combat citrus greening disease that had reduced orange production by 70% since 2005. | ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⵜⵛⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴼⴰⵏⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⵜⵛⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ 70% ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2005. |
Genetically modified viruses that make the target animals infertile through immunocontraception have been created in the laboratory as well as others that target the developmental stage of the animal. | ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵚⵍⵃⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵏ. |
Genetic modification of the myxoma virus has been proposed to conserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and to help regulate them in Australia. | ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵓⵎⴰ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ. |
It is possible to engineer bacteriophages to express modified proteins on their surface and join them up in specific patterns (a technique called phage display). | ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵓⵔⵢⵓⴼⴰⵊ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ (ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵊ). |
For industrial applications, yeasts combine the bacterial advantages of being a single-celled organism that is easy to manipulate and grow with the advanced protein modifications found in eukaryotes. | ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⵓⴽⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵉ ⵜⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵇⴷⴷⵛ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵉⵙ. |
One has increased malolactic fermentation efficiency, while the other prevents the production of dangerous ethyl carbamate compounds during fermentation. | ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⴱⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵢ. |
Unlike bacteria and viruses they have the advantage of infecting the insects by contact alone, although they are out competed in efficiency by chemical pesticides. | ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵟⵚⵏⵜ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⵉⴽⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ. |
An attractive target for biological control are mosquitos, vectors for a range of deadly diseases, including malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever. | ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴱⵉⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ, ⴰⵎⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵔⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴹⵏⴳ. |
Another strategy is to add proteins to the fungi that block transmission of malaria or remove the Plasmodium altogether. | ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⵓ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵙⵎⵓⴷⵢⵓⵎ. |
Many plants are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and under the right conditions can develop into a new plant. | ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵜⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴳⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ. |
Major advances in tissue culture and plant cellular mechanisms for a wide range of plants has originated from systems developed in tobacco. | ⵉⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⴼ ⵓⵏⴱⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵙⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⵖⵖⴰ. |
Another major model organism relevant to genetic engineering is Arabidopsis thaliana. | ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⴱⵉⴷⵓⴱⵙⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ. |
In research, plants are engineered to help discover the functions of certain genes. | ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ. |
Unlike mutagenisis, genetic engineering allows targeted removal without disrupting other genes in the organism. | ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵣⵉⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ. |
Other strategies include attaching the gene to a strong promoter and see what happens when it is overexpressed, forcing a gene to be expressed in a different location or at different developmental stages. | ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⴽⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ. |
The first genetically modified ornamentals commercialized altered color. | ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ. |
Other genetically modified ornamentals include Chrysanthemum and Petunia. | ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⴷⵊⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⵔⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵓⵏⵢⴰ. |
The papaya ringspot virus devastated papaya trees in Hawaii in the twentieth century until transgenic papaya plants were given pathogen-derived resistance. | ⵉⵅⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵎⵜ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵖⵏⴽⴰ. |
The second generation of crops aimed to improve the quality, often by altering the nutrient profile. | ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵏⴰⵢⵢⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ. |
GM crops contribute by improving harvests through reducing insect pressure, increasing nutrient value and tolerating different abiotic stresses. | ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵏⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵎⵎⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵙ ⵙⵓⵙⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵎⵎⵉ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ. |
The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one. | ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴳⵍⵓⴼⵓⵣⵢⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴳⵍⵓⴼⵓⵣⵉⵏⴰⵜ. |
A few use the genes that encode for vegetative insecticidal proteins. | ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ. |
Less than one percent of GM crops contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence and altering the plants composition. | ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵙ ⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⴰⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵓⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴰⵄⵟⵟⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ. |
Plants and plant cells have been genetically engineered for production of biopharmaceuticals in bioreactors, a process known as pharming. | ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵜ. |
Many drugs also contain natural plant ingredients and the pathways that lead to their production have been genetically altered or transferred to other plant species to produce greater volume. | ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⵯⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ. |
They also pose less risk of being contaminated. | ⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵖⵏ. |
Vaccines are expensive to produce, transport, and administer, so having a system that could produce them locally would allow greater access to poorer and developing areas. | ⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⴼ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⵥⵍⴹⵏ ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ. |
Being stored in plants reduces the long-term cost as they can be disseminated without the need for cold storage, don't need to be purified, and have long term stability. | ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵇⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴳⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵉⴹ, ⵓⵔ ⵓⵙⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⴳⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴳⴰⴳⵜ. |
As of 2018 only three genetically modified animals have been approved, all in the USA. | ⵙⴳ 2018 ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ. |
Canada: Brainwaving The first transgenic mammals were produced by injecting viral DNA into embryos and then implanting the embryos in females. | ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ: ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵅⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ. |
The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system as a cheap and fast way of directly modifying germ cells, effectively halving the amount of time needed to develop genetically modified mammals. | ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ CRISPR-Cas9 ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵅⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵓⵔⵜⵓⵎⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴼⵏⴰⵥⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵀ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏⵏⵙⵏ. |
Genetically modified mice have been the most common mammals used in biomedical research, as they are cheap and easy to manipulate. | ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ CRISPR-Cas ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵅⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵓⵔⵜⵓⵎⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴼⵏⴰⵥⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵀ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏⵏⵙⵏ. |
In 2009, scientists announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into a primate species (marmosets) for the first time. | ⴳ 2009, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵎⴰⵜ (ⵎⴰⵔⵎⵓⵣⵉ). |
Stable expression has been accomplished in sheep, pigs, rats and other animals. | ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⴰⵎⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ. |