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One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.

ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⴽⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research.

ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ.

Emily Marden, Risk and Regulation: U.S. Regulatory Policy on Genetically Modified Food and Agriculture, 44 B.C.L. Rev. 733 (2003) The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world.

ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⴷⵏ, ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ : ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, 44 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ. Rev. 733 (2003), ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⵇⵊⴻⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ.

One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.

ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ.

These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries.

ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵉⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴰⵔⴼⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵓⵢⵢⵉⵜⵏ,ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ.

Although doubts have been raised, economically most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers.

ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ,ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ.

Many of the environmental impacts regarding GM crops may take many years to be understood and are also evident in conventional agriculture practices.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ.

Few films have informed audiences about genetic engineering, with the exception of the 1978 The Boys from Brazil and the 1993 Jurassic Park, both of which made use of a lesson, a demonstration, and a clip of scientific film.

ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ,ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ 1978 ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵔⴰⵥⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵔⴰⵙⵉ ⴱⴰⵔⴽ 1993 ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.

Nanotechnology, also shortened to nanotech, is the use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes.

ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓⵜⵉⴽ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ.

This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold.

ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵟⵓⵎ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵓⵛⵏ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ.

The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.

ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⵔ,ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵣⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵕⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ, ⵖⵔ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ.

"The term ""nano-technology"" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, though it was not widely known."

ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⴳⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ “ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓ” ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1974, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.

The emergence of nanotechnology as a field in the 1980s occurred through convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public work, which developed and popularized a conceptual framework for nanotechnology, and high-visibility experimental advances that drew additional wide-scale attention to the prospects of atomic control of matter.

ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1980 ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵔⵉⴽⵙⵍⵔⵙ,ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴱⴹ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

The microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.

ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜ ⵊⵉⵔⴷ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵢⵏⵉⵛ ⵔⵓⵀⵔⴻⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵣⵢⵓⵔⵉⵅ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵍ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1986.

C60 was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was used regarding subsequent work with related carbon nanotubes (sometimes called graphene tubes or Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵙ60 ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ; ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵉⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ (ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴳⵕⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⴱⵓⴽⵉ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ.

Decades later, advances in multi-gate technology enabled the scaling of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) devices down to nano-scale levels smaller than 20 nm gate length, starting with the FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a three-dimensional, non-planar, double-gate MOSFET.

ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜ, ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵖⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵏⴰⵡⴹ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ; ⵙⴳ 20 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵜ,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⴼⵜ (ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵣⴰⵄⵏⴰⴼⵉ),ⴱⵓ ⴽⵔⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵙⵜ.

Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology.

ⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵉⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ.

These products are limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter.

ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴹ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ.

It was based on gate-all-around (GAA) FinFET technology.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴼⴰⵢⵏⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ.

This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced.

ⵢⵓⵎⵣ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.

The lower limit is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which are approximately a quarter of a nm kinetic diameter) since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵡⴰⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ (ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴽⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵓⵎ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ), ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ.

To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth.

ⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵙ ⵍⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵛⵛⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.

"In the ""bottom-up"" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition."

“ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ””ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ”, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ.

One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ.

The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with biomaterials.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵔⵥⵥⵎ ⵓⵥⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵎ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ.

The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces.

ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⴷⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ.

Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases.

ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰ, ⵜⴳ ⴱⴰⵟⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵣⴷⵔ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⴽⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ.

Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.

ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⴽⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ.

It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.

In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as one has to position atoms on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ, ⵉⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵉⵢⴹ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ.

This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003.

ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⴼⵖ “ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ” ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ “ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ” ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003.

They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator, and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.

ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ: ⴰⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵍⴻⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ.

Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.

ⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ.

Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional silicon solar cells.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⴽⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ.

More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation.

ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵏⴰⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ.

Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit this description, as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques.

ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵇⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⵎⵜ (ALD).

Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable precursor gasses are applied at the same time.

ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⴹⴼⵜ; ⴰⴷ ⴽⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵕⴹⵍ, ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ.

These could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device.

ⵏⵖⵢ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ.

Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach which involves manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways.

ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵍⵓⴽⵓⵍⵉⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵢⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴷⴼⵜ.

There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵕⵕⵓⴱⵓⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ.

Because of the discrete (i.e. atomic) nature of matter and the possibility of exponential growth, this stage is seen as the basis of another industrial revolution.

ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⴹⵉⵜ ( ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ), ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

With the decrease in dimensionality, an increase in surface-to-volume ratio is observed.

ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ,ⵏⵥⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ.

Although conceptually similar to the scanning confocal microscope developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, newer scanning probe microscopes have much higher resolution, since they are not limited by the wavelength of sound or light.

ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵙⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⴼⵏ ⵎⵉⵙⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1961, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴼⴼⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ (SAM) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⴰⵍⴼⵏ ⴽⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ 1970, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴼⴼⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔ, ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ.

However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope.

ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵓⵣ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ.

Another group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanotubes and nanowires, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block copolymers.

ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⴰⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵥⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵖⴹⴹⴼⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵔⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵎⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵔⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵍⴱⴱⵓⵍⵉⵎⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ.

Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of nanomaterials.

ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.

By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning approach, atoms or molecules can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques.

ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵛⵛⵜⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉ.

These techniques include chemical synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly.

ⵙⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ.

Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories like John R. Arthur.

ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵔ.ⴰⵔⵜⵔ.

MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵢⴰ; ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ.

Bandages are being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵊⵢ ⵓⵄⵟⵟⵉⴱ ⵣⵉⴽ.

Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the general practitioner's office and at home.

ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵏⴼ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵟⵍ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⵉ.

Platinum is currently used as the diesel engine catalyst in these engines.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⵢⵣ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ.

Next the oxidation catalyst oxidizes the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide and water.

ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵓⵢⴰⴽⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓ-ⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴽⵙⵉⴷ-ⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⴽⵙⵉⴷ-ⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

Danish company InnovationsFonden invested DKK 15 million in a search for new catalyst substitutes using nanotechnology.

ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵔⵡ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⴼⴰⵙⵢⵓⵏ ⴼⵓⵏⴷⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵔⴽⵢⵢⴰ 15 ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⴷⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵔⵓⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵔⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ.

If the catalyst's surface area that is exposed to the exhaust fumes is maximized, efficiency of the catalyst is maximized.

ⴰⵔ ⵎⴽ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔ.

Thus, creating these nanoparticles will increase the effectiveness of the resulting diesel engine catalyst—in turn leading to cleaner exhaust fumes—and will decrease cost.

ⵉⵡⴰ, ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⵢⵣ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ-ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ-ⵇⴰⴷⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ.

When designing scaffolds, researchers attempt to mimic the nanoscale features of a cell's microenvironment to direct its differentiation down a suitable lineage.

ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵊⵢⴰⵍⵏ, ⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ.

TSMC began production of a 7 nm process in 2017, and Samsung began production of a 5 nm process in 2018.

ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ “ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵟⴰⵢⵡⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵣⵏⴰⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ”; ⵜⵉⵀⵢⵢⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ 7 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ 2017, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⴰⵎⵙⵓⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ 5 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ 2018.

For these reasons, some groups advocate that nanotechnology be regulated by governments.

ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⴳⴳⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ.

Some nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⴰⴷⵙⵏ.

Inhaling airborne nanoparticles and nanofibers may lead to a number of pulmonary diseases, e.g. fibrosis.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴽⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ; ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ,ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⵛⵜ.

"A major study published more recently in Nature Nanotechnology suggests some forms of carbon nanotubes – a poster child for the ""nanotechnology revolution"" – could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities."

“ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⴷⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ Nature Nanotechnology, ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵢⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ- ⵜⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⵏ “ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜ”” - ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵡⴰⵖⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴱⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴹⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ”.

Davies (2008) has proposed a regulatory road map describing steps to deal with these shortcomings.

ⵉⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⴷⵉⵖⵉⵣ (2008) ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵜⴼⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵥⵏ ⴰⴷ.

As a result, some academics have called for stricter application of the precautionary principle, with delayed marketing approval, enhanced labelling and additional safety data development requirements in relation to certain forms of nanotechnology.

ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵉⵇⵊⵕⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⵀⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵣⵍⵖ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ.

Nuclear technology is technology that involves the nuclear reactions of atomic nuclei.

ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ.

He, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie began investigating the phenomenon.

ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⴽⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴽⵓⵔⵉ, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ.

Some of these kinds of radiation could pass through ordinary matter, and all of them could be harmful in large amounts.

ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵅⵛⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵓⴷⵉⵢ.

Gradually it was realized that the radiation produced by radioactive decay was ionizing radiation, and that even quantities too small to burn could pose a severe long-term hazard.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵎⴹ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ.

As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer.

ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⵚⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.

Alpha decay is when a nucleus releases an alpha particle, which is two protons and two neutrons, equivalent to a helium nucleus.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵔⵥⵎ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ.

This type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block.

ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷ.

The average number of neutrons released per nucleus that go on to fission another nucleus is referred to as k. Values of k larger than 1 mean that the fission reaction is releasing more neutrons than it absorbs, and therefore is referred to as a self-sustaining chain reaction.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ k. ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ k ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ 1; ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵢ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵥⵥⵎ ⵉ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ.

If there are enough immediate decays to carry on the chain reaction, the mass is said to be prompt critical, and the energy release will grow rapidly and uncontrollably, usually leading to an explosion.

ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴽⵎⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴱⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴰⵎⵥ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ.

During the project, the first fission reactors were developed as well, though they were primarily for weapons manufacture and did not generate electricity.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵅⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⴼ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ.

However, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are included, then the reaction can be controlled, for example by the introduction or removal of neutron absorbers.

ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ.

When the resulting nucleus is lighter than that of iron, energy is normally released; when the nucleus is heavier than that of iron, energy is generally absorbed.

ⵉⴳ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵕⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵣⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ.

The remaining abundance of heavy elements, from nickel to uranium and beyond, is due to supernova nucleosynthesis, the R-process.

ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴹⵚⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵏⵏⵉⴽⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵕⴹⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ-ⵔ.

Hydrogen bombs obtain their enormous destructive power from fusion, but their energy cannot be controlled.

ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴱⴷ.

However, both of these devices operate at a net energy loss.

ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⴳⵜ.

Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the Manhattan Project (led by Edward Teller) investigated it as a method to build a bomb.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴹⴼⵕ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵀⴰⵟⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵕⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵔ), ⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵔⵜ.

Even small nuclear devices can devastate a city by blast, fire and radiation.

ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵅⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⵔⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ.

Such a weapon must hold one or more subcritical fissile masses stable for deployment, then induce criticality (create a critical mass) for detonation.

ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵛⵇⵇⵉⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵇⵇⵉⵜ (ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵇⵇⵉⵜ), ⵉ ⵓⵙⴱⴱⴰⵇⵉ.

One isotope of uranium, namely uranium-235, is naturally occurring and sufficiently unstable, but it is always found mixed with the more stable isotope uranium-238.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵍⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ-235, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰ , ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵛⵛⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢ ⵍⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ-238 ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⴳⴰⵏ.

Alternatively, the element plutonium possesses an isotope that is sufficiently unstable for this process to be usable.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⵔⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⴱⵍⵓⵜⵓⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⵊ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ.

"They detonated the first nuclear weapon in a test code-named ""Trinity"", near Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945."

“ⵙⴱⴱⴰⵇⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ “ⵜⵔⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉ””, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⵓⴳⵓⵔⴷⵓ, ⵏⵢⵓ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵓ, ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 16 ⵢⵓⵍⵢⵓⵣ 1945.

In the wake of unprecedented devastation and casualties from a single weapon, the Japanese government soon surrendered, ending World War II.

ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵡⴰⵜ,ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵢ ⴰⵛⵏⵢⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍ,ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ.

Just over four years later, on August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union detonated its first fission weapon.

ⴷⴰⵕⵜ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 29 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1949, ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⵇⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵛⵇ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ.

A radiological weapons is a type of nuclear weapon designed to distribute hazardous nuclear material in enemy areas.

ⵉⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵏⵥⵕⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵏⴳⵯⴰ.

While considered useless by a conventional military, such a weapon raises concerns over nuclear terrorism.

ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ.

The treaty permitted underground nuclear testing.

ⵜⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⴹⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.

After signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996 (which had as of 2011 not entered into force), all of these states have pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing.

ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1996 (ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵙⴳ 2011),ⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ.

Throughout the Cold War, the opposing powers had huge nuclear arsenals, sufficient to kill hundreds of millions of people.

ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵓⴽⵔⵉⵎ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⴱⴻⴱ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ.

Currently nuclear power provides approximately 15.7% of the world's electricity (in 2004) and is used to propel aircraft carriers, icebreakers and submarines (so far economics and fears in some ports have prevented the use of nuclear power in transport ships).

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 15.7% ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ( ⴳ 2004), ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵜⴽⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⴳⴰⴹⵉⵏ (ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵜⵙⵏⴼⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⵉⵙⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵜⵉ).

Medical and dental x-ray imagers use of cobalt-60 or other x-ray sources.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⵍⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⴰⵍⵜ 60, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ.

Both contain a small source of 241Am that gives rise to a small constant current.

ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏ 241 ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ.

Another use in insect control is the sterile insect technique, where male insects are sterilized by radiation and released, so they have no offspring, to reduce the population.

ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵅⵅⵓⵛⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⴷⴳ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵅⵅⵓⵛⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⴷⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵅⵅⵓⵛⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵡⴰ ⵏⵕⵥⵎ ⴰⵙ, ⵉⵡⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.

The radiation sources used include radioisotope gamma ray sources, X-ray generators and electron accelerators.

ⵙⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ; ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵉⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵔⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏ.

As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical hardware, plastics, tubes for gas-pipelines, hoses for floor-heating, shrink-foils for food packaging, automobile parts, wires and cables (isolation), tires, and even gemstones.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵢⵓⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵓⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵙⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⵜⴰ (ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ), ⴷ ⵕⵕⵡⴰⵢⴹ, ⴷ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜⵏ.

Microorganisms can no longer proliferate and continue their malignant or pathogenic activities.

ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⴽⵓⵛⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵅⵛⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ.