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From this evolved star forts, also known as trace italienne. | ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰ |
The second choice proved to be more popular as it became apparent that there was little point in trying to make the site genuinely defensible in the face of cannon. | ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵛ-ⴰⴾ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵗⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵓⵢⵜⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ |
Some true castles were built in the Americas by the Spanish and French colonies. | ⵙⴰⵜo ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵢⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ |
Among other defensive structures (including forts and citadels), castles were also built in New France towards the end of the 17th century. | ⴷⴰⵗⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⴷⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ) , ⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1700. |
The manor house and stables were within a fortified bailey, with a tall round turret in each corner. | ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵓⵔ ⵢⴷ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⵙⵉⴾ ⵉⵋⵉⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⵓⴾ |
Although castle construction faded towards the end of the 16th century, castles did not necessarily all fall out of use. | ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵉⵍⴰⵛⵂ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 , ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ |
In other cases they still had a role in defence. | ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ |
In later conflicts, such as the English Civil War (1641–1651), many castles were refortified, although subsequently slighted to prevent them from being used again. | ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ (1641-1651) ⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵔⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵓⴷⵉ |
Revival or mock castles became popular as a manifestation of a Romantic interest in the Middle Ages and chivalry, and as part of the broader Gothic Revival in architecture. | ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵆⵉⵔ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴶⵓⵜⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ |
This was because to be faithful to medieval design would have left the houses cold and dark by contemporary standards. | ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⵢⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⴶⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴻⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵂⴰ |
Follies were similar, although they differed from artificial ruins in that they were not part of a planned landscape, but rather seemed to have no reason for being built. | ⴰⵎⴰⴾⵓ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴻⵉ. |
A castle with earthen ramparts, a motte, timber defences and buildings could have been constructed by an unskilled workforce. | ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⴼⵏⵢⵏ, ⵢⴶⴰⵎ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵂⵉⵙⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵢ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ |
The cost of building a castle varied according to factors such as their complexity and transport costs for material. | ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⴰⵋ |
In the middle were castles such as Orford, which was built in the late 12th century for UK£1,400, and at the upper end were those such as Dover, which cost about UK£7,000 between 1181 and 1191. | ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ Oⵓⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 12 ⵏ ⴻⴼⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⵉ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ 1,400 £ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵓⴱⴻⵔ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1181 ⴻⴷ 1191 ⵙ 7,000 £ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ |
The cost of a large castle built over this time (anywhere from UK£1,000 to UK£10,000) would take the income from several manors, severely impacting a lord's finances. | ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ( ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵗⵓⵔ 1,000 £ ⵂⴰⵔ £10,000 ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ) ⴻⵔⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ |
Medieval machines and inventions, such as the treadwheel crane, became indispensable during construction, and techniques of building wooden scaffolding were improved upon from Antiquity. | ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴾⵢⵔⵜⴾⴻⵔⵜ, ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵢⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ, ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵂⵉⵛⴾ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ. |
Many countries had both timber and stone castles, however Denmark had few quarries and as a result most of its castles are earth and timber affairs, or later on built from brick. | ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⴷⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵏⵢⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴼⴰⵔⵜ |
For example, when Tattershall Castle was built between 1430 and 1450, there was plenty of stone available nearby, but the owner, Lord Cromwell, chose to use brick. | Iⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵜⵜⵢⵔⵙⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1430 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1450, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⴷⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙ ⵍⵓⵔⴷ ⵛⵔⵓⵎⵓⵢⵍⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵍⴱⵉⵍⵗⴰⵏ |
He relied on the support of those below him, as without the support of his more powerful tenants a lord could expect his power to be undermined. | ⵉⴶⴷⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴰ |
This especially applied to royalty, who sometimes owned land in different countries. | ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ |
Royal households took essentially the same form as baronial households, although on a much larger scale and the positions were more prestigious. | ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵆⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵆⵉⴰⵎⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ |
As social centres castles were important places for display. | Iⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ |
Castles have been compared with cathedrals as objects of architectural pride, and some castles incorporated gardens as ornamental features. | ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴾⴰⵜⵢⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ |
Courtly love was the eroticisation of love between the nobility. | ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵉⵙ ⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⴾⴰⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ |
The legend of Tristan and Iseult is one example of stories of courtly love told in the Middle Ages. | ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵟⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ Iⵙⵢⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ. |
The purpose of marriage between the medieval elites was to secure land. | Iⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⴰ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ |
This derives from the image of the castle as a martial institution, but most castles in England, France, Ireland, and Scotland were never involved in conflicts or sieges, so the domestic life is a neglected facet. | ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴻⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ, Iⵔⴻⵍⴰⵏⴷ, Eⵛⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵔⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ |
For instance many castles are located near Roman roads, which remained important transport routes in the Middle Ages, or could lead to the alteration or creation of new road systems in the area. | ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰ ⴷⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵢⵏ. |
Urban castles were particularly important in controlling centres of population and production, especially with an invading force, for instance in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century the majority of royal castles were built in or near towns. | ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1100, Iⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ |
Rural castles were often associated with mills and field systems due to their role in managing the lord's estate, which gave them greater influence over resources. | ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵔⴼⵉⵜⵢⵏ |
Not only were they practical in that they ensured a water supply and fresh fish, but they were a status symbol as they were expensive to build and maintain. | ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵛ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⵔⵓⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ |
The benefits of castle building on settlements was not confined to Europe. | ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴱⴷⵢⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ Eⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵗⴰⵙ |
Settlements could also grow naturally around a castle, rather than being planned, due to the benefits of proximity to an economic centre in a rural landscape and the safety given by the defences. | ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵓⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵎⵓ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵋ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⴼⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ |
They were usually located near any existing town defences, such as Roman walls, although this sometimes resulted in the demolition of structures occupying the desired site. | ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ Iⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ |
When the Normans invaded Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in the 11th and 12th centuries, settlement in those countries was predominantly non-urban, and the foundation of towns was often linked with the creation of a castle. | ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ Iⵔⴻⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵢⵛⵓⵙⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1100 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1200 , ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ oⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴻⵏⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⵢⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵓ |
This signified a close relationship between feudal lords and the Church, one of the most important institutions of medieval society. | ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴰ |
Another example is that of the 14th-century Bodiam Castle, also in England; although it appears to be a state of the art, advanced castle it is in a site of little strategic importance, and the moat was shallow and more likely intended to make the site appear impressive than as a defence against mining. | ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⵉⴰⵎ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ 1400 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ, ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵗⵢⵛ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵓⵙⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ. |
Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important. | ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵉⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ |
In 1403, a force of 37 archers successfully defended Caernarfon Castle against two assaults by Owain Glyndŵr's allies during a long siege, demonstrating that a small force could be effective. | ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1403, 37 ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵢⵔⵏⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Oⵓⴰⵉⵏ ⵗⵍⵉⵏⴷⵓⵔ'ⵙ ⴰ ⴻⵂⵓⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴷⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ |
Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class. | ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎoⵉⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵛⴰⵎ |
It was more efficient to starve the garrison out than to assault it, particularly for the most heavily defended sites. | ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵣ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⵉⵣ |
A long siege could slow down the army, allowing help to come or for the enemy to prepare a larger force for later. | ⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵓ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉ ⵢⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏⴶⴰⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ |
If forced to assault a castle, there were many options available to the attackers. | ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵓ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ |
The trebuchet, which probably evolved from the petraria in the 13th century, was the most effective siege weapon before the development of cannons. | ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴱⵢⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⴰ ⴰ ⴷⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1300, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⵏ |
Ballistas or springalds were siege engines that worked on the same principles as crossbows. | ⴱⴰⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴱⵔⵉⵏⴶⴰⵍⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⴰⵉ |
They were more commonly used against the garrison rather than the buildings of a castle. | ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵓⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ |
A mine leading to the wall would be dug and once the target had been reached, the wooden supports preventing the tunnel from collapsing would be burned. | ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵎ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⵗⵢⵛⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ , ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵉⵛ ⴻⴼⵢⵓ ⴰⵂⵉⵛⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵜ |
A counter-mine could be dug towards the besiegers' tunnel; assuming the two converged, this would result in underground hand-to-hand combat. | ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵗⵢⵛ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙⴰⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⵢⵙⵜ, ⴰ ⴷⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵓ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ |
They were used to force open the castle gates, although they were sometimes used against walls with less effect. | ⵆⴰⵍⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⵢⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵓ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ. |
A safer option for those assaulting a castle was to use a siege tower, sometimes called a belfry. | ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵍⴼⵔⵉ |
The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe. | ⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ,ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴶⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔⵉ (Iⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ) ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ. |
The monarchy included the king and the queen, while the system was made up of clergy (the First Estate), nobles (Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate). | ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵢⵂⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⴾⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ( ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ), ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ (ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ) ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ) |
"In England, a two-estate system evolved that combined nobility and clergy into one lordly estate with ""commons"" as the second estate." | “ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴾⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵓⵉⵜⵂ “ⵛⵓⵎⵎoⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ” ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ” |
"In Scotland, the Three Estates were the Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Shire Commissioners, or ""burghers"" (Third Estate), representing the bourgeois, middle class, and lower class." | “ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ Eⵛⵓⵙⵙⵢ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ( ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ), ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ ( ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ), ⵉⴷ ⴾⵓⵎⵉⵙⴻⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵓⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ““ⴱⵓⵔⴶⵂⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ”” (ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ) ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵛⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ” |
Since clergy could not marry, such mobility was theoretically limited to one generation. | ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ , ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵔⵓⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵍⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ |
Huizinga The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919, 1924:47). | ⵂⵓⵉⵣⵉⵏⴶⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ (1919, 1924:47). |
Commoners were universally considered the lowest order. | ⴾⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ |
In many regions and realms there also existed population groups born outside these specifically defined resident estates. | ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵆⵍⴰⵈ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ |
The economic and political transformation of the countryside in the period were filled by a large growth in population, agricultural production, technological innovations and urban centers; movements of reform and renewal attempted to sharpen the distinction between clerical and lay status, and power, recognized by the Church also had their effect. | ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ, ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙⵜ, ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ; ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴶⵂⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵋⵓⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵔⴷⴰ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ |
The second order, those who fight, was the rank of the politically powerful, ambitious, and dangerous. | ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ, ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴾⴾⵓⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ , ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ |
In addition, the First and Second Estates relied on the labour of the Third, which made the latter's inferior status all the more glaring. | ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ, ⵎⵉⵙⵙⴰⵓⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⵢⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ |
Most were born within this group and also died as a part of it. | ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵂⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ. |
In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms. | ⵢⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵣⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1776, ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵟⵓⵔⴶⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⴾⴾⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴶⵓ ⴻⵋⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰ |
When he could not persuade them to rubber-stamp his 'ideal program', Louis XVI sought to dissolve the Estates-General, but the Third Estate held out for their right to representation. | ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵙⵙⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ “ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵜⴰⵙ”, ⵍⵓⵓⵉⵙ ⵆⴱI ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ-ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵉⵛⴰⵏ |
Because the Parliament of Scotland was unicameral, all members sat in the same chamber, as opposed to the separate English House of Lords and House of Commons. | ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵙⵙⵢ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵉⴶⵂⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ. |
"As in England, the Parliament of Ireland evolved out of the Magnum Concilium ""great council"" summoned by the chief governor of Ireland, attended by the council (curia regis), magnates (feudal lords), and prelates (bishops and abbots)." | "Iⵛⵎⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍⵢⵜⴰⵏ Iⵔⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛ ⵉⵏ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⵓⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⵛⵉⵍⵉⵓⵎ ““ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ”” ⵉⵙⴰⵉⵗⵉⵎ ⵗⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ Iⵔⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴾⵓⵎⵙⵢⵉ (ⵛⵓⵔⵉⴰ ⵔⵢⴶⵉⵙ), ⵎⴰⴶⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ), ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ (ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ)." |
In 1297, counties were first represented by elected knights of the shire (sheriffs had previously represented them). | ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1297, ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵋⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ “ⵙⵂⴻⵔⵉⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ) |
Each were free men, and had specific rights and responsibilities, and the right to send representatives to the Riksdag of the Estates. | Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵔⵉⵆⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ |
Prior to the 18th century, the King had the right to cast a deciding vote if the Estates were split evenly. | ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800, ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵜ |
However, after the Diet of Porvoo, the Diet of Finland was reconvened only in 1863. | ⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴱⵓⵓ , ⴹⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1863 |
Around 1400, letters patent were introduced, in 1561 the ranks of Count and Baron were added, and in 1625 the House of Nobility was codified as the First Estate of the land. | ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1400, ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ, ⵗⵓⵔ 1561 ⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1625 ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ |
Heads of the noble houses were hereditary members of the assembly of nobles. | ⴰⵊⵍ ⵜⵢⴾⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵗⵏⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵢⴷⵜⵢⴴⵓⵔⵙⴰⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ,ⴰⴹⴾⵓⴹ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⵗ ⵢⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵜⴰⴷⵗ ⵢⵣⵍⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⵌ geoid |
This resulted in great political influence for the higher nobility. | ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ Iⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ |
In later centuries, the estate included teachers of universities and certain state schools. | ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵊⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ GPS ⵜⵏ,ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵍⵓⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ,ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵜ ⵉⴾⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴹⴾⵓⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵌⵓⴾ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴷⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵣⵓⴷ |
Trade was allowed only in the cities when the mercantilistic ideology had got the upper hand, and the burghers had the exclusive right to conduct commerce within the framework of guilds. | ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴱⵓⵔⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ |
In order for a settlement to become a city, a royal charter granting market right was required, and foreign trade required royally chartered staple port rights. | ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ , ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵛ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ |
Since most of the population were independent farmer families until the 19th century, not serfs nor villeins, there is a remarkable difference in tradition compared to other European countries. | ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⴶⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵓⴰⴷⴷⴻⵏ ⵙⵢⵔⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ vⵉⵍⵍⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵢⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ. |
Their representatives to the Diet were elected indirectly: each municipality sent electors to elect the representative of an electoral district. | Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴾⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵙⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵓⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ. |
They had no political rights and could not vote. | ⵗⵢⵓⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵍ ⵔⵓⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴴ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰ ⵎⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ |
In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates existed until it was replaced with a bicameral Riksdag in 1866, which gave political rights to anyone with a certain income or property. | ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵢⴷ , ⵔⵉⴾⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵔⵉⴾⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1866 ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ |
In Finland, this legal division existed until 1906, still drawing on the Swedish constitution of 1772. | ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1906 ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⵓⵏⵙⵜⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1772 |
Furthermore, the industrial workers living in the city were not represented by the four-estate system. | ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵗⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵂⵔⴾⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵢⴾⴰⵜⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵛⴴⵔⵢⵜ |
Later in the 15th and 16th centuries Brussels became the place where the States General assembled. | ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1500 ⵉⴷ 1600 ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵍⵋⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ |
As a consequence of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and the events that followed afterwards, the States General declared that they no longer obeyed King Philip II of Spain, who was also overlord of the Netherlands. | ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⴻⵛⵂⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1579 ⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ, ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ 2 ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ |
It was the level of government where all things were dealt with that were of concern to all the seven provinces that became part of the Republic of the United Netherlands. | ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ |
In the Southern Netherlands, the last meetings of the States General loyal to the Habsburgs took place in the Estates General of 1600 and the Estates General of 1632. | ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ, ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵚⵜⴰⵜⴻⵙ ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵂⴰⴱⵙⴱⵓⵔⴶⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ- ⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1632 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵙⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ |
It no longer consisted of representatives of the States, let alone the Estates: all men were considered equal under the 1798 Constitution. | Iⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ , Iⵏⵙⵛⵔⵉⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵢⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ: ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ 1798 |
In 1815, when the Netherlands were united with Belgium and Luxemburg, the States General were divided into two chambers: the First Chamber and the Second Chamber. | ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1815, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴻⵍⴶⵉⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵍⵓⵆⵢⵎⴱⵓⵔⴶ, ⵚⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⵢⵏ: ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ. |
From 1848 on, the Dutch Constitution provides that members of the Second Chamber be elected by the people (at first only by a limited portion of the male population; universal male and female suffrage exists since 1919), while the members of the First Chamber are chosen by the members of the States Provincial. | ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1848, ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴰⵏⴻⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵓⵜ ( ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ , ⵓⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1919) ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ. |
The clergy was represented by the independent prince-bishops, prince-archbishops and prince-abbots of the many monasteries. | Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ |
Many peoples whose territories within the Holy Roman Empire had been independent for centuries had no representatives in the Imperial Diet, and this included the Imperial Knights and independent villages. | ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ |
The four major estates were: nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, rural dwellers, and urban dwellers, with a more detailed stratification therein. | Iⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴾoⵣ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ: Iⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵂⴰ (ⴷⴱⴱⵓⵉⴰⵏⵙⵜⴱⵓ), ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵢⵔⴰⵜ |
The bourgeoisie in its original sense is intimately linked to the existence of cities, recognized as such by their urban charters (e.g., municipal charters, town privileges, German town law), so there was no bourgeoisie apart from the citizenry of the cities. | ⴱⵓⵔⵋⵓⴰⵣⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴷⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⴷⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ (ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ,ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⴷⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵉ, ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ , ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⵋⵓⴰⵣⵉ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ |
"Historically, the medieval French word bourgeois denoted the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market-towns), the craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted ""the bourgeoisie""." | “”ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ, ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵋⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⵢⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶ ( ⵉⴶⵂⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵂⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ) ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ,ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉⵏ “”ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⵢⵓⵉⵙⵉ”” |
Guilds arose when individual businessmen (such as craftsmen, artisans and merchants) conflicted with their rent-seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed. | ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⴰⵉ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⵓⴾ (ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ) ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ |
They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations. | ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⴻⵓⵉⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ |
The names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the region's history. | Iⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⴹⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ |
These people nevertheless live lavishly, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time. | ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ |
In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost designates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into this socio-economic group is possible. | ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ , ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⴻⵓⵉⵙⵉⴻ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴾⵓⴷ ⴻⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ |
Hitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism, and he preferred a state-directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of the Volk. | ⵂⵉⵍⵜⵢⵔ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ |