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is measured), coulometry (the transferred charge is measured over time), amperometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential). Potentiometry measures the cell's potential, coulometry measures the cell's current, and voltamm...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }
techniques are under development. For example, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-NMR spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry. Hyphenated separat...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }
{\bar {x}}} is the observed value. An error of a measurement is an inverse measure of accurate measurement, i.e. smaller the error greater the accuracy of the measurement. Errors can be expressed relatively. Given the relative error( ε r {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\rm {r}}} ): ε r = ε a \| x \| = \| x − x ¯ x \| {\displa...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }
range of the technique, it can simply be diluted in a pure solvent. If the amount in the sample is below an instrument's range of measurement, the method of addition can be used. In this method, a known quantity of the element or compound under study is added, and the difference between the concentration added and the ...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }
4 k B T R Δ f , {\displaystyle v_{\rm {RMS}}={\sqrt {4k_{\rm {B}}TR\Delta f}},} where kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, R is the resistance, and Δ f {\displaystyle \Delta f} is the bandwidth of the frequency f {\displaystyle f} . === Shot noise === Shot noise is a type of electronic noise that occurs ...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }
of shielded cable, analog filtering, and signal modulation. Examples of software noise reduction are digital filtering, ensemble average, boxcar average, and correlation methods. == Applications == Analytical chemistry has applications including in forensic science, bioanalysis, clinical analysis, environmental analysi...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }
fields; peptidomics - peptides and its associated fields; and metallomics, dealing with metal concentrations and especially with their binding to proteins and other molecules. Analytical chemistry has played a critical role in the understanding of basic science to a variety of practical applications, such as biomedical...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }
The Institute of Predictive and Personalized Medicine of Cancer (IMPPC) (Barcelona) is located in Badalona as a research institute set up by the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), the City Council of Badalona, the Catalan Institute of Health (ICS), The G...	{ "page_id": 31721834, "source": null, "title": "Institute of Predictive and Personalized Medicine of Cancer" }
Analog models of gravity are attempts to model various phenomena of general relativity (e.g., black holes or cosmological geometries) using other physical systems such as waves in a moving fluid and electromagnetic waves in a dielectric medium. These analogs (or analogies) serve to provide new ways of looking at proble...	{ "page_id": 7670122, "source": null, "title": "Analog models of gravity" }
The mutation accumulation theory of aging was first proposed by Peter Medawar in 1952 as an evolutionary explanation for biological aging and the associated decline in fitness that accompanies it. Medawar used the term 'senescence' to refer to this process. The theory explains that, in the case where harmful mutations ...	{ "page_id": 60885357, "source": null, "title": "Mutation accumulation theory" }
lecture in 1951 and then published in 1952 == Mechanism of action == Amongst almost all populations, the likelihood that an individual will reproduce is related directly to their age. Starting at 0 at birth, the probability increases to its maximum in young adulthood once sexual maturity has been reached, before gradua...	{ "page_id": 60885357, "source": null, "title": "Mutation accumulation theory" }
therefore lower relative risk of predation, is the cause of their longer than expected life span. The implication that flight, and therefore lower predation, increases lifespan is further born out by the fact that bats live on average 3 times longer than similarly sized mammals with comparable metabolic rates. Providin...	{ "page_id": 60885357, "source": null, "title": "Mutation accumulation theory" }
Melanogaster, and other organisms, however, exhibit age-specific mortality rates that plateau well before reaching 100%, making mutation accumulation alone an insufficient explanation. It is suggested instead that mutation accumulation is only one factor among many, which together form the cause of aging. In particular...	{ "page_id": 60885357, "source": null, "title": "Mutation accumulation theory" }
The Sakurai reaction (also known as the Hosomi–Sakurai reaction) is the chemical reaction of carbon electrophiles (such as a ketone shown here) with allyltrimethylsilane catalyzed by strong Lewis acids. The reaction achieves results similar to the addition of an allyl Grignard reagent to the carbonyl. Strong Lewis acid...	{ "page_id": 3934577, "source": null, "title": "Sakurai reaction" }
doi:10.1016/S0040-4039(00)78044-0. ISSN 0040-4039. (Hosomi, Akira; Endo, Masahiko; Sakurai, Hideki (5 September 1976). "Allylsilanes as synthetic intermediates. ii. syntheses of homoallyl ethers from allylsilanes and acetals promoted by titanium tetrachloride". Chemistry Letters. 5 (9): 941–942. doi:10.1246/cl.1976.941...	{ "page_id": 3934577, "source": null, "title": "Sakurai reaction" }
Naphthylamine or aminonaphthalene can refer to either of two isomeric chemical compounds: 1-Naphthylamine (1-aminonaphthalene) 2-Naphthylamine (2-aminonaphthalene)	{ "page_id": 3148149, "source": null, "title": "Naphthylamine" }
Copernicium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Cn and atomic number 112. Its known isotopes are extremely radioactive, and have only been created in a laboratory. The most stable known isotope, copernicium-285, has a half-life of approximately 30 seconds. Copernicium was first created in February 1996 by th...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
a target made of lead-208 nuclei in a heavy ion accelerator. A single atom of copernicium was produced with a mass number of 277. (A second was originally reported, but was found to have been based on data fabricated by Ninov, and was thus retracted.) 20882Pb + 7030Zn → 278112Cn* → 277112Cn + 10n In May 2000, the GSI s...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
the hot fusion reaction 238U(48Ca,3n)283Cn; most observed atoms of 283Cn decayed by spontaneous fission, although an alpha decay branch to 279Ds was detected. While initial experiments aimed to assign the produced nuclide with its observed long half-life of 3 minutes based on its chemical behaviour, this was found to b...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
the element symbol Cp, after Nicolaus Copernicus "to honor an outstanding scientist, who changed our view of the world". During the standard six-month discussion period among the scientific community about the naming, it was pointed out that the symbol Cp was previously associated with the name cassiopeium (cassiopium)...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
and 284Cn both have half-lives on the order of 0.1 seconds, and the remaining isotopes have half-lives shorter than one millisecond. It is predicted that the heavy isotopes 291Cn and 293Cn may have half-lives longer than a few decades, for they are predicted to lie near the center of the theoretical island of stability...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
287Cn could be produced by charged-particle evaporation, in the reaction 244Pu(48Ca,αxn) with x equalling 1 or 2. == Predicted properties == Very few properties of copernicium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that copernicium (and its parent...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
significantly lowers the energy of the vacant 7p1/2 state of copernicium. Once copernicium is ionized, its chemistry may present several differences from those of zinc, cadmium, and mercury. Due to the stabilization of 7s electronic orbitals and destabilization of 6d ones caused by relativistic effects, Cn2+ is likely ...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
cyanide, Cn(CN)2. === Physical and atomic === Copernicium should be a dense metal, with a density of 14.0 g/cm3 in the liquid state at 300 K; this is similar to the known density of mercury, which is 13.534 g/cm3. (Solid copernicium at the same temperature should have a higher density of 14.7 g/cm3.) This results from ...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
at standard conditions with a body-centered cubic crystal structure: it should hence have no band gap, like mercury, although the density of states at the Fermi level is expected to be lower for copernicium than for mercury. 2019 calculations then suggested that in fact copernicium has a large band gap of 6.4 ± 0.2 eV,...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
mercury and had noble gas properties. However, the confusion regarding the synthesis of copernicium-283 has cast some doubt on these experimental results. Given this uncertainty, between April–May 2006 at the JINR, a FLNR–PSI team conducted experiments probing the synthesis of this isotope as a daughter in the nuclear ...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
the group from ZnSe to HgSe. == See also == Island of stability == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties". Chinese Physics C. 41 (3). 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3...	{ "page_id": 67958, "source": null, "title": "Copernicium" }
The United Nations General Assembly had declared 2011–20 the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity (Resolution 65/161). The UN Decade on Biodiversity had served to support and promote implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, with the goal of significantly reducing biodiv...	{ "page_id": 31590777, "source": null, "title": "United Nations Decade on Biodiversity" }
Summit on Biodiversity. The summit involved pre-recorded statements from over 100 states and organizations. It was intended to build momentum for the fifteenth Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity, which was postponed to 2021 due to the coronavirus. Many speakers acknowledged that ...	{ "page_id": 31590777, "source": null, "title": "United Nations Decade on Biodiversity" }
Subterranean fauna refers to animal species that are adapted to live in an underground environment. Troglofauna and stygofauna are the two types of subterranean fauna. Both are associated with hypogeal habitats – troglofauna is associated with terrestrial subterranean environment (caves and underground spaces above the...	{ "page_id": 39651706, "source": null, "title": "Subterranean fauna" }
terrestrial subterranean habitats can be classified into 3 categories, based on their ecology: troglobionts (or troglobites): species strongly bound to subterranean habitats; troglophiles: species living both in subterranean and in epigean habitats. Troglophiles are also divided in eutroglophiles (epigean species able ...	{ "page_id": 39651706, "source": null, "title": "Subterranean fauna" }
in isolation. Stratigraphic barriers, such as rock walls and layers, and fluvial barriers, such as rivers and streams, prevent or hinder the dispersal of these animals. Consequently, subterranean fauna habitat and food availability can be very disjunct and precludes the great range of observed diversity across landscap...	{ "page_id": 39651706, "source": null, "title": "Subterranean fauna" }
Electrochemical fluorination (ECF), or electrofluorination, is a foundational organofluorine chemistry method for the preparation of fluorocarbon-based organofluorine compounds. The general approach represents an application of electrosynthesis. The fluorinated chemical compounds produced by ECF are useful because of t...	{ "page_id": 20842876, "source": null, "title": "Electrochemical fluorination" }
anhydrous conditions. == Phillips Petroleum process == This method is similar to the Simons Process but is typically applied to the preparation from volatile hydrocarbons and chlorohydrocarbons. In this process, electrofluorination is conducted at porous graphite anodes in molten potassium fluoride in hydrogen fluoride...	{ "page_id": 20842876, "source": null, "title": "Electrochemical fluorination" }
A gene family is a set of several similar genes, formed by duplication of a single original gene, and generally with similar biochemical functions. One such family are the genes for human hemoglobin subunits; the ten genes are in two clusters on different chromosomes, called the α-globin and β-globin loci. These two ge...	{ "page_id": 526719, "source": null, "title": "Gene family" }
Gene families are groups of related genes that share a common ancestor. Members of gene families may be paralogs or orthologs. Gene paralogs are genes with similar sequences from within the same species while gene orthologs are genes with similar sequences in different species. Gene families are highly variable in size...	{ "page_id": 526719, "source": null, "title": "Gene family" }
over time becoming non-functional. Processed pseudogenes are genes that have lost their function after being moved around the genome by retrotransposition. Pseudogenes that have become isolated from the gene family they originated in, are referred to as orphans. == Formation == Gene families arose from multiple duplica...	{ "page_id": 526719, "source": null, "title": "Gene family" }
that leads to larger gene families. === Relocation === Gene members of a multigene family or multigene families within superfamilies exist on different chromosomes due to relocation of those genes after duplication of the ancestral gene. Transposable elements play a role in the movement of genes. Transposable elements ...	{ "page_id": 526719, "source": null, "title": "Gene family" }
of redundancy where mutations are tolerated. With one functioning copy of the gene, other copies are able to acquire mutations without being extremely detrimental to the organisms. Mutations allow duplicate genes to acquire new or different functions. === Concerted evolution === Some multigene families are extremely ho...	{ "page_id": 526719, "source": null, "title": "Gene family" }
remains relatively constant, this implies that genes are gained and lost at relatively same rates. There are some patterns in which genes are more likely to be lost vs. which are more likely to duplicate and diversify into multiple copies. An adaptive expansion of a single gene into many initially identical copies occu...	{ "page_id": 526719, "source": null, "title": "Gene family" }
A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols and chemical formulas. The reactant entities are given on the left-hand side and the product entities are on the right-hand side with a plus sign between the entities in both the reactants and the products, and an arrow tha...	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
molecule." === Reaction types === Different variants of the arrow symbol are used to denote the type of a reaction: === State of matter === To indicate physical state of a chemical, a symbol in parentheses may be appended to its formula: (s) for a solid, (l) for a liquid, (g) for a gas, and (aq) for an aqueous solution...	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
or base is required, another way of denoting the use of an acidic or basic medium is to write H+ or OH− (or even "acid" or "base") on top of the arrow. Specific conditions of the temperature and pressure, as well as the presence of catalysts, may be indicated in the same way. === Notation variants === The standard nota...	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
H2O -> CH3OCH3}}} == Balancing chemical equations == Because no nuclear reactions take place in a chemical reaction, the chemical elements pass through the reaction unchanged. Thus, each side of the chemical equation must represent the same number of atoms of any particular element (or nuclide, if different isotopes ar...	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
process, the presence of fractions may be eliminated (at any time) by multiplying all coefficients by their lowest common denominator. Example Balancing of the chemical equation for the complete combustion of methane ? CH 4 + ? O 2 ⟶ ? CO 2 + ? H 2 O {\displaystyle {\ce {{\mathord {?}}\,{CH4}+{\mathord {?}}\,{O2}->{\ma...	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
∈ reactants a i j s j = ∑ j ∈ products a i j s j {\displaystyle \sum _{j\,\in \,{\text{reactants}}}\!\!\!\!\!a_{ij}s_{j}\ =\!\!\!\!\!\sum _{j\,\in \,{\text{products}}}\!\!\!\!\!a_{ij}s_{j}} where aij is the number of atoms of element i in a molecule of substance j (per formula in the chemical equation), and sj is the s...	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
-> CO2 + 2 H2O}}} === Matrix method === The system of linear equations introduced in the previous section can also be written using an efficient matrix formalism. First, to unify the reactant and product stoichiometric coefficients sj, let us introduce the quantity ν j = { − s j for a reactant + s j for a product {\dis...	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
1 will there be a unique preferred solution to the balancing problem. For JN > 1 there will be an infinite number of preferred solutions with JN of them linearly independent. If JN = 0, there will be only the unusable trivial solution, the zero vector. Techniques have been developed to quickly calculate a set of JN ind...	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
reactions that occur in aqueous solutions. For example, in the following precipitation reaction: CaCl 2 + 2 AgNO 3 ⟶ Ca ( NO 3 ) 2 + 2 AgCl ↓ {\displaystyle {\ce {CaCl2 + 2AgNO3 -> Ca(NO3)2 + 2 AgCl(v)}}} the full ionic equation is: Ca 2 + + 2 Cl − + 2 Ag + + 2 NO 3 − ⟶ Ca 2 + + 2 NO 3 − + 2 AgCl ↓ {\displaystyle {\ce ...	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
l ) {\displaystyle {\ce {H+ (aq) + OH^{-}(aq) -> H2O(l)}}} There are a few acid/base reactions that produce a precipitate in addition to the water molecule shown above. An example is the reaction of barium hydroxide with phosphoric acid, which produces not only water but also the insoluble salt barium phosphate. In thi...	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
\sum _{j=1}^{J}a_{ij}\nu _{j}=0} == History == == Typesetting == == See also == Mathematical notation Comparison of TeX editors TeX extentions for science and chemistry notation Chemistry notation in TeX == Notes == == References ==	{ "page_id": 199040, "source": null, "title": "Chemical equation" }
Homopolysaccharides are polysaccharides composed of a single type of sugar monomer. For example, cellulose is an unbranched homopolysaccharide made up of glucose monomers connected via beta-glycosidic linkages; glycogen is a branched form, where the glucose monomers are joined by alpha-glycosidic linkages. Depending up...	{ "page_id": 15206784, "source": null, "title": "Homopolysaccharide" }
The peroxide process is a method for the industrial production of hydrazine. In this process hydrogen peroxide is used as an oxidant instead of sodium hypochlorite, which is traditionally used to generate hydrazine. The main advantage of the peroxide process to hydrazine relative to the traditional Olin Raschig process...	{ "page_id": 1116547, "source": null, "title": "Peroxide process" }
mixture. It is also endothermic, and so requires an increase in temperature (and pressure) to shift the equilibrium in favour of the desired products: ketone (which is recycled) and hydrazine hydrate. The reaction is carried out by simple distillation of the azeotrope: typical conditions are a pressure of 8 bar and tem...	{ "page_id": 1116547, "source": null, "title": "Peroxide process" }
The Fritsch–Buttenberg–Wiechell rearrangement, named for Paul Ernst Moritz Fritsch (1859–1913), Wilhelm Paul Buttenberg, and Heinrich G. Wiechell, is a chemical reaction whereby a 1,1-diaryl-2-bromo-alkene rearranges to a 1,2-diaryl-alkyne by reaction with a strong base such as an alkoxide. This rearrangement is also p...	{ "page_id": 2034059, "source": null, "title": "Fritsch–Buttenberg–Wiechell rearrangement" }
In biological classification, circumscriptional names (Latin: nomina circumscribentia) are taxon names that are defined by their circumscription; i.e. the diagnostic feature of the particular set of members included. Such names are not ruled by any nomenclature code and are mainly for taxa above the rank of family (e.g...	{ "page_id": 4721036, "source": null, "title": "Circumscriptional name" }
Hexapoda. // Bionomina, 1: 15–55. https://www.mapress.com/bionomina/content/2010/f/bn00001p055.pdf == External links == Kluge's PRINCIPLES OF NOMENCLATURE of ZOOLOGICAL TAXA NOMINA CIRCUMSCRIBENTIA INSECTORUM	{ "page_id": 4721036, "source": null, "title": "Circumscriptional name" }
Palladium(II) bis(acetylacetonate) is a compound with formula Pd(C5H7O2)2. This yellow solid is the most common palladium complex of acetylacetonate. This compound is commercially available and used as a catalyst precursor in organic synthesis. The molecule is relatively planar with idealized D2h symmetry. == See also ...	{ "page_id": 10815888, "source": null, "title": "Palladium(II) bis(acetylacetonate)" }
Sabouraud agar or Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) is a type of agar growth medium containing peptones. It is used to cultivate dermatophytes and other types of fungi, and can also grow filamentous bacteria such as Nocardia. It has utility for research and clinical care. It was created by, and is named after, Raymond Sabo...	{ "page_id": 19925395, "source": null, "title": "Sabouraud agar" }
Cryomyces minteri is a fungus of uncertain placement in the class Dothideomycetes, division Ascomycota. The rock-inhabiting fungus that was discovered in the McMurdo Dry Valleys located in Antarctica, on fragments of rock colonized by a local cryptoendolithic community. In 2008, Cryomyces minteri and Cryomyces antarcti...	{ "page_id": 51775892, "source": null, "title": "Cryomyces minteri" }
In biochemistry, intercalation is the insertion of molecules between the planar bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This process is used as a method for analyzing DNA and it is also the basis of certain kinds of poisoning. There are several ways molecules (in this case, also known as ligands) can interact with DNA. L...	{ "page_id": 42600851, "source": null, "title": "Intercalation (biochemistry)" }
Orange derivatives, the distance between the base pairs increased significantly, from ca. 4.7 Å to ca, 6.9. This unwinding induces local structural changes to the DNA strand, such as lengthening of the DNA strand or twisting of the base pairs. These structural modifications can lead to functional changes, often to the ...	{ "page_id": 42600851, "source": null, "title": "Intercalation (biochemistry)" }
This is a list of investigational anxiolytics, or anxiolytics that are currently under development for clinical use but are not yet approved. Chemical/generic names are listed first, with developmental code names, synonyms, and brand names in parentheses. This list was last comprehensively updated in June 2017. It is l...	{ "page_id": 54200726, "source": null, "title": "List of investigational anxiolytics" }
– FAAH inhibitor JNJ-61393215 – orexin OX1 receptor antagonist Maritupirdine (AVN-101; Aviandr) – 5-HT6 receptor antagonist MP-20X – CB1 and 5-HT1A receptor modulator Soclenicant (BNC-210; IW-2143) – "GABA modulator" / undefined mechanism of action / α7 subunit-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist SRX...	{ "page_id": 54200726, "source": null, "title": "List of investigational anxiolytics" }
Dithiole is a type of sulfur-containing heterocycle. The parent members have the formula C3H4S2. Dithioles exist in two isomers: 1,2-Dithiole 1,3-Dithiole	{ "page_id": 43911576, "source": null, "title": "Dithiole" }
Apoptosis (from Ancient Greek: ἀπόπτωσις, romanized: apóptōsis, lit. 'falling off') is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms and in some eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as yeast. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death. These changes i...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
have been implicated in a wide variety of diseases. Excessive apoptosis causes atrophy, whereas an insufficient amount results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, such as cancer. Some factors like Fas receptors and caspases promote apoptosis, while some members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins inhibit apoptosis. == Disc...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
a protein that inhibited cell death. The 2002 Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz and John Sulston for their work identifying genes that control apoptosis. The genes were identified by studies in the nematode C. elegans and homologues of these genes function in humans to regulate ap...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
drooping of the upper eyelid. == Activation mechanisms == The initiation of apoptosis is tightly regulated by activation mechanisms, because once apoptosis has begun, it inevitably leads to the death of the cell. The two best-understood activation mechanisms are the intrinsic pathway (also called the mitochondrial path...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
protease calpain. === Intrinsic pathway === The intrinsic pathway is also known as the mitochondrial pathway. Mitochondria are essential to multicellular life. Without them, a cell ceases to respire aerobically and quickly dies. This fact forms the basis for some apoptotic pathways. Apoptotic proteins that target mitoc...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
degradation of the cell. Therefore, the actual degradation enzymes can be seen to be indirectly regulated by mitochondrial permeability. === Extrinsic pathway === Two theories of the direct initiation of apoptotic mechanisms in mammals have been suggested: the TNF-induced (tumor necrosis factor) model and the Fas-Fas l...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
and FasL results in the formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC), which contains the FADD, caspase-8 and caspase-10. In some types of cells (type I), processed caspase-8 directly activates other members of the caspase family, and triggers the execution of apoptosis of the cell. In other types of cells (...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
laevis serves as an ideal model system for the study of the mechanisms of apoptosis. In fact, iodine and thyroxine also stimulate the spectacular apoptosis of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins in amphibian's metamorphosis, and stimulate the evolution of their nervous system transforming the aquatic, vegetari...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
or nucleosomal units due to the degradation of DNA. Apoptosis progresses quickly and its products are quickly removed, making it difficult to detect or visualize on classical histology sections. During karyorrhexis, endonuclease activation leaves short DNA fragments, regularly spaced in size. These give a characteristi...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
appropriate receptors, such as macrophages. The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response. During apoptosis cellular RNA and DNA are separated from each other and sorted to different apoptotic bodies; separation of RNA is initiated as nucleolar segregati...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
a decreased programmed cell death in some neuronal populations and in the spinal cord, leading to an increase in motor neurons. The caspase proteins are integral parts of the apoptosis pathway, so it follows that knock-outs made have varying damaging results. A caspase 9 knock-out leads to a severe brain malformation ....	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
no distinct surface or biochemical markers of necrotic cell death have been identified yet, and only negative markers are available. These include absence of apoptotic markers (caspase activation, cytochrome c release, and oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation) and differential kinetics of cell death markers (phosphatidyl...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
of the former, and the damaged cells continue to replicate despite being directed to die. Defects in regulation of apoptosis in cancer cells occur often at the level of control of transcription factors. As a particular example, defects in molecules that control transcription factor NF-κB in cancer change the mode of tr...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
their expression in tumors. Some apoptotic factors are vital during mitochondrial respiration e.g. cytochrome C. Pathological inactivation of apoptosis in cancer cells is correlated with frequent respiratory metabolic shifts toward glycolysis (an observation known as the "Warburg hypothesis". ==== HeLa cell ==== Apopto...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
be used either to stimulate or to inhibit apoptosis in various places along the death signaling pathway. Apoptosis is a multi-step, multi-pathway cell-death programme that is inherent in every cell of the body. In cancer, the apoptosis cell-division ratio is altered. Cancer treatment by chemotherapy and irradiation kil...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
and thus cell survival. Akt also activates IKKα, which leads to NF-κB activation and cell survival. Active NF-κB induces the expression of anti-apoptotic genes such as Bcl-2, resulting in inhibition of apoptosis. NF-κB has been found to play both an antiapoptotic role and a proapoptotic role depending on the stimuli ut...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
count falls below 200. Researchers from Kumamoto University in Japan have developed a new method to eradicate HIV in viral reservoir cells, named "Lock-in and apoptosis." Using the synthesized compound Heptanoylphosphatidyl L-Inositol Pentakisphophate (or L-Hippo) to bind strongly to the HIV protein PR55Gag, they were ...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
which works as the initiator protein followed by the executioner protein caspase-3. However, apoptosis induced by CDV in HeLa cells does not involve the initiator protein caspase-8. HeLa cell apoptosis caused by CDV follows a different mechanism than that in vero cell lines. This change in the caspase cascade suggests ...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
necessary. Apoptosis in some viruses is activated by extracellular stimuli. However, studies have demonstrated that the OROV infection causes apoptosis to be activated through intracellular stimuli and involves the mitochondria. Many viruses encode proteins that can inhibit apoptosis. Several viruses encode viral homol...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
an immune response, the dying cell synthesizes substances to break itself down and places them in a vacuole that ruptures as the cell dies. Additionally, plants do not contain phagocytic cells, which are essential in the process of breaking down and removing apoptotic bodies. Whether this whole process resembles animal...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
caspase-9, caspase-3 and caspase-7 pathway; and by external signals (FAS and TNF), along the caspase 8 pathway. Accessed 25 March 2007. WikiPathways – Apoptosis pathway Archived 2008-09-16 at the Wayback Machine "Finding Cancer's Self-Destruct Button". CR magazine (Spring 2007). Article on apoptosis and cancer. Xiaodon...	{ "page_id": 2457, "source": null, "title": "Apoptosis" }
Photothermal time (PTT) is a product between growing degree-days (GDD) and day length (hours) for each day. PTT = GDD × DL It can be used to quantify environment, as well as the timing of developmental stages of plants. == References ==	{ "page_id": 57674142, "source": null, "title": "Photothermal time" }
The Olin Raschig process is a chemical process for the production of hydrazine. The main steps in this process, patented by German chemist Friedrich Raschig in 1906 and one of three reactions named after him, are the formation of monochloramine from ammonia and hypochlorite, and the subsequent reaction of monochloramin...	{ "page_id": 1116577, "source": null, "title": "Olin Raschig process" }
Andrey Lvovich Kursanov (Russian: Андрей Львович Курсанов; 8 November 1902 – 20 September 1999) was a Soviet specialist on the physiology and biochemistry of plants. He was an academician of the Soviet and Russian Academies of Sciences since 1953. He was a member of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the Sovie...	{ "page_id": 9898403, "source": null, "title": "Andrey Kursanov" }
French Zoosemiotics Society (French: Société Française de Zoosémiotique) is an academic society, uniting ethologists, zoologists, semioticians (including biosemioticians and ecosemioticians), linguists, veterinarians and philosophers, and promoting a semiotic approach in zoosemiotics and animal studies. The focus of th...	{ "page_id": 77859236, "source": null, "title": "French Zoosemiotics Society" }
The posterior intermuscular septum of leg or posterior crural intermuscular septum is a band of fascia which separates the lateral compartment of leg. The deep fascia of leg gives off from its deep surface, on the lateral side of the leg, two strong intermuscular septa, the anterior and posterior peroneal septa, which ...	{ "page_id": 15337892, "source": null, "title": "Posterior intermuscular septum of leg" }
Chemistry: A Volatile History is a 2010 BBC documentary on the history of chemistry presented by Jim Al-Khalili. It was nominated for the 2010 British Academy Television Awards in the category Specialist Factual. == Episode 1: Discovering the Elements == === Introduction === Only in the last 200 years have we known wha...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
thinking that urine might contain some part of the 'life force' vital to sustaining human life. To get rid of the unimportant parts, primarily water, Brand boiled the urine for several days until he was left with a thick paste. Finally, fragments of a substance emerged which burned brighter than any Medieval candle ava...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
various elements, using English names instead; and most crucially it was actually published, as opposed to kept secret. Boyle was willing to share his discoveries to allow others to build on his work and further the scientific understanding of the elements. He wanted to put alchemy on a more scientific footing – ditchi...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
for the whole scientific community in the 1700s, who still believed water to be an elemental substance. Yet, if water could be made by burning inflammable air, then water is not an element, but a compound. However, it simply did not occur to Cavendish that water was a compound – instead he assumed that the airs contain...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
with the preeminent scientists of the time. It is here that Priestley met the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier. === Antoine Lavoisier and the end of phlogiston === Priestley told Lavoisier all the details of his experiments upon the production of dephlogisticated air. Unlike Priestley, Lavoisier had one of the best e...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
its first definition of an element: a substance that cannot be decomposed by existing chemical means. He also set about drawing up a list of all the elements – now 33 elements replaced the ancient four. His list was grouped into four categories: gases, non-metals, metals and earths. On top of this, Lavoisier created a ...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
taking place. If that was true, then maybe the reverse was also true: an electric current could cause a chemical reaction. Davy heated the potash until it was liquid, then introduced two electrodes and passed a current through the molten potash. A lilac flame was observed, the result of successfully breaking down potas...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
ordered by atomic weight. Although Dalton did not get all his atomic weights correct, he was pointing science in the right direction. Sadly, in the early 1800s few scientists accepted the idea that elements had different weights. === Jöns Jacob Berzelius' pursuit of atomic weights === The Swedish scientist Jöns Jacob B...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
chemical properties. He noticed that one could often single out three elements that exhibited similar properties, such as the alkali metals, which he called triads. The problem was that Döbereiner's triads only worked for a few of the elements and got scientists no further than atomic weights. === Dmitri Mendeleev move...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }

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