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of DNA allows researchers to visualize the "footprint" as a region lacking cleaved fragments. This approach is particularly useful when studying protein-DNA interactions in native conditions, as it preserves the integrity of complex formations. Additionally, combining electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA) with f...	{ "page_id": 5638621, "source": null, "title": "DNA footprinting" }
footprint, a gap, where a protein was bound. In vivo footprinting can be combined with immunoprecipitation to assess protein specificity at particular locations throughout the genome. This assay involves either using chemical crosslinkers or UV light to cross-link DNA to its associated proteins. After digesting unbound...	{ "page_id": 5638621, "source": null, "title": "DNA footprinting" }
be analyzed is produced by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), it is straightforward to couple a fluorescent molecule such as carboxyfluorescein (FAM) to the primers. This way, the fragments produced by DNase I digestion will contain FAM, and will be detectable by the capillary electrophoresis machine. Typically, carboxyt...	{ "page_id": 5638621, "source": null, "title": "DNA footprinting" }
be categorized in two classes: segmentation-based and site-centric approaches. Segmentation-based methods are based on the application of Hidden Markov models or sliding window methods to segment the genome into open/closed chromatin region. Examples of such methods are: HINT, Boyle method and Neph method. Site-centric...	{ "page_id": 5638621, "source": null, "title": "DNA footprinting" }
Lattice Miner is a formal concept analysis software tool for the construction, visualization and manipulation of concept lattices. It allows the generation of formal concepts and association rules as well as the transformation of formal contexts via apposition, subposition, reduction and object/attribute generalization...	{ "page_id": 27593182, "source": null, "title": "Lattice Miner" }
integration of new features and facilities in each one of its components. === Context module === The context module offers all the basic operations and structures to manipulate binary and valued contexts as well as context decomposition to produce nested line diagrams. Basic context operations include apposition, subpo...	{ "page_id": 27593182, "source": null, "title": "Lattice Miner" }
procedures for the computation of a non-redundant family C of implications and the closure of a set Y of attributes for the given implication set C. === User interface === The initial objective of Lattice Miner was to focus on lattice drawing and visualization either as a flat or nested structure by taking into account...	{ "page_id": 27593182, "source": null, "title": "Lattice Miner" }
XML format file. == References == == External links == https://github.com/LarimUQO/lattice-miner https://sourceforge.net/projects/lattice-miner/ https://upriss.github.io/fca/fca.html http://w3.uqo.ca/icfca10/	{ "page_id": 27593182, "source": null, "title": "Lattice Miner" }
Formiminoglutamic acid (FIGLU; conjugate base, formiminoglutamate) is an intermediate in the catabolism of L-histidine to L-glutamic acid. It thus is also a biomarker for intracellular levels of folate. The FIGLU test is used to identify vitamin B₁₂ deficiency, folate deficiency, and liver failure or liver disease. It ...	{ "page_id": 11471325, "source": null, "title": "Formiminoglutamic acid" }
Two-dimensional chromatography is a type of chromatographic technique in which the injected sample is separated by passing through two different separation stages. Two different chromatographic columns are connected in sequence, and the effluent from the first system is transferred onto the second column. Typically the...	{ "page_id": 17828319, "source": null, "title": "Two-dimensional chromatography" }
the result of numerous experiments" (Biochem J., 1944, 38, 224). == Examples == Two-dimensional separations can be carried out in gas chromatography or liquid chromatography. Various different coupling strategies have been developed to "resample" from the first column into the second. Some important hardware for two-di...	{ "page_id": 17828319, "source": null, "title": "Two-dimensional chromatography" }
molecule to determine its identity. This can be especially useful for separating molecules of the same mass (i.e. proteins of the same mass or molecular isomers). Different types of mass analyzers can be coupled to achieve varying effects. One example would be a TOF-Quadrupole system. Ions can be sequentially fragmente...	{ "page_id": 17828319, "source": null, "title": "Two-dimensional chromatography" }
spectrum. Sometimes GC-MS utilizes two gas chromatographers in particularly complex samples to obtain considerable separation power and be able to unambiguously assign the specific species to the appropriate peaks in a technique known as GCxGC-(MS). Ultimately, GC-MS is a technique utilized in many analytical laborator...	{ "page_id": 17828319, "source": null, "title": "Two-dimensional chromatography" }
as well as other various issues including analyte coelution and UV detection responses. === Liquid chromatography-liquid chromatography === Two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2D-LC) combines two separate analyses of liquid chromatography into one data analysis. Modern 2D liquid chromatography has its origins in the...	{ "page_id": 17828319, "source": null, "title": "Two-dimensional chromatography" }
suited to analyzing complex mixtures samples such as urine, environmental substances and forensic evidence such as blood. Difficulties in separating mixtures can be attributed to the complexity of the mixture in the sense that separation cannot occur due to the number of different effluents in the compound. Another pro...	{ "page_id": 17828319, "source": null, "title": "Two-dimensional chromatography" }
sample analysis of substances that are not very complex provided they have similar retention behavior. Compared to comprehensive 2D-LC, heart-cutting 2D-LC provides an effective technique with much less system setup and a much lower operating cost. Multiple heart-cutting (mLC-LC) may be utilized to sample multiple peak...	{ "page_id": 17828319, "source": null, "title": "Two-dimensional chromatography" }
Site-specific recombination, also known as conservative site-specific recombination, is a type of genetic recombination in which DNA strand exchange takes place between segments possessing at least a certain degree of sequence homology. Enzymes known as site-specific recombinases (SSRs) perform rearrangements of DNA se...	{ "page_id": 10095073, "source": null, "title": "Site-specific recombination" }
recombinase which is used to attack the DNA and which becomes covalently linked to it during strand exchange. The earliest identified members of the serine recombinase family were known as resolvases or DNA invertases, while the founding member of the tyrosine recombinases, lambda phage integrase (using attP/B recognit...	{ "page_id": 10095073, "source": null, "title": "Site-specific recombination" }
enzyme forms a transient covalent bond to a DNA backbone phosphate. This phosphodiester bond between the hydroxyl group of the nucleophilic serine or tyrosine residue conserves the energy that was expended in cleaving the DNA. Energy stored in this bond is subsequently used for the rejoining of the DNA to the correspon...	{ "page_id": 10095073, "source": null, "title": "Site-specific recombination" }
The most quoted (but not the only) model accounting for these facts is the "subunit rotation model" (Fig. 2). Independent of the model, DNA duplexes are situated outside of the protein complex, and large movement of the protein is needed to achieve the strand exchange. In this case the recombination sites are slightly ...	{ "page_id": 10095073, "source": null, "title": "Site-specific recombination" }
these different types of reaction, and have evolved to ignore the sites that are in the "wrong" orientation. == See also == Cre recombinase Cre-Lox recombination FLP-FRT recombination Genetic recombination Homologous recombination Recombinase-mediated cassette exchange Site-specific recombinase technology == References...	{ "page_id": 10095073, "source": null, "title": "Site-specific recombination" }
A timeline of events related to information theory, quantum information theory and statistical physics, data compression, error correcting codes and related subjects. 1872 – Ludwig Boltzmann presents his H-theorem, and with it the formula Σpi log pi for the entropy of a single gas particle 1878 – J. Willard Gibbs defin...	{ "page_id": 3475938, "source": null, "title": "Timeline of information theory" }
– Marcel J. E. Golay introduces Golay codes for forward error correction 1951 – Solomon Kullback and Richard Leibler introduce the Kullback–Leibler divergence 1951 – David A. Huffman invents Huffman encoding, a method of finding optimal prefix codes for lossless data compression 1953 – August Albert Sardinas and George...	{ "page_id": 3475938, "source": null, "title": "Timeline of information theory" }
1973 – David Slepian and Jack Wolf discover and prove the Slepian–Wolf coding limits for distributed source coding 1976 – Gottfried Ungerboeck gives the first paper on trellis modulation; a more detailed exposition in 1982 leads to a raising of analogue modem POTS speeds from 9.6 kbit/s to 33.6 kbit/s 1976 – Richard Pa...	{ "page_id": 3475938, "source": null, "title": "Timeline of information theory" }
Substrate is a term used in materials science and engineering to describe the base material on which processing is conducted. Surfaces have different uses, including producing new film or layers of material and being a base to which another substance is bonded. == Description == In materials science and engineering, a ...	{ "page_id": 10160612, "source": null, "title": "Substrate (materials science)" }
engineered surface where an unintended or natural process occurs, like in: Fouling Corrosion Biofouling Heterogeneous catalysis Adsorption == See also == List of coating techniques Thin film Wetting == References ==	{ "page_id": 10160612, "source": null, "title": "Substrate (materials science)" }
Strategic pluralism (also known as the dual-mating strategy) is a theory in evolutionary psychology regarding human mating strategies that suggests women have evolved to evaluate men in two categories: whether they are reliable long term providers, and whether they contain high quality genes. The theory of strategic pl...	{ "page_id": 44960229, "source": null, "title": "Strategic pluralism" }
This suggests there are enough of both males more suited for short-term relationships and those more suited for longer relationships. == Criticism == Bellis and Baker calculated that if double-mating strategy does occur, the rate of paternal discrepancy would be between 6.9 and 13.8%. When taking kin selection into acc...	{ "page_id": 44960229, "source": null, "title": "Strategic pluralism" }
CAESAR (Comet Astrobiology Exploration Sample Return) is a sample-return mission concept to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. The mission was proposed in 2017 to NASA's New Frontiers program mission 4, and on 20 December 2017 it was one of two finalists selected for further concept development. On 27 June 2019, the othe...	{ "page_id": 56101350, "source": null, "title": "CAESAR (spacecraft)" }
comet sample-return mission was one of the goals in a list of options for a New Frontiers mission in both the 2003 and the 2011 Planetary Science Decadal Survey, which were guiding surveys among those in the scientific community of what and where NASA should prioritize. Another comet mission proposal, Comet Hopper, was...	{ "page_id": 56101350, "source": null, "title": "CAESAR (spacecraft)" }
The propulsion system on CAESAR would be NASA's Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT), a type of solar electric propulsion. It would employ three NEXT thrusters, with one used as a spare. The propellant is xenon. == Sample return == The spacecraft would not land on the comet, but would momentarily contact the surface with...	{ "page_id": 56101350, "source": null, "title": "CAESAR (spacecraft)" }
See also == List of missions to comets TAGSAM – Regolith scoop used on asteroid Bennu by the NASA probe OSIRIS-REx == References ==	{ "page_id": 56101350, "source": null, "title": "CAESAR (spacecraft)" }
Anthranilic hydroxylase may refer to: Anthranilate 3-monooxygenase Anthranilate 1,2-dioxygenase (deaminating, decarboxylating)	{ "page_id": 38406629, "source": null, "title": "Anthranilic hydroxylase" }
In computer science, SimHash is a technique for quickly estimating how similar two sets are. The algorithm is used by the Google Crawler to find near duplicate pages. It was created by Moses Charikar. In 2021 Google announced its intent to also use the algorithm in their newly created FLoC (Federated Learning of Cohort...	{ "page_id": 53021161, "source": null, "title": "SimHash" }
Vida Mary Stout (20 February 1930 – 21 July 2012) was a New Zealand limnographer and academic administrator. She was the first woman to be Dean of Science at a New Zealand university. == Biography == Stout was the daughter of Thomas Duncan MacGregor Stout and granddaughter of Robert Stout. Born and raised in Wellington...	{ "page_id": 37095913, "source": null, "title": "Vida Stout" }
almost every day until the university forbid her access, citing fears for her safety due to her progressive Parkinson's disease, which caused her death in 2012. In 2017, Stout was selected as one of the Royal Society Te Apārangi's "150 women in 150 words", celebrating the contributions of women to knowledge in New Zeal...	{ "page_id": 37095913, "source": null, "title": "Vida Stout" }
Kalanchoe ( KAL-əng-KOH-ee), (also called "kalanchöe" or "kalanchoë"), is a genus of about 125 species of tropical, succulent plants in the stonecrop family Crassulaceae, mainly native to Madagascar and tropical Africa. A Kalanchoe species was one of the first plants to be sent into space, sent on a resupply to the Sov...	{ "page_id": 526827, "source": null, "title": "Kalanchoe" }
Cantonese name 伽藍菜 (Jyutping: gaa1 laam4 coi3). Kalanchoe ceratophylla and Kalanchoe laciniata are both called 伽蓝菜 (apparently "Buddhist monastery [samghārāma] herb") in China. In Mandarin Chinese, it does not seem very close in pronunciation (qiélán cài, but possibly jiālán cài or gālán cài as the character 伽 has mult...	{ "page_id": 526827, "source": null, "title": "Kalanchoe" }
gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. == Diseases == == Traditional medicine == In traditional medicine, Kalanchoe species have been used to treat ailments such as infections, rheumatism and inflammation. Kalanchoe extracts also have immunosuppressive effects. Kalanchoe pinnata has been record...	{ "page_id": 526827, "source": null, "title": "Kalanchoe" }
The American Species Survival Plan or SSP program was developed in 1981 by the (American) Association of Zoos and Aquariums to help ensure the survival of selected species in zoos and aquariums, most of which are threatened or endangered in the wild. == SSP program == SSP programs focus on animals that are near threate...	{ "page_id": 7211500, "source": null, "title": "Species Survival Plan" }
management recommendations to achieve the maximum genetic diversity and demographic stability for a species, given transfer and space constraints. == See also == European Endangered Species Programme == List of SSP programs == As of 2025, there are 295 species that are a part of the Species Survival Plan program. == No...	{ "page_id": 7211500, "source": null, "title": "Species Survival Plan" }
Isopeptag is a 16-amino acid peptide tag (TDKDMTITFTNKKDAE) that can be genetically linked to proteins without interfering with protein folding. What makes the isopeptag different from other peptide tags is that it can bind its binding protein through a permanent and irreversible covalent bond. Other peptide tags gener...	{ "page_id": 28117484, "source": null, "title": "Isopeptag" }
Miguel Andonie Fernández (30 October 1921 in Gualala, Santa Bárbara – 30 November 2013) was a Honduran chemist, pharmacologist, academic, politician and businessman of paternal Palestinian origin. He was associated with the Colegio de Químicos y Farmacéuticos. He was the chairman of Multimedia, SA and a real estate inv...	{ "page_id": 46795242, "source": null, "title": "Miguel Andonie Fernández" }
== See also == Freezing-point depression Boiling-point elevation List of cooling baths == References ==	{ "page_id": 4655598, "source": null, "title": "List of boiling and freezing information of solvents" }
In chemistry, efflorescence (Derived from the Latin verb 'efflorescere' roughly meaning 'to flower') is the migration of a salt to the surface of a porous material, where it forms a coating. The essential process involves the dissolving of an internally held salt in water or occasionally, in another solvent. The water,...	{ "page_id": 1378800, "source": null, "title": "Efflorescence" }
initial cure of a cementitious product. It often occurs on masonry construction, particularly brick, as well as some firestop mortars, when water moving through a wall or other structure, or water being driven out as a result of the heat of hydration as cement stone is being formed, brings salts to the surface that are...	{ "page_id": 1378800, "source": null, "title": "Efflorescence" }
a result of dissolved cement stone, hanging off cracks in concrete structures. Where this process has taken hold, the structural integrity of a concrete element is at risk. This is a common traffic infrastructure and building maintenance concern. Secondary efflorescence is akin to osteoporosis of the concrete. For cont...	{ "page_id": 1378800, "source": null, "title": "Efflorescence" }
it into non-sodium chemicals and other harmless matter that will not leach out or migrate to the surface. In fact, the nanotechnology in these additives can be up to 100,000 times smaller than even the smallest cement particles, allowing their molecules to literally pass through cement minerals or sand particles and ul...	{ "page_id": 1378800, "source": null, "title": "Efflorescence" }
from the interior of the building, or from the underside of pavers can escape. This will reduce efflorescence, spalling and scaling that can occur from water being trapped inside the brick substrate and freezing during cold weather. Years ago, the water repellents trapped moisture in the masonry wall creating more prob...	{ "page_id": 1378800, "source": null, "title": "Efflorescence" }
A field-theoretic simulation is a numerical strategy to calculate structure and physical properties of a many-particle system within the framework of a statistical field theory, like e.g. a polymer field theory. A convenient possibility is to use Monte Carlo (MC) algorithms, to sample the full partition function integr...	{ "page_id": 19728890, "source": null, "title": "Field-theoretic simulation" }
convincingly demonstrate that this strategy provides an additional boost in the statistical convergence of the desired ensemble averages (Baeurle 2002). == Alternative techniques == Other promising field-theoretic simulation techniques have been developed recently, but they either still lack the proof of correct statis...	{ "page_id": 19728890, "source": null, "title": "Field-theoretic simulation" }
simulations". Europhysics Letters. 55 (6): 814. Bibcode:2001EL.....55..814G. doi:10.1209/epl/i2001-00353-8. S2CID 250821375. Moreira, A.G.; Baeurle, S.A.; Fredrickson, G.H. (2003). "Global Stationary Phase and the Sign Problem". Physical Review Letters. 91 (15): 150201. arXiv:physics/0304086. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91o0201...	{ "page_id": 19728890, "source": null, "title": "Field-theoretic simulation" }
Supersonic fractures are fractures where the fracture propagation velocity is higher than the speed of sound in the material. This phenomenon was first discovered by scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart (Markus J. Buehler and Huajian Gao) and IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose,...	{ "page_id": 2230778, "source": null, "title": "Supersonic fracture" }
materials into an effective continuum would be in significant error. The challenge arises of designing experiments and interpretative simulations to verify the energy characteristic length. Confirmation of the concept must be sought in the comparison of experiments on supersonic cracks and the predictions of the simula...	{ "page_id": 2230778, "source": null, "title": "Supersonic fracture" }
Cultured dextrose is a food additive used to inhibit the growth of undesirable bacteria and mold in food. Often used in place of benzoates and sorbates, it is considered by some consumers to be a more "natural" ingredient, because it is prepared by the fermentation of milk or sugar powders by the probiotic bacteria Pro...	{ "page_id": 36571648, "source": null, "title": "Cultured dextrose" }
The following is a list of terms used to describe biological disorders of development, arranged by root word and shared prefix: == References == == Bibliography == Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB. Campbell Biology (10th ed.). Addison Wesley Longman; 2014. ISBN 978-0321834959	{ "page_id": 50727426, "source": null, "title": "List of biological development disorders" }
Strange matter (or strange quark matter) is quark matter containing strange quarks. In extreme environments, strange matter is hypothesized to occur in the core of neutron stars, or, more speculatively, as isolated droplets that may vary in size from femtometers (strangelets) to kilometers, as in the hypothetical stran...	{ "page_id": 20646400, "source": null, "title": "Strange matter" }
Stability of strange matter only at high pressure == In the general context, strange matter might occur inside neutron stars, if the pressure at their core is high enough to provide a sufficient gravitational force (i.e. above the critical pressure). At the sort of densities and high pressures we expect in the center o...	{ "page_id": 20646400, "source": null, "title": "Strange matter" }
critical pressure or density. It seems plausible that the transition to quark matter will already have occurred when the separation between the nucleons becomes much smaller than their size, so the critical density must be less than about 100 times nuclear saturation density. But a more precise estimate is not yet avai...	{ "page_id": 20646400, "source": null, "title": "Strange matter" }
Physics term for multiple concepts Quark star – Compact exotic star which forms matter consisting mostly of quarks Strangeness and quark–gluon plasma – subatomic signature Strangelet – Type of hypothetical particle Quark – Elementary particle, main constituent of matter QCD matter – Hypothetical phases of matter == Ref...	{ "page_id": 20646400, "source": null, "title": "Strange matter" }
The chaperone code refers to post-translational modifications of molecular chaperones that control protein folding. Whilst the genetic code specifies how DNA makes proteins, and the histone code regulates histone-DNA interactions, the chaperone code controls how proteins are folded to produce a functional proteome. The...	{ "page_id": 38734340, "source": null, "title": "Chaperone code" }
the PTMs on all major chaperones, co-chaperones that control all aspects of life. == Phosphorylation == Site-specific phosphorylation of chaperone proteins can affect their activity. In some cases phosphorylation may disrupt the interaction with a co-chaperone protein thus negatively affecting its activity. In other in...	{ "page_id": 38734340, "source": null, "title": "Chaperone code" }
The Russo–Susskind–Thorlacius model or RST model in short is a modification of the CGHS model to take care of conformal anomalies and render it analytically soluble. In the CGHS model, if we include Faddeev–Popov ghosts to gauge-fix diffeomorphisms in the conformal gauge, they contribute an anomaly of -24. Each matter ...	{ "page_id": 30542341, "source": null, "title": "RST model" }
Jordan's rule (sense 1) is an ecogeographical rule that describes the inverse relationship between water temperature and meristic characteristics in various species of fish. The most commonly observed relationship is that fin ray, vertebrae, or scale numbers increase with decreasing temperature. The rule is named after...	{ "page_id": 13961741, "source": null, "title": "Jordan's rule" }
In polymer chemistry, gelation (gel transition) is the formation of a gel from a system with polymers. Branched polymers can form links between the chains, which lead to progressively larger polymers. As the linking continues, larger branched polymers are obtained and at a certain extent of the reaction, links between ...	{ "page_id": 21301778, "source": null, "title": "Gelation" }
P n {\displaystyle DP_{n}} can be considered to be infinite, thus the critical extent of the reaction at the gel point is found as p c = 2 f a v {\displaystyle p_{c}={\frac {2}{f_{av}}}} If p {\displaystyle p} is greater or equal to p c {\displaystyle p_{c}} , gelation occurs. === Flory Stockmayer approach === Flory an...	{ "page_id": 21301778, "source": null, "title": "Gelation" }
{\displaystyle p_{B}\rho } and the probability that a B group react with non-branched A is p B ( 1 − ρ ) {\displaystyle p_{B}(1-\rho )} . This relation yields to an expression for the extent of reaction of A functional groups at the gel point p c = 1 { r [ 1 + ρ ( f − 2 ) ] } 1 / 2 {\displaystyle p_{c}={\frac {1}{\{r[1...	{ "page_id": 21301778, "source": null, "title": "Gelation" }
Group Aβ of the type II sensory fiber is a type of sensory fiber, the second of the two main groups of touch receptors. The responses of different type Aβ fibers to these stimuli can be subdivided based on their adaptation properties, traditionally into rapidly adapting (RA) or slowly adapting (SA) neurons. Type II sen...	{ "page_id": 11078164, "source": null, "title": "Type II sensory fiber" }
Ia fibers signal the degree of change in muscle movement, and the type II fibers signal the length of the muscle (which is later used for forming the perception of the body in space). == References ==	{ "page_id": 11078164, "source": null, "title": "Type II sensory fiber" }
In mechanical engineering, the Beale number is a parameter that characterizes the performance of Stirling engines. It is often used to estimate the power output of a Stirling engine design. For engines operating with a high temperature differential, typical values for the Beale number are in the range 0.11−0.15; where ...	{ "page_id": 7604764, "source": null, "title": "Beale number" }
In chronobiology, an infradian rhythm is a rhythm with a period longer than the period of a circadian rhythm, i.e., one cycle is longer than 24 hours. Some examples of infradian rhythms in mammals include menstruation, breeding, migration, hibernation, molting and fur or hair growth, and tidal or seasonal rhythms. In c...	{ "page_id": 3541535, "source": null, "title": "Infradian rhythm" }
Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from vespoid wasp ancestors in the Cretaceous period. More than 13,800 of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified. They are easily identified by their geniculate...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
valued in their role as biological pest control agents. Their ability to exploit resources may bring ants into conflict with humans, however, as they can damage crops and invade buildings. Some species, such as the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) of South America, are regarded as invasive species in other pa...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
the extinct mid-Cretaceous genera Camelomecia and Camelosphecia were placed outside of the Formicidae, in a separate clade within the general superfamily Formicoidea, which, together with Apoidea, forms the higher-ranking group Formicapoidina. Fernández et al. (2021) suggest that the common ancestors of ants and apoids...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
comprise 56% of the genera in Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 92% of the genera in Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene). Termites live in colonies and are sometimes called "white ants", but termites are only distantly related to ants. They are the sub-order Isoptera, and together with cockroac...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
contribution at 12 megatons of dry carbon, which is about 20% of the total human contribution, but greater than that of the wild birds and mammals combined. This study also puts a conservative estimate of the ants at about 20 × 1015 (20 quadrillion). Ants range in size from 0.75 to 52 millimetres (0.030–2.0 in), the la...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
tergite and sternite of a segment fuse together, can occur partly or fully on the second, third and fourth abdominal segment and is used in identification. Fourth abdominal tergosternal fusion was formerly used as character that defined the poneromorph subfamilies, Ponerinae and relatives within their clade, but this i...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
test their ability to differentiate between selected wavelengths of light, some ant species such as Camponotus blandus, Solenopsis invicta, and Formica cunicularia are thought to possess a degree of colour vision. Two antennae ("feelers") are attached to the head; these organs detect chemicals, air currents, and vibrat...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
absent, creating a sharp divide between the minors and majors. Weaver ants, for example, have a distinct bimodal size distribution. Some other species show continuous variation in the size of workers. The smallest and largest workers in Carebara diversa show nearly a 500-fold difference in their dry weights. Workers ca...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
genome size suggested to occur through loss and accumulation of non-coding regions, mainly transposable elements, and occasionally by whole genome duplication. This may be related to colonisation processes, but further studies are needed to verify this. == Life cycle == The life of an ant starts from an egg; if the egg...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
new ergate spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. She then graduates to digging and other nest work, and later to defending the nest and foraging. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes. Such age-based task-specialization or polyethism ...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
in some species can plug the female genital opening and prevent females from re-mating. Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens, while others may exist without queens. Workers with the ability t...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
just one male but in others they may mate with as many as ten or more different males, storing the sperm in their spermathecae. The genus Cardiocondyla have species with both winged and wingless males, where the latter will only mate with females living in the same nest. Some species in the genus have lost winged males...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
to their own colony or not. A signature cocktail of body surface chemicals (also known as cuticular hydrocarbons or CHCs) forms the so-called colony odor which other members can recognize. Some ant species appear to be less discriminating and in the Argentine ant Linepithema humile, workers carried from a colony anywhe...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy and attracts more ants from farther away. Several ant species even use "propaganda pheromones" to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves. Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour's glands, poison glands and gl...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
and 230 km/h (78 and 143 mph), with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average. The ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backward to escape a threat. Before striking, the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an int...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
the cuticle of their living nestmates to trigger similar behaviour. In Megaponera analis, injured ants are treated by nestmastes with secretions from their metapleural glands which protect them from infection. Camponotus ants do not have a metapleural gland and Camponotus maculatus as well as C. floridanus workers have...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
successful foragers continued in their role while the others had moved to specialise in brood care. === Nest construction === Complex nests are built by many ant species, but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees. These nests may be foun...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
their colonies and nest structures. === Cultivation of food === Most ants are generalist predators, scavengers, and indirect herbivores, but a few have evolved specialised ways of obtaining nutrition. It is believed that many ant species that engage in indirect herbivory rely on specialized symbiosis with their gut mic...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
keeps count of the steps taken and also by evaluating the movement of objects in their visual field (optical flow). Directions are measured using the position of the sun. They integrate this information to find the shortest route back to their nest. Like all ants, they can also make use of visual landmarks when availab...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
role in allowing ants to colonise islands. Polyrhachis sokolova, a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and live in underwater nests. Since they lack gills, they go to trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests to breathe. === Cooperation and competition === Not all ants have the same kind of...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
the first brood has hatched, establishing herself prior to development of a colony scent. Other species use pheromones to confuse the host ants or to trick them into carrying the parasitic queen into the nest. Some simply fight their way into the nest. A conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species o...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
one feeding location to another. When migrating to a new area, many colonies will take the aphids with them, to ensure a continued supply of honeydew. Ants also tend mealybugs to harvest their honeydew. Mealybugs may become a serious pest of pineapples if ants are present to protect mealybugs from their natural enemies...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
Agaricaceae. In this ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival. The ant Allomerus decemarticulatus has evolved a three-way association with the host plant, Hirtella physophora (Chrysobalanaceae), and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect prey. Lemon ants make devil's gardens by k...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the Macaranga tree, which has stems adapted to house colonies of Crematogaster ants. Many plant species have seeds that are adapted for dispersal by ants. Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread, and new estimates suggest that nearly 9% of all plant species may have...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
in the Old World genus Bengalia (Calliphoridae) prey on ants and are kleptoparasites, snatching prey or brood from the mandibles of adult ants. Wingless and legless females of the Malaysian phorid fly (Vestigipoda myrmolarvoidea) live in the nests of ants of the genus Aenictus and are cared for by the ants. Fungi in th...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
pumiliotoxin found in Dendrobates pumilio. The West African frog Phrynomantis microps is able to move within the nests of Paltothyreus tarsatus ants, producing peptides on its skin that prevent the ants from stinging them. Army ants which is the toxin found in forage in a wide roving column, attacking any animals in th...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
other hand, ants may become nuisances when they invade buildings or cause economic losses. In some parts of the world (mainly Africa and South America), large ants, especially army ants, are used as surgical sutures. The wound is pressed together and ants are applied along it. The ant seizes the edges of the wound in i...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
(as of 2006) because they are seasonal and hard to find. In the Colombian department of Santander, hormigas culonas (roughly interpreted as "large-bottomed ants") Atta laevigata are toasted alive and eaten. In areas of India, and throughout Burma and Thailand, a paste of the green weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is ...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }
ant, black carpenter ant, odorous house ant, red imported fire ant, and European fire ant. Some ants will raid stored food, some will seek water sources, others may damage indoor structures, some may damage agricultural crops directly or by aiding sucking pests. Some will sting or bite. The adaptive nature of ant colon...	{ "page_id": 2594, "source": null, "title": "Ant" }

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