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properties, such as carbon and silicon in the sequence: carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, sodium, magnesium and silicon. He called this a Law of Octaves. Three years later, in 1866, he presented his ideas to the Chemical Society, unfortunately for Newlands, the musical analogy was not well received – the audience sug...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
the layout of his table that he was willing to leave gaps for unknown elements to make the pattern fit – believing other elements would later be discovered that filled the gaps. After Calcium (Ca, weight 40) he left a gap, predicting a metallic element slightly heavier than calcium; After Zinc (Zn, weight 65) he left a...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
properties of the element Mendeleev expected to fill the gap he had left after zinc; indeed, this is exactly where the element was placed in the periodic table. Even though Mendeleev had left the necessary gap for gallium as well as other elements, it was becoming clear there was an entire group that was missing altoge...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
two new elements, which led Ramsay to conclude an entire group was missing from the periodic table – only two of whose members were now known to exist, helium and argon. Ramsey successfully discovered all the other stable elements in the group which he named neon (Greek for new), krypton (Greek for hidden) and xenon (G...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
all elements is explained by the number of electrons in their outer shells: to increase the energetic stability of their electron configurations atoms have a tendency to gain or lose electrons in such a way so as to achieve a full outer shell. Sodium, with 11 electrons – one in its outer-most occupied shell, will trans...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
because the atomic number increases in whole numbers from one element to the next there can be no extra elements between Hydrogen (atomic number 1) and Uranium (atomic number 92) – there can only be 92 elements, there is no room for any more. Moseley was just 26 when he completed this research. Aged 27 he was killed in...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
silver fulminate. In 1825 he read a paper written by Friedrich Wöhler in which he describes a compound called silver cyanate, made in equal parts of silver, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, which he described as harmless and stable. Von Liebig immediately wrote back a furious letter condemning Wöhler as a hopeless analyst:...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
constituent element of the hardest known substance: diamond. Exactly 50 years later, a young Scottish chemist discovered there are no prizes in Science for coming second. === Archibald Scott Couper formulates the theory of chemical bonds === In 1856 Archibald Scott Couper went to work for a French chemist, Charles-Adol...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
the credit. When Couper discovered Wurtz had delayed in sending his paper to be published he flew into a rage and was promptly expelled from the laboratory by Wurtz. The crushing disappointment at having lost out on his chance of scientific recognition led him first to withdraw from Science and then to suffer a nervous...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
uncontaminated?" Today nearly all petrol is unleaded, although lead lives on in motor vehicles in their batteries. === Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity === In 1896 the French scientist Henri Becquerel was working with uranium crystals when he found UV light made them glow. Leaving the uranium crystals on an unex...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
carbon has 6 protons, whilst an atom with 7 protons is one of nitrogen. Rutherford came to the conclusion that the number of protons in a radioactive element could change – through a process of decay where parts of the nucleus are ejected from the atom. Rutherford named these fragments of ejected nucleus alpha particle...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
of the newly discovered neutron in the search for elements heavier than uranium. Until now, scientists had been bombarding uranium with alpha particles in the hope they would enter the nucleus. Unfortunately, this was very unlikely because both alpha particles and nuclei are positively charged – the alpha particles cou...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
water, ready to divide with the impact of a single neutron. She realised the nucleus had split in half, and both Fermi and Hahn had witnessed what is now known as nuclear fission. However, in doing the calculations for such an event, Meitner was unable to make the equations balance. She calculated that the products of ...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
cyclotron machines. This involved using huge magnets to steer atoms round in circles faster and faster until they reached a tenth of the speed of light, whereupon they were smashed into a uranium target. Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson blasted uranium with a beam of particles to create the first synthetic element,...	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
"Unlocking the Universe." == Region 2 DVD release == The full series was released as a region 2 DVD set in 2015 by the Dutch company B-Motion. == References == == External links == Chemistry: A Volatile History at BBC Online Chemistry: A Volatile History at IMDb	{ "page_id": 29952420, "source": null, "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History" }
Ecosystem Functional Type (EFT) is an ecological concept to characterize ecosystem functioning. Ecosystem Functional Types are defined as groups of ecosystems or patches of the land surface that share similar dynamics of matter and energy exchanges between the biota and the physical environment. The EFT concept is anal...	{ "page_id": 47057320, "source": null, "title": "Ecosystem Functional Type" }
patches of the land surface that are able to exchange mass and energy with the atmosphere and show a coordinated and specific response to environmental factors. Paruelo et al. (2001) and Alcaraz-Segura et al. (2006, 2013) refined the EFT concept and proposed a remote-sensing based methodology to derive them. Since then...	{ "page_id": 47057320, "source": null, "title": "Ecosystem Functional Type" }
ranging from a to d for high (decreasing) to low VI_sCV or seasonality. The numbers refer to DMAX or phenology and indicate the season of maximum VI (1–4: spring, summer, autumn and winter). == Current known applications == To characterize the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of ecosystem functioning at the local and...	{ "page_id": 47057320, "source": null, "title": "Ecosystem Functional Type" }
A Knudsen gas is a gas in a state of such low density that the average distance travelled by the gas molecules between collisions (mean free path) is greater than the diameter of the receptacle that contains it. If the mean free path is much greater than the diameter, the flow regime is dominated by collisions between ...	{ "page_id": 1837480, "source": null, "title": "Knudsen gas" }
The Sciencenter's Sagan Planet Walk is a walkable scale model of the Solar System, located in Ithaca, New York. The model scales the entire Solar System—both planet size and distances between them—down to one five billionth of its actual size. The exhibition was originally created in 1997 in memory of Ithaca resident a...	{ "page_id": 37685680, "source": null, "title": "Sagan Planet Walk" }
Walk the public library has moved to a new location, leaving Saturn no longer attached to a local landmark. Additionally, as of 2016-2017, the original planets in plexiglass at each station have been replaced by simple yellow disks with the planet simply represented by a relatively-sized hole. Some attendant moons are ...	{ "page_id": 37685680, "source": null, "title": "Sagan Planet Walk" }
initial installation. Its display contains the only public, unguarded meteorite in the world. === Jupiter === The Jupiter Obelisk sits at the corner of Seneca Street and Cayuga Street, outside the downtown Dewitt Mall, and not far from the famed Moosewood Restaurant. The model of Jupiter within the glass window is the ...	{ "page_id": 37685680, "source": null, "title": "Sagan Planet Walk" }
in female form has a 280 millimetres (11 in) semicircle under its chin to represent its scale size. This extension made the Sagan Planet Walk the world's largest exhibition. == Bill Nye == Television host and former student of Carl Sagan, Bill Nye, narrated a podcast tour of the Planet Walk in 2006 which can be accesse...	{ "page_id": 37685680, "source": null, "title": "Sagan Planet Walk" }
== References == == External links == Sagan Planet Walk at the Ithaca Sciencenter Sciencenter Sagan Planet Walk Station Exploration Carl Sagan's Ithaca Memorial === Other walkable scale model Solar Systems in the United States === Montshire Planet Walk, Norwich, Vermont Solar System Walking Tour, Gainesville, Georgia S...	{ "page_id": 37685680, "source": null, "title": "Sagan Planet Walk" }
The Berlin Graduate School of Natural Sciences and Engineering (BIG-NSE) is part of the Cluster of Excellence "Unifying Concepts in Catalysis" (UniCat) founded in November 2007 by Technische Universität Berlin and five further institutions in the Berlin area within the framework of the German government‘s Excellence In...	{ "page_id": 15862193, "source": null, "title": "BIG-NSE" }
German. Two letters of recommendation. == See also == Cluster of Excellence Unifying Systems in Catalysis (UniSysCat) (follow-up project of Unifying Concepts in Catalysis (UniCat)) Technische Universität Berlin Free University Berlin (Freie Universität Berlin) Humboldt University of Berlin (Humboldt Universität zu Berl...	{ "page_id": 15862193, "source": null, "title": "BIG-NSE" }
In probability theory, a Markov model is a stochastic model used to model pseudo-randomly changing systems. It is assumed that future states depend only on the current state, not on the events that occurred before it (that is, it assumes the Markov property). Generally, this assumption enables reasoning and computation...	{ "page_id": 22022581, "source": null, "title": "Markov model" }
algorithm will compute the most-likely corresponding sequence of states, the forward algorithm will compute the probability of the sequence of observations, and the Baum–Welch algorithm will estimate the starting probabilities, the transition function, and the observation function of a hidden Markov model. One common u...	{ "page_id": 22022581, "source": null, "title": "Markov model" }
the product of the "clique potentials" of all the cliques in the graph that contain that random variable. Modeling a problem as a Markov random field is useful because it implies that the joint distributions at each vertex in the graph may be computed in this manner. == Hierarchical Markov models == Hierarchical Markov...	{ "page_id": 22022581, "source": null, "title": "Markov model" }
Sub-Doppler cooling is a class of laser cooling techniques that reduce the temperature of atoms and molecules below the Doppler cooling limit. In experiment implementation, Doppler cooling is limited by the broad natural linewidth of the lasers used in cooling. Regardless of the transition used, however, Doppler coolin...	{ "page_id": 46926261, "source": null, "title": "Sub-Doppler cooling" }
polarization gradient. Other methods of sub-Doppler cooling include evaporative cooling, free space Raman cooling, Raman side-band cooling, resolved sideband cooling, electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT) cooling, and the use of a dark magneto-optical trap. These techniques can be used depending on the minimum...	{ "page_id": 46926261, "source": null, "title": "Sub-Doppler cooling" }
excited by the re-pumping light which can decrease the repulsion force from the previous cases. This can help to cool the atoms to a lower temperature than the typical Doppler cooling limit. This is called a dark magneto-optical trap (DMOT). == Limits == The Doppler cooling limit is set by balancing the heating from th...	{ "page_id": 46926261, "source": null, "title": "Sub-Doppler cooling" }
parameter, the light shift of the ground state divided by the recoil energy. The minimum kinetic energy was found to be on the order of 40 times the recoil energy. == References ==	{ "page_id": 46926261, "source": null, "title": "Sub-Doppler cooling" }
In physics and astronomy, an N-body simulation is a simulation of a dynamical system of particles, usually under the influence of physical forces, such as gravity (see n-body problem for other applications). N-body simulations are widely used tools in astrophysics, from investigating the dynamics of few-body systems li...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
f}{\partial \mathbf {v} }}\cdot \nabla \Phi } In the equation, v {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } is the velocity, and Φ is the gravitational potential given by Poisson's Equation. These two coupled equations are solved in an expanding background Universe, which is governed by the Friedmann equations, after determining the...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
remove the singularity in the Newtonian law of gravitation for two particles which approach each other arbitrarily close. Sverre Aarseth's codes are used to study the dynamics of star clusters, planetary systems and galactic nuclei. == General relativity simulations == Many simulations are large enough that the effects...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
Runge–Kutta methods can have 4th order accuracy or much higher. One of the simplest refinements is that each particle carries with it its own timestep variable, so that particles with widely different dynamical times don't all have to be evolved forward at the rate of that with the shortest time. There are two basic ap...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
(number of particles at the mesh points). The fast Fourier transform can solve this efficiently by going to the frequency domain where the Poisson equation has the simple form Φ ^ = − 4 π G ρ ^ k 2 , {\displaystyle {\hat {\Phi }}=-4\pi G{\frac {\hat {\rho }}{k^{2}}},} where k → {\displaystyle {\vec {k}}} is the comovin...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
of the larger planets in their known orbits. Some characteristics of the long-term paths of a system of particles can be calculated directly. The actual path of any particular particle does not need to be calculated as an intermediate step. Such characteristics include Lyapunov stability, Lyapunov time, various measure...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
dark matter on a large scale is not entirely uniform. Instead, it displays a structure resembling a network, consisting of voids, walls, filaments, and halos. Also, simulations show that the relationship between the concentration of halos and factors such as mass, initial fluctuation spectrum, and cosmological paramete...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
similar complexity bounds obtained for ray tracing. == Example simulations == === Common boilerplate code === The simplest implementation of N-body simulations where n ≥ 3 {\textstyle n\geq 3} is a naive propagation of orbiting bodies; naive implying that the only forces acting on the orbiting bodies is the gravitation...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
0 0 1 ] {\displaystyle \left[0\;0\;1\right]} e 3 = x ˙ {\textstyle e_{3}={\dot {x}}} , the projection of the objects velocity vector in Cartesian space along [ 1 0 0 ] {\displaystyle \left[1\;0\;0\right]} e 4 = y ˙ {\textstyle e_{4}={\dot {y}}} , the projection of the objects velocity vector in Cartesian space along [ ...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
t n {\displaystyle t_{n}} , as the shift in position is calculated via r → t n + 1 = r → t n + v → t n ⋅ Δ t {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}_{t_{n+1}}={\vec {r}}_{t_{n}}+{\vec {v}}_{t_{n}}\cdot \Delta t} Without acceleration, v → t n {\textstyle {\vec {v}}_{t_{n}}} is static, however, from the perspective of an observer seei...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
the velocities of each body ( v → n = v → n − 1 + a → n ⋅ Δ t {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}_{n}={\vec {v}}_{n-1}+{\vec {a}}_{n}\cdot \Delta t} calculating the new position of each body ( r → n + 1 = r → n + v → n ⋅ Δ t {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}_{n+1}={\vec {r}}_{n}+{\vec {v}}_{n}\cdot \Delta t} The above can be implemented...	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
STOC '92: Proc. ACM Symp. Theory of Computing. ACM..	{ "page_id": 4917686, "source": null, "title": "N-body simulation" }
In physics, Hamilton's principle is William Rowan Hamilton's formulation of the principle of stationary action. It states that the dynamics of a physical system are determined by a variational problem for a functional based on a single function, the Lagrangian, which may contain all physical information concerning the ...	{ "page_id": 4852151, "source": null, "title": "Hamilton's principle" }
physical system is a solution of the functional equation That is, the system takes a path in configuration space for which the action is stationary, with fixed boundary conditions at the beginning and the end of the path. === Euler–Lagrange equations derived from the action integral === Requiring that the true trajecto...	{ "page_id": 4852151, "source": null, "title": "Hamilton's principle" }
⋅ ∂ L ∂ q ˙ ] t 1 t 2 + ∫ t 1 t 2 ( ε ⋅ ∂ L ∂ q − ε ⋅ d d t ∂ L ∂ q ˙ ) d t {\displaystyle \delta {\mathcal {S}}=\left[{\boldsymbol {\varepsilon }}\cdot {\frac {\partial L}{\partial {\dot {\mathbf {q} }}}}\right]_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}+\int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}\;\left({\boldsymbol {\varepsilon }}\cdot {\frac {\partial L}{\partial...	{ "page_id": 4852151, "source": null, "title": "Hamilton's principle" }
⇒ d p k d t = 0 , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial L}{\partial q_{k}}}=0\quad \Rightarrow \quad {\frac {d}{dt}}{\frac {\partial L}{\partial {\dot {q}}_{k}}}=0\quad \Rightarrow \quad {\frac {dp_{k}}{dt}}=0\,,} that is, the conjugate momentum is a constant of the motion. In such cases, the coordinate qk is called a cyclic...	{ "page_id": 4852151, "source": null, "title": "Hamilton's principle" }
respectively d d t ( ∂ L ∂ r ˙ ) − ∂ L ∂ r = 0 ⇒ r ¨ − r φ ˙ 2 = 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\left({\frac {\partial L}{\partial {\dot {r}}}}\right)-{\frac {\partial L}{\partial r}}=0\qquad \Rightarrow \qquad {\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\varphi }}^{2}=0} d d t ( ∂ L ∂ φ ˙ ) − ∂ L ∂ φ = 0 ⇒ φ ¨ + 2 r r ˙ φ ˙ = 0. {\displayst...	{ "page_id": 4852151, "source": null, "title": "Hamilton's principle" }
] d t = 0 {\displaystyle \int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}\left[\delta W_{e}+\delta T-\delta U\right]dt=0} where T is the kinetic energy, U is the elastic energy, We is the work done by external loads on the body, and t1, t2 the initial and final times. If the system is conservative, the work done by external forces may be derived...	{ "page_id": 4852151, "source": null, "title": "Hamilton's principle" }
motion along the ellipse as a function of time. ...and the constraints on the variation. Maupertuis' principle requires that the two endpoint states q1 and q2 be given and that energy be conserved along every trajectory (same energy for each trajectory). This forces the endpoint times to be varied as well. By contrast,...	{ "page_id": 4852151, "source": null, "title": "Hamilton's principle" }
equation Phase space Geodesics as Hamiltonian flows Herglotz's variational principle == References == W.R. Hamilton, "On a General Method in Dynamics.", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Part II (1834) pp. 247–308; Part I (1835) pp. 95–144. (From the collection Sir William Rowan Hamilton (1805–1865): Math...	{ "page_id": 4852151, "source": null, "title": "Hamilton's principle" }
In pathology, grading is a measure of the cell appearance in tumors and other neoplasms. Some pathology grading systems apply only to malignant neoplasms (cancer); others apply also to benign neoplasms. The neoplastic grading is a measure of cell anaplasia (reversion of differentiation) in the sampled tumor and is base...	{ "page_id": 3279289, "source": null, "title": "Grading (tumors)" }
(Low grade) G2 Moderately differentiated (Intermediate grade) G3 Poorly differentiated (High grade) G4 Undifferentiated (High grade) === Specific systems === Of the many cancer-specific schemes, the Gleason system, named after Donald Floyd Gleason, used to grade the adenocarcinoma cells in prostate cancer is the most f...	{ "page_id": 3279289, "source": null, "title": "Grading (tumors)" }
Learning classifier systems, or LCS, are a paradigm of rule-based machine learning methods that combine a discovery component (e.g. typically a genetic algorithm in evolutionary computation) with a learning component (performing either supervised learning, reinforcement learning, or unsupervised learning). Learning cla...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
can be either online or offline, applies accuracy-based fitness, and seeks to generate a complete action mapping. === Elements of a generic LCS algorithm === Keeping in mind that LCS is a paradigm for genetic-based machine learning rather than a specific method, the following outlines key elements of a generic, modern ...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
rule-based machine learning alike, is that an individual rule is not in itself a model, since the rule is only applicable when its condition is satisfied. Think of a rule as a "local-model" of the solution space. Rules can be represented in many different ways to handle different data types (e.g. binary, discrete-value...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
empty (i.e. there is no need to randomly initialize a rule population). Classifiers will instead be initially introduced to the population with a covering mechanism. In any LCS, the trained model is a set of rules/classifiers, rather than any single rule/classifier. In Michigan-style LCS, the entire trained (and option...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
not known. ==== Covering ==== At this point in the learning cycle, if no classifiers made it into either [M] or [C] (as would be the case when the population starts off empty), the covering mechanism is applied (fifth step). Covering is a form of online smart population initialization. Covering randomly generates a rul...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
Be aware that there are many variations on how LCS updates parameters in order to perform credit assignment and learning. ==== Subsumption ==== In the seventh step, a subsumption mechanism is typically applied. Subsumption is an explicit generalization mechanism that merges classifiers that cover redundant parts of the...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
The probability of a classifier being selected for deletion is inversely proportional to its fitness. When a classifier is selected for deletion, its numerosity parameter is reduced by one. When the numerosity of a classifier is reduced to zero, it is removed entirely from the population. ==== Training ==== LCS will cy...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
usual. At this point the match set is differently passed to a prediction array. Rules in the match set can predict different actions, therefore a voting scheme is applied. In a simple voting scheme, the action with the strongest supporting 'votes' from matching rules wins, and becomes the selected prediction. All rules...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
the environment based on infrequent payoff/reward (i.e. reinforcement learning) and apply these rules to generate a behavior that matched the real system. This early, ambitious implementation was later regarded as overly complex, yielding inconsistent results. Beginning in 1980, Kenneth de Jong and his student Stephen ...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
of these concepts are applied in modern LCS algorithms, each were landmarks in the development of the LCS paradigm. === The revolution === Interest in learning classifier systems was reinvigorated in the mid 1990s largely due to two events; the development of the Q-Learning algorithm for reinforcement learning, and the...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
of the state/action space. Similarly, the design of XCS drives it to form an all-inclusive and accurate representation of the problem space (i.e. a complete map) rather than focusing on high payoff niches in the environment (as was the case with strength-based LCS). Conceptually, complete maps don't only capture what y...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
developing a number of improvements to the original method. In 2002, Wilson introduced XCSF, adding a computed action in order to perform function approximation. In 2003, Bernado-Mansilla introduced a sUpervised Classifier System (UCS), which specialized the XCS algorithm to the task of supervised learning, single-step...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
ExSTraCS 2.0 was later introduced to improve Michigan-style LCS scalability, successfully solving the 135-bit multiplexer benchmark problem for the first time directly. The n-bit multiplexer problem is highly epistatic and heterogeneous, making it a very challenging machine learning task. == Variants == === Michigan-St...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
and often conflicting set of rules contribute a 'vote' which can be interpreted as a fuzzy prediction. Stochastic Learner: Non-deterministic learning is advantageous in large-scale or high complexity problems where deterministic or exhaustive learning becomes intractable. Implicitly Multi-objective: Rules evolve toward...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
Like any machine learner, LCS can suffer from overfitting despite implicit and explicit generalization pressures. Run Parameters: LCSs often have many run parameters to consider/optimize. Typically, most parameters can be left to the community determined defaults with the exception of two critical parameters: Maximum r...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
algorithm' have also been applied to refer to what would be more characteristically defined as a learning classifier system. Due to their similarity to genetic algorithms, Pittsburgh-style learning classifier systems are sometimes generically referred to as 'genetic algorithms'. Beyond this, some LCS algorithms, or clo...	{ "page_id": 854461, "source": null, "title": "Learning classifier system" }
Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering spectroscopy. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2011 impact factor of 2.098. Currently, the editors are Malgorzata Baranska, Joel Bowman, Sylvio Canuto, Christian W. Huck...	{ "page_id": 38799805, "source": null, "title": "Spectrochimica Acta Part A" }
NaGISA (Natural Geography in Shore Areas or Natural Geography of In-Shore Areas) is an international collaborative effort aimed at inventorying, cataloguing, and monitoring biodiversity of the in-shore area. So named for the Japanese word "nagisa" ("where the land meets the sea"), it is an Apronym. NaGISA is the first ...	{ "page_id": 17828289, "source": null, "title": "NaGISA" }
CHLC (or Cooperative Human Linkage Center) was a National Institutes of Health project to map a large number of human genome markers, prior to the completion of the Human Genome Project. The project was stopped in 1999.	{ "page_id": 8391108, "source": null, "title": "Cooperative Human Linkage Center" }
Sergey Gavrilets is a Russian-born American physicist turned theoretical biologist, and currently a Distinguished Professor at the University of Tennessee. He uses mathematical and computational models to study complex biological and social processes. He has made contributions to the study of speciation, sexual selecti...	{ "page_id": 52955595, "source": null, "title": "Sergey Gavrilets" }
In physics, the Bethe ansatz is an ansatz for finding the exact wavefunctions of certain quantum many-body models, most commonly for one-dimensional lattice models. It was first used by Hans Bethe in 1931 to find the exact eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the one-dimensional antiferromagnetic isotropic (XXX) Heisenberg ...	{ "page_id": 4327884, "source": null, "title": "Bethe ansatz" }
+ i 2 ∑ M ≥ a > b ≥ 1 sgn ⁡ ( j a − j b ) ϕ ( k P a , k P b ) ) , {\displaystyle \Psi _{M}(j_{1},\cdots ,j_{M})=\prod _{M\geq a>b\geq 1}\operatorname {sgn} (j_{a}-j_{b})\sum _{P\in {\mathfrak {S}}_{M}}(-1)^{[P]}\exp \left(i\sum _{a=1}^{M}k_{P_{a}}j_{a}+{\frac {i}{2}}\sum _{M\geq a>b\geq 1}\operatorname {sgn} (j_{a}-j_{...	{ "page_id": 4327884, "source": null, "title": "Bethe ansatz" }
model (by P. B. Wiegmann in 1980 and independently by N. Andrei, also in 1980) and the Anderson model (by P. B. Wiegmann in 1981, and by N. Kawakami and A. Okiji in 1981) are also both based on the Bethe ansatz. There exist multi-channel generalizations of these two models also amenable to exact solutions (by N. Andrei...	{ "page_id": 4327884, "source": null, "title": "Bethe ansatz" }
/n),} in which the momentum has been conveniently reparametrized as k ( λ ) = π − 2 arctan ⁡ 2 λ {\displaystyle k(\lambda )=\pi -2\arctan 2\lambda } in terms of the rapidity λ . {\displaystyle \lambda .} The boundary conditions (periodic here) impose the Bethe equations [ λ a + i / 2 λ a − i / 2 ] N = ∏ b ≠ a M λ a − λ...	{ "page_id": 4327884, "source": null, "title": "Bethe ansatz" }
uses the Bethe ansatz to solve the Heisenberg model with anisotropic interactions. 1962: J. des Cloizeaux and J. J. Pearson obtain the correct spectrum of the Heisenberg antiferromagnet (spinon dispersion relation), showing that it differs from Anderson’s spin-wave theory predictions (the constant prefactor is differen...	{ "page_id": 4327884, "source": null, "title": "Bethe ansatz" }
Hypervelocity is very high velocity, approximately over 3,000 meters per second (11,000 km/h, 6,700 mph, 10,000 ft/s, or Mach 8.8). In particular, hypervelocity is velocity so high that the strength of materials upon impact is very small compared to inertial stresses. Thus, metals and fluids behave alike under hypervel...	{ "page_id": 1968588, "source": null, "title": "Hypervelocity" }
between meteorites and planetary bodies), or they may be performed in laboratories. Currently, the primary tool for laboratory experiments is a light-gas gun, but some experiments have used linear motors to accelerate projectiles to hypervelocity. The properties of metals under hypervelocity have been integrated with w...	{ "page_id": 1968588, "source": null, "title": "Hypervelocity" }
The Rockingham, or Waterloo, Kiln in Swinton, South Yorkshire, England, is a pottery kiln dating from 1815. It formed part of the production centre for the Rockingham Pottery which, in the early 19th century, produced highly-decorative Rococo porcelain. The pottery failed in the mid-19th century, and the kiln is one of...	{ "page_id": 72223183, "source": null, "title": "Rockingham Kiln" }
Buildings of England series, notes that "perfection was their undoing" and by 1842 the Rockingham firm was again bankrupt and the site was closed. The Pottery Ponds site is administered by Rotherham Museums. As at November 2022, the kiln is on Historic England's Heritage at Risk Register. Recent interest in the Rocking...	{ "page_id": 72223183, "source": null, "title": "Rockingham Kiln" }
The plaque reduction neutralization test is used to quantify the titer of neutralizing antibody for a virus. The serum sample or solution of antibody to be tested is diluted and mixed with a viral suspension. This is incubated to allow the antibody to react with the virus. This is poured over a confluent monolayer of h...	{ "page_id": 32377299, "source": null, "title": "Plaque reduction neutralization test" }
neutralization ability when they actually do not, or vice versa they may seem ineffective when they actually possess neutralization ability. == See also == ELISA – Method to detect an antigen using an antibody and enzyme Immune complex – Molecule formed binding antigens to antibodies Viral quantification using the plaq...	{ "page_id": 32377299, "source": null, "title": "Plaque reduction neutralization test" }
The molecular formula N4O (molar mass: 72.03 g/mol, exact mass: 72.0072 u) may refer to: Nitrosylazide Oxatetrazole == See also == Dinitrogen tetroxide	{ "page_id": 52562388, "source": null, "title": "N4O" }
OpenVX is an open, royalty-free standard for cross-platform acceleration of computer vision applications. It is designed by the Khronos Group to facilitate portable, optimized and power-efficient processing of methods for vision algorithms. This is aimed for embedded and real-time programs within computer vision and re...	{ "page_id": 45418965, "source": null, "title": "OpenVX" }
Vision DSPs. Imagination - for Imagination Technologies's PowerVR GPUs Synopsys - for Synopsys' DesignWare EV Vision Processors Texas Instruments’ OpenVX (TIOVX) - for Texas Instruments’ Jacinto™ ADAS SoCs. NVIDIA VisionWorks - for CUDA-capable Nvidia GPUs and SoCs. OpenVINO - for Intel's CPUs, GPUs, VPUs, and FPGAs. =...	{ "page_id": 45418965, "source": null, "title": "OpenVX" }
In mycology, the terms teleomorph, anamorph, and holomorph apply to portions of the life cycles of fungi in the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota: Teleomorph: the sexual reproductive stage (morph), typically a fruiting body. Anamorph: an asexual reproductive stage (morph), often mold-like. When a single fungus produce...	{ "page_id": 1247702, "source": null, "title": "Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph" }
species which are known from only part of their life cycle. Others retain the term "deuteromycetes," but give it a lowercase "d" and no taxonomic rank. Historically, Article 59 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature permitted mycologists to give asexually reproducing fungi (anamorphs) separate names from t...	{ "page_id": 1247702, "source": null, "title": "Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph" }
stage could confidently be placed in genera which were typified by species in which the sexual stage was known. This possibility of abandoning the dual nomenclatural system was debated at subsequent International Mycological Congresses and on other occasions, and the need for change was increasingly recognized. At the ...	{ "page_id": 1247702, "source": null, "title": "Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph" }
Brussels Congress in 1910, there has been provision for a separate name (or names) for the asexual (anamorph) state (or states) of fungi with a pleomorphic life cycle from that applicable to the sexual (teleomorph) state and to the whole fungus. The Brussels Rules (Briquet, Règles Int. Nomencl. Bot., ed. 2. 1912) speci...	{ "page_id": 1247702, "source": null, "title": "Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph" }
some groups of fungi where there could be many names that might merit formal retention or rejection, a new provision was introduced: Lists of names can be submitted to the General Committee and, after due scrutiny, names accepted on those lists are to be treated as conserved over competing synonyms (and listed as Appen...	{ "page_id": 1247702, "source": null, "title": "Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph" }
DNA footprinting is a method of in vitro DNA analysis that assists researchers in determining transcription factor (TF) associated binding proteins. This technique can be used to study protein-DNA interactions both outside and within cells. Transcription factors are regulatory proteins that assist with various levels o...	{ "page_id": 5638621, "source": null, "title": "DNA footprinting" }
primary investigator of the DNA footprinting project, earned his Ph.D. in physics from University of California, Davis. He later went on to lead the Human Genome Project from 1990 to 1993 while he held a position as Director for Health and Environmental Research at the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. DNA f...	{ "page_id": 5638621, "source": null, "title": "DNA footprinting" }
of footprinting involves 4 steps: polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of the DNA, incubation of DNA with a protein, DNA cleavage, and DNA analysis through polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). === Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) === Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the first step in DNase-seq DNA footprinting. The p...	{ "page_id": 5638621, "source": null, "title": "DNA footprinting" }
with either a fluorescent tag protein or a radioactive phosphorus. === Labelling === The DNA template is labelled at the 3' or 5' end, depending on the location of the binding site(s). Two labels can be used for footprinting: radioactivity and fluorescence. Radioactivity has been traditionally used to label DNA fragmen...	{ "page_id": 5638621, "source": null, "title": "DNA footprinting" }
DNase I endonuclease, hydroxyl radicals and ultraviolet irradiation. DNase I is a large enzyme that functions as a double-strand endonuclease. It binds to the minor groove of DNA and cleaves the phosphodiester backbone. DNase I is considered a good cleavage agent because it is large and more likely to be blocked from c...	{ "page_id": 5638621, "source": null, "title": "DNA footprinting" }
as single-strand breaks, crosslinks between DNA strands or with proteins, and interactions with solvents. UV light causes the formation of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and covalent links between bases. UV irradiation is also limited by protein interactions with DNA, altering the pattern of damage and informing ...	{ "page_id": 5638621, "source": null, "title": "DNA footprinting" }

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