Split (1)

train · 617k rows

text stringlengths 2 132k	source dict
the trunk of the Y shape. In between them is a hinge region of the heavy chains, whose flexibility allows antibodies to bind to pairs of epitopes at various distances, to form complexes (dimers, trimers, etc.), and to bind effector molecules more easily. In an electrophoresis test of blood proteins, antibodies mostly m...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
antigen-antibody complexes. The structures of CDRs have been clustered and classified by Chothia et al. and more recently by North et al. and Nikoloudis et al. However, describing an antibody's binding site using only one single static structure limits the understanding and characterization of the antibody's function a...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
to limit the highly inflammatory effects of this subclass. Antibodies are glycoproteins, that is, they have carbohydrates (glycans) added to conserved amino acid residues. These conserved glycosylation sites occur in the Fc region and influence interactions with effector molecules. === Protein structure === The N-termi...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
cell to detect when a specific antigen is present in the body and triggers B cell activation. The BCR is composed of surface-bound IgD or IgM antibodies and associated Ig-α and Ig-β heterodimers, which are capable of signal transduction. A typical human B cell will have 50,000 to 100,000 antibodies bound to its surface...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
chains) binds to Fc receptor ε on a mast cell, triggering its degranulation: the release of molecules stored in its granules. The antibody isotype of a B cell changes during cell development and activation. Immature B cells, which have never been exposed to an antigen, express only the IgM isotype in a cell surface bou...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
non-mammalian animals === In most placental mammals, the structure of antibodies is generally the same. Jawed fish appear to be the most primitive animals that are able to make antibodies similar to those of mammals, although many features of their adaptive immunity appeared somewhat earlier. Cartilaginous fish (such a...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
by chemotactically attracting inflammatory cells More indirectly, an antibody can signal immune cells to present antibody fragments to T cells, or downregulate other immune cells to avoid autoimmunity. Activated B cells differentiate into either antibody-producing cells called plasma cells that secrete soluble antibody...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
complement system components form a membrane attack complex to assist antibodies to kill the bacterium directly (bacteriolysis). === Activation of effector cells === To combat pathogens that replicate outside cells, antibodies bind to pathogens to link them together, causing them to agglutinate. Since an antibody has a...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
but upon activation by antigens and helper T cells, B cells differentiate to produce soluble antibodies. Many natural antibodies are directed against the disaccharide galactose α(1,3)-galactose (α-Gal), which is found as a terminal sugar on glycosylated cell surface proteins, and generated in response to production of ...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
chain of every antibody, but can differ in different antibodies generated from distinct B cells. Differences between the variable domains are located on three loops known as hypervariable regions (HV-1, HV-2 and HV-3) or complementarity-determining regions (CDR1, CDR2 and CDR3). CDRs are supported within the variable d...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
microRNA miR-650, which further influences biology of B-cells. RAG proteins play an important role with V(D)J recombination in cutting DNA at a particular region. Without the presence of these proteins, V(D)J recombination would not occur. After a B cell produces a functional immunoglobulin gene during V(D)J recombinat...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
on help from helper T cells. === Class switching === Isotype or class switching is a biological process occurring after activation of the B cell, which allows the cell to produce different classes of antibody (IgA, IgE, or IgG). The different classes of antibody, and thus effector functions, are defined by the constant...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
monospecific if it has specificity for a single antigen or epitope, or bispecific if it has affinity for two different antigens or two different epitopes on the same antigen. A group of antibodies can be called polyvalent (or unspecific) if they have affinity for various antigens or microorganisms. Intravenous immunogl...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
protein motifs that use the functional strategy of the antibody molecule, but are not limited by the loop and framework structural constraints of the natural antibody. Being able to control the combinational design of the sequence and three-dimensional space could transcend the natural design and allow for the attachme...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
to malaria, as infection is known to induce genomic instability. == History == The first use of the term "antibody" occurred in a text by Paul Ehrlich. The term Antikörper (the German word for antibody) appears in the conclusion of his article "Experimental Studies on Immunity", published in October 1891, which states ...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
antibodies are made of protein. The biochemical properties of antigen-antibody-binding interactions were examined in more detail in the late 1930s by John Marrack. The next major advance was in the 1940s, when Linus Pauling confirmed the lock-and-key theory proposed by Ehrlich by showing that the interactions between a...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
a very common form of medical diagnostics, and applications such as serology depend on these methods. For example, in biochemical assays for disease diagnosis, a titer of antibodies directed against Epstein-Barr virus or Lyme disease is estimated from the blood. If those antibodies are not present, either the person is...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
deficiencies, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia and hypogammaglobulinemia, result in partial or complete lack of antibodies. These diseases are often treated by inducing a short-term form of immunity called passive immunity. Passive immunity is achieved through the transfer of ready-made antibodies in the form of hum...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
a mammal, such as a mouse, rat, rabbit, goat, sheep, or horse for large quantities of antibody. Blood isolated from these animals contains polyclonal antibodies—multiple antibodies that bind to the same antigen—in the serum, which can now be called antiserum. Antigens are also injected into chickens for generation of p...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
a tremendous number of factors that must be controlled in any experiment including cross reactivity, or the antibody recognizing multiple epitopes and affinity, which can vary widely depending on experimental conditions such as pH, solvent, state of tissue etc. Multiple attempts have been made to improve both the way t...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
(all impurities and virus must be eliminated) The characterization of purified antibody (physicochemical characterization, immunological properties, biological activities, contaminants, ...) Determination of the virus clearance studies === Before clinical trials === Product safety testing: Sterility (bacteria and fungi...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
to crystallography, but their results are more equivocal, since they do not produce empirical structures. Online web servers such as Web Antibody Modeling (WAM) and Prediction of Immunoglobulin Structure (PIGS) enable computational modeling of antibody variable regions. Rosetta Antibody is a novel antibody FV region st...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
top-down and bottom up approaches. Current technologies have the ability to assemble protein sequences with high accuracy by integrating de novo sequencing peptides, intensity, and positional confidence scores from database and homology searches. == Antibody mimetic == Antibody mimetics are organic compounds, like anti...	{ "page_id": 2362, "source": null, "title": "Antibody" }
Quasi-linkage equilibrium (QLE) is a mathematical approximation used in solving population genetics problems. Motoo Kimura introduced the notion to simplify a model of Fisher's fundamental theorem. QLE greatly simplifies population genetic equations whilst making the assumption of weak selection and weak epistasis. Sel...	{ "page_id": 34343228, "source": null, "title": "Quasi-linkage equilibrium" }
Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are a class of artificial neural networks designed for processing sequential data, such as text, speech, and time series, where the order of elements is important. Unlike feedforward neural networks, which process inputs independently, RNNs utilize recurrent connections, where the outpu...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
by parallel fiber, Purkinje cells, and granule cells. In 1933, Lorente de Nó discovered "recurrent, reciprocal connections" by Golgi's method, and proposed that excitatory loops explain certain aspects of the vestibulo-ocular reflex. During 1940s, multiple people proposed the existence of feedback in the brain, which w...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
as a process towards equilibrium (Glauber dynamics), adding in the component of time. The Sherrington–Kirkpatrick model of spin glass, published in 1975, is the Hopfield network with random initialization. Sherrington and Kirkpatrick found that it is highly likely for the energy function of the SK model to have many lo...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
had been developed in the early 2010s. The papers most commonly cited as the originators that produced seq2seq are two papers from 2014. A seq2seq architecture employs two RNN, typically LSTM, an "encoder" and a "decoder", for sequence transduction, such as machine translation. They became state of the art in machine t...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
is composed of multiple RNNs stacked one above the other. Abstractly, it is structured as follows Layer 1 has hidden vector h 1 , t {\displaystyle h_{1,t}} , parameters θ 1 {\displaystyle \theta _{1}} , and maps f θ 1 : ( x 0 , t , h 1 , t ) ↦ ( x 1 , t , h 1 , t + 1 ) {\displaystyle f_{\theta _{1}}:(x_{0,t},h_{1,t})\m...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
The backward RNN processes in the opposite direction: f θ ′ ′ ( x N , h N ′ ) = ( y N ′ , h N − 1 ′ ) , f θ ′ ′ ( x N − 1 , h N − 1 ′ ) = ( y N − 1 ′ , h N − 2 ′ ) , … {\displaystyle f'_{\theta '}(x_{N},h_{N}')=(y'_{N},h_{N-1}'),f'_{\theta '}(x_{N-1},h_{N-1}')=(y'_{N-1},h_{N-2}'),\dots } The two output sequences are th...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
, x 1 , n , x 2 , 1 , x 2 , 2 , … , x 2 , n , … , x n , n {\displaystyle x_{1,1},x_{1,2},\dots ,x_{1,n},x_{2,1},x_{2,2},\dots ,x_{2,n},\dots ,x_{n,n}} The diagonal BiLSTM uses two LSTMs to process the same grid. One processes it from the top-left corner to the bottom-right, such that it processes x i , j {\displaystyle...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
fixed with a weight of one. At each time step, the input is fed forward and a learning rule is applied. The fixed back-connections save a copy of the previous values of the hidden units in the context units (since they propagate over the connections before the learning rule is applied). Thus the network can maintain a ...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
short-term memory (LSTM) is the most widely used RNN architecture. It was designed to solve the vanishing gradient problem. LSTM is normally augmented by recurrent gates called "forget gates". LSTM prevents backpropagated errors from vanishing or exploding. Instead, errors can flow backward through unlimited numbers of...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
output on the other layer. === Echo state === Echo state networks (ESN) have a sparsely connected random hidden layer. The weights of output neurons are the only part of the network that can change (be trained). ESNs are good at reproducing certain time series. A variant for spiking neurons is known as a liquid state m...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
a conditionally generative model of sequences, aka autoregression. Concretely, let us consider the problem of machine translation, that is, given a sequence ( x 1 , x 2 , … , x n ) {\displaystyle (x_{1},x_{2},\dots ,x_{n})} of English words, the model is to produce a sequence ( y 1 , … , y m ) {\displaystyle (y_{1},\do...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
functions are differentiable. The standard method for training RNN by gradient descent is the "backpropagation through time" (BPTT) algorithm, which is a special case of the general algorithm of backpropagation. A more computationally expensive online variant is called "Real-Time Recurrent Learning" or RTRL, which is a...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
be explored in the following layers. Memories of different ranges including long-term memory can be learned without the gradient vanishing and exploding problem. The on-line algorithm called causal recursive backpropagation (CRBP), implements and combines BPTT and RTRL paradigms for locally recurrent networks. It works...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
one weight link. The whole network is represented as a single chromosome. The fitness function is evaluated as follows: Each weight encoded in the chromosome is assigned to the respective weight link of the network. The training set is presented to the network which propagates the input signals forward. The mean-square...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
neural history compressor is an unsupervised stack of RNNs. At the input level, it learns to predict its next input from the previous inputs. Only unpredictable inputs of some RNN in the hierarchy become inputs to the next higher level RNN, which therefore recomputes its internal state only rarely. Each higher level RN...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
of the standard w i j {\displaystyle w{}_{ij}} weights, and states can be a product. This allows a direct mapping to a finite-state machine both in training, stability, and representation. Long short-term memory is an example of this but has no such formal mappings or proof of stability. === Hierarchical recurrent neur...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
book On Intelligence. Such a hierarchy also agrees with theories of memory posited by philosopher Henri Bergson, which have been incorporated into an MTRNN model. === Memristive networks === Greg Snider of HP Labs describes a system of cortical computing with memristive nanodevices. The memristors (memory resistors) ar...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
j i σ ( y j − Θ j ) + I i ( t ) {\displaystyle \tau _{i}{\dot {y}}_{i}=-y_{i}+\sum _{j=1}^{n}w_{ji}\sigma (y_{j}-\Theta _{j})+I_{i}(t)} Where: τ i {\displaystyle \tau _{i}} : Time constant of postsynaptic node y i {\displaystyle y_{i}} : Activation of postsynaptic node y ˙ i {\displaystyle {\dot {y}}_{i}} : Rate of cha...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
has infinite impulse response whereas convolutional neural networks have finite impulse response. Both classes of networks exhibit temporal dynamic behavior. A finite impulse recurrent network is a directed acyclic graph that can be unrolled and replaced with a strictly feedforward neural network, while an infinite imp...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
mobile Theano: A deep-learning library for Python with an API largely compatible with the NumPy library. Torch: A scientific computing framework with support for machine learning algorithms, written in C and Lua. == Applications == Applications of recurrent neural networks include: Machine translation Robot control Tim...	{ "page_id": 1706303, "source": null, "title": "Recurrent neural network" }
The molecular formula C5H6 (molar mass: 66.10 g/mol, exact mass: 66.04695 u) may refer to: Cyclopentadiene Cyclopropylacetylene [1.1.1]propellane Cyclopentyne	{ "page_id": 12388671, "source": null, "title": "C5H6" }
Luminescent bacteria emit light as the result of a chemical reaction during which chemical energy is converted to light energy. Luminescent bacteria exist as symbiotic organisms carried within a larger organism, such as many deep sea organisms, including the Lantern Fish, the Angler fish, certain jellyfish, certain cla...	{ "page_id": 4000065, "source": null, "title": "Luminescent bacteria" }
The molecular formula C6H8 may refer to: Cyclohexadiene (disambiguation) 1,3-Cyclohexadiene 1,4-Cyclohexadiene Methylcyclopentadiene Propellane The standard composition of gasoline (a mixture of different hydrocarbons) is approximately equivalent to C6H8	{ "page_id": 12388674, "source": null, "title": "C6H8" }
Occupational exposure banding, also known as hazard banding, is a process intended to quickly and accurately assign chemicals into specific categories (bands), each corresponding to a range of exposure concentrations designed to protect worker health. These bands are assigned based on a chemical’s toxicological potency...	{ "page_id": 53741891, "source": null, "title": "Occupational exposure banding" }
for only about 1,000 of these chemicals. Furthermore, the rate at which new chemicals are being introduced into commerce significantly outpaces OEL development, creating a need for guidance on thousands of chemicals that lack reliable exposure limits. The NIOSH occupational exposure banding process has been created to ...	{ "page_id": 53741891, "source": null, "title": "Occupational exposure banding" }
serious or irreversible effects and those that cause problems at low concentration ranges. The resulting airborne concentration target ranges are shown in the graphic: Tier 1, the qualitative tier, produces an occupational exposure band (OEB) assignment based on qualitative data from the Globally Harmonized System of C...	{ "page_id": 53741891, "source": null, "title": "Occupational exposure banding" }
own raw data in conjunction with the availability of data drawn from published literature. == Reliability == Since unveiling the occupational exposure banding technique in 2017, NIOSH has sought feedback from its users and has evaluated the reliability of this tool. There has been an overwhelming response of positive f...	{ "page_id": 53741891, "source": null, "title": "Occupational exposure banding" }
user through the evaluation and selection of critical health hazard information to select an OEB from among five categories of severity. For OEBs, the process uses only hazard-based data (e.g., studies on human health effects or toxicology studies) to identify an overall level of hazard potential and associated airborn...	{ "page_id": 53741891, "source": null, "title": "Occupational exposure banding" }
of a hazardous substance in the workplace Hierarchy of hazard controls – System used in industry to eliminate or minimize exposure to hazards Occupational hygiene – Management of workplace health hazards == References == == External links == The NIOSH Occupational Exposure Banding Process: Guidance for the Evaluation o...	{ "page_id": 53741891, "source": null, "title": "Occupational exposure banding" }
In classical mechanics, the stretch rule (sometimes referred to as Routh's rule) states that the moment of inertia of a rigid object is unchanged when the object is stretched parallel to an axis of rotation that is a principal axis, provided that the distribution of mass remains unchanged except in the direction parall...	{ "page_id": 592198, "source": null, "title": "Stretch rule" }
d x d y ρ ′ ( x , y , z ) r 2 = ∫ 0 L a d z ′ ∫ x , y d x d y ρ ( x , y , z / a ) a r 2 = ∫ 0 L d z ′ ∫ x , y d x d y ρ ( x , y , z ′ ) r 2 = I z {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{z}'&=\int _{0}^{aL}dz\int _{x,y}dx\,dy\,\rho '(x,y,z)\,r^{2}\\[8pt]&=\int _{0}^{L}a\,dz'\int _{x,y}dx\,dy\,{\frac {\rho (x,y,z/a)}{a}}\,r^{2...	{ "page_id": 592198, "source": null, "title": "Stretch rule" }
A winnowing basket or fan is a tool for winnowing grain from chaff while removing dirt and dust too. They have been used traditionally in a number of civilizations for centuries, and are still in use today in some countries. == Use == Unprocessed grain, mixed with impurities like dirt or inedible husks, is placed on th...	{ "page_id": 74713415, "source": null, "title": "Winnowing basket" }
baskets, as they would with husks, would allow good luck to escape. A tradition on Jeju Island involved a type of divination, where on Lunar New Year's Eve, the baskets would be cleaned, washed, and placed facedown. The following morning, the baskets would be inspected. If rice was present under the basket, then the ha...	{ "page_id": 74713415, "source": null, "title": "Winnowing basket" }
Mohammad Ataul Karim (Bengali: মোহাম্মদ আতাউল করিম; born 4 May 1953) is a Bangladeshi American scientist and higher education administrator, with expertise in electro-optical systems, optical computing, and pattern recognition. Ataul Karim is ranked amongst the top 50 researchers who contributed most to journal Applied...	{ "page_id": 26020168, "source": null, "title": "Mohammad Ataul Karim" }
in Bengali. All his subsequent books and articles were written in English, and all were published from outside of Bangladesh. A 2004 government of Bangladesh report and a number of books in Bengali, including Bangladesher Shera Bigyani (Hitler A. Halim, Shikor, 2004), Medhabi Manusher Golpo (Mohammad Kaykobad, Annyapro...	{ "page_id": 26020168, "source": null, "title": "Mohammad Ataul Karim" }
36 journal special issues in areas of communication, computing, multimedia, networks, optics, pattern recognition, infrared systems, remote sensing, and software. == Relevance to Bangladesh == He leads the International Conference on Computer and Information Technology, now in its 25th year. Since 2009, with assistance...	{ "page_id": 26020168, "source": null, "title": "Mohammad Ataul Karim" }
A psammophile ( (P)SAM-oh-fyle) is a plant or animal that prefers or thrives in sandy areas. Plant psammophiles are also known as psammophytes. They thrive in places such as the Arabian Peninsula and the Sahara and also the dunes of coastal regions. Because of the unique ecological selective pressures of sand, often ti...	{ "page_id": 46729550, "source": null, "title": "Psammophile" }
Waterproofing is the process of making an object, person or structure waterproof or water-resistant so that it remains relatively unaffected by water or resists the ingress of water under specified conditions. Such items may be used in wet environments or underwater to specified depths. Water-resistant and waterproof o...	{ "page_id": 2099543, "source": null, "title": "Waterproofing" }
make a built-up roof, other bituminous waterproofing, ethylene propylene diene monomer EPDM rubber, hypalon, polyvinyl chloride, liquid roofing, and more. Walls are not subjected to standing water, and the water-resistant membranes used as housewraps are designed to be porous enough to let moisture escape. Walls also h...	{ "page_id": 2099543, "source": null, "title": "Waterproofing" }
area of waterproofing is rooftop decks and balconies. Waterproofing systems have become quite sophisticated and are a very specialized area. Failed waterproof decks, whether made of polymer or tile, are one of the leading causes of water damage to building structures and personal injury when they fail. Major problems o...	{ "page_id": 2099543, "source": null, "title": "Waterproofing" }
the hydrophobic systems. A hydrophilic system typically uses a crystallization technology that replaces the water in the concrete with insoluble crystals. Various brands available in the market claim similar properties, but not all can react with a wide range of cement hydration by-products and thus require caution. Hy...	{ "page_id": 2099543, "source": null, "title": "Waterproofing" }
prevent water ingress there. Better waterproof garments have a membrane lining designed to keep water out but allow trapped moisture to escape ("breathability")—a totally waterproof garment would retain body sweat and become clammy. Waterproof garments specify their hydrostatic rating, ranging from 1,500 for light rain...	{ "page_id": 2099543, "source": null, "title": "Waterproofing" }
== Standards == ASTM C1127 – Standard Guide for Use of High Solids Content, Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Waterproofing Membrane with an Integral Wearing Surface ASTM D779 – Standard Test Method for Determining the Water Vapor Resistance of Sheet Materials in Contact with Liquid Water by the Dry Indicator Method ASTM...	{ "page_id": 2099543, "source": null, "title": "Waterproofing" }
The American Association of Immunologists Lifetime Achievement Award is the highest honor bestowed by the American Association of Immunologists (AAI). It has been awarded annually to a single AAI member since 1994. == Winners == Source: == See also == List of medicine awards == References ==	{ "page_id": 58526041, "source": null, "title": "American Association of Immunologists Lifetime Achievement Award" }
Feedforward refers to recognition-inference architecture of neural networks. Artificial neural network architectures are based on inputs multiplied by weights to obtain outputs (inputs-to-output): feedforward. Recurrent neural networks, or neural networks with loops allow information from later processing stages to fee...	{ "page_id": 1706332, "source": null, "title": "Feedforward neural network" }
ways to overcome the numerical problems related to the sigmoids. === Learning === Learning occurs by changing connection weights after each piece of data is processed, based on the amount of error in the output compared to the expected result. This is an example of supervised learning, and is carried out through backpr...	{ "page_id": 1706332, "source": null, "title": "Feedforward neural network" }
previous expression, ∂ E ( n ) ∂ v j ( n ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial {\mathcal {E}}(n)}{\partial v_{j}(n)}}} denotes the partial derivate of the error E ( n ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}(n)} according to the weighted sum v j ( n ) {\displaystyle v_{j}(n)} of the input connections of neuron i {\displaystyle i} ....	{ "page_id": 1706332, "source": null, "title": "Feedforward neural network" }
layer with linear activation functions. It was trained by the least squares method for minimising mean squared error, also known as linear regression. Legendre and Gauss used it for the prediction of planetary movement from training data. In 1943, Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts proposed the binary artificial neuron ...	{ "page_id": 1706332, "source": null, "title": "Feedforward neural network" }
of backpropagation in his master thesis (1970). G.M. Ostrovski et al. republished it in 1971. Paul Werbos applied backpropagation to neural networks in 1982 (his 1974 PhD thesis, reprinted in a 1994 book, did not yet describe the algorithm). In 1986, David E. Rumelhart et al. popularised backpropagation but did not cit...	{ "page_id": 1706332, "source": null, "title": "Feedforward neural network" }
Feedforward Neural Network: Example Feedforward Neural Networks: An Introduction	{ "page_id": 1706332, "source": null, "title": "Feedforward neural network" }
A retention agent is a chemical process that improves the retention of a functional chemical in a substrate. The result is that totally fewer chemicals are used to get the same effect as the functional chemical and fewer chemicals go to waste. == Applications == Retention agents (retention aids) are used in the paperma...	{ "page_id": 20973916, "source": null, "title": "Retention agent" }
Teliospore (sometimes called teleutospore) is the thick-walled resting spore of some fungi (rusts and smuts), from which the basidium arises. == Development == They develop in telia (sing. telium or teliosorus). The telial host is the primary host in heteroecious rusts. The aecial host is the alternate host (look for p...	{ "page_id": 5310815, "source": null, "title": "Teliospore" }
In biogeography and paleontology, a relict is a population or taxon of organisms that was more widespread or more diverse in the past. A relictual population is a population currently inhabiting a restricted area whose range was far wider during a previous geologic epoch. Similarly, a relictual taxon is a taxon (e.g. s...	{ "page_id": 39324002, "source": null, "title": "Relict (biology)" }
survived into modern times on an island, whereas the rest of its species on mainland Australia had gone extinct between 3000 and 2000 years ago. Another example is Omma, a genus of beetle with a fossil record extending back over 200 million years to the Late Triassic and found worldwide during the Jurassic and Cretaceo...	{ "page_id": 39324002, "source": null, "title": "Relict (biology)" }
an ice age relict plant population is the Snowdon lily, notable as being precariously rare in Wales. The Welsh population is confined to the north-facing slopes of Snowdonia, where climatic conditions are apparently similar to ice age Europe. Some have expressed concern that the warming climate will cause the lily to d...	{ "page_id": 39324002, "source": null, "title": "Relict (biology)" }
poses a threat to its survival. Another example is the relict leopard frog once found throughout Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and Colorado, but now only found at Lake Mead National Recreation Area in Nevada and Arizona. == Relevance == The concept of relictualism is useful in understanding the ecology and conservation status...	{ "page_id": 39324002, "source": null, "title": "Relict (biology)" }
food, dyes, etc.), but are no longer utilized. They are naturalized and can be found at archaeological sites. == See also == Living fossil == References ==	{ "page_id": 39324002, "source": null, "title": "Relict (biology)" }
l-Photo-leucine is a synthetic derivative of the l-leucine amino acid that is used as its natural analog and is characterized for having photo-reactivity, which makes it suitable for observing and characterizing protein-protein interactions (PPI). When a protein containing this amino acid (A) is exposed to ultraviolet ...	{ "page_id": 44108130, "source": null, "title": "L-Photo-leucine" }
attached to the complex formed by the two proteins susceptible of being under study. The rest of the amino acid has indeed the same structure as the original l-leucine molecule, which includes, as every amino acid, an amino group and a carboxyl group bonded to an α-carbon, and a radical that is attached to this carbon ...	{ "page_id": 44108130, "source": null, "title": "L-Photo-leucine" }
a diazirine ring to the 4,4'-azi-pentanoic acid, and to obtain finally the dl-2-bromo-4,4'-azi-pentanoic acid. Aminolysis of dl-2-bromo-4,4'-azi-pentanoic acid is performed in ammonia-saturated methanol and 25% aq ammonia for 5 days at 55 °C. After evaporation of the ammonia, 20 mL of concentrated HCl are added followe...	{ "page_id": 44108130, "source": null, "title": "L-Photo-leucine" }
acid is of 345 nm. To increase efficiency, a shallow and uncovered plate must be used. Also, rotation of the samples located under the UV right may be necessary to make sure they receive even UV irradiation, and thus to, yet again, improve the cross-linking efficiency. If the cross-linking is done in vivo, within livin...	{ "page_id": 44108130, "source": null, "title": "L-Photo-leucine" }
which they had successfully managed to label proteins from the cells of a monkey's kidney (COS7). These cells were grown in a high-glucose medium, from which a sample of 3 cm² was removed to proceed with the western blotting. At about 70% of confluence, the initial medium was replaced by another one lacking the amino a...	{ "page_id": 44108130, "source": null, "title": "L-Photo-leucine" }
have any substantial effect to cell viability. Those results have been corroborate by many experiments. For example, an essay with Escherichia coli-galactosidase showed that the addition of either of the three photo-amino acids or of a mixture of them had no effect on enzyme activity. That helps to conclude that photo-...	{ "page_id": 44108130, "source": null, "title": "L-Photo-leucine" }
The thrifty gene hypothesis, or Gianfranco's hypothesis is an attempt by geneticist James V. Neel to explain why certain populations and subpopulations in the modern day are prone to diabetes mellitus type 2. He proposed the hypothesis in 1962 to resolve a fundamental problem: diabetes is clearly a very harmful medical...	{ "page_id": 6687077, "source": null, "title": "Thrifty gene hypothesis" }
== James Neel, a professor of Human Genetics at the University of Michigan Medical School, proposed the "thrifty genotype" hypothesis in 1962 in his paper "Diabetes Mellitus: A 'Thrifty' Genotype Rendered Detrimental by 'Progress'?" Neel intended the paper to provoke further contemplation and research on the possible e...	{ "page_id": 6687077, "source": null, "title": "Thrifty gene hypothesis" }
sought out observations that might disprove or discount his "thrifty gene" hypothesis. Neel's further investigations cast doubt on the "thrifty genotype" hypothesis. If a propensity to develop diabetes were an evolutionary adaptation, then diabetes would have been a disease of long standing in those populations current...	{ "page_id": 6687077, "source": null, "title": "Thrifty gene hypothesis" }
United States, to Inuit. The original "thrifty gene" hypothesis argued that famines were common and severe enough to select for thrifty gene in the 2.5 million years of human paleolithic history. This assumption is contradicted by some anthropological evidence. Many of the populations that later developed high rates of...	{ "page_id": 6687077, "source": null, "title": "Thrifty gene hypothesis" }
to the body "predicting" a life of starvation for the developing fetus. Hence, one of the main causes of type 2 diabetes has been attributed to poor fetal and infant growth and the subsequent development of the metabolic syndrome. Since the hypothesis was proposed, many studies worldwide have confirmed the initial epid...	{ "page_id": 6687077, "source": null, "title": "Thrifty gene hypothesis" }
muscular strength to one dependent on brain power ("soldier to diplomat"). Because the environmental conditions that would facilitate each transition are heavily overlapping, the scientists surmise, a common switch could have evolved for the two transitions. The main problem with this idea is the timing at which the tr...	{ "page_id": 6687077, "source": null, "title": "Thrifty gene hypothesis" }
selective advantage for the obese state, either now or in the past. The main feature of this hypothesis is that the current pattern of obesity does not suggest that obesity has been under strong positive selection for a protracted period of time. It is argued instead that the obesity comes about because of genetic drif...	{ "page_id": 6687077, "source": null, "title": "Thrifty gene hypothesis" }
comprehensive studies have been performed seeking such signatures of selection. Ayub et al. (2014) searched for signatures of positive selection at 65 genes linked to type 2 diabetes, and Wang and Speakman (2016) searched for signatures of selection at 115 genes linked to obesity. In both cases there was no evidence fo...	{ "page_id": 6687077, "source": null, "title": "Thrifty gene hypothesis" }
exist because of chance mutations, population founder events and maintenance by processes such as drift, or whether there is any selective advantage involved in their maintenance and spread. An example of such a rare variant effect was recently discovered among Samoan islanders. Among the islanders the variant is extre...	{ "page_id": 6687077, "source": null, "title": "Thrifty gene hypothesis" }
Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separation isolates analytes. Qualitative analysis identifies analytes, while quantit...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }
century and refined in the late 20th century. The separation sciences follow a similar time line of development and also became increasingly transformed into high performance instruments. In the 1970s many of these techniques began to be used together as hybrid techniques to achieve a complete characterization of sampl...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }
chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments are from traditional techniques, many of which are still used today. These techniques also tend to form the backbone of most undergraduate analytical chemistry educational labs. === Qualitative analysis === Qualitative analysis determines the presence or a...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }
family of techniques used to determine the concentration of an analyte. Titrating accurately to either the half-equivalence point or the endpoint of a titration allows the chemist to determine the amount of moles used, which can then be used to determine a concentration or composition of the titrant. Most familiar to t...	{ "page_id": 2408, "source": null, "title": "Analytical chemistry" }

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.