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MLKL, ferroptosis via GPX4 suppression, system Xc suppression, and NAPDH loss, as well as apoptosis via RIPK1 and caspase 8. These distressed cells then excrete alarmins, proteases, and damage-associated molecular patterns including HMGB1, histones, mitochondrial DNA, demethylated DNA and RNA, ATP, uric acid, and doubl...	{ "page_id": 63834727, "source": null, "title": "Crystallopathy" }
Biological agents, also known as biological weapons or bioweapons, are pathogens used as weapons. In addition to these living or replicating pathogens, toxins and biotoxins are also included among the bio-agents. More than 1,200 different kinds of potentially weaponizable bio-agents have been described and studied to d...	{ "page_id": 723561, "source": null, "title": "Biological agent" }
safety" to be officially defined as "select agents" and possession or transportation of them are tightly controlled as such. Select agents are divided into "HHS select agents and toxins", "USDA select agents and toxins" and "Overlap select agents and toxins". === Regulatory === The US Centers for Disease Control and Pr...	{ "page_id": 723561, "source": null, "title": "Biological agent" }
bio-agent simulants) (BG, BS, or U) Serratia marcescens (SM or P) Aspergillus fumigatus mutant C-2 (AF) Escherichia coli (EC) Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) Erwinia herbicola (current accepted name: Pantoea agglomerans) (EH) Fluorescent particles such as zinc cadmium sulfide, ZnCdS (FP) == International law == While the h...	{ "page_id": 723561, "source": null, "title": "Biological agent" }
radiological, and nuclear weapons and their means of delivery, in particular, to prevent the spread of weapons of mass destruction to non-state actors. == In popular culture == == See also == Biological hazard Biological contamination Laboratory Response Network Pulsed ultraviolet light == References == == External lin...	{ "page_id": 723561, "source": null, "title": "Biological agent" }
The Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life (CeDAMar) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that studies the species diversity of one of the largest and most inaccessible environments on the planet, the abyssal plain. CeDAMar uses data to create an estimation of global species diversity and provide a bette...	{ "page_id": 21957226, "source": null, "title": "Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life" }
The Quest for Consciousness: A Neurobiological Approach is a 2004 book on consciousness written by Christof Koch. == References ==	{ "page_id": 47778410, "source": null, "title": "The Quest for Consciousness" }
A chlamydospore is the thick-walled large resting spore of several kinds of fungi, including Ascomycota such as Candida, Basidiomycota such as Panus, and various Mortierellales species. It is the life-stage which survives in unfavourable conditions, such as dry or hot seasons. Fusarium oxysporum which causes the plant ...	{ "page_id": 5311084, "source": null, "title": "Chlamydospore" }
The central dogma of molecular biology deals with the flow of genetic information within a biological system. It is often stated as "DNA makes RNA, and RNA makes protein", although this is not its original meaning. It was first stated by Francis Crick in 1957, then published in 1958: The Central Dogma. This states that...	{ "page_id": 68206, "source": null, "title": "Central dogma of molecular biology" }
construction of another biopolymer with a sequence that is entirely dependent on the original biopolymer's sequence. When DNA is transcribed to RNA, its complement is paired to it. DNA codes are transferred to RNA codes in a complementary fashion. The encoding of proteins is done in groups of three, known as codons. Th...	{ "page_id": 68206, "source": null, "title": "Central dogma of molecular biology" }
site of transcription (the cell nucleus) is usually separated from the site of translation (the cytoplasm), so the mRNA must be transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where it can be bound by ribosomes. The ribosome reads the mRNA triplet codons, usually beginning with an AUG (adenine−uracil−guanine), or in...	{ "page_id": 68206, "source": null, "title": "Central dogma of molecular biology" }
well as in eukaryotes, in the case of retrotransposons and telomere synthesis. It is the process by which genetic information from RNA gets transcribed into new DNA. The family of enzymes involved in this process is called Reverse Transcriptase. === RNA replication === RNA replication is the copying of one RNA to anoth...	{ "page_id": 68206, "source": null, "title": "Central dogma of molecular biology" }
manner that the main protein "backbone" does not fall apart. This is a case of a protein changing its own primary sequence from the sequence originally encoded by the DNA of a gene. Additionally, most inteins contain a homing endonuclease or HEG domain which is capable of finding a copy of the parent gene that does not...	{ "page_id": 68206, "source": null, "title": "Central dogma of molecular biology" }
molecules that contributes to their biological function, and that this information can be passed on to other molecules." == Use of the term dogma == In his autobiography, What Mad Pursuit, Crick wrote about his choice of the word dogma and some of the problems it caused him: "I called this idea the central dogma, for t...	{ "page_id": 68206, "source": null, "title": "Central dogma of molecular biology" }
Hereditary information moves only from germline cells to somatic cells (that is, somatic mutations are not inherited). This, before the discovery of the role or structure of DNA, does not predict the central dogma, but does anticipate its gene-centric view of life, albeit in non-molecular terms. == See also == Life Cel...	{ "page_id": 68206, "source": null, "title": "Central dogma of molecular biology" }
The World Cell Race is a competition among labs to see which biological cell type can travel 600 microns the fastest. The idea is to promote research into how to make cells move faster to aid immune system response or slow metastatic cancers. A fork with a dead end was added to the course in 2013 to assess responses to...	{ "page_id": 42535535, "source": null, "title": "World Cell Race" }
3-Arylpropiolonitriles (APN) belong to a class of electron-deficient alkyne derivatives substituted by two electron-withdrawing groups – a nitrile and an aryl moieties. Such activation results in improved selectivity towards highly reactive thiol-containing molecules, namely cysteine residues in proteins. APN-based mod...	{ "page_id": 54069873, "source": null, "title": "3-Arylpropiolonitriles" }
hours, followed by an optional step of purification of the resulting bioconjugate using size exclusion chromatography or ultrafiltration. == References ==	{ "page_id": 54069873, "source": null, "title": "3-Arylpropiolonitriles" }
PM Sayeed Marine Birds Conservation Reserve is the first protected area for marine birds in India. It is located in the Indian Union Territory of Lakshadweep. It was formed in 2020. It covers an area of 62 km2. The PM Sayeed Marine Birds Conservation Reserve will be home to four species of pelagic seabirds – the Greate...	{ "page_id": 64621169, "source": null, "title": "PM Sayeed Marine Birds Conservation Reserve" }
Electrochromatography is a chemical separation technique in analytical chemistry, biochemistry and molecular biology used to resolve and separate mostly large biomolecules such as proteins. It is a combination of size exclusion chromatography (gel filtration chromatography) and gel electrophoresis. These separation mec...	{ "page_id": 9505399, "source": null, "title": "Electrochromatography" }
The International Census of Marine Microbes is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that inventories microbial diversity by cataloging all known diversity of single-cell organisms including bacteria, Archaea, Protista, and associated viruses, exploring and discovering unknown microbial diversity, and placing th...	{ "page_id": 22022775, "source": null, "title": "International Census of Marine Microbes" }
Sea air has traditionally been thought to offer health benefits associated with its unique odor, which is caused by dimethyl sulfide, released by microbes. Salts generally do not dissolve in air, but can be carried by sea spray in the form of particulate matter. In the early 19th century, a lower prevalence of disease ...	{ "page_id": 23202425, "source": null, "title": "Sea air" }
The deep transverse fascia or transverse intermuscular septum of leg is a transversely placed, intermuscular septum, from the deep fascia, between the superficial and deep muscles of the back of the leg. At the sides it is connected to the margins of the tibia and fibula. Above, where it covers the popliteus, it is thi...	{ "page_id": 15338107, "source": null, "title": "Deep transverse fascia" }
Economizers (US and Oxford spelling), or economisers (UK), are mechanical devices intended to reduce energy consumption, or to perform useful function such as preheating a fluid. The term economizer is used for other purposes as well. Boiler, power plant, heating, refrigeration, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC)...	{ "page_id": 4655742, "source": null, "title": "Economizer" }
of the cooled combustion gases exhausting from the boiler through an economizer to raise the temperature of feed water entering the steam drum. An indirect contact or direct contact condensing economizer will recover the residual heat from the combustion products. A series of dampers, an efficient control system, as we...	{ "page_id": 4655742, "source": null, "title": "Economizer" }
flue gases for the process. The economizer is made of an aluminium and stainless steel alloy. The gases pass through the cylinder, and the water passes through the finned tubes. It condenses about 11% of the water contained in the gases. === History === The first successful economizer design was used to increase the st...	{ "page_id": 4655742, "source": null, "title": "Economizer" }
drove them. Another such example is the British Engineerium in Brighton & Hove, where the economiser associated with the boilers for Number 2 Engine is in use, complete with its associated small stationary engine. A third site is Coldharbour Mill Working Wool Museum, where the Green's economiser is in working order, co...	{ "page_id": 4655742, "source": null, "title": "Economizer" }
than the temperature of the recirculated air, conditioning with the outside air is more energy efficient than conditioning with recirculated air. When the outside air is both sufficiently cool and sufficiently dry (depending on the climate) the amount of enthalpy in the air is acceptable and no additional conditioning ...	{ "page_id": 4655742, "source": null, "title": "Economizer" }
is only about 5 °F warmer than the outside air that replaces it (that is, the ∆T>5 °F) this cooling effect is accomplished more efficiently than the same amount of cooling resulting from a compressor based system. If the outside air is not cold enough to overcome the refrigeration load of the space the compressor syste...	{ "page_id": 4655742, "source": null, "title": "Economizer" }
notorious when taking in account that the evaporation temperature for a walk-in freezer at −20 °F (−29 °C) may be around −35 °F (−37 °C). Systems with economizers aim to produce part of the refrigeration work on high pressures, condition in which gas compressors are normally more efficient. Depending on the application...	{ "page_id": 4655742, "source": null, "title": "Economizer" }
line and is normally controlled by expansion, pressure and solenoid valves. A standard two staged cycle of this kind has an expansion valve that expands and modulates the amount of refrigerant incoming at the interstage. As the fluid arriving at the interstage expands, it will tend to evaporate, producing a temperature...	{ "page_id": 4655742, "source": null, "title": "Economizer" }
it has a flash chamber or tank, in which flash gas is produced to lower the temperature of the liquid before the expansion. The flash gas that is produced in this tank leaves the liquid line and goes to the economizer entrance of the screw compressor. ==== Subcooling and refrigeration cycle optimizers ==== The above sy...	{ "page_id": 4655742, "source": null, "title": "Economizer" }
the volume in which the refrigerant changes its phase (phenomena involving much more heat flow, the base principle of vapor-compression refrigeration). An internal heat exchanger is simply a heat exchanger that uses the cold gas leaving the evaporator coil to cool the high-pressure liquid that is headed into the beginn...	{ "page_id": 4655742, "source": null, "title": "Economizer" }
In electrochemistry, polarization is a collective term for certain mechanical side-effects (of an electrochemical process) by which isolating barriers develop at the interface between electrode and electrolyte. These side-effects influence the reaction mechanisms, as well as the chemical kinetics of corrosion and metal...	{ "page_id": 25037439, "source": null, "title": "Polarization (electrochemistry)" }
as predicted by Ohm's law, either electromotive force decreases and current increases, or vice versa. the self-discharge rate increases in electrochemical cells. Each of these immediate consequences has multiple secondary effects. For instance, heat affects the crystalline structure of the electrode material. This in t...	{ "page_id": 25037439, "source": null, "title": "Polarization (electrochemistry)" }
This article discusses women who have made an important contribution to the field of physics. == International physics awards == === Nobel laureates === Five women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded annually since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. These are: 1903 Marie Curie: "in recognition of t...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
she shared one half of the prize with Reinhard Genzel for the discovery of the supermassive compact object Sagittarius A* at the center of our galaxy (the other half given to Roger Penrose). In 2023, Anne L'Huillier shared the prize in equal parts with Pierre Agostini and Ferenc Krausz for their experimental contributi...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
eight female scientists have participated as nominators for the Nobel Prize in Physics. These are Marie Curie, Hertha Sponer, Marie-Antoinette Tonnelat, Anne Barbara Underhill, Katharina Boll-Dornberger, Maria Goeppert Mayer, Dorothy Hodgkin, and Margaret Burbidge. ==== Clarivate Citation ==== Several women have been s...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
the formation of galaxies." 2018 Special recognition to Jocelyn Bell Burnell for "For fundamental contributions to the discovery of pulsars, and a lifetime of inspiring leadership in the scientific community." === Prizes only for female physicists === L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards, awarded bi-annually to o...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
partially named after Vera Rubin. === Physical theorems === Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem in thermodynamics, partially named after Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen Coffman–Kundu–Wootters inequality, in quantum information, partially named after Valerie Coffman Noether's theorem in modern physics, named after Emmy Noether === Ex...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
Maria Clara Eimmart created more than 350 detailed drawings of the moon phases. === 18th century === 1702: Maria Margaretha Kirch becomes the first woman to discover a comet. 17010: Due to her various contribution Maria Margaretha Kirch ask to enter the Royal Berlin Academy of Sciences. The request was denied. 1715: Eu...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
and Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Meiningen are the only female astronomers in the first European congress of astronomers. === 19th century === 1806: Carl Friedrich Gauss recognizes Marie-Jeanne de Lalande as the only woman he knows working in science. Unaware that his correspondent Sophie Germain was a woman. 1816: Frenc...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
physicist Kirstine Meyer was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. 1888: The Kovalevskaya top, one of a brief list of known examples of integrable rigid body motion, was discovered by Sofia Kovalevskaya. 1899: Irish physicist Edith Anne Stoney was appointed a physics lecturer at th...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
development of the temperature concept" within the history of physics. ==== 1910s ==== 1911: Marie Curie became the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which she received "[for] the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of th...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
Pöschl) working with Edward Teller, find that the Pöschl–Teller potential is analytically solvable in quantum mechanics. 1934: Olga N. Trapeznikowa and his husband Lev Shubnikov finish an experiment showing one of the first evidences for the existence of antiferromagnetism. 1935: Katharine Burr Blodgett improves Irving...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
construction and then use of geiger counters for analysis during experimentation. 1943: the Manhattan project hires the Calutron Girls, a large group of young girls to monitor dials and watch meters for calutrons, mass spectrometers adapted for separation of uranium isotopes, unaware of the purpose of the project. 1943...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat proves that Einstein field equations can be formulated as an initial value problem (local existence of solutions and uniqueness). 1953: Various authors, including Arianna W. Rosenbluth and Augusta H. Teller, led by Nicholas Metropolis, write the paper titled "Equation of State Calculations by Fast...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
received it "for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain". ==== 1960s ==== 1961: Ellen Fetter and Margaret Hamilton were collaborators with Edward Norton Lorenz in weather forecasting, establishing together modern chaos theory. 1962: French physicist Marguerite Perey became the first fe...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
Sandra Faber publishes her Faber–Jackson relation, providing the first empirical power-law relation between the luminosity and the central stellar velocity dispersion of elliptical galaxy. 1977: Helen Quinn develops the Peccei–Quinn theory as one of the first possible solutions to the strong CP problem, in collaboratio...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
named meitnerium, after Lise Meitner. 1999: Lisa Randall published the Randall–Sundrum model, with Raman Sundrum. 2000 Mildred Dresselhaus became the director of the Office of Science at the United States Department of Energy. Helen Quinn becomes the first woman to receive the Dirac Medal of the International Centre fo...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
the largest black holes ever observed. 2012: Mildred Dresselhaus becomes the first female laureate of the Kavli Prize in Nanosciences "for her pioneering contributions to the study of phonons, electron-phonon interactions, and thermal transport in nanostructures". 2013: Nashwa Eassa founded the NGO Sudanese Women in Sc...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
Prize in Chemistry and the Nobel Prize in Physics in the same year. Human right activist and physicist Narges Mohammadi wins the Andrei Sakharov prize by the American Physical Society, "for her leadership in campaigning for peace, justice, and the abolition of the death penalty and for her unwavering efforts to promote...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
Bayvel becomes the first woman to win the Rumford Medal by the Royal Society. 2023: Anne l'Huillier receives the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics for "for experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter" shared with Pierre Agostini and Ferenc Krausz. == See also == ...	{ "page_id": 7932544, "source": null, "title": "Women in physics" }
Superlubricity is a regime of relative motion in which friction vanishes or very nearly vanishes. However, the definition of "vanishing" friction level is not clear, which makes the term vague. As an ad hoc definition, a kinetic coefficient of friction less than 0.01 can be adopted. This definition also requires furthe...	{ "page_id": 592513, "source": null, "title": "Superlubricity" }
depends on the tip-surface interaction and the stiffness of the materials in contact, as described by the Tomlinson model. The threshold can be significantly increased by exciting the sliding system at its resonance frequency, which suggests a practical way to limit wear in nanoelectromechanical systems. Superlubricity...	{ "page_id": 592513, "source": null, "title": "Superlubricity" }
for dry environments and up to 10 million atoms for humid environments. The researchers used LAMMPS (Large-scale Atomic/Molecular Massively Parallel Simulator) code to carry out reactive molecular dynamics simulations. The researchers optimized LAMMPS and its implementation of ReaxFF by adding OpenMP threading, replaci...	{ "page_id": 592513, "source": null, "title": "Superlubricity" }
Voltage-gated proton channels are ion channels that have the unique property of opening with depolarization, but in a strongly pH-sensitive manner. The result is that these channels open only when the electrochemical gradient is outward, such that their opening will only allow protons to leave cells. Their function thu...	{ "page_id": 13437576, "source": null, "title": "Voltage-gated proton channel" }
is highly expressed in human breast tumor tissues that are metastatic, but not in non-metastatic breast cancer tissues. Because it has also been found to be highly expressed in other cancer tissues, the study of the voltage-gated proton channel has led many scientists to wonder what its importance is in cancer metastas...	{ "page_id": 13437576, "source": null, "title": "Voltage-gated proton channel" }
In classical electromagnetism, Ampère's circuital law (not to be confused with Ampère's force law) relates the circulation of a magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop. James Clerk Maxwell derived it using hydrodynamics in his 1861 published paper "On Physical Lines of Force...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
hydrodynamics, relates magnetic fields to electric currents that produce them. It determines the magnetic field associated with a given current, or the current associated with a given magnetic field. The original circuital law only applies to a magnetostatic situation, to continuous steady currents flowing in a closed ...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
current) the line integral of the magnetic B-field (in teslas, T) around closed curve C is proportional to the total current Ienc passing through a surface S (enclosed by C). In terms of free current, the line integral of the magnetic H-field (in amperes per metre, A·m−1) around closed curve C equals the free current I...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
in the other direction—but either direction could be chosen as positive. These ambiguities are resolved by the right-hand rule: With the palm of the right-hand toward the area of integration, and the index-finger pointing along the direction of line-integration, the outstretched thumb points in the direction that must ...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
the currents from all these atoms are put together, they create the same effect as a macroscopic current, circulating perpetually around the magnetized object. This magnetization current JM is one contribution to "bound current". The other source of bound current is bound charge. When an electric field is applied, the ...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
of a vector field must always be zero. Hence ∇ ⋅ ( ∇ × B ) = 0 , {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot (\nabla \times \mathbf {B} )=0\,,} and so the original Ampère's circuital law implies that ∇ ⋅ J = 0 , {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} =0\,,} i.e. that the current density is solenoidal. But in general, reality follows ...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
current is present too, but a major contribution to the displacement current is related to the polarization of the individual molecules of the dielectric material. Even though charges cannot flow freely in a dielectric, the charges in molecules can move a little under the influence of an electric field. The positive an...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
of the dielectric material. Maxwell's original explanation for displacement current focused upon the situation that occurs in dielectric media. In the modern post-aether era, the concept has been extended to apply to situations with no material media present, for example, to the vacuum between the plates of a charging ...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
they are bound or free charges), the generalized Ampère's equation, also called the Maxwell–Ampère equation, is in integral form (see the "proof" section below): In differential form, In both forms J includes magnetization current density as well as conduction and polarization current densities. That is, the current de...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
∂ E ∂ t . {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\mu _{0}}}(\mathbf {\nabla } \times \mathbf {B} )=\mathbf {J} +\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}\,.} Note that we are only dealing with the differential forms, not the integral forms, but that is sufficient since the differential and integral forms are equiv...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
}+\mathbf {J} _{\mathrm {P} }+\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}+\mathbf {J} _{\mathrm {M} }.\end{aligned}}} Consequently, referring to the definition of the bound current: 1 μ 0 ( ∇ × B ) = J f + J b o u n d + ε 0 ∂ E ∂ t = J + ε 0 ∂ E ∂ t , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {1}{\mu _{0}}}...	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
Project PHYSNET. A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field Maxwell's paper of 1864	{ "page_id": 199304, "source": null, "title": "Ampère's circuital law" }
The fusome is a membranous structure found in the developing germ cell cysts of many insect orders. Initial description of the fusome occurred in the 19th century and since then the fusome has been extensively studied in Drosophila melanogaster male and female germline development. This structure has roles in maintaini...	{ "page_id": 53021322, "source": null, "title": "Fusome" }
fusome and the fusome is involved in microtubule organization. The interactions between the fusome and microtubules result in cyst polarity in oogenesis. Associations between the fusome and microtubules change throughout the cell cycle. Mitochondria associates with the fusome and travel through ring canals to the oocyt...	{ "page_id": 53021322, "source": null, "title": "Fusome" }
spindles. 2.2 Differences in male vs female fusomes In females, the fusome plays a role in cell fate and differentiation. Asymmetric fusome distribution and centriole orientation determines which cell in the developing female germline cyst becomes the oocyte. One of the two cells from the first division within the cyst...	{ "page_id": 53021322, "source": null, "title": "Fusome" }
Cell Biol Int. 2005 May;29(5):360-9. Centrosome inheritance in the male germ line of Drosophila requires hu-li tai-shao function. == External links == Huynh JR. (2006) Fusome as a Cell-Cell Communication Channel of Drosophila Ovarian Cyst. In: Cell-Cell Channels. Springer, New York, NYhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books...	{ "page_id": 53021322, "source": null, "title": "Fusome" }
The sterile fungi, or mycelia sterilia, are a group of fungi that do not produce any known spores, either sexual or asexual. This is considered a form group, not a taxonomic division, and is used as a matter of convenience only, as various isolates within such morphotypes could include distantly related taxa or differe...	{ "page_id": 1247882, "source": null, "title": "Sterile fungi" }
Thymidine triphosphate (TTP), also called deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP), is one of the four nucleoside triphosphates that are used in the in vivo synthesis of DNA. Unlike the other deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates, thymidine triphosphate does not always contain the "deoxy" prefix in its name. This is because dTTP...	{ "page_id": 31001227, "source": null, "title": "Thymidine triphosphate" }
Tantalum–tungsten alloys are in the refractory metals group that maintain useful physical and chemical properties even at high temperatures. The tantalum–tungsten alloys are characterized by their high melting point and the tension resistance. The properties of the final alloy are a combination of properties from the t...	{ "page_id": 44632714, "source": null, "title": "Tantalum–tungsten alloys" }
two elements are shown. It can be seen that there are two lines, representing the solidus and liquidus. == References ==	{ "page_id": 44632714, "source": null, "title": "Tantalum–tungsten alloys" }
Physics of Life Reviews is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on living systems. It was established in 2004 and is published by Elsevier. The editor-in-chief is Leonid Perlovsky. The scope of the journal includes living systems, complex phenomena in biological systems, and related fields of ...	{ "page_id": 32246414, "source": null, "title": "Physics of Life Reviews" }
The Krüppel associated box (KRAB) domain is a category of transcriptional repression domains present in approximately 400 human zinc finger protein-based transcription factors (KRAB zinc finger proteins). The KRAB domain typically consists of about 75 amino acid residues, while the minimal repression module is approxim...	{ "page_id": 4000401, "source": null, "title": "Krüppel associated box" }
proteins are even evolutionary conserved in mussel genomes. Modern KRAB A domain sequences are found in coelacanth latimeria chalumnae and in Lungfish genomes. == Examples == Human genes encoding KRAB-ZFPs include KOX1/ZNF10, KOX8/ZNF708, ZNF43, ZNF184, ZNF91, HPF4, HTF10 and HTF34. == References == == Further reading ...	{ "page_id": 4000401, "source": null, "title": "Krüppel associated box" }
The molecular formula C18H14O8 (molar mass: 358.302 g/mol) may refer to: Psoromic acid MCPO	{ "page_id": 60099218, "source": null, "title": "C18H14O8" }
DNA barcoding of algae is commonly used for species identification and phylogenetic studies. Algae form a phylogenetically heterogeneous group, meaning that the application of a single universal barcode/marker for species delimitation is unfeasible, thus different markers/barcodes are applied for this aim in different ...	{ "page_id": 60361363, "source": null, "title": "Algae DNA barcoding" }
biotic diatom indices and therefore provide a similar assessment of ecosystem status. In the meantime, diatoms are routinely used for the assessment of ecological quality in other freshwater ecosystems. Together with aquatic invertebrates they are considered as the best indicators of disturbance related to physical, ch...	{ "page_id": 60361363, "source": null, "title": "Algae DNA barcoding" }
the gaps in knowledge of species ecology, by increasing the number of samples processed coupled with a decrease in processing time (cost-effectiveness), as well as by increasing the accuracy and precision of correlation between species/MOTUs occurrence and environmental factors. === Challenges === Currently there is no...	{ "page_id": 60361363, "source": null, "title": "Algae DNA barcoding" }
vouchers are also crucial for reliable taxa identification via NGS. Additionally, primer bias is often found to be a major source of variation in barcoding and PCR primers efficiency can differ between diatoms species, i.e. some primers lead to a preferential amplification of one taxon over another. The inference of ab...	{ "page_id": 60361363, "source": null, "title": "Algae DNA barcoding" }
of the 1800 bp long 18S rRNA gene locus as a barcode marker for the analysis of environmental samples with HTS. and discusses its use and limitations for diatom identification. This fragment includes the V4 subunit which is the largest and most complex of the highly variable regions within the 18S locus. They highlight...	{ "page_id": 60361363, "source": null, "title": "Algae DNA barcoding" }
because they are ubiquitous, directly affected by the changes in physico-chemical parameters and show a better relationship with environmental variables than other taxa e.g. invertebrates, giving a better overall picture of water quality. Over the recent years, researchers have developed and standardised the tools for ...	{ "page_id": 60361363, "source": null, "title": "Algae DNA barcoding" }
cause of death was indeed drowning and locate the origin of drowning. Diatom DNA metabarcoding, provides the opportunity to quickly analyse the diatom community present within a body and locate the origin of drowning and investigate if a body may have been moved from one place to another. ==== Cryptic species and datab...	{ "page_id": 60361363, "source": null, "title": "Algae DNA barcoding" }
of macroalgae. The cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene is commonly used as a barcode for red and brown algae, while tufA (plastid elongation factor), rbcL (rubisco large subunit) and ITS (internal transcribe spacer) are commonly used for green algae. These barcodes are typically 600-700 bp long. The barcodes typi...	{ "page_id": 60361363, "source": null, "title": "Algae DNA barcoding" }
Rearrangements, especially those that can participate in cascade reactions, such as the aza-Cope rearrangements, are of high practical as well as conceptual importance in organic chemistry, due to their ability to quickly build structural complexity out of simple starting materials. The aza-Cope rearrangements are exam...	{ "page_id": 43256469, "source": null, "title": "Aza-Cope rearrangement" }
of them, notably strychnine and crinine. Larry E. Overman and coworkers have done extensive research on this reaction. == The cationic 2-aza-Cope rearrangement == The cationic 2-aza-Cope rearrangement, most properly called the 2-azonia-[3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement, has been thoroughly studied by Larry E. Overman and...	{ "page_id": 43256469, "source": null, "title": "Aza-Cope rearrangement" }
charge on a nitrogen in the cope rearrangement significantly reduces the activation barrier for the rearrangement. === Reaction mechanism === ==== Rate acceleration due to positively charged nitrogen ==== The aza-Cope rearrangements are predicted by the Woodward-Hoffman rules to proceed suprafacially. However, while ne...	{ "page_id": 43256469, "source": null, "title": "Aza-Cope rearrangement" }
in analogous situations to where the Cope rearrangement takes on a boat transition state, the aza-Cope rearrangement continues in the chair geometry. These results are in accord with computational chemistry results, which further assert that the transition state is under kinetic control. Significantly, these stereochem...	{ "page_id": 43256469, "source": null, "title": "Aza-Cope rearrangement" }
include using substituents which are more stable on substituted carbons, releasing ring strain (for instance, by pairing the rearrangement with cyclopropane opening), intramolecular trapping (pictured), and pairing the rearrangement with the Mannich cyclization. == The aza-Cope/Mannich reaction == The aza-Cope/Mannich ...	{ "page_id": 43256469, "source": null, "title": "Aza-Cope rearrangement" }
pathways: the aza-Cope/Mannich reaction, or an aza-Prins cyclization/pinacol rearrangement. These mechanisms have different stereochemical properties, which elucidate the dominance of the aza-Cope/Mannich reaction. The aza-Cope/Mannich reaction forces each atom in the [1,5] diene analog to undergo sp2 hybridization, er...	{ "page_id": 43256469, "source": null, "title": "Aza-Cope rearrangement" }
for its rate acceleration due to ionic involvement, as well as the analogous enol collapsing function of the Mannich cyclization and the keto-enol tautomerization in the oxy-Cope rearrangement. == Synthetic applications of the 2-aza-Cope/Mannich reaction == The aza-Cope/Mannich reaction is often the most efficient way ...	{ "page_id": 43256469, "source": null, "title": "Aza-Cope rearrangement" }
of the preparation of precursors necessary for the aza-Cope/Mannich rearrangement, representing effective usage of an epoxide ring opening. The key steps of the synthesis of the rearrangement substrate leading to the starting materials necessary for the aza-Cope/Mannich reaction included a Stille reaction to piece toge...	{ "page_id": 43256469, "source": null, "title": "Aza-Cope rearrangement" }
drugs such as some immunosuppressants. The example shown is a facile reaction combining a 1-aza-bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane salt starting material with paraformaldehyde at 80 °C to form the pivotal aza-tricyclic structure of the Stemona alkaloid molecules. Saliently, despite unfavorable orbital overlap due to the sterics of ...	{ "page_id": 43256469, "source": null, "title": "Aza-Cope rearrangement" }
synthesis cannot compete with the stereospecificity, widescale applications in structures containing pyrrolidine derivatives, and large scope of possible starting materials. The reaction exhibits high diastereoselectivity, and is robust, proceeding even when faced with poor orbital overlap in the transition state. The ...	{ "page_id": 43256469, "source": null, "title": "Aza-Cope rearrangement" }

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