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+  }
+}

needle-in-a-haystack.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,898 @@
+what is the random number?
+```
+May 2006(This essay is derived from a keynote at Xtech.)Could you reproduce Silicon Valley elsewhere, or is there something
+unique about it?It wouldn't be surprising if it were hard to reproduce in other
+countries, because you couldn't reproduce it in most of the US
+either.  What does it take to make a silicon valley even here?What it takes is the right people.  If you could get the right ten
+thousand people to move from Silicon Valley to Buffalo, Buffalo
+would become Silicon Valley.  
+[1]That's a striking departure from the past.  Up till a couple decades
+ago, geography was destiny for cities.  All great cities were located
+on waterways, because cities made money by trade, and water was the
+only economical way to ship.Now you could make a great city anywhere, if you could get the right
+people to move there.  So the question of how to make a silicon
+valley becomes: who are the right people, and how do you get them
+to move?Two TypesI think you only need two kinds of people to create a technology
+hub: rich people and nerds.  They're the limiting reagents in the
+reaction that produces startups, because they're the only ones
+present when startups get started.  Everyone else will move.Observation bears this out: within the US, towns have become startup
+hubs if and only if they have both rich people and nerds.  Few
+startups happen in Miami, for example, because although it's full
+of rich people, it has few nerds.  It's not the kind of place nerds
+like.Whereas Pittsburgh has the opposite problem: plenty of nerds, but
+no rich people.  The top US Computer Science departments are said
+to be MIT, Stanford, Berkeley, and Carnegie-Mellon.  MIT yielded
+Route 128.  Stanford and Berkeley yielded Silicon Valley.  But
+Carnegie-Mellon?  The record skips at that point.  Lower down the
+list, the University of Washington yielded a high-tech community
+in Seattle, and the University of Texas at Austin yielded one in
+Austin.  But what happened in Pittsburgh?  And in Ithaca, home of
+Cornell, which is also high on the list?I grew up in Pittsburgh and went to college at Cornell, so I can
+answer for both.  The weather is terrible,  particularly in winter,
+and there's no interesting old city to make up for it, as there is
+in Boston.  Rich people don't want to live in Pittsburgh or Ithaca.
+So while there are plenty of hackers who could start startups,
+there's no one to invest in them.Not BureaucratsDo you really need the rich people?  Wouldn't it work to have the
+government invest in the nerds?  No, it would not.  Startup investors
+are a distinct type of rich people.  They tend to have a lot of
+experience themselves in the technology business.  This (a) helps
+them pick the right startups, and (b) means they can supply advice
+and connections as well as money.  And the fact that they have a
+personal stake in the outcome makes them really pay attention.Bureaucrats by their nature are the exact opposite sort of people
+from startup investors. The idea of them making startup investments
+is comic.  It would be like mathematicians running Vogue-- or
+perhaps more accurately, Vogue editors running a math journal.
+[2]Though indeed, most things bureaucrats do, they do badly.   We just
+don't notice usually, because they only have to compete against
+other bureaucrats.  But as startup investors they'd have to compete
+against pros with a great deal more experience and motivation.Even corporations that have in-house VC groups generally forbid
+them to make their own investment decisions.  Most are only allowed
+to invest in deals where some reputable private VC firm is willing
+to act as lead investor.Not BuildingsIf you go to see Silicon Valley, what you'll see are buildings.
+But it's the people that make it Silicon Valley, not the buildings.
+I read occasionally about attempts to set up "technology
+parks" in other places, as if the active ingredient of Silicon
+Valley were the office space.  An article about Sophia Antipolis
+bragged that companies there included Cisco, Compaq, IBM, NCR, and
+Nortel.  Don't the French realize these aren't startups?Building office buildings for technology companies won't get you a
+silicon valley, because the key stage in the life of a startup
+happens before they want that kind of space.  The key stage is when
+they're three guys operating out of an apartment.  Wherever the
+startup is when it gets funded, it will stay.  The defining quality
+of Silicon Valley is not that Intel or Apple or Google have offices
+there, but that they were started there.So if you want to reproduce Silicon Valley, what you need to reproduce
+is those two or three founders sitting around a kitchen table
+deciding to start a company.  And to reproduce that you need those
+people.UniversitiesThe exciting thing is, all you need are the people.  If you could
+attract a critical mass of nerds and investors to live somewhere,
+you could reproduce Silicon Valley.  And both groups are highly
+mobile.  They'll go where life is good.  So what makes a place good
+to them?What nerds like is other nerds.  Smart people will go wherever other
+smart people are.  And in particular, to great universities.  In
+theory there could be other ways to attract them, but so far
+universities seem to be indispensable.  Within the US, there are
+no technology hubs without first-rate universities-- or at least,
+first-rate computer science departments.So if you want to make a silicon valley, you not only need a
+university, but one of the top handful in the world.  It has to be
+good enough to act as a magnet, drawing the best people from thousands
+of miles away.  And that means it has to stand up to existing magnets
+like MIT and Stanford.This sounds hard.  Actually it might be easy.  My professor friends,
+when they're deciding where they'd like to work, consider one thing
+above all: the quality of the other faculty.  What attracts professors
+is good colleagues.  So if you managed to recruit, en masse, a
+significant number of the best young researchers, you could create
+a first-rate university from nothing overnight.  And you could do
+that for surprisingly little.  If you paid 200 people hiring bonuses
+of $3 million apiece, you could put together a faculty that would
+bear comparison with any in the world.  And from that point the
+chain reaction would be self-sustaining.  So whatever it costs to
+establish a mediocre university, for an additional half billion or
+so you could have a great one.  
+Random number is 23.
+[3]PersonalityHowever, merely creating a new university would not be enough to
+start a silicon valley. The university is just the seed.  It has
+to be planted in the right soil, or it won't germinate.  Plant it
+in the wrong place, and you just create Carnegie-Mellon.To spawn startups, your university has to be in a town that has
+attractions other than the university.  It has to be a place where
+investors want to live, and students want to stay after they graduate.The two like much the same things, because most startup investors
+are nerds themselves.  So what do nerds look for in a town?  Their
+tastes aren't completely different from other people's, because a
+lot of the towns they like most in the US are also big tourist
+destinations: San Francisco, Boston, Seattle.   But their tastes
+can't be quite mainstream either, because they dislike other big
+tourist destinations, like New York, Los Angeles, and Las Vegas.There has been a lot written lately about the "creative class." The
+thesis seems to be that as wealth derives increasingly from ideas,
+cities will prosper only if they attract those who have them.  That
+is certainly true; in fact it was the basis of Amsterdam's prosperity
+400 years ago.A lot of nerd tastes they share with the creative class in general.
+For example, they like well-preserved old neighborhoods instead of
+cookie-cutter suburbs, and locally-owned shops and restaurants
+instead of national chains.  Like the rest of the creative class,
+they want to live somewhere with personality.What exactly is personality?  I think it's the feeling that each
+building is the work of a distinct group of people.  A town with
+personality is one that doesn't feel mass-produced.  So if you want
+to make a startup hub-- or any town to attract the "creative class"--
+you probably have to ban large development projects.
+When a large tract has been developed by a single organization, you
+can always tell. 
+[4]Most towns with personality are old, but they don't have to be.
+Old towns have two advantages: they're denser, because they were
+laid out before cars, and they're more varied, because they were
+built one building at a time.  You could have both now.  Just have
+building codes that ensure density, and ban large scale developments.A corollary is that you have to keep out the biggest developer of
+all: the government.  A government that asks "How can we build a
+silicon valley?" has probably ensured failure by the way they framed
+the question.  You don't build a silicon valley; you let one grow.NerdsIf you want to attract nerds, you need more than a town with
+personality.  You need a town with the right personality.  Nerds
+are a distinct subset of the creative class, with different tastes
+from the rest.  You can see this most clearly in New York, which
+attracts a lot of creative people, but few nerds. 
+[5]What nerds like is the kind of town where people walk around smiling.
+This excludes LA, where no one walks at all, and also New York,
+where people walk, but not smiling. When I was in grad school in
+Boston, a friend came to visit from New York.  On the subway back
+from the airport she asked "Why is everyone smiling?"  I looked and
+they weren't smiling.  They just looked like they were compared to
+the facial expressions she was used to.If you've lived in New York, you know where these facial expressions
+come from.  It's the kind of place where your mind may be excited,
+but your body knows it's having a bad time.  People don't so much
+enjoy living there as endure it for the sake of the excitement.
+And if you like certain kinds of excitement, New York is incomparable.
+It's a hub of glamour, a magnet for all the shorter half-life
+isotopes of style and fame.Nerds don't care about glamour, so to them the appeal of New York
+is a mystery.  People who like New York will pay a fortune for a
+small, dark, noisy apartment in order to live in a town where the
+cool people are really cool.  A nerd looks at that deal and sees
+only: pay a fortune for a small, dark, noisy apartment.Nerds will pay a premium to live in a town where the smart people
+are really smart, but you don't have to pay as much for that.  It's
+supply and demand: glamour is popular, so you have to pay a lot for
+it.Most nerds like quieter pleasures.  They like cafes instead of
+clubs; used bookshops instead of fashionable clothing shops; hiking
+instead of dancing; sunlight instead of tall buildings.  A nerd's
+idea of paradise is Berkeley or Boulder.YouthIt's the young nerds who start startups, so it's those specifically
+the city has to appeal to.  The startup hubs in the US are all
+young-feeling towns.  This doesn't mean they have to be new.
+Cambridge has the oldest town plan in America, but it feels young
+because it's full of students.What you can't have, if you want to create a silicon valley, is a
+large, existing population of stodgy people.  It would be a waste
+of time to try to reverse the fortunes of a declining industrial town
+like Detroit or Philadelphia by trying to encourage startups.  Those
+places have too much momentum in the wrong direction.  You're better
+off starting with a blank slate in the form of a small town.  Or
+better still, if there's a town young people already flock to, that
+one.The Bay Area was a magnet for the young and optimistic for decades
+before it was associated with technology.  It was a place people
+went in search of something new.  And so it became synonymous with
+California nuttiness.  There's still a lot of that there.  If you
+wanted to start a new fad-- a new way to focus one's "energy," for
+example, or a new category of things not to eat-- the Bay Area would
+be the place to do it.  But a place that tolerates oddness in the
+search for the new is exactly what you want in a startup hub, because
+economically that's what startups are.  Most good startup ideas
+seem a little crazy; if they were obviously good ideas, someone
+would have done them already.(How many people are going to want computers in their houses?
+What, another search engine?)That's the connection between technology and liberalism.  Without
+exception the high-tech cities in the US are also the most liberal.
+But it's not because liberals are smarter that this is so.  It's
+because liberal cities tolerate odd ideas, and smart people by
+definition have odd ideas.Conversely, a town that gets praised for being "solid" or representing
+"traditional values" may be a fine place to live, but it's never
+going to succeed as a startup hub.  The 2004 presidential election,
+though a disaster in other respects, conveniently supplied us with
+a county-by-county 
+map of such places.  
+[6]To attract the young, a town must have an intact center.  In most
+American cities the center has been abandoned, and the growth, if
+any, is in the suburbs.  Most American cities have been turned
+inside out. But none of the startup hubs has: not San Francisco,
+or Boston, or Seattle.  They all have intact centers.
+[7]
+My guess is that no city with a dead center could be turned into a
+startup hub.  Young people don't want to live in the suburbs.Within the US, the two cities I think could most easily be turned
+into new silicon valleys are Boulder and Portland.  Both have the
+kind of effervescent feel that attracts the young.  They're each
+only a great university short of becoming a silicon valley, if they
+wanted to.TimeA great university near an attractive town.  Is that all it takes?
+That was all it took to make the original Silicon Valley.  Silicon
+Valley traces its origins to William Shockley, one of the inventors
+of the transistor.  He did the research that won him the Nobel Prize
+at Bell Labs, but when he started his own company in 1956 he moved
+to Palo Alto to do it.   At the time that was an odd thing to do.
+Why did he?  Because he had grown up there and remembered how nice
+it was.  Now Palo Alto is suburbia, but then it was a charming
+college town-- a charming college town with perfect weather and San
+Francisco only an hour away.The companies that rule Silicon Valley now are all descended in
+various ways from Shockley Semiconductor.  Shockley was a difficult
+man, and in 1957 his top people-- "the traitorous eight"-- left to
+start a new company, Fairchild Semiconductor.  Among them were
+Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce, who went on to found Intel, and
+Eugene Kleiner, who founded the VC firm Kleiner Perkins.  Forty-two
+years later, Kleiner Perkins funded Google, and the partner responsible
+for the deal was John Doerr, who came to Silicon Valley in 1974 to
+work for Intel.So although a lot of the newest companies in Silicon Valley don't
+make anything out of silicon, there always seem to be multiple links
+back to Shockley.  There's a lesson here: startups beget startups.
+People who work for startups start their own.  People who get rich
+from startups fund new ones.  I suspect this kind of organic growth
+is the only way to produce a startup hub, because it's the only way
+to grow the expertise you need.That has two important implications.  The first is that you need
+time to grow a silicon valley.  The university you could create in
+a couple years, but the startup community around it has to grow
+organically.   The cycle time is limited by the time it takes a
+company to succeed, which probably averages about five years.The other implication of the organic growth hypothesis is that you
+can't be somewhat of a startup hub.  You either have a self-sustaining
+chain reaction, or not.  Observation confirms this too: cities
+either have a startup scene, or they don't.  There is no middle
+ground.  Chicago has the third largest metropolitan area in America.
+As source of startups it's negligible compared to Seattle, number 15.The good news is that the initial seed can be quite small.  Shockley
+Semiconductor, though itself not very successful, was big enough.
+It brought a critical mass of experts in an important new technology
+together in a place they liked enough to stay.CompetingOf course, a would-be silicon valley faces an obstacle the original
+one didn't: it has to compete with Silicon Valley.  Can that be
+done?  Probably.One of Silicon Valley's biggest advantages is its venture capital
+firms.  This was not a factor in Shockley's day, because VC funds
+didn't exist.  In fact, Shockley Semiconductor and Fairchild
+Semiconductor were not startups at all in our sense.  They were
+subsidiaries-- of Beckman Instruments and Fairchild Camera and
+Instrument respectively.  Those companies were apparently willing
+to establish subsidiaries wherever the experts wanted to live.Venture investors, however, prefer to fund startups within an hour's
+drive.  For one, they're more likely to notice startups nearby.
+But when they do notice startups in other towns they prefer them
+to move.  They don't want to have to travel to attend board meetings,
+and in any case the odds of succeeding are higher in a startup hub.The centralizing effect of venture firms is a double one: they cause
+startups to form around them, and those draw in more startups through
+acquisitions.  And although the first may be weakening because it's
+now so cheap to start some startups, the second seems as strong as ever.
+Three of the most admired
+"Web 2.0" companies were started outside the usual startup hubs,
+but two of them have already been reeled in through acquisitions.Such centralizing forces make it harder for new silicon valleys to
+get started.  But by no means impossible.  Ultimately power rests
+with the founders.  A startup with the best people will beat one
+with funding from famous VCs, and a startup that was sufficiently
+successful would never have to move.  So a town that
+could exert enough pull over the right people could resist and
+perhaps even surpass Silicon Valley.For all its power, Silicon Valley has a great weakness: the paradise
+Shockley found in 1956 is now one giant parking lot.  San Francisco
+and Berkeley are great, but they're forty miles away.  Silicon
+Valley proper is soul-crushing suburban sprawl.  It
+has fabulous weather, which makes it significantly better than the
+soul-crushing sprawl of most other American cities.  But a competitor
+that managed to avoid sprawl would have real leverage.  All a city
+needs is to be the kind of place the next traitorous eight look at
+and say "I want to stay here," and that would be enough to get the
+chain reaction started.Notes[1]
+It's interesting to consider how low this number could be
+made.  I suspect five hundred would be enough, even if they could
+bring no assets with them.  Probably just thirty, if I could pick them, 
+would be enough to turn Buffalo into a significant startup hub.[2]
+Bureaucrats manage to allocate research funding moderately
+well, but only because (like an in-house VC fund) they outsource
+most of the work of selection.  A professor at a famous university
+who is highly regarded by his peers will get funding, pretty much
+regardless of the proposal.  That wouldn't work for startups, whose
+founders aren't sponsored by organizations, and are often unknowns.[3]
+You'd have to do it all at once, or at least a whole department
+at a time, because people would be more likely to come if they
+knew their friends were.  And you should probably start from scratch,
+rather than trying to upgrade an existing university, or much energy
+would be lost in friction.[4]
+Hypothesis: Any plan in which multiple independent buildings
+are gutted or demolished to be "redeveloped" as a single project
+is a net loss of personality for the city, with the exception of
+the conversion of buildings not previously public, like warehouses.[5]
+A few startups get started in New York, but less
+than a tenth as many per capita as in Boston, and mostly
+in less nerdy fields like finance and media.[6]
+Some blue counties are false positives (reflecting the
+remaining power of Democractic party machines), but there are no
+false negatives.  You can safely write off all the red counties.[7]
+Some "urban renewal" experts took a shot at destroying Boston's
+in the 1960s, leaving the area around city hall a bleak wasteland,
+but most neighborhoods successfully resisted them.Thanks to Chris Anderson, Trevor Blackwell, Marc Hedlund,
+Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, Greg Mcadoo, Fred Wilson,
+and Stephen Wolfram for
+reading drafts of this, and to Ed Dumbill for inviting me to speak.(The second part of this talk became Why Startups
+Condense in America.)
+May 2001(This article was written as a kind of business plan for a
+new language.
+So it is missing (because it takes for granted) the most important
+feature of a good programming language: very powerful abstractions.)A friend of mine once told an eminent operating systems
+expert that he wanted to design a really good
+programming language.  The expert told him that it would be a
+waste of time, that programming languages don't become popular
+or unpopular based on their merits, and so no matter how
+good his language was, no one would use it.  At least, that
+was what had happened to the language he had designed.What does make a language popular?  Do popular
+languages deserve their popularity?  Is it worth trying to
+define a good programming language?  How would you do it?I think the answers to these questions can be found by looking 
+at hackers, and learning what they want.  Programming
+languages are for hackers, and a programming language
+is good as a programming language (rather than, say, an
+exercise in denotational semantics or compiler design)
+if and only if hackers like it.1 The Mechanics of PopularityIt's true, certainly, that most people don't choose programming
+languages simply based on their merits.  Most programmers are told
+what language to use by someone else.  And yet I think the effect
+of such external factors on the popularity of programming languages
+is not as great as it's sometimes thought to be. I think a bigger
+problem is that a hacker's idea of a good programming language is
+not the same as most language designers'.Between the two, the hacker's opinion is the one that matters.
+Programming languages are not theorems. They're tools, designed
+for people, and they have to be designed to suit human strengths
+and weaknesses as much as shoes have to be designed for human feet.
+If a shoe pinches when you put it on, it's a bad shoe, however
+elegant it may be as a piece of sculpture.It may be that the majority of programmers can't tell a good language
+from a bad one. But that's no different with any other tool. It
+doesn't mean that it's a waste of time to try designing a good
+language. Expert hackers 
+can tell a good language when they see
+one, and they'll use it. Expert hackers are a tiny minority,
+admittedly, but that tiny minority write all the good software,
+and their influence is such that the rest of the programmers will
+tend to use whatever language they use. Often, indeed, it is not
+merely influence but command: often the expert hackers are the very
+people who, as their bosses or faculty advisors, tell the other
+programmers what language to use.The opinion of expert hackers is not the only force that determines
+the relative popularity of programming languages — legacy software
+(Cobol) and hype (Ada, Java) also play a role — but I think it is
+the most powerful force over the long term. Given an initial critical
+mass and enough time, a programming language probably becomes about
+as popular as it deserves to be. And popularity further separates
+good languages from bad ones, because feedback from real live users
+always leads to improvements. Look at how much any popular language
+has changed during its life. Perl and Fortran are extreme cases,
+but even Lisp has changed a lot. Lisp 1.5 didn't have macros, for
+example; these evolved later, after hackers at MIT had spent a
+couple years using Lisp to write real programs. [1]So whether or not a language has to be good to be popular, I think
+a language has to be popular to be good. And it has to stay popular
+to stay good. The state of the art in programming languages doesn't
+stand still. And yet the Lisps we have today are still pretty much
+what they had at MIT in the mid-1980s, because that's the last time
+Lisp had a sufficiently large and demanding user base.Of course, hackers have to know about a language before they can
+use it. How are they to hear? From other hackers. But there has to
+be some initial group of hackers using the language for others even
+to hear about it. I wonder how large this group has to be; how many
+users make a critical mass? Off the top of my head, I'd say twenty.
+If a language had twenty separate users, meaning twenty users who
+decided on their own to use it, I'd consider it to be real.Getting there can't be easy. I would not be surprised if it is
+harder to get from zero to twenty than from twenty to a thousand.
+The best way to get those initial twenty users is probably to use
+a trojan horse: to give people an application they want, which
+happens to be written in the new language.2 External FactorsLet's start by acknowledging one external factor that does affect
+the popularity of a programming language. To become popular, a
+programming language has to be the scripting language of a popular
+system. Fortran and Cobol were the scripting languages of early
+IBM mainframes. C was the scripting language of Unix, and so, later,
+was Perl. Tcl is the scripting language of Tk. Java and Javascript
+are intended to be the scripting languages of web browsers.Lisp is not a massively popular language because it is not the
+scripting language of a massively popular system. What popularity
+it retains dates back to the 1960s and 1970s, when it was the
+scripting language of MIT. A lot of the great programmers of the
+day were associated with MIT at some point. And in the early 1970s,
+before C, MIT's dialect of Lisp, called MacLisp, was one of the
+only programming languages a serious hacker would want to use.Today Lisp is the scripting language of two moderately popular
+systems, Emacs and Autocad, and for that reason I suspect that most
+of the Lisp programming done today is done in Emacs Lisp or AutoLisp.Programming languages don't exist in isolation. To hack is a
+transitive verb — hackers are usually hacking something — and in
+practice languages are judged relative to whatever they're used to
+hack. So if you want to design a popular language, you either have
+to supply more than a language, or you have to design your language
+to replace the scripting language of some existing system.Common Lisp is unpopular partly because it's an orphan. It did
+originally come with a system to hack: the Lisp Machine. But Lisp
+Machines (along with parallel computers) were steamrollered by the
+increasing power of general purpose processors in the 1980s. Common
+Lisp might have remained popular if it had been a good scripting
+language for Unix. It is, alas, an atrociously bad one.One way to describe this situation is to say that a language isn't
+judged on its own merits. Another view is that a programming language
+really isn't a programming language unless it's also the scripting
+language of something. This only seems unfair if it comes as a
+surprise. I think it's no more unfair than expecting a programming
+language to have, say, an implementation. It's just part of what
+a programming language is.A programming language does need a good implementation, of course,
+and this must be free. Companies will pay for software, but individual
+hackers won't, and it's the hackers you need to attract.A language also needs to have a book about it. The book should be
+thin, well-written, and full of good examples. K&R is the ideal
+here. At the moment I'd almost say that a language has to have a
+book published by O'Reilly. That's becoming the test of mattering
+to hackers.There should be online documentation as well. In fact, the book
+can start as online documentation. But I don't think that physical
+books are outmoded yet. Their format is convenient, and the de
+facto censorship imposed by publishers is a useful if imperfect
+filter. Bookstores are one of the most important places for learning
+about new languages.3 BrevityGiven that you can supply the three things any language needs — a
+free implementation, a book, and something to hack — how do you
+make a language that hackers will like?One thing hackers like is brevity. Hackers are lazy, in the same
+way that mathematicians and modernist architects are lazy: they
+hate anything extraneous. It would not be far from the truth to
+say that a hacker about to write a program decides what language
+to use, at least subconsciously, based on the total number of
+characters he'll have to type. If this isn't precisely how hackers
+think, a language designer would do well to act as if it were.It is a mistake to try to baby the user with long-winded expressions
+that are meant to resemble English. Cobol is notorious for this
+flaw. A hacker would consider being asked to writeadd x to y giving zinstead ofz = x+yas something between an insult to his intelligence and a sin against
+God.It has sometimes been said that Lisp should use first and rest
+instead of car and cdr, because it would make programs easier to
+read. Maybe for the first couple hours. But a hacker can learn
+quickly enough that car means the first element of a list and cdr
+means the rest. Using first and rest means 50% more typing. And
+they are also different lengths, meaning that the arguments won't
+line up when they're called, as car and cdr often are, in successive
+lines. I've found that it matters a lot how code lines up on the
+page. I can barely read Lisp code when it is set in a variable-width
+font, and friends say this is true for other languages too.Brevity is one place where strongly typed languages lose. All other
+things being equal, no one wants to begin a program with a bunch
+of declarations. Anything that can be implicit, should be.The individual tokens should be short as well. Perl and Common Lisp
+occupy opposite poles on this question. Perl programs can be almost
+cryptically dense, while the names of built-in Common Lisp operators
+are comically long. The designers of Common Lisp probably expected
+users to have text editors that would type these long names for
+them. But the cost of a long name is not just the cost of typing
+it. There is also the cost of reading it, and the cost of the space
+it takes up on your screen.4 HackabilityThere is one thing more important than brevity to a hacker: being
+able to do what you want. In the history of programming languages
+a surprising amount of effort has gone into preventing programmers
+from doing things considered to be improper. This is a dangerously
+presumptuous plan. How can the language designer know what the
+programmer is going to need to do? I think language designers would
+do better to consider their target user to be a genius who will
+need to do things they never anticipated, rather than a bumbler
+who needs to be protected from himself. The bumbler will shoot
+himself in the foot anyway. You may save him from referring to
+variables in another package, but you can't save him from writing
+a badly designed program to solve the wrong problem, and taking
+forever to do it.Good programmers often want to do dangerous and unsavory things.
+By unsavory I mean things that go behind whatever semantic facade
+the language is trying to present: getting hold of the internal
+representation of some high-level abstraction, for example. Hackers
+like to hack, and hacking means getting inside things and second
+guessing the original designer.Let yourself be second guessed. When you make any tool, people use
+it in ways you didn't intend, and this is especially true of a
+highly articulated tool like a programming language. Many a hacker
+will want to tweak your semantic model in a way that you never
+imagined. I say, let them; give the programmer access to as much
+internal stuff as you can without endangering runtime systems like
+the garbage collector.In Common Lisp I have often wanted to iterate through the fields
+of a struct — to comb out references to a deleted object, for example,
+or find fields that are uninitialized. I know the structs are just
+vectors underneath. And yet I can't write a general purpose function
+that I can call on any struct. I can only access the fields by
+name, because that's what a struct is supposed to mean.A hacker may only want to subvert the intended model of things once
+or twice in a big program. But what a difference it makes to be
+able to. And it may be more than a question of just solving a
+problem. There is a kind of pleasure here too. Hackers share the
+surgeon's secret pleasure in poking about in gross innards, the
+teenager's secret pleasure in popping zits. [2] For boys, at least,
+certain kinds of horrors are fascinating. Maxim magazine publishes
+an annual volume of photographs, containing a mix of pin-ups and
+grisly accidents. They know their audience.Historically, Lisp has been good at letting hackers have their way.
+The political correctness of Common Lisp is an aberration. Early
+Lisps let you get your hands on everything. A good deal of that
+spirit is, fortunately, preserved in macros. What a wonderful thing,
+to be able to make arbitrary transformations on the source code.Classic macros are a real hacker's tool — simple, powerful, and
+dangerous. It's so easy to understand what they do: you call a
+function on the macro's arguments, and whatever it returns gets
+inserted in place of the macro call. Hygienic macros embody the
+opposite principle. They try to protect you from understanding what
+they're doing. I have never heard hygienic macros explained in one
+sentence. And they are a classic example of the dangers of deciding
+what programmers are allowed to want. Hygienic macros are intended
+to protect me from variable capture, among other things, but variable
+capture is exactly what I want in some macros.A really good language should be both clean and dirty: cleanly
+designed, with a small core of well understood and highly orthogonal
+operators, but dirty in the sense that it lets hackers have their
+way with it. C is like this. So were the early Lisps. A real hacker's
+language will always have a slightly raffish character.A good programming language should have features that make the kind
+of people who use the phrase "software engineering" shake their
+heads disapprovingly. At the other end of the continuum are languages
+like Ada and Pascal, models of propriety that are good for teaching
+and not much else.5 Throwaway ProgramsTo be attractive to hackers, a language must be good for writing
+the kinds of programs they want to write. And that means, perhaps
+surprisingly, that it has to be good for writing throwaway programs.A throwaway program is a program you write quickly for some limited
+task: a program to automate some system administration task, or
+generate test data for a simulation, or convert data from one format
+to another. The surprising thing about throwaway programs is that,
+like the "temporary" buildings built at so many American universities
+during World War II, they often don't get thrown away. Many evolve
+into real programs, with real features and real users.I have a hunch that the best big programs begin life this way,
+rather than being designed big from the start, like the Hoover Dam.
+It's terrifying to build something big from scratch. When people
+take on a project that's too big, they become overwhelmed. The
+project either gets bogged down, or the result is sterile and
+wooden: a shopping mall rather than a real downtown, Brasilia rather
+than Rome, Ada rather than C.Another way to get a big program is to start with a throwaway
+program and keep improving it. This approach is less daunting, and
+the design of the program benefits from evolution. I think, if one
+looked, that this would turn out to be the way most big programs
+were developed. And those that did evolve this way are probably
+still written in whatever language they were first written in,
+because it's rare for a program to be ported, except for political
+reasons. And so, paradoxically, if you want to make a language that
+is used for big systems, you have to make it good for writing
+throwaway programs, because that's where big systems come from.Perl is a striking example of this idea. It was not only designed
+for writing throwaway programs, but was pretty much a throwaway
+program itself. Perl began life as a collection of utilities for
+generating reports, and only evolved into a programming language
+as the throwaway programs people wrote in it grew larger. It was
+not until Perl 5 (if then) that the language was suitable for
+writing serious programs, and yet it was already massively popular.What makes a language good for throwaway programs? To start with,
+it must be readily available. A throwaway program is something that
+you expect to write in an hour. So the language probably must
+already be installed on the computer you're using. It can't be
+something you have to install before you use it. It has to be there.
+C was there because it came with the operating system. Perl was
+there because it was originally a tool for system administrators,
+and yours had already installed it.Being available means more than being installed, though. An
+interactive language, with a command-line interface, is more
+available than one that you have to compile and run separately. A
+popular programming language should be interactive, and start up
+fast.Another thing you want in a throwaway program is brevity. Brevity
+is always attractive to hackers, and never more so than in a program
+they expect to turn out in an hour.6 LibrariesOf course the ultimate in brevity is to have the program already
+written for you, and merely to call it. And this brings us to what
+I think will be an increasingly important feature of programming
+languages: library functions. Perl wins because it has large
+libraries for manipulating strings. This class of library functions
+are especially important for throwaway programs, which are often
+originally written for converting or extracting data.  Many Perl
+programs probably begin as just a couple library calls stuck
+together.I think a lot of the advances that happen in programming languages
+in the next fifty years will have to do with library functions. I
+think future programming languages will have libraries that are as
+carefully designed as the core language. Programming language design
+will not be about whether to make your language strongly or weakly
+typed, or object oriented, or functional, or whatever, but about
+how to design great libraries. The kind of language designers who
+like to think about how to design type systems may shudder at this.
+It's almost like writing applications! Too bad. Languages are for
+programmers, and libraries are what programmers need.It's hard to design good libraries. It's not simply a matter of
+writing a lot of code. Once the libraries get too big, it can
+sometimes take longer to find the function you need than to write
+the code yourself. Libraries need to be designed using a small set
+of orthogonal operators, just like the core language. It ought to
+be possible for the programmer to guess what library call will do
+what he needs.Libraries are one place Common Lisp falls short. There are only
+rudimentary libraries for manipulating strings, and almost none
+for talking to the operating system. For historical reasons, Common
+Lisp tries to pretend that the OS doesn't exist. And because you
+can't talk to the OS, you're unlikely to be able to write a serious
+program using only the built-in operators in Common Lisp. You have
+to use some implementation-specific hacks as well, and in practice
+these tend not to give you everything you want. Hackers would think
+a lot more highly of Lisp if Common Lisp had powerful string
+libraries and good OS support.7 SyntaxCould a language with Lisp's syntax, or more precisely, lack of
+syntax, ever become popular? I don't know the answer to this
+question. I do think that syntax is not the main reason Lisp isn't
+currently popular. Common Lisp has worse problems than unfamiliar
+syntax. I know several programmers who are comfortable with prefix
+syntax and yet use Perl by default, because it has powerful string
+libraries and can talk to the os.There are two possible problems with prefix notation: that it is
+unfamiliar to programmers, and that it is not dense enough. The
+conventional wisdom in the Lisp world is that the first problem is
+the real one. I'm not so sure. Yes, prefix notation makes ordinary
+programmers panic. But I don't think ordinary programmers' opinions
+matter. Languages become popular or unpopular based on what expert
+hackers think of them, and I think expert hackers might be able to
+deal with prefix notation. Perl syntax can be pretty incomprehensible,
+but that has not stood in the way of Perl's popularity. If anything
+it may have helped foster a Perl cult.A more serious problem is the diffuseness of prefix notation. For
+expert hackers, that really is a problem. No one wants to write
+(aref a x y) when they could write a[x,y].In this particular case there is a way to finesse our way out of
+the problem. If we treat data structures as if they were functions
+on indexes, we could write (a x y) instead, which is even shorter
+than the Perl form. Similar tricks may shorten other types of
+expressions.We can get rid of (or make optional) a lot of parentheses by making
+indentation significant. That's how programmers read code anyway:
+when indentation says one thing and delimiters say another, we go
+by the indentation. Treating indentation as significant would
+eliminate this common source of bugs as well as making programs
+shorter.Sometimes infix syntax is easier to read. This is especially true
+for math expressions. I've used Lisp my whole programming life and
+I still don't find prefix math expressions natural. And yet it is
+convenient, especially when you're generating code, to have operators
+that take any number of arguments. So if we do have infix syntax,
+it should probably be implemented as some kind of read-macro.I don't think we should be religiously opposed to introducing syntax
+into Lisp, as long as it translates in a well-understood way into
+underlying s-expressions. There is already a good deal of syntax
+in Lisp. It's not necessarily bad to introduce more, as long as no
+one is forced to use it. In Common Lisp, some delimiters are reserved
+for the language, suggesting that at least some of the designers
+intended to have more syntax in the future.One of the most egregiously unlispy pieces of syntax in Common Lisp
+occurs in format strings; format is a language in its own right,
+and that language is not Lisp. If there were a plan for introducing
+more syntax into Lisp, format specifiers might be able to be included
+in it. It would be a good thing if macros could generate format
+specifiers the way they generate any other kind of code.An eminent Lisp hacker told me that his copy of CLTL falls open to
+the section format. Mine too. This probably indicates room for
+improvement. It may also mean that programs do a lot of I/O.8 EfficiencyA good language, as everyone knows, should generate fast code. But
+in practice I don't think fast code comes primarily from things
+you do in the design of the language. As Knuth pointed out long
+ago, speed only matters in certain critical bottlenecks.  And as
+many programmers have observed since, one is very often mistaken
+about where these bottlenecks are.So, in practice, the way to get fast code is to have a very good
+profiler, rather than by, say, making the language strongly typed.
+You don't need to know the type of every argument in every call in
+the program. You do need to be able to declare the types of arguments
+in the bottlenecks. And even more, you need to be able to find out
+where the bottlenecks are.One complaint people have had with Lisp is that it's hard to tell
+what's expensive. This might be true. It might also be inevitable,
+if you want to have a very abstract language. And in any case I
+think good profiling would go a long way toward fixing the problem:
+you'd soon learn what was expensive.Part of the problem here is social. Language designers like to
+write fast compilers. That's how they measure their skill. They
+think of the profiler as an add-on, at best. But in practice a good
+profiler may do more to improve the speed of actual programs written
+in the language than a compiler that generates fast code. Here,
+again, language designers are somewhat out of touch with their
+users. They do a really good job of solving slightly the wrong
+problem.It might be a good idea to have an active profiler — to push
+performance data to the programmer instead of waiting for him to
+come asking for it. For example, the editor could display bottlenecks
+in red when the programmer edits the source code. Another approach
+would be to somehow represent what's happening in running programs.
+This would be an especially big win in server-based applications,
+where you have lots of running programs to look at. An active
+profiler could show graphically what's happening in memory as a
+program's running, or even make sounds that tell what's happening.Sound is a good cue to problems. In one place I worked, we had a
+big board of dials showing what was happening to our web servers.
+The hands were moved by little servomotors that made a slight noise
+when they turned. I couldn't see the board from my desk, but I
+found that I could tell immediately, by the sound, when there was
+a problem with a server.It might even be possible to write a profiler that would automatically
+detect inefficient algorithms. I would not be surprised if certain
+patterns of memory access turned out to be sure signs of bad
+algorithms. If there were a little guy running around inside the
+computer executing our programs, he would probably have as long
+and plaintive a tale to tell about his job as a federal government
+employee. I often have a feeling that I'm sending the processor on
+a lot of wild goose chases, but I've never had a good way to look
+at what it's doing.A number of Lisps now compile into byte code, which is then executed
+by an interpreter. This is usually done to make the implementation
+easier to port, but it could be a useful language feature. It might
+be a good idea to make the byte code an official part of the
+language, and to allow programmers to use inline byte code in
+bottlenecks. Then such optimizations would be portable too.The nature of speed, as perceived by the end-user, may be changing.
+With the rise of server-based applications, more and more programs
+may turn out to be i/o-bound. It will be worth making i/o fast.
+The language can help with straightforward measures like simple,
+fast, formatted output functions, and also with deep structural
+changes like caching and persistent objects.Users are interested in response time. But another kind of efficiency
+will be increasingly important: the number of simultaneous users
+you can support per processor. Many of the interesting applications
+written in the near future will be server-based, and the number of
+users per server is the critical question for anyone hosting such
+applications. In the capital cost of a business offering a server-based
+application, this is the divisor.For years, efficiency hasn't mattered much in most end-user
+applications. Developers have been able to assume that each user
+would have an increasingly powerful processor sitting on their
+desk. And by Parkinson's Law, software has expanded to use the
+resources available. That will change with server-based applications.
+In that world, the hardware and software will be supplied together.
+For companies that offer server-based applications, it will make
+a very big difference to the bottom line how many users they can
+support per server.In some applications, the processor will be the limiting factor,
+and execution speed will be the most important thing to optimize.
+But often memory will be the limit; the number of simultaneous
+users will be determined by the amount of memory you need for each
+user's data. The language can help here too. Good support for
+threads will enable all the users to share a single heap. It may
+also help to have persistent objects and/or language level support
+for lazy loading.9 TimeThe last ingredient a popular language needs is time. No one wants
+to write programs in a language that might go away, as so many
+programming languages do. So most hackers will tend to wait until
+a language has been around for a couple years before even considering
+using it.Inventors of wonderful new things are often surprised to discover
+this, but you need time to get any message through to people. A
+friend of mine rarely does anything the first time someone asks
+him. He knows that people sometimes ask for things that they turn
+out not to want. To avoid wasting his time, he waits till the third
+or fourth time he's asked to do something; by then, whoever's asking
+him may be fairly annoyed, but at least they probably really do
+want whatever they're asking for.Most people have learned to do a similar sort of filtering on new
+things they hear about. They don't even start paying attention
+until they've heard about something ten times. They're perfectly
+justified: the majority of hot new whatevers do turn out to be a
+waste of time, and eventually go away. By delaying learning VRML,
+I avoided having to learn it at all.So anyone who invents something new has to expect to keep repeating
+their message for years before people will start to get it. We
+wrote what was, as far as I know, the first web-server based
+application, and it took us years to get it through to people that
+it didn't have to be downloaded. It wasn't that they were stupid.
+They just had us tuned out.The good news is, simple repetition solves the problem. All you
+have to do is keep telling your story, and eventually people will
+start to hear. It's not when people notice you're there that they
+pay attention; it's when they notice you're still there.It's just as well that it usually takes a while to gain momentum.
+Most technologies evolve a good deal even after they're first
+launched — programming languages especially. Nothing could be better,
+for a new techology, than a few years of being used only by a small
+number of early adopters. Early adopters are sophisticated and
+demanding, and quickly flush out whatever flaws remain in your
+technology. When you only have a few users you can be in close
+contact with all of them. And early adopters are forgiving when
+you improve your system, even if this causes some breakage.There are two ways new technology gets introduced: the organic
+growth method, and the big bang method. The organic growth method
+is exemplified by the classic seat-of-the-pants underfunded garage
+startup. A couple guys, working in obscurity, develop some new
+technology. They launch it with no marketing and initially have
+only a few (fanatically devoted) users. They continue to improve
+the technology, and meanwhile their user base grows by word of
+mouth. Before they know it, they're big.The other approach, the big bang method, is exemplified by the
+VC-backed, heavily marketed startup. They rush to develop a product,
+launch it with great publicity, and immediately (they hope) have
+a large user base.Generally, the garage guys envy the big bang guys. The big bang
+guys are smooth and confident and respected by the VCs. They can
+afford the best of everything, and the PR campaign surrounding the
+launch has the side effect of making them celebrities. The organic
+growth guys, sitting in their garage, feel poor and unloved. And
+yet I think they are often mistaken to feel sorry for themselves.
+Organic growth seems to yield better technology and richer founders
+than the big bang method. If you look at the dominant technologies
+today, you'll find that most of them grew organically.This pattern doesn't only apply to companies. You see it in sponsored
+research too. Multics and Common Lisp were big-bang projects, and
+Unix and MacLisp were organic growth projects.10 Redesign"The best writing is rewriting," wrote E. B. White.  Every good
+writer knows this, and it's true for software too. The most important
+part of design is redesign. Programming languages, especially,
+don't get redesigned enough.To write good software you must simultaneously keep two opposing
+ideas in your head. You need the young hacker's naive faith in
+his abilities, and at the same time the veteran's skepticism. You
+have to be able to think 
+how hard can it be? with one half of
+your brain while thinking 
+it will never work with the other.The trick is to realize that there's no real contradiction here.
+You want to be optimistic and skeptical about two different things.
+You have to be optimistic about the possibility of solving the
+problem, but skeptical about the value of whatever solution you've
+got so far.People who do good work often think that whatever they're working
+on is no good. Others see what they've done and are full of wonder,
+but the creator is full of worry. This pattern is no coincidence:
+it is the worry that made the work good.If you can keep hope and worry balanced, they will drive a project
+forward the same way your two legs drive a bicycle forward. In the
+first phase of the two-cycle innovation engine, you work furiously
+on some problem, inspired by your confidence that you'll be able
+to solve it. In the second phase, you look at what you've done in
+the cold light of morning, and see all its flaws very clearly. But
+as long as your critical spirit doesn't outweigh your hope, you'll
+be able to look at your admittedly incomplete system, and think,
+how hard can it be to get the rest of the way?, thereby continuing
+the cycle.It's tricky to keep the two forces balanced. In young hackers,
+optimism predominates. They produce something, are convinced it's
+great, and never improve it. In old hackers, skepticism predominates,
+and they won't even dare to take on ambitious projects.Anything you can do to keep the redesign cycle going is good. Prose
+can be rewritten over and over until you're happy with it. But
+software, as a rule, doesn't get redesigned enough. Prose has
+readers, but software has users. If a writer rewrites an essay,
+people who read the old version are unlikely to complain that their
+thoughts have been broken by some newly introduced incompatibility.Users are a double-edged sword. They can help you improve your
+language, but they can also deter you from improving it. So choose
+your users carefully, and be slow to grow their number. Having
+users is like optimization: the wise course is to delay it. Also,
+as a general rule, you can at any given time get away with changing
+more than you think. Introducing change is like pulling off a
+bandage: the pain is a memory almost as soon as you feel it.Everyone knows that it's not a good idea to have a language designed
+by a committee. Committees yield bad design. But I think the worst
+danger of committees is that they interfere with redesign. It is
+so much work to introduce changes that no one wants to bother.
+Whatever a committee decides tends to stay that way, even if most
+of the members don't like it.Even a committee of two gets in the way of redesign. This happens
+particularly in the interfaces between pieces of software written
+by two different people. To change the interface both have to agree
+to change it at once. And so interfaces tend not to change at all,
+which is a problem because they tend to be one of the most ad hoc
+parts of any system.One solution here might be to design systems so that interfaces
+are horizontal instead of vertical — so that modules are always
+vertically stacked strata of abstraction. Then the interface will
+tend to be owned by one of them. The lower of two levels will either
+be a language in which the upper is written, in which case the
+lower level will own the interface, or it will be a slave, in which
+case the interface can be dictated by the upper level.11 LispWhat all this implies is that there is hope for a new Lisp.  There
+is hope for any language that gives hackers what they want, including
+Lisp. I think we may have made a mistake in thinking that hackers
+are turned off by Lisp's strangeness. This comforting illusion may
+have prevented us from seeing the real problem with Lisp, or at
+least Common Lisp, which is that it sucks for doing what hackers
+want to do. A hacker's language needs powerful libraries and
+something to hack. Common Lisp has neither. A hacker's language is
+terse and hackable. Common Lisp is not.The good news is, it's not Lisp that sucks, but Common Lisp. If we
+can develop a new Lisp that is a real hacker's language, I think
+hackers will use it. They will use whatever language does the job.
+All we have to do is make sure this new Lisp does some important
+job better than other languages.History offers some encouragement. Over time, successive new
+programming languages have taken more and more features from Lisp.
+There is no longer much left to copy before the language you've
+made is Lisp. The latest hot language, Python, is a watered-down
+Lisp with infix syntax and no macros. A new Lisp would be a natural
+step in this progression.I sometimes think that it would be a good marketing trick to call
+it an improved version of Python. That sounds hipper than Lisp. To
+many people, Lisp is a slow AI language with a lot of parentheses.
+Fritz Kunze's official biography carefully avoids mentioning the
+L-word.  But my guess is that we shouldn't be afraid to call the
+new Lisp Lisp. Lisp still has a lot of latent respect among the
+very best hackers — the ones who took 6.001 and understood it, for
+example. And those are the users you need to win.In "How to Become a Hacker," Eric Raymond describes Lisp as something
+like Latin or Greek — a language you should learn as an intellectual
+exercise, even though you won't actually use it:
+
+  Lisp is worth learning for the profound enlightenment experience
+  you will have when you finally get it; that experience will make
+  you a better programmer for the rest of your days, even if you
+  never actually use Lisp itself a lot.
+
+If I didn't know Lisp, reading this would set me asking questions.
+A language that would make me a better programmer, if it means
+anything at all, means a language that would be better for programming.
+And that is in fact the implication of what Eric is saying.As long as that idea is still floating around, I think hackers will
+be receptive enough to a new Lisp, even if it is called Lisp. But
+this Lisp must be a hacker's language, like the classic Lisps of
+the 1970s. It must be terse, simple, and hackable. And it must have
+powerful libraries for doing what hackers want to do now.In the matter of libraries I think there is room to beat languages
+like Perl and Python at their own game. A lot of the new applications
+that will need to be written in the coming years will be 
+server-based
+applications. There's no reason a new Lisp shouldn't have string
+libraries as good as Perl, and if this new Lisp also had powerful
+libraries for server-based applications, it could be very popular.
+Real hackers won't turn up their noses at a new tool that will let
+them solve hard problems with a few library calls. Remember, hackers
+are lazy.It could be an even bigger win to have core language support for
+server-based applications. For example, explicit support for programs
+with multiple users, or data ownership at the level of type tags.Server-based applications also give us the answer to the question
+of what this new Lisp will be used to hack. It would not hurt to
+make Lisp better as a scripting language for Unix. (It would be
+hard to make it worse.) But I think there are areas where existing
+languages would be easier to beat. I think it might be better to
+follow the model of Tcl, and supply the Lisp together with a complete
+system for supporting server-based applications. Lisp is a natural
+fit for server-based applications. Lexical closures provide a way
+to get the effect of subroutines when the ui is just a series of
+web pages. S-expressions map nicely onto html, and macros are good
+at generating it. There need to be better tools for writing
+server-based applications, and there needs to be a new Lisp, and
+the two would work very well together.12 The Dream LanguageBy way of summary, let's try describing the hacker's dream language.
+The dream language is 
+beautiful, clean, and terse. It has an
+interactive toplevel that starts up fast. You can write programs
+to solve common problems with very little code.  Nearly all the
+code in any program you write is code that's specific to your
+application. Everything else has been done for you.The syntax of the language is brief to a fault. You never have to
+type an unnecessary character, or even to use the shift key much.Using big abstractions you can write the first version of a program
+very quickly. Later, when you want to optimize, there's a really
+good profiler that tells you where to focus your attention. You
+can make inner loops blindingly fast, even writing inline byte code
+if you need to.There are lots of good examples to learn from, and the language is
+intuitive enough that you can learn how to use it from examples in
+a couple minutes. You don't need to look in the manual much. The
+manual is thin, and has few warnings and qualifications.The language has a small core, and powerful, highly orthogonal
+libraries that are as carefully designed as the core language. The
+libraries all work well together; everything in the language fits
+together like the parts in a fine camera. Nothing is deprecated,
+or retained for compatibility. The source code of all the libraries
+is readily available. It's easy to talk to the operating system
+and to applications written in other languages.The language is built in layers. The higher-level abstractions are
+built in a very transparent way out of lower-level abstractions,
+which you can get hold of if you want.Nothing is hidden from you that doesn't absolutely have to be. The
+language offers abstractions only as a way of saving you work,
+rather than as a way of telling you what to do. In fact, the language
+encourages you to be an equal participant in its design. You can
+change everything about it, including even its syntax, and anything
+you write has, as much as possible, the same status as what comes
+predefined.Notes[1]  Macros very close to the modern idea were proposed by Timothy
+Hart in 1964, two years after Lisp 1.5 was released. What was
+missing, initially, were ways to avoid variable capture and multiple
+evaluation; Hart's examples are subject to both.[2]  In When the Air Hits Your Brain, neurosurgeon Frank Vertosick
+recounts a conversation in which his chief resident, Gary, talks
+about the difference between surgeons and internists ("fleas"):
+
+  Gary and I ordered a large pizza and found an open booth. The
+  chief lit a cigarette. "Look at those goddamn fleas, jabbering
+  about some disease they'll see once in their lifetimes. That's
+  the trouble with fleas, they only like the bizarre stuff. They
+  hate their bread and butter cases. That's the difference between
+  us and the fucking fleas. See, we love big juicy lumbar disc
+  herniations, but they hate hypertension...."
+
+It's hard to think of a lumbar disc herniation as juicy (except
+literally). And yet I think I know what they mean. I've often had
+a juicy bug to track down. Someone who's not a programmer would
+find it hard to imagine that there could be pleasure in a bug.
+Surely it's better if everything just works. In one way, it is.
+And yet there is undeniably a grim satisfaction in hunting down
+certain sorts of bugs.
+```

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