性別社會學
Sociology of gender

context: zh_tw: 許多小孩子長到三歲的時候，就已經有認定自己屬於男性或女性的自我意識了，且這一性別認同將會伴隨其終身。此外，許多學齡前兒童也形成了強烈的性別角色意識，認定不能做出自己的生理性別不符的行為舉止，或者穿和自己的生理性別不符的服裝。但不見得每個人的性別認同會與生理性別相一致。社交理論則簡單直白地解釋了性別身份的認同過程。剛剛降生的嬰兒宛如一張白紙，靜候社會的渲染。透過與親近的人互動，以及與社會上流行的那些價值觀的接觸，嬰兒明白了他們被賦予了什麼性別，以及他們將要學會扮演怎樣的角色。而獎懲制度（獎勵孩子那些符合性別模式的行為，懲罰那些不符合性別模式的行為）進一步將孩子們磨合進了他們的社會性別之中。比如說，比起女兒來說，父母更喜歡和兒子進行大動作的玩耍行為，而這會產生一些長期的效果（在這個例子中，男孩子從一開始便被教導了身體行為會更加暴力、激進一些）。此外，男孩子和女孩子在試圖與成年人溝通時，成年人的反應是不同的。一項針對 13 個月大的嬰兒的研究顯示，當男孩子需要吸引注意力時，通常會表現更加氣勢洶洶，大哭，哽咽或者尖叫，這樣成年人通常就會前來照顧他們了。而相反的是，女孩子們只有在使用語言、手勢，或者很溫和地觸碰時，成年人才會對她們的要求有所回應，而那些賣力氣來求得關注的女孩子們常常會被忽略掉。在這項研究剛剛開始的時候，男孩子和女孩子在與人溝通的方式上幾乎毫無差別，但是到了兩歲的時候，女孩子變得更愛說話了，男孩子則在溝通技巧上變得更武斷了。
en: Socialization theory offers a straightforward account of the acquisition of gendered identities. Infants are seen as blank slates, waiting to be written down on by their environment. Through their interactions with people close to them and exposure to the values of their society, infants learn what sex is attributed to them and what roles they are expected to learn. Reinforcement (through rewarding gender-appropriate behavior and punishing what may seem as deviant behavior) socializes children into their genders. Parents, for example, are far more likely to engage with their sons in rough physical play than they are with their daughters, and it has been argued that long-term consequences may follow (in this case, a head start for boys in the development of physical violence and aggressiveness.)Parents and family can influence the way that a child develops their view of gender. These types of influences can include parental attitudes and difference of treatment regarding male and female children. Researcher Susan Witt claims that parents also expose children to gender from the time they are born via specific toys, colors, and names associated with genders in the binary. Witt suggests that parental attitudes about gender can differ from male to female children and that these attitudes develop quickly after a child's birth.Author Susan Grieshaber, in "Constructing the Gendered Infant", suggests that attitudes regarding pregnancy change after parents find out the sex of their child, subsequently changing parental attitudes towards the unborn child. According to Grieshaber's theory, once parents determine the sex of their unborn child, they assume a gender while planning for the child's arrival. Because of this, Grieshaber claims that infants are born into a gendered world where they never know anything other than the gender traits that are assumed due to their sex. Dr. Kara Smith utilizes similar theory throughout the analysis of her pregnancy journals kept throughout her second pregnancy. Smith concluded that her attitude towards her child changed after learning that her child’s sex was male. Smith's claim is reflected in changes in tone of voice when talking to the unborn child as well as differences in physical touch of her stomach throughout the rest of her pregnancy. Another theory of gender socialization, discussed by Susan McHale, is that the gender roles and attitudes of older siblings can impact the gender roles adopted by younger children. Throughout the findings of McHale's study, it is maintained that parents still have the most familial influence on childhood socialization.By the time children reach the age of three, many will have acquired a firm sense of themselves as male or female, a gender identity that remains throughout life. In addition, many pre-schoolers develop a firm awareness of gender stereotypes, insisting that certain activities or items of clothing are not for girls and others not for boys. Yet gender identity does not automatically follow from biological sex.Adults respond differently to communicative efforts of boys and girls. A study of infants aged 13 months found that when boys demand attention - by behaving aggressively, or crying, whining or screaming - they tended to get it. By contrast, adults tended to respond to girls only when they used language, gestures, or gentle touches; girls who used attention-seeking techniques were likely ignored. There was little difference in the communicative patterns at the start of the study, but by the age of two, the girls have become more talkative and boys more assertive in their communicative techniques.The norms that are taught throughout childhood are influential in an individual's life because the ideas about gender that are typically taught by parents in early years are reinforced outside of the home. A study done by Dr. Mick Cunningham states that the normative behaviors and attitudes that children observe can influence the way that these children grow up to structure their own households in adulthood. Normative gender roles can be reinforced outside of the household, adding power to these hegemonic ideas about gender. An analysis of children’s books in the twenty-first century, by Janice McCabe, suggests that this particular avenue of children’s media symbolically annihilates females, representing them about half as often as that of males. Underrepresentation such as this can affect children and their views of gender. Children’s TV networks, such as Disney, Nickelodeon, and Cartoon Network have demonstrated a disproportional representation of males and females on their respective shows in a study done by Beth Hentges and Kim Case. According to Hentges and Case, there are less female characters across all three children’s networks; however, there is more propagation of stereotypical gendered behavior on Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon than that of Disney.
qas: question: zh_tw: 當女孩使用尋求關注方法時會發生什麼？
en: What happens when girl use attention-seeking techniques?
answers: zh_tw: text: 被忽略
en: text: ignored