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Jake Sussman is a very interesting young man. The teenager spent years building a killer model train layout in the basement of his Westport home. He runs triathlons, and — as captain of the Forman School cross country team — heads to San Antonio this weekend, for the Junior Olympic Nationals. But this post is about his work as a rain forest researcher. He’s one of 12 students selected for Forman’s Rainforest Project. It’s a year-long, college-level class in tropical ecology. Every year since 1992, they’ve done field work in Costa Rica to gather data and test hypotheses on the impact of global warming on the rainforest, and identify opportunities for local farmers to have sustainable incomes that do not damage the forest. The biggest finding is how to extract spider silk — the strongest natural fiber in the world. It’s well suited for many uses: medical sutures and gloves, bulletproof vests, that sort of thing. The school has been granted 2 patents already. Forman students have found a way to collect golden orb weaver spider silk at a fraction of the previous cost. “We extract 150 feet of silk per minute!” Jake says. “We know how to make these farms sustainable. We know where to build the facilities.” They Forman group has also discovered over 70 new species of moths, and identified 3 endangered amphibians not thought to be indigenous to the Costa Rican rainforest. It’s amazing what our kids do when no one is looking.

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The development of Port-of-Spain was Governor Sir Ralph Woodford’s pet project in the 19th century. From the beginning of colonisation in the mid-16th century, the Spanish Crown kept Trinidad always a little obscure. Trinidad had a strategic position as outpost to the Orinoco delta, to the Crown’s possessions in the Guyanas and ultimately to ‘El Dorado’ of Hispanic dreams. In order not to attract pirates and the enemies of His Most Catholic Majesty, the Spaniards kept Trinidad unpopulated, a mere stop-over for Spanish ships in the safe harbour of the Gulf of Paria. They put about the story that Trinidad was indescribably unhealthy and dangerous, full of malaria and yellow fever (which it probably was in those years). Albeit all precautions, Sir Walter Raleigh, the captain of the Queen of England’s Guard, burnt down San José (St. Joseph) in 1595. Edward Tench, a.k.a. Black Beard, the pirate, ‘committed sad depredations in the Gulf of Paria’ in 1716. The main anchoring place didn’t even receive a proper name, but was merely called a ‘Harbour of Spain’, Puerto d’España. And it was not until the mid-18th century that Puerto d’España became the capital of Trinidad. By 1757, San José de Oruna (St. Joseph) had fallen into delapidation, and the then Governor Don Pedro de la Moneda moved to the village of Puerto d’España, which consisted of two streets, Calle de Infante (Duncan) and Calle Principe (Nelson), a couple of little wooden houses and mud-huts, some 400 mostly Spanish-Amerindian mixed people and three shops. It was surrounded by high woods and mangrove swamps, and the inhabitants were fishermen, hunters, and small farmers of cassava, corn, and even a little sugar cane which they processed into ‘pampelona’, a roughly refined brown sugar. This tranquil scene was soon to change. In 1783, Grenadian-born Philipe Rose-Roume de St. Laurent obtained the ‘Cedula of Population’ from the Spanish King Carlos III. Puerto d’España grew quickly into a proper little town of 3000 inhabitants. The few mud huts gave way to more than 600 houses. What is now Marine Square was then the waterfront. A mole and a wooden quay ran along what is today South Quay. Fort St. Andres, today opposite City Gate, was offshore, and when the tide came in, it splashed the walls of the old Roman Catholic church, which stood then a little east of its present site. Trade and commerce started to flourish, and the first steps towards town planning were made: the Rio Santa Ana (Dry River) was channeled into its present bed, and the Rue Sainte Anne (Charlotte) was included, with the town stretching as far north as the Calle de Astuvias (Duke Street). Governor Chacon had the streets covered with macadam (burnt earth), with an open drain running in the middle. Reportedly, the new settlers brought with them gaiety and festivity. Dance halls and night clubs sprung up all over the town, and every year before Lent the French held Carnival celebrations. The Illustrious Cabildo (the forerunners of the Town Council) started to charge a tax of one dollar per year for each gambling house and each billiard table. Port-of-Spain was the capital of a Spanish colony with Spanish laws, but the population spoke French and patois. This atmosphere was to change visibly after the British had conquered the island in 1797. The first thing that the new governor, Sir Thomas Picton, did was to install a gallows in front of Government House at the corner of Marine Square and Charlotte Street. At that time, the capital was very overcrowded with approximately 10,000 inhabitants. Picton decided to have a land reclamation scheme implemented, which would turn the tidal mud flats into habitable lots. Starting in 1803, land fill was carted with mules from the Laventille hills, and over the next two decades all the land south of Marine Square was reclaimed from the Gulf. In 1808, a great fire destroyed many of the wood-built houses of Port-of-Spain. The merchants of the town rebuilt them with stone from the Laventille quarry. In 1812, the prison in Frederick Street was completed, and criminals were ‘thrown’ into it along with debtors, mad people, and animals. When Sir Ralph Woodford took up office as Governor in 1813, he undertook to give Port-of-Spain a newer and more modern face. Gravel covered the streets, sidewalks were constructed. Coconut oil lamps lent a warm glow to the streets at night. In order to protect the fine and expensive new streets, a law was passed in 1824 that forbid the keeping of pigs in town. Cows, goats, horses and mules had to be kept in compounds and were not allowed to roam the streets anymore. A dog tax was introduced to isolate and destroy the strays that wreaked havoc in the streets at night. Streetsigns were put up. As early as 1814, a proclamation against littering was made - up to then, Port-of-Spainers had endulged in the medieval practice of throwing kitchen waste and other more unmentionable things out of their windows. “Gadé liu!” they used to shout before the contents of the chamberpot came flying... In 1819, Woodford purchased the abandoned Paradise estate in the name of the Cabildo from the Peschier family. He had the area, about 317 acres, cleared ‘for the recreation of the townsfolk and for the pasturage of cattle’. It was henceforth simply called ‘The Savannah’. In 1845 the name was officially changed to ‘The Queen’s Park’. But no fancy name could keep the townspeople from driving their herds of cattle to the Savannah, quite a frightening sight in Frederick Street! The Governor also bought more lands from the Peschier estate at St. Anns, which was subsequently turned into the site for the new Government House and the Botanic Gardens. In 1828, the Savannah was for the first time used for horse-racing. Woodford contracted the botanist David Lockhart to design the Botanic gardens, and Lockhart introduced many trees from the tropical Far East into Trinidad, the most famous being the majestic samaan. Under Woodford’s aegis and personal attention the first primary school for boys was opened in Port-of-Spain in April 1823, another one for girls followed three years later. The main goal was doubtlessly to establish a firmer foothold for the English language, which was still rarely understood or spoken by subjects of the British Crown in Trinidad. The highest academic achievement of the boys school was, after its first year, that 10 of the 252 pupils were able to do square roots in arithmetic! Port-of-Spain also got new churches under Woodford. The new Roman Catholic Cathedral was begun in 1816 and completed in 1832, and the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity was consecrated in 1823. Hannover Methodist followed in 1826, and Greyfriars in 1837. All Saints Church, the oldest building on the Savannah, was completed in 1846. Sir Ralph was not around to witness these latter additions to ‘his’ Port-of-Spain. In 1829, he died on board a ship and was buried at sea off the coast of Hispaniola.

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The heaviest gun ever built was ordered by Hitler. He wanted the gun to be able to pierce a meter of steel, seven meters of concrete, or thirty meters of dense earth. The original target was the French Maginot Line, the fortifications which were nearly impervious to anything the Nazis had before the war. Krupp responded by designing a 800 mm railway gun, mounted, due to its great weight, on double tracks. Its great weight also meant that it could only be turned by pushing it on curved railroad tracks. Preparing a firing position and assembling the gun, which was always transported in parts, took six weeks. The gun fired two types of ammunition: a high-explosive shell containing a 700-kilogram explosive charge and an armor-tipped concrete-piercing projectile containing a 250-kilogram charge and capable of penetrating over 250 feet of reinforced concrete before exploding. Due to the Krupp tradition of naming heavy cannon after family members (see Big Bertha), the first 800 mm gun was named Gustav after the head of the family, Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, who initiated the project. It is unclear whether Krupp ever manufactured a second gun of this caliber. It may be that the gun known as Dora was actually the original Gustav after being refitted. Dora was named after the chief engineer's wife. I will continue to refer to the 800 mm gun(s) used in the war as Dora, like most sources. The original order was for three guns, but it is fairly certain that a third one was never finished. The Maginot Line was bypassed and France had fallen in 1940 before any of these guns were finished, so new targets were sought. High Command's plans to use them against the British fortress of Gibraltar were scrapped after General Franco refused to allow firing the gun from Spanish soil. While the gun was being demonstrated to Hitler and the Oberkommando des Heeres, Dr. Müller of Krupp told the Führer that it could be used against enemy armor. Panzer General Guderian was stunned by this statement, and replied to Hitler that, while the gun could indeed be fired at tanks, it would never be able to hit them. Among the special equipment developed by Krupp to operate the gun was an entirely new railway engine, the diesel-electric D 311. It was designed to move Dora in pairs on the curved track to aim the gun, and because of this it had to be able to pull a vast load at very slow speeds. In June 1942, Dora was used in battle for the first time, firing at the heavily fortified Crimean port of Sevastopol. Spotter aircraft noted the impressive performance of the gun. Fire from Dora and other heavy artillery destroyed Forts Stalin, Lenin, Molotov and Maxim Gorki. A single round from the Dora destroyed an ammunition dump, built under the Severnaya Bay and considered invulnerable to artillery by the Soviets, and a near miss capsized a large ship in the harbor. The barrel was worn out during the siege and replaced. It may have fired a total of 300 rounds during testing and near Sevastopol. Dora was set up near both Stalingrad in late 1942, but in both cases it was hurriedly withdrawn to avoid capture (it would have been very bad publicity to have the Soviets capture the gun and use it against the Germans, even though it was of relatively little military significance). Dora appeared again outside Warsaw during the September 1944 uprising, firing 30 rounds into the Warsaw Ghetto. After this, it was never used again. The blown-up remnants of a gun of this type were discovered in Bavaria by the Allies. The 800 mm shells could destroy pretty much anything they hit. However, the gun was ludicrously expensive to build and maintain. First of all, it took a massive amount of steel to build, and the barrel wasn't good for more than a few hundred rounds. Also, the gun required more than a thousand troops to move, assemble, maintain and reload. And since it was such a huge target and could hardly be kept in secret when in use, it needed heavy air defense and could be destroyed by a single successful bombing raid. These factors made it an impractical weapon in war, especially since it was really only suited for destroying massive fortifications (although it could take out a city block with a single shot, normal heavy artillery could do this just as well, and cheaper), and there simply weren't any within range after France and Sevastopol were taken. Dora was yet another example of the Nazis' obsession with equipment that was either much too heavy or much too advanced to be deployed in any practical manner. - Caliber: 800 mm - Range: 45 km (HE), 37 km (concrete-piercing) - Rate of fire: 2 rounds per hour - Weight of the shell: 4800 kg (HE), 7500 kg (concrete-piercing) - Propellant: 1350 kg of smokeless powder - Size of the shell: 800 mm x 3.75 m - Muzzle velocity: 820 m/s (HE), 720 m/s (concrete-piercing) - Weight: 1350 tons (the barrel alone weighed 400 tons) - Barrel length: 32.5 m (40 times the caliber) - Overall length: 43 m - Width: 7 m - Height: 12 m - Maximum elevation: 53° - Crew: 1420 (the main gun crew, who were required to reload the gun, numbered 500)

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Skagway – “Gateway to the Klondike Gold Rush of 1898” – was the second port we visited on our Alaskan Cruise. Definitely known as Gold Rush territory. Many people came here hoping to strike it rich after gold was found on August 17th, 1896. Now, the gold wasn’t discovered in Skagway, but some 600 miles north of here on Rabbit Creek a tributary of the Klondike River! Skagway became the main port town for those coming in from the rest of the world hoping to make their millions. Skagway was originally called Mooresville after being discovered by Captain William Moore, a member of Canada’s Ogilvie survey party, who returned here with his son to claim 160 acres to set up a port and build his homestead. Very interesting to read and learn about those hard-living people who settled this area – talk about taking it back to basics. After gold was discovered and the main trails (there were 2 decided upon as routes) were created to get people from Skagway to Rabbit Creek (later called Bonanza), the rush was on. Tens of thousands of people spent time in this town preparing for their journey along the trails. Luckily, the following year, construction to build the White Pass & Yukon Railroad began which would let even more people head off on their way north to strike it rich. Truly, there is so much more history to read about pertaining to this little Alaskan town (too much for me to write it all here)!! If you’re interested in more, check out this Skagway History link. So, what do you do nowadays in Skagway? Well, you take a historic walk of the town visiting the stores, museums, and cafes that still exist in these “fancy” old-west looking buildings. The Visitor’s Bureau (located at the end of town closest to the cruise ship port) can provide you with a great map of the area, including a historic walking tour and a map of a hike out to the Gold Rush Cemetery and Reid Falls (all of the above we decided we needed to see). First the town… Of course there’s always a big, fun saloon in these towns and also one (or more) brothels to provide entertainment, warmth, food and shelter for all the men making the long, treacherous journey north to claim their riches. The stories of the struggles men went through to make it to the area of the Klondike where gold was discovered are simply incredible. Many men arrived after all the land was claimed. Having spent most of their money to get there, they stayed and worked the land for those who made it there first. After our historic town walking tour, we headed out on the hike to the Gold Rush Cemetery and Reid Falls. We headed North through the town (following alongside the railroad tracks). We saw remnants of old gold rush railroad trains, maybe?… Then finally arrived at the cemetery. I believe the walk here was about 45 minutes. A little bit spooky wouldn’t you say?? You actually pass through the cemetery, across a little wooden bridge, to find the trail to Reid Falls. YAY!!! We made it!! After spending some time at the Falls, we headed back to the cruise ship…just in time to see the tourist train returning from taking people from the cruise up the mountain and into the Yukon. As we headed back to the ship, the blue skies and sun came out – aaahhh!! Such a great day out in the fresh, clean air! We loved the chance to take a nice hike and see the sites and town of Skagway! If you’d like to see more of my photos of Skagway (and other Alaska shots), please visit my Lita’s World Alaska Flickr Collection. My next Alaska post will be our visit to the Tracy Arm Fjord. Hope everyone is well, P.S. you can probably tell I was playing around with my photos quite a bit – just having some fun…hope you like them.

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Photograph by Michael Hanson, National Geographic Creative Established: March 2, 1899 Size: 235,625 acres One of the world's most massive volcanoes, Mount Rainier can dominate the skyline for 100 miles before you reach the park named after it. At nearly three miles in height, Mount Rainier is the tallest peak in the Cascade Range; it dwarfs 6,000-foot surrounding summits, appearing to float alone among the clouds. Mount Rainier may be the centerpiece of the national park, but it is hardly the only attraction. Here, less than three hours' drive from Seattle, you can stroll through seemingly endless fields of wildflowers, listen for cracking glacier debris, wander among trees more than a thousand years old. The park's convenient location, however, also leads to weekend traffic jams, both summer and winter, and guarantees you company on popular trails. Mount Rainier is the offspring of fire and ice. Still active, it was probably born more than a half million years ago, on a base of lava spewed out by previous volcanoes. Lava and ash surged out of the young volcano's vent thousands of times, filling the neighboring canyons and building up a summit cone, layer by layer, to a height of some 16,000 feet. Even while Mount Rainier was growing, glaciers carved valleys on and around the mountain. The 25 major glaciers here form the largest collection of permanent ice on a single U.S. peak south of Alaska. Mount Rainier's summit deteriorated over time, but eruptions in the last 2,000 years rebuilt it to its current height of 14,410 feet. The mountain last erupted about a century ago. How to Get There From Seattle (95 miles) or Tacoma (70 miles) to the Nisqually Entrance (open year-round), take i-5 to Wash. 7, then follow Wash. 706. From Yakima, take Wash. 12 west to Wash. 123 or Wash. 410, and enter from the park's east side (Stevens Canyon or White River Entrances closed in winter). For the northwest entrances (Carbon River and Mowich Lake), take Wash. 410 to Wash. 169 to Wash. 165, then follow the signs. Carbon River Road washed out in a November 2006 flood (check with the park for closure information). Airports: Seattle, Washington, and Portland, Oregon. When to Go Year-round. Wildflowers are at their best in July and August. High trails may remain snow covered until mid-July. Cross-country skiing and snowshoeing are popular in winter. Summer and winter, to miss the crowds, time your visit to midweek. How to Visit (Summer) If you have only a day, drive from the Nisqually Entrance in the southwest to the flowered fields of Paradise, then on to Sunrise, the highest point accessible by car, open early July to early October. If you have two days, take the same route but do it more leisurely: Plan to explore as far as Paradise the first day, then tour Stevens Canyon Road and the route to Sunrise the next; arrive before 10 a.m. to catch the early light and wend your way back. For a longer stay, drive out and re-enter the less known northwest corner (check for road closures) at Carbon River for a look at a rain forest and a hike to a dark, shiny glacier. Because Mount Rainier creates its own clouds and can hide for days or weeks at a time, come prepared to focus on delights close at hand: waterfalls, woods, and wildflowers. 2016 National Geographic Travel Photographer of the Year Contest Browse photos of nature, cities, and people and share your favorite photos.

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How many people in UK die every year of smoking? Is that they die because smoking causes lungs or mouth cancer in the chain smokers? If you are a regular smoker, you don’t need to ask these questions to anyone and your subconscious has the answer to all these. Yes, ordinary cigarettes with smoke lead to numerous malignant diseases that end the lives of many. Scientific innovations have revolutionized the world in every field, and there would hardly be any perspective of human life unaffected by the scientific advancement. The time is gone when people used to have ordinary cigarettes with so much smoke and combustion of tobacco. These are equally liked by people of every age. Electronic cigarettes (E-Cigs) are devices designed to provide nicotine with different flavors and chemicals to the users with vapour instead of smoke. These cigarettes are operated by a battery. The manufacturers have developed these to reduce the usage of ordinary cigarettes. The principal purpose of electronic cigarettes in Uk is that the smokers haven’t to inhale smoke directly. If we compare the regular cigarettes with E-cigarettes, we will come to know that the ordinary cigarettes contain more than 4000 detrimental chemicals that have catastrophic impacts on the users. We Recommend JAC Vapour Electronic Cigarattes The history of E-cigarettes’ introduction into the markets is not that long and dates back in 2004. The credit for this innovation goes to a Chinese Pharmacist, who brought it in the limelight for the human welfare. E-cigarettes are actually the alternative of ordinary cigarettes, and it just doesn’t let the smoke get into users’ lungs. These are available in different shapes and models. These may be like a long-shaped tube; few may be like products users usually use such as cigarettes, cigars and pipes. It’s also important that the users must be conversant with how the vapour cigarettes work, what are their health risks and positive off-shoots. How Do Vapour Cigarettes Work? The vapour cigarettes have different components that are essential to its successful operation. In most of the E-cigs, puffing pushes the batter to work that vapourizes liquid in the cigarettes and then the user inhales the resulted vapors. The components of E-cigarettes are under mentioned: This part is also known as Cartridge and is attached to the end of the tube. There is a cup inside the mouthpiece that carries absorbent material. The solution inside mouthpiece has various levels of nicotine. The producers believe that it can be replaced and changed with any other mouthpiece if needed. This part provokes heating process so that the vapors can be inhaled. This part is not permanent and needs replacement after every 3-6 months of usage. c) Battery and Electronic Components Every E-cigarette has a rechargeable lithium battery. The primary function of the battery is to heat up, and its life depends on its usage, size, brand and the environment where it’s used. The health concerns should also be judged when it comes to E-cigarettes. The ordinary cigarettes produce smoke while these don’t, and the user only gets vapours for to compensate the nicotine level. From reports and surveys, it was espied that E-cigarettes are a better solution for the smokers because the death level with ordinary cigarettes products in UK is strong and this product may reduce this risk. E-cigarettes are available in some brands, and every brand has some peculiar quality that differ it from the rest. E-Liquids for E-Cigs UK The liquid used in cartridges of electronic cigarettes is called as E-liquid. E-liquids can be of several brands with different percentages of nicotine. It has three major components, and all are usually safe for using in food products except nicotine. You will be best enjoying these liquids when you have a satisfactory level of nicotine as per your requirements. When you visit a market for E-liquids, you will find thousands of such liquids available for cigarettes and the easiest way to pick up the best one is to shortlist few high-quality liquids and get the best among bookmarked. What a level of nicotine you need in your liquid depends on your demands. The novice usually uses liquids with a lower level of nicotine and the heavy smokers prefer taking a massive dose of nicotine in their liquids. The standard of nicotine in these liquids is measured in mmg, and it may vary from 0mmg to 54mmg. A smoker selects the liquid that best suits his mood and temperament. There are few aspects of E-liquids that users need to know like what level of nicotine they should use as a beginner, does it taste like real cigarette taste, how can it be stored and other as well. The best way to find out the strength of nicotine in the liquid for you is to go to the internet and read about them. The more time you invest in it, the lesser money you will be spending on your needs. Moreover, the beginners can buy two different brands with different levels of nicotine and use them separately. If these are fine for them, they should use and may mix both the liquids in the otherwise case whether to check it suits them or not. So for the matter of taste concerns, no liquid feels like real cigarettes because there is no combustion and you can select the best possible flavor for you after trying many. Electronic Cigarettes Starter Kit If you are acquitted to E-cigarettes, you will need a starter kit to vape your liquid juice. There is a range of such starter kits for people of every standard and level. There will definitely be for the novice and experienced as well. A starter needs to get a kit with at least one battery, one cartomizer tank and one USB charger. When you have to buy a starter kit for your liquids, you need to consider few factors before getting your hands over it. It might be that you got fed up with the liquids and many kits, but keep on trying until you find the best-desired starter kit for your cigarette. The novice prefers getting rechargeable starter kit than a disposable one because of cost savings and versatility. Broadly speaking, a starter kit must be selected wisely, and you don’t need to buy some high quality or too much expensive. What you need to do is to satisfy yourself with some good rates starter kit that can suit your mood. Nicotine level should be according to your taste and demands. The unnecessary increment in the e-liquid can be dangerous for your health, and it causes lungs burning as well.

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Health/ Allied Health Health and allied health workers are the ones most likely to encounter people experiencing domestic and family violence. DV-alert empowers nurses, doctors, counsellors and all frontline health workers like you to recognise and respond to the signs of domestic violence, and teaches you how to refer cases effectively. Nurses, Doctors, GPs, Specialists, Dentists, Surgeons, Psychiatrists, Psychologists, Midwives, Hospital or clinic staff, Medical staff, Therapists, Laboratory technicians, Pharmacists, Counsellors, Others related Have you ever suspected a student to be experiencing domestic or family violence at home? Did you know what to do? DV-alert empowers teachers, school administrators, after-school carers and all those working in education to recognise and respond to the signs of domestic violence, and teaches you how to refer cases effectively. Teachers, School administration staff, School bus drivers, Guidance counsellors, School canteen staff, School clinic staff, After-school care workers, Day care workers, Early childhood educators, Tutors, University students undertaking related courses, Others related 1 in 3 Australian women will experience domestic violence at some point in their lives. Chances are, while working with the community, you’ll encounter someone experiencing domestic or family violence. DV-alert empowers community workers to recognise and respond to the signs of domestic violence, and teaches you how to refer cases effectively. Social workers, Children and youth workers, Community development workers, Staff of charitable organisations, Staff of religious organisations, Advocates, Volunteers, Welfare workers, Human services workers, Others related Helping people experiencing domestic or family violence can be a tricky job. As a lawyer, family counsellor, case worker or similar, being able to recognise, respond to, and refer cases of domestic violence can prove a crucial string to your bow. DV-alert can empower you to support those experiencing domestic violence more effectively. Lawyers, Family counsellors, Case workers, Youth Justice workers, Justice administration staff, Circle sentencing members, Coroners Court officials and staff, Others related As emergency workers, recognising the signs of violence can become second nature. But, what if it’s a case of domestic or family violence? How do you know the right things to say? DV-alert empowers frontline workers to recognise and respond to the signs of domestic violence effectively. Also teaching you how to refer cases when necessary. Paramedics, Fire fighters, Ambulance, Disaster and relief workers, State emergency service staff, Others related As a member of the Public Service in Australia, it is crucial to know the problems that Australian families and communities experience every day to better inform systems, policies and services that you look after. DV-alert empowers you to help stop the cycle of domestic and family violence by understanding the complexity and impact of the problem and finding more viable solutions to address it. Australian national and state-based government staff, local government staff, Local council staff, Others related On the frontline, domestic and family violence is never easy to navigate. Up-skilling your communication skills to better understand how to respond to domestic violence can make you become a more responsive. DV-alert teaches you to recognise, respond to and refer cases of family violence effectively. Community police, National police, State police, Others related Domestic and family violence is everyone’s business. A family member, your friend, your colleague at work or your staff member may be quietly experiencing this problem and you have the power to reach out and help them. DV-alert supports any kind of organisation to raise the awareness of managers and staff about domestic and family violence and how it can be addressed in the workplace. Corporates, Business managers and professionals, Others related

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You and Your Students! Vicki Cobb, Education World Science Editor Kids use their tongues to test pain endurance. Human Body, Senses Setting the Scene (Background) Want to capitalize on the popularity of reality shows such as "Fear Factor" and "Survivor"? Set up a pain-endurance competition for your students! This Show-Biz Science experiment will be a great motivator for your kids, and it will create a wonderful "teachable moment" that imparts a good bit of science. This is a good activity to do at lunchtime, or at a time when your class is having refreshments. You will want to pay special attention to the timing of the experiment. Soda/pop can go flat pretty quickly -- so you need to do this activity while the soda/pop is at its most fresh and lively. I've found this experiment works best with individual cans of soda that students can pop and pour into cups at a signal. Conduct this experiment as a race with all students starting at precisely the same time. Tell students they will be participating in an experiment today. The experiment will test just how tough they are: a pain endurance contest. Tell them you will be giving them a couple of signals. The First Signal Provide for each student a paper cup and a can of soda/pop. At a signal, students will pop their soda cans and fill their paper cups. Give the signal! The Second Signal Now the contest is ready to begin. Tell students that at the next signal they are to stick their tongues into the soda -- and leave them there for as long as they can! How long can they keep their tongues in the soda? At the second signal, count off 5-second intervals as students keep their tongues in the soda. Do some students have better pain endurance than others have? Most people can hardly last a minute! Behind the Scenes The reason students feel pain when they hold their tongues in the soda is because their saliva changes the carbon dioxide in the bubbles into carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is a weak acid that the body's nerves find irritating. This experiment is stimulating the pain receptors in students' tongues. Students can usually drink carbonated sodas without feeling pain because they swish around the liquid in their mouths; no one place on their tongues is continually bombarded with bubbles. How do we know this to be true? Two experiments help us understand why. For additional experiments related to the senses, don't miss Vicki Cobb's Feeling Your Way: Discover Your Sense of Touch (Millbrook Press, Lerner Books). Article By Vicki Cobb Copyright © 2005 Education World

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Just about any type of fruit can be fermented to produce alcohol. Fermentation is the process in which sugar is converted to alcohol by yeast. Adding sugar to fruit bases will increase the alcohol levels achieved during fermentation. Once a fruit base or "mash" has been fermented, it can be strained to produce fruit wine or distilled to make fruit liquor. Yeast must be added to a mash to ferment it. There are many varieties and strains of yeasts available from local brewing supply houses or from online suppliers. - Skill level: - Moderately Challenging Other People Are Reading Things you need - Fruit (at least 2.27kg.) - Large stockpot - Large spoon - Sugar (0.454kg. per 5lbs. fruit) - Lemon juice (28.4gr. per 5lbs. fruit) - Potato masher - 5-gallon plastic bucket - Cling film - Straining spoon Wash and peel the fruit. Seeds do not need to be removed. Cut the fruit into pieces. Fruit pieces should be slightly larger than bite-sized. Place cut fruit into the stockpot. Add water enough water to cover the fruit pieces completely. Bring fruit and water to a boil. Add sugar and lemon juice. Stir well. Remove from heat. Use potato masher to pulverise fruit. The mash should have the consistency of applesauce. Allow fruit mash to cool to approximately 23.8 to 26.6 degrees C. Transfer cooled mixture to 5-gallon plastic bucket. Add water until bucket is three-quarters full and stir well. Preparing Fruit for Fermenting Add yeast to the diluted fruit mash. Stir well. Cover the 5-gallon bucket with cling film. Poke five to 10 small holes in the cling film. Allow fruit mash to rest covered for two to three days. Remove cling film and skim off the material floating on top of the fruit mash with a straining spoon. Stir well. Cover the bucket with cling film again and poke small holes in the cling film. Allow fruit mash to rest for two to three days. Remove cling film and skim the material floating on top of the fruit mash with a straining spoon. Stir well. Cover the bucket with cling film and poke small holes in the cling film. Allow fruit mash to rest for two to three days. Fruit mash is fermented now, and may be transferred into a secondary fermentation vessel for winemaking or transferred into a still for distillation into liquor. Fermenting Fruit Mash Tips and warnings - You can experiment with different types of yeast. Bakers yeast will work fine, but there are many strains of yeasts grown specifically for wine and liquor making. - Be sure that fruit mash remains within a temperature range of 75 to 80 degrees while resting. Temperature variations can interfere with fermentation. - Fruit mash will smell foul while it is fermenting. Do not keep fermenting fruit mash anywhere that unpleasant odours will be a problem. - You may have to add more water to the mash during fermentation. If evaporation causes the bucket to become less than half full of liquid, add enough water to fill it two-thirds full and stir well. - Yeast can be more effective if it is mixed with a small amount of fruit mash in a pitcher and allowed to rest overnight before adding the yeast to the bucket of fruit mash. - Be certain that all utensils are clean. Bacteria or mould can contaminate your fruit mash and lead to illness. - Keep fruit mash covered while fermenting, foreign particles can contaminate fruit mash and cause illness or interfere with fermentation. - 20 of the funniest online reviews ever - 14 Biggest lies people tell in online dating sites - Hilarious things Google thinks you're trying to search for

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Beastly bugs or edible delicacies Workshop considers contribution of forest insects to the human diet 19 February 2008, Chiang Mai, Thailand - With over 1 400 insect species eaten by humans worldwide, the insect world offers promising possibilities both commercially and nutritionally, FAO said today. A workshop organized by FAO this week will discuss the potential for developing insects in the Asia and Pacific region. While the idea of eating insects may seem unusual or even unappetizing to some, human consumption of insects is actually very common in most parts of the world. At least 527 different insects are eaten across 36 countries in Africa, while insects are also eaten in 29 countries in Asia and 23 in the Americas. Source of protein, vitamins and minerals Of the hundreds of insect species reportedly eaten as human food, the most common come from four main insect groups: beetles; ants, bees and wasps; grasshoppers and crickets; and moths and butterflies. As a food source, insects are highly nutritious. Some insects have as much protein as meat and fish. In dried form, insects have often twice the protein of fresh raw meat and fish, but usually not more than dried or grilled meat and fish. Some insects, especially in the larval stage, are also rich in fat and contain important vitamins and minerals. Most edible insects are harvested from natural forests. But, while insects account for the greatest amount of biodiversity in forests, they are the least studied of all fauna. “Surprisingly little is known about the life cycles, population dynamics, commercial and management potential of most edible forest insects,” said Patrick Durst, senior FAO forestry officer. “Among forest managers, there is very little knowledge or appreciation of the potential for managing and harvesting insects sustainably,” noted Durst. “On the other hand, traditional forest dwellers and forest-dependent people often possess remarkable knowledge of the insects and their management.” In some areas, insects are only occasionally eaten as “emergency food” to stave off starvation. But in most regions where insects are consumed for food, they are a regular part of the diet and are often considered delicacies. In Thailand, site of this week’s consultation, nearly 200 different insect species are eaten, many of which are highly sought-after as snacks and treats. Vendors selling insects are a common sight throughout the country, and in the capital, Bangkok. Traditionally, humans have benefited from insects largely for the production of honey, wax and silk, as a source of dye, and in some cultures as foods and medicines. Wherever forest insects have been part of the human diet, the insects are usually collected from the wild, with most collectors focusing on larvae and pupae – the insect forms most commonly eaten. Simple processing and cooking are the norm and only minimal forest management is needed to exploit the resource. A few insects such as silkworms and bees were domesticated centuries ago, but it is only recently that interest has grown for rearing other insect species for food. It is now common to find farmers in northern Thailand, for example, raising bamboo worms or crickets for sale to local buyers. Aside from their nutritional value, many experts see considerable potential for edible insects to provide income and jobs for rural people who capture, rear, process, transport and market the insects. These prospects can be enhanced through promotion and adoption of modern food technology standards for food insects that are sold live, dried, smoked, roasted or in some other form. Care must however be taken to ensure that the insects are hygienically safe for human consumption and do not contain excessive amounts of chemical residues such as insecticides. “Opportunities also exist for improved packaging and marketing to make edible insects more enticing to traditional buyers and to expand the market to new consumers, especially in urban areas,” according to Durst. Organized by FAO and Chiang Mai University in Thailand, specialists attending the three-day workshop will focus on edible forest insects and their management, collection, harvest, processing, marketing, and consumption. The gathering hopes to raise awareness of the potential of edible forest insects as a food source, document the contribution of edible insects to rural livelihoods and assess linkages to sustainable forest management and conservation. Media Relations, FAO (+39) 06 570 56292 (+39) 348 870 5221 e-mail this article

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A collection of speeches by Canada's eleventh prime minister following his emigration to England and appointment to the British House of Lords. Richard Bedford Bennett was Canada's eleventh prime minister and head of a majority government during the Great Depression. Defeated in 1935, he lived the rest of his life in England and is the only deceased Canadian prime minister not buried on Canadian soil. For most Canadians, the Bennett story ends upon his leaving Canada in 1939. But, as this book shows, Bennett's career was far from over. Summoned to the British House of Lords in 1941 by King George VI, Bennett, now Viscount Bennett, took part in some of the crucial debates of the Second World War and lent his voice to discussions in Parliament at Westminster as the United Kingdom and British Empire and Commonwealth prepared for the post-war years. He served in the Lords until his death in 1947, continuing his fight for the Canadian autonomy that he had done so much to establish as prime minister in Ottawa. With a foreword by former Prime Minster John Turner, the book includes contributions from R.B.'s nephew, William R. Herridge, and David Asper, chair of the National Post.

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The history of the Arab-Israeli conflict reveals 24 major junctures when compromise was offered since the 1920s, dating from pre-state, League of Nations Mandate to the present time. Plan after plan, including patently pro-Arab proposals, were put on the table. Since the 1993 Oslo Accords, 15 agreements and memorandums have been signed. This chapter examines those agreements and Arab response or compliance in each case. “The Palestinians never miss an opportunity to miss an opportunity.“ Israeli Foreign Minister Abba Eban Arab claims that the Israeli “Occupation” prevents peace is nothing more than a red herring. It is not “The Occupation” that Arabs reject; it is Israel 's right to exist as a Jewish, sovereign and legitimate political entity. What prevents achieving peace is Arab rejectionism, which began in the 1880s when the first Jewish immigrants returned to the land of Israel . 1 Since the 1920s, long before the establishment of Israel or the 1967 Six-Day War, Palestinian Arabs have used a combination of diplomatic moves and violence, particularly terrorism 2 against Jewish civilians, effectively rejecting every form of compromise. At the crux of the Arab-Israeli conflict is the Arab world's refusal to accept a non-Muslim political entity in the Middle East. Peace requires an Arab world that recognizes Israel as a legitimate political entity. Legitimacy means a polity with viable and defendable borders where the Jews can exercise their own rights of self-determination by virtue of demographics (i.e., a Jewish majority) –hegemony that is reflected in the cultural and the political life of the Jewish nation. The Arab refusal to recognize Israel and their attempts to destroy the Jewish state are among the defining characteristics of Palestinian society. Measures designed to destroy Israel vary from use of force (through wars, Intifadas , violent riots, revolts and terrorism) to use of economic and demographic forces (economic boycotts, demands for jobs in Israel, Palestinian infiltration into Israel without visas or other permits, and demands that Palestinian refugees from 1948 and their descendants be allowed to return to Israel). Absolute antipathy and intolerance towards non-Muslim political entities is a fate Jews shared with the Maronite Christians in Lebanon , even though Israel inhabits no more than 0.01 percent of the Middle Eastern landscape. For almost 100 years, Palestinian behavior has been based on rejectionism and political violence. The Palestinian refugee problem created in 1948 did not spark those strategies, nor did the “Occupation” of the Territories in the wake of the 1967 Six-Day War, which brought Israeli control over West Bank (Judea and Samaria ) and Gaza . Arabs have rejected the presence of Jews with political aspirations to rebuild their ancient homeland since the advent of political Zionism. When in 1891 the number of Jewish immigrants leaving the country equaled the number of new arrivals, and nine years of Zionist endeavor, had produced barely a dozen struggling and insolvent Jewish agricultural settlements. Arab notables from Jerusalem called upon the Ottoman administration to ban Jewish immigration and the sale of land to Jews. 3 At each juncture when attempts to reach a ‘live-and-let-live' solution have been advanced, Arab responses have boiled down to a two-pronged offensive that dovetails diplomacy with violence. In short, the Arabs, and particularly the Palestinians, have refused to recognize Israel as a legitimate entity or to negotiate genuine compromise. Instead, they have tried to drive the Jews out through violence and terror. The British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Arthur Balfour, wrote to Lord Rothschild: “His Majesty's Government … views with favor the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people.” Balfour underscored that “Nothing shall be done, which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of the existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine .” Arab Response: Rejection! Violence: In the springs of 1920 and 1921, the Arabs instigated anti-Jewish riots in cities where both Arabs and Jews lived. Attacks were also launched on Jewish settlements in the countryside, leading to 13 deaths in 1920. Another 47 Jews were killed and 140 wounded in settlements and Jewish neighborhoods the following year. Diplomacy: The Arab Executive Committee demanded an end to Jewish immigration. The Moslem-Christian Associations, meeting in Jerusalem with the British Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill in 1921, called upon Great Britain to rescind the Balfour Declaration, stop Jewish immigration and agree to appoint a national government answerable to a popularly elected Parliament controlled by the Arab majority. 4 In response, the British temporarily halted Jewish immigration and convened the 1921 Haycraft Commission of Inquiry. The Commission found the Arabs responsible for the outbreak of violence that was sparked by “British pro-Zionist commitments.” In the fall of 1921, Churchill attempted to bring Arabs and Jews together in London to negotiate a formula for peaceful coexistence. For almost a year, the Arab delegation doggedly refused to meet with Zionist leaders, claiming that such a meeting would be demeaning. In February 1922, Churchill offered the Arabs the establishment of a legislative council, but they turned it down because the offer also included provisions for Jewish representation. 5 The Arabs continued their demand that Jewish immigration cease, despite records, which show that in 1922 there were only 80,000 Jews in the entire country. Seeking to placate the Arabs, the British partitioned the Palestine Mandate: Jews were prohibited from settling in 77 percent of Mandate Palestine—all the territory east of the Jordan River . They were allowed to settle anywhere in western Palestine (including today's Israel proper, the West Bank and Gaza .) Thus, Eastern Palestine, renamed Transjordan , was removed from the area that was set aside for the Jewish National Home in the historic Balfour Declaration and handed over to the Emir Abdullah. This split was viewed as the “definitive Palestinian Settlement,” with Transjordan as ‘the Arab National Home,' parallel to the Jewish National Home on the West Bank of the Jordan River all the way to the Mediterranean Sea (from the river to the sea). Arab Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: The Zionist movement reluctantly agreed to conform to the policy set forth in the 1922 Churchill White Paper, but the Arabs continued to reject any form of coexistence. They boycotted British attempts to hold elections for the establishment of a joint legislative assembly that included the Jews, rejecting any form of a Jewish body politic. They even refused to establish an Arab Agency for development of the Arab sector that would parallel the Jewish Agency. 7 Six years later, in 1928, the Arabs recognized their mistake in turning down the British offer of a legislative assembly. At the 7 th Palestinian Congress, they demanded the British give them a parliamentary government, but with ethnic tensions mounting, Britain was not about to renew its offer. 8 Violence: In 1929, Arab mobs again attacked Jews throughout Mandate Palestine, reacting to fear mongering instigated by the Supreme Moslem Council. The wave of violence known as the 1929 Disturbances left 135 dead and included the massacre of 70 non-Zionist religious Jews who lived in Hebron , the City of the Patriarchs. The British evacuated 700 Hebron survivors to Jerusalem for their own safety. Only a handful of Jews returned to Hebron in 1931, and they were ultimately evacuated in 1936, after renewed Arab violence. That last evacuation brought an end to the Jewish presence in Hebron dating back to ancient times. Three decades later, after the 1967 Six-Day War, a Jewish community was re-established in Hebron. The Passfield White Paper was based on the 1929-30 Shaw Commission of Inquiry 9 and the 1930 Hope-Simpson Report 10 after investigatory committees on land use sought a formula to mitigate tensions between Arabs and Jews. British Colonial Secretary Lord Passfield, who issued the 1930 White Paper, took a dim view of continued Jewish immigration. The document called for renewed attempts to establish a joint Jewish-Arab legislative council that would automatically give the Arab majority de facto domination over the Jews. British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, however, never accepted Passfield's recommendations. 11 Arab Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: The idea of a shared stewardship of one polity never survived. In December 1930, British authorities invited Arab leaders to a “roundtable conference” with Zionists to discuss constitutional issues. The Arabs boycotted the opportunity for representative government and the plan was buried. 12 Pro-Zionist forces - both Jewish and gentile - viewed Passfield's recommendations to end Jewish settlement as a breach of the Balfour Declaration upon which the Mandate over Palestine had been granted to the British. Intense lobbying in the media and the halls of government led Prime Minister MacDonald to send an official letter to the head of the Zionist Movement. In it, he declared his government's intentions to fulfill the terms of the Mandate toward the Jewish people as a whole, not just the Jews living in Mandate Palestine. In December 1935, Great Britain again raised the idea of an “advisory legislative council” instead of a parliament, consisting of three Muslim, four Jewish and two Christian members. For months, the Arabs vacillated, until the British government dropped the constitutional scheme. 13 Within weeks, Palestinian Arabs were once again killing Jews and also the British. Violence: The 1936-1939 Arab Revolt, a three-year period of violence that targeted Jews and the British, was marked by murder, destruction of public infrastructure and Jewish property, and attacks on settlements. Eighty Jews lost their lives in the first stage of the revolt. Diplomacy: In January 1935, 500 Muslim religious notables met in Jerusalem to enact a fatwa (Islamic religious ruling) that prohibited Muslims from - selling land to Jews on pain of death. In April 1936, with attacks on Jews and British officials still ongoing, six political factions within local Arab society - nascent political parties - joined forces to found the Arab Higher Committee (AHC). The moving force behind the AHC was the Mufti of Jerusalem. The supreme religious leader of the Palestinian Muslim community, Hajj Amin al-Husseini was an ardent Arab nationalist and anti-Zionist. The AHC's first resolution was to call for a general strike until three demands were met: a complete halt of Jewish immigration, prohibition of land transfers to Jews, and establishment of an “Arab national government,” a solution that would disenfranchise Jews. The Peel Commission, convened in May 1936 to investigate the roots of renewed Arab violence, was charged with making recommendation to bring about coexistence. Arab Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: In his deposition before the Peel Commission, the Mufti demanded three main concessions: complete abandonment of the Jewish National Home; cessation of all Jewish immigration and land purchases; and termination of the Mandate by the establishment of a pro-British Arab regime, as was done in Iraq . The Mufti also complained that too many Jews already lived in Palestine , and in response to a question from commission members, indicated that some Jews would have to leave “kindly or painfully.” 14 Although Arab leaders alleged that Jewish land acquisitions displaced Arabs, the commission found those complaints baseless . Instead, the commission found that Jewish immigration and British rule had actually led to higher wages, an improved standard of living and increased job opportunities for Arabs. Despite those findings, the British yielded to Arab pressure and restricted Jewish immigration in March 1938 to 3,000 for the next six-months. The effect was to drastically reduce annual Jewish immigration by more than 75 percent. The commissioners also recommended partition of Palestine , proposing the formation of a small Jewish state, with the remaining territory united with Transjordan to form an Arab state. Diplomacy: The 12 th Zionist Congress neither accepted nor rejected the partition plan, stating only that it “found the terms of the scheme unacceptable.” At the same time, the [Zionist] Congress called for “negotiations to ascertain the precise terms of His Majesty's Government for the proposed establishment of a Jewish state.” 15 The Arabs rejected the plan outright. Immediately upon publication of the report, the AHC, which had become the representative body of local Palestinian Arabs, repudiated the report. In September 1937, the 450 delegates of the Arab National Congress met at the Bludan Conference in Syria and rejected the Peel Commission's recommendations. Violence: Parallel to rejecting a generous pro-Arab plan, Palestinian Arabs resumed the Arab Revolt. They stepped up attacks on Jews, and targeted moderate Arab brethren who were open to compromise. The revolt left 415 Jews dead. An estimate 25 percent of the Arabs who lost their lives in the revolt were killed by their brethren, the Palestinian Arabs. 16 Between 1936-1939, Arabs also destroyed 200,000 trees in JNF (Jewish National Fund) forests as part of their war on a Jewish presence; in the corresponding period, Jews planted about 1,000,000 more trees. 17 Diplomacy: Near the end of the Arab revolt, the most radical hard-line faction of Palestinian society gained the upper hand over the moderate Palestinian faction that opposed the revolt as unproductive. The so-called moderates were, however, far from conciliatory toward the idea of a Jewish state. They rejected the idea of partition, but were prepared to take a long view and put up with a trickle of Jewish immigration for the limited time mandated under the terms of the patently pro-Arab 1939 White Paper. Under the guidance of the Mufti, the hard-liners presented an all-or-nothing stance that called for full Arab independence in all of Palestine and the establishment of an Arab state. With the outbreak of World War II looming, the British sought Arab support in the strategically sensitive Middle East at all costs. The result was the 1939 White Paper, which capitulated to Palestinian Arab demands. It permanently reduced Jewish immigration to a trickle just when Jews were fleeing from Nazi Germany and other parts of Europe . It also specifically called for establishment of an Arab state in Palestine (i.e., not a Palestinian state) within ten years. Jewish immigration was to be restricted to no more than 75,000 over the following five years and none thereafter, without the consent of the Arab population . 18 Arab Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: Even though the 1939 White Paper offered the Arabs independence as well as a veto over further Jewish immigration, the AHC expressed its total rejection of the policy of partition immediately upon publication of the report. Again they demanded a total stop to Jewish immigration forthwith, saying that the Jews would be among the “safeguarded minorities” under Arab rule. Meeting again in Bludan , Syria in September 1939, delegates from all the Arab states resolved that Palestine was “an integral part of the Arabian homeland and no part would be alienated with Arab consent.” 19 At the end of World War II, in 1945, the newly formed Arab League reconstituted the Arab Higher Committee (AHC) as the representative body of Palestinian Arabs, renewing its policy of rejectionism on all fronts. Diplomacy: Two more proposals were tendered in 1946, both of which championed a bi-national state—a solution that both Arabs and Jews deemed unworkable and undesirable. One proposal, by the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry in April 1946, was based on a single state with equal powers for Jews and Arabs. The other, the Morrison-Grady plan in July 1946, recommended a federal state with two provinces—one Jewish, one Arab. Both called for a level of increased Jewish immigration, which would alleviate the plight of 100,000 Holocaust survivors in Displaced Persons (DP) camps in Europe . From the outset, the first proposal was unfeasible. While the Jewish delegation sought major changes in the second Morrison-Grady plan, the Palestinian Arab delegation rejected any compromise that did not recognize all of Palestine as a purely Arab country. When a second round of talks in London in September 1946 failed, the British referred the issue of Palestine to the United Nations.In December 1945, members of the Arab League adopted economic warfare, calling for a boycott of the Jewish community in Mandate Palestine. In 1948, the Arab boycott became a clean break from all economic ties with Israel and the imposition of a secondary boycott against foreign firms that traded with Israel. The 1947 Partition Plan recommended establishment of a Jewish state and an Arab state in Palestine . The map drawn up by the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) was a geopolitical anomaly, based on demographics on the ground that delineated two states, both of which lacked territorial continuity. The map resembled three Jewish and three Arab ‘intertwined link sausages'. 20 Arab Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: Although 75 percent of the area partitioned for the Jews was desert, and the allocation lacked any territorial integrity for either side, the Jews accepted the UN recommendation for the Partition Plan, adopted by the General Assembly on November 29, 1947 at Lake Success, New York. The AHC - representing Palestinian Arabs - rejected the plan, asserting that it would prevent its implementation by force. The proposed Jewish state was given a mere 17 percent of the original Mandate territory for a Jewish Home as set forth in 1917. Violence: The very next day, as the British began to dismantle the Mandate and leave western Palestine , Israel 's War of Independence began. In the first stage of the War of Independence (November 30, 1947‑May 14, 1948), local Palestinian irregulars and Arab volunteers from abroad engaged in a five-and-a- half months massive guerrilla war against Jewish society in Palestine to prevent implementation of the Jewish state's establishment. The second stage of the war began with the final British withdrawal and a declaration of independence by Israel on May 14, 1948. The war between Palestinians and Jews expanded into a general war, as regular armies from all of Israel 's Arab neighbors invaded the newly established Jewish state. Six thousand Jews—1 percent of Israel 's Jewish population—lost their lives during the War of Independence. Diplomacy: In the midst of the War of Independence - during a cease-fire - the Arab states categorically rejected a plan formulated by the Swedish UN envoy Count Folke Bernadotte that suggested revision of the 1947 Partition Plan giving the Arabs almost 60 percent of the area mandated to the newly established Jewish state (i.e., the entire Negev in exchange for a small part of the Galilee). The proposal also called for internationalization of Jerusalem , the return of all Palestinian refugees to the attenuated Jewish state that Bernadotte envisioned, annexation of the West Bank to Transjordan and Arab control of Jewish immigration. Violence: The 1948 War and the establishment of the State of Israel triggered hostile reactions in Arab countries. Demonstrations to ‘Save Palestine ' and destroy Israel flourished, and anti-Jewish riots erupted throughout the Arab world, with Arabs attacking their Jewish neighbors. The attacks escalated into pogroms throughout the Arab world, with bombings of Jewish institutions, official acts of discrimination and harassment and the passage of Nuremberg-like laws that disenfranchised and marginalized Jews. That in turn led to a mass exodus of entire Jewish communities from the Middle East and North Africa . More than 850,000 innocent Jews were forced to leave their homes as stateless and penniless refugees - including 95 percent of Iraq 's Jewish community, whose history dated back to the Babylonian Exile 2,500 years ago. Most Middle Eastern and North African Jews found refuge in Israel , where they eventually rebuilt their lives. Diplomacy: Israel 's Arab neighbors refused to sign a peace treaty with the Jewish state that would end the perpetual state of war. The Arabs agreed only to an armistice, or cease-fire, negotiated by UN Mediator Ralph Bunche, since the Arabs rejected face-to-face negotiations 21 that might be construed as de facto recognition of Israel. Armistice agreements, concluded on the Mediterranean island of Rhodes , brought about a cease-fire that marked an end to the War of Independence, but not an end to the conflict. Based largely on the outcome of the battles and some exchange of turf to disengage Arab and Israeli forces, armistice lines (which became known as the ‘Green Line') were drawn. Those lines left Jordan - whose international border was the Jordan River - in control of the West Bank and the Old City of Jerusalem, with Egypt in control of the Gaza Strip. Arab Response: Rejection! Despite the establishment of the State of Israel and its victory in the War of Independence in 1948, Palestinian Arabs and their Arab brethren continued to demonstrate an unwavering commitment to their pre-state rejectionist tradition. For the next 29 years, from 1948 to 1977, they refused to recognize Israel - De facto or De jure - and they continued to try to destroy the Jewish state in the diplomatic arena and through the use of violence. Arab violence included infiltration and border clashes, terrorism against civilians and culpability for additionally four wars: the Sinai Campaign in 1956, the Six-Day War in 1967, the War of Attrition between 1968-1970, and the Yom Kippur War in 1973. After a decade of Arab unwillingness to accept Israel 's Jewish-Zionist character and put the past to rest, Abba Eban noted dryly: “The Arabs never miss an opportunity to miss an opportunity.” Diplomacy: After Egypt , Lebanon and Jordan signed armistice agreements in 1948, the UN established the Palestine Conciliation Commission to bring about a final settlement. The United States , France and Turkey were appointed to sit on the commission, which met in Lausanne , Switzerland , in April 1949. But the meeting was a non-starter, as the Arabs refused to sit at the same table with Israeli delegates, and agreed only to talk to the commissioners. They demanded that Israel withdraw into a narrow enclave for Jews along the coastline without any of the Galilee or the Negev , an immediate return of all Arab refugees, and a Right of Return to the narrow enclave they agreed to give the Jews. Except for Transjordan, the Arabs also insisted on internationalizing all of Jerusalem , but refused in return to recognize Israel and develop normal relations with it. They claimed that the issue of territory, refugees, and Jerusalem were international resolutions that must be obeyed, while recognition and future relations with Israel were matters the Arabs should decide for themselves—a distortion of UN powers and the spirit of UN resolutions. Violence: In the 1950s, Israel's neighbors sent fedayeen 22 (terrorists) across the border to sabotage property and murder Jewish civilians led Israel to retaliate with military raids, and ultimately forced Israel to embark on the 1956 Sinai Campaign to put an end to the incursions. The wave of violence reached a peak in 1953, when there were 3,000 cross-border acts of violence inside Israel . Between 1951 and 1955, 503 Israelis were killed by Arab terrorists infiltrating from Jordan , 358 in attacks from Egypt , and 61 in attacks from Syria and Lebanon . The attacks targeted civilians in private homes, motorists and bus passengers, synagogue worshippers, hikers and archeologists, farmers and shepherds in their fields. 23 For Israeli society, the magnitude of 922 deaths between 1951 and 1955, when its population was 1.8 million, would be the per capita equivalent of 3,473 casualties in 2004, when Israel's population was 6.78 million. Diplomacy and violence: Throughout the 1960s - before the Six-Day War - Israel consistently expressed its desire to negotiate with its neighbors. In an address before the UN General Assembly in October 1960, Israel 's Foreign Minister, Golda Meir challenged Arab leaders to meet with Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion to negotiate a peace settlement. Egyptian President Abdul Nasser responded by saying that Israel was trying to deceive world opinion. Nasser reiterated that his country would never recognize the Jewish state. Arab attacks continued through the 1960s, with Israel 's northern civilian settlements constantly shelled by Syrian troops stationed on the Golan Heights—an escarpment that towers 3,000 feet above the Israeli towns and farming communities in the Galilee . Diplomacy: In 1964 - three years prior to the Six-Day War, when Jordan controlled the West Bank , Palestinian Arabs established the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) under the aegis of the Egyptians. The Palestinian National Covenant set forth the ideological heart of the Palestinian cause: armed struggle to liberate all of Palestine (i.e., the State of Israel). The only Jews allowed to remain would be those who had lived there before 1917 (i.e., prior to the Balfour Declaration). The PLO resolved to establish a Palestine Liberation Army as well, long before the Israeli “Occupation” of the West Bank and Gaza . Israel proper was, and still is, considered “ Occupied Territory ” by the PLO and the Palestinian Authority. Violence: Seeking to drag Israel 's Arab neighbors into another war, the PLO adopted an “entanglement strategy” that used sabotage as the priming cap to force Israel to retaliate. That would prompt the armed forces of Israel 's neighbors to increase their military profiles a cycle of action-retaliation-reaction the PLO hoped would escalate to war. In 1965, 35 terrorist raids were launched against Israel ; in 1966, 41. And in the first four months of 1967 - prior to the Six-Day War, 37 attacks were launched. In the 1967 Six-Day War, the combined armies of Syria and Egypt - later joined by Jordan - sought to crush Israel . They concentrated their armies along the 1948 armistice line, the Green Line, as they prepared a concerted attack to overrun the Jewish state on three fronts. Following Israel 's June 1967 victory, the Jewish state was certain the Arabs would agree to make peace. Israeli leaders ‘waited for a phone call' from Arab capitals. They never came. Arab Response: Rejection! Diplomacy : The Arab response was the ‘Khartoum Resolution,' 24 formulated two months later, in August and September 1967. Eight heads of Arab states participated in an Arab summit in Khartoum , Sudan , and adopted three ‘nays': “No peace with Israel , no recognition of Israel , and no negotiations with it [ Israel ].” It became the foundation for a “united political effort at the international and diplomatic level to eliminate the effects of the aggression and to ensure the withdrawal of the aggressive Israeli forces from the Arab lands which have been occupied since the aggression of June 5.” The response effectively slammed the door on peace. Khartoum remained the consensus position of the Arab world until Egyptian President Anwar Sadat made his dramatic and historic visit to Israel in 1977. Diplomacy : From 1968 to 1998, various win-win plans for secure and recognized Israeli borders as stipulated by UN Resolution 242, and a demilitarized Palestinian polity in most of the West Bank were the subject of debate in Israel , beginning with the Allon Plan which envisioned returning 60 percent of the West Bank to the Arabs. For years after the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel and neutral third parties sought peace formulas to end the conflict and give Israel defendable borders. Each attempt was met by a string of Arab resolutions and declarations that legitimized and supported armed struggle and terrorism, and rejected Israel 's right to exist. A landmark declaration was the charter adopted in September 1972 by the Islamic Conference in Rabat , Morocco . One of its founding objectives was “to coordinate efforts for the safeguarding of the Holy Places and support of the struggle of the people of Palestine , to help them regain their rights and liberate their land.” Another landmark moment in Arab rejectionist history was the Palestinian National Covenant's declared objective to establish a “secular and democratic state in Palestine ” (i.e., the dissolution of the Jewish state). Violence : Rather than seeking peace, between 1968 and 1970 the Egyptians launched a 1,000-day ‘War of Attrition' against Israeli forces stationed along the Suez Canal . In 1969, Jordan collaborated with the PLO and other anti-Israeli forces that led to planting mines in Israeli orchards and fields, the shelling of Israeli settlements and other hostile acts along the Jordan Rift Valley. The Israeli death toll between June 15, 1967 and August 8, 1970 (from the end of the Six-Day War to the cease-fire of the War of Attrition) was 721, including 130 civilians. 25 Diplomacy : Under the cover of a diplomatic move, Egypt used a three-month cease-fire in the War of Attrition to move its anti-aircraft batteries forward along the Suez Canal to cover 20 kilometers into Israeli-held Sinai, in blatant violation of the terms of the cease-fire. Under intense American pressure, and despite the violation, Israel acquiesced, agreeing not to ‘take out' the batteries, which ultimately enabled the Egyptians to overrun Israeli defenses along the canal when Egypt launched the Yom Kippur War three years later in 1973. In retrospect, Egypt had viewed the August 1970 cease-fire as merely a hudna— a tactical temporary truce, to be honored until Egypt felt that it was strong enough to renew the battle against Israel . Violence : In the years that followed, Palestinian terrorists carried out a series of attacks against Israelis and diaspora Jews and their institutions abroad. Among the worst was the murder of 16 Israeli athletes at the 1972 Munich Olympics. In Israel , Palestinian terrorists exploded time bombs in public places, including cinemas and supermarkets, a tactic inaugurated by the 1968 bombing of Machane Yehuda, the open-air market in Jerusalem that left 12 dead. At about the same time, Palestinians invented skyjacking, a political vehicle that permitted taking hostages and extorting political concessions for their release. An El-Al plane was forced to land in Algeria , and the Jews were separated from non-Jews. Held for 39 days, the hostages were used to extort the release of Palestinian Arabs convicted of terrorist activity in Israel . Later, Palestinians initiated attacks on El-Al passengers and airliners at international airports and escalated the violence to blowing up civilian airliners in midair - the first, killing 47 passengers and crew aboard a Swissair flight from Zurich to Tel Aviv in February 1970. Later, in 1974, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC) claimed responsibility for the first-ever Palestinian suicide-bombing when 18 hostages near the town of Kiryat Shmona in northern Israel were murdered by Palestinian terrorists loaded with explosives. 26 Violence : In 1973, the Syrians and the Egyptians launched the Yom Kippur War but were badly defeated by Israel . Considering the dire military position Israel found itself in after the first few days of the war, the speed with which the Israel Defense Force (IDF) was able to bounce back and reverse its fate in the field was remarkable. Egypt , which initially had refused a cease-fire, accepted it eagerly when Israeli forces regained the initiative. And so did Syria . Yet despite the military outcome, the Yom Kippur War went down in Israel 's history as a qualified failure because of the Israeli intelligence blunders that failed to perceive the Arabs' true intentions. Refraining from launching a last minute pre-emptive strike, and agreeing to a U.S. Administration request not to strike first cost Israel heavily: There were 2,688 fallen soldiers. Diplomacy : What ultimately led to Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's dramatic decision in 1977 to recognize Israel and negotiate a peace treaty? In part it was the result of the Yom Kippur War, but it was also the result of the human dynamics of direct negotiations between military representatives at ‘Kilometer 101' in the Sinai Desert as Israeli and Egyptian forces disengaged. In 1974 the Arab states (except Jordan ) recognized the PLO as the “sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian People.” That made Palestinians formally responsible for their own destiny for the first time since the end of the 1948 war. Yet it did not mean a change in tactics as they continued to subscribe to a belief that “the Zionist entity” must be destroyed. On the other hand, Palestinians were acutely aware of their Arab brethren's failure to defeat Israel during the Yom Kippur War, even under optimal conditions. As a result, the PLO secretly adopted a stage-by-stage plan in 1974 to achieve its goals. Stage One called for using violent struggle as a means of establishing a “combatant national authority” over any territory liberated from Israeli rule. Stage Two envisioned using the territory of the national authority as a base for attacks on Israel . That in turn would lead to provoking all-out war “to liberate all Palestinian territory” - or destroy Israel . Many observers believe application of that strategy was the basis of the PLO's bogus concession to recognize Israel in the 1993 Oslo Accords. The Accords established the Palestine National Authority (or PA), which gave the PLO a foothold in the West Bank, and Gaza —the objective of the PLO's Stage One. From that perspective, the breakdown of the peace process and outbreak of Arafat's war in September 2000 can be better understood. For it was only after Israeli concessions had reached their limit in July 2000 at Camp David that Arafat (prematurely) opted to launch Stage Two. In fact, in June 2001, the late Faysal Al-Husseini, a key member of the PLO inner circle, revealed in an interview in the Egyptian newspaper Al-Arabi that the Oslo Accords were what he labeled—“a Trojan Horse,” explaining: “When we are asking all the Palestinian forces and factions to look at the Oslo Agreement and at other agreements as ‘temporary' procedures, or phased goals, this means that we are ambushing the Israelis and cheating them.” 27 Al-Husseini went on to clarify that the “long-term goal is the liberation of Palestine from the river to the sea.” (i.e., from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean, including Israel ). Violence : In 1968, the PLO turned Jordan into a staging area for sending terrorists into the West Bank and Israel . Carrying out the PLO's entanglement strategy, Jordanian forces were drawn into the struggle because of Israeli reprisals. Jordan gave the PLO great latitude in its attacks and Jordanian forces shelled Israeli settlements south of the Sea of Galilee . In the course of three years, 141 Israelis were killed along Israel 's border with Jordan . Only in September 1970 was the PLO ousted by Jordan 's King Hussein after the PLO went one step too far, skyjacking three civilian airliners to Jordan , then blowing up the empty planes on the tarmac. During a ten-day battle between Jordan 's Arab Legion and PLO forces that became known as ‘Black September,' the Palestinians suffered more than 3,000 fatalities. 28 Diplomacy : In 1969, the Cairo Agreement between Lebanon and the PLO was signed. It granted Palestinian Arabs in Lebanon the right to bear arms to carry on their war against Israel . Lebanese authorities signed the Cairo Agreement under the combined pressure of Egypt , Syria and hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs, whose refugee camps had become hotbeds of discontent and become a destabilizing force in Lebanon . The PLO took advantage of the ethnic rivalries and political weakness of its host country to slowly degrade the integrity of Lebanese sovereignty, and created an unofficially autonomous PLO region in southern Lebanon in everything but name. 29 In 1970, after Jordan ejected the PLO from its territory, southern Lebanon became the primary staging area for Palestinian attacks. From its undeclared Palestinian mini-state along the Israeli-Lebanese border, the PLO, with Arafat at its helm, committed a series of terrorist attacks along Israel 's northern border and coastline. 30 The attacks included massacres of elementary school children on a school bus (1970, 12 fatalities - nine of them children); apartment dwellers (1974, 18 casualties, including nine children); teens on a school overnight trip (1974, 29 causalities); and guests at a Tel Aviv hotel (1975, 25 dead). Palestinians also engineered terrorist acts in other parts of Israel - from time bombs in crowded places to a May 1972 massacre at Ben-Gurion Airport 's arrivals terminal when a squad of Japanese terrorists on behalf of the Palestinians killed 26 and wounded 78. Both Israeli and Jewish institutions abroad were also targeted - from Paris and Brussels to Athens and Istanbul . Diplomacy : In 1976, in addition to using air strikes against PLO targets, Israel embarked on a diplomatic initiative aimed at ousting the PLO from areas close to its northern border. Seeking to forge good relations with the local Lebanese population, a ‘Good Fence' was established unilaterally, which allowed Lebanese to cross into Israel to visit relatives, conduct trade, receive medical care and work day-jobs. Two years later, the Litani Campaign, an Israeli military incursion, was launched in an attempt to oust the PLO by force. The accords leads to March 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty, breaking a 30-year refusal to negotiate with Israel face-to-face, Egypt became the first Arab state to make peace with Israel . The terms of the treaty called for negotiations for Palestinian self-rule that would lead to a “just, comprehensive and durable settlement” based on UN Resolution 242 (“withdrawal from Territories” to “secure and recognized borders”). 31 Arab Response: Rejection! Diplomacy : The historic groundbreaking peace pact between Israel and Egypt was denounced by the Palestinians and other Arab states, who in 1979 expelled Egypt from the Arab League and the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC.) Membership wasn't restored until a full decade later. Violence : In the wake of Sadat's historic visit to Israel in 1977, while the Egyptians were pursuing a peace treaty with Israel , the PLO launched another horrific attack on civilians from its operational base in southern Lebanon , hijacking a bus full of families on a Sabbath outing on the main highway between Haifa and Tel Aviv. The March 1978 attack left 35 passengers dead. Other horrific attacks through the 1970s forced Israel to embark on the March 1978 Litani River Operation. Its goal was to evict PLO terrorists from southern Lebanon as far as the Litani River . Diplomacy : The goal of the Litani Campaign was to reestablish Lebanese control on the border, in spite of the ongoing Lebanese civil war. Instead, an ineffectual international peacekeeping force (UNIFEL) was established in southern Lebanon . Once Israel troops had withdrawn, UN troops filled the power vacuum. Their presence failed to prevent terrorism entirely, and periodic shelling of Israeli settlements in the Galilee with Soviet-supplied Katyusha rockets continued. Violence : Palestinian violence continued, and included numerous attacks on Israeli diplomats and embassies, passengers and planes, synagogues and restaurants abroad. The PLO built an organized military force on Israel 's northern border, and Israeli towns and settlements along the northern border continued to suffer from intermittent shelling and terrorist incursions from Lebanon . The most memorable was an attack on an apartment house in the seaside resort town of Naharia that left four dead, two of them children, and an attack on a children's center in a border kibbutz that killed a toddler and two adults. Following the June 1982 assassination attempt on the Israeli ambassador in London (leaving him incapacitated for the rest of his life), Israel , like Jordan some twelve years earlier, was forced to dislodge the PLO from Lebanon in a major offensive. Called “Operation Peace for Galilee” (but known more generally as the War in Lebanon ), it led to the exile of the PLO to Tunis and the establishment of a security zone in southern Lebanon. 32 When the PLO was expelled from Beirut there were two major developments. The power vacuum in southern Lebanon was filled by radicalized Shi'ite Lebanese, and the Iran-backed organization, Hezbollah, and the PLO continued to espouse terrorism from its North African base. Palestinians attacked Israelis and Jews at every opportunity. One of the most notorious terrorist operations was the 1985 hijacking of the Achille Lauro cruise ship in the Mediterranean, when Palestinian terrorists threw Leon Klinghoffer, a disabled 69 year old man from Brooklyn , NY , overboard. Diplomacy : In September 1982, the 12 th Arab League Summit called for Israel's withdrawal from all Arab territories ‘Occupied' since 1967 (including Israel's self-declared security zone in southern Lebanon) and reconfirmed the right of the Palestinians to self-determination under the leadership of the PLO. Diplomacy : In July 1988, King Hussein surrendered Jordan 's (illegal) claim to the West Bank and recognized the PLO as the Palestinians' sole representative. Violence : In December 1987, Palestinians in the Territories launched an uprising that became known as the Intifada. The aim was to oust Israel from the Territories by cynically mobilizing Palestinian women and children as combatants in the war to delegitimize Israel 33 in the eyes of the world and among peace-loving Israelis. The strategy expected to bring about a unilateral Israeli withdrawal and the establishment of a Palestinian state as a beachhead for further attacks on Israel without making peace. Palestinians launched violent demonstrations using Molotov cocktails and firebombs. They hurled stones at Israelis on the roads and in isolated places. These acts dovetailed with the setting of fires in forests, including some groves that had been planted in the 1920s. The Intifada also was marked by a stream of knifings of Jewish employers by their Palestinian workers, and stabbings of Israelis from all walks of life, including a 17-year-old high school girl on a Jaffa street and a housewife who opened the door to two Palestinians asking for a drink of water. Among the worst incidents was one in July 1989, when a Palestinian grabbed the wheel of an Israeli public bus, sending it plunging down a 250-foot deep ravine on the main road to Jerusalem , and killing 16 passengers. The (first) Intifada ended after the Oslo Accords were signed in 1993. Diplomacy : In December 1988, in exchange for renewal of a U.S. dialogue with the PLO, the Palestine National Council accepted UN Resolution 181—the 40-year-old 1947-vintage Partition Plan that recommended to reduce Israel into three linked sausage-shaped enclaves - as Israel 's right to exist. 34 They also accepted UN Resolution 242, which they thought would get them a large part of the Territories. The PLO vowed to “renounce terrorism,” but refused to revise its Palestinian National Covenant, which called (and still calls) for an armed struggle and the obliteration of Israel . Two years later, the PLO's failure to condemn acts of terrorism committed against Israel by a faction of the PLO led President George H. W. Bush, to suspend the American-PLO dialogue. The Madrid Conference 36 was an open international summit held in the wake of the 1991 Gulf War. Close relationships had been forged between Washington and Arab leadership as part of the anti-Iraq coalition, and U.S. officials believed that a breakthrough in the Arab-Israeli conflict might be possible. For the first time in history, the conference brought Israeli, Arab, and Palestinian delegates together for face-to-face public talks. Bilateral and multilateral talks were designed to end the state of war that Lebanon , Syria and Jordan declared on Israel in 1948. The conference also was intended to actualize self-rule for the Palestinians as set forth in the 1978 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty. Palestinian Response: Mixed Signals! Diplomacy : Talks with Lebanon and Syria led nowhere. The Madrid talks ultimately led to a peace treaty with Jordan in October 1994 and a unilateral Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon in May 2000. The West Bank Palestinian Arabs who arrived at the conference as part of the Jordanian delegation were unauthorized and too weak to negotiate in earnest. They mouthed demands for full sovereignty over the West Bank without engaging in real dialogue. Ultimately, this prompted Israel to attempt to ascertain whether the PLO could be a peace partner. Three years of secret negotiations between the PLO and Israel led to verbal mutual recognition; then, secret talks held primarily in Oslo (initiated in August 1993) concluded in two intensive months of negotiations at Taba, a Red Sea resort just across the Egyptian border from Eilat. 37 Violence : The two-year period between Madrid and Oslo (1991-2003)—when Israeli envoys and PLO representatives were supposedly hammering out a peace plan—did not mark a halt in terrorist attacks. A 1992 bombing of the Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires , Argentina left 29 dead. And just days after the signing of the Oslo Accords in 1994, another bombing in Buenos Aires ripped apart the city's Jewish community center, and left 86 dead.In retrospect, the optimism expressed by Jerusalem and Washington that Arafat would become a statesman—and use his police force to reign in extremists opposed to peace was unfounded. Oslo was doomed once Arafat chose to continue to incite a holy war or jihad , and Palestinians continued to kill Jews—both by turning weapons on Israelis, weapons that Palestinian security forces had been given by Israel to rein in terrorists, and by purposefully targeting crowds of civilians with suicide bombers. “Oslo I” appeared to be a watershed event. The PLO recognized Israel 's right to exist in peace and security, and renounced terrorism as a vehicle in return for recognition of the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people. Both sides then signed a Declaration of Principles (DoP) that outlined a plan to establish Palestinian autonomy in Jericho and Gaza and included a negotiation framework for a five-year interim period of graduated Palestinian self-rule on the civic-municipal level, while the two sides hammered out a permanent status agreement. Palestinian Response: Mixed Signals! Diplomacy: A series of implementation agreements designed to move the peace process forward by giving Palestinians more autonomy and more territory, followed. Arafat's speeches spoke of peace and reconciliation in English, but of rejectionism and jihad in Arabic. 38 He was literally speaking out of both sides of his mouth. Violence: Eleven days after the signing of “ Oslo I,” Palestinian terrorism resumed when a Palestinian terror squad stabbed to death a farmer in an Israeli farming settlement. Since Oslo , the scope of Palestinian terrorism has escalated to unprecedented levels, 39 including systematic targeting of civilians by such methods as suicide bombings on crowded public buses during peak hours. Such terrorism began anew in October 1994 when a suicide bomber on a Tel Aviv city bus killed 21 civilians. Since then, countless public buses throughout Israel have been targeted – from Kiryat Shmona in the north to Beersheba in the south, from urban centers such as Ramat-Gan to outlying towns such as Hadera and Afula. A roadside bus stop at the junction of Um El Fahm (a city on a main traffic artery inhabited by Israeli Arabs), is a boarding site used repeatedly by suicide bombers. Terrorists killed more Israelis (213) in the two and a half years following the signing of “ Oslo I” than in the decade preceding the so-called peace (209 killed). 40 The agreement signed in Cairo arranged for Arafat and the PLO to return from Tunis to take control of two limited areas, Jericho and Gaza . This step was designed to test the PLO's intentions: were they willing and able to make the transition from a terrorist organization to a peace partner? The PLO was to assume responsibility for those two areas by establishing an autonomous governing body—the Palestinian Authority. The PA's jurisdiction was to be expanded as trust was built and peaceful relations were established. Palestinian Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: Arafat's speeches in English spoke of the “peace of the brave”; however in Arabic, talk of jihad and hints that accommodation with Israel was but a temporary measure rapidly crept into Palestinian leaders' speeches and interviews. Violence: Palestinian terrorism continued. In the four months between the Jericho-Gaza Agreement and the next stage, where additional power was to be transferred to the PA—the Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities in August 1994—12 Israelis were killed. Countless others were injured in drive-by shootings, ambushes, stabbings and kidnappings. The suspected murderers of two elevator technicians, shot in the Israeli city of Ramle , fled to PA-controlled areas. Within a short time, Jericho became a dangerous gauntlet for Israeli motorists traveling along the Jordan Rift Valley highway, and Jericho became a city of refuge for perpetrators of terrorist acts. Gaza became a hotbed of extremism. The agreement 41 was sighed at the checkpoint between Gaza and Israel , and extended Palestinian self-rule to education, health, welfare, and additional fiscal affairs in the West Bank and Gaza . Palestinian Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: Instead of fostering peace education as specifically stipulated in Israeli-Palestinian agreements, the PA misused its newly gained control over education. The PA introduced a vicious anti-Israeli and antisemitic curriculum into the school system. Violence: In November 1994, Arafat clashed with Islamic extremists in an attempt to rein in terrorists; but the detainees were quickly released as PA leaders sought to convince Islamic groups to stop the attacks of their own accord. Palestinian terrorism continued. The 13-month interim between the transfer of social services to the Palestinians and “ Oslo I” was marked by more attacks inside Israel than in the Territories. Although 1995 saw fewer attacks, the attacks were far more lethal and included two consecutive suicide bombings at the Beit Lid junction in January 1995 that left 21 dead. September 28, 1995: The Israel-Palestine Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (“ Oslo I”). The Interim Agreement was negotiated at Taba, the Egyptian Red Sea resort. “ Oslo I” further expanded Palestinian civic control and led to the release of terrorists convicted in Israel for acts committed before “ Oslo I.” The West Bank was divided into three areas, giving Palestinians civil and military control over eight major urban areas and civil control over 450 Arab towns and villages. Most other areas of the West Bank fell under joint Israeli-Palestinian military control, except areas populated by Jews and public lands of strategic value that remained under Israeli military and civil control. Palestinian Response: Rejection! Although Jordanians still felt animosity toward Israel , Jordan 's King Hussein honored his commitments as set down in the October 1994 peace treaty that ended a 46-year state of war between Jordan and Israel . Hussein did everything in his power to repudiate and combat terrorism from Jordanian territory. He personally requested forgiveness from the families of a group of children murdered by a Jordanian soldier, while the Palestinians under the PLO and Arafat failed to walk the walk, talk the talk or express remorse. Violence: Palestinian terrorism continued, including a March 1996 suicide bombing on a crowded crosswalk outside the Dizengoff Center mall during Purim vacation that killed 13—a third of them school children. In Jerusalem , in February and March 1996, the bombings of two No.18 buses left 26 and 19 passengers dead, respectively. West Bank cities such as Jenin, Nablus and Ramallah became safe havens for terrorists by harboring bomb-making laboratories, serving as staging areas for Palestinian suicide bombers and as cities of refuge for the perpetrators of such terrorist acts. Convicted terrorists, released from Israeli prisons and who pledged as a condition of their release that they would never again engage in terrorism, lied. Diplomacy: The Palestinian Authority made a travesty of its vows to prosecute perpetrators of terrorist acts. It held bogus trials that convicted and sentenced offenders overnight, and established revolving-door prisons for inmates to block extradition to Israel . Moreover, the PA abused the corridor linking Gaza and Jericho and uses VIP vehicles to promote terrorist activity. The summit 42 was held in Sharm el-Sheikh and designed to reenergize peace efforts in the region after a wave of suicide bombings in Israel that left 62 dead. Hosted by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, the three-hour summit was attended by 29 world leaders and called for a halt to extremism and violence. Yasser Arafat pledged the support of the Palestinian people in uprooting the violence of extremist factions. There was a suggestion to create a working group of world leaders who within 30 days would make recommendations for enhancing the peace process, promoting security, and ending the terrorist attacks. Palestinian Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: Syria boycotted the anti-terrorism summit in Egypt , saying the gathering would serve Israeli interests at the expense of Arabs. Lebanon chose not to participate. Violence: In late September 1996, Palestinian policemen turned their weapons on Israelis, including IDF soldiers with whom they had shared joint patrols. The shootings were triggered by violent Arab demonstrations that protested the opening of an exit for an ancient tunnel that originates at the foot of the Western Wall. The exit was opened to facilitate tourist traffic through a narrow passageway. In the two-day rampage, 13 Israelis were killed and Palestinian terrorism continued. The carnage was amplified when the terrorists laced explosives with ball bearings and other metal fragments that transformed Israeli emergency rooms into field hospitals where physicians were forced to treat hundreds of civilians with injuries that resembled battlefield wounds. The protocol 43 was designed to engineer an Israeli withdrawal from the last Arab city on the West Bank . Hebron required special treatment for two reasons: it housed the Tomb of the Patriarchs, an important Jewish holy site, and it has a Jewish community, whereas other West Bank towns such as Jenin or Nablus are entirely Arab. Moreover, Hebron has always been a tinderbox. Historically, it is the site of much violence, including the massacre of 70 religious Jews by Arab mobs in 1929 and the massacre of 29 Palestinians at prayer by a lone Israeli terrorist in 1994, as well as countless other ambushes and attacks on Jews before and after the event. Jordan 's King Hussein mediated an agreement that led to redeployment of Israeli troops outside Hebron 's Arab neighborhoods and the placement of a group of European observers. The protocols set forth a three-phase redeployment on the West Bank , including withdrawal from 80 percent of the city. Palestinian Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: Between autumn 1997 and autumn 1998, President Clinton invited Yasser Arafat to the White House, where U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright conducted five more meetings designed to reenergize the peace process and tried to convince Arafat to finally amend the Palestinian Covenant and curb terrorist attacks. Arafat responded by pointing out which parts of the PLO charter “could be considered annulled,” although the protocol stipulated for doing so has not been carried out to this day. The revised Covenant has never appeared in any written or electronic form, while the original Covenant is still shown on the PLO's website. Both before and after those efforts, Arafat's utterances in English spoke of peace, while his words in Arabic were peppered with calls for a holy war ( jihad ) and praise for Palestinian martyrs ( shahids ) committing terrorist acts against Israelis. In January 1998, on Palestinian television, he praised bomb-makers killed by Israel , calling them “noble and brave holy shahids (martyrs ), ” and declaring: “We are all candidates for martyrdom.” In January 2002 he still was calling for a holy war against Israel (a point he began making in Arabic in May 1994), declaring in a televised speech in Ramallah from Al-Jazeera TV: “To Jerusalem we will march millions of martyrs. Al-jihad, al-jihad, al-jihad, al-jihad, al-jihad, al-jihad. ” (“Holy war, holy war, holy war, holy war, holy war, holy war.”) 44 Violence: Israel fulfilled its commitment to transfer 80 percent of Hebron to the Palestinians, but the Hebron redeployment transformed Hebron 's Jewish residents into easy targets for a series of bloody attacks, which continue to this day. It began with the August 1998 fatal stabbing of a 63-year-old rabbi in the bedroom of his mobile home. One of the most heartbreaking incidents was the March 2001 murder of a ten-month-old girl by a Palestinian sniper perched on a strategic hillside relinquished by Israeli troops.Palestinian terrorism also continued unabated elsewhere. Jewish residents in Jerusalem became a primary target. A July 1997 double suicide bombing in Jerusalem 's open vegetable market left 16 dead and 178 wounded, and a September 1997 suicide bombing on Jerusalem 's main pedestrian mall left eight dead and 200 wounded. The Memorandum was designed to restart the peace process. It set a new schedule for the size and timing of Israeli withdrawals, necessary since Israel had suspended further redeployments after the PA failed to comply in thwarting terrorism, which Palestinians had promised to do in both “Oslo I” (1993) and “Oslo II” (1995). The Memorandum also addressed a series of other violations of “ Oslo I” and “II”—from serious breaches in the size and nature of the Palestinian police force to the failure to amend the Palestinian National Covenant. Wye introduced the principle of reciprocity into the Memorandum: territory for security. In light of growing distrust between Israelis and Palestinians, a third party—the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency—was called in to act as a monitor and arbiter. Its goal was to push security arrangement compliance, end the violence and get the derailed process back on track. Palestinian Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: In December 1998, President Bill Clinton took the unprecedented step of visiting the Palestinian Authority and addressing the Palestinian Legislative Council in Gaza . Clinton witnessed a PLC vote that “fully and forever” rejected conflict with Israel and another insincere annulment of the Palestine Covenant. The Palestinians turned recognition of Israel into a farce by refusing to actually revise the Palestinian National Covenant. Adopted in 1964 before the Six-Day War, the Covenant denies Israel 's right to exist and declares that “ armed struggle is the only way to liberate Palestine . ” 45 The action, or rather, inaction, marked the fourth time Arafat dodged his pledge to Prime Minister Rabin in September 1993, at the beginning of the peace process (reiterated at Wye), to redraft the document. A Palestinian directive to a legal committee to redraft the Covenant was passed in April 1996, but never carried out. The theatrics in Gaza pretended to change the Covenant, but left it legally intact. The original 1964 Covenant and the revised 1968 Covenant are displayed on the official Palestine UN website 46; there is no ‘new revised' version, only the April 1996 decision to appoint a committee to revise it. Violence: Palestinian terrorism continues and targets more civilians. In the decade following the Oslo Accords from September 1993 to September 2003, 70 percent of the Israelis murdered (655) and injured (4,405) by Palestinian terrorists were civilians. Of 439 suicide bombings, more than 90 percent were directed against civilian targets. 47 This memorandum revised the Wye Plantation Memorandum passed a year earlier, that came and went with no significant change in the Palestinians' failure to comply, blocking any possibility of expanding self-rule. Once again, the Palestinians undertook a pledge to seriously combat terrorism and abide by their past commitments in exchange for an additional 11 percent of the West Bank , giving the Palestinians control of 42 percent of the Territories. The Memorandum also included other concessions, including permission to construct a harbor in Gaza and establish a safe corridor across Israeli territory to allow the unfettered flow of traffic between Gaza and the West Bank . Final status talks were to begin in February 2000. The target date for reaching a permanent settlement was rescheduled for September 2000. 48 Palestinian Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: President Clinton and U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright began laying the groundwork for a framework agreement for permanent status talks in December 1999. Ultimately, the July 2000 Camp David II Summit between Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and PA Chairman Yasser Arafat would be convened. The talks were called Camp David II because peace with Egypt had been negotiated in a summit at Camp David in 1978. Diplomacy: In May 2000, Israel unilaterally withdrew from its self-declared security zone in southern Lebanon , which had been created in the wake of the 1982 “Peace in the Galilee” operation to prevent the kind of brutal terrorist attacks on Israeli civilians that the PLO had carried out in the 1970s and launched from war-torn Lebanon . Even after Lebanon's civil war ended, Beirut did not fully reestablished its sovereignty over the area, and extremist Islamic elements, including the Iranian and Syrian backed–Hezbollah, filled the rejectionist political-military vacuum created by the departure of the PLO in 1982. Although the Israeli withdrawal was fully in keeping with UN Security Council Resolution 425, the failure of the Lebanese central government to agree to an orderly withdrawal and to reestablish its authority turned Israel 's northern border into a powder keg. Many observers believe that Israel 's unilateral withdrawal from Lebanon in the face of rising IDF casualties encouraged Arafat to seek an Israeli withdrawal from the Territories through terrorism - without making peace. 49 Violence: At the signing of the Sharm el Sheikh Memorandum, Arafat declared: “We assert, as we always promised, that we respect and implement our commitments.” Nothing was further from the truth. Between the signing of “Oslo I” in September 1993 and the outbreak of Arafat's war, the Al Aqsa Intifada, in September 2000, 256 Israeli soldiers and civilians – including a pregnant woman, children, an 80-year-old pensioner, farmers, watchmen, hitchhikers and hikers, telephone repair personnel, shoppers and pedestrians—were killed in terrorist stabbings, kidnappings, ambushes, drive-by shootings and suicide bombings on public commuter buses, at bus stops, at cafés and outside public malls. Even then, Arafat, who is clearly able to orchestrate the roles of those responsible for diplomacy and those responsible for violence, gave the sign to his cohorts to hold their fire. And indeed after the signing of the September 1999 Sharm el-Sheikh Memorandum, in preparation for the opening of the Camp David permanent status negotiations scheduled for July 2000, there was a relative lull in terrorist attacks. The summit was an attempt to bridge the gap between Palestinians and Israelis by finally dealing with the fine details in permanent status talks. President Clinton brought Israeli Prime Minister Barak and PA Chairman Arafat to the site where Egyptians and Israelis had negotiated their historic 1978 peace treaty: Camp David . The Israeli Prime Minister offered the Palestinians control of 100 percent of Gaza , 92 percent of the West Bank and 3 percent of Israeli territory adjacent to Gaza —and independence. Barak even offered Palestinians control over East Jerusalem, including most of the Old City and religious sovereignty over the Temple Mount . All Israel asked in return was that Arafat declares the “end of conflict” and agree that no future claims on Israel would be made. 50 Palestinian Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: Arafat walked out on the most wide-reaching, once-in-a-lifetime peace proposal ever offered by Israel —a deal that crossed long-entrenched Israeli red lines. Without attempting to negotiate, Arafat brought an end to the Camp David II Summit by walking out. Barak withdrew his now-or-never offer. President Clinton later put the blame squarely on Arafat's shoulders. 51 Violence: On September 28, 2000—two months after rejecting statehood side-by-side with Israel – Arafat broke any pretense of keeping his 1993 vow to reject terrorism and negotiate a peace. He launched what the Palestinians label the al-Aqsa Intifada— an out-and-out guerrilla war against Israel . Empty rhetoric about “the peace of the brave” was replaced by calls for a jihad— the holy war against Israel . “Arafat's War,” 52 — as Washington Post columnist Charles Krauthammer preferred to label the second Intifada, also known as the ‘Oslo War' — was the logical conclusion of the stage-by-stage tactics adopted by the PLO in 1974: getting Israel to weaken itself by promising peace by making concessions that would establish a PLO bridgehead in the West Bank and Gaza from which they could launch a frontal attack on the Jewish state. The PA's strong Palestinian police force (armed by Israel , ostensibly so that Arafat would have ammunition and arms to restrain rejectionist extremists in his own camp) was unleashed against Israeli soldiers and civilians. At the same time, with even greater frequency, young Palestinian suicide bombers were sent to wreak havoc and death against civilians, soldiers, children and adults; on the roads and in Israeli cities, townships and agricultural settlements; amid crowds at eateries, supermarkets and pedestrian malls. Even weddings, bar mitzvahs and a Passover Seder were deemed legitimate targets. Diplomacy: The Palestinians widened the scope of hate education they had vowed to eradicate, 53 including a rejectionist message that Palestine belonged solely to the Palestinians. In their dealings with the West and Israel , Palestinian leaders began demanding what they had preached to Palestinian children for years: that all descendants of 1948 Palestinian refugees 54 had the Right of Return to resettle in Israel , a demand formerly hidden in English parlance under the neutral term “just rights of the Palestinian People.” In any language, the demand spelled the demise of Israel. In a last-ditch effort to save the Oslo Accords, President Clinton and Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak arranged a discussion of a cease-fire and pullback of Israeli forces from Palestinian areas. The IDF incursions were designed to carry out the counterterrorism work that Arafat's security forces had failed to do for seven years. An international fact-finding commission headed by former U.S. Senator George Mitchell looked into the causes of the violence. Palestinian Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: Israelis and Palestinians met again in Washington and made no progress toward a cease-fire or peace. Violence: Palestinian terrorism continued, including the November 2000 bombing of an armored Jewish school bus near Gaza . The attack killed two adults and wounded 11 passengers, including three siblings, ages 7, 8½, and 11 who all lost limbs, leaving one of them a double amputee. Palestinian security forces turned their weapons against Israelis, including a soldier on a joint patrol, killed at point-blank range. Diplomacy: Throughout 2001-2002, a parade of outside parties — senior American diplomats and security advisers, a former senator, and even the President of the United States himself — “took the mountain to Mohammed.” Seeking to apply personal shuttle diplomacy, U.S. officials traipsed to Ramallah and Gaza , London , Cairo , Sharm el-Sheik and a host of other venues to meet with Yasser Arafat and other key Palestinian leaders. They formulated memorandum after memorandum. Again and again, they were reassured that Arafat would take “effective and sustained action against terror and violence.”Between February 2001 and October 2002, there were five trips by U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell; three trips by Powell's Undersecretary, William Burns; three trips by U.S. Envoy General Anthony Zinni, including a month long mission in spring 2002. There were two unsuccessful trips by CIA Director George Tenet designed to implement “a security work plan” — first in June 2001, then in June 2002. All attempts to convince, cajole or intimidate Palestinians, produced at best, empty promises that were never honored by them. Amidst the parade of supplicants, the Mitchell Report, mandated by the Sharm el-Sheikh Summit , was released. It called for an immediate cease-fire, renunciation of terrorism and resumption of peace talks. CIA Director George Tenet was requested to draw up the “security work plan.” Palestinian Response: Rejection! Violence: Palestinian terrorism continued, including a June 1, 2001 Palestinian suicide bombing that killed 21 young adults outside the Tel Aviv Dolphinarium disco. The plan was a vehicle embedded in the Mitchell Report to end Arafat's war. It called for the immediate cessation of hostilities, arrest of militant activists, and an effort to stop anti-Israel incitement in the Palestinian media. In exchange, Israel was required to ease restrictions on Palestinians, pull its troops back from Palestinian population centers and resume security cooperation. After a six-week cooling-off period that was followed by “confidence-building measures,” talks were to resume. Then the Tenet Plan was revised, to cut the “quiet period” the Palestinians had to enforce to restart negotiations. They were asked to stop terror for a single week. One week, seven days, that would not produce a terrorist attack on Israel , would be all that would be needed to get everything back on track. The Palestinians refused, and General Zinni placed the blame squarely on Arafat's shoulders. 55 Palestinian Response: Rejection! Diplomacy: Other world leaders joined in calling for an end to Palestinian violence, including a July 2001 appeal by the G-8 foreign ministers meeting in Genoa that called for implementation of the Mitchell Report recommendations. Still, the terror continued. In March 2002, the Arab League met in Beirut and adopted a two-state solution proposal, based on normalization of relations with Israel in exchange for a complete Israeli withdrawal to the pre–Six-Day War, 1947 armistice lines, and the return of the 1948 refugees. This proposal was a non-starter, designed more as a positive image builder, especially for the Saudis after September 11, than a genuine contribution to peace in the Middle East.While General Anthony Zinni invested a full month in the region in spring of 2002 in his attempt to negotiate a cease-fire and the resumption of security cooperation, a pro-Palestinian UN — supported by the Third World and also by members of the European Union — undermined the principle of Israeli concessions in exchange for Palestinian compliance when they passed General Assembly Resolution 1397 that supported a vision of Palestinian statehood. A year after his “working plan” was to take effect, George Tenet was back in Ramallah trying to convince Arafat to stop the violence and renew security cooperation. In July and October 2002, Colin Powell and William Burns attempted to mobilize the Arab states to pressure the Palestinians to stop the violence, all to no avail. Arab Response: Rejection! Violence: Palestinian terrorism continued unabated. Snipers fired into Jerusalem and Hebron; there were rocket attacks on Sderot, an Israeli town just one kilometer from the Gaza border; suicide bombers targeted a girl's bat mitzvah (January 2002) leaving six dead — the last, an act a Palestinian officer labeled “qualitative and successful.” 56 Another suicide bomber walked into a hotel dining room during a Passover Seder (March 2002) and left over 29 dead. The 170-page Human Rights Watch report on suicide bombings against Israelis since September 2000 concluded: “The scale and systematic nature of these attacks in 2001 and 2002 meet the definition of a crime against humanity,” and placed responsibility directly at the Palestinian Authority's door. 57 In June 2002 President George W. Bush gave a speech in which he spoke of ‘a Roadmap' for peace that called for Israel to facilitate creation of a Palestinian state but only after Palestinians ended terrorism and instituted broad democratic reform within the PA. The principle of ‘compliance-based progress' was subsequently adopted the Quartet (the United States , the EU, Russia and the United Nations) in a three-stage Roadmap' designed to culminate in a “two-state solution.” Revised several times, it was made public, with a timetable for progress, on May 1, 2003 under the title: A Performance-based Roadmap to a Permanent Two-State Solution to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. The first stage (May 2003) demanded “the Palestinians immediately undertake an unconditional cession of violence” and “credible progress” to reform the PA corrupt regime; the second “transition” stage (June 2003-December 2003) was to focus on negotiations and establishment of democratic Palestinian state machinery; and the third stage (2004-2005) was to be dedicated to reaching a permanent status agreement and an end to the conflict, through negotiations. Palestinian Response: All Talk, No Compliance Diplomacy: Both Israel and the Palestinians officially accepted the Roadmap, with some reservations. Diplomacy: At the one-day June 4, 2003 Aqaba Summit hosted by the Jordanian monarch King Abdullah II, and attended by the leaders of the United States (Bush), the Palestinian Authority (Abbas) and Israel (Sharon), all the parties pledged publicly to fulfill their commitments under the Roadmap — the Palestinians to stop the incitement and violence, the Israelis to dismantle ‘unauthorized outposts on the West Bank', ease restrictions on Palestinians and release certain Palestinians serving time in Israeli prisons. The Palestinian Prime Minister Mahmud Abbas, in a strong statement, pledged to undertake the “renunciation of terrorism against the Israelis wherever they might be” and to “act vigorously against incitement and violence and hatred.” Diplomacy: The Palestinian Authority ignored its promises, and immediately sought to avoid the terms of the Roadmap, which required reform in the PA and disarming of all militants as the first step towards resuming the peace process. Instead, in late June 2003 the Palestinian Authority signed a Hudna Agreement (temporary tactical truce) with Hamas and Islamic Jihad stipulating that the latter would stop attacking Israelis for three months. The hudna 's objectives were to prevent a showdown between the PA and Islamic terrorist groups, and tie Israel's hands while allowing Palestinians to dodge taking any steps demanded by the Bush Administration as a precondition to negotiations (disarm terrorists) while recouping their loses by obtaining release of apprehended operatives and terrorists serving time in Israel. Neither Israel nor the United States were party to the hudna , which was an internal Arab arrangement that offered an Arab-dictated standoff of ‘no peace-no war' in lieu of a negotiated comprehensive peace treaty. Violence: While Israel released the prisoners it promised, eased restrictions on Palestinians, and began dismantling the first of 17 outposts, Abbas did nothing. There was no reform of the PA. State-sponsored incitement continued. Even t he hudna was short lived if not a stillbirth: Islamic leaders continued to plan and launch terrorist operations. There were 17 attempts in July 2003, only one successful — thus, leaving the impression the hudna was in force for at least a month. 58Israel continued to hunt down senior operatives and foil bombing attempts. By August the Palestinians dropped the pretence that a hudna was in force, blaming Israel for its failure. Thus, the Roadmap never got to square one. As the fourth year of the Intifada drew to a close, Palestinians continue to cling to a political culture of empty diplomacy and violence and a policy of rejectionism, just like countless agreements since September 2000 and countless attempts since the 1920s to cajole Palestinians into accepting Jews as something other than a subordinated so-called ‘tolerated minority'. The promises continue. The violence continues. Rejectionism and violence remains the most salient feature of Palestinian discourse. Examination of the language of the Palestinian hudna is illuminating in this respect: The document clarifies that it is solely an internal arrangement among Palestinians to avoid civil war, or as the ‘Statement of Initiative' published by the Hamas/Islamic Jihad on June 29 th phrases it 59“to protect our national unity…to protect our internal front from the danger of schism and confrontation.” It does not spell reconciliation: It is solely a “suspension of the military operations against the Zionist enemy for three months” – a tactical and temporary measure. There is no change of heart, and the objective remains “assertion of the legitimate rights to resist the occupation as a strategic option until the end of the Zionist occupation of our homeland [EH. liquidation of Israel ).”A Washington Institute report 60 revealed that “there were no less than ten ceasefires in the past decade since Oslo I, and every single one returned freshly armed for terror.” Diplomacy : On February 8, 2005 Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and Palestinian leader Mahmud Abbas announced the end of four years of violence at a ‘landmark' summit in Egypt . Violence : Just 2 days after the conclusion of the summit, on February 10 2005, at least twenty-five mortar shells and Qassam rockets have landed on Gaza Strip Jewish communities. The rockets hit towns in Gush Katif, southern Gaza , and northern Gaza . An estimated total of 38 Qassam rockets and mortar shells have been fired at Jewish towns, 13 of which apparently exploded in Palestinian areas. What fuels the violence, even when terrorism runs contrary to Palestinian interests and undermines outside support for its cause? Ironically Palestinians support terrorism even when it runs contrary to Palestinian interests and undermines outside support for its cause. The only difference Palestinian Arabs experience, is that the carnage since Oslo has been amplified by Arab's better proximity to their targets; superior weaponry and explosives, better training and more sophisticated planning…and an extremely accurate ‘delivery system' — Palestinian suicide bombers as young as 14 years of age. It is eerie and depressing to read descriptions of events in Great Britain 's report to the League of Nations on the 1936-39 Arab Revolt and then read the descriptions in the Human Rights Watch report 61 on suicide bombers penned 63 years later in 2002. The British report — Report by His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to the Council of the League of Nations on the Administration of Palestine, and by the “Palestine Royal Commission 1936-1937 (excerpts in Section “Nothing New Under the Sun: Arab Behavior in Palestine is Remarkably Consistent”) — speaks of Sixty-five years later, the Human Rights Watch report — “Erased In A Moment: Suicide Bombing Attacks Against Israeli Civilians” speaks of: Tragically, the problem is not merely a national leadership with no moral scruples and a ‘what's-mine-is-mine what's-yours-is-mine' mindset. Support for violence is endemic to Palestinian society. In July 2004 the Jerusalem Media and Communications Center (JMCC), a Palestinian polling institute in East Jerusalem, found 46 percent of all Palestinians believed that the aim of the current Intifada is to liberate historic Palestine (i.e., ‘destroy Israel'), not end Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The overwhelming majority (70 percent) continues to support continuing the Intifada . A majority of those interviewed (65 percent) support “military operations” (e.g. shootings, car bombs, and mortar rocket attacks, but not suicide bombers). Almost the same number, (62 percent) support suicide bombing operations, compared to 24 percent in 1997. 62The Palestinian public in the Territories continues to identify with terrorist acts, no matter how horrific, and justifies the perpetrators' actions. Thus lamentably, terrorism against Israelis is not the ‘doings' of only one person (Yasser Arafat), a marginal phenomenon, or the act of angry individuals or extremist ideological groups.According to a December 2003 JMCC survey, 63 33 percent of the Palestinians believe armed struggle is the ideal way of attaining Palestinian national goals, 13 percent favor negotiations, while 51 percent support both — the same combination of rejectionist ‘diplomacy laced with violence' documented here over the 100-year history of the Arab-Israeli conflict. A kind of outlaw polity the United States is currently grappling with in Afghanistan , Iraq , Syria , Iran , North Korea and elsewhere. Back in 1971 Hebrew University social scientist Professor Yehezkel Dror wrote a short volume entitled Crazy States, solicited by the Rand Corporation. Decades before Kadafi began sending contraband by diplomatic pouch and Paul Pot ‘invented' the killing fields, Dror envisioned the emergence of polities that ‘don't play by the rules' and therefore seem crazy to westerners. At the time he was roundly criticized as an extremist and prophet of doom — his book labeled a brilliant intellectual exercise but off the mark in terms of reality. The volume gained new respect after the 1991 Gulf War. Today no one denies the existence of ‘crazy states', or as they are now labeled: rogue states. More recently, in a 1999 article devoted to how U.S. foreign policy has addressed the problem of rogue states 64Professor Barry Rabin of Bar-Ilan University defined the rogue state: “[A polity] that puts a high priority on subverting other states and sponsoring non-conventional types of violence against them. It does not react predictably to deterrence or other tools of diplomacy and statecraft.” The definition seems to fit the Palestinian Authority like a glove even in the pre-state ‘test' stage prior to gaining full sovereignty. A rogue state, said Rabin “requires special treatment and high levels of international pressure in order to prevent it from wrecking public order, setting off wars, and subverting whole areas of the world” — a treatment regime Rabin labels “an international equivalent of incarceration or commitment to a mental institution, until there is sufficient recovery to permit reentry into the international system.” Unfortunately, the world community has been ignoring the prospect that a full-blown independent Palestinian state will become just the kind of rogue states and renegade organizations the world is grappling with today. In light of the Palestinians' history of violence and its poor performance coping with limited freedom or autonomy — the equivalent of a ‘half-way house' to test their readiness to join the family of nations, and in light of the support (rather than pressure to ‘toe the line') that Palestinians enjoy in the international arena, Palestinians independence could very well turn into a genuine nightmare. It is not “The Occupation” Arabs reject; they reject the right of Israel to exist as a legitimate Jewish political entity. Israelis have exhibited extraordinary willingness to find a win-win solution, yet Arab Palestinians' opposition to a Jewish polity has been unremitting and uncompromising, rejecting all efforts at compromise and reconciliation. Palestinian Arabs have underscored their rejectionism with wave after wave of terrorism at every juncture – that is, before the 1967 Six-Day War and even prior to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. Non-acceptance of Israel 's right to exist and support for terrorism is not solely the province of any particular Palestinian leader; it is a deeply rooted social value, reflected in public opinion polls among Palestinians and other Arabs – then and now. September 11, 2001 highlighted the Palestinians' two major social “contributions” to humanity: skyjacking and suicide bombings. 65 Between September 1993 and February 2003, more than 1,004 Israelis have lost their lives to Palestinian terrorists – the per capita equivalent of approximately 50,000 American deaths, a loss that would equal 17 September 11 th attacks. The world cannot afford the luxury of ignoring crazy states, and thus begs the question: Should the international community take a gamble? The odds of creating a new rogue state called Palestine are excellent. 1 January 11, 1882 (about 120 years ago), the first convention of Hovevei Zion (‘Lovers of Zion') took place in Romania . The first Jewish members arrived in Palestine in the 1880s and began the first communities: Rosh Pinah and Zichron Yaakov. See: http://www.jafi.org.il/agenda/2001/english/wk4-2/13.asp . (11883) 2 Eli E. Hertz: “Terrorism is a violent act perpetrated by individual/s or entities for the purpose of deliberately harming or causing harm; Physically, psychologically, or economically to innocent individuals, groups or humanity. Terror acts may be perpetrated by ‘individual practitioners' organized entities, starting with incitement, promotion of hate, and ending with bodily and/or mental harm.” 3 See “Jewish Settlement in the Land of Israel ” at: (11872) In response, the Turks briefly suspended Jewish immigration, a ban lifted only when Jews agreed to pay a per capita bribe; See Avraham Yaari, The Goodly Heritage: Memoirs Describing the Life of the Jewish Community of Eretz Yisrael from the 17th to 20th Century , Jerusalem, ZOA 1958, pp. 215-16. 4 Christopher Sykes, Cross Roads to Israel – Palestine from Balfour to Bevin, Collins London 1965, p. 59. 5 Ibid. pp. 71-72. 6 For more information on the White Paper of 1922, see: http://palestinefacts.org/pf_mandate_whitepaper_1922.php . (10758) 7 Christopher Sykes, p. 81. 8 Ibid. p. 106. 9 For details on the Shaw Commission, see: http://palestinefacts.org/pf_mandate_shaw_1929.php . (11877) 10 For details on the Hope-Simpson Reports findings, see: http://palestinefacts.org/pf_mandate_hope_simpson.php . (10758) 11 See: http://palestinefacts.org/pf_mandate_whitepaper_1930.php . (11878) 12 Christopher Sykes, p. 128. 13 Ibid. p. 151-159 14 Ibid. p. 174. 15 Ibid. p. 185. 16 Ibid. p. 191. 17 Ibid. p. 191. 18 The Jews of British Mandate Palestine fought this decision by helping Jews fleeing Europe enter the country without permits – before, during, and after the war. 19 Christopher Sykes, p. 188. 20 For a map of the 1947 Partition Plan, see: http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/100/maps/part.html . (10760) 21 Only some negotiations with Jordan involved direct talks. 22 In Arabic: one who is ready to sacrifice his life. Also a member of an Arab commando band operating especially against Israel – it is usually used in plural. 23 For a list of major Arab terrorist attacks against Israelis prior to the 1967 Six-Day War, see “Which Came First – Terrorism or Occupation?” at: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+before+2000/Which+Came+First-+Terrorism+or+Occupation+-+Major.htm . (11879) 24 For details on the resolution, see: http://www.mefacts.com/cache/html/arab-countries/11870.htm . (11870) 25 ‘War of Attrition' in: Rolef, Susan Hattis (ed.). Political Dictionary of the State of Israel . New York : Macmillan, 1987. Statistics include attacks that spread to other areas, such as the Jordanian border. 26 See CDI Terrorism Project at: http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/pflp-gc.cfm . (10763) 27 See Middle East Media Research Institute translation at: http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=sd&ID=SP23601 . (10707) 28 For details of the Palestinians' behavior in guest countries bordering Israel , see “Black September and the Black September Terror Movement” at: http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Parliament/2587/black.html. (11880) In 1971, PLO-linked terrorists assassinated Jordanian Prime Minister Wasfi al-Tal. 29 For a synopsis of PLO behavior in Lebanon 1969-1982, see the overview of Rex Bryen, Sanctuary and Survival: The PLO in Lebanon (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990) at: http://www.arts.mcgill.ca/MEPP/PRRN/papers/sanctuary/ch7.html . (11881) 30 For details, see: http://www.palestinefacts.org/pf_1967to1991_terrorism_1970s.php . (11882) 31 For the text of the framework to solve the conflict with the Palestinians written into the Camp David Accords, see: http://usinfo.state.gov/regional/nea/summit/cdavid.htm . 32 For an evaluation of the security zone in historic perspective, see Gal Luft, “ Israel 's Security Zone in Lebanon - A Tragedy?” Middle East Quarterly , (September 2000) at: http://www.meforum.org/article/70 . (10768) 33 See Daniella Ashkenazy, “Small Arms Warfare,” Jerusalem Post , January 31, 1990. 34 Prompting Washington Post cartoonist Herb Block to publish a caricature of Arafat saying, “I'll recognize Israel 's right to exist, if they recognize my right to decide where.” 35 For an outline of the ‘peace process' from 1991 to the January 2001 Taba summit, which was designed to end the al-Aqsa Intifada and ‘save the Oslo Accords,' see: http://www.palestinefacts.org/pf_1991to_now_peace_process_outline.php . (10769) For the U.S. State Department's “Middle East Peace Chronology,” 1978 through 2005, see: 36 For more information on Madrid , see: http://www.palestinefacts.org/pf_1967to1991_madrid_1991.php . (10771) 37 For a firsthand account by Israel 's chief negotiator, see Uri Savir, The Process, 1,100 Days That Changed the Middle East (New York: Random House, 1998) at: http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/savir-process.html . (11885) 38 For a medley of Palestinian statements revealing their true intentions and sentiments, see “In Their Own Words” at: http://www.israel.net/timetospeak/5.htm . (10773) 39 For a graph of the number of Israelis killed in terrorist attacks in the 30 years since the 1967 Six-Day War, see: http://www.iris.org.il/terr6796.htm . (10708) 40 See: http://www.iris.org.il/terrcht2.htm. (11886) Preceding decade: 209 fatalities between January 1983 – September 1993. 41 Agreement on preparatory transfer of powers and responsibilities, august 29, 1994. See: http://domino.un.org/unispal.NSF/bc8b0c56b7bf621185256cbf005ac05f/ fd15eca93fd9af2785257000005a5810!OpenDocument. (11904) 42 Remarks at the Opening of the Summit of the Peacemakers in Sharm al-Sheikh, Egypt . See: 43 Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron , January 17, 1997. See at: http://telaviv.usembassy.gov/publish/peace/hebron_redepl.htm . (11902) 44 See “Sayings of Chairman Arafat in 1998,” GPO, December 2, 1998, part of which is available at the National Christian Leadership Conference Website at: For more quotes from the 1993 Oslo Accords to 2002, see: http://www.iris.org.il/quotes.htm . (11887) 45 For a full copy of the Palestinian National Covenant highlighting its anti-Israel clauses, see: 46 http://www.palestine-un.org/plo . (11889) 47 See IDF statistics at: http://www.idf.il . 48 For analysis of why the peace process was plagued by a proliferation of agreements saying the same thing, see William Saletan “Tenet to Mitchell to Chance” – The farcical Middle East peace process at: http://slate.msn.com/id/2064026 . (11890) 49 See Shlomo Brom, “The Withdrawal from Southern Lebanon: One Year Later,” Jaffe Center for Strategic Studies, Strategic Assessment (August 2001) at: www.tau.ac.il/jcss/sa/v4n2p4Bro.html . (11891) 50 For details on Camp David offer, see Benny Morris, “Arafat didn't negotiate – he just kept saying no,” Guardian , May 23, 2002 at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,4419440-103680,00.html . (11892) 51 For Clinton 's charge that Arafat was responsible for failure, see Michael Hirsh, “ Clinton to Arafat: It's All Your Fault,” Newsweek . See also viewpoints, Saul Singer at: http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp474.htm . (11893) 52 See Charles Krauthammer, “Arafat's war,” Washington Post, October 6, 2000 at: 53 For examples of official maps – showing Israel as part of Palestine – obliterated by a show of arms, see the May 28, 2001 article, “The Message in the Palestinian Maps” published in the Boston Globe at: http://www.israelinsider.com/views/authors/jacoby.htm . (11895) 54 For Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics of estimated Palestinian population, see: 55 For U.S. envoy General Anthony Zinni's assessment of why his own three attempts to facilitate an end to violence between 2001-2002 failed, see “Assigning Blame,” Near East Report at: 56 Lee Hochstader, “Israel Sets Out Charges Arafat Supported Terror,” Washington Post , May 6, 2002 at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A37447-2002May5¬Found=true . (11896) 57 For the full Human Rights Watch report, see Erased In A Moment: Suicide Bombing Attacks Against Israeli Civilians, October 2002 at: http://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/isrl-pa . (11862) 58 See Statistics: “Successful vs. Unsuccessful (thwarted) Terrorist Attacks”, www.idf.il 59 “Text of ‘Hudna' Statement by Hamas, Islamic Jihad.” See: http://members.ozemail.com.au/~adamgosp/hamas.htm . (11897) 60 “Hudna with Hamas”, Honest Reporting.com, June 30, 2003, at: http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Printable.asp?ID=8582 . (11898) 61 “Erased In A Moment: Suicide Bombing Attacks Against Israeli Civilians”, Human Rights Watch, October 2002, at: http://hrw.org/reports/2002/isrl-pa/ . (11862) 62 For further details, Khadar Abu Sway, Palestinian Opinion Pulse , JMCC , June 2004, at: http://www.jmcc.org/publicpoll/pop/04/jul/pop14.pdf . (11900) 63 For more details, see Palestinian Opinion Pulse , December 2003, JMCC , at: http://www.jmcc.org/publicpoll/pop/03/dec/pop13.pdf . (11899) The question was not polled in June 2004. 64 Barry Rubin, “US Foreign Policy and Rogue3 States,” MERIA , September 1999, at: http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/meria/journal/1999/issue3/jv3n3a7.html . (11901) 65 On the danger this ‘innovation' constitutes for non-Israelis, see Thomas L. Friedman, “Suicidal Lies” New York Times , March 31, 2002. This document uses extensive links via the Internet. If you experience a broken link, please note the 5 digit number (xxxxx) at the end of the URL and use it as a Keyword in the Search Box at www.MEfacts.com

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The new animated Google Doodle for Bunsen shows the working of Bunsen burner. The Bunsen doodle depicted a complete Chemistry lab set up with flasks, beakers, cooling towers and coffee pot that gives out bubbles. Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen was born on Mar 31, 1981 in Gottingen, Germany. He investigated emission spectra of heated elements, and discovered caesium in 1860 and rubidium in 1861 with Gustav Kirchhoff. He developed the Bunsen burner, which is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame, which is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion. The Bunsen burner burns a continuous stream of a flammable gas such as natural gas, which is principally methane or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane, or a mixture of both. Bunsen was one of the most universally admired scientists of his generation. Surprisingly, Robert Bunsen never took out a patent for the Bunsen burner. Bunsen died on 16 Aug 1899. We at OneIndia, wish Robert Bunsen a 'Happy Birthday.'

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Susan Warhus, MD Can someone with PKU breastfeed? I heard if I have children, I won't be able to because I have PKU. The expert answers: Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited condition that renders the body unable to break down an important protein called phenylalanine (Phe). This genetic disorder can lead to serious brain development problems. Fortunately, by following a special diet low in Phe, individuals with PKU can avoid brain damage. Babies and children must also adhere to this special diet in order to avoid mental retardation. The current recommendation is for individuals with PKU to remain on this special diet for their entire lifetime. This is especially important for women of childbearing age. That's because increased Phe levels during pregnancy may adversely affect the developing baby. A dietician or other healthcare professional can provide you with specific information on the PKU diet. In general, foods that contain high levels of Phe such as meats and dairy products should be avoided. Most grains, fruits, vegetables and other low protein foods are usually okay. PKU cannot be passed to the baby during breastfeeding. The only way to acquire PKU is to be born with those genes. So unless your baby is born with PKU, breastfeeding should not be a problem. If your baby is born with PKU, you may be able to breastfeed providing you stay on the special PKU diet. The baby's doctor can measure the Phe level in the baby to assure it is not elevated. There is also a special low Phe infant formula available for babies with PKU. So what are the chances of your baby having PKU? Naturally, it depends on the genetic traits of both the mother and father. Like many genetic traits, people can be placed into one of three PKU categories: those with PKU, those who are genetic carriers of PKU, and those who do not have or carry PKU. Since you have PKU, if you have children with someone who also has PKU, then all of your offspring will have PKU. If you have children with someone who is a carrier of PKU, there is a 50 percent chance for each offspring to have PKU. If you have children with someone who does not have or carry PKU, then none of your children will have PKU, but they will all be carriers. Carriers are healthy, but can pass the PKU gene to their children. All babies are tested for PKU shortly after they are born. A genetic counselor or other healthcare professional can provide you with additional information. The information provided above is derived from the Organization of Teratology Information Service (OTIS). For a more detailed discussion of maternal PKU and pregnancy, please refer to their web site, www.OTISpregnancy.org.

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Estudios pedagógicos (Valdivia) versión On-line ISSN 0718-0705 JULIO MATURANA, Cristina. DIVERSIDAD EDUCATIVA EN EDUCANDOS DEL SISTEMA DE PROTECCION SOCIAL "CHILE SOLIDARIO"1 DE LA COMUNA DE VALPARAISO: RESULTADOS DE UN ESTUDIO EXPLORATORIO[ign]* [title language=en]Educative diversity in pupil of the system of social protection "Shared in common Chile" of the commune of Valparaiso: results of an exploratory study. Estud. pedagóg. [online]. 2009, vol.35, n.1, pp.93-115. ISSN 0718-0705. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-07052009000100006. The article presents the results of an exploratory research on the relationship between social and educational vulnerability in pupils from families that benefit from the Puente Project, and that currently attend the high school early years education, and the first cycle of primary school education. The relationship is analysed from an inclusive education perspective. It aims to examine the belief that this relationship is direct and that the mere fact of pertaining to low socioeconomic segment means a high educational vulnerability, which is associated to failure at school. To this end, an index was built that eventually signalled a great diversity of educational results in the population analysed even though they belonged to the same socioeconomic segment, leading to the conclusion that the relationship is not direct. Palabras clave : social vulnerability; educative vulnerability; scholastic failure; scholastic learning; diversity; inclusion; intersectoriality.

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History From America's Most Famous Valleys Life of Joseph Brant-Thayendanegea Indian Wars of the American Revolution by William L. Stone. Volume II Buffalo: Phinney & Co., 1851. Sullivan's campaign into the Seneca country-Different characteristics among the Indian Nations-Mistakes upon the subject-Progress of civilization among the Six Nations-Plan of the campaign-The command offered to General Gates-His conduct-Clinton's preparations at Canajoharie-Transportation of boats and stores across to Otsego Lake-Arrest and execution of Newberry-Attempts to engage the Oneidas-The Indians alarmed by an address from Gen. Haldimand -The address-Intelligence from the enemy-Arrival of Oneida deputies at Clinton's head-quarters-Their speech-Designs of the enemy-Letter of Gen. Clinton to his brother-Remarkable escape of Elerson from an Indian scout- Brave defence of his house by Mr. Shankland-Descent of the Susquehanna-Dilatory proceedings of Sullivan-Junction of the forces-Movement from Tioga to Newton-Battle of the Chemung-Destruction of the crops-Advance to Catharine's town-Message to the Oneidas-Destruction of Catharine's townEvidences of civilization-Destruction of Kendaia and Kanadaseaga-March upon Kanandaigua-Its destruction-Honeoye destroyed-Melancholy story of the Oneida brothers-Kanaghsaws destroyed-Horrible fate of Lieutenant Boyd -Contrast between the conduct of Brant and Butler in the case of Boyd-Indians in council resolve to fight no more-Sullivan advances to Genesee-Beauty of the country-Conduct of Red Jacket-Origin of Brant's hostility to him-Sullivan sets out on his return-Destruction of the Cayuga towns-Return of the army to Tioga-Strange directions to Colonel Gansevoort respecting the Mohawks of the lower castle-Their capture-Correspondence-Their release-Close of Sullivan's campaign-His resignation-Colonel Brodhead's expedition against the Senecas on the Alleghany-Huron and Shawanese chiefs meet him at Fort Pitt-Their speeches-Severe Indian battle on the Ohio-Closing incidents of the year. THE policy of waging a more decisive war against the Indians, and the loyalists associated with them in their barbarous irruptions upon the frontier settlements, has been adverted to more than once already. General Washington had long- entertained the opinion that the mere establishment of a chain of military posts along the Western and North-western frontiers would not answer the purpose; and that the only method of affording efficient protection to the inhabitants of those borders, would be to carry the war into the heart of the enemy's country. By a resolution of the 25th of February, Congress had directed the Commander-in-chief to take the most effectual means for protecting the inhabitants, and chastising the Indiana for their continued depredations ; and it was now his determination to put the resolve in execution, by carrying the war directly into the most populous country of the Six Nations ; to cut off their settlements, destroy their crops, and inflict upon them every other mischief which time and circumstances would permit.* Those who have been accustomed to contemplate the whole race of North American aboriginals as essentially alike, viewing them all as the same roving, restless, houseless race of hunters and fishermen, without a local habitation, and with scarce a name, have widely misunderstood the Indian character, and must know but little of its varieties. They have, indeed, many traits and characteristics in common ; but in other respects the moody Englishman is not more unlike his mercurial neighbor on the other side of the channel, than is the Mohawk unlike the Sioux. It is the remark of a popular writer of the day,+ that " those who are familiar with the reserved and haughty bearing " of the forest tribes, cannot fail, when an opportunity of compa- " rison is afforded, to be struck with the social air and excitable " disposition which mark their prairie brethren, and so decidedly " distinguish the "gens du large" from "les gens des feuilles," " as the voyageurs term the different races. The Pawnees, fol- " lowing the buffalo in his migrations, and having always plenty " of animal food to subsist upon, are a much better fed and larger " race than those who find a precarious subsistence in the forest " chase. While the woodland tribes, who, though not so plump " in form, are of a more wiry and perhaps muscular make, have " again a decided advantage in figure and gait over the "gens du " lac," or fishing and trapping tribes of the North-west, that pass " most of their time in canoes. This difference in character and " physical appearance between the different Indian races, or rather " between those tribes who have such different methods of gain- " ing a livelihood, has never been sufficiently attended to by " modern authors, though it did not escape the early French * writers on this country. And yet, if habit have any effect in" forming the temper and character of a rude people, it must of " course follow, that the savage who lives in eternal sunshine upon *Letter of Washington of March 4, to Governor Clinton, and also from the same to General Gates of March 6, 1779. +Charles F. Hoffman, Esq. plains, and hunts on horseback with a troop of tribesmen " around him, must be a different being from the solitary deer- " stalker, who wanders through the dim forest, depending upon his " single arm for a subsistence for his wife and children." But the higher state of social organization among the Six Nations greatly increased the difference. They had many towns and villages giving evidence of permanence. They were organized into communities, whose social and political institutions, simple as they were, were still as distinct and well-defined as those of the American confederacy. They had now acquired some of the arts, and were enjoying many of the comforts, of civilized life. Not content with small patches of cleared lands for the raising of a few vegetables, they possessed cultivated fields, and orchards of great productiveness, at the West. Especially was this the fact with regard to the Cayugas and Senecas. The Mohawks having been driven from their own rich lands, the extensive domains of the two westernmost tribes of the confederacy formed the granary of the whole. And in consequence of the superior social and political organization just referred to, and the Spartan-like character incident to the forest life, the Six Nations, though not the most numerous, were beyond, a doubt the most formidable, of the tribes then in arms in behalf of the Crown.* It was justly considered, therefore, that the only way to strike them effectively, would be to destroy their homes and the growing products of their farms; and thus, by cutting off their means of supply, drive them from their own country deeper into the interior, and perhaps throw them altogether upon their British allies for subsistence. It was likewise the design to extend the operations of the expedition as far as Niagara, if possible-that post, of all others in the occupation of the enemy, enabling his officers to maintain an extensive influence over his savage allies.+ * "The Six Nations were a peculiar and extraordinary people, contra-distinguished from the mass of Indian nations by great attainments in polity, in negotiation, in eloquence, and in war."-Discourse of De Wilt Clinton before the New-York Hist. Society-1911. + Since these sheets were in the hands of the printer, the author has discovered an Official manuscript account of a grand Indian council held at Niagara, in September, 1776, by Colonel John Butler, and Lieutenants Matthews, Burnit, and Kinnesley, and Ensign Butler, with the Hurons, Chippewas, Ottawas, Pottawatamies, Mississagas. Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas, Tuscaroras, Mohawks, Delawares, Nanticokes, Squaghkies, and Connoys-in presence of Lieut. Colonel John Caldwell, then in command at Niagara. It appears that only one Oneida sachem was present, and one Tuscarora. They adopted an address, which was unanimously signed by the chiefs attending the Congress, declaring their Intention to embark in the war, and abide the result of the contest of the King with his people. They also made a strong appeal to the Oneidas and Tuscaroras, " to quit the Bostonians, and be strong and determined to fulfill their engagements to the King." They also exhorted the Mohawks to be strong, and assured them " that they, and all their western brethren, would fly to their assistance at the first call," &c.-Manuscripts of Gen. Gansevoort. The plan of this campaign was well devised and matured. It was to be commenced by a combined movement of two divisions-the one from Pennsylvania, ascending the valley of the Susquehanna to the intersection of the Tioga river, under General Sullivan, who was invested with the command in chief; and the other from the North, under General James Clinton, which was to descend the Susquehanna from its principal source, and after forming a junction with Sullivan, the whole, to proceed, by the course of the Chemung river, into the fertile country of the Senecas and Cayugas. This expedition was intended as the principal campaign of that year; since the relative military strength and situation of the two contending powers rendered it impossible that any other offensive operations could becarried on by the Americans at the same time.* * It was the original purpose of General Washington to invest General Gates with the command of this expedition, and the appointment was tendered to that officer by letter, on the 6th of March. Gates declined it, in a manner not very agreeable to the Commander-in-chief. The latter, in writing subsequently to the President of Congress upon the subject, in the course of sundry explanations, not unmingled with strictures upon the conduct of Gates, wrote as follows :-" The plan of operations for the campaign being determined, a commanding officer was to be appointed for the Indian expedition. This command, according to all present appearances, will probably be of the second, if not of the first, importance for the campaign. The officer conducting it has a flattering prospect of acquiring more credit than can be expected by any other this year; and he has the best reason to hope for success. General Lee, from his situation, was out of the question ; General Schuyler, (who, by the way, would have been most agreeable to me,) was so uncertain of continuing in the army, that I could not appoint him ; General Putnam I need not mention. I therefore made the offer of it, for the appointment could no longer be delayed, to General Gates, who was next in seniority, though, perhaps, I might have avoided it, if I had been so disposed, from his being in a command by the special appointment of Congress. My letter to him on the occasion I believe you will think was conceived in very candid and polite terms, and that it merited a different answer from the one given to it."-'Letter of Washington to the President of Congress, April 14, 1779. The answer of Gates referred to by the Commander-in-chief, was in the following words;-" Last night I had the honor of your Excellency's letter. The man who undertakes the Indian service, should enjoy youth and strength ; requisites I do not possess. It therefore grieves me that your Excellency should offer me the only command to which I am entirely unequal. In obedience to your command, I have forwarded your letter to General Sullivan," &c.-Sparks's Life and Correspondence of Washington. On the 2d of June, General Clinton received his instructions from Sullivan, to proceed forthwith in the measures of co-operation according to the plan of the campaign already indicated, viz : the descent of the Susquehanna by the northern forces, to unite with the main division at Tioga. Preparations for the enterprise, however, were already in a state of great forwardness, since General Washington had been in free communication with Governor Clinton upon the subject; and the latter, with the General his brother, had been actively engaged in anticipation of the order.* Accordingly, batteaux had already been provided at Schenectady, which, after ascending the Mohawk to Canajoharie, were thence to be transported over land to the head of Otsego Lake at Springfield, while at the same time a large quantity of provisions had been thrown into Fort Schuyler in case of emergency. After making all his arrangements, and ordering the different corps which were to compose his command, to concentrate at Canajoharie, General Clinton arrived at that post on the 16th of June, where he found himself at the head of fifteen hundred troops. The portage from the Mohawk river at Canajoharie to the head of Otsego Lake is about twenty miles. On the 17th, General Clinton commenced the transportation of his boats and stores across the country-the region being hilly, and the roads excessively bad. Two hundred boats were found to be necessary, and four horses were required for the draught of each boat. The troops were disposed by regiments along the route, * General James Clinton was at that time in command of the Northern department. The troops assigned for this campaign were, the brigades of Generals Clinton, Maxwell, Poor, and Hand, to which last brigade were assigned, in addition, all the detached corps of Continental troops on the Susquehanna. The independent companies of the State of Pennsylvania were likewise ordered upon the expedition together with Colonel Van Courtlandt's regiment, Butler's, Alden's, and the rifle corps. Colonel Gansevoort's regiment formed a part of Clinton's brigade. This brigade had already been ordered by the Commander-in-chief himself to rendezvous at Canajoharie, subject to the orders of Sullivan, either to form a junction with the main body by the way of Otsego, or to proceed up the Mohawk and co-operate as circumstances might best permit.-Letter of instructions from the Cominander-in-chief to General Sullivan. and to assist at difficult points of ascent. But, notwithstanding these obstacles, and the magnitude of the enterprise, General Clinton was enabled to announce to his immediate superior, by letter on the 26th, that one hundred and seventy-three of the boats had already reached the head of the lake; that thirty more were on their -way ; and that the residue, making up the complement of two hundred and twenty, would be forwarded thither immediately on their arrival from Schenectady. The provisions and stores for a three months campaign had likewise been already transported across the carrying-place that the expedition was nearly in readiness to- commence its final movement.* In a letter to General Schuyler announcing the same intelligence, the General spoke particularly of the alacrity and spirit with which the inhabitants of the country had rallied to his assistance. He likewise bestowed high praise upon Colonel Willett, acting as a volunteer, for his timely and energetic assistance in forwarding the arrangements. In performing this labor, no other interruption took place than what arose from the arrest of two spies, formerly inhabitants of the county, one of whom was named Hare, a lieutenant in the British service, and the other a Tory sergeant named Newberry, the same wretch whose name has already occurred as a brutal murderer at Cherry Valley. They had left the Seneca country with sixty warriors of that tribe, to be divided into three parties, one of which was to fall upon Cherry Valley again, the other upon Schoharie, and the third to be employed in lurking about Fort Schuyler. They were tried by a court-martial, convicted, and " hanged pursuant to the sentence of the court, and to the " entire satisfaction of all the inhabitants of the county ."+ * General Washington was greatly displeased at the amount of stores and baggage by which Clinton was encumbered, apprehending "the worst consequences" from the obstacles his stores would interpose to the rapidity of his march, and also from the publicity which would as a consequence be given to his movements. Although he had left it optional with Sullivan to direct Clinton to join him by the route of the Susquehanna, yet the Commander-in-chief evidently preferred that the more northern route should be taken. He wrote to Sullivan upon the subject with more sharpness than he was wont to do.-[See Letter of Washington to Sullivan, July 1, 1779.] The event, however, aided by the sagacity of Clinton in the adoption of a measure presently to be noted, proved that he took the right direction. + Letter from General Clinton to General Schuyler. In General Schuyler's answer to this letter, he says, speaking of the execution of Hare-" In executing Hare, you have rid the State of the greatest villain in it. I hope his abettors in the country will meet with a similar exaltation."-Gen. Clinton's Manuscripts. It was the desire of General Sullivan that Clinton should employ in his division as large a number of the Oneida warriors as could be induced to engage in the service. The latter officer was opposed to this arrangement; but at the importunities of Sullivan, the Rev. Mr. Kirkland, their missionary, who was now a chaplain in the army, had been summoned to Albany for consultation. From thence Mr. Kirkland was despatched to Pennsylvania directly to join Sullivan's division, while to Mr. Deane, the interpreter connected with the Indian commission at Fort Schuyler, was confided the charge of negotiating with the Oneida chiefs upon the subject. At first all went smoothly with the Indians. The Oneidas volunteered for the expedition, almost to a man ; while those of the Onondagas who adhered to the cause of the Americans, were equally desirous of proving their fidelity by their deeds. Under these circumstances Clinton wrote to Sullivan on the 26th, that on the following Saturday, Mr. Deane, with the Indian warriors, would join him at the head of the lake. A sudden revolution, however, was wrought in their determination by an address to the Oneidas from General Haldimand, received at Fort Schuyler on the 22d. This document was transmitted to them in their own language; and its tenor was so alarming, as to induce them suddenly to change their purpose-judging, very correctly, from the threats of Haldimand, that their presence was necessary at home for the defence of their own castles. Still, Mr. Deane wrote that an arrangement was on foot, by which he hoped yet to obtain the co-operation of a considerable number of the Oneida warriors. The basis of this arrangement was, that in the event of an invasion of their country by the Indians, whom the Canadian commander had threatened to let loose upon them, the garrison at Fort Schuyler should not only assist them, but receive their women and children into the fort for protection. General Haldimand's address was written in the Iroquois language, of which the following translation was made by Mr. Deane, and enclosed to General Clinton :- " A translation of his Excellency Gen. Haldimun's speech to the Oneida Indians in the Rebel Interest, as delivered to them in the Iroquois language* " BROTHERS : Be very attentive to what I, Ashanegown, the Great King of England's representative in Canada, am going to say. By this string of wampum I shake you by the hand to rouse you that you may seriously reflect upon my words. A string of wampum. : It is now about four years ago since the Bostonians began to rise, and rebel against their Father, the King of England, since which time you have taken a different part from the rest of the Five Nations, your confederates, and have likewise deserted the King's cause, through the deceitful machinations and snares of the rebels, who intimidated you with their numerous armies, by which means you became bewildered, and forgot all of your engagements with, and former care, and favor from the Great King of England, your Father. You also soon forgot the frequent bad usage, and continual encroachments of the Americans upon the Indian lands throughout the Continent. I say, therefore, that at the breaking out of these troubles you firmly declared to observe a strict neutrality in the dispute, and made your declaration known to Sir Guy Carleton, my predecessor, who much approved of it, provided you were in earnest. I have hitherto strictly observed and examined your conduct, and find that you did not adhere to your assertion, although I could trace no reason on the side of government as well as the Indians, why you should act so treacherous and double a part; by which means, we, not mistrusting your fidelity, have had many losses among the King's subjects and the Five Nations your friends and connexions ; and finding you besides, proud and hau on the occasion, as if you gloried in your perfidy, doubtless in sure confidence as if your friends, the rebels, were getting the better at last; and captivated with that pleasing opinion of yours, you have presumed twice during the course of last winter, to send impertinent and daring messages to the Five Nations, as if you meant to pick a quarrelwith them. In consequence of this your daring and insolent behavior, I must insist upon, by this belt of wampum, that you declare yourselves immediately on the receipt of this my * Copied by the author from the M, among the papers of General Clinton. and message, whether you mean to persist in this your daring and insulting course, and still intend to act as you have hitherto done, treacherously under the cloak of neutrality, or whether you will accept of this my last offer of re-uniting, and reconciling yourselves with your own tribes, the Five Nations. Do not imagine that the King has hitherto treated the rebels and their adherents with so much mildness and indulgence, out of any apprehensions of their strength, or getting the better ! No, by no means. For you will find that in case you slight or disregard this my last offer of peace, I shall soon convince you that I have such a number of Indian allies to let loose upon you, as will instantly convince you of your folly when too late, as I have hardly been able to restrain them from falling upon you for some time past. I must therefore once more repeat to you that this is my last and final message to you; and that you do not hesitate, or put off giving me your direct and decisive declaration of peace or war, that in case of the latter, (knowing that there are still some of your nation who are friends to the King and the Five Nations,) I may give them timely warning to separate themselves from you. : Let me lastly convince you of the deceit and dissimulation of your rebel brethren, General Schuyler, Parson Kirkland, and others ; have they not told you, in the beginning of the rebellion, that they wanted not your assistance, and to have your blood spilt; and you likewise declared that you would not join them, but remain neuter ? Have either of you stuck to your word ? No! you basely broke it, and seemed from the beginning to be of mutual hostile sentiments against the King and his allies, and soon after manifested it by your actions What confirms me in this opinion, and proves your deceitful and treacherous dispositions, is your behavior during the course of the last war, when you likewise acted a double part in clandestinely joining and carrying intelligence to the French in this country ; which I myself am a witness to, and also was told of it by your friend, the late Sir William Johnson, who, notwithstanding your base behavior, upon promising that you would be true and faithful for the future, forgave you, and received you into favor again, advising you to be more prudent and honest in time to come ; and frequently after that loaded you with theKing's bounty and favor. But he was no sooner dead than you VOL. II. 2 his good advice and benedictions; and in opposition to his family and Indian friends, and every thing that is sacred, adopted the cause of rebels, and enemies to your King, your late patron Sir 'William Johnson, and your own confederacy and connexions. These are facts, Brothers, that unless you are lost to every sense of feeling, cannot but recall in you a most hearty repentance and deep remorse for your past vile actions. The belt. " FRED. HALDIMAND." On the 30th of June, Clinton wrote to Sillivan that his arrangements were complete-that all his stores and munitions of every description were at the lake, with two hundred and ten batteaux-and every thing in readiness for embarkation the moment his orders to that effect should be received. On the 1st of July he proceeded to the lake himself, and the expedition moved from its head to the Southern extremity-there to await the orders of his superior. While lying at this place, a letter was received from General Schuyler, announcing the return from Canada of a spy, who had been despatched thither for information. He brought word, that on the 18th of June four hundred and fifty regular troops, one hundred Tories, and thirty Indians, had been sent forward from Montreal to reinforce the Indians against whom this expedition, was preparing; and that they were to be joined by half of Sir John Johnson's regiment, together with a portion of the garrison at Niagara. From this intelligence it was evident that the Indian country was not to he taken without a struggle. On the 5th Mr. Deane arrived, at the head of thirty-five Oneida warriors. The object of their visit was in person to apologize for the absence of their brethren from the expedition, and to make those explanations, in regard to their own altered situation, already communicated by Mr. Deane by letter, together with the address of General Haldimand, which had caused their alarm. A conference took place with General Clinton on the same day, at which the Oneidas delivered their message in the following speech :- " BROTHER : We suppose you imagine we have come here in order to attend you upon your expedition, but we are sorry to inform you that our situation is such as will not admit of it. " BROTHER : From intelligence which we may depend upon, we have reason to believe that the Six Nations mean to embrace the opportunity of our absence in order to destroy our castles ; these accounts we have by spies from among them, and we know that a considerable body of them are now collected at Cayuga for that purpose, waiting in expectation of our warriors leaving the castle to join you. " BROTHER : It was our intention to have joined you upon your intended route, and hope you will not think hard of it that we do not; but such is our present danger, that in case we leave our castle it must be cut off, as a large party of the enemy are waiting for that purpose. " BROTHER : This is a time of danger with us. Our brethren, the Americans, have always promised us assistance for our protection whenever we stand in need of it; we therefore request that, agreeable, to these promises, we may have some troops sent to our assistance in this time of great danger. Should you send a body of troops to our assistance and protection, and the enemy attack us, and we should have the fortune to beat them, we will with those troops pursue them, and join you down in their country ; or if they should not make an attack upon our castle in a short time, we will march through their castles until we join you." A belt. To which General Clinton made the following reply :- " BRETHREN : Our present expedition is intended to chastise those nations who have broken their faith with us, and joined our enemies. The force we have is quite sufficient for that purpose. Our route is planned in the great council of this country. It is not my desire that the whole of your warriors should leave their castles. I have given a general invitation to our Brethren the Oneidas, the Tuscaroras, and such Onondagas as may have entered into friendship with us. In order to give all our Indian friends an equal chance of evidencing their spirit and determination to partake of our fortune, I am entirely satisfied that such only should join me as think proper. It is not for want of warriors that I have given you this invitation, but that every warrior who is a friend to these United States may have an equal opportunity of punishing the enemies of our country. " As your situation is such as causes you to suppose your castle in danger of being destroyed by your enemies in case of your absence, I by no means desire that more of your warriors should leave your castles than your council think proper to permit. " As yet I am fully persuaded that all our enemies of the Six Nations will find too much to do at home, to suffer any of their warriors to go abroad to do mischief. If you should be satisfied after a little while that your castles are out of danger, and the whole or any part of your warriors think proper to come to us, I shall be glad to see you ; and in the meantime perhaps you may be as serviceable where you are, as if you were with us. " I shall immediately give orders to the officers commanding at Fort Schuyler to send some troops to your castle, and write to Colonel Van Schaick, who commands in my absence, to afford you every assistance in tits power, as I am not authorized to order any of the troops now with me on any other command, being directed by our Great Chief and Warrior to proceed with the whole of these troops on the present route." In the course of the interview, the sachems informed General Clinton that a party of about three hundred Indians, with a few Tories, had marched from Cayuga ten days before, for the purpose of hanging upon his outskirts and harassing his march to Tioga. Still it was supposed not to be their intention to do any I serious fighting, until the invading forces should have advanced a considerable distance up the Tioga or Chemung river. Indeed, it was evidently the purpose of the enemy to make no stand, until the forces of Sullivan and Clinton should arrive in the neighborhood of the works of defence which the Indians and Tories had been constructing, even before the battle of Wyoming, on the banks of the Chemung. In consequence of the requisition of the warriors, in their speech, General Clinton issued, an order to the commanding officer at Fort Schuyler to detach a command of thirty or forty men to the Oneida fort, to be recalled as circumstances might require. With this understanding, and the assurances in the I General's answer to their speech, the ten principal warriors; specially charged with the explanations, took their departure the same evening for their own castle-leaving the remaining twenty-five to accompany the expedition.* General Clinton was * All but two of these, however, and those of the meaner sort, deserted the expedition before they arrived at Tioga. impatient of delay, as appears by a letter addressed to his brother on the next day, from which the following is an extract:- GENERAL TO GOVERNOR CLINTON. " Camp on the south end of) " Otsego Lake, July 6th, 1779.) " DEAR BROTHER, " I have the pleasure to inform you that I am now at this place, with two hundred and eight boats, with all the stores, provisions, and baggage of the army; and I am well convinced that such a quantity of each hath never before been transported over so bad a road in so short a time and with less accidents, so that I am now in the most readiness to move down the Susquehanna, whenever I receive General Sullivan's orders for that purpose. I have thrown a dam across the outlet, which I conceive will be of infinite importance, as it has raised the lake at least two feet, by which the boats may be taken down with less danger than otherwise, although, from the intricate winding of the channel, I expect to meet some difficulties on the way. It is uncertain when I shall leave this place. " I received a letter from General Sullivan yesterday, dated at Wyoming July 1st, in which he informs me that he was anxiously waiting the arrival of his stores from Sunbury-that he expected them daily-that it was determined in council that that army should proceed almost as far as Tioga previous to my leaving the lake, as by that means he might make a diversion in my favor, and facilitate my movements down the river. This I imagine to be in consequence of a letter which he probably has received from General Washington, and one I received from him dated the first instant, in which his Excellency expresses his surprise at my taking so much stores with me, when it was determined that all the supplies of the army should come up with General Sullivan, and that nothing more should be brought with me than was absolutely necessary for the troops until the junction was formed at Tioga. However, as it was General Sullivan's orders to bring what provision I could, and as his Excellency added in his letter to me that it was not his intention to contravene any orders I may receive from General Sullivan, I ordered the whole to be forwarded to this place; which I have happily effected, and of which I do not repent, as I beleve I shall fall short of many articles. * * * * * * The troops are in good health and high spirits, and every thing seems to promise a most favorable and successful campaign." ******** No attempts were made by the enemy to molest General Clinton while thus detained at Otsego Lake. Still, his proceedings were not left entirely without observation, and there "were two indilidnal affrays happening in his vicinity, which deserve special mention. The name of David Elerson, one of the bold spirits associated with Murphy in Morgan's rifle corps, has already occurred in a former chapter. The detachment to which he belonged had been ordered from Schoharie to join his expedition. While lying at the head of the lake, Elerson rambled off to an old clearing, at the distance of a mile or more from camp to gather pulse for dinner. Having filled his knapsack, while adjusting it in order to return to camp, he was startled at the rustling of the tall and coarse herbage around him, and in the same instant beheld some ten or a dozen Indians, who had crept upon him so cautiously as to be just on the point of springing to grasp him. Their object was clearly rather to make him a prisoner than to kill him, since he might easily have been shot down unperceived. Perhaps they wanted him for an auto-da-fe, perhaps to obtain information. Seizing his rifle, which was standing by his side, Elerson sprang forward to escape. A shower of tomahawks hurtleq through the air after him; but as he had plunged into a thicket of tall weeds and bushes, he was only struck on one of his hands, his middle finger being nearly severed. A brisk chase was immediately commenced. Scaling an old brush-wood fence, Elerson darted into the woods, and the Indians after him. He was as fleet as a stag, and perceiving that they were not likely soon to overtake, the pursuers discharged their rifles after him, but luckily without effect. The chase was thus continued from eleven till three o'clock-Elerson using every device and stratagem to elude or deceive the Indians, but they holding him close. At length, having gained a moment to breathe, an Indian started up in his front. Drawing up his rifle to clear the passage in that direction, the whizz of a bullet fleshing his side, and the crack of a rifle, from another point, taught him that delays were particularly dangerous at that spot. The Indian in front, however, had disappeared on his presenting his rifle, and Elerson again darted forward. His wounded side bled a little, though not enough to weaken him. Having crossed a ridge, he paused a moment in the valley beyond, to slake his thirst-his mouth being parched, and himself almost fainting. On rising from the brook, the head of one of his pursuers peeped over the crest of the hill. He raised his rifle, but such was his exhaustion that he could not hold it steady, A minute more, and he would have been in the power of the savage. Raising his rifle again, and steadying it by the side of a tree, he brought the savage tumbling headlong down the hill. In the next moment his trusty rifle was re-loaded and primed, and in the next the whole group of his pursuers came rushing over the ridge. He again supposed his minutes were numbered; but being partly sheltered by the trunk of a huge hemlock, they saw not him, but only the body of their fallen comrade yet quivering in the agonies of death. Drawing in a circle about the body of their companion, they raised the death wail; and as they paused, Elerson made another effort to fly. Before they resumed the pursuit, he had succeeded in burying himself in a dark thicket of hemlocks, where he found the hollow trunk of a tree, into which he crept. Here he lay ensconced two full days, without food or dressings for his wound. On the third day he backed out of "the loop-hole of his retreat," but knew not which way to proceed-not discerning the points of the compass. In the course of two or three miles, however, he came to a clearing, and found himself at Cobleskill-having, during his recent chase, run over hill and dale, bog, brook, and fen, upward of twenty-five miles. At about the same time, and probably by the same party of Indians, the premises of a Mr. Shankland, lying in their track, situated in the outskirts of Cherry Valley, were assaulted. Residing at the distance of two or three miles from the village, his house had escaped the common distruction the proceeding Autumn. But he had nevertheless removed his family to the valley of the Mohawk for safety, and had returned to his domicil accompanied only by his son,* They were awakened just before dawn by the assailants, who were endeavoring to cut away the door with their hatchets. Taking down his two guns, Mr. Shankland directed his son to load them, while he successively fired * The late Thomas Shankland, Esq., of Cooperstown. to the best advantage. But not being able to see the enemy, he determined upon a sortie. Having a spear, or espontoon, in the house, he armed himself therewith, and carefully unbarring the door, rushed forth upon the besiegers, who fled back at his sudden apparition. One of the Indians whom he was specially pursuing, tumbled over a log, and as Mr. Shankland struck at him, his spear entered the wood, and parted from the shaft. Wrenching the blade from the log, he darted back into the house, barred the door, and again commenced firing upon the assailants. They had been so much surprised by his rushing out upon them, that they neither fired a shot, nor hurled a tomahawk, until he had returned to his castle, and barred the sallyport. During that part of the affray, his son, becoming somewhat frightened, escaped from the house, and ran for the woods. He was pursued, overtaken, and made captive. The father, however, continued the fight, the Indians firing through the casements at random, and he returning the shots as well as he could. At one time he thought of sallying forth again, and selling his life to the best advantage ; but by thus doing, he very rightly judged that he should at once involve the life of his son. The Indians, growing wearied of fighting at such disadvantage, at last attempted to make sure of their victim by applying the torch, and the house was speedily in flames, but it so happened that between the rear of the house and the forest, a field of hemp interposed-into which Mr. Shankland contrived to throw himself from the house, unperceived by the Indians. Concealed from observation by the hemp, he succeeded in reaching the woods, and making good his retreat to the Mohawk. Meantime the Indians remained by the house until it was consumed, together, as they supposed, with the garrison. They then raised a shout of victory, and departed*-several of their number having been wounded by the courageous proprietor. to his vexation, as appears from his letters. General Clinton was detained at Otsego, by the tardy movements of his commander below, during the whole month of July and the first week in August-until, indeed, his troops became impatient to a degree.+ But the General was not idle in respect to every * Campbell's Annals. +By a letter from the Commander-in-chief to General Sullivan, it appears that in the organization of the Expedition the latter had been compelled to encounter greater difficulties than had been anticipated. He was disappointed in regard to the Pennsylvania independent companies-to supply which deficiency, Lieutenant-Colonel Albert Pauling was directed to march across from Warwasing, and join Clinton at Oshkwaga. Governor Clinton himself had intended to lead this regiment, but General Washington, believing that the influence of his presence was needed elsewhere, induced him to relinquish that design. The delays of Sullivan therefore, may not have arisen from any fault of his own. Still, the inactivity of General Clinton at Otsego Lake, and of Sullivan at Wyoming, was no more irksome to the former than to Brant himself. This active warrior had probably led in person the three hundred Indians spoken of by the Oneidas as having gone forth to hang upon the flanks of General Clinton, and annoy his troops by skirmishes during the march. Becoming weary, however, of waiting for a foe whose movements were apparently so tardy, Brant determined on making the irruption into Minisink, of which a history has been given in the last preceding chapter arrangement that might add to their security or contribute to their success. In the, letter to his brother, last quoted, he disclosed one capital stroke of generalship, which not only contributed largely to his successful descent of the river, but was of great service in other respects. The damming of the lake, and the accumulation, by this means, of a vast reservoir of water, by rendering more certain and expeditious the navigation of the river, was an exceedingly happy thought. And when at length orders were received for his embarkation on the 9th of August, his flotilla was not only borne triumphantly along upon the pile of the impatient waters accumulated for the occasion, but the swelling of the torrent beyond its banks caused wide and unexpected destruction to the growing crops of the Indians on their plantations at Oghkwaga and its vicinity. They were, moreover, greatly affrighted at the sudden and unexpected rise of the waters in the dryest season of the year, especially as there had been no rains-attributing the event to the interposition of the " Great Spirit," who thus showed that he was angry with them. The whole expedition was indeed calculated to impress them with terror-as it might have done a more enlightened and less superstitious people. The country was wild and totally uninhabited, excepting by scattered families of the Indians, and here and there by some few of the more adventurous white settlers, in the neighborhood of Unadilla. The sudden swelling of the river, therefore, bearing upon its surge a flotilla of more than two hundred vessels, through a region of primitive forests, and upon a stream that had never before wafted upon its bosom any craft of greater burden than a bark canoe, was a spectacle which might well appall the untutored inhabitants of the regions thus invaded. During these energetic proceedings of Clinton, it has been seen that Sullivan was very dilatory in his movements, and his conduct in the early part of the campaign gave particular dissatisfaction to Congress. His requisitions for supplies were enormous, and several of his specifications of articles, such as eggs, tongues, and other luxuries, were considered so unsoldier-like as to create disgust. However, having completed his arrangements, he left Wyoming on the 31st of July, and ascended the Susquehanna to Tioga, with an expedition far more formidable as to numbers, and not less imposing in other respects, than was the descending division under General Clinton-though he had not the advantage of riding upon so majestic a flood. Sullivan reached Tioga on the 11th of August, and on the following day pushed out a detachment twelve miles toward Chemung, which was attacked by a body of Indians-losing, during the brush, seven men killed and wounded. The detachment returned to Tioga on the 13th, after having burnt one of the Indian towns. with his division, having been joined at Oghkwaga by a detachment of Colonel Pauling's levies from Warwasing, arrived at Tioga and formed a junction with Sullivan on the 22d of August. The entire command amounted now to five thousand, consisting of the brigades of Genera's Clinton, Hand, Maxwell, and Poor, together with Proctor's artillery and a corps of riflemen. So long had the expedition been in progress, that it was well understood the Indians and Tories were not unprepared to receive them; and in moving up the Tioga and the Chemung rivers, the utmost degree of caution was observed to guard against surprise. A strong advanced guard of light infantry preceded the main body, which was well protected by large flanking parties. In this way they slowly proceed 3d in the direction of the works of the enemy, upon the Chemung at Newtown. On the 28th, an Indian settlement was destroyed, together with fields of corn, and other Indian products * The instructions of the Commander-in-chief were peremptory, that Sullivan was not even to listen to propositions of peace until after he should have "very thoroughly completed the destruction of their settlements." The Indians, determined to risk a general action in defence of their country, had selected their ground with judgment, about a mile in advance of Newtown.* Their force was estimated by General Sullivan at fifteen hundred, including five companies of British troops and rangers, estimated at two hundred men. The enemy, however, only allowed their force to consist of five hundred and fifty Indians, and two hundred and fifty whites-in all, eight hundred. + Brant commanded the Indians, and the regular troops and rangers were led by Colonel John Butler, associated with whom were Colonels Sir John and Guy Johnson, Major Walter N. Butler, and Captain M'Donald.++ The enemy had constructed a breast-work of half a mile in length, so covered by a bend of the river as to expose only the front and one of the flanks to attack ; and even that flank was rendered difficult of approach by resting upon a steep ridge, nearly parallel to the general course of the river, terminating somewhat below the breast-work. Farther yet to the left was still another ridge, running in the same direction, and leading to the rear of the American army. The ground was covered with pine, interspersed with low shrub oaks, many of which, for the purpose of concealing their works, had been cut and brought from a distance, and stuck down in their front, exhibiting the appearance of untransplanted shrubbery. The load, after crossing a deep brook at the foot of the hill, turned to the right; and ran nearly parallel to the breast-work, so as to expose the whole flank of the army to their fire should it advance without discovering their position." § Detachments of the enemy, communicating with each other, were stationed on both hills, for the purpose of falling upon Sullivan's rightand rear the moment the action should commence. enemy's position was discovered by Major Parr, commanding the advance guard, at about 11 o'clock in the morning of the 29th of August. General Hand immediately formed the light infantry in a wood, at the distance of about four hundred yards from the breast-work, and waited until the main body of * The site of the present town of Elmira. ++ It is not quite certain whether both the Johnsons were engaged in this action. Sir John was there, and the author has somewhere seen the name of Guy Johnson as having likewise been in the battle of the Chemung. the army arrived on the ground. A skirmishing was, however, kept up by both sides-the Indians sallying out of their works by small parties, firing, and suddenly retreating-making the woods at the same time to resound with their war-whoops, piercing the air from point to point as though the tangled forest were alive with their grim-visaged warriors. Correctly judging that the hill upon his right was occupied by the savages, General Sullivan ordered Poor's brigade to wheel off, and endeavor to gain their left flank, and, if possible, to surround them, while the artillery and main body of the Americans attacked them in front.* The order was promptly executed ; but as Poor climbed the ascent, the battle became animated, and the possession of the hill was bravely contested. In front the enemy stood a hot cannonade for more than two hours.+ Both Tories and Indians were entitled to the credit of fighting manfully. Every rock, and tree, and bush, shielded its man, from behind which the winged messengers of death were thickly sent, but with so little effect as to excite astonishment. The Indians yielded ground only inch by inch and in their retreat darted from tree to tree with the agility of the panther, often contesting each new position to the point of the bayonet-a thing very unusual even with militiamen, and still more rare among the undisciplined warriors of the woods. Thayendanegea was the animating spirit of the savages. Always in the thickest of the fight, he used every effort to stimulate his warriors, in the hope of leading them to victory. Until the artillery began to play, the whoops and yells of the savages, mingled with the rattling of musketry, had well-nigh obtained the mastery of sound. But their whoops were measurably drowned by the thunder of the cannon. This cannonade " was elegant," to adopt the phraseology of Sullivan himself, in writing to a friend, and gave the Indians a great panic. Still, the battle was contested in front for a length of time with undiminished spirit. But the severity of fighting was on the flank just described. As Poor gallantly approached the point which completely uncovered the enemy's rear, Brant, who had been the first to penetrate the design of the American commander, attempted once more to rally his forces, and with the assistance of a battalion of the rangers, make a * Letter from General Sullivan to a gentleman in Boston. + Idem. Vide Remembrancer, vol. vii. stand. But it was in vain, although he exerted himself to the utmost for that. purpose-flying from point to point, seeming to be everywhere present, and using every means in his power to re-animate the flagging spirits, and re-invigorate the arms of his followers. Having ascended the steep, and gained his object without faltering, the enemy's flank -was turned by Poor, and the fortunes of the day decided. Perceiving such to be the fact, and that there was danger of being surrounded, the retreat-halloo was raised, and the enemy, savages and white men, precipitately abandoned their works, crossed the river, and fled with the utmost precipitation-the Indians leaving their packs and a number of their tomahawks and scalping-knives behind them. The battle was long, and on the side of the enemy bloody.* Eleven of their dead were found upon the field-an unusual circumstance with the Indians, who invariably exert themselves to the utmost to prevent the bodies of their slain from falling into the hands of their foes. But being pushed at the point of the bayonet, they had not, time to bear them away. They were pursued two miles, their trail affording indubitable proof that a portion of their dead and wounded had been carried off. Two canoes were found covered with blood, and the bodies of fourteen Indian warriors were discovered partially buried among the leaves. Eight scalps were taken by the Americans during the chase.+ Considering the duration of the battle, and * Mr. John Salmon, late of Livingston County, (N. Y.) who was a member of a detachment of the rifle corps in this expedition, in a letter written for Mary Jemison's Narrative, speaks of a second stand made by the Indians at a place above Newtown called the Narrows-" When'," he says, " they were attacked by our men, who killed them in great numbers, so that the sides of the rocks next the river appeared as though blood had been poured on them by pailfuls. The Indians threw their dead into the river, and escaped the best way they could." No other account makes mention of any such incident, unless, indeed, Mr. Salmon refers to the killing of the eight warriors whose scalps were taken during the flight, according to one of Sullivan's letters to a gentleman in Boston, which may be found in Almon's Remembrancer, and which is the authority for this statement in the text. The MS. journal of Capt. Fowler, in the author's possession, commences only the day after the battle. +" On the next morning [after Sullivan's arrival at Catharine's town,] an old woman of the Cayuga nation was found in the woods, who informed us that on the night after the battle of Newtown, the enemy having fled the whole time, arrived there in great confusion early the next day ; that she heard the warriors tell their women that they were conquered, and must fly ; that they had a great many killed, and vast numbers wounded. She likewise heard the lamentations of many at the loss of their connexions. In addition, she assured us that some other warriors had met Butler at that place, and desired him to return and fight again. But to this request they could obtain no satisfactorily answer; for, as they observed, 'Butler's mouth was closed.' The warriors, who had been in the action, were equally averse to the proposal." --Sullivan's Official Account. the obstinacy with which it was maintained, the loss of the Americans was small almost to a miracle. Only five or six men were killed, and between forty and fifty wounded. Among the American officers wounded were Major Titcomb, Captain Clayes, and Lieutenant Collis-the latter mortally. All the houses of the contiguous Indian town were burnt, and the cornfields destroyed.* The Americans encamped that night on the field of battle; and on the following day, the wounded, together with the heavy artillery, and wagons, and all such portions of the baggage as would not be required, and could not well be transported in the farther prosecution of the flying campaign now to be performed, were sent back to Tioga. Only four brass three-pounders and a small howitzer were retained; and the whole army was at once placed upon short allowance,-the soldiers submitting cheerfully to the requisition, the moment the necessity of the measure was explained to them in a speech by their commander. These and other dispositions having been made, the army moved forward on the 31st, in the direction of Catherine's town, * The strength of the enemy's force at Newton was never ascertained with any degree of certainty ; although, as heretofore stated in the text, it was the opinion of Sullivan, and also of his general officers, that it must have exceeded fifteen hundred. Still, the two prisoners taken estimated them only at eight hundred. They admitted, however, that, in addition to the five companies of rangers engaged in the action, all the warriors of the Senecas, and six other nations of Indians, were engaged. In order to determine the amount of their force with as much accuracy as could be attained, General Sullivan examined their breast-work, the extent of which was more than half a mile. The lines were flanked in every part by bastions in front, and a dwelling-house also, in front of the works, had been converted into a block-house and manned. The breast-work appeared to have been fully manned, though, as Sullivan supposed, by only a single rank. Some part of the works being low, the enemy were compelled to dig holes in the ground to cover themselves in part. A very thin scattering line, designed, as was supposed, for communicating signals, was continued from those works to that part of the mountain ascended by Genera! Poor, where a large body had been stationed, as heretofore stated, for the purpose of falling upon the flank of the Americans. The distance from the breast-work to that point was at least one mile and a half. From thence to the hill on the American right was another scattering line of about one mile, and on the hill a breast-work, with a strong party, destined, as it was supposed, to fall upon the American rear. But this design was frustrated by the movements of Clinton, as already mentioned.-- Aide Sullivan's Official Report. near the head of Seneca Lake, and the residence of the celebrated Catharine Montour. On their way thither, Sullivan destroyed a small settlement of eight houses, and a town called Knawaholee, of about twenty houses, situated on a peninsula at the conflux of the Tioga and Cayuga branches. Several corn-fields were destroyed at this place, and a number of others, also very large, about six miles up the Tioga, by Colonel Dayton and the rifle corps, who were detached thither upon that service. The Indians and Tories acted unwisely in retreating so far as they did from the battle of Newtown, since the march of Sullivan thence to Catharine's town was of the most difficult and fatiguing description. They were compelled to traverse several narrow and dangerous defiles with steep hills upon either side, the passage of which might have been rendered exceedingly annoying to their invaders by a vigilant enemy. The route lay along the streams ; and such was the sinuous course of one of them, almost swelling to the size of a river, that they were obliged to ford it several times-the men up to their middles in water. Worse than all, they were compelled to thread their way through a deep-tangled hemlock swamp. The night came on exceedingly dark, and the sufferings of the troops were great General Sullivan was advised not to enter the swamp until the next day, but he rejected the counsel, and obstinately pushed forward. So fatigued, however, was the army, that General Clinton, whose division brought up the rear, was obliged to pass the night in the swamp without pack or baggage. Neither Brant nor the Butlers displayed their wonted sagacity on this occasion, or the Americans might have been made to suffer severely for their rashness in penetrating such a thicket at such an hour. The excuse of the Indians, who were roasting corn not many miles distant, was, that the way was so bad, and the night so dark, they did not dream of Sullivan's advancing under such circumstances. Disappointed by the Oneidas, upon whose assistance General Sullivan had counted as guides and runners through the Indian country, but only four of whom had continued with the expedition, the General despatched one of these from Catharine's town to the castle of that nation, with an address, calling upon all who were friendly to the Americans, to prove the sincerity of their professions by joining his forces immediately. The messenger, Oneigat, was also instructed to give his nation an account of the battle at Newtown. He did not, however, rejoin the expedition until near its close. He then reported that on his arrival at the Oneida castle; a council was convened, and that his people were delighted with the news of which he was the bearer. Obedient, moreover, to the summons which he had borne thither, seventy of .their warriors had set out with him to join the army, and thirty more were to follow the next day. But on that day, near the Onondaga village, they met their brother, Conowaga, from the army, who informed them that the General had already advanced as far as Kanasadagea, and had men enough-only wanting a few good guides. In conse quence of this information, the Oneida warriors had turned back---transmitting, however, by him, an address to the General, interceding in behalf of a clan of the Cayugas, who, they declared, had always been friendly to the United States. As an evidence of this fact, they referred to the cases of several prisoners, who, as it was alleged, had been surrendered by them to General Schuyler. The Oneidas, therefore, besought General Sullivan not to destroy the fields of these friendly Cayugas, who, if deprived of their corn, would fall upon them for support, and they already had a heavy burden upon their hands in the persons of the destitute Onondagas. General Sullivan immediately sent a speech in reply, commending the Oneidas for their fidelity to the United States, but expressing his surprise at their interposing a word in behalf of any portion of the Cayugas, whose whole course had been marked, not only by duplicity, but by positive hostility. He therefore distinctly informed the Oneidas that the Cayugas should be chastised. Nor did he fail to execute his purpose, as will in due time appear.* The brigade of General Clinton rejoined the main army on the 2d of September, and the whole encamped at Catharine's town, which was entirely destroyed on the following day, together with the corn-fields and orchards. The houses, thirty in number, were burnt. The work of destruction, marking that extraordinary campaign, was now begun in earnest. It was considered necessary by the Commander-in-chief, or his orders * See Sullivan's address, and the message of the Oneida in reply, Almon's Remembrancer, for 1780, Part I. Would not have been so peremptory upon the subject, nor his satisfaction so great after its accomplishment.* Still; at this distance of time, when the mind glances back not only to the number of towns destroyed, and fields laid waste, but to the war of extermination waged against the very orchards, it is difficult to suppress feelings of regret-much less to bestow a word of commendation. It has been asserted that some of the officers, among whom were General Hand and Colonel Durbin, objected to this wanton destruction of the fruit-trees, as discreditable to American soldiers; but the Indians had been long and cruelly provoking the Americans by the ferocity of their attacks upon the border settlements, and it had been judged expedient to let the arm of vengeance fall heavily upon them. " The Indians," said Sullivan, " shall see that there is malice enough in our hearts to destroy every thing that contributes to their support ;"+ and well did he fulfil the threat. state of civilization to which the Six Nations had arrived, has been glanced at in the opening of the present chapter. Still it is apprehended that but few of the present generation are thoroughly aware of the advances which the Indians, in the wide and beautiful country of the Cayugas and Senecas, had made in the march of civilization. They held several towns, and many large villages, laid out with a considerable degree of regularity. They had framed houses, some of them well finished, having chimneys, and painted. They had broad and productive fields ; and in addition to an abundance of apples, were in the enjoyment of the pear, and the still more delicious peach. But after the battle of Newtown, terror led the van of the invader, whose approach was heralded by watchmen stationed upon every height, and desolation followed weeping in his train. The Indians everywhere fled as Sullivan advanced, and the whole country was swept as with the besom of destruction. On the 4th, as the army advanced, they destroyed a small scattering settlement of eight houses ; and two days afterward reached the more considerable town of Kendaia, containing about twenty houses neatly built, and well finished. These * See letter of Washington to Colonel John Laurens, Sept. 28, 1779; to the President of Congress, Oct. 9 ; and to the Marquis de Lafayette, October 20, of the same year-Sparks, Vol. vi. were reduced to ashes, and the army spent nearly a day in destroying the fields of corn and the fruit-trees. Of these there were great abundance, and many of them appeared to be very ancient. While thus engaged, the army was joined by one of the inhabitants of Wyoming, a captive who had escaped from the Indians. He informed them that all had been terror among the Indians since the battle of Newtown, and that Kendaia had been deserted two days before in the greatest confusion. He likewise stated various reasons for believing that the enemy had suffered greatly in that battle-that he had heard some of the Indian women lamenting the loss of their connexions, and that Brant had taken most of the wounded up the Tioga river in water craft, which had been previously made ready in case of defeat. It was farther believed that the King of Kanadaseagea had been killed at Newtown. He had been seen on his way thither, and had not returned. From the description given of his dress and person, moreover, it was believed by General Sullivan that he had seen his body among the slain. On the 7th of September, Sullivan crossed the outlet of the Seneca Lake, and moved in three divisions upon the town of Kanadaseagea-the Seneca capital-containing about sixty houses, with gardens, and numerous orchards of apple and peach trees. It was Sullivan's object to surround the town, and take it by surprise. But, although Butler had endeavored to induce the Indians to make a stand at that place, his importunities were of no avail. They said it was of no use to contend with such an army; and their capital was consequently abandoned, as the other towns had been, before the Americans could reach it. A detachment of four hundred men was sent down on the west side of the lake, to destroy Gotheseunquean," and the plantations in the neighborhood; while at the same time a number of volunteers, under Colonel Harper, made a forced march in the direction of the Cayuga Lake, and destroyed Schoyere. Meantime the residue of the army was employed, on the 8th, in the destruction of the town, together with the fruit-trees, and fields of corn and beans.+ Here, as elsewhere, the work of destruction was thorough and complete. * Thus spelled by General Sullivan, whose official account is in part the basis of this narrative. Captain Theodosius Fowler, in his diary, writes it Karhauguash. + Journal of Capt. Fowler. In leaving their town, the Indians had fled with such precipitancy that a young white male child, about seven or eight years old, was left behind, asleep. It was taken in charge by an officer, who, from ill health, was not on duty. In retiring from the campaign, for the same cause, he took the child with him, and nothing more of its history is known. This flight of the Indians was universal; and of all commanders, Sullivan seems to have been least successful in finding the enemy of whom he was in search, save only when the enemy wished to be found. Upon this feature of the present campaign it has been remarked, that although the bravery of this officer was unimpeachable, yet he was altogether unacquainted with the science of Indian warfare, and was sure to use the best means to keep the savages at such a distance, that they could not be brought unwillingly to an engagement. For instance, he persisted in the practice of having cannon fired from his camp, mornings and evenings, forgetting what every one else perceived, that the Indians were thus notified of his position and the rapidity of his marches-thus being enabled daily to retreat from his approach exactly in time.* From this point a detachment of sixty men, with the lame and sick, was sent back to Tioga. The main army then moved forward upon Kanandaigua, at which place it arrived in two days. Here they "found twenty-three very elegant houses, " mostly framed, and in general large,"+ together with very extensive fields of corn-all of which were destroyed. From Kanandaigua they proceeded to the small town of Honeoye, consisting of ten houses, which were immediately burnt to the ground. A post was established at Honeoye, to maintain which a strong garrison was left, with the heavy stores and one fieldpiece. With this precautionary measure the army prepared to advance upon the yet more considerable town of Genesee-the great capital of the western tribes of the confederacy-containing their stores, and their broadest cultivated fields. Hearing of Sullivan's continued advance, and of his purpose to strike their towns upon the Genesee, the Indians once more began to think of giving battle. A council of their towns was convened, the result of which was a determination to intercept * Letter of John Salmon, in the Appendix of Mary Jemison's Life. + General Sullivan's official account. the invaders, and strike another blow in defence of their homes. They felt that if unopposed; the destruction of their towns would be inevitable, and their fate could be no worse should they meet and fight the conqueror--whatever might be the result. Their first precaution was to place their women and children in a place of security, in the woods at a distance from their town ; so that, in the event of being themselves defeated, the non-combatants would have an opportunity to escape. Having made their preparations, the warriors took the field again-selecting for their battle-ground a position between Honeoye Creek and the head of Connissius Lake.* Placing themselves in ambush, they awaited the approach of Sullivan's forces. They rose, however, upon the advance-guard of the Americans, and after a brisk skirmish, the latter fell back upon the main body-of which the Indians did not await the arrival. The only fruit of this attack, on behalf of the Indians, was the capture of two Indian prisoners of the Oneida tribe. Of itself, this incident was insignificant ; but a transaction grew out of it of thrilling interest, and strongly illustrative of Indian character. One of the Indians thus taken, was General Sullivan's guide, and had, moreover, been very active in the contest, rendering the Americans frequent and important services. On that account he was a prisoner of consequence. But there was another feature in the case not altogether unworthy of note. This faithful Indian had an elder brother engaged with the enemy, who, at the beginning of the war, had exerted all his power to persuade the younger into the British service also, but without success. At the close of this skirmish the brothers met for the first time since their separation, when they had respectively chosen to travel different war-paths; the younger a prisoner to the elder. The latter had no sooner recognized his brother after the melee, than his eyes kindled with that fierce and peculiar lustre which lights up the burning eyes of a savage when meditating vengeance. Approaching him haughtily, he spoke as follows :- You have merited death! The hatchet or the war-club shall finish your career'. When I begged of you to follow me in the fortunes of war, you were deaf to my cries; you spurned my entreaties ! * At or near a place now called Henderson's Flatts. Vide Life of Mary Jemison and letter of John Salmon. " BROTHER ! You have merited death, and shall have your deserts! When the rebels raised their hatchets to fight their good master, you sharpened your knife, you brightened your rifle, and led on our foes to the fields of our fathers ! " BROTHER ! You have merited death, and shall die by our hands! When those rebels had driven us from the fields of our fathers to seek out new houses, it was you who could dare to step forth as their pilot, and conduct them -even to the doors of our wigwams, to butcher our children and put us to death! No crime can be greater ! But though you have merited death, and shall die on this spot, my hands shall not be stained with the blood of a brother!- Who will strike ?" A pause of but a moment ensued. The bright hatchet of Little Beard, the sachem of the village, flashed in the air like the lightning, and the young Oneida chief was dead at his feet.* The other captive, who was also an Oneida sachem, was then informed by Little Beard that he was warring only against the whites, and that his life should be spared ; adding, farther, that at a suitable time he should be restored to liberty. Distrusting the good faith of the chief, however, the captive watched an opportunity for escape, and very shortly afterward accomplished his purpose-but in a manner which produced another tragic catastrophe, as will presently appear. From Honeoye, General Sullivan advanced in two days upon a town containing twenty-five houses, called Kanaghsaws. There were large corn-fields to be destroyed here also, and a bridge to be constructed over an unfordable creek intervening between Kanaghsaws and Little Beardstown, lying next in the route to Genesee-so called from the name of a celebrated chief then residing there. While delayed by these obstacles, Lieutenant Boyd, of the rifle corps, was detached with twenty-six men to reconnoitre that chieftain's town, where also was a castle. Having performed that duty, and in doing so killed and scalped two Indians+ in the otherwise deserted village, he had commenced his return to the main division. It so happened that * This was truly a shocking transaction, but not so shocking as that of the horrible fratricide before recorded at Wyoming, nor so shocking as the attempt of the brother of Colonel Prey at Oriskany. The Indian had far the most humanity, and far the highest sense of honor and duty. + Captain Fowler's Journal. One of these Indians was shot and scalped by Murphy, whose name has already occurred in connexion with the Schoharie wars. Boyd was passing at no great distance from the party of Indians having the Oneida prisoner in charge. The latter was guarded by two Indians, between whom he was walking arm in arm, when, at a favorable moment, he suddenly broke from their grasp, and fled at the top of his speed in the direction of Sullivan's army. The Indians, in goodly numbers, turned out in pursuit, and while running, fell in with the party of Lieutenant Boyd.* By this time the Indians in pursuit after the fugitive numbered several hundred, under the immediate command of Joseph Brant, who seems suddenly to have made his appearance for the occasion.+ Indeed, according to one authority, Brant was not concerned with the pursuit, but had previously secreted o himself in a deep ravine, with a large party of his Indians and Butler's rangers, for the express purpose of cutting off Boyd's retreat.++ Discovering his situation, and in fact surrounded by fearful odds, Boyd saw, of course, that his only chance of escape was to strike at some given point, and cut his way through the ranks of the enemy. It was a bold measure; but there was no alternative, and he made three successive attempts to accomplish his purpose. In the first, several of the enemy fell, without the loss of a single man on his own part. But he was repulsed. The Indians stood their ground nobly ; and in the second and third attempts upon their line by Boyd, his whole party fell except himself and eight others. In the next moment several of these were killed, while a few succeeded in flight-among whom was the bold Virginian, Murphy. Boyd was himself taken prisoner, and one other man named Parker. The Lieutenant immediately solicited an interview with Thayendanegea, and making himself known as a freemason, was assured by the chief of protection.§ One of the party under Lieutenant Boyd was a brave Oneida warrior, named Honyerry, who served him as a guide. This faithful Indian had served long with the Americans, and, as the reader has already seen, was particularly distinguished in the battle of Oriskany, where so many of the Mohawk and Seneca warriors fell. On the present occasion, moreover, he acquitted himself with signal courage. Being an * Life of Mary Jemison. + Captain Fowler and John Salmon both state the number of Indians engaged in this affair at upward of five hundred. ++John Salmon's letter. § Idem. excellent marksman, his rifle did great execution. The Indians knew him, and as they closed in upon the little band, poor Honyerry was literally hacked to pieces.* It was a dear victory, however, to the enemy. The firing was so close before the brave party was destroyed, that the powder of the enemy's muskets was driven into their flesh. The enemy had no covert, while Boyd's party was, for a portion of the time at least, possessed of a very advantageous one. The enemy were, moreover, so long employed in removing their dead, that the approach of General Hand's brigade obliged them to leave one of the number among the dead riflemen ; together with a wagon load of packs, blankets, hats, and provisions, which they had thrown off to enable them to act with more agility in the field.+ From the battle-field Brant conducted Lieutenant Boyd and his fellow captive to Little Beard's town, where they found Colonel Butler with a detachment of the rangers. While under the supervision of Brant, the Lieutenant was well treated and safe from danger. But the chief being called away in the discharge of his multifarious duties, Boyd was left with Butler, who soon afterward began to examine him by questions as to the situation, numbers, and intentions of General Sullivan and his troops. He, of course, declined answering all improper questions ; whereat Butler threatened that if he did not give him full and explicit information, he would deliver him up to the tender mercies of the Indians. Relying confidently upon the assurances of the generous Mohawk chieftain, Boyd still refused: and Butler fulfilled his bloody threat-delivering him over to Little Beard and his clan, the most ferocious of the Seneca tribe.++ The gallant fellow was immediately put to death by torture ; and in the execution there was a refinement of cruelty, of which it is not known that a parallel instance occurred during the whole war. Having been denuded, Boyd was tied to a sapling, where the Indians first practised upon the steadiness of his nerves by hurling their tomahawks apparently at his head, but so as to strike the trunk of the sapling as near to his head as possible without hitting it-groups of Indians, in the meantime, brandishing their knives, and dancing * Captain Fowler's Journal. + Sullivan's Official Account. ++ Letter of Salmon. There is some reason to doubt which of the Butlers was the actor in this instance-the father, Colonel John, or the more severe Captain, his son. with the most frantic demonstrations of joy. His nails were pulled out, his nose cut off, and one of his eyes plucked out. His tongue was also cut out, and he was stabbed in various places.* After amusing themselves sufficiently in this way, a small incision was made in his abdomen, and the end of one of his intestines taken out and fastened to the tree. The victim was then unbound, and driven round the tree by brute force, until his intestines had all been literally drawn from his body - and wound round its trunk. His sufferings were then terminated by striking his head from his body. It was then raised upon a pole in triumph. Parker, the other captive, was likewise beheaded, but not otherwise tortured. After the conclusion of this tragedy, the Indians held a brief council to determine whether to offer any farther resistance to General Sullivan, or to yield their country to his ravages without opposition. They finally came to the decision that they were not sufficiently powerful to oppose the invaders with success, and thereupon decided to leave their possessions, for the preservation of their lives and those of their families. The women and children were thereupon sent away in the direction of Niagara, while the warriors remained in the forests about Little Beard's town, to watch the motions of the Americans.+ As soon as the main division had heard of the situation of Boyd, they moved forward-arriving, however, only in season to bury the bodies of the slain.++ This tragic occurrence took place on the 13th of September. On the same day Sullivan moved forward to a place called Gathtsegwarohare, where the enemy, both Indians and rangers, were apparently disposed to make a stand. The troops were immediately brought into order of battle, and General Clinton's brigade commenced a movement with a view of outflanking and gaining the enemy's rear. But * Sullivan's Official Account. + Life of Mary Jemlson. According to Colonel Butler's statement, after his examination Boyd was sent forward with a guard to Niagara; but, while passing through Genesee, an old Indian rushed out and tomahawked him. But Salmon says he was put to death by the most cruel tortures, and so says the official report of General Sullivan. Mary Jemison, who was with the Indians, gives the details from which the present account is drawn. It is to be hoped, however, that Colonel Butler was not accessary to the cruelty; and in justice to his memory, it must be admitted that it was not a transaction characteristic of him. ++ They were buried at a place now called Groveland, where the grave was very recently to be seen. discovering the movement, the enemy retreated with precipitation. Sullivan encamped on the ground-the men sleeping on their arms, in the expectation of an attack. But the enemy did not disturb their repose; and on the 14th the army continued its advance, and crossed the Genesee river. Arriving at Little Beard's town,* they found the mutilated bodies of Boyd and Parker, which were buried on the bank of Beard's Creek, under a clump of wild plum trees.+ The valley of the Genesee, for its beauty and fertility, was beheld by the army of Sullivan with astonishment and delight. Though an Indian country, and peopled only by the wild men of the woods, its rich intervales presented the appearance of long cultivation, and wore then smiling with their harvests of ripening corn. Indeed, the Indians themselves professed not to know when or by whom the lands upon that stream were first brought into cultivation. Nearly half a century before, Mary Jemison had observed a quantity of human bones washed down from one of the banks of the river, which the Indians held were not the remains of their own people, but of a different race of men who had once possessed that country. The Indians, they contended, had never buried their dead in such a situation. Be all this, however, as it may, instead of a howling wilderness, Sullivan and his troops found the Genesee flatts, and many other districts of the country, resembling much more the orchards, and farms, and gardens of civilized life. But all was now doomed to speedy devastation. The Genesee castle was destroyed. The troops scoured the whole region round about, and burnt and destroyed every thing that came in their way. Little Beard himself had officiated as master of ceremonies at the torturing of Boyd; and his town was now burnt to the ground, and large quantities of corn, which his people had laidup in store, were destroyed by being burnt or thrown into the river. " The town of Genesee contained one hundred and " twenty-eight houses, mostly large and very elegant. It, was " beautifully situated, almost encircled with a clear flatt, ex- " tending a number of miles; over which extensive fields of corn " were waving, together with every kind of vegetable that could " be conceived." ++But the entire army was immediately en- * The place is now called Leicester. + On the road now running from Moscow to Geneseo. ++ Sullivan's Account. gaged in destroying it, and the axe and the torch soon transformed the whole of that beautiful region from the character of a garden to a scene of drear and sickening desolation. Forty Indian towns, the largest containing one hundred and twenty-eight houses, were destroyed.* Corn, gathered and ungathered, to the amount of one hundred and sixty thousand bushels, shared the same fate; their fruit-trees were cut down; and the Indians were hunted like wild beasts, till neither house, nor fruit-tree, nor field of corn, nor inhabitant, remained in the whole country. The gardens were enriched with great quantities of useful vegetables, of different kinds. The size of the corn-fields, as well as the high degree of cultivation in which they were kept, excited wonder ; and the ears of corn were so remarkably large, that many of them measured twenty-two inches in length. So numerous were the fruit-trees, that in one orchard they cut down fifteen hundred.+ It is in connexion -with this campaign that the name of the celebrated Seneca orator, Sagayewatha, or Red Jacket, first occurs in history, or rather, will now for the first time thus occur, since it has never yet been mentioned at so early a date by any previous writer. It is well known by all who are ac- * It has already been seen that this wide-spread destruction was the result of theexpress instructions of General Washington. It was in reference to this fact, that, when addressing President Washington at an Indian council held in Philadelphia, in 1792, Cornplanter commenced his speech in the following strain :-"FATHER: "The voice of the Seneca nation speaks to you, the Great Counsellor, in whose "heart the wise men of all the Thirteen Fires have placed their wisdom. It may "be very small in your ears, and we therefore entreat you to hearken with attention: "for we are about to speak to you on things which to us are very great. When your "army entered the country of the Six Nations, we called you the TOWN DESTROYER; "and to tills day, when that name is heard, our women look behind them and turn "pale, and our children cling close to the necks of their mothers. Our counsellors "and warriors are men, and cannot be afraid; but their hearts are grieved with the "fears of our women and children, and desire that it maybe buried so deep as to be "heard no more." + Ramsay. See, also, History of the British Empire, 2 volumes-anonymous. While Sullivan was at Genesee, a female captive from Wyoming was re-taken. She gave a deplorable account of the terror and confusion of the Indians. The women, she said, were constantly begging the warriors to sue for peace; and one of the Indians, she stated, had attempted to shoot Colonel Johnson for the falsehoods by which he had deceived and ruined them. She overheard Butler tell Johnson that after the battle of Newtown it was impossible to keep the Indians together, and that he thought they would soon be in a miserable situation, as all their crops would be destroyed, and they could not be supplied at Niagara. quainted with Indian history, that Brant and Red Jacket were irreconcileable enemies. The origin of this enmity has never yet been known to the public, and it has by some been imputed to the jealousy entertained by Brant of the growing reputation of his younger and more eloquent rival. But such is not the fact. Brant ever acknowledged the great intellectual powers of Red Jacket, but always maintained that he was not only destitute of principle, but an arrant coward. In support of these opinions, he asserted that Red Jacket had given him much trouble and embarrassment during this campaign of General Sullivan, and was in fact the principal cause of the disgrace and disasters of the Indians. In relating a history of the expedition to a distinguished American gentleman,* Brant stated that after the battle of Newtown, Red Jacket was in the habit of holding private councils with the young warriors, and some of the more timid sachems, the object of which was to persuade them to sue for peace, upon any-even ignominious terms ; and that at one time he had so far succeeded as to induce them to send privately, and without the knowledge of the principal war chiefs, a runner into General Sullivan's camp, to make known to him the spirit of dissatisfaction and division that prevailed among the Indians, and to invite him to send a flag of truce with certain propositions calculated to increase their divisions and produce a dishonorable peace. Brant, who was privately informed of all these proceedings, but feared the consequences of disclosing and attempting to suppress them by forcible means, despatched, secretly also, two confidential warriors to way-lay the flag when on its route from the American to the Indian camp, and to put the bearer of it to death, and then return secretly with his despatches.' This was accomplished as he directed, and all attempts at farther negotiations thereby prevented. It was certainly a bold measure; and how far Brant's conduct therein is susceptible of justification, or even palliation, will depend on a variety of minute circumstances which it is now too late to ascertain. the objects contemplated by the expedition to the point at which he had arrived, General Sullivan re-crossed the Genesee with his army on the 16th of September, * The late Secretary of War, General Peter B. Porter. set out on his return. "Why he did not follow up his success, and strike at the enemy's citadel at Niagara, which at that time was in no situation for formidable resistance, is a question difficult of solution. Unquestionably, in the organization of the expedition, the conquest of Niagara, the head-quarters of the foe of all descriptions, and the seat of British influence and power among the Indians, was one of the principal objects in view. But perhaps the forces of the American General had become too much weakened by sickness and fatigue, (they had not lost a hundred men in battle,) to allow of a farther advance. Certain it is, that the most important feature of the enterprise was not undertaken ; and it will be seen in the sequel, that but small ultimate advantage resulted from the campaign. Stimulated by a yet keener thirst for revenge, clouds of savages were afterward again and again seen to sweep through the valley of the Mohawk with the scalping knife and the torch. The excuse offered by Sullivan himself was, the want of provisions ; but this deficiency might have been most abundantly supplied from the ample stores of the Indians, which were either burnt or thrown into, the river. The return of the army was along the same track by which it had advanced. On the 20th, having re-crossed the outlet of Seneca Lake, Colonel Zebulon Butler was detached with the rifle corps and five hundred men, to pass round the foot of Cayuga Lake, and lay waste the Indian towns on its eastern shore; while on the next day; Lieutenant Colonel Dearborn, with two hundred men, was detached to perform the same service along the south-western shore. The main army pursued the most direct route to the Chemung and Tioga. On the 26th Colonel Dearborn's detachment returned, and on the 28th they were rejoined by Colonel Butler, who had burnt three towns of the Cayugas, including their capital.* Dearborn had burnt six towns in his route, destroying at the same time large quantities * The Oneidas, it will be recollected, had been interceding in behalf of the Cayugas, or at least a portion of them. Upon this point General Sullivan wrote in his official report as follows:-" I trust the steps I have taken in respect to the Cayugas will prove satisfactory. And here I beg leave to mention, that on searching the houses of these pretended neutral Cayugas, a number of scalps were found, " which appeared to have been lately taken, which Colonel Butler showed to the Oneidas, who said that they were then convinced of the justice of the steps I had -taken." of corn. On the same day Colonels Van Courtlandt and Dayton were detached upon a similar service, for the destruction of large fields of corn growing upon the banks of the Tioga and its tributaries. On the 30th of September the army reached its original point of concentration at Tioga, where, it will be recollected, a fort had been thrown up, and left in charge of a small garrison. This work was destroyed on the 3d of October. The army then resumed its return march, and passing through Wyoming, arrived at Easton on the 15th. The distance thence to the Genesee castle was two hundred and eighty miles. With the exception of the action at Newtown, the achievements of the army in battle were not great. But it had scoured a broad extent of country, and laid more towns in ashes than had ever been destroyed on the continent before. The red men were driven from their beautiful country-their habitations left in ruins, their fields laid waste, their orchards uprooted, and their altars and the tombs of their fathers overthrown. There was, however, an episode to this campaign, if such a phrase may be allowed in military history, which, unexplained as it has been, appears like a very strange movement on the part of General Sullivan. It has been seen in the earlier porttion of the present work, that when the great body of the Mowhawks retired to Canada with the Johnsons, preparatory to taking up the hatchet against the Americans, the clan at the lower castle declined accompanying them. Thus far, moreover, during the whole progress of the war, they had preserved a strict neutrality. They had neither molested their white neighbors, nor been molested themselves; but were living quietly, cultivating their grounds in the midst of the best settled portion of Tryon County, or following the chase at their pleasure-and on terms of perfect amity and good-will with their white neighbors. By some means or other, however, General Sullivan had imbibed a distrust of these people, and on the 20th of September, while at the foot of Seneca Lake, he detached Colonel Gansevoort, with a corps of one hundred men, to Fort Schuyler From thence his orders were peremptory that he should pro ceed forthwith down the Mohawk to the said lower Indian castle, make all the Indians captives if possible, destroy their castle, and then proceed immediately with the said prisoners to head-quarters-the order explicitly forbidding that any of the prisoners so taken should be left at Albany ; and the Colonel was at the same time enjoined, amidst all these measures of hostility, to show the Indians, so to be dispossessed and carried away by violence, " such necessary marks of civility and attention as might engage a continuance of their friendship, and " give evidence of our pacific disposition toward them !" This was truly a surprising order, and, as the event proved, as uncalled for and unjust as it was incomprehensible. As Colonel Gansevoort's official report of his proceedings under this order will present the best view of the whole transaction, it is inserted entire:- TO GENERAL SULLIVAN. " Albany, October 8,1779. " Agreeably to my orders, I proceeded by the shortest route to the lower Mohawk castle, passing through the Tuscarora and Oneida castles (towns), where every mark of hospitality and friendship was shown the party. I had the pleasure to find that not the least damage nor insult was offered any of the inhabitants. On the 25th I arrived at Port Schuyler, where, refreshing my party, I proceeded down the river, and on the 29th effectually surprised the lower Mohawk castle, making prisoners of every Indian inhabitant. They then occupied but four houses. I was preparing, agreeable to my orders, to destroy them, but was interrupted by the inhabitants of the frontiers, who have been lately driven from their settlements by the savages, praying that they might have liberty to enter into the Mohawks' houses, until they could procure other habitations ; and well knowing those persons to have lately lost their all, humanity tempted me in this particular to act in some degree contrary to orders, although I could not but be confident of your approbation; especially when you are informed that this castle is in the heart of our settlements, and abounding with every necessary; so that it is remarked that these Indians live much better than most of the Mohawk river farmers. Their houses were very well furnished with all necessary household utensils, great plenty of grain, several horses, cows, and wagons ; of all which I have an inventory, leaving them in the care of Major Newkirk, of that place, who distributed the refugees in the several houses. Such being the situation, I did not allow the party to plunder at all. " The prisoners arrived at Albany on the 2d instant, and were closely secured in the fort. Yesterday, the 7th, I received a letter from General Schuyler, (of which I enclose a copy,) respecting the prisoners, desiring that the sending the prisoners down might be postponed until an express shall arrive from General Washington. Agreeably to this request, a sergeant and twelve men are detained to keep charge of the prisoners until his pleasure is known. " It is with the greatest regret I mention my indisposition being so great as to hinder my taking charge of the party to headquarters. I have been several days confined, and my surgeon informs me that my complaint is bilious fever. Captain Sytez takes command of the detachment, and will proceed with all expedition to head-quarters with the baggage of the several regiments, where I hope shortly to join the army. I remain, &c.&c." It seems that General Schuyler, then at the head of the Northern Commission of the Indian Department, having heard of the harsh measure adopted in regard to the lower castle Mohawks, had interposed in their behalf. The following is the letter referred to by Colonel Gansevoort, a copy of which was enclosed to General Sullivan:- TO COLONEL GANSEVOORT. " Albany October 7, 1779. " DEAR SIR, " Having perused Gen. Sullivan's orders to yon respecting the Indians of the lower Mohawk castle and their property, I conceive they are founded on misinformation given to that gen tlemen ; these Indians have peaceably remained there under the sanction of the public faith repeatedly given them by the commissioners of Indian affairs, on condition of peaceable demeanor ; this contract they have not violated to our knowledge. It is therefore incumbent on us, as servants of the public, to keep the public faith inviolate; and we therefore entreat you to postpone the sending the Indians from hence until the pleasure of his Excellency, Gen. Washington, can be obtained, and a letter is already despatched to him on the occasion, and in which we have mentioned this application to you. I am, dear Sir, your most obedient, humble servant, " PH. SCHUYLER, " President of the Board of Commissioners " of Indian affairs, N. Department." Copies of these letters -were at the same time enclosed to the Commander-in-chief by Colonel Gansevoort, and the result was a speedy release of the poor Indians, with directions from General Washington that the Commissioners should lay them under such obligations for their future good behavior as they should think necessary. * Thus ended the memorable campaign of General Sullivan against the country of the Six Nations ; and, however harshly that officer may have been spoken of by others, it is certain, from the letters of the Commander-in-chief, that his conduct was viewed in that quarter with the most decided approbation. The officers of the several corps engaged in the expedition held separate meetings, and testified the warmest regard in his behalf, and their approbation of the manner in which he had conducted the campaign. On the 14th of October Congress passed a resolution of thanks to General Washington for directing this expedition, and to " General Sullivan and the brave officers and " soldiers under his command for its effectual execution." But at the very time of the adoption of the resolution, it was evident that it was carried by a reluctant vote. Sullivan had made such high demands for military stores, and had so freely complained of the government for inattention to those demands, as to give much offence to some members of Congress and to the Board of War.+ He, in consequence, resigned his commission * MS. letter of Washington to Colonel Gansevoort. In justice to General Sullivan respecting this crusade against the little neighborhood of friendly Mohawks, it should be stated that he acted under misinformation. In his official report, written from Tioga, September 30, he said :-" I directed Colonel Gansevoort to destroy the "lower Mohawk castle in his route, and capture the inhabitants, consisting of only six or seven families, who were constantly employed in giving intelligence to the enemy, and in supporting their scouting parties when making incursions on our frontiers. When the Mohawks joined the enemy, those few families were undoubtedly left to answer those purposes, and keep possession of their lands." + Allen's Biographical Dictionary. the 9th of November, under the convenient pretext of ill health. The resignation was accepted by Congress on the 30th of that month-accompanied, however, by a vote of thanks for past services. But there was yet another expedition against the Indians, devised and executed in. conjunction, or rather simultaneously, with that of General Sullivan. This movement took place Under the direction of Colonel Daniel Brodhead, then commanding at Fort Pitt, and was originally designed by the Commander-in-chief, after accomplishing the destruction of the Mingo, Munsey, and a portion of the Seneca Indians settled on the Alleghany river, for co-operation with that of Sullivan, by a junction at Niagara-a point, as it happened,, unattained by either. Preparatory to this campaign, Washington had written to Colonel Brodhead, on the 22d of March, directing him to throw forward detachments of troops, the first to take post at Kittaning, and the second at Venango, and to build stockade forts at both places-observing the greatest possible secresy in regard to ulterior operations." From various unforeseen difficulties, the project of a direct co-operation with Sullivan was abandoned on the 21st of April, and Colonel Brodhead was directed to make the necessary reconnoissances for a movement against Detroit, should such an expedition be deemed advisable.! The result, however, was an independent campaign against the tribes or clans of Indians last above mentioned, inhabiting the head waters of the Alleghany river, French Creek, and other tributaries of the Ohio. Colonel Brodhead left Pittsburgh on the 11th of August, at the head of six hundred rank and file, including volunteers and militia, with provisions for one month. The first Indian town designed to be attacked was Cannowago. On their way thither, four days after their departure from Fort Pitt, Colonel Brodhead's advanced guard met a party of between thirty and forty Indian warriors descending the Alleghany in canoes. The Indians landed to give battle ; but were defeated after a sharp brush, and put to flight; leaving five warriors dead, and evident marks that others had been carried off wounded. On arriving at Cannowago, the troops were mortified " Letter from Washington to Colonel Brodhead, March 22, 1779-Vide Sparks's Life and Correspondence, vol. vi. + Letter from the same to the same, April 21, 1779. VOL. II. 4 to find that the town had been deserted for eighteen months. Proceeding onward, however, they successively entered several towns, which were abandoned by the Indians on their approach. They were all destroyed, together with the adjacent corn-fields. At the upper Seneca town, called Yoghroonwago, they found a painted image, or war-post, clothed in dog-skin. There were several towns in the vicinity of this place, containing, in all, one hundred and thirty houses, some of which were large enough to accommodate three or four families each. These were all destroyed, together with their fields of corn, so extensive that the troops were occupied three days in accomplishing the object. The old towns of Buckloons and Maghinquechahocking, consisting of thirty-five large houses, were likewise burnt. The Indians had fled so precipitately as to leave some packages of skins and other booty, to the value of three thousand dollars-all of which was taken. Fields of corn were destroyed at least to the extent of five hundred acres. From the number of new houses building, and the extent of lands preparing for cultivation, it was conjectured that it was the intention of the whole Seneca and Munsoy nation to plant themselves down in those settlements* The distance traversed by Colonel Brodhead, going and returning, was four hundred miles, and not a man was lost during the expedition. The thanks of Congress -were likewise voted to General Washington for devising, and to Colonel Brodhead for executing, this expedition. It has already been remarked, that as but a few of the enemy were slain in these expeditions, the only immediate effect, beyond the destruction of provisions and property, was to exasperate the Indians. A more remote effect was to throw the whole body of the hostiles of the Six Nations back upon their British employers, for their entire support the following winter. Another consequence was, that from the want and distress of the Indians during that winter, a mortal disease was superinduced among them, which swept great numbers into eternity. * Official account of Colonel Brodhead. Upon this expedition, in connexion with that of Sullivan, the historian, Ramsay, remarks- " In this manner the savage part of the war was carried on. Waste, and sometimes cruelly, were inflicted and retorted, with infinite variety of scenes of horror and disgust. The selfish passions of human nature, unrestrained by social ties, broke over all bounds of decency or humanity." Still another effect of these sweeping invasions of the Indian country, was, at least for the time being, to terrify some of the tribes yet more remote. On Colonel Brodhead's return to Fort Pitt, September 14th, he found the chiefs of the Delawares, the principal chiefs of the Wyandots or Hurons, and the King of the Maquichee branch of the Shawanese, awaiting his arrival. Three days afterward the Colonel held a council with these forest dignitaries, on which occasion Doonypnfaf, the Wyandot chief, delivered the following speech :- " BROTHER MAGHINGIVE KEESHUCH,* listen to me ! " BROTHER : It grieves me to see you with the tears in your eyes. I know it is the fault, of the English. " BROTHER : I wipe away all those tears, and smooth down your hair, which the English, and the folly of my young men, have ruffled. " Now, my Brother, I have wiped away all the stains from your clothes, and smoothed them where my young men had ruffled them, so that you may now put on your hat, and sit with that ease and composure which you would desire. Four string's of white wampum. " BROTHER : Listen to the Huron chiefs. " BROTHER : I see you all bloody by the English and my young men. I now wipe away all those stains, and make you clean. " BROTHER : I see your heart twisted, and neck and throat turned to the one side, with the grief and vexation which my young men have caused ; all which disagreeable sensations I now remove, and restore you to your former tranquility, so that now you may breathe with ease, and enjoy the benefit of your food and nourishment. " BROTHER : Your ears appear to be stopped, so that you cannot, listen to your Brothers when they talk of friendship. That deafness I now remove, and all stoppage from your ears, that you may listen to the friendly speeches of your Brothers, said that they may sink deep into your heart. Seven strings of white wampum. : Listen to me. When I look around me, I seethe bones of our nephews lie scattered " The Indian name conferred upon Colonel Brodhead. " BROTHER : I gather up the bones of all our young men on both sides, who have fallen in this dispute, without any distinction of party. " BROTHER : I have now gathered up the bones of our relations on both sides, and will bury them in a large deep grave, and smooth it over so that there shall not be the least sign of bones, or any thing to raise any grief or anger in any of our minds hereafter. " BROTHER : I have now buried tlie bones of all our relations very deep. You very well know that there are some of your flesh and blood in our hands prisoners : I assure you that you shall see them all safe and well. Eight strings of white wampum. " BROTHER : I now look up to where our Maker is, and think there is some darkness still over our heads, so that God can hardly see us, on account of the evil doings of the King over the great waters. All these thick clouds, which have arisen on account of that bad King, I now entirely remove, that God may look and see us in our treaty of friendship, and be a witness to the truth and sincerity of our intentions. Four strings of white wampum. " BROTHER : As God puts all our hearts right, I now give thanks to God Almighty, to the chief men of the Americans, to my old father the King of France, and to you, Brother, that we can now talk together on friendly terms, and speak our sentiments without interruption. Four strings of black and white wampum. " BROTHER : You knew me before you saw me, and that I had not drawn away my hand from yours, as I sent you word last year by Captain White Eyes. " BROTHER : I look up to Heaven, and call God Almighty to witness to the truth of what I say, and that it really comes from my heart." " BROTHER : I now tell you that I have for ever thrown off my father the English, and will never give him any assistance; and there are some amongst all the nations that think the same things that I do, and I wish that they would all think so. " BROTHER : I cannot answer for all the nations, as I don't know all their thoughts, and will speak only what I am sure of. " BROTHER : Listen to me. I love all the nations, and hate none, and when I return home they shall all hear what you say and what is done between us. " BROTHER : I have just now told you that I loved all the nations, and I see you raising up the hatchet against, my younger Brother, the Shawanese.* I beg of you to stop a little while, as he has never yet heard me; and when he has heard me, if he does not choose to think as we do, I will tell you of it immediately. "BROTHER: I intend to speak roughly to my younger brother, and tell him not to listen to the English, but throw them off, and listen to me, and then he may live as I do. " BROTHER : I thank you for leaving the fortress at Tuscarawas, and am convinced by that that you have taken pity on us, and want to make us your friends. " BROTHER : I now take a firmer hold of your hand than before, and beg that you will take pity upon the other nations who are my friends; and if any of them should incline to take hold of your hand, I request that you would comply, and receive them into friendship. A black belt of eleven rows. " BROTHER : Listen. I tell you to be cautious, as I think you intend to strike the man near to where I sit, not to go the nighest way to where he is, lest you frighten the owners of the lands who are living through the country between this and that place.+ " BROTHER : You now listen to me, and one favor I beg of you is, that when you drive away your enemies, you will allow me to continue in possession of my property, which, if you grant, will rejoice me. " BROTHER : I would advise you, when you strike the man near where I sit, to go by water, as it will be the easiest and best way. " BROTHER : If you intend to strike, one way is to go up the Alleghany, and by Presq' Isle; another way is to go down this river and up the Wabash. : The reason why I mentioned the road up the river is, that there will be no danger of your being discovered until you are close upon them, but on the road down the river you will be spied. * Colonel Clarke, the captor of Hamilton, was at that time preparing to invade the principal Shawanege towns-a purpose which he executed sometime afterward. -Author. + Referring to the projected movement of Colonel Brodhead against Detroit-a purpose never executed. " BROTHER : Now I have told you the way by Presqe Isle, and that it is the boundary between us and your enemies ; if you go by the Wabash, your friends will not be surprised. " BROTHER : You must not think that what I have said is only my own thoughts, but the opinion of all the Huron chiefs, and I speak in behalf of them all. If you grant what favors I have asked of you all our friends and relations will be thankful and glad as far as they can hear all round. " BROTHER : The reason why I have pointed out these two roads is, that when we hear you are in one of them, we will know your intentions without farther notice ; and the Huron chiefs desired me particularly to mention it, that they may meet you in your walk, and tell you what they have done, who an your enemies, and who are your friends, and I, in their name, request a pair of colors to show that we have joined in friendship. Fourteen strings of black wampum. " BROTHER : The chiefs desired me to tell you that they sent Montour before to tell you their" intention, and they leave him to go with you, that when you meet your Brothers, you may consult together, and understand one another by his means." On the 19th Colonel Brodhead addressed the Huron chief in reply, after the Indian form. He told him, distinctly, that fair words were no longer to be taken, unless their sincerity was attested by their deeds. In regard to the roads to Detroit, he said he should select whichever he pleased. As for the Shawanese, the Colonel told the chief that he had sent them a fair Speech, which they had thrown into the fire, and he should not now recall Colonel Clarke. And in regard to the people of the chief himself, the Colonel demanded, as the basis of peace, that they should stipulate to restore all American prisoners in their hands; to kill, scalp, and take, as many of the English and their allies as they had killed and taken of the Americans ; and on every occasion to join the Americans against their enemies. The Wyandots assented to the terms, and hostages were required for the faithful performance of their agreement. The Delawares were at that time at peace with the United States, and a small body of their warriors had accompanied Colonel Brodhead on the expedition from which he had just returned. The business having been closed with the Huron chief, the Delawares interposed in behalf of the Maquichee clan of the Shawanese. These Indians were now apparently very humble; but, apprehensive that they might not perhaps manage their own case very well, the Delawares had kept them back from the council, and undertaken their cause themselves. Kelleleman, a Delaware chief, informed Colonel Brodhead that on arriving there, their grand-children* had addressed them thus:- " GRANDFATHERS : We are humble, and are now come unto you. Now I am come to you, I take my hands and wipe your eyes, that you may clearly see the light, and that these are your grand-children who now appear before you, and likewise remove every obstruction from your eyes, that you may hear and understand me. I also compose your heart, that you may be disposed to pity your poor grand-children, as your ancient chiefs used to pity their grand-children, the Maquichees, when they were poor or humble before them. Now, my grandfathers, I tell you to pity your grand-children, the Maquichees, and whatever you direct them to do, will be done. Now you have heard your grand-children speak, and you will judge what to say to your brother, Maghingive Keeshuch. Two strings of white wampum. " Now, grandfathers, here is a little tobacco to fill your pipes, that you may consider and pity your grand-children the Maquichees." Kelleleman farther reported to Colonel Brodhead, that after the foregoing speech, Keeshmattsee, a Maquichee chief, rose and said to the Delawares:- " GRANDFATHERS : I now take my chief and counsellor, Nimwha, and set him down on the ground before you, that he may assist you in considering the distressed situation of your grand-children." Another Delaware chief, named Killbtish, then addressed Colonel Brodhead thus :- KEESHUCH : Listen to me. You always told me that when any nations came to treat of peace, I * In Indian parlance the Delawares were styled the "Grandfathers" of the Shawanese; and hence the use, in these proceedings, of the terms reciprocally of "Grand-children " and " Grandfathers." should first speak to them, and tell you my sentiments of them; which I am now come to do in regard to my grand-children, the Maquichees. " I told them I was much obliged to them for clearing my eyes, my ears, and composing my heart, and that it was time, for many bad things enter into my ears." Then turning to the Maquichees, Killbush continued his speech:- "I remember you told me to pity you, and it is true I have pitied you, my grand-children, the Shawanese. " Now I tell you, my grand-children, it is very well you put me in mind of my wise ancestors, who, out of pity, took you up and placed you before them. " MY GRAND-CHILDREN : The Maquichees, it is true, you have done no harm, but I see some stains of blood upon you which the mischief and folly of some of your young men have occasioned. Now, my grand-children; I will advise you how to be cleansed from your bloody stains ; deliver to our brother Maghingive Keeshuch all his flesh and blood which are prisoners in your hands; and the horses you have stolen from the Americans. My grand-children, when you have done this, you will then be clean ; your flesh and heart will be the same as mine, and I can again take you up and set you down before me as our wise chiefs formerly did. " Now, my grand-children, I tell you that for several years past you have been fraught with lies, which I am tired of hearing, and in future you must tell me nothing but the truth. " Now listen to me, my grand-children ; you see how dread ful the day looks, and how thick the clouds appear ; don't imagine this day to be like that on which you first came to your grandfathers. I tell you that I have finished the chain of friendship. The thirteen United States and I are one. I have already assisted my brother in taking the flesh of the English and the Mingoes. You told me just now, that whatever I told you, you would do ; now I offer you the flesh of the English and Mingoes to eat, and that is the only method I know of by which your lives may be preserved, and you allowed to live in peace," (delivering them a string of wampum and two scalps.) They received the string and scalps, and said they were glad to know this; and, as they had before said, whatever their grandfathers told them, they would do, so they told them again on receiving the scalps. They said, " now, grandfathers, I am very glad to hear what you have said; I have got in my hand wliat you say will save my life," and immediately sang his war-song. The speaker, having danced, delivered the scalps to the king, who likewise rose and sang the war-song, and said; " Now, my grandfathers, although you have often sent good speeches to the other tribes of the Shawanese nation, yet they would not receive them, but still took up the tomahawk to strike your brothers. I will now go and deliver them what I now have in my hands, which I suppose they will receive." These proceedings were closed by the following speech from one of the Delawares to Colonel Brodhead:- " BROTHER : We now let you know the result of our council respecting the Maquichees. " BROTHER : Listen. This is the way I have considered the matter, and if I am mistaken I am very sorry for it. Brother, let us both consider of it. I thought when I looked in his eyes that he was sincere. " BROTHER : I think the Maquichees are honest. In former times they were the best of the Shawanese nation. I think we may take them by the hand ; and you know you told me that any nation I took by the hand, you would also receive." The conference appears to have been satisfactory to Colonel Brodhead. But if the Maquichee clan of the Shawanese preserved their fidelity, the main body of the nation became none the less unfriendly by their means. And although Colonel Brodhead had admonished them that he would not countermand the orders to Colonel Clarke to strike them, it so happened that the first and severest blow was struck by the Shawanese themselves. It was but a short time after the closing of the council at Fort Pitt, that a detachment of seventy men from the Kentucky district of Virginia, under the command of Major Rodgers, was surprised while ascending the Ohio, and nearly exterminated. The Kentuckians were drawn ashore by a stratagem. At first a few Indians only appeared, standing upon a sand-bar near the mouth of the Licking river, while a canoe, with three other Indians, was paddling toward them as though to receive them on board. Rodgers immediately put in to the Kentucky shore, and having made fast his boats, went in pursuit. Only five or six Indians had been seen, and Rodgers, presuming that the whole party would not probably exceed fifteen or twenty at farthest, felt perfectly sure of an easy victory-having seventy men, well armed and provided. Proceeding cautiously toward the point where he supposed he should surround the enemy, and having adjusted his movements with that design, at the very moment when he was preparing to rush forward and secure them, he found himself with his whole force in the midst of an ambuscade ! The Indians rose in a cloud of hundreds on all sides of him, and pouring in a close and deadly fire upon the Americans, rushed upon the survivors tomahawk in hand. Major Rodgers, and forty-five of his men were killed almost instantly. The residue ran for the boats, but the guard of only five men who had been left in charge, had sought security by putting off in one of them, while the Indians had already anticipated the fugitives by taking possession of the others. The possibility of retreat being thus cut off, the brave fellows now turned furiously upon the enemy; and as night was approaching, after a sharp fight for some time, a small number, aided by the darkness, succeeded in effecting their; escape to Harrodsburgh. Among the wounded in this sharp and bloody encounter, who escaped both death and captivity, were Captain Robert Benham, and another man, whose cases, together, form a novel and romantic adventure. Benham was shot through both hips, and the bones being shattered, he instantly fell. Still, aided by the darkness, he succeeded in crawling among the thick branches of a fallen tree, where he lay without molestation through the night and during the following day, while the Indians, who had returned for that purpose, were stripping the slain. He continued to lie close in the place of his retreat until the second day, when, becoming hungry, and observing a raccoon descending a tree, he managed to shoot it-hoping to be able to strike a fire, and cook the animal. The crack of the rifle was followed by a human cry, which at first startled the Captain; but the cry being repeated, several times, the voice of a Kentuckian was at length recognized; the call was returned; and the parties were soon together. The man proved to be one of his comrades, who had lost both of his arms in the battle. Never before did misery find more welcome company. One of the parties could use his feet, and the other his hands. Benham, by tearing up his own and his companion's shirts, dressed the wounds of both. He could load his rifle and fire with readiness, and was thus enabled to kill such game as approached, while his companion could roll the game along upon the ground with his feet, and in the same manner collect wood enough together to cook their meals. When thirsty, Benham could place his hat in the teeth of his companion, who went to the Licking, and wading in until he could stoop down and fill it, returned with a hat-full of water. When the stock of squirrels, and other small game in their immediate neighborhood, was exhausted, the man on his legs would roam away, and drive up a flock of wild turkies, then abundant in those parts, until they came within the range, of Benham's rifle. Thus they lived, helps, meet for each other, during the period of six weeks, when they discovered a boat upon the Ohio, which took them off. Both recovered thoroughly from their wounds.* No other events of moment occurred in the region professedly embraced in the present history, during the residue of the year 1779; and the progress of the war in other parts of the Union had been marked with but few signal actions. The active operations of this year between the British forces proper and the Americans, had commenced in the south, to the command of which section of the country General Lincoln had been assigned at the close of 1778. The first occurrence was the surprise and defeat, on the 3d of March, of General Ash, commanding a body of fifteen hundred North Carolina militia, stationed at the confluence of Briar Creek, on the Savannah river, by the British General Provost. There were about sixty regular troops under General Ash, who fought well. But the militia, as usual, threw away their arms and fled, with the exception of about three hundred, who were either killed or taken. In May, General Provost invested Charleston, but raised the siege on the approach of Lincoln upon his rear. He at first retired to the island, but soon withdrew to Savannah, where he was in turn besieged by Lincoln in October, on the land side, and by the French fleet under the Count D'Estaing by water. * Captain Benham afterward served with bravery in the Indian wars of 1789-94, sharing the disaster of St. Clair and the victory of Wayne. At the close of the Revolution, he purchased the land whereon he was wounded at the time of Rodgers's defeat, built a house there, and there lived and died. Repulsed in an injudicious assault, after much brave fighting by both Americans and French, the fleet of the latter left the continent, and the siege was raised-the militia flying to their homes, and General Lincoln retiring to Charleston. In this assault, among other proud spirits, fell the brave Polish Count Pulaski-who had signalized himself in his own country by carrying off King Stanislaus from his capital, assisted by only a party of associate Catholic conspirators. The only relief to this disastrous affair, was the capture, by Colonel John White of Georgia, and Captain Elholm, with four other men, of a British detachment of one hundred men, forty sailors, and five armed vessels, at Ogechee, by a very ingenious and efficacious stratagem. Kindling a large number of fires, after the manner of an encampment, they summoned the British commander, Captain French, to surrender, or they would cut his flotilla to pieces. Supposing, by the lines of fires, that there was a greatly superior force against them, the enemy surrendered at discretion. In the middle and northern sections of the Union, the contest during the Summer had assumed the character rather of a predatory warfare than of regular campaigns. Sir George Collier and General Matthews made a plundering expedition on the coast of Virginia, and after sacking Norfolk and parts adjacent, returned to New York with their booty. In July a combined expedition by land and water was directed, under Sir George and Governor Tryon, against Connecticut. New-Haven was taken and sacked. Several houses in East Haven were burnt. Fairfield, Green's Farms, and Norwalk, were likewise taken, plundered, and laid in ashes. The Americans, consisting chiefly of militia, under General Lovell, made an attempt upon a British post at Penobscot, which was commenced gallantly. But the arrival of Sir George Collier's fleet, with reinforcements, obliged the General to abandon the enterprise. These untoward events, however, were relieved by Major Lee's surprise and capture of the British fort at Paulus Hook, and by the still more brilliant affair of the capture of Stony Point by General Wayne. Copyright © 1998, -- 2003. Berry Enterprises. All rights reserved. All items on the site are copyrighted. While we welcome you to use the information provided on this web site by copying it, or downloading it; this information is copyrighted and not to be reproduced for distribution, sale, or profit.

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than an accumulation of facts, theories, and principles about the natural world, science is also a compelling and deeply rewarding profession. In this special collection – which covers the full spectrum of scientific disciplines, from archaeology to zoology – you have an opportunity to view up close and personal over 100 scientists, from the pioneering sixteenth-century geoscientist Georgius Agricola to molecular biologist Michael Zasloff, an expert in disease resistance among frogs. Our collection features distinguished Nobel laureates such as physicists Eugene Wigner (February 1986) and Richard Feynman (August 1998), known for their exploration of the frontiers of theoretical knowledge. It also highlights women scientists who have made significant achievements in areas as diverse as rivers (Ruth Patrick, September 1989), bees (Eva Crane, March 1993), the stars (Maria Mitchell, March 1986), and computers (Grace Murray Hopper, August For your convenience, we have provided several methods of accessing the articles in this collection. At right is a listing of the various scientific disciplines, within which you will find articles on the relevant scientists. Below that are buttons for the categories Nobel Laureates, Women Scientists, and All Scientists. To discover new insights into both the life and legacy of the great men and women of science, take a few moments to browse through Scientists: Past and Present.

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1. Suppose you are in the market for a new home and are interested in a new housing community under construction in a different city. a) The sales representative informs you that there are two floor plans still available, and that there are a total of 56 houses available. Use x to represent floor plan #1 and y to represent floor plan #2. Write an equation that illustrates the situation. b) The sales representative later indicates that there are 3 times as many homes available with the second floor plan than the first. Write an equation that illustrates this situation. Use the same variables you used in part a. c) Use the equations from part a and b of this exercise as a system of equations. Use substitution to determine how many of each type of floor plan is available. Describe the steps you used to solve the problem. d) What are the intercepts of the equation from part a of this problem? What are the intercepts from part b of this problem? Where would the lines intersect if you solved the system by graphing? 2. As you are leaving the community, you notice another new community just down the street. Because you are in the area, you decide to inquire about it. a) The sales representative here tells you they also have two floor plans available, but they only have 38 homes available. Write an equation that illustrates the situation. Use x and y to denote floor plan #1 and floor plan #2 respectively. b) The representative tells you that floor plan #1 sells for $175,000 and floor plan #2 sells for $200,000. She also mentions that all the available houses combined are worth $7,200,000. Write an equation that illustrates this situation. Use the same variables you used in part a. c) Use elimination to determine how many houses with each floor plan are available. Explain how you arrived at your answer. 3. You recently started the paperwork to purchase your new home, and you were just notified that you can move into the house in 2 weeks. You decide to hire a moving company, but are unsure which company to choose. You search online and are interested in contacting two companies, Heavy Lifters and Quick Move, to discuss their rates. Heavy Lifting charges an $80 fee plus $35 per hour. Quick Move charges $55 per hour with no additional fees. a) Which mover provides a better deal for 2 hours of work? How did you arrive at your answer? b) Which mover provides a better deal for 15 hours of work? How did you arrive at your answer? c) For what values h (hours) does Quick Move offer the better deal? Express your answer as an inequality. Explain how you reached your answer. (See attachments for Word documents containing the above questions) The solution is given as an attachment which contains 3 pages, one for each question, with equations written in Mathtype. Full step by step solutions are given with explanation. The questions all involve converting word problems into equivalent linear equations in two variables, and then solving using substitution and elimination. These questions are typical of the sort asked in introductory College and High School algebra classes.

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An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States/Chapter VIII The Process of Ratification On the 17th day of September, 1787, the Convention at Philadelphia finished its work and transmitted the new Constitution to Congress, with the suggestion that "it should afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates chosen in each state by the people thereof, under the recommendation of Its legislature for their assent and ratification and that each convention assenting to and ratifying the same should give notice thereof to the United States in Congress assembled." The Philadelphia Convention further proposed that when nine states had ratified the new instrument, it should go into effect as between the states ratifying the same. Eleven days later, on September 28, the Congress, then sitting in New York, resolved to accept the advice of the Convention, and sent the Constitution to the state legislatures to be transmitted by them to conventions chosen by the voters of the respective commonwealths. This whole process was a departure from the provisions of the then fundamental law of the land - the Articles of Confederation - which provided that all alterations and amendments should be made by Congress and receive the approval of the legislature of every state. If today the Congress of the United States should call a national convention to "revise" the Constitution, and such a convention should throwaway the existing instrument of government entirely and submit a new frame of government to a popular referendum, disregarding altogether the process of amendment now provided, we should have something analogous to the great political transformation of 1787-89. The revolutionary nature of the work of the Philadelphia Convention is correctly characterized by Professor John W. Burgess when he states that had such acts been performed Julius or Napoleon, they would have been pronounced coups d' état. This revolutionary plan of procedure was foreshadow in the Virginia proposals at the opening of the Convention and was, therefore, contemplated by some of the leaders from the beginning. When it was under consideration on June 5, Sherman, of Connecticut, opposed it on the ground that it was unnecessary and that regular provisions we already made in the Articles for amendments. Madison wanted to establish the Constitution on some foundation other than mere legislative approval. Gerry "observed that in the Eastern states the Confederation had been sanctioned by the people themselves. He seemed afraid, of referring the new system to them. The people in that quarter have, at this time, the wildest ideas of government in the world. They were for abolishing the senate in Massachusetts." King thought that "a convention being a single house, the adoption may be more easily carried through it than through the legislatures where there are several branches. The legislatures also being to lose power will be most likely to raise objections." On July 23 the resolution regarding ratification came before the Convention again for discussion, when it was moved that the Constitution be referred to the state legislatures. One of the principal objections urged against this plan was the possibility of a later legislature's repealing the ratification by a preceding body of the same authority; but the chief problem was whether there was more likelihood of securing a confirmation by legislatures or by conventions. "Whose opposition will be most likely to be excited against the system?" asked Randolph. "That of the local demagogues who will be degraded by it from the importance they now hold. These will spare no efforts to impede that progress in the popular mind which will be necessary to the adoption of the plan. . . . It is of great importance, therefore, that the consideration of this subject should be transferred from the legislatures where this class of men have their full influence to a field in which their efforts can be less mischievous: It is, moreover, worthy of consideration that some of the states are averse to any change in their constitution, and will not take the requisite steps unless expressly called upon to refer the question to the people." Mr. Gorham, of Massachusetts, was of the same opinion. He "was against referring the plan to the legislatures. 1. Men chosen by the people for the particular purpose will discuss the subject more candidly than members of the legislature who are to lose the power which is to be given up to the general government. 2. Some of the legislatures are composed of several branches. It will consequently be more difficult in these cases to get the plan through the legislatures than through a convention. 3. In the states many of the ablest men are excluded from the legislatures, but may be elected into a convention. Among these be ranked many of the clergy who are generally friends to good government. . .. 4. The legislatures will interrupted with a variety of little business; by artfully pressing which, designing men will find means to delay from year to year, if not to frustrate altogether, the national system. 5. If the last article of the Confederation is to be pursued the unanimous concurrence of the states will be necessary." In the Convention, Ellsworth preferred to trust the legislatures rather than popularly elected conventions. "I thought more was to be expected from the legislature than from the people. The prevailing wish of the people in the eastern states is to get rid of the public debt; and the idea of strengthening the national government carries with it that of strengthening the public debt." After the plan of ratification by conventions was carried in spite of Ellsworth's objections, he defended it in his appeal to the populace by saying: "It proves the honesty and patriotism of the gentlemen who composed the general Convention that they chose to submit their system to the people rather than to the legislatures, whose decisions are often influenced by men in the higher departments of government, who have provided well for themselves and dread any change least they should be injured by its operation. I would not wish to exclude from a state convention those gentlemen who compose the higher branches of the assemblies in the several states, but choose to see them stand on an even floor with their brethren, where the artifice of a small number cannot negative a vast majority of the people. This danger was foreseen by the federal convention and they have wisely avoided it by appealing directly to the people." A study of the opinions of the members of the Convention shows that four leading reasons led to the agreement on ratification by state conventions. It permitted the disregard of the principle of unanimous approval by the states. A firmer foundation would be laid for the Constitution if it had the sanction of special conventions rather than temporary legislatures. One of the first objects of the Constitution was to restrict the authority of state legislatures, and it could hardly be expected that they would voluntarily commit suicide. Another leading purpose of the Convention was to pay the public debt at par, and the members had learned from the repeated appeals to the state legislatures for funds to meet this national obligation that no relief was to be expected from this source. There was a better chance of getting the right kind of citizens elected to a convention than to a legislature. By separating the election of delegates to state conventions from the election of members to the state legislatures, the supporters of the Constitution were better able to concentrate their campaign of education. As for the provision of the Articles of Confederation requiring the approval of every state for any amendment in the Articles, the urgent necessities of the advocates of the new system could not permit such a mere technicality to stand in their way. The question of their legal right to cast aside their instructions and draft a totally new instrument was more or less troublesome for those who entertained a strict regard for the observance of the outward signs of propriety. No doubt the instructions of the delegations from the several states limited them to the "revision” of the Articles of Confederation, and it is highly improbable that in the state of public temper then prevailing a Convention would have assembled at all if its revolutionary purposes had been understood. During the debates behind closed doors Mr. Paterson declared that the delegates were bound by their instructions, but Randolph replied that "he was not scrupulous on the point of power "; and Hamilton agreed with this view saying, "We owed it to our country to do on this emergency whatever we should deem essential to its happiness. The states sent us here to provide for the exigencies of the union. To rely on and propose any plan not adequate to these exigencies merely because it was not clearly within our powers would be to sacrifice the means to the end." Outside the halls of the Convention it also became necessary to defend this revolutionary departure from their instructions. Madison took up the cause in The Federalist and made out an unanswerable case for his side, frankly pleading the justification of revolution if the legal arguments which he advanced were deemed insufficient. At the outset he is unwilling to admit that the Convention had broken with its instructions and performed a revolutionary act. He, accordingly, puts forward a legal and moral justification first, based upon an analysis of the instructions of the delegates. They were bound, he shows, to make such revisions in the Articles as would render them adequate to the exigencies of the union; but an adequate government, he pleads, could not be made by revising the Articles, and the Convention was either compelled to sacrifice the greater for the less by strictly obeying its instructions or to do its whole duty by sacrificing the letter of the law. Then he clinches the argument: "Let them declare whether it was of most importance to the happiness of the people of America that the Articles of Confederation should be disregarded and an adequate government be provided and the Union preserved; or that an adequate government should be omitted and the Articles of Confederation preserved." But Madison, after having paid his respects to Legality, hastens to add that in all great changes in government "forms ought to give way to substance." A rigid adherence to mere technicalities "would render nominal and nugatory the transcendent and precious right of the people' to abolish or alter their governments as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness.'" That is, the right of revolution is, at bottom, the justification for all great political changes. If it is argued that this right of revolution should not be exercised by a small group of men, such as the Convention of fifty-odd delegates at Philadelphia, Madison replies that it is impossible for the whole people to move forward in concert, and "it is therefore essential that such changes be instituted by some informal and unauthorized propositions made by some patriotic and respectable citizen or number of citizens." This was the manner in which the recent revolt against England was carried out; and in the present case the people had the right to pass upon the work of the Philadelphia assembly. The opponents of the Constitution were able to see the significance of that clause of the Constitution which cast aside the legal system under which they were living and provided that the new instrument should go into effect when ratified by nine states - as between those states. "Cornelius," in Massachusetts, exhibited great anxiety on this point, and in his letters of December 11 and 18, 1787, he asked concerning this departure: "Will not the adoption of this constitution in the manner here prescribed be justly considered as a perfidious violation of that fundamental and solemn compact by which the United States hold an existence and claim to be a people? If a nation may easily discharge itself from obligations to abide by its most solemn and fundamental compacts, may it not with still greater ease do the same in matters of less importance? And if nations may set the example, may not particular states, citizens, and subjects follow? What then will become of public and private faith? Where is the ground of allegiance that is due to government? Are not the bonds of civil society dissolved? Or is allegiance founded only in power? Has moral obligation no place in civil government? In mutual compacts can one party be bound while the other is free? Or, can one party disannul such compact, without the consent of the other? If so, Constitutions and national compacts are, I conceive, of no avail; and oaths of allegiance must be preposterous things." On all hands the "unconstitutional" procedure of the Convention was attacked by the Anti-Federalists. "A system of consolidation," says another writer, "has been formed with the most profound secrecy and without the least authority: And has been suddenly and without any previous notice transmitted by the federal convention for ratification - Congress not disposed to give any opinion on the plan, have transmitted it to the legislatures - The legislatures have followed the example and sent it to the people. The people of this state, unassisted by Congress or their legislature, have not had time to investigate the subject, have referred to the newspapers for information, have been divided by contending writers, and under such circumstances have elected members for the state convention -and these members are to consider whether they will accept the plan of the federal convention, with all its imperfections, and bind the people by a system of government, of the nature and principles of which they have not at present a clearer idea than they have of the Copernican system." Whatever was thought of the merits of the controversy over the proposed plan of ratification, it was accepted by the state legislatures which were invited by Congress to transmit the Constitution to special conventions. It remains to inquire, therefore, what methods were employed in calling these conventions and setting the seal of approval on the new and revolutionary proposals of the Philadelphia assembly. The resolution calling the convention in New Hampshire to pass upon the federal Constitution was adopted by the legislature on December 14, 1787. The time for holding the elections was left to the selectmen of the several towns, who were instructed to warn the duly qualified voters of the event. The date for the meeting of the convention was fixed on the second Wednesday of February, 1788. Four hundred copies of the Constitution were ordered to be printed for distribution. The elections seem to have been held about mid-January, for the New Hampshire Spy, for January 25, 1788, contains a long list of delegates already chosen, and adds that "several of the towns not mentioned in the above list were to have had their meetings this week." A majority of the members of the state convention so chosen, writes a student, who has inquired into the personnel of that body, "were undoubtedly opposed to the Constitution. ...The talent of the convention was decidedly on the side of the Federalists and a majority of the ablest members were in favor of ratification. ...For a time the friends of the Constitution had hopes of securing its ratification without a recess of the convention. Although the greater number of the members from the upper part of the state came down rather opposed to its adoption, yet on the final question it was hoped that a majority would be found to favor it. But these hopes proved delusive. While some of the members who came to the convention instructed to vote against the Constitution had been led by the discussions to a change of opinion and now favored it, they still felt bound by their instructions, and frankly said that if a final vote was to be taken before they had an opportunity to consult their constituents their vote would be adverse to ratification." Under these circumstances the Federalists adjourned the convention and set to work to convert the enemy. When the convention reassembled a few months later, they were able to carry the day by the uncomfortably small margin of 57 to 47. In Massachusetts the Federalists lost no time in moving for a convention. As early as October 20, 1787, they carried a favorable resolution in the senate of the state, and secured the concurrence of the house four days later. This resolve provided that the delegates should be chosen by those inhabitants "qualified by law to vote in the election of representatives," and the elections should take place "as soon as may be" in the several towns and districts. The date for the meeting of the delegates was fixed as the second Wednesday in January next. On January 9, 1788, the Convention met at Boston; and a real battle of wits ensued. As in New Hampshire, the delegates, when they came together fresh from their constituents, appeared to be opposed to adopting the new instrument of government. A careful scholar, who has studied the period intensively, takes this view: "Had a vote been taken on the adoption of the Constitution as soon as the convention assembled, there can be no question but that it would have been overwhelmingly against the proposed plan." Even after powerful influences had been brought to bear, the margin for the Federalists was uncomfortably close - 187 to 168. Harding remarks: "The majority in favor of ratification, it will be seen was only nineteen. The nine delegates whose names were returned to the convention, but who were not present when the vote was taken, might almost have turned the scale in the other direction. Bearing in mind that it was mainly the Anti-federalist towns that were unrepresented, it may be safely asserted that out of the forty-six delinquent corporations there were enough which were Anti-federalist to have procured the rejection of the constitution. This calculation, however, is based on the assumption that a corresponding increase did not take place in the Federalist representation. Had all the towns entitled to send representatives done so, and had all the delegates been present to cast their votes, it is -probable that the final result would not have been changed, though the Federalist majority would have been cut down to scarcely more than a bare half-dozen." After turning over the debates in the Massachusetts convention, one can scarcely escape the conclusion that the victory in eloquence, logic, and pure argumentation lay on the side of the Federalists; and it would not be worth while to consider at all the charges that improper influence was brought to bear on the delegates, were it not for the fact that they were made at the time and have lasted in the literature on the ratification in Massachusetts. We have "the sober assertion of a reputable historical writer within the last thirty years "to the effect" that enough members of the Massachusetts convention were bought with money from New York to secure the ratification of the new system by Massachusetts." Harding, after making an examination of the charges, dismissed them as "baseless"; and quite properly, for whoever would convict men of such high standing in the community as King, Gorham, and Strong of being associated with such a reprehensible transaction should produce more than mere unsubstantiated evidence. The legislature of Connecticut, determined not to be behindhand in setting the approval of the state on the new instrument, called a convention on October 11, 1787. A month was given to the electors to deliberate over the choice of delegates who were to decide the momentous issue. The election was held on November 12; the convention assembled on January 3, 1788; and after a few days' discussion gave its assent on January 9, 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. In New York the voters were given more time than in Connecticut to consider the new Constitution before they were called upon to settle the question of ratification at the polls by choosing delegates to the state convention. It was not until February 1, 1788, that the legislature of that commonwealth issued the call for the special election to be held on the last Tuesday of the following April. The contest in New York was hot from the start. Governor Clinton, in his message to the legislature in January, 1788, did not mention the Constitution - an omission which gave the Federalists some hope as they had feared an executive attack. The resolution calling the state convention passed the lower house by a narrow margin; and in the senate a motion to postpone the matter was almost carried, receiving nine out of nineteen votes. When, at length, the convention assembled, at least two- thirds of the sixty-four members were found to be against ratification. Such is the view of, Bancroft, and the contemporary press bears out his conclusion. Nevertheless, by much eloquence and no little manœuvring, the Federalist champions were able to obtain a majority of 30 to 27. The assent of the requisite number of opponents was secured only after an agreement that a circular should be issued recommending the call of another national convention at once to revise the Constitution as adopted. In pursuance of this agreement, the legislature at its next session, on February 5, 1789, called upon Congress to summon another convention to revise the new instrument of government at once. The address of the legislature stated that the Constitution had been ratified "in the fullest confidence of obtaining a revision of the said Constitution by a general convention, and in confidence that certain powers in and by the said Constitution granted would not be exercised until a convention should have been called and convened for proposing amendments to the said Constitution." The legislature went on to say that it complied with the unanimous sense of the state convention, "who all united in opinion that such a revision was necessary to recommend the said Constitution to the approbation and support of a numerous body of their constituents, and a majority of the members of which conceived several articles of the Constitution so exceptionable, that nothing but such confidence and an invincible reluctance to separate from our sister states could have prevailed upon a sufficient number to assent to it without stipulating for previous amendments." The commonwealth of New Jersey made haste to ratify the new Constitution as soon as possible after its transmission by Congress. On November 1, 1787, the legislature issued the call for the convention, ordering the inhabitants who were "entitled to vote for representatives in General Assembly," to elect delegates on the fourth Tuesday in the following November, i.e., November 27. The date for the meeting of the convention was fixed as the second Tuesday in December, the 11th, and on the 18th day of that month, the members, "Having maturely deliberated on and considered the aforesaid proposed Constitution," unanimously agreed to its adoption. The legislature of Delaware, influenced by "the sense and desire of great numbers of the people of the state, signified in petitions to their general assembly," adopted a resolution on November 10, 1787, calling for the election of delegates within a few days - that is on November 26 - for the state convention to pass upon the Constitution. The convention met at Dover on December 3; and after four days' deliberation on the matter adopted the Constitution by unanimous vote on December 6, 1787. "In Pennsylvania the proceedings connected with the ratification were precipitous and narrowly escaped being irregular. Before it was known that Congress would even transmit the Constitution to the states for their consideration, George Clymer, who had been a member of the national Convention and was then serving in the Pennsylvania legislature, "rose in his place and moved that a state convention of deputies be called, that they meet at Philadelphia, and that they be chosen in the same manner and on the same day as the members of the next general assembly." In vain did the opponents urge that this was irregular, that it was not known whether Congress would act favorably, and that deliberation rather than haste should characterize such a weighty procedure. The legislature, nevertheless, resolved to call the convention, and adjourned until the afternoon, leaving the date of the convention and manner of selecting delegates to be settled later. The opposition thereupon decided to secure delay by staying, away and preventing the transaction of business for want of a quorum. Meanwhile the news reached Philadelphia that Congress had sent the Constitution to the states for their consideration. The Federalists in the legislature, now having secured the sanction of regularity, determined not to brook further delay, so they sent officers after some of the recalcitrants, who thought "filibustering" justifiable in view of the importance of securing more deliberation before acting. These officers, ably assisted by a Federalist mob "broke into their lodgings, seized them, dragged them through the streets to the State house, and thrust them into the assembly room, with clothes torn and faces white with rage. The quorum was now complete." The legislature (September 29) fixed the election of delegates to the state convention at a date five weeks distant, November 6, 1787. Thus the people of the state were given a little over a month to deliberate on this momentous issue before selecting their agents to voice their will. Some Federalists, like Tench Coxe, expressed regret at the necessity of adopting these high-handed methods; but the stress was so great that it did not admit of delay. After the convention assembled, the Federalists continued their irregular practices, although from the vote on the Constitution in the convention this latter manipulation seems to have been a work of supererogation. Everything was done that could be done to keep the public out of the affair. "Thomas Lloyd applied to the convention for the place of assistant clerk. Lloyd was a shorthand writer of considerable note, and when the convention refused his request, determined to report the debates and print them on his own account. His advertisement promised that the debates should be accurately taken in shorthand and published in one volume octavo at the rate of one dollar the hundred pages. These fine promises, however, were never fulfilled. Only one thin volume ever came out, and that contains merely the speeches of Wilson and a few of those of Thomas M'Kean. The reason is not far to seek. He was bought up by the Federalists, and in order to satisfy the public was suffered to publish one volume containing nothing but speeches made by the two federal leaders." The Federalists appear to have suppressed other attempts at issuing the debates, and they "withdrew their subscriptions from every publication that warmly supported the Anti-federal cause." The Constitution was ratified by a vote of 46 to 23. Against these precipitous actions on the part of the Federalists in carrying the ratification of the Constitution, a minority of the state convention, twenty-one members, protested in an address to the people after the day had been lost. The protestants told how the federal Convention had been called by Congress, and then recited the facts as they viewed them: "So hastily and eagerly did the states comply [with the call of Congress for the Convention] that their legislatures, without the slightest authority, without ever stopping to consult the people, appointed delegates, and the conclave met at Philadelphia. To it came a few men of character, some more noted for cunning than patriotism, and some who had always been enemies to the independence of America. The doors were shut, secrecy was enjoined, and what then took place no man could tell. But it was well known that the sittings were far from harmonious. Some left the dark conclave before the instrument was framed. Some had the firmness to withhold their hands when it was framed. But it came forth in spite of them, and was not many hours old when the meaner tools of despotism were carrying petitions about for the people to sign praying the legislature to call a convention to consider it. The convention was called by a legislature made up in part of members who had been dragged to their seats and kept there against their wills, and so early a day was set for the election of delegates that many a voter did not know of it until it was passed. Others kept away from the polls because they were ignorant of the new plan; some because they disliked it, and some because they did not think the convention legally called. Of the seventy thousand freemen entitled to vote but thirteen thousand voted." For a long time the war of the dissenters against the Constitution went on in Pennsylvania, breaking out in occasional riots, and finally in the Whiskey Rebellion in Washington's administration; but they were at length beaten, outgeneralled, and outclassed in all the arts of political management. In November, 1787, the Maryland legislature, after hearing Luther Martin's masterly indictment of the Constitution and McHenry's effective reply, "unanimously ordered a convention of the people of the state; it copied the example set by Virginia of leaving the door open for amendments; and by a majority of one the day for the choice and the day for the meeting of its convention were postponed till the next April." Several months were thus given for deliberation, in marked contrast to the speedy despatch of the business in Delaware, New Jersey, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts. The elections were duly held on the first Monday in April, 1788; and the convention assembled on Apri1 21. The opponents of the Constitution, Chase, Mercer, and Martin, hurled themselves against it with all their might; but, it is related, "the friends to the federal government 'remained inflexibly silent.'" After a week's sessions, "the malcontents having tired themselves out," the convention ratified the Constitution by a vote of "sixty-three against eleven on the afternoon of Saturday, April 26. The instrument was formally sealed on the 28th. The legislature of Virginia, by a resolution passed on October 25, 1787, and a law enacted on December 12th, called a convention to be elected in March, 1788, and to assemble on June 2, 1788. In no state were the forces for and against the Constitution more ably marshalled and led. In no state was there higher order of debate in the convention than took place in Virginia, the birthplace of the constitution. It was a magnificent battle of talents that was waged during those June days, from the 2nd until the 25th. Then "the roll was called; and from the cities of Richmond and Williamsburg, from the counties near the ocean, from the northern neck, and from the counties between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies, eighty-nine delegates voted for the Constitution. From the other central and southern border counties of Kentucky, seventy-nine cried No." The margin of victory was small, but it was safe. North Carolina was recalcitrant. The call for the convention was issued by the legislature on December 6, 1787; the election was held on the last Friday and Saturday of March, 1788; and the convention assembled on July 21, 1788. In this body II the Anti-federalists obtained a large majority. They permitted the whole subject to be de- bated until the 2d of August; still it had been manifested from the first that they would not allow of an unconditional ratification." On that day the convention deferred the ratification of the Constitution by a vote of 184 to 84; and adjourned sine die. The new federal government was inaugurated without North Carolina; but the economic pressure which it brought to bear on that state, combined with the influence of eminent Federalists (including Washington), and the introduction of constitutional amendments in Congress, brought her into the union on November 21, 1789. South Carolina was one of the most deliberative of all the states, for it was not until January 18, 1788, that the legislature by unanimous resolution called a convention which was elected in April, and organized in Charleston, on May 13 of that year. The discussion there was evidently of a high order. Those who participated in it took first rank in the commonwealth, and the defenders of the new system put forth efforts worthy of the distinguished forensic leaders of the Charleston bar. The opponents exhausted the armory of their arguments, and seeing the tide running against them, they sought an adjournment of five months for further deliberation; but a motion to this effect was lost by a vote of 89 to 135. Finally at five o'clock on the tenth day of the sessions, May 23, the Constitution was carried by a large majority - 149 to 73. The legislature of Georgia, on October 26, 1787, called for a state convention to be chosen "in the same manner as representatives are elected," at the next General Election, held on the first Tuesday in December, i.e., December 4, 1787. The convention was duly chosen, and met at Augusta on December 25 ; and after "having taken into serious consideration the said constitution" for four or five days, solemnly ratified the instrument on January 2, 1788. Rhode Island was the last of the thirteen states to accept the Constitution. She had refused to send delegates to the federal Convention; and the triumphant paper money party there would have none of the efficiency promised by the new system. It was not until May 29, 1790, that Rhode Island ratified the Constitution, and this action was brought about by the immediate prospect of coercion on the part of the government of the United States, combined with the threat of the city of Providence to join with the other towns which were Federalist in opinion, in a movement to secede from the state and seek the protection of the federal government. Without these material considerations pressing upon them, the agrarians of that commonwealth would have delayed ratification indefinitely; but they could not contend against a great nation and a domestic insurrection. A survey of the facts here presented yields several important generalizations: Two states, Rhode Island and North Carolina refused to ratify the Constitution until after the establishment of the new government which set in train powerful economic forces against them in their isolation. In three states, New Hampshire, New York, and Massachusetts, the popular vote as measured by the election of delegates to the conventions was adverse to the Constitution; and ratification was secured by the conversion of opponents and often the repudiation of their tacit (and in some cases express) instructions. In Virginia the popular vote was doubtful. In the four states which ratified the constitution with facility, Connecticut, New Jersey, Georgia, and Delaware, only four or five weeks were allowed to elapse before the legislatures acted, and four or five weeks more before the elections to the conventions were called; and about an equal period between the elections and the meeting of the conventions. This facility of action may have been due to the general sentiment in favor of the Constitution; or the rapidity of action may account for the slight development of the opposition. In two commonwealths, Maryland and South Carolina, deliberation and delays in the election and the assembling of the conventions resulted in an undoubted majority in favor, of the new instrument; but for the latter state the popular vote has never been figured out. In one of the states, Pennsylvania, the proceedings connected with the ratification of the Constitution were conducted with unseemly haste. - What they [the Convention] actually did, stripped of all fiction and verbiage, was to assume constituent powers, ordain a constitution of government and of liberty, and demand a plebiscite thereon over the heads of all existing legally organized powers. Had Julius or Napoleon committed these acts they would have been pronounced coups d' état." Political Science and Comparative Constitutional Law, Vol. I, p. 105. - Farrand, Records, Vol. I, p. 123. - Ibid., Vol. II, p. 89. - Farrand. Records. Vol. III, p. 137. - Farrand. Records, Vol. I, pp. 255 II. ; p.283. - No. 40. - Herding, The Federal Constitution in Massachusetts. pp. 118-119. - The Massachusetts Centinel, January 2, 1788. - Batchellor, State Papers of New Hampshire, Vol. XXI, pp. 151-165; Documentary History of the Constitution, II, p. 141. - J.B. Walker, A History of the New Hampshire Convention, pp. 22 ff. - Four members are not recorded, and ..there is a pretty well authenticated tradition that a certain prominent federalist of Concord gave a dinner party on the last day of the session at which several members reckoned as opposed to ratification were present and discussing the dinner when the final vote was taken." Ibid., p. 43, note. - Harding, The Federal Constitution in Massachusetts, p. 67. - Harding, op. cit., p. 99. - Harding, op. cit., p. 101. - Documentary History of the Constitution, Vol. II, pp. 86-87; Connecticut Courant, October 22, 1787. - Bancroft, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 257. - Debates and Proceedings of the New York State Convention (1905 ed.), p. 3. - Bancroft, op. cit., Vol. 11, p. 340. - Ibid., p. 340; and see below, p. 244. - State Papers: Miscellaneous, Vol. 1, p. 7. For valuable side-lights on the opposition to the Constitution, see E. P. Smith's essay, 'The Movement towards a Second Constitutional Convention," in Jameson, Essays in the Constitutional History of the United States, pp. 46 ff. - Documentary History of the Constitution, Vol. II, pp. 46 ff. - Bancroft, History of the Constitution of the United States, Vol. II, p. 250; Documentary History of the Constitution, Vol. II, p. 25; Delaware State Council Minutes, 1776-1792, pp. 1081-82 (Delaware Historical Society Papers); Connecticut Courant, Dec. 24, 1787. - See above, p. 82. - McMaster and Stone, Pennsylvania and the Federal Constitution, p. 3. - McMaster and Stone, op. cit., p. 4. - Ibid., p. 14. - Ibid., p. 15. - McMaster and Stone, op. cit., p. 20. The following year when the ratification of the Constitution was celebrated in Philadelphia, James Wilson, in an oration on the great achievement said: ..A people free and enlightened, establishing and ratifying a system of government which they have previously Considered, examined, and approved! This is the spectacle which we are assembled to celebrate; and it is the most dignified one that has yet appeared on our globe. ... What is the object exhibited to our contemplation? A whole people exercising its first and greatest power - performing an act of sovereignty, original and unlimited! . ..Happy Country! May thy happiness be perpetual!” Works (1804 ed.), V01. III, pp. 299 ff. - Bancroft, op. cit., V 01. II, p. 278; Votes and Proceedings of the Senate of Maryland, November Session, 1781, pp. 511. - Ibid., p. 283. - Bancroft, op. cit., Voi. II. p. 316. The resolution provided that the "election shall be held in the month of March next on the first day of the court to be held for each county, city, or corporation respectively." The qualifications of voters were 'the same as those now established by law." Blair, The Virginia Convention of 1788. Vol. I, p. 56-57. Only freeholders were eligible to seats in the Convention. Ibid.. p. 56. Hening, Statutes at Large, Vol. XII, p. 462. - Laws of North Carolina (1821), Vol. I, p. 597; North Carolina Assembly Journals, 1785-98, p. 22. - Bancroft, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 349. - Hugh Williamson, writing to Madison on May 21, 1789, said: "Our people near the sea-coast are in great pain on the idea of being shut out from the Union. They say that unless they can continue in the coasting trade without the alien duty, they must starve with their families or remove from the state. Can no exception be made in favor of such apparent aliens for so long a period as the first of January next?" Madison Mss., Library of Congress. - Bancroft, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 293. - Documentary History of the Constitution. Vol. II. pp. 82 ff. - F.G. Bates, Rhode Island and the Union. pp. 192 ff. - Ibid., p. 197. - See below, p. 248.

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Diabetes can cause peripheral artery disease, or PAD, which inhibits loss of blood flow, making it easier for infections in the extremities to progress to gangrene, according to WebMD. Any medical condition that hinders the flow of blood throughout the body can lead to gangrene.Continue Reading As a result of diabetes, blood vessels in the leg and foot harden and narrow, explains the American Diabetes Association. While exercise can ameliorate this condition, stimulating blood flow in the feet and legs, it is important to use shoes that are sturdy and fit well. People who have open sores should not exercise until the sores have healed. In addition to PAD, many diabetics also develop nerve disease, which cuts down on sensation, notes the American Diabetes Association. These problems combine to make ulcers and infections easier to develop, as patients do not always notice the pain from their feet and so do not treat the sores adequately. If gangrene develops, one possible consequence is amputation of some or all of the affected limb. With regular maintenance and correct footwear, the majority of amputations are preventable, but this requires diabetics to remain vigilant about the state of their feet. People who smoke damage their small blood vessels even further, and many diabetics who need amputations smoke as well. Quitting smoking can preserve one's feet.Learn more about Skin Conditions

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The Open Data Platform (ODP) is an industry-level initiative which focuses on strengthening the adoption of the Apache Hadoop ecosystem and further enabling big data solutions to flourish with the ecosystem. It builds on the strengths of the Apache Hadoop framework. Obviously, the proponents of the ODP claim that it is going to bring a lot of benefits to those who embrace it, but not everyone is convinced. There appears to be a lot of confusion between choosing the ODP and Apache Hadoop, as if they were entirely different technologies or concepts. The ODP is still relatively new, and it is going to be interesting to see how the industry embraces (or doesn't) the ODP. What Is the Open Data Platform? The core components of the ODP include the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), YARN's cluster management technology and the Hadoop management console Ambari. By establishing this core for the ODP kernel, the intent is to run applications on the OPD built on the Hadoop stack. Additionally, the ODP core is a combined force of software components and open-source tests you can base to build solutions. With the advent of the Internet of Things (IoT), currently the most pressing need is the data itself, be it structured, unstructured or raw data. Rather, the need is to enhance the communication among the growing network of objects. To facilitate it, the Open Data Platform is the key area here, as it leverages the Hadoop ecosystem. The open data that is available freely can be used and distributed by almost anyone. This is a prospective field in terms of resolving an existing set of problems that a society faces. It is not only limited to one field of society but also affects: - Supplier exchanges - Predictive behavior of buyers So, the way to approach a resolution around any problem area can be structured as follows: - Problem Area — Identify the problem area with its current set of needs and limitations. - Resolution — Look for a solution using open data and analytics tools. - Key Players — Identify the players that are key to the use case, be it players or beneficiaries. - Inclusion — Involve all open data players to enrich the efficacy of the resolution and follow the industry-level initiative, for example the ODP or Apache Hadoop ecosystem. - Business Value — Assess the business preposition it brings to the table, for example how it reduces the involved cost. The Game Changer: Positives The big forces beckoning the OPD initiative are the major players — GE, Hortonworks, IBM, Infosys, Pivotal, SAS, AltiScale, Capgemini, CenturyLink, EMC, Teradata, Splunk, Verizon and VMware, as well as a few others. The core objective is to leverage open source and open collaboration to further accelerate Apache Hadoop and step up big data to the next level. The initiative is indeed a game changer, as it addresses the needs of not only the vendors but also the end users. Needless to say, it is closely aligned with the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) process as it leverages the contributions made to the Apache projects and enhances it further. The ODP has provided the open platform to engage the diverse community as a whole. With the interlock with leading vendors, service providers and users of Apache Hadoop, the biggest challenge to overcome is to reduce fragmentation and gain traction in developments across the Apache Hadoop ecosystem. The intent of the ODP is to work directly with specific Apache projects, keeping in view the Apache Software Foundation guidelines on how to contribute ideas and code. The objective is to enhance compatibility and standardize the way the apps or tools run on any compliant system. The other interesting aspect is the standardization of the deployment of solutions built on Hadoop or other big-data technology. The main focus areas around which the ODP is working toward include: - Developing an open-source ecosystem for big data - Acting as catalyst for Hadoop and big data adoption - Standardizing the Apache Hadoop ecosystem - Standardizing the deployment mode for applications - Adopting the best big data and analytical software to support data-driven applications The following benefits can be gained with the ODP: - Reduced R&D costs for vendors and solution providers - Improved interoperability - Standardized base for future Hadoop distributions Negative Buzz in the Market: Flip Side However, other players in the market see the ODP differently. According to these players, the ODP is: - Redundant with Apache Software Foundation — The Apache Software Foundation has led to the Hadoop standard, using which applications are able to connect, exchange, and use information among Hadoop distributions. Hadoop has become the de facto standard across the industry. So, the question that arises is, what value would the ODP provide? - Lacks participation by Hadoop leaders — Some major Hadoop players, such as MapR, Amazon Web Services and Cloudera, are not even participating in this initiative. - Interoperability and vendor lock-in is not an issue — According to a Gartner survey, only a few companies feel that interoperability and vendor lock-in is really an issue. Furthermore, the project and sub-project interoperability is guaranteed by both free and paid distributions. So, that’s not the area the ODP should spend its effort and time. - Questions on governance — Questions have been raised on the governance model, as equal voting rights are not provided to the leading Hadoop distributions. The governance model has not yet been disclosed. - Not truly open — With Hortonworks as a partner, the ODP is establishing an open data platform on a single vendor’s packaging. This casts some doubt on the “openness” of the Open Data Platform. A Matter of Choice The way forward for the ODP is the standardization model. The standardization has its own set of advantages, but choice is what leads to empowerment. It is choice that causes healthy competition, which causes all those involved to strive for better quality. So, let us wait and see how the industry embraces the ODP, given the standardized model. There are still many questions that are unanswered such as fee structure, governance model and voting rights. The bigger question is whether the ODP effectively addresses the key customer questions. Only time will tell how this initiative goes further and benefits the community. One school of thought is inclined towards Apache Hadoop and its flavors, and the other is prepared to develop and embrace the ODP. Holistically speaking, one says the ODP and Hadoop are two distinct concepts, while the other says they complement each other. One says that the ODP is a threat to Apache Hadoop, while the other says it is a big opportunity to leverage Apache Hadoop further. With all sorts of theories in the market, each player perceives the future differently based on the future it promises to bring back to their organization. So, the biggest question here is whether these two concepts would emerge differently or merge together at some juncture of time. Let us witness the crossroads of big data together to discover if these two giants embrace each other in the big data space. Whatever the case may be, it seems inevitable that these two distinct concepts would overlap each other and benefit the end user at large in the end.

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Washington, DC — As World Water Week draws to a close, a new report highlights the promise of small-scale irrigation schemes. "Water for Wealth and Food Security" touts simple interventions, such as motor pumps, small reservoirs and rainwater harvesting, as key tools for tackling food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa. These technologies have the potential to protect millions of farmers by increasing crop yields up to 300 percent in some cases, researchers say. But to reap the benefits of increased water irrigation management, investment priorities will need to change, they say. Small-scale irrigation offers a lucrative opportunity and could provide a billion-dollar boost to household revenues across sub-Saharan Africa, according to the report. Researchers are hopeful that their findings will illuminate the value of small-scale irrigation to private investors. The International Water Management Institute, which aims to improve resource management in the developing world, spearheaded the research. Timothy Olalekan Williams, the organization's Africa director, spoke with AllAfrica about the report and the potential impact of improved water management. The agricultural economist is confident that small-scale irrigation offers big opportunities. The report emphasizes driving changes in water management among small-scale farmers - how do you define a small-scale farm? Plots that are a very small size - the average size is about 1 hectare. They produce food not just for their own domestic use; it's a situation where they're able to provide some surplus to the public. The land they farm and the amount of input they use is very small compared to what you find in large-scale farms. On a large farm you will find thousands and thousands of hectares, which use a lot of inputs to produce food. Why do you focus on small-scale farmers as the target with the most potential? Couldn't you make a larger impact by targeting the big public sector projects? Small-scale farmers constitute 80 percent of farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. They also make up a large proportion of farmers in South Asia. Given their numbers it makes sense to focus on them because we are aiming to improve food security. That is not to say that large-scale farms are not in existence, but if you want to think in terms of the number of people you can reach and the number of lives you can influence, then you need to look at small-scale farmers. The report concludes that by expanding the use of water management it is possible to increase yields by 300 percent - triple what people are producing now. How do you respond to critics who say this estimate is too optimistic and achievable only under ideal conditions? When you look at global productivity and what is economically possible there's a huge a gap. It's that gap that we're trying to narrow and reach. We haven't bridged this gap yet because water and the other inputs, like fertilizer and chemicals, are needed to bridge that gap. It's not really overly optimistic; it's just saying that by easing these constraints on production we can move toward what's technically possible. What do your see as the biggest challenge to more widespread adoption of irrigation schemes by small-scale farmers? The first main challenge is the up-front cost of investment, the cost of water, the cost of agricultural management technologies. For many farmers, they do not have the means to adopt the technologies that can allow them to increase food security. The irony is that these technologies are not all that expensive. For instance, a motor pump that can take water out of the ground and then dissipate the water to crops is just a couple of hundred dollars. But for small farmers in Africa and in Asia this is beyond their means. So the first constraint is to find a way to add a financing mechanism to allow farmers to make the up-front investment costs. Once the farmers have adopted the technologies, then we need to look at the constraints in term of the technical know-how to be able to apply water in an efficient manner. When farmers don't have the technical know-how they can over-irrigate and that is not an option we would like to see. Another constraint is access to markets. For farmers to obtain the maximum benefits from the adoption of irrigation, they need access to markets so that they will have access to the inputs they need for development. The income they obtain from selling their produce will provide them with the opportunity to buy inputs and to pay for other necessities like education and health care for their children, thereby creating a multiplier effect, because when they spend money on other services then they improve the economy across multiple sectors. The report provides multiple water irrigation solutions: motor pumps, rainwater harvesting, rural electrification, river diversions, etc. Why the variety? Why not just pick one and perfect it? It's proven that solutions are context specific. One cannot just plug in a one-size-fits-all solution because of the agro-ecological conditions, the biophysical conditions, the socioeconomic conditions are different. When you provide multiple options it works better than trying to affix the same solution to a lot of different situations. What we've done is to look at a range of options from which farmers can choose and pick the one that is most appropriate for their needs. For instance, some farmers don't need motor pumps; they are already organized in a communal way to harvest rainwater. Then the solution to get water from the pumps would not be appropriate for them. Across Africa and Asia the conditions are different, and there is not going to be one solution that fits all of those circumstances. One finding that was very surprising to me was that there's often enough water, but farmers simply lack the means to harvest it. Is there a concern that once more people start using the water, there will be a water shortage? How do you regulate demand? In some parts of the world the renewable water sources are not being fully exploited. When you look at sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, only three percent of the renewable water sources are withdrawn for agriculture, meaning there is an ample supply of water for irrigation. In some cases it's there because there hasn't been anything to tap into it yet. You need an economic water strategy where there is ample water available. [This] implies that the water is available but we need to make the necessary investment to tap into it and use it as we like. In Africa, in particular, the idea is that if these investments are made, the water available can be tapped into. That said, even where there is ample water, the water needs to be managed sustainably. It's important not just to look at the ample supply available now, but to look at how the water can be managed sustainably over time. With climate change we need to ensure that we can still have water for agricultural production in the future. According to predictions, climate change will bring frequent droughts, as well as increasing floods. As the population increases, there will be increased competition for available water resources. But if we make the necessary management strategy now, we can manage the competition. How do you see climate change impacting your research? Will most of the proposed solutions work over the long-term or will they need to be reworked to meet future needs? When you look at the predictions for sub-Saharan Africa, they often say that climate change could reduce potential agricultural output by up to 30 percent by 2050. If we manage available water very well, if we use appropriate technologies that do not waste water, and if we manage the exchange of weather events - so that when there are floods you capture available water for subsequent use during droughts - then we can adapt much better agriculturally to climate change. So the challenge will be to use the small-scale, efficient technologies that we're promoting through this publication to provide the right type of irrigation and at the same time meet crop water demands so that we use the necessary amount of water for crop growth. If we do that, then we will be able to ameliorate the very extreme conditions that we expect with climate change. If we are able to capture and store water that will come from extreme weather events like flooding, there will be mechanisms that will allow us to cope with climate change. Seventy percent of smallholder farmers are women, many of whom lack resources to purchase pumps, for example. What can or should be done to address that? One of the biggest constraints to all small-scale farmers is lack of market access and lack of access to complimentary inputs to maximize more water - things like fertilizer, insecticide and herbicide to encourage growth. Access to these things depends on the right policy incentives. The micro financing that will allow them to be able to meet the up-front investment costs is also a policy issue. For instance, in many of the countries where we work, when crops are imported they are heavily taxed and that's a policy issue. How do you encourage the importation of crops and the materials needed to promote agricultural growth? So I would like to see more [countries] follow the path of Tanzania, which has just established a policy of allowing agricultural inputs to come in free of import duties. That's a very good example of how policy can directly change the game and make valuable and necessary interventions. There are many countries in Africa where there are very strong directives on markets, but without access to markets and without economic incentives to promote value chain activities, farmers will not be able to do very well. And that is why we also advocate that we need policy-centered, coherent changes in terms of the economy. Another example is rural electrification, which is used to run the pumps. Where electrical power is good, the pumps offer a much more effective and less expensive option, and it can make a big difference. If someone can turn to electric power pumps, they can have increased access to water. How does government responsibility play into this? Tanzania's government has pledged to invest U.S.$6 million in agriculture - are other governments following suit? What we are currently asking governments to do is to look at the potential of small-scale irrigation and agricultural management. If governments provide the appropriate support and incentives, then agricultural productivity will improve tremendously in Africa. So governments need to invest in and support small-scale, farmer-driven irrigation. This is not to say that there's not room for investment opportunities in large-scale irrigation, but governments can do no wrong by supporting small-scale irrigation. Governments should support small-scale farmers and build their capacity by teaching farmers irrigation management, how to apply the right quantity of water to different crops, and teaching them how to use the value chains and ensuring them access to markets in an efficient way. If governments can provide the loans that will allow farmers to tap into and be able to afford the up-front investment costs of agricultural technologies, then that would be a big plus. If governments provide the necessary infrastructure and economic incentives, those would also be big pluses. So the government's responsibility is in terms of building the necessary infrastructure, providing the necessary incentives in finance, and integrating and minimizing government intervention in markets. That is what the governments should do to promote farmer-driven interventions. How do you encourage private investors to invest in smallholder agriculture and not information technology, for example? What we are seeing is that investment in small-scale agricultural management can be as equally lucrative as large-scale investment, simply because you have a market that's made up of millions of smallholder farmers. By actually empowering them and making them be as productive as possible, it's very clear that it can be a very profitable business. And by doing that you are not only getting a good return on investment, but you are also promoting social responsibility, which private investors need to be aware of, because you are providing income to a large group of people. You're also improving the food security of millions of poor people. And in that respect, what this project provides is the evidence for investors to see the opportunities and options for investment in small-scale agriculture. The terms "land grabbing" and "water grabbing" have become media buzzwords. Is there a concern that too much private investment could exploit the farmers and take land and profits away from them? Agricultural production involves many actors. When you look at [it] in terms of the value chain, there's room for private sector investors to come in and complement what the farmers bring because there will be rippling supply inputs, like chemicals, like pumps, to farmers. There will be others marketing the produce for these farmers and other private sector actors providing finance to farmers. Private sector investment is needed to make these things work. Farmers are not going to import pumps; they're not going to, in some cases, market their produce. Those are areas where private sector actors step in. Small and mid-size entrepreneurs will see the profits that can be made in efficient agricultural production. They are needed and they have a role to play in the value chain as input suppliers, as output marketers and as profiteers. They add value by providing products for these farmers. If they profit, then they can provide the necessary investments into water, agricultural production and energy. By supplying these things to farmers, investors are enabling people to buy food from the farmers. They increase the overall income opportunities and possibilities in the value chain. In that way they are not duplicating the efforts of farmers, who are engaged in agricultural production. They can also make sure that farmers are matching supplies to demand. One of the constraints farmers face is they have no idea what the market demands are, but the private sector generally knows what the market is looking for through their ability to link demand and supply. They also provide the necessary investment to underwrite the necessary costs in the types of agricultural production that we've been talking about.

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Ad blocker interference detected! Wikia is a free-to-use site that makes money from advertising. We have a modified experience for viewers using ad blockers Wikia is not accessible if you’ve made further modifications. Remove the custom ad blocker rule(s) and the page will load as expected. Imagine if Italian nations had seized these opportunities. The New World was full of opprutunities, that being one of the reason that settlement began. What would the effect on the World Map be? How would this infulance the actions of other nations? Would would the Italian cultural presence be in the New World? That is what Italian Colonial America will explore. Point of Divergence In our timeline in 1608 Fernando I of Tuscany commissioned an expedition of English explorer Robert Thornton to South America hoping to establish a Tuscan Colony. Thornton explored the Guiana region, scouting out a place near modern day Cayenne for a colony. After Thornton returned back to Tuscany, he discovered Fernando was dead having died on February 16, 1609. Thornton then proceeded to gather settlers from Livorno and Lucca with plans to embark in the summer of 1609, until Cosimo II of Tuscany, Fernando's son scrapped the expedition. In this timeline Fernando survives placing more of an emphasis on colonialism.

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Insurance policies can range from a few pages to over 100 pages in length and include a number of provisions and terms that a policy holder must read through thoroughly in order to understand. One of those terms is “unit of insurance.” Insurance companies calculate their rates and premiums based on the applicable unit of insurance. A unit of insurance has subtle differences in its definition based on the type of insurance the unit refers to. In exchange for the amount an insured person pays in premiums, the insurance company takes over the majority of the risk for the insured asset including property, life and health. Insurance companies incorporate expenses, reasonable profits and risk adjustments for loss expectations. They apply these rates as costs per unit of insurance which also reflect state regulatory charges and limits. Insurance companies calculate the cost of insurance by multiplying the premium per unit of insurance by the number of units a policy holder purchased. Life insurance policy are priced based on each unit of life insurance coverage, typically defined as $1,000 of standard term or whole life coverage. Insurance companies base units on risk factors including gender and age and on the various provisions required by the department of insurance for different states. A unit of insurance also relates to the benefit amount a policy holder purchases. In hazard, property and business interruption insurance, a unit of insurance refers to the item that has coverage. This includes an in-progress construction structure, a building or business income over a specified period of time. Policies often use the "unit of insurance" term when delineating deductible amounts per occurrence or per insured item. This typically occurs when a policy places different conditions on different types of items. For example, the policy may provide one level of replacement coverage for property and another for business income. For liability, insurance companies set rates as the price per unit of insurance for each unit exposed to liability. Insurance defines properties or liabilities with similar characteristics as an exposure unit. Similar to life insurance, a unit of insurance in liability equals $1,000 of standard liability coverage. Therefore, someone with $300,000 in liability coverage would have 300 units of $1,000 in coverage. As with liability and life insurance, insurance companies define a unit of insurance for health coverage as $1,000 in coverage. Health insurance rates reflect the levels of historical losses that the health insurance provider has experienced with a particular group, often a large company or a pool of smaller companies. - Michael Blann/Digital Vision/Getty Images - Are Life Insurance Death Benefits Taxable Income? - What Happens to Insurance When You Get a Ticket? - What Does the Sony Corp. Own? - Life Insurance Beneficiary Rules - Annuitant Vs. Owner - A Checklist for Adding a Baby to Health Insurance & Life Insurance - Can Someone Take Over Payments on a Financed Vehicle? - What Is Insurance Twisting? - Can a Life Insurance Policy Be Switched to an Annuity? - Is My Life Insurance Policy Premium Tax Deductible?

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As English Language Learners prepare to become effective academic writers, one of the most essential skills that they will need to acquire is paraphrasing for the purpose of source integration. Writing teachers will often find themselves reminding students to put things “in their own words”, but for many students, this is not a simple task, and they will need thorough practice before it becomes an accessible skill. Before students can begin to paraphrase with ease, they need to understand the purpose for doing so, and develop strategies for making it happen. Help Your Students Paraphrase Effectively Explaining Academic Integrity Students are more motivated to learn a new concept when they have a clear understanding of the purpose and importance of the task. It’s crucial that students understand why source attribution is so important in Western culture: we want to give others credit for their ideas when we share them. Some English as a Second Language students may come from cultural backgrounds that value shared information in a different way; in fact, often times, the use of others’ ideas can actually be seen as a sign of respect in some collectivist cultures. In some instances, there are no conventions for including citations in place. Comparing Summarizing to Quoting and Paraphrasing From the start, students should know that they will utilize paraphrasing to lend support to their ideas by providing evidence through the use of paraphrasing and quoting sources. Quoting is used similarly to paraphrasing, and teaching these two writing techniques together can highlight the similarities and differences for students, hopefully, resulting in a greater understanding of how to properly use each technique to incorporate information from outside sources. Do you remember the childhood game, “telephone”? While paraphrasing is typically taught as a writing skill, students may benefit from exposure to it in a less formal way first. Paraphrasing comes naturally in speaking; we do it almost every day without realizing it. By engaging students in a casual and fun game of telephone, you can help them to connect paraphrasing to real life. Have students sit in a circle; the teacher can start the game by whispering a short, silly message to the student next to him. That student passes the message along to the next and so on. By the time the message has made its way around the circle, it will likely have changed into something completely different than the original. This is fun way to show students how easily information can get “lost” if we aren’t extremely careful with how we “pass it along”. One of the activities that works well to illustrate the challenges of paraphrasing well is to create an activity in which students work together in groups to write paraphrases of short excerpts from texts and then give them to another group of students in the class to “paraphrase the paraphrase.” The second group can give it to a third group, and so on. The activity can get time-consuming, and three rounds of paraphrasing should be sufficient. At the end of the activity, the class can compare the final paraphrase with the original and check to see if the meaning of the original has remained intact. If the meaning varies greatly, it’s important to direct students to review the progression as the paraphrase was forwarded to each group. This will help to illustrate errors, which can be used as a valuable opportunity for learning. Avoid Common Problems There is a tendency among students to approach paraphrasing as a task that involves simply changing each word by using synonyms without addressing sentence structure. Arming student with different strategies is essential, and helping students to think of paraphrasing as a task similar to the way they would simply tell a friend story is essential. An instructor needs to provide ample opportunity for students to engage in structured practice that allows them to develop a variety of strategies and then put them together. For those ESL students who will be pursuing academic studies in any capacity, paraphrasing is an essential literacy skill that should be carefully developed. Teachers can aid the process by making sure that the purpose and technique of paraphrasing is clearly understood, and providing well-structured activities for guided practice.

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ERIC Number: ED162512 Record Type: RIE Publication Date: 1976-Dec Reference Count: 0 The Acquisition of Dimensional Adjectives as a Function of the Underlying Perceptual Event. Papers and Reports on Child Language Development, No. 12. Focusing on the acquisition of semantic features and the relation between semantic and perceptual features, this study further tests the "semantic feature hypothesis," where a child acquires full adult word meaning component by component, and its complementary "correlation hypothesis," which claims that the source of these semantic features lies in underlying perceptual events. Dimensional adjectives were chosen because they can be defined in terms of perceptual features, such as height and length, which are amenable to experimental control. Forty children were administered four tasks at weekly intervals, and the results revealed a six-stage model of development in each child's pattern of response to "big,""little," and "long." The "semantic feature hypothesis" is systematically evaluated against the data, and it is concluded that those aspects of the hypothesis pertaining to the acquisition of semantic features are supported, but that aspects pertaining to the organization of features within semantic space need expanding to account for what happens with semantic space once a new feature is acquired and that linguistic development appears to be more than just a reflection of corresponding cognitive development. (EJS) Descriptors: Adjectives, Age Differences, Child Language, Cognitive Development, Concept Formation, Elementary School Students, Individual Differences, Language Acquisition, Language Processing, Language Research, Learning Theories, Linguistic Theory, Perception, Preschool Children, Psycholinguistics, Semantics Publication Type: Reports - Research Education Level: N/A Authoring Institution: Stanford Univ., CA. Dept. of Linguistics.

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- pedigree (n.) - early 15c., "genealogical table or chart," from Anglo-French pe de gru, a variant of Old French pied de gru "foot of a crane," from Latin pedem accusative of pes "foot," from PIE root *ped- (1) "a foot" (see foot (n.)) + gruem (nominative grus) "crane," cognate with Greek geranos, Old English cran; see crane (n.)). On old manuscripts, "descent" was indicated by a forked sign resembling the branching lines of a genealogical chart; the sign also happened to look like a bird's footprint. Form influenced in Middle English by association with degree. Meaning "ancestral line" is mid-15c.; of animals, c. 1600. Related: Pedigreed.

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This is the chapter entitled, Quebec, from the book, JE ME SOUVIENS Motto of Quebec Bearing the soul of a people, the flag of Quebec is the embodiment of the provincial motto, I remember. With its fleurs-de-lis, white cross, and blue field, it reaches right back to the beginning of New France and the flags flown by Champlain both on his ship and at his Abitation de Québec. Yet for all its comfortable familiarity today, the evolution of the flag of Quebec was as tortuous as was that of the flag of Canada. Flags of the French Régime THE FLEUR-DE-LIS AND THE CROSS Extended by tradition back to fifth century France, the fleur-de-lis was first used as a royal device by Louis VI (1108-1137). He affixed it to his seal, his coins, his cloths, and his flag. The latter, called the Bannière de France displayed the fleurs-de-lis spread (semé) over a rectangular field of blue, a colour which recalled the cloak of the renowned fourth century bishop, Saint Martin. After the Bannière had been used for two centuries in this form, Charles VI (1380-1422) reduced the number of fleurs-de-lis to three-apparently in honour of the Holy Trinity.2 In mediaeval France, the Bannière took on many of the characteristics of a national flag, for, although it was a banner of royal authority, it was used extensively on land and at sea.3 However, by the time of the settlement of New France it was falling into disuse. With the exception of momentary appearances at three subsequent royal events within France, the Bannière effectively vanished with the death of Henry IV in 1610. Indeed, by the time of the French Revolution in 1789, it had been forgotten for so long that the revolutionists even neglected to have it desecrated as a royal symbol.4 There is no record that the Bannière, itself, was ever used in what is now Canada, despite imaginative latter-day artistic renderings to the contrary.5 Rather, almost universally, everyone from explorers like Cartier, La Salle and La Vérendrye who were marking territory, to local officials at Québec, Montréal, and Trois-Rivières, who were erecting gates and buildings, used the Royal Arms.6 Not that the graphic design was any different - the Bannière being but the banner of these Royal Arms - but it remains that French practice more commonly relied upon the greater permanence of arms than the ephemerality of flags. Thus, although the fleur-de-lis did not appear on the Bannière in New France, and, indeed, only rarely upon other flags, this royal mark was well-known during the old régime. Nevertheless, the fleurs-de-lis did appear upon the very first flag to fly over Québec: the little swallow-tale pennant appearing in Champlain's illustration of his Abitation. It is sometimes assumed that this illustration shows the Bannière, itself. However, graphic design is not the only thing that distinguishes a flag; shape is also crucial, and Champlain's pennant is not rectangular. Although clearly derived from the Bannière, it appears to be one of the battlefield standards, or étendard, which was employed during the reign of Henry IV (1589-1610).7 On his ships, though, Champlain's flags bore a cross rather than the fleurs-de-lis. The ship illustrations on his map of 1612 show what seems to have been an early use of the flag of the French merchant marine: a white cross on a rectangular blue field.8 The use of a distinctive cross on a flag as a sign of national identity started in 1188, when on January 13, the kings of France, England, and Flanders settled on the colours they would use in the ensuing Crusade. Initially, the French cross was red on white, while the English was white on red, yet by 1277, England had reversed its colours to give the present Cross of Saint George. Then by 1375, France also reversed its colours, probably in response to the English, and from that time until the revolution, the white cross was a symbol of France.9 The present flag of Quebec emerges from Champlain's flags if a fleur-de-lis from the étendard on his Abitation is placed in each quadrant formed by the cross on the merchant flag of his ship. But that is not the end of the story, for there was no continuity in the use of the fleur-de-lis upon flags in the three hundred and forty years between the foundation of the Abitation de Québec in 1608 and the adoption of the flag of Quebec in 1948. Upon flags, at least, the fleur-de-lis fell into an period of neglect which amazingly lasted over two centuries. The decline was under way soon after the foundation of New France as its inhabitants had begun to view a flag of white as an emblem of the French nation even during Champlain's lifetime. LE DRAPEAU BLANC Joan of Arc strongly influenced France to think of white as the principal national colour when she used it as the field of her banner. As she commented at her trial for heresy and sorcery on February 28, 1431: As white gradually became firmly established as a national colour, it replaced other colours upon royal, regimental, and naval flags. There it remained until the French Revolution. At sea, the White Flag was also often flown by the merchant marine "pour en tirer avantage dans leur commerce et Navigation."12 This occurred, despite the fact that the White Flag was reserved for the navy and that the merchantman were required, prior to 1661, to fly the blue flag with the white cross as had Champlain, or later, the same flag with an inescutcheon of the royal arms. It was probably this use of the White Flag by merchantmen which identified it with the nation for those at Québec. In July 1632, Père Le Jeune described the return of some settlers after a three-year absence forced by English privateers: Although at first the White Flag would have been seen primarily on ships, by 1656 it had spread to the land in the colony.14 A few years later in 1663, Louis XIV had proclaimed New France a royal colony and so changed its status from that of a commercial fiefdom. Now the royal purse could pay for the defense against the Iroquois with the result that in 1665 the Régiment de Carignan-Salières brought the White Flag to the forts it built along the Richelieu River. Across New France, from forts in Acadia to ships on Lake Ontario, the White Flag soon flew. That it was the recognized symbol of France was evident to all: in 1714, the English recaptured Fort Nelson on Hudson's Bay, and General Knight wrote, The White Flag was usually seen plain, but sometimes it bore either golden fleurs-de-lis or the royal arms; occasionally it bore both to form what was then the Royal Flag of France. Although records of such flags are rare, it is known that on December 3, 1738, when La Vérendrye entered a western fort in what is now Manitoba or western Ontario, he was preceded by a white pavillon painted with the Arms of France.16 Despite these variations, and despite the fact that the plain White Flag was officially the flag of the French navy, the inhabitants of New France identified with it from the early years until the fall of the French Régime. The British Period After the transition to British rule, either the Union Flag or the (plain) Red Ensign replaced the White Flag upon official structures in Quebec. However, not only are these flags discussed thoroughly elsewhere, but the flags of greatest interest for Quebec are those which arose from the aspirations of the Canadiens. For an amazingly long time, those aspirations were not to be expressed with the fleur-de-lis. Although this symbol was to become dominant in the twentieth century, in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, it had virtually vanished from consciousness. Not only had the fleur-de-lis rarely been seen upon flags during the French Régime, but any of the Royal Arms which had not been purged in 1759, were in 1775 ordered removed from "every Church or Court where they may at present remain."17 Indeed, even the motherland had vanished as a source of renewal of the fleur-de-lis, for when France went republican in 1789, it expunged all of its old symbols. In the twilight of the eighteenth century, it is doubtful that an bookmaker would have given the fleur-de-lis much of a chance for a comeback. Yet, the absence of an appropriate symbol, did not mean the absence of the desire for a flag. As the historian, Benjamin Sulte, described the situation as it was in 1807, But what should that Canadian flag be? The question prompted little response for the next quarter-century, but from 1832 until the beginning of the twentieth century various symbols competed vigorously for the position of honour. The 1830s were years of considerable political unrest and the strong feelings erupted in a profusion of flags that were characterized as much by what they were not, as by what they were; the flags recalled neither royalist France nor the United Kingdom; some recalled either revolutionary France or the United States; others, significantly, evoked Canada, itself. THE PATRIOTE PERIOD The very first of these flags is notable as (what is probably) the longest-lasting indigenous Canadian flag: the Patriote Flag. Still in use today in Montréal by the Société Saint-Jean-Baptiste (SSJB), this flag was inspired by the French Tricolore, but its design was distinctive: a horizontal tricolour of green over white over red. Created in 1832 by the Patriotes, the primary Francophone political party of the day, its reference to republican France, and to other conquered peoples-the green represented the Irish-spoke eloquently of the struggle for representative government in Lower Canada. From the beginning, the Patriote Flag proved popular: it was used by the SSJB from the inception of the society in 1834.19 Despite the fact that the Patriotes dominated the elected House of Assembly, most of the power was held by the appointed Legislative Council. An appeal to the British Government to make the system more democratic was rejected, and March of 1837 the power of the Assembly was further eroded when the governor of Lower Canada was even authorized to bypass them on budgetary matters. The resulting resentment was expressed through words, rallies, rebellion, and many more flags. On June 1, 1837, the leader of the Patriotes, Louis-Joseph Papineau, was led into an assembly at Ste-Scholastique behind the Patriote Flag, which had been adorned with a maple leaf, beaver, and muskellunge. Another flag bearing maple leaves, and apparently prepared for this gathering was the one carried the following December 14 by the Patriotes in the battle of Saint-Eustache. This assembly in June marked the first appearance of any indigenous Canadian symbols on flags, and, in particular, the first appearance on flags of maple leaves. The maple leaves were not uniformly used as an appeal to nationalism: one flag showed a branch of maple leaves in the claws of a Canadian eagle which was winging its way to a star representing the U.S.A. Unless the graphical message was not already abundantly clear, it also bore the inscription "NOTRE AVENIR" [OUR FUTURE]. Another flag appealed to the same destiny with stars and an American eagle. Throughout, these and other flags made a strong appeal for democracy in Canada. The principal flag, however, remained the green-white-red tricolour of the Patriotes, and, on October 23, 1837, it was adopted as the flag of the rebellion. But the rebellion failed, and the flags, like the Patriotes, retreated from the scene. Nevertheless, from the point of view of symbols, the decade was a period of a glorious awakening of Canadian flags. And if the designs sometimes spoke of other lands, their basic appeal for democracy was laudable. In the 1840s the symbolic ground shifted away from the Patriote Flag. Not that the only recently established practice of embellishing flags with Canadian symbols changed, although the beaver did seem gradually to lose ground to the maple leaf as the century progressed. Rather, the change was in the basic pattern which shifted to European French design, either royalist or republican, with the republican dominating the rest of the century. THE TRICOLORE TRIUMPHS TEMPORARILY This move was under way as early as 1842 when the just founded Société Saint-Jean-Baptiste in Québec chose a vertical bicolour of green and white rather than the Patriote Flag. Then, in 1844 the SSJB in Montréal switched from the Patriote Flag to the French Tricolore, and later the same year the newly founded Institute Canadien adopted it also. Later (in 1888), the Québec SSJB was even to drop its green-and-white and join the Tricolore ranks. The use of the Tricolore was given a boost with the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1853. Britain and France were allies in this battle against Russia and so flying it became at once pro-French and pro-British. From this time until it began to lose ground to a royalist symbol early in the twentieth century, the revolutionary Tricolore was the flag favoured by most French-Canadians. Although the flag was usually seen plain, in Quebec the white pale sometimes sported maple leaves, a beaver, or both. Outside Quebec, the Acadians created their own flag in 1884 by adding the golden Stella Maris [Star of Mary] at the top of the blue pale. The 1840s not only brought the Tricolore, they also brought the royalist symbol which was eventually to trounce the Tricolore. In one of the most remarkable symbolic rebirths of all time, the fleur-de-lis reentered Quebec consciousness in an almost bizarre fashion. The Reincarnation of the Fleur-de-Lis Although the fleur-de-lis had rarely appeared on a flag since the days of Champlain over two centuries earlier, and although it had sunk so far into obscurity that it had taken not so much as the smallest part in the rise of nationalist flags in the 1830s, yet, in the 1840s it abruptly began to be promoted as the strident symbol of yesteryear. Driven by a yearning for a symbolic identity, the public transformed a confected tradition into a real tradition and in the process transformed the fleur-de-lis into the symbol of the people of Quebec in a way in which it had never been the symbol of the people of France: today, the fleur-de-lis is Quebec. To understand how this transformation came about, it helps to return to the eighteenth century to trace the remarkable fortunes of a religious hanging, or banner, which came to be known much later as the Carillon. Often displayed in churches or carried in processions, banners have long been used to express religious principles and to enhance religious ceremonies. Typically, such religious banners were hung from a crossbar attached to a vertical pole, and, in the early eighteenth century when the Carillon was apparently made, their use was common. The Carillon, measuring two metres wide by three metres high, was made with three strips of what once must have been white silk.21 The centre of one side is dominated by a full length image of the Virgin Mary holding the Infant Jesus, while the other bears the royal arms of France. Crucial for the present story are the fleurs-de-lis which grace the four corners of each side; while all are upside-down, the top ones point inwards, the bottom ones, outwards. Early in the Seven Years' War (1756-63) the Carillon probably resided in a chapel at one of the two French forts on the shores of the upper end of Lake Champlain.22 Fort Saint Frédéric (known to the Americans as Crown Point) and Fort Carillon (Ticonderoga) had been built to protect the Saint Lawrence Valley from an approach by the British down Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River. A field about a kilometer inland from Fort Carillon was the site, on July 8, 1758, of the last major French victory when the forces under Montcalm soundly defeated an Anglo-American force of over four times its size. However, subsequent military reversals caused a French withdrawal from both forts the following summer. The retreat was not hurried, and items, such as the Carillon Banner, which were not destroyed to keep them out of enemy hands, where transported north. Although it is tempting to assume that the Carillon would have resided at the fort of the same name, not only is the banner's name an unreliable guide as it arose nearly a century after the forts' abandonment, but the best, albeit indirect, evidence suggests that the banner would have been at Fort Saint Frédéric. It seems that Father Jean-Antoine Depéret, the chaplain there, carried the banner north upon the abandonment of the fort in 1759, and then turned it over to another military chaplain and Recollet priest, Father Félix Berey des Essarts, who, in turn, deposited it in the church of the Recollets, in Québec. There it remained until rescued by Brother Louis-François Martinette from a fire in the monastery in 1796. Brother Louis kept it in a coffer in his attic until, upon his deathbed in 1848, he gave it to Louis de Gonzague Baillairgé, a young lawyer who had been trying to locate the banner after hearing stories of it. In transferring the banner to Baillairgé, Brother Louis allowed that it was rumored to have had a heroic provenance: "a torn and tattered flag which, it was said at the convent, had seen the fire of Carillon."23 Baillairgé then displayed his preference for certitude over certainty as speculation was transformed in his mind into fact. Soon, the religious banner had been transformed into a battle standard, and a few months later, when it was carried in the procession of the SSJB, it was incontrovertibly presented as "the flag under which our ancestors gained renown at the Battle of Carillon."24 Indeed, under the persistent proselytization of Baillairgé, the primary symbolic value of the banner, incongruously dubbed the Drapeau de Carillon, was that it was a relic of a glorious past when Canadians fighting under its folds had played a brilliant part in the defeat of the enemy. In an age earnestly seeking an identifying symbol, here seemed to be one of truly heroic proportions. As the public stock of the Carillon climbed, so, too, the fleur-de-lis it bore arose from the ashes to assume a legendary past it had never experienced. In fact, Canadians had really played only a marginal role that grand July day in 1758: the Battle of Carillon was won by the French regulars. Canadians occupied only seven percent of the French force, and in their position on the right flank were never directly attacked. Further, although a contemporary source clearly shows the flags of the French regulars, it reveals none for the Canadians;25 nor would it have been easy for them to carry such a large banner as the Carillon for they were stationed in a forest. Indeed, there is every indication that at no time had the Canadian militia ever used flags or banners.26 Over the years there were many people who did not accept Baillairgé's fanciful and self-promotional version of events, but it was only after his death in 1896 that others were allowed to examine the Carillon in detail. In 1905, after it had been repaired at the Québec Seminary, a former superior there commented, "I have never been able to see in that relic that we guard so carefully here, anything but a banner carried in religious processions."27 Finally in 1915, historian, Ernest Gagnon published a learned article which dismantled the myth Baillairgé had woven.28 But it was too late: the juggernaut was rolling; the Tricolore had been displaced; and the fleur-de-lis now truly did wear the mantle of Quebec history. To leave the story here, would be to neglect another important, and independent, source of renewal for the fleur-de-lis in Quebec: heraldry. Short of religion, there are few human activities that possess as long and carefully nurtured a memory as does that of heraldry. In 1868, just following Confederation, Quebec received arms by royal warrant. Appearing on a gold field in the chief were two blue fleurs-de-lis which now served to give the device its first official approval in over a century. However, unlike the situation in every other province but Newfoundland, in Quebec, the arms did not play much of a role in influencing the design of the provincial flag. The Fleurs-de-Lis Flies Again In 1848, when the fleur-de-lis was reintroduced into Quebec society by the lawyer, Baillairgé, the Tricolore was ascendant, but slowly, the fleur-de-lis began to take hold. During the British-French alliance of the Crimean War, a frigate, La Capricieuse, became the first French naval vessel to sail up the St. Lawrence since the defeat of 1759-60. It was greeted at Québec with much fanfare by a panoply of officials, troops, Indians, and numerous sections of the SSJB. Many of these groups lofted flags and the Tricolore abounded, but among them, some students from the Seminary of Québec carried colourful flags bearing the fleur-de-lis.29 From that time until the end of the century, there was a sporadic but gradual increase in the use of fleurs-de-lis on flags in Quebec. For most of the rest of the nineteenth century, the contest over the flags was but one aspect of a battle fought on many fronts between ultramontanism and liberalism in Quebec. The ultramontanes, a conservative Catholic group who espoused the supremacy of the church over the state, generally promoted the old royalist symbol of the fleur-de-lis. The liberals, inspired by the democratic, republican and free-thinking ideas which emerged from the American and French revolutions, advocated the Tricolore. The ideologies of the ultramontane never triumphed and were finally dismantled in the mid-twentieth century by Vatican II and the quiet revolution. Nevertheless, there is a irony in the fact that the symbol they supported was to win even though there cause was lost. What had been, in the nineteenth century, a trickle of fleur-de-lis flags, became, with the turn of the twentieth century, a veritable flood-a flood probably driven as much by the imperialism of anglophones as by the nationalism of francophones. In the 1890s, Canadians of both stripes had often displayed their nationalism (Canationalism?) by flying the Canadian Red Ensign. While fundamentally a British flag, it did bear a distinctive Canadian badge on the fly, and that badge did include the arms of Quebec. But among anglophones, an imperialist mood was gaining ground, driven, in part, by the patriotism engendered by the desire to fight alongside the motherland in the South African War (1899-1902). Amidst this wave of jingoistic imperialism, the Union Flag became canonized as the symbol of the British Empire. Until recently, this flag had taken a distant second to the more nationalistic Canadian Red Ensign, but now it swept the ensign aside in a mood that made the Union Flag de rigueur for all right-thinking Canadians to fly. Inexplicably (that is, for anglophones), the French-Canadians just failed to understand the compelling virtue of adding the Boers to the long list of Britain's subjugated peoples. This incomprehension lead to the Montréal riots of March 1900, during which, the students of McGill University took it upon themselves to make sure that shops, newspapers, city hall, and the Université Laval, all adopted right-thinking attitudes and flew, if necessary by force, the Union Flag.30 Such microcephalic thinking was unfortunately not limited to the students: the Ontario press savagely excoriated French-Canadians for not possessing the proper imperial attitude.31 This environment cannot but have added an urgency to the need francophones already felt for a flag which would distinguish them from other Canadians. The dénouement arrived on September 26, 1902 when Abbot Ephège Filiatrault hoisted a flag on his presbytery of Saint Jude at Saint-Hyacinthe. Anticipating the present flag of of Quebec, Filiatrault placed a fleur-de-lis in each quadrant formed by a white cross on a blue field. But, Filiatrault's fleurs-de-lis all pointed to the centre, while those on the provincial flag are erect. The inspiration for the Abbot's flag was unambiguous. As he described it in a pamphlet he published under the pseudonym of "un Compatriote": So strongly had his design been influenced by what he believed to be the properties of that infamous banner, that Filiatrault's flag also was promptly, if somewhat confusingly, dubbed the Carillon. And, if most of Filiatrault's historical assertions were spurious-the Canadiens' participation in the battle of Carillon had not been significant; the banner had not been present at the battle; its field was not blue; his claim that the cross was inspired by those on the flags of the chevalier de Lévis (of the 1760 capitulation at Montréal) was just wishful thinking-nevertheless, Filiatrault's primary objective was beautifully fulfilled. He wanted the flag to use the symbols of the past to convey "les mânes de nos ancêtres...du pieux souvenir de leur postérité"33 [to posterity a reverent recollection of the spirits of our ancestors]. In this aim, he succeeded superlatively, and, if some of the ancestors were a little more distant than he had imagined-Champlain rather than Montcalm and Lévis-it is doubtful that Filiatrault would have minded. Filiatrault had omitted the maple leaf and the beaver, not because they were inadequately Canadian, but rather because they were quintessentially Canadian. He was designing a flag for French Canadians, not for all Canadians.34 However, in looking at the beauty of his design, it is clear that he understood that elegant simplicity is paramount in effective flag design. Possibly, he was just seeking to do a better job than the then current version of the Canadian Red Ensign, the aberrant seven-province flag which presented a dog's breakfast of unrecognizability. Possibly, he just had a good eye. Not surprisingly, what happened next was not to the Abbot's taste.35 On March 24, 1903, some influential citizens of Quebec formed Le Comité du drapeau national de Québec [The Committee of the National Flag of Quebec] and decided that Filiatrault's flag was but a good start; what it really needed was the addition of a few more motifs: a sacred heart of Jesus and a wreath of maple leaves.36 This composite design was soon known by the equally composite name Le Carillon-Sacré-Coeur. Flag design by committee all too often produces a smorgasbord, as a little something is included to keep each faction happy.37 Abbot Filiatrault was not alone in his dislike for these modifications, but despite his objections, before long other modifications were proffered which added, say, a statue of the Sacré-Coeur de Montmartre, or the arms of Quebec with or without wreath, beaver and motto, and so it went. Indeed, completely new designs continued to be proposed in abundance right into the 1940s.38 One accepted for many years by the SSJB (Montréal) was designed by L.J.A.Derome about 1912.39 The upper hoist presented three golden fleurs-de-lis on blue, the lower hoist, a rampant lion on red, and the fly, an image of Saint John the Baptist replete with lamb, maple leaves and beaver. But a strong campaign developed in favour of the Carillon-Sacré-Coeur which was backed not only by the influential citizens, but by many of the Sociétés Saint-Jean-Baptiste which, in both Canada and the United States, passed resolutions of support of it.40 The campaign was often conducted on a grand scale: on March 1905, the newspaper, La Verité, promoted the flag by printing and distributing 15,000 postcards, 60,000 stickers, 20,000 prints, 150,000 buttons and insignias, 76,000 flags of all sizes, of which 500 were over 5.5 metres in length.41 The promotion continued, and, in 1926, the Carillon-Sacré-Coeur received quasi-official approval as a law in the Legislative Assembly recognized it as the flag of the SSJB in the Québec diocese.42 This step followed hard on the heals of both the 1925 brouhaha in the federal Parliament over whether it was even acceptable to contemplate the possibility of a national flag for Canada, and the 1926 contest in La Presse, which recommended a British-pattern ensign for the country.43 It seems that once again, the vexillological uncertainties of the larger Canadian community, served to heighten the need to establish an appropriate symbol for Quebec. Opposition to the retention of the sacred heart on what was fundamentally a civil flag remained, and support grew in the 1930s for a return to Filiatrault's Carillon flag.44 Yet, there is scant evidence that the Legislative Assembly would have settled the issue and created a provincial flag had not events at the federal level intervened to reveal, once again, the parochial nature of the country's leaders. Le Drapeau Québécois The Second World War, as wars are wont to do, heightened a sense of national identity. Although the Union Flag flew on the Parliament Buildings in Ottawa throughout, from the beginning there was a sense that it was not the flag under which Canadians wished to fight. The First Division went overseas under the Battle Flag of Canada, approved by the war cabinet in 1939. Even though this flag had not been designed by a committee, it contained a little something for everyone: the Union Flag in the canton, three red maple leaves in the centre, and three golden fleurs-de-lis on a blue roundel on the fly. The flag did not gain the approval of the troops, but it was a step in the right direction. By early 1944, the Canadian Red Ensign flew officially at army and air-force bases overseas, and on September 5, 1945, it permanently replaced the Union Flag on the Peace Tower. In making these changes, Ottawa was following, albeit lagging far behind, public opinion in Canada. Those who had served overseas sought a solely Canadian flag-as a representative letter put it: "To the devil with the Fleur-de-lis and the Union Jack."45 That this sentiment was mirrored at home soon became evident, as, across the country, only 14% of the public were to include the Union Flag, and 7%, the fleur-de-lis, in the designs submitted to the Parliamentary flag committee in 1946.46 Prime Minister King had bowed to popular pressure in November, 1945 when he established the joint committee of the Senate and House to consider a suitable design for a distinctive national flag. Instructing the committee, Secretary of State Paul Martin asked that the flag of Canada be unlike any other, and in particular "symbolic of the country and of its position as a sovereign state".47 Reenforcing this position, the Legislative Assembly of Quebec unanimously beseeched the committee to choose "un drapeau véritablement canadien"48 [a flag that would be truly Canadian]. Along with the majority of Canadians elsewhere, Quebec sought a flag that excluded any sign of subjection, or colonialism. It was not to be; the committee lacked the courage to go against Mackenzie King's private instructions to the Liberal majority that they were to support his personal favourite: the red ensign with the golden maple leaf on the fly. The whole thing was a mummery, and in the end, Mr. King made some feeble excuses and the committee's subservient recommendations were shelved. This caused the passionate Canadian, T.S. Ewart, to make the too general, but poignant remark: But while anglophones, such as Ewart, lamented and chose to bide their time, francophones acted-if Canadians as a whole did not know who they were, at least the Québécois did. So it was that the ineptitude of the federal politicians prompted René Chaloult, independent deputy from Québec-Comté, to present a motion to the Legislative Assembly (November 19, 1946) inviting This was clever, for, under the guise of promoting a national flag of Canada, he was actually seeking a provincial flag of Quebec. In the debate the following March, opinion over whether Quebec should adopt a flag was divided, and so a committee was established to study the problem. The labours of the committee produced nothing but support in principle for a flag. Although the politicians dithered, for the rest of 1947, the public clamored for the Fleurdelisé, a name applied by that time to Filiatrault's Carillon. On December 2, Chaloult presented a new motion which argued that if Nova Scotia could claim a flag, so should Quebec. Finally on January 21, 1948, the government acted decisively, and before the issue could be debated again, the cabinet presented a decree: To Premier Maurice Duplessis's announcement that the Fleurdelisé was already flying over the tower, the Assembly erupted in thunderous applause. Formal approval of the Legislative Assembly arrived two years later on March 9, 1950. Before long the Fleurdelisé, as the provincial flag was now known, had attained a comfortable familiarity which made it seem as if it had been the flag of Quebec since the Abitation. Abbot Filiatrault would have been proud-but then, for that matter, so would have been Champlain. The Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec Before the authorization of a special flag badge for the Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec on July 17, 1870, he probably flew the plain Union Flag at his residence.51 As the special flag for the Lieutenant-Governor was originally intended for use aboard a ship, it is not clear how long it was before it began to replace the plain Union Flag on land. The badge that the Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec placed in the centre of the Union Flag was, like that of the other four founding provinces, the provincial arms enwreathed in maple leaves. So, even though the arms were of minor influence in the design of the provincial flag, they were very important for the Lieutenant-Governor's flag. Each of the four founding provinces received arms by royal warrant on May 26, 1868. Quebec's reads like a chronology: fleurs-de-lis in the chief representing the French Régime, an English lion in the centre (fess) representing the British Period, and maple leaves in the base for the Canadian period. Curiously, although three golden fleurs-de-lis on a blue field had been the traditional representation, yet, two blue ones on a golden field appeared on the 1868 arms. No explanation was given at the time for these choices, but plausible ones are not hard to find. The practice of reversing colours on derivative arms is well established: just as the saltire on the 1625 arms of Nova Scotia (New Scotland) is a reversal of the white saltire on blue used by Scotland, it would be equally appropriate if the fleurs-de-lis on the portion of the arms representing New France were a reversal of those of France. It has also been suggested that the change in number and colour was just a polite way for Queen Victoria's heralds to distance themselves from the historic claim England had for land in France.52 After all, in pursuant of this claim, the royal arms of Britain had born golden fleurs-de-lis from 1340 to 1801; there was no point in opening old wounds now by returning them to the arms of a British dominion. Finally, the choices may have been driven as much by design considerations.53 Certainly, as presented, the arms of Quebec are a beautiful match to those granted to Nova Scotia at the same time. Whatever the original reasons, with the rise of interest in the fleur-de-lis in the early twentieth century, the representation of Quebec by two blue ones did not seem consonant with images of the past. On December 9, 1939, a provincial order-in-council declared that there would now be three golden fleurs-de-lis on a blue field in the chief of the arms. At the same time, the motto, JE ME SOUVIENS, was added on a scroll below and a crown was placed above. Aesthetically, these changes were very effective, although it remains the fact that arms are something granted by the sovereign and are not subject to capricious modification by those who hold them.54 Thus, there were now two versions of the Quebec arms in use: the official (1868) ones, and the assumed (1939) ones. Needless to say, the assumed version was preferred within the province, while either might be used outside.55 While the 1939 version of the arms was ultimately to appear upon the flag of the Lieutenant-Governor, it is not clear that it was ever used as a badge upon the Union Flag, for, in 1940, the new Lieutenant-Governor, Sir Eugène Fiset (1939-50), chose to fly the plain Union Flag, rather than one defaced by any badge. As the king's representative in Quebec, it is possible that he just found it easiest to avoid the question of what were the appropriate arms to use on the flag: Quebec's version, or the sovereign's version. The next Lieutenant-Governor, Gaspard Fauteux (1950-8), started using the Canadian Red Ensign on the gubernatorial residence of Blois de Coulogne. Certainly, this was in keeping with the shift to the Ensign rather than the Union Flag which had occurred in 1945 at the federal level. However, this usage did not last very long, for with the adoption of the provincial flag by the Legislative Assembly on March 7, 1950, the Union Flag on the tower of the Legislative Assembly had been replaced by the new provincial flag. It seems that at this point Fauteux also decided to have a new flag to identify the representative of His Majesty. With the assent of the Governor General, he chose to fly a flag patterned after the one used by the Governor General: royal blue in colour, with the (1939) arms on a white roundel in the centre.56 When this flag was introduced, it bore the crown with the raised arches, sometimes called the Tudor Crown. It now bears the depressed arches of the Saint Edward's Crown, favoured by the Queen. Quebec did not join the majority of the other provinces in the 1980s when they adopted the modern pattern for the flag of the Lieutenant-Governor. However, despite the minor design differences, such as the wreath of golden maple leaves and the flag shape, in many ways it was the other provinces which were, after some thirty years, following the lead of Quebec. Flags of Occasion The use of a flag to mark a special occasion has a long history in Quebec. An early one was the one hoisted to mark the Tercentenary of the City of Québec in 1908. A white cross was place upon a powder blue field strewn (semé) with fleurs-de-lis.57 The best known flag of occasion in Canada, the one for the 1967 Centennial of Confederation, is often mistakenly believed to be the flag of Montréal's EXPO 67. But, EXPO had ones of its own. The flag for the Canadian Centennial Exposition presented the theme for the whole fair, Man and his World, by reproducing the symbol,, eight times in a ring. The device was usually presented in white on a blue field. Montréal also used distinctive flags as the host of the Summer Olympics in 1976, and the horticultural fair, Les Floralies internationales, in 1980. The latter bore a symbol which evoked not only the floral context of the exposition (a hand-held bouquet), but Montréal (the M at the bottom), Quebec (the fleur-de-lis), and the world (the disk).58 Each of Quebec's two oldest universities flies an armorial banner based from the arms its eponym. In 1922, McGill University received arms derived from those which had been granted posthumously to its founder, James McGill. The red and white armorial banner of the university displays three martlets, a mythical bird which, lacking feet, is portrayed in motion. The crowns bearing fleurs-de-lis are a reference to both the city's royal name and its French nature, while the open book is the heraldic symbol of an institution of learning. In 1952, Université Laval was granted arms which are but a colour inversion of the blazon of François de Laval, the first bishop of Québec. The armorial banner flown by the university bears a golden cross on a red field. Five blue shells on the cross recall the crusades in which Msgr. de Laval's ancestors took part; the sixteen silver allerions are spread eaglets without beck or talons and represent defeated and disarmed enemies. The Université de Montréal adopted a new monogram in 1967. It forms the university's flag when displayed in gold on a blue field. The Collège militaire royal de St.-Jean uses a flag which follows the pattern set by its sister, the Royal Military College, in Kingston, Ontario. Flown first during the graduation ceremonies on May 11, 1985, the flag is divided into three pales of light blue, white, and light blue, while the crest of the college, a mailed fist holding three maple leaves, is place in the central pale. Municipal or Regional Flags The capital city of Québec has one of the most effective and prettiest municipal flags in the country. Lifted from the city's arms, a golden ship on a blue field recalls not only the foundation of the city in 1608, but also the long-time maritime activities of its residents. The silver, crenelated border represents the fact that Québec is a walled city. This flag was adopted by a city by-law on January 12, 1987 and raised on the City Hall on February 3. From 1967 until 1987, the city flew a white ensign with the Fleurdelisé in the canton and the city arms on the fly. Montréal uses a banner of its arms: in the quadrants formed by a Saint George's cross there appear a fleur-de-lis, a rose, a thistle, and a shamrock. The flag has been used since May 1939 when it was introduced to mark the visit of King George VI. At that time, the arms had only recently been revised from the pattern used since 1833 which had employed a Saint Andrew's cross. At the end of March 1981, a logotype was introduced and it now appears on almost every article used to represent the city-except flags. Actually, it did appear on a flag briefly at the symbol's inception, but as this use was not continued, the traditional flag remains in place. Since its centennial of settlement in 1938, the delightfully styled Kingdom of Saguenay has flown a striking flag. Its creation, by Monseigneur Victor Tremblay, the director of La Société Historique de Saguenay.59 was prompted in part, it seems, from the lack of either a national or provincial flag at the time.60 The flag bears a double cross: silver representing industry, over red for the population. The upper two quadrants are green, symbolizing the forests, and the lower ones, yellow, for the ripe harvests. The approach adopted in the Saguenay, of specifically designing a flag, as such, seems to be rare among the Quebec municipalities. More often, flag design appears to be a secondary byproduct of other forms of identification. Possibly, this is but a reflection of the preference early settlers and explorers had for the use of arms rather than flags. It is a widespread practice in Quebec for municipal flags to have a white field. It is pleasant to imagine that this constitutes a reference to the White Flag of the old régime. In the centre of the flag will be placed either a heraldic or logotypic badge. Normally communities carefully record the date when arms were granted (or assumed), or when a logotype was adopted. But the date the device was placed upon a flag, which may be a decade or so later, often goes unrecorded. So, it is often unclear when the flag, itself, began to be used. With a few exceptions, the raising of most municipal flags in Quebec seems to have awaited the adoption of the National Flag in 1965. All the municipalities on the Île de Montréal have been been represented in the Montréal Urban Community since 1970. Although most of their flags were adopted after that time, in 1969, LaSalle adopted one which combined the eight-pointed star from the arms of its eponym, Robert-René Cavelier de LaSalle, with blue wavy lines from the municipal arms. In 1976, Saint-Laurent adopted a logotype evocative of a tree, blossom, or open-armed greeting. This was subsequently placed upon a white field to form the municipal flag. The same approach was followed by Outremont and Lachine. Lachine's badge, adopted about 1980, shows two stylized leaves, the ribs of each forming an L. The blue leaf evokes water and the old way of life and the green one, foliage and modern dynamism. The neighouring communities of Boucherville, Pierrefonds and Saint-Bruno-de-Montarville place their arms upon white, while Brossard and Longueuil employ a logotype in the same way. Before adopting its logotype in 1978, Longueuil flew a flag with a white cross on red on the hoist and a blue fleur-de-lis on white on the fly. Laval places its logotype, an L built out of cubes, upon a grey field. All five write their names upon their flags. Until 1987, nearby Saint-Eustache placed its arms in the white canton of an otherwise horizontal tricolour of red, green and blue. Thereafter, two blue swallows flew against a white sky. Saint-Jérôme uses a pictorial scene within a maple-leaf outline and places it upon a yellow field. Joliette, has a vertical bicolour of white and blue; the city's arms are placed upon the blue, while its name is written on the white. Along the Ottawa River, the cities of Aylmer and Gatineau, both have flags. Aylmer's badge, which is placed upon a white field, recalls not only the adjacent Lake Deschênes, but the villages of Deschênes, Lucerne and Aylmer, out of which the city was formed in 1975. Gatineau placed its arms in the central pale of a vertical tricolour of green, white and orange. In 1987 a logotype, in the form of a stylized green G on white, was adopted. The arms, which Sherbrooke places upon a white field along with its name, evoke the city's location at the junction of the Saint-François and Magog Rivers in the Eastern Townships. The city of Cap-de-la-Madeleine, situated along the St. Lawrence between Montréal and Quebec, specifically designed a flag and adopted it in 1969.61 It is divided into three diagonal panels: the red at the hoist bears the national symbol of a maple leaf; the white in the centre, the city's arms; and the blue on the fly, the provincial emblem of a fleur-de-lis. The design bears a striking similarity to the flag that Red Deer, Alberta, adopted eight years later. Across the river, Bécancour reestablishes the pattern that characterizes much of the lower St. Lawrence: a badge on a white field. Bécancour and Rivière-du-Loup employ a logotype while Sept-Iles, Matane, and Ste-Anne-des-Monts use arms. Each includes its name upon the flag. Ste-Anne-des-Monts has also revived a much older flag, bearing the monogram SA, which had been employed in the mid twenties to embellish homes on the occasion of the Fête Dieux, Saint-Jean Baptiste day and the festival of Ste Anne. Baie-Comeau has had a flag since 1985 when it reversed the colours of its logotype to display white upon blue. This, along with the absence of any writing, contributes to a very effective flag. This sampling of the municipal flags of Quebec is far from exhaustive. Yet, the selections appear representative. This is the chapter entitled, Quebec, from the book, 1. Reuben Gold Thwaites, The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, 1610-1791, Vol. 3 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1896-1901), pp. 28-29. 2. Whitney Smith, Flags through the Ages and Across the World (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975), p. 131. 3. August Vachon, "The Royal Mark in New France,"The Archivist, Vol 17, No. 1 (Ottawa: National Archives of Canada, January-February 1990), pp. 11-13. 4. Gustave Desjardins, Recherches sur les drapeaux français (Paris: Vve A. Morel et Cie, 1874), pp. III-IV, 15, 18, 60-62, 113. The three occasions were the coronation (1610) and funeral (1643) of Louis XIII, and the funeral (1715) of Louis XIV. 5. There is a record of the Bannière's use on Pierre du Gua de Monts' lodging at his settlement on île Sainte-Croix in 1604. But this island in the St. Croix River is just over the border in Main rather than New Brunswick. The record can be found in Marc Lescarbot, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France ... suivie des Muses de la Nouvelle-France, Vol. II (Paris: Edwin Tross, 1866), p. 450. 6. Many more examples, extending over two centuries, of this use of the Royal Arms in North America are cited by Vachon, The Archivist. 7. Desjardins, Recherches..., pp. 50-51. 8. Certainly, by 1643 the merchant marine was identified by the rectangular blue flag with the white cross. In 1661, an edict of Louis XIV required an inescutcheon of the royal arms to be added to this merchant's flag. The swallow-tale pennant also appearing on his ship is, like the one on the Abitation, a battlefield standard. See Vachon, The Archivist. 9. Smith, Flags..., pp. 44-45. 10. Alain René Lesage, Les aventures de Monsieur Robert Chevalier dit Beauchêne..., t. 1 (Maestricht: Jean-Edmé Dufour S. Phil. Roux, 1780), p. 126. 11. Smith, Flags..., p. 66. 12. Timothy Wilson, Flags at Sea (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1986), p. 61. 13. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, Vol. 5, p. 42. 14. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, Vol. 43, p. 138. 15. René Chartrand, "The Flags of New France," The Flag Bulletin, XV:1 (1976), pp. 13-21. See also Chartrand, "Les drapeau en Nouvelle-France," Conservation Canada, Vol. 1, No. 1, (1974), pp. 24-25. 16. Antoine Champagne, Nouvelle études sur les La Vérendrye et le poste de l'Ouest (Québec: Les presses de l'Université Laval, 1971), p. 152. 17. Alan B. Beddoe, Beddoe's Canadian Heraldry (Revised by Col. Strome Galloway) (Belleville: Mika, 1981), p. 41. 18. Benjamin Sulte, Melanges Historiques, La SSJB 1834-1852, Vol. 15 (Montréal: Ducharme, 1921), p. 65. 19. Raoul Roy, Pour un drapeau indépendantiste (Montréal: Les éditions du frac-canada, 1965), pp. 14-15. 20. Eric Hobsbawm, "Introduction: Inventing Traditions" The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 2. 21. The silk has turned a light brown and very brittle with age. The design and workmanship of the banner was of low quality. 22. This reconstruction of the early history of the Carillon is based largely on the careful scholarly work of D. Peter MacLeod and C. Michel Boucher, "The Drapeau de Carillon, History and Legend," The Flag Bulletin,, XXXII, 2 (1993), p. 66-87. 23. E. Gagnon, "Le Drapeau de Carillon," Revue canadienne, new series, Vol. II (March 1882), pp.129-139, see p. 133. 24. Le Journal de Québec (June 27, 1848). See also the Quebec Gazette (June 28,1848). 25. H.-R. Casgrain, Lettres et pièces militaires, instructions, ordres, mémoires, plans de campagne et de défense, 1756-1760 (Québec, 1891). 26. MacLeod and Boucher, "The Drapeau de Carillon ."The Flag Bulletin,, XXXII, 2 (1993), p. 70-71. 27. J.C.K. Laflamme to Gagnon, February 10, 1905. See Gagnon, "Le prétendu drapeau de Carillon," p. 306. 28. E. Gagnon, writing as Pierre Sailly, "Le prétendu drapeau de Carillon," Revue canadienne, new series, Vol XVI (October 1915) pp. 304-306. 29. H.-J.-J.-B. Chouinard, Fête nationale des canadiens-français (Québec: A. Coté et Cie, 1881), pp. 78-79. 30. Rauol Roy, Pour un drapeau indépendantiste (Montréal: Les Éditions du Franc-Canada, 1965), p. 44. 31. Robert J.D. Page, Imperialism and Canada, 1895-1903, (Toronto: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972), p. 7. 32. Un Compatriote, Aux Canadiens-français, notre drapeau, (St. Hyacinthe: La Tribune, 1903), p. 17. Although it is widely claimed in the literature, and it seems reasonable, that this pamphlet was written by Abbot Ephège Filiatrault, no one seems to provide any basis for the assertion. Further, the literature sometimes claims that the pseudonym was "un patriote" and that the date was 1902. 33. Aux Canadiens-français, notre drapeau, p. 21. 34. Aux Canadiens-français, notre drapeau, p. 22. 35. Elphège Filiatrault, Nos couleurs nationales (Saint-Jude, 1905), 12 p. 36. Le Comité de Québec, Le Drapeau National des Canadiens français: un choix légitime et populaire. (Québec, 1904), 309 pp. 37. Although this is norm, there are striking exceptions such as the National Flag of Canada, where there was strong artistic leadership and the committee did not design as much as it chose between designs. 38. See: Edouard Blondel, "Les drapeaux canadiens" La Presse (1920 April 10), pp. 1, 8; and François Beaudoin, "Flags of Quebec"The Flag Bulletin, XXIII, 5 (1984), p. 157. 39. Jean-Guy Labarre, Non au Drapeau Canadien (Montréal: Les Éditions Actualité, 1962), p. 48. 40. Rodolphe Fournier, "Historique du Fleurdelisé" Le Manuel des Sociétés Saint-Jean-Baptiste (Québec: Les Editions du Richelieu, 1953), p. 89. 41. François Beaudoin, "Flags of Quebec"The Flag Bulletin, XXIII, 5 (1984), p. 157. 42. Labarre, Non au Drapeau Canadien, p. 49. 43. "The National Flag Contest" La Presse (Montréal, May 26, 1926), an editorial and an illustration. 44. Roy, Pour un drapeau indépendantiste, p. 76. 45. See the discussion in T.S. Ewart, A Flag for Canada (Ottawa: self, 1947), p. 5. 46. John Ross Matheson, Canada's Flag: A Search for a Nation, (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1980), p. 59-60. 47. Matheson, Canada's Flag, p. 50. 48. Labarre, Non au Drapeau Canadien, p. 51. 49. Jacques Archambault and Eugéne Lévesque, Le Drapeau Québécois (Québec: Éditeur officiel du Québec, 1978), p. 22. 50. Archambault and Lévesque, Le Drapeau Québécois, p. 23. 51. Although the new flag was approved on July 16, 1870, the despatch was not received by the Privy Council in Canada until August 8, which likely marks the earliest time the new flag would have been in use. 52. Alan B. Beddoe, Beddoe's Canadian Heraldry (revised by Col. Strome Galloway) (Belleville: Mika, 1981), p. 72. 53. Conrad Swan, Canada: Symbols of Sovereignty (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1977), p. 100. 54. In this way, arms are like a trademark or a patent, which are similarly not subject to arbitrary redefinition by the recipient. 55. The 1967 Centennial Fountain on Parliament Hill uses the 1868 version, while the 1986 Canadian Symbols Kit uses the 1939 version. 56. Memo from Micheline Dussault to Group Captain Gabriel Taschereau, Executive assistant to the Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec, circa January 1971. 57. Beaudoin, "Flags of Quebec", pp. 157. One of these Tercentennial flags is preserved in the museum at the Collège militaire royal de St.-Jean. 58. The symbol of the Montréal Olympics was created by Georges Huel, while that of Les Floralies internationales de Montréal was by Marcel Cadieux. 59. Hugh MacLennan, Rivers of Canada, "The Saguenay" (Toronto: Macmillan, 1974), p. 221. 60. Kevin Harrington, "The Saguenay Flag," Flagscan, Issue 11, Vol. III, No. 3 (Fall 1988), pp. 3-8. 61. Cap-de-la-Madeleine adopted its flag on Aug. 25, 1969. This is the chapter entitled, Quebec, from the book,

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Legal Treatises by Subject In this guide you will find legal treatises for various fields of law arranged alphabetically. Treatises are secondary sources that cover an area of law in depth, and are a good place to start in order to find explanations and citations of primary law such as statutes and case law. NOTE: although some of the publications have older copyright dates, many of them are updated periodically with supplements or new chapters/pages—so if an older dated publication looks interesting, check for supplementation (often in a pamphlet in the back of the book). |Administrative Law||Family Law/Domestic Relations| |Agency/Partnership||Forms - General Practice| |Antitrust Law/Trade Regulation||Health Care Law| |Civil Practice and Procedure||Insurance| |Collection Laws||International Law| |Constitutional Law||Internet and Information Law| |Corporation Law||Legal Research| |Criminal Law and Procedure||Property| |Education Law||Professional Responsibility/Legal Ethics| |Environmental Law||Wills, Trusts, and Estates| WHAT IS A LEGAL TREATISE? Legal treatises, sometimes called loose-leaf treatises because of the method of updating them, are meant to serve as comprehensive analytical resources on particular areas of law. They are typically written by experts on the subject, and address major areas of the subject as well as issues or controversies that have arisen in that subject. Treatises are often quite comprehensive in scope, and in print form can take up many volumes. One notable example, Collier on Bankruptcy, has 19 volumes, plus 8 supplementary volumes and one volume for the index. Treatises must often balance comprehensive coverage with depth of coverage, so that is something to bear in mind when examining a treatise in your own subject. Often, treatises do more than explain what the law is. They outline the controversies, conflicting interpretations, trends, and possible future changes of laws, usually combining case law, statutory law, administrative law and any other applicable authority on their subject. Treatises give ample citations to relevant primary law (cases, statutes, regulations, etc.) to support their analysis and explanation. They are updated regularly as the law changes, often several times a year at least. WHY USE A TREATISE? Such a rich source of information can be useful in several situations. If, for instance, you are unfamiliar with a particular area of law and would like a comprehensive overview of some subject, you might find a treatise to be useful. If you have a narrow question of law and are unsure of the context, a treatise could be useful. Treatises contain citations to cases and other authority that you can use to find a starting point for further research.

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Jewish World Review Nov. 16, 2000/ 18 Mar-Cheshvan, 5761 More than one way to win an election UNTIL THE DAY he died, Samuel J. Tilden believed the election of 1876, and the presidency, was stolen from him. Many historians think so, too. Rutherford B. Hayes was declared the victor, but between election day on Nov. 8, 1876 and March 2, 1877 the election was in dispute. It was the "longest, bitterest, and most controversial presidential election in American history,'' according to Paul F. Boller Jr. in "Presidential Campaigns,'' an evaluation that may or may not compare to the shenanigans of election 2000. Mr. Boller exposes the dramatic rewards of aggressive political partisanship. Patience, of course, was a prized virtue then as now, but those who acted aggressively rather than passively were rewarded with victory. Some of the details of that 1876 post-election wrangling provide either comfort or anxiety today, depending on whose maneuvering you admire and which candidate you like. But no matter what is said in the name of high-mindedness, it's likely that our election, like that one 124 years ago, will be deeply affected -- if not decided -- by partisanship. It earned President Rutherford Hayes the nickname of His Fraudulency because he had approximately 300,000 fewer popular votes than his opponent and he may have won the Electoral College by a single vote through crooked means. But he did win. He paid a price for the cloud that settled over his election. The House of Representatives, with a majority of Democrats, launched an investigation into ballot fraud. It turned up extensive corruption in both parties, including bribery, forgery, intimidation and stuffed ballot boxes. Could history What's alarming to historians is how post-election partisanship carried the day. An Electoral Commission in 1877 of 15 members was designed to include 7 Republicans, 7 Democrats and one independent, but when the independent had to drop out, he was replaced with a Republican, giving the GOP a majority of one. Naturally this enraged Democrats and delighted Republicans, and when the commission gave all the disputed electoral votes to Hayes, he beat Tilden 185 to 184. No doubt Jim Baker was familiar with the 1876 election and determined that his candidate shouldn't sit by while the Gore men played hardball. Nearly everyone thinks it best to keep this election out of the courts, but George W. would have been foolish to relax in Texas while the Democrats made all of the moves in Florida. Jim Baker was only wise to ask for an injunction against hand-counted ballots in selected Democratic precincts. Since errors are inescapable in all elections, a Democratic hand-count would obviously tilt toward a Democratic candidate. The judge in Florida, a Democrat, who ruled against the Republicans nevertheless saw merit in their argument. He asked the Gore defense lawyers to explain how hand-counting in selected Democratic counties wouldn't tilt the results toward Democrats. It's a question a lot of us have. If hand-counting is more reliable (a disputable notion at best), then hand-counting ought to be done everywhere and maybe even in close elections in other states. The close counting that elected Rutherford Hayes came down to 20 electoral votes in South Carolina (7), Louisiana (8), Florida (4), and Oregon's 3 (where one was in dispute). Samuel Tilden needed only one remaining state to win; Hayes needed all of them. The chairman of the Republican National Committee and several other Republican officials telegraphed officials in the three Southern states: "Can you hold your state? Answer at once.'' Satisfied with the answers, the Republican chairman announced the next morning that Hayes had won the necessary 185 electoral votes. It didn't end there. Two sets of returns from South Carolina and Louisiana and three from Florida were sent to the Electoral Commission in Washington. Though the 15th man on the commission was a Republican judge, everyone had been assured that he would act in a nonpartisan way. In his "nonpartisan'' judgment, he agreed with his Republican colleagues on every disputed point. The Southern states got their reward: Federal troops enforcing Reconstruction were withdrawn. Hayes did not run again. His presidency is ranked as mediocre at best. When he left the White House in 1881, many Americans enjoyed a popular joke: "Mr. Hayes came in by a majority of one and goes out by unanimous consent.'' Are there lessons 11/13/00: Sexual politics squared 11/09/00: A Middle East legacy 11/06/00: Filling in the dots at campaign's end 11/02/00: His own man in full 10/30/00: The Oval Office, through a glass brightly 10/23/00: There'll always be an England. Maybe. 10/19/00: The celebrity candidate 10/16/00: 'Ladies night' at the second debate 10/12/00: Gore vs. Bush: Volvo vs. Maserati 10/10/00: We weep for Rami for he is dead 10/05/00: Looking at Lieberman from inside the 'ghetto' 10/02/00: Campaigns, candidates, and kissy-face 09/28/00: Laughing and crying over Joe Lieberman 09/21/00: Targeting teenagers for money 09/21/00: Sexual politics in New York 09/18/00: Surviving the stereotypes and debates 09/14/00: Gloria Steinem runs cheerfully into captivity 09/12/00: Sex in the eye of the partisan 09/07/00: 'Sex and death' on the college campus 09/05/00: Joe Lieberman as a 'Menorah Man' 08/31/00: Rising suns of the conventions 08/17/00: Changing icons: From Loretta Young to Hillary Clinton 08/14/00: The Creator returns to the public square 08/10/00: Bursting with pride, but caution too 08/07/00: Brains, beauty and beastly politics 08/03/00: A candidate with a superego 07/31/00: The sizzling Lynne Cheney 07/27/00: The party of the aging Playboys 07/24/00 Hillary drives the Jewish wagon into a ditch 07/20/00 Conservatives gone fishin' 07/17/00: Snoop Doggy Dogg was a founding father, wasn't he? 07/13/00: When a teenager doesn't need a prime minister 07/10/00: Abortion as cruel and unusual punishment 07/06/00: Surviving 'survivor' TV 07/03/00: Independence Day with Norman Rockwell 06/29/00: Here comes 'something old' 06/26/00: Waiting too long for the baby 06/22/00: Good teachers, curious students and oxymorons 06/19/00: Wanted: Some ants for Gore's pants 06/15/00: Like father, like daughter 06/12/00: Culture wars and conservative warriors 06/08/00: Return of the housewife 06/05/00: Hillary and Al -- playing against type 05/31/00: The sexual revolution confronts the SUV 05/25/00: Waiting for the movie 05/22/00: Pistol packin' mamas 05/18/00: Journalists and the 'new time' religion 05/15/00: There's nothing like a (military) dame 05/11/00: 'The Human Stain' on campus 05/09/00: We've come a long way, Betty Friedan 05/04/00: From George Washington to Mansa Masu 05/01/00: Gore's ruthless doublespeak 04/28/00: Doing it Castro's way 04/24/00: Women's studies beget narrow minds 04/17/00: The slippery slope of anti-Semitism 04/13/00: A villain larger than life 04/10/00: When mourning becomes an economic tragedy 04/03/00: The last permissible bigotry 03/30/00: Seeking the political Oscar 03/23/00: The gaying of America 03/20/00: Pointy-eared quadrupeds on campus 03/16/00: The shocking art of the establishment 03/13/00: Sawdust on the campaign trail 03/10/00: Campaign rhetoric of manhood 03/06/00: The Amphetamine of the People 03/02/00: Elegy for Amadou 02/29/00: With only a million, what's a poor girl to do? 02/24/00: The changing politics of change 02/16/00: Tip from Hillary: 'Let 'em eat eggs' 02/10/00: No seances with Eleanor 02/07/00: Campaigning like our founding fathers 02/03/00: When neo-Nazis have short memories 01/31/00: George W. -- 'Ladies man' and 'man's man' 01/27/00: Dead white males and live white politicians 01/25/00: Smarting over presidential smarts 01/21/00: A post-modern song for `The Sopranos' 01/19/00: When personality is a long-distance plus 01/13/00: French lessons in amour --- and marriage 01/10/00: Reaching for the Big Golden Apple 01/07/00: Liddy Dole as the face of feminism 01/04/00: Hillary: From victim to victor 12/30/99: 'Dream catchers' for the millennium 12/27/99: In search of a candidate with strength and eloquence 12/21/99: The president as First Lady 12/16/99: Columbine with blurred hindsight 12/09/99: Homeless deserve discriminating attention 12/07/99: Casual censors and deadly know-nothings 12/02/99: Why mom didn't make general: A reality tale 11/30/99: Potholes on the road to the Promised Land 11/25/99: A feast for the spirit and the stomach 11/23/99: Fathers need to say 'I (can) do' 11/18/99: Adventures of a conservative pundit 11/15/99: Traveling with Jefferson on the information highway 11/11/99: Wanted: 'Foliage of forbiddinness' for the oval office 11/09/99: Eggs, art and rotten commerce 11/05/99: Al Gore, 'Alpha Male'. Bow wow. 11/01/99: Gay love 10/28/99: Lose one Dole, lose two 10/26/99: Rebels with a violent cause 10/21/99: Reforming parents, reforming schools 10/19/99: The male mystique -- he shops 10/13/99:The campaign of the Teletubbies 10/08/99: Money is in the eye of the art dealer 10/01/99: Lincoln's 'Almost Chosen People' 09/29/99: Introducing Bill and Hillary Bickerson 09/27/99: Must we wait for the next massacre? 09/24/99: Miss America meets Miss'd America 09/21/99: Princeton's 'professor death' 09/16/99: The Cisneros lesson 09/13/99: No clemency for personal politics 09/08/99: M-M-M is for manhood 08/30/99: Blocking the schoolhouse door 08/27/99: No kick from cocaine 08/23/99: Movies don't kill people 08/19/99: A rude awakening 08/16/99: Dubyah and that 'language' thing 08/09/99: Chauvinist sows -- oink oink ©1999, Suzanne Fields. Distributed by Los Angeles Times Syndicate

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THE PRE-OLYMPICS GREAT GAME "The Chinese were also worried that if the saffron revolution succeeded in Myanmar, it could next spread to Tibet........Sections of Burmese political exiles have been advocating that the US should also use the Beijing Olympics for keeping up pressure on China to make the Junta change its policies. Non-governmental elements in the US and West Europe have already been linking the human rights issue in Darfur in the Sudan and Tibet to the Olympics. They want that the issue of Chinese support to the Myanmar Junta should also be linked. They feel that while a call for the boycott of the Olympics by the participating Western countries would not work, a call for the boycott of the Olympics by the Western media in protest against Chinese policies in respect of Darfur, Tibet and Myanmar might. They want that even if the Western media is disinclined to boycott the Olympics, it could at least down-grade the coverage of the Olympics. These Myanmar exiles are also considering the issue of an appeal to foreign tourists not to go to Beijing to watch the games." Extract from my article dated December 5,2007, at http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/papers25/paper2489.html Intelligence agencies in China, India, Nepal and other countries seem to have been taken by surprise by the simultaneous protests launched by Tibetans, not only in India, Nepal and the rest of the world wherever there is a Tibetan diaspora, but also in Tibet itself over the continued violation of the human rights of the Tibetans by China. The protest demonstrations broke out on the 49th anniversary of the collapse of the Khampa revolt on March 10,1959, which resulted in the flight of the Dalai Lama to India from Tibet. 2.One of the objectives of the demonstrators is to draw attention to the human rights situation in Tibet as the organisers of the Beijing Olympics are getting ready for taking the Olympic flame from Athens across the countries on the ancient Silk Route. The flame is scheduled to pass through Islamabad and New Delhi on April 16 and 17,2008. The Chinese also propose to take it to the top of the Mount Everest to highlight their professed pacification of Tibet and its economic and social development. The Tibetans are determined to disprove Chinese claims of having pacified Tibet by organising a series of demonstrations and protest rallies all over the world in the period preceding the Olympics. 3. While some form of Tibetan activism in the months preceding the Olympics was expected and the Chinese were mentally prepared for it, the widespread manifestations of this activism has been a matter of surprise. Of greater surprise and concern to the Chinese was the outbreak of demonstrations and rallies by Tibetan monks in Lhasa, who have been out in the streets for the last three days, trying to march to the old Potala Palace of the Dalai Lama. The Chinese Police have repeatedly used tear gas to prevent their march. The demonstrations by the monks and others in Lhasa----synchronised with the demonstrations in other countries, where there is a Tibetan diaspora, including India--- indicate strongly that these demonstrations are only partly spontaneous. There is also an element of orchestration by the Tibetans abroad with the help of the human rights groups in the West, which have been wanting to use Tibet as one of the issues to beat the Chinese with in the year of the Olympics. 4. Interestingly, the news of the demonstrations in Lhasa was first broken by Radio Free Asia, the CIA-funded radio station, which was started under the Clinton Administration, to use against China, North Korea and Myanmar PSYWAR methods similar to those used against the USSR and other Communist countries of East Europe by the CIA-funded Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty in Munich. After the collapse of the Communist regimes in East Europe, Radio Free Europe started functioning in Asia under the name Radio Free Asia. Radio Liberty was shifted to Prague to carry on PSYWAR against Russia and Iran. While Radio Liberty played an active role in fomenting anti-Russia agitations in Ukraine, it has not been that successful against Iran so far. Radio Free Asia, which provided PSYWAR support to the monks and students of Myanmar during their agitation against the miluitary junta last year, is now providing similar PSYWAR support to the Tibetans agitating in Tibet and elsewhere. 5. In India, the response to this campaign has taken the form of an announced march by a group of about 100 Tibetans from Dharamsala, the headquarters of the Dalai Lama, to Tibet. The Government of India has done well to ban this march, but despite this, the Tibetans are likely to create difficulties during the passage of the Olympic flame through Delhi. The Chinese were originally planning to invite some foreign tourists to Tibet to witness the flame being carried to the top of the Everest, but they have now given up the idea and banned the visit of foreign tourists to the foothills of the Everest on their side till the flame was taken up and brought back and taken out of Tibet by Chinese mountaineers. 6. I have been a strong critic of the Govt. of India's recognising Tibet as an integral part of China without insisting on a quid pro quo in the form of the Chinese recognising Arunachal Pradesh as an integral part of India. I have been a great admirer of the Dalai Lama and the Tibetans and a supporter of their human rights. I have also been a strong critic of the Chinese action in imprisoning the Panchen Lama duly appointed by the Dalai Lama in accordance with the Tibetan traditions and replacing him with a bogus Panchen Lama named by the Communist Party. At the same time, I have been of the view that we should not do anything, which might create even the slighest suspicion that our Tibetan policy is influenced by US ideas and machinations. It should be our policy influenced solely by our interests and not by US interests. 7.There is a complex Great Game on the horizon as the Beijing Olympics approach. While the US State Department has toned down the criticism of the human rights situation in China in its annual report on the State of Human Rights in the world, the non-Governmental organisations in the US have stepped up their demonisation of China on this issue. If the US is prepared to use the Olympics card against China, Beijing is prepared to play the North Korean nuclear card and the Myanmar card against the US. After being co-operative in the six-party talks on the nuclear issue, Noth Korea has changed gears and is delaying the fulfillment of its commitment to share information about its nuclear capabilities. After showing some flexibility last year and receptivity to international concerns, the military junta in Myanmar is again back to its old game of rejecting international concerns with scorn. North Korea and Myanmar would not have reverted back to their rigid positions without a nod from Beijing. China feels its policy activism on North Korea and Myanmar to meet US concerns has not had a quid pro quo from the US in the form of discouraging the attempts mounted from US soil to politicise the Games and create an embarrassment for the Chinese leadership not only in the eyes of the international community, but also in the eyes of its own people. 8. India should keep out of this Great Game. The Olympic Games has been a matter of intense national pride for the Chinese people. We should refrain from any action which might hurt their pride. The Dalai Lama must be advised to cool it and not to give the impression of letting himself be used by anti-China elements in the US. The Tibetans should not be allowed to disrupt the passage of the Olympic flame through New Delhi. (13-3-08) (The writer is Additional Secretary (retd), Cabinet Secretariatr, Govt. of India, New Delhi, and, presently, Director, Institute For Topical Studies, Chennai. He is also associated with the Chennai Centre For China Studies. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org )

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1a)b) Three phrases that indicate the status of women in china in 1922 would be; “Jingmei, my own grandmother, She was the widow of a poor scholar, a man who had the misfortune of dying from influenza when he was about to be appointed a vice magistrate. In 1924 or so, a rich man forced her into becoming one of his concubines. My grandmother, now an outcast, took her young daughter to live with her on an island outside of Shanghai. She left her son behind, to save his face.” In our society a women wouldn’t be out casted if she was forced to have relations with a man, the man would be the one to pay. ” Nunu Aiyi, “Precious Auntie.” she divorced her husband, a daring thing for a woman to do. But then, finding no means to support herself or her young daughter, Nunu eventually accepted the lawyer’s second proposal to become his number two concubine. “Where else could she go?” my mother asked. “Some people said she was lucky the lawyer still wanted her.'” In our country women get divorces all the time and wouldn’t think herself lucky to be a man’s mistress. If she were to get a divorce she could work and support her family, not have to depend on a man to take care of her. 2. The connection Amy Tan discovers by the end of “Snapshot: Lost Lives of Women” is that she needs to tell the stories of these strong women and what they went through and her grandmother is the courage and strength running though her family that keeps Amy going, in hopes that life will change for the women in China.

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The largest of the thornbirds (3), the chestnut-backed thornbird (Phacellodomus dorsalis) has mainly reddish-brown plumage with, as its common name suggests, a chestnut-coloured back. The reddish-brown crown has pale streaking, while the neck and underparts are more greyish-brown, with reddish-brown speckling on the breast and a reddish-brown tinge to the flanks (4). The males and female chestnut-backed thornbird are similar in appearance (3), while juveniles can be distinguished by the lack of reddish-brown on the crown (4). The chestnut-backed thornbird has a distinctive iris of either bluish-white or bluish-grey. The long, straight bill of this species is the longest of all species in the genus Phacellodomus (3). The chestnut-backed thornbird tends to remain hidden, although it often produces rather loud songs (2). The vocalisations of the chestnut-backed thornbird are described as a series of ticking ‘chit-chit-chit-chit-chit’ notes given for long periods with varying intensity. These notes may be given alone, or may accelerate into loud ‘chup-chup-chupchupchuppppp’ notes, which often become quicker at the end (3). - Length: c. 19.5 cm (2) - 33 - 39 g (3)

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General Medical: Career and Education Opportunities in Georgia General Medical: General Medical Practitioners are the physicians that most patients see from day-to-day. With specialities ranging from neurology to pediatric care, they are at the core of our health care system. Georgia has a population of 9,829,211, which has grown by 20.07% over the past decade. Nicknamed the "Peach State," Georgia's capital and largest city is Atlanta. In 2008, there were a total of 5,571,666 jobs in Georgia. The average annual income was $34,849 in 2008, up from $34,612 the preceding year. The unemployment rate in Georgia was 9.6% in 2009, which has grown by 3.3% since the previous year. Roughly 24.3% of Georgia residents have college degrees, which is higher than the national average. The top industries in Georgia include motor vehicle vehicle parts merchant wholesalers, automobile motor vehicle merchant wholesalers, and textile product mills. Notable tourist destinations include the Georgia Institute of Technology, the Fernbank Museum of Natural History, and the Herndon Home Museum. CITIES WITH General Medical OPPORTUNITIES IN Georgia Featured Online Colleges CAREERS WITHIN General Medical Family Practice Physicians diagnose, treat, and help prevent diseases and injuries that commonly occur in the general population. Family Practice Physicians need to read and understand what has been read. They also need to note the reactions and responses of others in both work and social situations.

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If you have already chosen not to use Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW,) then you need to choose what flux core wires you're going to use.Unlike the solid wires used in GMAW, flux core wires contain a material to facilitate your welding. Whether you should choose gas-shielded or self-shielded flux core wires depends on the nature of your project and how much you want to spend. What the flux cores do A gas-shielded flux core speeds up the welding process. It can deposit considerably more pounds of wire per hour in a flat position than a solid wire welder. It does not work as well on thinner applications, such as auto body. A self-shielded flux core serves to produce the gas shield that both gas-shielded and solid wires require to protect the puddle of metal. There is no need to determine the proper mix of gas for a given job and given wire. Like gas-shielded flux, it works well on thicker applications, largely because the core is capable of depositing larger amounts of wire. Because of the slag system in a gas-shielded flux core wire, it can be welded at higher amperages than solid wire, and the weld puddle does not become too fluid. Wires of a larger diameter wires can be used. The slag system also makes the gas-shielded easier to work with in vertical uses--because the slag holds the fluid in place much better than a solid wire. The slag is also easier to remove than with a self-shielded flux core. A self-shielded flux core does provide a good slag to hold the fluid in place, but at the end of the job, it can be more difficult to remove in order to have a weld that is clean in appearance. As in the gas-shielded, the slag system is capable of holding the liquid in place and protect it as it hardens, which allows for larger diameter wires and more vertical work than with solid wire. A gas-shielded flux core relies on the gas that you use for welding, just as its solid wire counterpart does. In locations with a wind stronger than 5 mph, it will be necessary to block your work with a wind shield. Without something to guard against the wind, the gas will not reaching your weld, and it can cause the weld to lose integrity A self-shielded flux core can be used in higher winds as it does not require gas to create a stable weld. The necessary materials for that are already in the flux core. With gas-shielded flux cores, you need to remain close to a source of the gas that you use for welding. A self-shielding flux core gives much more portability, as you are not limited by keeping a gas source nearby as you work. You don't have to be tied down to a sport or haul as much to another location. Self-shielded flux is a little more expensive than gas-shielded wire, but you should take into consideration the cost of the gas, portability, and how long it will take to remove the slag. - Photo Credit Image by Flickr.com, courtesy of Jason Turner MIG Wire Types Versatility and efficiency have made metal inert gas (MIG) the most common form of welding used in metal fabrication and production. MIG... How to Weld With a Flux Cored MIG Welder Welding with a flux-cored wire feed welder is the same process as welding with a stick welder, but the techniques, and machines... How to Set Flux Core Welders Welding is a specialty skill that has a vast array of uses. Auto mechanics, iron workers, metal workers and many other careers... Types of Soldering Fluxes Soldering flux is a solution used to clean metal surfaces before they are soldered together. Its essential function is to deoxidize the... Flux Core Welding Techniques Flux-cored wire is held on a wire spool and used with a Metal Inert Gas welder. The same welding procedures are used...

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How fast can you spell 10 words? You've got 3 minutes to spell as many words as you can. Select letters from the top to start spelling words. If you need to got back, click on a letter at the bottom row to backspace. Having trouble trying to spell a word, click the idea button to scramble the words. When you have a word, press the check button to check the word. The bigger the word, the more points you get. Each round of words is guaranteed to have 2 words that can be spelled. Can you find the perfect word? Play online for the ultimate challenge. Online play provided by Nextpeer. No files were found matching the criteria specified. We suggest you try the file list with no filter applied, to browse all available. Add file and help us achieve our mission of showcasing the best content from all developers. Join now to share your own content, we welcome creators and consumers alike and look forward to your comments.

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California leads the US in the production of geothermal electricity but there is tons of interest in geothermal in Utah, Nevada, and other states in the intermountain area. The method to extract work from the geothermal source is pretty simple. If an aquifer is present and the geothermal source is hot enough to produce steam the steam is simply run through a turbine and the turbine is connected to a generator that produces electricity. If the temperature of the geothermal sourceis not sufficient to produce pressurized steam then an alternate working fluid is used to power the turbine. The alternate fluids have boiling points lower than water (steam) and will also be routed through a turbine in their vapor state. Much research is being undertaken to invent the optimum working fluid with thermodynamic properties to optimize the amount of electricity that can be generated. Often the process of these alternate working fluids is referred to as an Organic Rankine Cycle. Organic means the working fluid is carbon based and Rankine was a thermodynamicist who has a temperature scale named after him. This link explains the Organic Rankine Cycle further http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_Rankine_Cycle Ormat technologies traded on the NYSE as ORA is a leading developer of the Organic Rankine Cycle technology. http://www.ormat.com/ United Technologies is another and this makes sense since UTX also produces Pratt and Whitney turbines. Just a few weeks ago a group working at the Pacific Northwest National Energy Lab discovered a method to use nano particles to agglomerate organic Rankine fluids such as hexane or pentane to improve the performance of geothermally derived heat for electric power generation. This link provides further details http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/23065/ I have no doubt that geothermal energy will play an increasing role in power generation in the USA, and elsewhere. Geothermal is a source of renewable energy that can operate on a 24 by 7 basis. Wind and solar are very intermittent and only provide power for some 25% of the hours in a year. Some recent research out of NYU Stern Business School by Mellissa Schilling ranks geothermal as well as wind as the technologies that should attract research money as they are likely to deliver the best improvement in cost of power generation. Solar PV and Solar Thermal according to these researchers will not deliver the cost improvement and research dollars spent on these technologies will likely prove futile. http://newenergyandfuel.com/http:/newenergyandfuel/com/2009/07/24/geothermal-energy-is-the-most-efficient-renewable-energy-alternative-and-improves-fastest/ I like geothermal simply because the word rings nicely in my head. Chevrolet used to market a mini car named a Geo Prizm which was actually a Toyota Corolla manufactured in the factory GM and Toyota shared (NUMI) in Fremont California. GM in bankruptcy has pulled out of the joint venture and just this week it is pretty much assured that Toyota will close the NUMI plant. Numi is the only auto assembly plant on the US West Coast. The left coast will be left out of the auto race, except perhaps Tesla who will get almost half a billion of government money to build their plug in sedan. Here is an idea. Toyota should buy Tesla and use NUMI for the plug in and the feds should keep our tax dollars for fixing potholes that otherwise will destroy vehicles.

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Have you ever noticed how being around nutsy/negative people can make you feel nutsy/negative? Psychologists call this "emotional contagion" -- and there's even evolutionary reasons for why someone else's curmudgeonly ways can "The original form is the contagion of fear and alarm," said Frans de Waal, a psychologist and primate expert at Atlanta's Emory University. "You're in a flock of birds. One bird suddenly takes off. You have no time to wait and see what's going on. You take off, too. Otherwise, you're lunch." Translation: Getting caught up in another's negativity is a hard-wired survival mechanism. "I have often noticed how primate groups in their entirety enter a similar mood," de Waal said. "All of a sudden, all of them are playful, hopping around. Or all of them are grumpy. Or all of them are sleepy and settle down. In such cases, the mood contagion serves the function of synchronizing activities. The individual who doesn't stay in tune with what everyone is doing will lose out, like the traveler who didn't go the restroom when the bus stopped." Translation: Contagion theory of happiness also explains the powerful energy of "mob mentality" and why there's a tendency for groups of people in a movie theater or concert to share a similar feeling for the movie or concert. Plus psychologists believe that "the contagion theory of happiness" is yet another form of our hard-wired mimicry we humans do -- our instinctive human tendency to unconsciously imitate other people's facial expressions, vocalizations, postures, and body movements. For example, if someone scratches their nose, you might suddenly feel your nostrils twitch. Or if someone yawns and stretches and gets sleepy, you might yawn and feel more tired too. Indeed, mimicry is such a strong foundation of our human emotional development that even at a mere 1-hour old, a newborn infant will be hard-wired to mimic a person's facial gestures. Hence why you can smile at 1-hour old baby, and this 1-hour old baby will smile back! Translation: Our built-in human system for mimicry, explains why we humans can transfer our good and bad moods to each other. The Journal of Applied Psychology offers up a study which showed the downer effects of a downer leader on a group. They took 189 volunteer undergraduates, divided them into 63 groups of 3, and told them they were taking part in a team-building exercise to put up a tent. Then a "leader" was chosen for each team, and shown either of video clip of a "Saturday Night Live" skits or a vignette on torture -- to create either a positive/up beat mood or a negative/down-beat mood. The result: If a leader was up, the team members' moods rose. But if the leader was down, everyone became down. Numerous other studies have also shown how when one person in a romantic coupling gets depressed, the other also becomes more depressed. Psychologists believe this transfer of emotions is yet another form of empathy. In London's University College, psychologist Tonia Singer and colleagues used brain scans to explore empathy in 19 romantic couples. She hooked both individuals to brain scans. One partner in the couple was given a slight electric shock while the other partner watched. Each of their scans showed identical brain reactions. Although only one partner was shocked, both of the partner's pain center lighted up -- as if both had been jolted. On a more happy note... Howard Friedman, a psychologist at University of California at Irvine thinks "emotional contagion" this is also why some people can move and inspire others to positive action -- like a good coach or a powerful preacher -- or a joyous/exuberant partner in a romantic coupling. Friedman believes it's because the happy person's happy facial expression, happy voice, happy gestures and happy body movements all together conspire to transmit happy emotions to all those around the happy person! YOUR ASSIGNMENT: Today decide to be a HAPPINESS TRANSMITTER! Choose to be a happier person -- and spread happiness to the people around you. And choose to surround yourself - whenever it's possible -- with more happy people. With this in mind, think of a happy/balanced person, and invite them to share a meal or fun activity with you this week. Karen Salmansohn is the best selling author HOW TO BE HAPPY DAMMIT and creator of the famed BE HAPPY DAMMIT newsletter. To get more psychological pointers on leading a happier life visit www.notsalmon.com

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Sockeye salmon when migrating, usually swim up to 4,000 miles out to sea. A few years later, using the radar in the body that can lead them back up the river where they were "born" to spawn their children. The scientists, fishing communities, and lay people have long wondered how salmon find their way to the river "home", through the distance and the time. |Sockeye salmon find their way home by using small changes in the Earth’s magnetic field. (Picture from: http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/)| The new study of the behavior of salmon and published in this week's issue of the Current Biology Journal. Results of the study, which was supported by Oregon Sea Grant and the National Science Foundation. Salmon to find their river homes with unique flavor signs, magnetic body reflected the track marks where the river originates. In the study, scientists examined 56 years of fisheries data documenting the return of sockeye salmon to the Fraser River in British Columbia - and the route they chose around Vancouver Island showed a correlation with changes in the intensity of the geomagnetic field. This is to identify the routes of salmon, taken from their goal area into the northern area, near the Aleutian Islands in Alaska or the Pacific Ocean. The experts examined the Fraser River in British Columbia, Canada. Then the data is compared with the Earth's magnetic field intensity, at important locations in the salmon migration routes. Fact, the Earth has a magnetic field weakens, due to its proximity to the equator and the distance of the pole that is gradually changing every year. Therefore, the intensity of the magnetosphere at a particular location is unique and a little different from year to year. |A map of Vancouver Island. (Picture from: http://www.sott.net/)| Vancouver Island is situated right in front of the mouth of the Fraser River. It is a direct access block area, to the mouth of the river from the Pacific Ocean. The results showed that most of the magnetic field intensity are expected to be used to route around the salmon around Vancouver Island. In any given year, the salmon take a special route that has a sign on the areas most suitable magnetic strength, among others came from the Fraser River, when the first salmon swim from the river to the Pacific Ocean. |Sockeye swarm the Adams River in British Columbia, Canada. (Picture from: http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/)| "These results are consistent with the theory that since the juvenile salmon (ie learning and memory) magnetic signs their home rivers. Then look for signs of the same magnet during their spawning migration," said Nathan Putman, a postdoctoral researcher at Oregon State University and author of the study. The results of this study have long known that some animals use the Earth's magnetic field to adjust and follow the straight path. Scientists are now using it for defense, which guides the nuclear-powered submarine back to "base harbor". This study provides the first empirical evidence about the animal's ability to "learn" about the magnetic field. The ability to use magnetic fields to find the magnetic power on the animals is a phenomenal discovery in behavioral biology. *** [EKA | FROM VARIOUS SOURCES | SOTT.NET | DEDI RISKOMAR | PIKIRAN RAKYAT 28022013] Note: This blog can be accessed via your smart phone.

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|Babel user information| |Users by language| - It's a guideline, not magic. - Journals and other publications that I have access to - Subpage of Shiny Goodness - My test page - My other test page - User:WhatamIdoing/Header frequency - User:WhatamIdoing/Med list - User:WhatamIdoing/Med redirects - User:WhatamIdoing/Jessica Liao sock report - Quick search for articles needing importance settings - What good-bye often means in Wikiland - RFC 2119 on words like "should", "must", and "may" - Regulatory status of drugs in the European Union - Regulatory status of drugs in the United States - Regulatory status of drugs in Canada - Registered pharmaceuticals in Hong Kong - Readability scores for text - Another way Why Wikipedia doesn't standardize everything Wikipedia doesn't standardize section headings for citations because the real world doesn't. There are four major style guides that are heavily used in universities, and articles using each one can be found on Wikipedia. Each requires a different name above the list of sources that were used to support content in an academic paper: - Chicago Manual of Style: "Center the title Bibliography about one inch from the top of the page" (used by fine arts and historians) - APA style: "In APA style, the alphabetical list of works cited, which appears at the end of the paper, is titled 'References.'" (used by sociologists and psychologists) - The MLA Style Manual: "Center the title Works Cited about one inch from the top of the page." (used in humanities) - Council of Science Editors: "Center the title References (or Cited References) and then list the works you have cited in the paper; do not include other works you may have read." (used by scientists) Wikipedia hasn't chosen one over another because nobody wants to be stuck telling the English people that they have to follow scientific conventions, or the history folks that they're required to follow the English manual. That, which, and who - The relative pronoun that is used for restrictive clauses: The car that is red is broken. (The other cars are other colors, and they are not broken.) - The relative pronoun which is used for non-restrictive clauses, such as a description: The car, which is red, is broken. (There's only one car, and I thought you might like to know what color it was painted.) - The relative pronoun who is correctly used in either of these manners, so long as the antecedent is a person. In some situations, such as describing a marginalized group of people, some people may object to the "de-humanization" of the antecedent if that or which are chosen instead of the personhood-affirming who. However, that and which are grammatically correct, and their use in older and formal English is well-established. For example: - John 11:25 (KJV): "Jesus said unto her, 'I am the resurrection, and the life: he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live.'" - Luke 16:10 (ERV): "He that is faithful in a very little is faithful also in much: and he that is unrighteous in a very little is unrighteous also in much." - Romeo and Juliet: "He jests at scars that never felt a wound." - Poor Richard's Almanack: He that's content, hath enough; He that complains, has too much. - Thomas Paine: "He that would make his own liberty secure must guard even his enemy from oppression." - John Bunyan: "He that is down needs fear no fall..." I provide services to the Wikimedia Foundation as a community liaison to answer questions and report problems with the transition to Wikipedia:VisualEditor, but this is my personal account. Edits, statements, or other contributions made from this account are my own, and may not reflect the views of the Foundation. If you want to reach me in an official capacity, then try leaving a message at User talk:Whatamidoing (WMF).

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In this lesson, we will cover several emotions we didn't cover yet. The ones I want to talk about are, being emotional, feeling no emotions, restlessness, proud, and anxiety. If you have questions concerning any emotion we didn't cover, feel free to ask questions anytime. If your emotions change easily, then you are an emotional person. An emotional person can also be described as one who is affected by things such as sad movies, criticism, or easily angered. In this lesson, we will go through some sentences talking about emotional people. Some people are only emotional when it is about something they are passionate about. If a person only gets emotional talking about one subject, then they are not an emotional person, rather, they are emotional about that topic. Učte se anglicky mnohem rychlejistažením Offline verze TalkEnglish a ponořte se do více než 8 000 audio soborů a 8 000 stránek lekcí! Pak můžete studovat bez připojení k internetu a také kdykoliv poslouchat audio soubory na svém MP3 přehrávači. Jděte na English Download stránku a stahujte ještě dnes!

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Bael Fruit, Stone Apple Or Aegle marmelos And Its Health Benefits About Bael Tree Latin Name : Aegle marmelos Indian Names ; Bael, shreephal, Kaveeth, Bilva, Bilvapatra etc. Common English Names : Stone apple, Bengal quince, Wood apple, though this also stands for the fruit of the tree, Limonia acidissima. The Bael tree, Aegle marmelos is native to India and grows throughout Southeast Asia from Nepal to Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Philippines, Fiji, etc. Bael, Stone Apple Tree Or Aegle marmelosClick thumbnail to view full-size Bael, Stone Apple Or Aegle marmelos The bael tree is considered sacred by the Hindus in India and is usually grown in the vicinity of temples. It grows on hills and the plains of dry forests. The bael tree is a medium sized tree, growing to a height of 50 to 60 feet. It is a slender, aromatic and gum bearing tree. The branches have spines and the leaves are trifoliate. The leaves act as food for the larvae of 2 Indian butterfly species. Aegle marmelos can tolerate a fair amount of pH range from 5 to 10, also some waterlogging and grows in a wide range of temperatures from -7 degrees C to 48 degrees C. Bael FruitClick thumbnail to view full-size The Bael Fruit The tree needs a pronounced dry season to produce fruit. A single tree may yield up to 800 fruits though 150-200 fruits is an average. The bael fruit has a smooth and thick, hard woody shell. The fruit takes about 11 months to ripen on the tree and is the size of a large grapefruit, some even larger can be found. The shell is so hard it needs to be cracked open with a hammer.The fruit pulp is yellow and fibrous, tastes like marmalade and smells of roses. within the mucilaginous pulp are numerous hairy seeds. Uses Of Bael Or Stone Apple The bael fruit can be eaten fresh as well as dried. The juice of the fresh fruit can be strained, sweetened and consumed. The pulp can also be made into a sherbet by adding sugar and lime juice. A single large fruit can yield 5 to 6 liters of sherbet. Drying of the fruit is done by first slicing the fruit and then exposing these slices to the sun. The leaves and young shoots are eaten as salad greens. In Ayurveda, the leaves and fruits are used for medicinal purposes. The fruit pulp also has a detergent action and has been used for washing clothes in earlier times.The fruit has been employed to eliminate the scum in vinegar making. The gum that envelopes the seeds is used as a household glue and also used as an adhesive by jewellers. It is also mixed with lime for waterproofing wells and when mixed with cement it is used to waterproof walls. The gum can also be applied as a protective covering on paintings. From the seeds a bitter pale yellow oil is extracted and used as a purgative. The wood of the stone apple tree is used to make tool and knife handles, pestles, combs and carvings. The wood is not durable. Charaka Samhita, one of the earliest Ayurvedic medical treatise written in Sanskrit mentions the medicinal properties of bael. Bael Tree In Hindu Religion The bael tree is considered sacred by the Hindus as it is believed to be the abode of Lord Shiva. The fruit also is used in religious rituals. In Newari culture of Nepal, the bael tree forms a part of the fertility ritual for girls cal bel beha, in which girls are married to the bael fruit and as long as the fruit is kept safe and doesn't crack the girl is not considered a widow even if her husband is dead. Nutrition In Bael Fruit 100 grams of Bael fruit contains Medicinal Uses Of Bael - Bael oil has been found to be effective against 21 species of bacteria. - The leaves are used in treating dyspepsia and sinusitis. - A confection made of the fruit is used to treat tuberculosis and loss of appetite. - It also treats constipation and other gastrointestinal problems. - The unripe fruit is useful in relieving infestations of intestinal worms and rotavirus. It also inhibits the adherence of bacteria to the gut wall and thus prevents damage and infection. - The bitter and pungent leaf juice mixed with honey allays fever and catarrh. Add black pepper to it to alleviate jaundice. - A decoction of the flowers is given as an antiemetic. - The root decoction relieves palpitations of the heart, indigestion, bowel inflammations and vomiting. Medicinal Properties Of Bael Bael has antibacterial, antioxidant, anti ulcer, anti diabetic, anti diarrheal, anti inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, anti malarial, anti cancer, hepatoprotective, anti microbial, cytoprotective, insecticidal, anti arthritic activity. The ancient Indian medical texts written in Sanskrit mention the uses of all parts of bael or the stone apple tree, like the stem, roots, bark, leaves and fruit. The plant and its various parts have been used at all stages of maturity for medicinal purposes. however its peak medicinal effect is just before the fruit begins to ripen. The fruit is cooling, acts as a laxative, stops secretions and bleeding. The extracts of leaves have been found to lower blood glucose levels by over 50% as per studies. It therefore is helpful in controlling diabetes. The leaf extracts also lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels. The leaves, fruits and roots have anti microbial properties due to the biochemicals cuminaldehyde and eugenol. To Make Bel Squash - Take ripe bael fruits. Remove pulp. - To 1 kilogram of pulp add 6 tablespoons of lemon juice and 1 liter of water. - Boil this mixture and keep stirring as you boil. - Cool and strain it through a coarse strainer. Keep the bael juice aside. - Now, take 1 kilogram of sugar for 1 kilogram of bael fruit pulp and boil in 500 ml of water for 15 minutes. cool this sugar solution. - To this cool sugar solution add 1/4 tsp potassium metabisulphite and mix well. - Add the strained bael juice to the above sugar solution mixture. - Mix well, fill in bottles and seal. - Your bael squash is ready. Some Home Remedies With Bael - Ear Problems Dip a stiff piece of dry bael root in neem oil and light it. The oil that now drips from the burning end is an effective cure for infection ,inflammation and discharge from the ear. - Respiratory Problems Equal quantities of juice of bael leaves is mixed with gingelly or sesame oil and heated. A few whole black peppercorns and 1/2 tsp of black cumin are added to the heated oil. Remove from heat and store in an airtight bottle. Massage a tsp of this oil into the scalp. Keep for 30 minutes and then take a head bath. Use regularly to build resistance to colds and coughs. Eat ripe bael fruit for a couple of months to relieve even chronic constipation. Make bael sherbet by removing the pulp, mixing it with water,the staining it and adding sugar and milk before drinking it. This also cures constipation. - Diarrhea & Dysentery Dry unripe bael fruit by slicing and drying in the sun. Powder it and preserve it in an airtight bottle. Use to control diarrhea and dysentery. It can be eaten mixed with jaggery or brown sugar. - Peptic Ulcer Soak bael leaves overnight in water. Strain out the water in the morning and drink. The water contains tannins that reduce inflammation and heals ulcers. Grind 5 grams bael leaves. Mix in 1 tsp honey. Take 2 times a day. Remove pulp from the bael fruit. Dry and powder it. Add 1 tsp of this to a glass of boiled cow milk. Add sugar to taste. Take twice a day for some time. Extract pulp of raw bael fruit. Dry and grind it to a powder. Mix 2 tsp of this powder with 50 grams of pure ghee and 1/4 tsp of haldi. Take this with a glass of warm water. 2 times daily. - Healing wounds Take equal quantities of root, leaves, rind and fruit pulp of bael. Grind all of these and extract the juice. Add 2 tsp of honey and drink. - Swollen Joints Take pulp of a few bael fruits. Mix with hot mustard oil and massage on the affected area 2 times daily for relief. - High Blood Pressure Consume bael leaves daily morning or take the juice of bael leaves mixed with honey daily. Remove juice of 100 soft bael leaves. Mix in 10 powdered black peppercorns. Take this every morning and evening. Also consume 5 glasses of sugarcane juice daily after meals. - Nausea & Vomiting Of Pregnancy Take 1 tsp of raw fruit pulp 2 times a day. Mix mishri or candy sugar to this for improving the taste. Grind 200 bael leaves. Boil in 1 cup of water.till the water becomes thick. Eat this paste with honey 2 to 3 times a day. Some Points Of Note - Do not consume bael fruit at a stretch. It may cause flatulence. Also do not eat in excess as it may promote heaviness and bloating. - Bel sherbet has to be thick so that it includes as much of the pulp as it can for best results. - Bakhru, Foods That Heal, pp 32, Orient Paperbacks, New Delhi, India. - McIntyre, Herbal Treatment of Children: Western And Ayurvedic Perspectives, pp 90, Elsevier Limited, UK. - The Indian Ayurvedic Pharmacopaeia, Part 1, Vol 1, pp 35, - Maity, Hansda, Bandyopadhyay, Mishra, 2009, Biological activities of crude extracts and chemical constituents of Bael, Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr, Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol 47, pp 849-861. - Sabu M. C, Kuttan R, 2004, Antidiabetic Activity Of Aegle Marmelos And Its Relationship With Its Antioxidant Properties, Indian J Physiol Pharmacol, 48 (1): 81–88. Some Of My Other Healthy Foods Hubs - Oatmeal Health Benefits Oats are a nutrient dense food low in calories. Also, a bowl of oatmeal provides more than half of the daily value of omega-3 fatty acids as double the daily value for manganese. To learn about more oatmeal health benefits, read on... - Health Benefits Of Cumin Or Jeera Cumin or Jeera as it is called in India, is a spice which is commonly used in cooking. It is also useful in a variety of health problems. To know more read on.... - Kalonji, Black Seed Or Nigella sativa Seed And Its Health Benefits Kalonji, Black seeds or Nigella sativa seeds are called miracle seeds, though they are a spice used in Indian and other Asian cuisines. They have rightly been called a miracle herb as you read on ... - Charoli Or Chironji - The Indian Medicinal Plant - Its Health Benefits, Nutrients, Uses And Recipes Charoli or chironji is an Indian medicinal plant whose seeds are used in sweet desserts and cuisine. They are also used in Ayurveda. Read to learn about its health benefits, nutrients, uses and more... - Ritha, Aritha Or Soap Nuts - The 100% Natural Detergent And Cleaner - Its Benefits And Uses And Man Soapnuts, Ritha, Aritha are the fruits of a number of trees of the Genus Sapindus. Find out the benefits, uses, and surprisingly, the many health benefits of this 100% natural detergent & cleaner..... Bel ka Sharbat -- Wood Apple Squash Bel ka Sharbat -- Wood Apple Squash Natural Waterproofing: Bael and Jaggery © 2013 Rajan Singh Jolly More by this Author Onions are so commonly used in almost all dishes that we are not aware of the immense health benefits they offer. To know more, read on. Watermelon is a very healthy fruit—in moderation. It is a good source of potassium and vitamins. Side effects of over-eating, however, include diarrhea and intestinal disturbances. Milk is a universally available natural food. It contains all nutrients necessary for our growth. Read on to find the health benefits of drinking this white nectar...

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Kansas pioneer. 1834-1925 Even by 21st century standards, Julia Stinson made great accomplishments in her life. Being part French and part Shawnee Indian, she was quite successful in her family and business life—and even saved the first governor of Kansas from demise. Julia Ann Beauchemie was born in 1834 at Shawnee Methodist Indian Mission where she was raised and educated. It was there that she met Thomas Stinson and was married on Thanksgiving Day in 1850. A photograph taken on her wedding day is believed to be the first photographic portrait taken west of the Missouri River. Her husband was adopted into the tribe and the couple received a land grant of about 800 acres from a treaty between the U.S. government and the Shawnee Indians. The Stinson's made their home on the land they acquired through the Shawnee settlement. Julia Stinson claimed a relationship to the Shawnee warrior Tecumseh. Shawnee Indians supposedly kidnapped her grandfather who married a cousin of Tecumseh. This is how the future town earned its name. The couple built a home there, established a profitable trading post and ran a post office. The Stinson family was financially successful, and later constructed a stone house to replace their original log home. Julia was known throughout the West for her hospitality, as territorial governors and members of legislatures who met in Topeka often visited the Stinson home. Despite the rewards of success, there was much controversy over slavery at that time. Julia was a proslavery supporter and it was common for prominent Shawnee Indians (mostly mixed blooded) to own slaves. After the Stinsons married, they owned at least two slaves, Jennie and Moses, according to Julia. There is even a bill of sale for one slave bought by the Stinsons from Julia's brother. Being a merchant family, the Stinsons needed to keep some sense of neutrality between the supporters and non-supporters of the slavery issue. Despite Julia's proslavery stance, the family tried its best to maintain alliances with nearby antislavery supporters. Julia's close relationship with Andrew Reeder, first territorial governor of Kansas who supported the antislavery cause, is a good example of her ability to keep friendships with people from both sides of the fence. Reeder made his headquarters in the free-state settlement of Lawrence. When he went west on state business, he stopped at the Stinson home. One evening while staying at their home, he and Julia were playing chess when they heard gunshots coming from the road. There was an angry proslavery mob of about 300 who came into the yard, drunk, demanding Reeder. The mob threatened to burn the house and lynch Reeder for his antislavery beliefs. Julia went to the door and pleaded with the mob to wait until the next morning, which they agreed to. In 1914, at the age of 80, Julia gave her version of the story. Governor Reeder was here visiting us one evening, we were playing chess when a mob came up and wanted to get him and ride him on a rail. We put away our game and I tried to talk to the men. I tried to flatter them a little so they would leave us in peace. I told them that the Governor could not help where he was born, and that being born in Pennsylvania he was of course an abolitionist. The crowd were all border ruffians who had come over to vote, Missourians you know. I told them to be quiet and lie down and then see what they wanted to do in the morning. Under the cloak of darkness, Julia disguised Reeder in women's clothes and they escaped the sleeping men. They rested at a spring where they waited for her husband, who had left to get Reeder's rig and driver. Finally they did quiet down and then along toward midnight we got the Governor's carriage hitched up and took him out and up the hill behind the house and out that way to a road where he could get away," Julia said. "The men were very angry in the morning and threatened to ride my husband on a rail. But I told them that I would have to ride behind him. I talked to them for quite a while, and asked them to be good, that I was trying to cook breakfast for them. I told my girl to make biscuits and cook meat for them all. Reeder escaped all the way to Illinois disguised as a woodchopper. It was thanks to Julia's help that Reeder was able to get away safely. "By talking with the men I got them good natured and they ate breakfast," said Julia. The Stinsons had several children but only a few of them lived to become adults. Julia's husband died in 1882. He and his deceased children were buried in Tecumseh and were later moved to Topeka. Julia Stinson died July 16, 1925, in Kansas City. At the time of her death, the original land grant of 800 acres had been reduced to 60 acres. Her lifelong home had been rented to boarders. The Stinson home in Tecumseh still exists, but is privately owned. Several structures, including the house, are still standing. View the money belt and scales used by the Stinsons at their Uniontown trading post. Entry: Stinson, Julia Author: Kansas Historical Society Author information: The Kansas Historical Society is a state agency charged with actively safeguarding and sharing the state's history. Date Created: August 2004 Date Modified: August 2014 The author of this article is solely responsible for its content.

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Curators from the National Gallery of Canada began scouring the globe a few years ago to find, in the words of one of them, “great” contemporary art. The only other ingredient beyond “greatness,” according to the gallery’s chief aboriginal curator Greg Hill, was that the artists had to be “indigenous,” a term generally referring to the original people of a particular geographic area who, over the centuries, have been swamped by colonists to the point of becoming a minority. In the Americas, indigenous refers generally to First Nations, Inuit, and Métis people. But there are indigenous minorities in Scandinavia, Taiwan, India, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, and other countries. Once examples of “great” indigenous contemporary art were identified, Hill and his team selected the best of the best and created the newly opened exhibition Sakahan, the largest show ever staged by the National Gallery in its history. Sakahan fills the usual prime temporary exhibition space on the main floor, expands into rooms in the contemporary wing of the building and fills the second floor exhibition space normally displaying temporary shows of prints, photographs or drawings. There is no overall theme to the show. That gave the curators the freedom to concentrate on the truly “great” and not feel restricted to selecting art that fit into a particular thematic box. That tactic was wise. The show is indeed great. The “wow factor” is higher than anything the gallery has done since Diana Nemiroff stopped curating contemporary shows there many years ago. Among the Canadian highlights is Rebecca Belmore’s photograph called Fringe. A nude aboriginal woman lies on a mat. On her back, a horrific looking scar travels from her left shoulder to her right hip. Blood-red lines (beaded strings, actually) drip from the scar. In this one scene, Belmore has encapsulated the history of violence against aboriginal people, especially aboriginal women. The beadwork is a nod to traditional aboriginal handicraft but the medium – photography – is very much a contemporary, Western form of expression. Similar themes related to violence and colonialism and marginalization do run through many of the artworks from around the world, from Australia to Lapland. The wow factor is also high with the photographs by Maori artist Fiona Pardington from New Zealand. She has photographed the life-casts of the heads of some Maori and other South Pacific indigenous men that were created between 1837 and 1840 under the orders of French explorer Jules-Sebastien-Cesar Dumont d’Urville. By chance, the artist discovered a trove of these heads — some of her own ancestors — at a Paris museum in 2007. The resulting photographs of these heads are simultaneously horrifying and hypnotic and definitely a reminder of the colonial era when indigenous peoples were treated more like wild animal specimens than humans. Two Ottawa artists are in the exhibition. There is a Jeff Thomas photograph from a series he did spoofing the statue of Samuel de Champlain on Nepean Point. And there are two drawings by Ottawa-based Inuit artist Annie Pootoogook, one a self-portrait lying down and another unusually large one for her (about 3 metres by 1.5 metres) showing a scene in Cape Dorset of Inuit shoppers peering into a large freezer in a grocery store. That scene naturally makes one think of that old joke about a salesman who was so skilled he could sell “a refrigerator to an Eskimo.” These drawings are two of the most technically skilled I have seen Pootoogook do. She has had a rough patch the last few years, basically living on the street. Let’s hope she gets back to a stable life and lots of drawing. Sakahan continues at the National Gallery until Sept. 2.

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Click on the image for larger version This map shows global compositional variations measured by the Diviner lunar radiometer aboard NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. The map is centered on the lunar nearside, which is visible from Earth, between 90 W and 90 E. The iron- and magnesium-rich maria appear red, while the calcium-rich highland appear blue-green. Highland areas with high silica (labeled) and enhanced sodium regions (purple circles) appear dark blue. Diviner measures the wavelength position (microns) of a mid-infrared spectral feature called the Christiansen feature, which is correlated with silicate composition. JPL designed, built and manages the Diviner instrument for NASA's Exploration Science Mission Directorate, Washington. UCLA is home institution of Diviner's principal investigator, David Paige. NASA's Goddard Spaceflight Center, Greenbelt, Md., manages the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. It is a NASA mission with international participation from the Institute for Space Research in Moscow. More information about NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter mission is at http://www.nasa.gov/lro. More information about the Diviner instrument is at http://diviner.ucla.edu.

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The sacred order is: Shelter first – then water, fire, food. In a survival situation, you need to conserve energy and resources. If it’s late in the day or you are in a place with limited resources, what you do first matters. Panic and frustration get in the way of success in any situation, but they can be deadly in the outdoors. The point of building a shelter first is that for the energy it takes to gather branches and leaves, you can build a debris shelter without tools, ensuring a way to maximize your body heat. The worst thing that can happen in the woods is not starvation or animal attack – it’s hypothermia. Hypothermia occurs when your body temperature suddenly and profoundly cools to below 96 degrees F or 35.5 degrees C. This can happen on a warm sunny day, when perspiration drenches your clothing, drawing heat away from your body. You can also be at risk for hypothermia from exposure to wind, breathing in cold dry air, or simply being improperly dressed. Shivering is a sign that your body is cooling off. Your survival depends upon your ability to warm up. While it’s tempting to build a fire, even if you have all the tools and dry wood available, you still need to keep feeding the fire. By contrast, building a debris shelter allows you to get a night’s sleep and stay warm. If you get enough rest, your brain will be able to make a better assessment of the situation. Lowering the stress factor and having more time available will help you make better decisions. A must read: Planning a shelter in the wild Another advantage of building a debris shelter is that even if you need to use wet leaves, the air space between the leaves will collect your body heat and keep you warm. I’ve slept in a wet leaf debris shelter. When I woke the next morning, my fingers were wrinkled like I’d been in the tub too long, but I was warm. While it was nowhere near as comfortable as sleeping on dry leaves, cattail fluff or pine needles, I was able to relax and sleep, knowing I was safe. Once you have shelter, water becomes your next concern. When in a survival situation, never eat unless you have enough water to keep you from becoming dehydrated. If you’re in deciduous woods, you can use an absorbent cloth, like cotton to collect the dew that forms on plants… I make it a point to carry one or two bandanas. You can wipe them along the surface of the plants or you can tie them to your legs and walk through wet vegetation. Ring the cloth into your mouth, or suck on it. I also carry pint and gallon size plastic bags. These can be placed around the green leaves on a tree branch with one corner of the bag hanging lower and tied off. The moisture that forms from condensation will collect in the plastic bag. This is potable water. In winter, DO NOT EAT SNOW, unless you have water and a container to melt the snow. Eating snow will reduce your body temperature and lead to dehydration. There are other ways to gather potable water, but looking for ready to drink natural water sources requires a little backwoods experience. Now that you’ve got your shelter and a way to get water, if you are still in a survival situation, fire is the next challenge of the sacred order. On a recent camping trip, two of my three lighters failed. It wasn’t sunny, so my magnifying glass was not an option, and although I know that fine steel wool and a 6-Volt battery (or even two AA batteries) will also start a fire, I typically do not carry them. The only other alternative when you have no fire-making tools is to build the apparatus to start a fire. Making a bow drill or hand drill apparatus for fire by friction takes skill and practice. Understanding how fire by friction works and knowing something about wood is essential. Starting a fire is only part of the process. You need to keep the fire going, which means gathering some kind of fire starter – dried grasses or leaves, lint from your clothing or small twigs. Once the fire is started, you need to keep it going with branches for kindling. When the fire is stronger, you can add large pieces of wood, like split logs. Suggested article: Making the right type of fire in the wild It’s necessary to have your tinder, kindling and fuel gathered before you start the fire. This is one of the aspects most beginners do not think of and by the time they gather more fire fuel, their fire will most certainly burn out. They have to start all over again and they waste time and energy. Once you have access to fire, then you can turn your attention to food. All grasses in North America are edible. You chew the plants, extract the juices and spit out the pulp. Pine needles can be steeped in boiling water for an excellent source of Vitamin C. Many wild edible plants have poisonous look-alikes so becoming a forager out of the blue is not an option. The sacred order states that you should never eat anything if you have even a shadow of a doubt, especially in a survival situation. In the winter, you won’t have access to plants or even insects. If you don’t have the ability to trap animals, you will be at a serious disadvantage. Learning to make and set different kinds of traps is an extremely useful skill. The best preparation for a survival situation is to practice skills before you get into that situation. Even more, you should learn how to signal for help, regardless of the environment you’re in or the resources you have available. Even without mastery of these skills, if you respect and follow the sacred order: shelter first, then water, then fire, and food last – your chances of survival are greatly improved. You won’t be able to thrive in the wild, but at least you will be able to survive until rescue parties find you. If you found this article useful, please vote for Prepper’s Will as a top prepper web site: Self-sufficiency and Preparedness solutions recommended for you: The LOST WAYS (The vital self-sufficiency lessons our great grand-fathers left us) Sold Out After Crisis (Best 37 Items To Hoard For A Long Term Crisis) Drought USA (How to secure unlimited fresh, clean water) Survival MD (Knowledge to survive any medical crisis situation) Food For Freedom (The easiest solution to produce food during a water crisis) Liberty Generator (How to gain complete energy independence) The Stockpiling Lesson (How to make a one year stockpile of food and other survival items) Surviving the Final Bubble (Trump may be crazy, but his predictions for America are spot-on) The Quickest Prepping Plan (Get Prepped in one trip to WALMART)

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World’s no.1 super computer consuming 9.89 MW of power–Enough to power 10,000 sub-urban homes Although the World’s Most Powerful Super computer consumes a hectic 9.89 MW of power, it still remains relatively Efficient. K Computer, produced by Fijitsu at the RIKEN Advanced Institute for Computational Science campus in Kobe, Japan is the World’s Fastest Super Computer with a rating of over 8 petaflops and Rmax of 10.51 petaflops, according to top500.org . K Computer is expected to get fully operational by November 2012. Amazing Facts of K Computer 1. Has a memory of 1,410,048 Gb 2. Runs on Linux Operating System 3. It has 705,024 cores 4. Manufactured by Fijitsu 5. the K computer’s performance equals “one million linked desktop computers” * 6. The computer’s annual running costs are estimated at US$10 million. To Know more Click Here To Explore the K Computer Click Here Share This Article and Like us on Facebook to get Instantz Updates

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WASHINGTON (AFP) The gulf between rich and poor in the United States is yawning wider than ever, and the number of extremely impoverished is at a three-decade high, a report out Saturday found. Based on the latest available U.S. census data from 2005, the McClatchy Newspapers analysis found that almost 16 million Americans live in "deep or severe poverty" defined as a family of four with two children earning less than 9,903 dollars — one half the federal poverty line figure. For individuals the "deep poverty" threshold was an income under 5,080 dollars a year. "The McClatchy analysis found that the number of severely poor Americans grew by 26% from 2000 to 2005," the U.S. newspaper chain reported. "That's 56% faster than the overall poverty population grew in the same period," it noted. The surge in poverty comes alongside an unusual economic expansion. "Worker productivity has increased dramatically since the brief recession of 2001, but wages and job growth have lagged behind. At the same time, the share of national income going to corporate profits has dwarfed the amount going to wages and salaries," the study found. "That helps explain why the median household income for working-age families, adjusted for inflation, has fallen for five straight years. "These and other factors have helped push 43% of the nation's 37 million poor people into deep poverty — the highest rate since at least 1975. The share of poor Americans in deep poverty has climbed slowly but steadily over the last three decades," the report said. It quoted an American Journal of Preventive Medicine study as having found that since 2000, the number of severely poor — far below basic poverty terms — in the United States has grown "more than any other segment of the population." "That was the exact opposite of what we anticipated when we began," said Steven Woolf of Virginia Commonwealth University, a study co-author. "We're not seeing as much moderate poverty as a proportion of the population. What we're seeing is a dramatic growth of severe poverty." U.S. social programs are minimal compared to those of western Europe and Canada. The United States has a population of 301 million, but more than 45 million U.S. citizens have no health insurance. Copyright 2007 Agence France-Presse. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.

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Matt McDonnell is vice president of operations at Famigo. There’s lots of talk about the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), but do you really understand how the law works? COPPA was enacted in 1998 and was enacted to protect the privacy of children under 13 years of age. COPPA charged the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) with creating the regulations necessary to implement the law. The original act also required that the law be reviewed five years after the effective date of the regulation (April 21, 2000). This review took several years and various stakeholders were given the opportunity to comment on the proposed revisions. The revised COPPA Rule was released in December 2012 and is set to go into effect on July 1, 2013. What follows are 10 questions that every developer should ask herself over the next couple weeks in order to conduct an internal COPPA audit and ensure compliance. Understanding the rule 1. Did you read it This seems obvious, but have you read the revised rule yet? It might look big and scary at first, but it’s not rocket surgery — anyone who can develop their own application can grasp the content of the revised COPPA Rule. 2. Does the rule apply to you? Ask yourself this question: Am I operating a child-directed website or service, or do I have actual knowledge that I’m collecting, using, or disclosing personal information from a child under 13 years of age? If you have any doubt, the smart bet is to assume COPPA applies to you and read on. 3. Do you collect personal information? According to the COPPA Rule, “Personal information is individually identifiable information about an individual collected online.” Sure, this definition is tautological, but the rule provides clarification by listing 10 kinds of personal information in the definitions of §312.2. The general idea is that personal information is any information that can be matched to a single person. Phone numbers and email addresses are obvious examples, but it’s worth going through the whole list to determine if you collect personal information, as the definition has expanded. 4. What do you collect? It’s time to compile an exhaustive list of all the information you collect. Remember that feature you built, but never used? Make sure it isn’t still collecting information. Figuring out what you collect is perhaps the most important part of your own COPPA audit. Leave no stone unturned. After all, there’s still time to clean up your act before July 1. 5. What do you need to collect? Now that you know what you collect, it’s time to understand why you collect it. It’s useful to divide all the information you collect into two categories: information for the support of internal operations (defined in §312.2) and information that is disclosed to third parties. If it’s for the support of internal operations (e.g. collecting data to optimize product features) make sure you’re using the data and storing it securely. If you don’t use it, stop collecting it. If the information is disclosed to third parties, ask yourself why you’re disclosing that data in the first place. In the general interest of protecting children’s privacy, disclosure of this data should be carefully and rigorously scrutinized. The primary goal of COPPA is “to place parents in control over what information is collected from their young children online.” In order to accomplish this task, it’s important for developers to think carefully about how they communicate with parents and what they communicate to parents in order to meet this goal. Here are a few tools to help you get started: We also recommend looking at the privacy policies of developers who are doing similar work or offering similar services. What’s more important than perfect legalese is honesty and transparency. 7. How are you going to provide notice of your privacy practices? 8. Have you read the FAQ? I’m willing to bet that you probably have questions at this point. The good news is that you’re not alone. In May the FTC released a set of FAQs to address the most common and vexing questions they had received in the months since the amended rule was released. The good news is that you’ll probably find some clarification to your questions, but be prepared to add some items to your to-do list as well. Developers are certainly not strangers to constant product iterations and you should get used to thinking of your privacy-related activities the same way. Children’s privacy is very important, and if you take your obligation seriously, it will require constant refinement. 9. Have you considered getting a second opinion? Even if you consider yourself a technology and privacy guru, it’s always nice to have someone else tell you that you’ve gotten it right. There are lots of companies out there that offer a range of consulting and certification services and you can always ask your attorney. With lots of choices, make sure that you identify someone who fits your needs. The prospect of finding yourself on the wrong side of the law and the FTC is scary, but especially for small developers, it’s worth thinking about whether you’re committing too many resources to certify your compliance when you’re already following all the rules. You might find it useful to look into the Kidsafe Seal. The KidSAFE Seal Program awards websites and technologies the “KidSAFE Seal” if they are in compliance with the five “core safety rules”: 1) Safely-designed chat and community features (if any exist) 2) Rules and educational info about online safety 3) Procedures for handling safety issues and complaints 4) Parental controls over child’s account 5) Age-appropriate content, advertising, and marketing Other resources include COPPA Safe Harbor Programs. The following FTC-approved safe harbor programs provide businesses with the ability to self-regulate when it comes to COPPA compliance: 10. What’s next? Not only should you constantly iterate on your own, but you’ve just gotten a second opinion from an expert. And experts, by their very nature, earn their keep by having opinions and suggestions, so it’s probably time to return to an earlier step and resume the process. A final thought Hopefully this 10-step guide is helpful in starting you on your journey to COPPA compliance. This information is not meant as legal advice, but it does accurately reflect a process that we’ve used ourselves and that other developers have had some success with too. If you have suggestions or care to share your own experiences please leave a comment. With a varied past as an Outward Bound sailing instructor, elementary school teacher, and non-profit administrator, Matt does a little bit of everything at Famigo, an Austin, Texas-based startup that builds technology to protect kids and families on mobile devices. A native of Scranton, Pennsylvania, Matt holds a B.A. in Philosophy from Colgate University, an MBA from the College of Charleston, and is currently taking a leave of absence from the University of Texas School of Law. Follow Matt on Twitter @mmmcdonnell. Image via GamesNews

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Cheetahs usually hunt alone. But in this video, 2 male cheetahs join together to attack prey much larger than themselves. Seasonal rains bring renewed life to this parched land, attracting a herd of wildebeest, eager to feast on the succulent, sweet grasses that grow in the rain’s wake. Over one and a half million wildebeest make this trek each year—part of the Great Migration that takes the beasts through Kenya and Tanzania. But the journey is not without peril. And today’s stopping place happens to be within the territory of two young male cheetahs. Cheetahs are normally solitary creatures, living a nomadic life. However male cheetahs, especially litter-mates, will sometimes live together in “coalitions,” and maintain a territory. They hunt together, and can bring down larger prey than they would if hunting by themselves. Well known as the fastest land mammal, cheetahs can go from 0 to 60 mph in just three seconds. Fast enough, when lucky, to overtake a lone wildebeest. The two males size up the situation, bobbing and weaving through the wildebeest, as the wary grazers step out of the way of the big cats. Without warning, the cheetah bolts and locks onto his intended target. Its hunting partner joins in, and the struggle to bring down the hapless wildebeest ensues. A cheetah kills its large prey by grabbing the victim by its throat and suffocating it. Despite their speed and agility, they are successful hunters only about half of the time. In the end, success is with the cheetah brothers. The rest of the wildebeest herd looks on—they do not come to the aid of the downfallen. The cheetahs will enjoy their meal—and many others like it during this time of plenty. But soon, the rains will end, and the herd will again move on…as this great migration continues.

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Effects of intense noise on people and hearing loss. Handbook of Noise and Vibration Control. Crocker MJ, ed., Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007 Oct; :337-342 The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the effects of noise on people and their hearing. Noise is a universal problem that damages hearing and impacts quality of life. Most industrial environments have noise as a component. This chapter will provide an introduction to the functioning of the peripheral auditory system, protective mechanisms of the ear, noise damage and how it is assessed, and some discussion of how noise regulations are determined. Noise-exposure; Auditory-system; Noise-exposure; Noise-induced-hearing-loss; Hearing-conservation; Hearing-impairment; Hearing-disorders; Hearing-loss; Physiological-effects; Risk-analysis Book or book chapter Handbook of Noise and Vibration Control

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Each day of a week in Hinduism has got a colour associated with it. This is closely related to the deity worshipped on each day. White is the colour of Monday or Somvar; Red is the color of Tuesday or Mangalvar; Green is the color on Wednesday of Budhvar; Yellow is on Thursday/Guruvar; light blue on Friday/Shukravar; black on Saturday or Shanivar; Sunday it is orange. Monday is associated with Shiva and Chandra (the moon god) and the color chosen is white. Other preferred colours are pale shades of blue, green and pink. Tuesday is associated with Mars. Bright red is the color associated wit the day. Jet Black and bright shades of orange or pink are also worn by some people. Wednesday is associated with Mercury. Green or Pear Green is the most important hue on the day. Other colors suggested are mild tones of blue, gray and brown. Thursday is associated with Jupiter. Apart from yellow, the other colors preferred are and golden. Orange Friday is related to Venus. Light blue and white is preferred. Saturday is famously associated with Lord Shani or Saturn. Black is the first choice. The next is dark blue. Sunday is associated with Surya and the colours preferred are orange, red, yellow also pink and maroon. Keeping flowers of particular color and wearing the colour dress on the day is considered auspicious. You may also like to read

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Minor strains of flu, which are not targeted by vaccines, spread quicker than scientists previously believed. Vaccines aim to attack the dominant strains of influenza as they infect more people, but minor strains, which sneak into the body with dominant strains, replicate quickly and are unaffected by vaccines. The research, from New York University, builds upon our knowledge that some forms of the influenza virus have large genetic diversity, so can be troublesome to remove from the body. These viruses can be broken down into two general categories: dominant and minor strains of the virus. Vaccines target dominant strains because it infects more people than the minor strains. However, this new research shows that the minor strains of flu can spread between individuals quicker than believed – rivalling the dominant strains. "A flu-virus infection is a mix of strains that gets transmitted as a swarm in the population," said Elodie Ghedin, researcher on the study. "Current vaccines target the dominant strains. But our findings reveal an ability of minor strains to elude these vaccines and spread the virus in ways not previously known." In the study, the researchers wanted to find out how many minor strains of flu were transmitted into, and throughout the body with dominant strains. They also aimed to investigate how they move between individuals. Scientists used data from the 2009 Hong Kong H1N1 outbreak – more commonly known as swine flu. They used carried out genome deep sequencing of upper nasal-cavity swabs from individuals with a confirmed case of swine flu, and their household. The results, published in Nature Genetics, showed that, unsurprisingly, most carried the dominant strain of the virus. What was surprising, however, was that they all carried the minor strains too, suggesting that these strains spread similarly to dominant forms of the virus. Ghedin said: "What stood out was also how these mixes of major and minor strains were being transmitted across the population during the 2009 pandemic -- to the point where minor strains became dominant." The findings could encourage future treatments to target minor strains of the influenza virus. This could reduce the number of global influenza cases from five million per year.

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A research panel analysed data on U.S. adults with end-stage kidney disease, who had either a kidney transplant or their first dialysis session between April 1995 and September 2007. About 60 percent of the 145,629 patients with a BMI below 30 received a transplant, compared to about half of the 62,869 obese patients. The researchers found that 12 percent of the thinner patients who received a transplant and 34 percent of those on dialysis died within about three years. That compared to 14 percent of the obese patients dying after a transplant and 28 percent dying on dialysis. Overall, thin and obese people's risk of death in the year following their transplant fell by similar amounts, compared to those who remained on dialysis. Study showed that people do benefit from living-donor transplantation - especially among obese patients. But the researchers found that the benefits of transplant in severely obese people - those with BMIs of 40 and above - weren't as great as the benefits in thinner people. Read more Health News. Young overweight men are more likely to die before middle age than those who weigh normal.read more People with chronic kidney disease (CKD) may be particularly susceptible to salt's detrimental effects due to the kidney's important role in controlling salt balance.read more

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Centipedes’ Reproductive Cycle Centipedes do not undergo a process of metamorphosis, though their young may pass through several molts during growth. Centipedes mate in warm months and stay dormant through winter. A centipede may live up to six years. The centipede reproductive cycle involves distinct rituals. The female centipede first releases pheromones to attract a male, who, in some species, then weaves a silk pad deposited with sperm, known as a spermatophore. The spermatophore is either left for her to find and take up or is brought to her attention via a courtship dance, during which the male taps the female’s posterior legs with his antennae. Typical indoor centipede’s reproductive cycle produces up to 35 eggs. Other species of centipedes give birth to living young. Centipedes lay their eggs in the hollows of rotting logs or in the soil. Most females will tend to their eggs and hatchlings, curling their bodies around their brood for protection. In addition, eggs are prone to the growth of fungi and require grooming to ensure that they reach adulthood. However, some species may abandon or eat their eggs. Upon hatching, many centipede young have fewer pairs of legs than the adults and acquire the additional body segments and legs each time they molt. Because centipedes have outer skeletons, they must undergo a series of molts, shedding their exteriors. However, the hatchlings of the Scolopendromorphae and Geophilomorphae are born with a complete set of legs.

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This week Pastor David Cooper filled in for Miles as he crusading in Jamaica. John 11:35 reads Jesus wept. Now this is the shortest verse in the Bible but extremely powerful. First we'll look at what Pastor Cooper explained about tears. Pastor David explained that there are three types of tears: - Basal - This is a constant lubricating of the eyes keeping them clear of dust. - Reflex - When something gets in your eyes it causes the reflex tear - Psychic - Crying or weeping due to strong emotion; stress, pain, emotional or physical, happiness or joy. The first two are natural maintenance of the eyes by the body. It is the third, the psychic tears that where shed when Jesus wept. Now David broke down the psychic tears into 3 characteristics: - Tears are evidence of a peak of emotions. This is regardless of happy or sad. People cry at funerals because of their loss while the same people could cry at a wedding for joy. - Tears compel compassion. When we someone crying we know something is wrong (or at the wedding we share their joy). If you see a child alone and crying in a crowded place you know that the kid is probably lost and would help them somehow. Pastor Cooper also spoke of a study done on babies and crying. Did you know that when one baby cries and there is another baby in hearing distance that other baby usually cries as well as a sympathy cry even though there is nothing wrong with him or her. Compassion. - Tears bring release. Yes they do. Jesus wept only two times in the Bible; this time in John 11 and later right before he was crucified when he shed tears of blood. In John 11 this is a prelude of what Jesus knows he is going to go through when he himself was to die for our sins. In John 11:32, we find Jesus returning and Mary, the girl who cleaned His feet with her hair, upset because her brother Lazarus had died four days earlier. Jesus told them to move the stone of the tomb and called Lazarus out raising him from the dead. But before that, He wept. Oh the power in that story. There was a reason that Jesus resurrected Lazarus on the fourth day. First because after three days there is no question that someone is dead. There were a group of critics at the time that believed that the soul only lived three days after you where dead and then poof; gone. No afterlife; no heaven, hell or otherwise. Jesus proved them wrong with one act. Lazarus, come forth! John 11:43 was all that was said for this man to come back to life. Jesus simply spoke it and it was. It is important to know that He gave glory to God first and thanked our Lord and gave him praise before calling on Lazarus. Finally, and the point of this sermon, Lazarus was Jesus' friend as mentioned in John 11:5. So even though Jesus knew he was going to rise from the dead, Jesus still wept. Jesus feels our pain, our hurt, and He cries for us. He cries for you. And now he calls for you like he did Lazarus. You may not be physically dead but sometimes, a lot of times parts of us are dead. Our dreams, our hopes. We may feel like we exist but not alive. Jesus is here to heal that, resurrect us. To save us. To save you. Warning: Invalid argument supplied for foreach() in /home/httpd/vhosts/sdrock.com/httpdocs/classes/phplib/Php.php(8) : eval()'d code on line 13

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What is a data center? The MSDN library defines a data center in the following words: (Source) A facility used for housing a large amount of computer and communications equipment maintained by an organization for the purpose of handling the data necessary for its operations The data center is essentially a physical location where multiple servers are maintained to provide back up facilities in case one server experiences problems. Apart from housing servers, a datacenter has routers and switches to help the servers communicate with one another. What are the advantages of having a data center? The data center benefits organizations in the following ways: - It offers high availability. - It offers scalability, making it easy for organizations to expand its server resources. - It facilitates fast recoveries from failures. - It offers business continuity. Who needs a data center? The data center works better for bigger organizations and better than the small ones. The complexity of data center management overwhelms small businesses. Small organizations may be able to work better with single servers or cluster servers. Large and growing organizations will do well with the data center. Is data center management difficult? The difficulty in managing the data center is one of the biggest reasons that dissuade organizations from owning one. The data center is an enormous entity and its promise of business continuity and security makes it all the bigger. Now, not all organizations are equipped to handle such a big thing. The best way out is to hand over its management to professionals. You will not only be assured of reaping its benefits but also have peace of mind.

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It’s about time I made my contribution to the zoo of monad tutorials. After explaining the concept of monads to somebody who is not a programmer or a mathematician, I was told that what I had explained sounded exactly like a game of dominoes. However, instead of explaining monads in terms of a cute metaphor about dominoes, I’m just going to throw you into the deep end. Deep breath! Definition: A category is given by objects and arrows between these objects. Each arrow has a unique source object and a target object . For every three objects , , and , and arrows and , there is a composite arrow Composition is associative: if , , and , then There exists a unique identity arrow for each object For every object , there exists an arrow such that for every arrow , we have A category for dominoes: The objects of the category are the natural numbers. An arrow in the category is a domino piece with two numbers on it: . A composition of arrows is two domino pieces placed together end-to-end by the following equation: The identity arrow for each object is a domino piece with the same number on both ends. A monad for dominoes Definition: A monad is given by a functor (from a category to itself, i.e. an endofunctor in ), equipped with natural transformations: where is the identity functor and x is functor composition. This must satisfy the axioms that and are identity transformations, and (i.e. is associative). The dominoes need not be annotated with numbers, but might be annotated with any set of objects. Therefore, there exists an endofunctor on the category of sets, such that for all sets , we can construct the set of dominoes . For every object in , we can construct a domino . This is for our monad. Then, for the set of dominoes , we can construct which is the set of dominoes annotated with other dominoes. For any pair of dominoes in , composed end-to-end, we can see it as a single domino in . The operation in our monad is then the fact that for any such pair of dominoes , it behaves as the domino with regard to composition with other dominoes in . Exercises left to the reader: 1. What does a monoid in the category of dominoes look like? 2. How would the game of dominoes change if it allowed products and coproducts? 3. Can you come up with a coherent theory describing the behavior of “spinners” in the game of dominoes?

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Dear reader in last part we have discussed about total settlement and maximum differential settlement. In our next post we will learn about secondary influence that can lead to foundation settlement. Here we will learn about settlement rate and maximum angular distortion. c. Settlement rate During construction work gradually loads are applied to foundation soil say 2-3 years or may be several years where skyscrapers are founded. Some structures need to go in operation within shortest expected duration say highway, dam etc. when socio-economical or political aspects are considered. So we can leave some settlement during its service and essentially safe fraction of consolidation before structure is left to service. In this regard we have to know rate of settlement as most construction work have time constraint. Again settlement consideration for building is not same for highway construction. Different methods are introduced by geotechnical engineers to change rate of settlement, some have discussed here discussed in this blog, and some are coming soon. d. Maximum angular distortion: This term is expressed as δ/L. For the expression we can easily realize that it is nothing but differential settlement (not maximum differential settlement) between two locations in foundation soil divided by distance between two locations but should be less than tilt. Now what is tilt? MacDonald and Skempton (1986) defined this term as rotation of entire structure. The maximum angular distortion is the highest value of δ/L as shown in fig above, again the location of maximum angular distortion not necessarily to locate at maximum settlement or total settlement. Now how these parameters are used in foundation design? At first total/maximum or maximum differential settlement of structure proposed for in-situ soil conditions are determined. Thus allowable settlement rates are determined and finally they are compared to maximum settlement parameters. If these parameters exceed allowable settlement values, the foundation type required or required mitigation measures to limit settlement are designed.

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The City Cemetery in Carrollton, Georgia contains gravestones reaching back to the 1700’s and is associated with some of Carroll County’s most interesting stories. All the graves are aligned east to west except one, that of Col. William Curtis, who was captured at the battle of Vicksburg, imprisoned and then released. Then wounded at Mill Creek Gap, he died a month later. He is the highest ranking Confederate soldier buried in the cemetery. Only Curtis was buried facing north to guard against the oncoming Union Troops.

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Meet Project Catapult, a super-search machine network being built by Microsoft engineers Microsoft engineers are working on Project Catapult, utilizing field-programmable arrays (FPGAs) that Microsoft can modify specifically for use on its own software such as Bing. This allows for faster Bing searches, and can be used on other online services from the Redmond giant. Using these FPGAs, Microsoft engineers are building what they are calling a “super-search machine network” called “Catapult.” This network features 1,632 servers, each powered by an Intel Xeon processor and a daughter card that contains the Altera FPGA chip, all linked to the Catapult network. These FPGAs are forty times faster than a CPU at processing Bing’s custom algorithms, for example. So how does it work? Well, the system takes search queries from Bing and off loads the query to the FPGAs, which are custom programmed for the heavy computational work. In other words, the FPGAs figure out which webpage results should be displayed and in which order. Catapult can bundle the FPGAs into mini-networks of eight chips, and this is useful since Microsoft’s search algorithms require a lot of processing power. The folks over at Wired have brought up a great point. “After decades of regular performance boosts, chips are no longer improving at the same rate they once were. As their web services continue to grow, these companies are looking for new ways of improving the speed and efficiency of their already massive operations,” Wired stated in an official blog post. This is where Project Catapult comes in. There are still some issues with the network but Microsoft is confident that this method can be pushed to other services across the company. “If all we were doing was improving Bing, I probably wouldn’t get clearance from my boss to spend this kind of money on a project like this,” says Peter Lee, the head of Microsoft Research. “The Catapult architecture is really much more general-purpose, and the kinds of workloads that Doug [Doug Burger, who is heading up Project Catapult] is envisioning that can be dramatically accelerated by this are much more wide-ranging.” Originally starting out as a 1,600-server pilot program to test out the idea, Microsoft has green-lit the project to be moved into the company’s live data centers. This will take place early next year and we will begin to see this speed improvement when searching on Bing. Thanks for the tip, Rob!Further reading: Bing, Catapult, Microsoft

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Actually, comets have two tails. So, this is the tale of two tails. OK, that was a poor pun — I’m sorry. But comets are a hot item now. First, there is the comet Pan-STARRS as seen above. This isn’t the only comet of importance. Hopefully, in the fall of 2013 we will have a super awesome comet to look at — ISON. It might be the best comet since I don’t know when. So let’s look at some interesting things about these comet tails. Be warned, I am not an astrophysicist. Instead, I am going to use some fundamental principles to try to explain why comets do what comets do. Oh, sure I could just look this stuff up. However, speculation is quite entertaining (at least for me). What Is a Comet? Not every comet is the same, but it wouldn’t be terrible to say that a comet is a dirty-icy object in the solar system. When they come near the sun, they melt (I’m not sure “melt” is the most appropriate term here) and produce gas and dust. The gas and dust form both a coma and a tail (or two tails). If the comet is large enough and close enough to Earth, you can see the comet from the sunlight that reflects off this gas and dust. Why Two Tails? There are two tails because there are two ways the comet can interact with the sun. Everyone thinks about light coming from the sun. However, there is also the solar wind. The solar wind is really just charged particles (like electrons and protons) that escape from the sun due to their high velocities. These charged particles then interact with the ionized gas produced from the comet. The other tail is due to an interaction with the dust produced by the comet and the light from the sun. Really, it is this interaction that I want to talk about. How Does Light Push on Matter? Important idea number 1: Matter is made of positive and negative charges. If you have anything with structure (like dust particles) then it has to have atoms in it. Basically, dust is made of a combination of electrons, protons and neutrons. That’s it. Important idea number 2: Light is an electromagnetic wave. What does this even mean? It can mean lots of things. For this discussion, the important thing is that if you have a region of space moving at the speed of light an electric and magnetic field can move in accordance with a set of rules we call Maxwell’s equations. Here is a typical representation of a sinusoidal EM wave from the awesome textbook Matter and Interactions. The electric field and magnetic field in this light must both be perpendicular to each other and to the direction the wave moves. That’s important. Important idea number 3: If you have a charged particle in an electric field, it will experience a force. For a positive charge, this force will be in the same direction as the electric field. For negative charges, the force is in the opposite direction as the electric field. In the above diagram, I am using the yellow arrows to represent a region with a constant electric field. The red ball is a positive charge and the blue is a negative charge. The red and blue arrows represent the forces on these charges. Important idea number 4: A moving electric charge will experience a force when moving in a magnetic field. The force will be perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction the charge is moving. Just to make things a little bit more confusing, I am now using the yellow arrows to represent a magnetic field. In this diagram, the positive and negative charges are moving in opposite directions but both have a magnetic force in the same direction. Yes, I used red arrows to represent both the velocity of the charge and the magnetic force. Maybe that was a bad idea. Here is a super short video demo of this magnetic force. The current in the wire is the same as a moving charge. I put the wire over a magnet and you can see the magnetic force pushes the wire to the side. That’s all the important ideas. Now back to light. Suppose there is a positive charge sitting all by itself in empty space – not bothering anybody. Along comes some light – an electromagnetic wave. Here is an electromagnetic wave moving towards the charge. When the EM wave first gets to the charge, there is no interaction with the magnetic field since the charge isn’t moving. However, the electric field interacts with the charge, it will exert a force and change it’s momentum. Once the charge is moving (say up in the diagram), there will be a magnetic force on that charge that pushes it in the same direction as the propagation of the EM wave. What if it’s a negative charge? In that case, the electric field would make the negative charge move down in the diagram above. However, the magnetic force would still be in the same direction. But isn’t the charge moving quite slowly? Yes – and that means the magnetic force is tiny. Light interacting with matter does not have a strong effect. Ok, you know I cheated here, right? Of course this simplifies the interaction with light and matter quite a bit. However, I can at least show some possible way that light can push on matter. The pressure that light pushes on stuff can be written as: What kind of pressure does the sun push on stuff? Wikipedia has a nice page on radiation pressure. At the distance of the orbit of Mercury, the pressure is about 43.3 x 10-6 N/m2. That’s not much. Could you use this radiation pressure for some type of solar sail? If so, what would you call it? The answer is yes. It would be called a solar sail. The basic idea is to create a large surface area so that even a small pressure could produce a significant force. Even a force of 1 or 2 Newtons would be good enough since it wouldn’t require any fuel and it would always be pushing. Of course the problem is making these sails that are big but don’t add much mass to the spacecraft. Oh – and there is the problem of getting into space. A solar sail would only be useful after the spacecraft is off the planet’s surface. If Light Pushes on Dust, Wouldn’t It Push On the Comet? The short answer is that light DOES push on the comet. Let’s look at two different pieces of dust in orbit near Mercury. Let me call the radiation pressure at this point P. If the big dust has a radius twice that of the small dust, then I can calculate the force from the light on these two particles. So, the bigger dust has a greater force. Just as expected. However, force doesn’t tell you everything. What about the acceleration? Let’s assume that both dust particles have the same density (ρ). Since there is just one force, the acceleration would be the force divided by mass. Oh, remember that the volume of a sphere is proportional to the radius cubed. So, the dust that is twice as big has half the acceleration. Although the force on the bigger dust is bigger, so is the mass. In fact if you double the radius of the dust, you triple the mass but only double the force from the light. Smaller dust has a greater acceleration. And this is why the dust gets pushed away from the comet, but the comet doesn’t get pushed to have the same trajectory. Why Do the Two Tails Point in Different Directions? I am going to have to make a simulation showing this dust trail – and trust me, I shall. The force on the dust is small. You can’t just look at the force from the light pressure, you have to still consider the gravitational force from the interaction with the sun. However, for the solar wind, this is a collision (well, an electrostatic interaction) between two masses. The charged particles from the sun are moving fast enough that this collision with the ionized gas results in the gas moving directly away from the sun. So, the interactions with the gas and dust result in different trajectories and tails pointing in different directions.Go Back to Top. Skip To: Start of Article.

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Opinions about climate change are suddenly all the rage again (literally) with Monday’s release of proposed new Environmental Protection Agency regulations aimed at reducing carbon dioxide emissions from existing power plants by 30 percent by 2030. The New York Times put this story at the top of its coverage on Monday, although the story was only seventh on NBC’s morning news coverage. So perhaps it’s not surprising that many Americans still do not know whether the story is real or important enough to pay attention to. Someday in a warmer and more troubled future, we may look back on media coverage of the great climate change debate that raged in America from the 1990s until it became a settled fact sometime before 2020 and understand that the message was clouded in its early years by the near universal use of the polar bear as a symbol of the earth’s changing climate. Although it is hard to have negative feelings about polar bears, their lives do not appear to most Americans as having any real connection with our lives, which is perhaps why it has taken so long for most of us to focus on this defining issue of our times. Nevertheless, according to the New York Times’ pollster, Allison Kopicki, a significant majority of Americans believe that global warming is real. Although the percentage of Americans who share that view has declined slightly since 2008, still 73 percent of Americans surveyed by different polling organizations using different questions have confirmed a relatively constant pattern of opinion. But as with so many other major issues, the polling also reveals is a huge partisan divide — 65 percent of Democrats call climate change “a major threat,” while only 25 percent of Republicans agree. According to Kopicki, this finding is closely correlated to another significant finding — namely that Democrats trust scientists more than Republicans do. But back to the story of the day. The new EPA guidelines will be issued under the authority granted the president under the Clean Air Act and does not require congressional approval. The new regulations give states wide latitude to pursue different strategies for reducing carbon dioxide from their electrical systems, including increases in solar and wind generation capacity, increases in energy efficiency or participation in “cap and trade” markets to use markets to buy and sell permits to pollute. Across the United States, hundreds of coal-fired electrical plants produce about 40 percent of our electricity, although that number is already declining rapidly as utilities switch to cheaper natural gas. Here in New England, two large coal fired plants — one in Massachusetts and the other in Connecticut — have been targeted by environmental groups for over a decade in campaigns to prevent them from continuing to burn coal. One, in Salem, Massachusetts, will convert to natural gas generation; the other in Bridgeport, Connecticut, is in critical financial condition after its earnings “fell off a cliff” in 2009. What the new EPA regulations will mean for Maine is a question that is unlikely to get answered until the November gubernatorial election. Maine is part of RGGI, or the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, a “cap and trade” marketplace of nine northeastern states, which has successfully reduced carbon emissions since it was first organized in 2008. Although both the Great Recession and the conversion to natural gas generation have both helped reduce carbon emissions from the participating states, nevertheless the auctions have generated tens of millions of dollars per year in revenue to the participating states. Maine has used its share of the revenue largely to fund energy efficiency initiatives. If, as appears likely, the price of carbon dioxide permits sold at the RGGI auctions increases in the future, Maine will have to decide how to continue investing those dollars — whether through continued investments in energy efficiency programs or through investments in other renewable energy programs, or, alternatively, through extensions of natural gas pipelines; the outcome of the November election will surely be a deciding factor. More and more of us are beginning to understand that our energy choices are the most consequential environmental issue of our times and it is up to us to inform ourselves of what decisions our leaders are making — or proposing to make — on our behalf.

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the eighth part of a fluid ounce. Symbol: f. Abbreviation: fl dr; another name for drachm fluid dram n. A unit of volume or capacity in the apothecary system, equal to 1/8 of a fluid ounce or 3.70 milliliters. A unit of liquid volume or capacity in the US Customary System equal to 1/8 of a fluid ounce (3.70 milliliters). noun, Automotive. 1. a power coupling for permitting a smooth start in any gear, consisting of two vaned rotors in a sealed casing filled with oil, such that one rotor, driven by the engine, moves the oil to drive the other rotor, which in turn drives the transmission. noun 1. a type of coupling for […] noun, (used with a singular verb) 1. the branch of fluid mechanics dealing with the properties of fluids in motion. [floo-id] /ˈflu ɪd/ noun 1. a substance, as a liquid or gas, that is capable of flowing and that changes its shape at a steady rate when acted upon by a force tending to change its shape. adjective 2. pertaining to a substance that easily changes its shape; capable of flowing. 3. consisting of or […] [floo-id-ek-strakt] /ˈflu ɪdˈɛk strækt/ noun, Pharmacology. 1. a liquid preparation, containing alcohol as a solvent or as a preservative, that contains in each cubic centimeter the medicinal activity of one gram of the crude drug in powdered form. /ˈfluːɪdˈɛkstrækt/ noun 1. an alcoholic solution of a vegetable drug, one millilitre of which has an activity […]

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November 29, 2012 Mercury has ice on it Well, go figure. The planet closest to the sun, where temperatures can get up to 430 degrees Celsius, apparently has ice. In fact, Mercury has a butload of ice, about 100 billion to 1 trillion tons of it. All of it resides in crater bottoms that never see the surface of the sun. This all comes from NASA's Messenger spacecraft. Sean C. Solomon, the principal investigator for Messenger, said there was enough ice there to encase Washington, D.C., in a frozen block two and a half miles deep. That is a counterintuitive discovery for a place that also ranks among the hottest in the solar system. At noon at the equator on Mercury, the temperature can hit 800 degrees Fahrenheit. But near Mercury’s poles, deep within craters where the Sun never shines, temperatures dip to as cold as minus 370. (To learn more about Mercury, check out this documentary) Now why should this be fantastic news for all of us? Because the ice of Mercury proves that even in an inhospitable environment like being close to the sun, humans could probably find a way to set up a colony. While Mars is obviously the golden goose of the planets in the Solar System, an outpost on Mercury isn't so far fetched once space travel becomes more and more regular. Just don't put it on a sunny surface. Perhaps underground or on a crater floor. (If you want to see what the movies thinks of Mercury and being close to the Sun, watch the awesome flick Sunshine) Its funny how in just a couple of decades, a solar system that seemed devoid of life and water (except for Earth) has become an outright playground for organic compounds. Now if we could just spend more on NASA...

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E-cigarette use is on the rise and the Centers of Disease Control says the number of pre-teens and teens using them has doubled. A report by the CDC says e-cigarettes may cause addiction and harm your child's brain development. "The use of the e-cigarette products amongst middle schoolers and high schoolers is sky rocketing and it is a product that contains nicotine. Nicotine is an addictive substance, so what that leaves us is the opportunity to use more nicotine products throughout their lifetime," Kim Burr, tobacco and cessation counselor at CHI Good Samaritan said. Stacy Lauby is the owner of the Kearney Smoker Friendly store and agrees that e-cigarette sales are up. "We usually notice an increase in our e-cigarette and our vapor sales right after the first of the year,” Lauby said. “People set New Year's resolutions to try to quit smoking, so this is a good cessation product for them to try to help them get off the actual tobacco cigarette and into the vapors or the e-cigarette." However, Burr says any type of nicotine product can lend itself to others and even though it's less harmful than tobacco cigarettes, the juices could also be harmful. "So with some of the flavorings, people are looking at them and saying 'are they safe to inhale in a vaporized format?' And that's just a question that we aren't going to be able to format until we have a little bit more time behind us to evaluate that," Burr said. Some say e-cigarettes help kick the habit of smoking all together. "We do see some of our regular customers come back in and are back on to that actual cigarette, but we do see several success stories also where they've never gone back, where they've totally completely quit,” Lauby said. “Our e-cigarettes and the vapors all range in different nicotine levels, so it's a step down process similar to say the patch." Burr says historically it took years before the FDA proved cigarettes to be harmful, so it may take just as long for e-cigarettes. "And the data to understand the risks and benefits are lagging far behind and that's partially because the manufacturers are not being held accountable to the FDA to carefully evaluate the products at this time," Burr said. Burr says parents should start by talking to their kids and educate them about the product's negative effects.

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Warning: if you have arachnophobia, don't watch the above video. Posted on YouTube earlier in the month and going viral this week, the brief clip features a “huge wolf spider” that meets a dramatic end. “We got a bit of a surprise when I squashed it with a broom as hundreds of baby spiders came crawling out of the mother,” wrote the uploader, Danny Ford, who claims to have shot the video in Hallett Cove, South Australia. Actually, the babies most likely didn’t climb out of the mother, they climbed off the mother, says Norman I. Platnick, a spider biologist—aka arachnologist—with the American Museum of Natural History in New York. It’s hard to tell what species of spider is seen in the video, Platnick says, because the footage is fuzzy and far away. But he says there’s a good chance it is a wolf spider (a member of the family Lycosidae). Mother wolf spiders are known to carry their egg sacs around with them. “When the spiderlings hatch, they climb on the mother's abdomen and spend their first days there before dispersing,” Platnick says. “So these spiderlings were on the mother, and did not crawl out of her.” Christopher Buddle, an arachnologist at McGill University, agrees that the critter in the video is most likely a wolf spider. Typically, the spiderlings will reassemble on their mother after the danger passes, says Buddle. In the event that their mother is killed, they don't have a good chance of surviving, he notes. Australia has an estimated 400 species of wolf spiders, which aren't lethal to people. It’s still a good reminder to watch where you step.

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Environmental Change Network in the Cairngorms National Park: 10 years and counting Andrews, Chris. 2010 Environmental Change Network in the Cairngorms National Park: 10 years and counting. Wild Land News (75). 14-19.Full text not available from this repository. Long-term monitoring of ecosystems is important if we are to understand the impacts of climate change, land management and other developments on Scotland’s wild land. Chris Andrews from the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology in Edinburgh explains why work in the Cairngorms is vital for understanding long-term change. |Item Type:||Publication - Article| |Programmes:||CEH Topics & Objectives 2009 - 2012 > Biodiversity > BD Topic 1 - Observations, Patterns, and Predictions for Biodiversity| |Additional Information. Not used in RCUK Gateway to Research.:||Wild Land News no. 75 is freely available online - click on the Official URL link| |Additional Keywords:||Cairngorms National Park, Environmental Change Network (ECN)| |NORA Subject Terms:||Ecology and Environment |Date made live:||26 May 2010 13:56| Actions (login required)

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How important is nutrition to economic development? Historically, development was paralleled by growth in population and urbanisation. Hence, one way to gain some insight into this question is to understand the role that nutrition played in the historical growth in population and urbanisation. Figure 1 shows that both of these measures increased dramatically during the 18th and 19th centuries. Figure 1. Population and urbanisation over time Source: Nunn and Qian (2009) The traditional explanation for the rise in population is that medical advances, such as the understanding of the germ theory or the innovation of vaccinations, and improvements in public sanitation greatly decreased infant and child mortality, which in turn led to an increase in population (e.g. Preston, 1975, 1980, 1996; Cutler, Deaton and Lleras-Muney, 2005, 2006). However, in recent years, scholars such as Thomas McKeown (1976) and Robert Fogel (1984, 1987, 1994, 2004) have argued that the increase in population was mostly due to an improvement in nutrition rather than the advances in medicine or sanitation. McKeown argued that the decline in mortality began to occur well before the most important innovations such as antibiotics or vaccinations, which did not become prevalent until the 20th century, and therefore, there is scope for other factors to contribute to the rise in population. Fogel argued that since height is positively correlated with nutritional investment during childhood as well as lower mortality rates, then the observation that heights in America and the UK were increasing is evidence that nutrition was improving during this period. If Fogel is right, then we have to ask what caused the improvements in nutrition. Certainly, improvements in agricultural technology are part of the story. During this time, a number of productivity-enhancing technologies were developed. Examples include the seed drill, the threshing machine, and the Rotherham swing plough. In recent research, we argue that another main contributor was the discovery of New World food crops, namely, the potato (Nunn and Qian 2009). Potatoes are extremely nutritious and a very “cheap” source of calories. They produced much higher yields per acre relative to pre-existing Old World staple crops. Historical survey data from England show that if a family of four were to subsist on only one crop, it would require 66% less land if it were to plant potatoes rather than staples such as barley, wheat, or oats (Young, 1771). Potatoes are also easy to store and were popular as fodder for livestock through the winter. Therefore, cultivating potatoes also indirectly improved protein intake. The diffusion of potatoes also had a tremendous impact on nutrition in the Old World because vast land areas in Northern Europe, Asia, and high altitude areas of Africa were suitable for cultivating potatoes. Figure 2 maps suitability for potato cultivation. Yellow and brown coloured regions are suitable. Darker coloured regions are more suitable. Figure 2. Suitability for white potato cultivation Our results suggest that the availability of this high-yielding crop dramatically increased population and urbanisation. The introduction of potatoes can explain 22% of the rise in population and 47% of the rise in urbanisation during the 18th and 19th centuries. Cutler, David M., Angus Deaton, and Adriana Lleras-Muney, “The Role of Public Health Improvements in Health Advances: The Twentieth-Century United States,” Demography, 42 (2005), 1–22. Cutler, David M., Angus Deaton, and Adriana Lleras-Muney, “The Determinants of Mortality,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20 (2006), 97–120. Fogel, Robert W., “Nutrition and the Decline in Mortality since 1700: Some Preliminary Findings,” Working Paper 1402, NBER (1984). Fogel, Robert W, “Economic Growth, Population Theory, and Physiology: The Bearing of Long-Term Processes on the Making of Economic Policy,” American Economic Review, 84 (1994), 369–395. Fogel, Robert W, “New Findings on Secular Trends in Nutrition and Mortality: Some Implications for Population Theory,” in Mark R. Rosenzweig and Oded Stark, eds., Handbook of Population and Family Economics (Elsevier Science, North Holland, Charlottesville, 1997), 433–481. Fogel, Robert W, The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700-2100 (Cambridge University Press, New York, 2004). McKeown, Thomas, The Modern Rise of Population (Academic Press, New York, 1976). Nunn, Nathan and Qian, Nancy (2009) “The Potato’s Contribution to Population and Urbanization: Evidence from an Historical Experiment” CEPR Discussion Paper. Preston, Samuel H., “The Changing Relation Between Mortality and Level of Economic Development,” Population Studies, 29 (1975), 231–248. Preston, Samuel H., “Causes and Consequences of Mortality Declines in Less Developed Countries during the 20th Century,” in Richard A. Easterlin, ed., Population and Economic Change in Developing Countries (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1980), 289–360. Preston, Samuel H., “American Longevity: Past, Present, and Future,” (1996), mimeo, Syracuse University. Young, Arthur, The Farmer ’s Tour through the East of England, Volume 4 (W. Strahan, London, 1771).

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Find more Janesky relatives and grow your tree by exploring billions of historical records. Taken every decade since 1790, the U.S. Federal Census can tell you a lot about your family. For example, from 1930 to 1940 there were 30 more people named Janesky in the United States — and some of them are likely related to you. What if you had a window into the history of your family? With historical records, you do. From home life to career, records help bring your relatives' experiences into focus. There were 74 people named Janesky in the 1930 U.S. Census. In 1940, there were 41% more people named Janesky in the United States. What was life like for them? In 1940, 104 people named Janesky were living in the United States. In a snapshot: As Janesky families continued to grow, they left more tracks on the map:

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Basque fishermen, neighbors of the Portuguese, had been surrounded by the Roman Empire a couple of thousand years ago. As the Empire collapsed, Roman countries remained big consumers of salt fish. When the Basque ventured into Viking waters of the north east Atlantic after 1000 A.D., they discovered the Atlantic Cod. They had a huge market already established for it in the former Roman countries of the Mediterranean. The cods white flesh was almost without fat and absorbed the salt quickly. It also air dried well and was easily shipped. The Basque and Portuguese followed the cod across the Atlantic to the Banks and the Gulf of Maine. New England banks cod soon became a major commodity in European countries. Salt from evaporated sea water, brine wells or mined rock salt ranges in color from grey to white and coarse to fine. The best for salting fish was a course grade of sea salt. Lightly salted cod had to be dried to a low water content, required more care in processing and was more perishable, but it was also a more valuable product. This light shore cure was more like the original salted fish produced before the banks cod boom of the 1500s. This boom and the development of big markets in Europe demanded a product that traveled well in warm climates and heavily salted fish did. Though nearly wooden, it could be shipped to Mediterranean countries, offloaded into wagons and hauled slowly over what wed call jeep trails today. New demands for salt drove the search, the innovation and production. Primitive humans followed animal trails to brine springs and rock salt. Settlements were sometimes made near these salt formations. A wide trail made by buffalo to a large salt lick near Lake Erie grew into the settlement at Buffalo, N.Y. Scraping salt from salt water ponds that evaporated, boiling brine from wells and digging rock salt from mines were the common methods of production. When conventional means were played out or were not available new means were sought. Some of the earliest records of the collection and the manufacture of salt are from China. Their production records go back to 6,000 B.C., they also fought the first war over salt in 250 B.C., had the first state monopoly on salt production and the first salt taxes. Engineering in China to produce salt also had a few outstanding firsts. Around 1050 A.D. percussion drilling was developed for salt brine extraction. Using an 8 foot rod with a sharp iron bit that was dropped though a bamboo tube to guide it, a 4 inch diameter hole was dug. A worker counter balanced the rod with his weight on a seesaw like wooden lever. Riding it up and down the lever caused the rod to drop over and over. After three to five years the narrow shaft would hit brine several hundred feet down. Earlier, hand dug open pit brine wells, some 300 feet deep, had released a gas that put workers to sleep, some permanently. It was discovered the gas burned and by 200 A.D. iron pots were boiling salt brine heated by the first known use of natural gas. The production of salt didnt begin with the salting of fish. Meat and ocean fish had always been dietary sources of salt. Egyptians salted fish, meat, birds and mummies before the earliest records of the Chinese salting fish and meat. Soldiers rations contained salt at least as recently as the American Civil War. Armies needed it to maintain the calvary and workhorses that hauled the equipment. Armys brought a herd of cattle for food which required salt. Before the mechanized armies of the 20th century, when the smoke cleared on an given battlefield, pound for pound there was likely more dead animal than human. Minor wounds were treated with salt to reduce the chance of infection. When the first settlers came to America salt works were established almost immediately. Some of these were set up where American Indians had been making salt. The first patent issued in America, a ten year monopoly, was granted by the Massachusetts colony for ideas on salt production in the 1600s. The 17th century New England salt box style house was so called because it was shaped like the the salt storage box kept in most homes. Salting fish however, was only one use, others included general household uses and salting furs. The settlers traded with the Indians for furs that they sold in the profitable European market. To induce the Indians to produce more furs the settlers had to supply them with salt. Salt cod and furs often left on the same ships. Evaporation was the simplest early means of production in colonial America, but New England weather was not warm enough. The Caribbean Islands had been a stopping off place for the British navy, explorers and others to load their ships with salt. Naturally occurring salt water ponds there evaporated leaving a crust of salt up to eight inches thick. Sailors were dropped off passing ships to scape up the salt for months. When the ship returned they brought it out to their ship in row boats. Commercial salt operations were established in the Caribbean by the late 1600s. More than sugar, molasses and rum, salt was the leading export of the Caribbean. Salt was shipped to New England fishing ports, salt cod went back to feed slaves on sugar plantations. By the 1700s many countries taxed salt, some had monopolies. The result of this of course, was a huge illegal salt market. The underground salt economy was big and functioned parallel to the official one. As a tax on a vital commodity, the taxes were about as close to a tax on air as government has been. The trading, shipping and smuggling of salt were pretty much a world wide activities. Arab traders traveled the salt road through the middle east and beyond. France, in the run up to the revolution there in the 1780s, was annually sending 3,000 citizens to jail or to their death for violating the salt laws. Salt cod brought up the Loire to Paris would be seized if smuggling was suspected. Tax agents shook what they determined to be excess salt from the fish calling the surplus salt contraband. Liverpool, England had been a major salt producer. Liverpool salt was shipped as ballast in ships headed for the American south to load cotton bales for the return trip. Demand steadily grew, but there were few major changes in techniques for making salt in western Europe until the 1880s. A system for heating salt in a vacuum was invented at this time and set up at Liverpool. The boiling point of liquid was lowered in a vacuum, saving fuel and speeding production. This effected the cost of fuel, the oldest problem in brine production. It was the beginning of the slide in the cost of salt and the change in its economic value. In the fishing industry, ice making equipment a few decades later would take a piece of the salt market. The requirement that humans have for salt to maintain health makes it likely that salt has a history of being sought that is longer than recorded history. The more visible presence of salt in the past is marked by probably countless historic and written references. Roman legionnaires were paid with salt, their salarium is the origin of the word salary. Before them Greek slave traders paid for slaves with salt. If a slave they bought was less than expected, they said he was not worth his salt. The first New England settlers ate a lot of salted and smoked red herring. The smoking process gave it a reddish color. While hunting they threw bits of red herring on their trails confusing wolves with the strong smell. This, it is said, is the source and meaning of the phrase a red herring or a false trial. The United states is the worlds largest maker and consumer of salt at 40 million metric tons a year. Only 8% of this is for food production, 51% is used to deice roads. The salt fish trade has gone through a significant reversal in a relatively short time. Salt, once fought over, smuggled and taxed is now plentiful enough to be dumped on roads. While the once abundant cod, herring and tuna are now scarce. Our contemporary salt lore or legacy is more likely to have something to do with body rot on Buicks or the path not taken was the unsalted one.

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Using tea for compost will help to enrich your soil and provide a natural acid rich and healthy compost. To speed up the decomposition process and enrich your compost, pour a few cups of strongly brewed tea into the heap. The liquid tea will hasten decomposition and draw acid-producing bacteria, creating desirable acid-rich compost. #2. Foot bath. Soak your feet in a tea bath everyday and you will see foot odour problems will be a thing of the past. Place wet black tea bags to alleviate from the sting. If you got sunburned all over, immerse a couple of the bags in the bath for a cooling effect. The tannins found in black tea helps prevent fungus infecting your delicate flowers. #5. Sore gums. Stick tea bags in your mouth. The tea will reduce bleeding, swelling, and help clot the blood. #6. Clean your furniture and floors. Boil a few tea bags and let it cool afterwards. Dip your cleaning cloth and wring out the excess water. Use the cloth to clean and wipe your wood floors and furniture. #7. Puffy eyes. Tannins are found in black tea. When you place the bags under the eyes it will decrease puffiness and clear the skin in the area. #8. Using the tea water as a cleanser. Pour tea water over your scalp to fight off dandruff. Another benefit is that it will leave your hair looking shiny and smooth. #9. Water stains. Soak your cleaning cloth in a bowl with a couple of tea bags and water. The tea will remove water stains on glass. Place wet and cool green tea bags on warts. Leave it for 15 minutes and repeat with a new bag for another 15 minutes. #11. Bad odor. For those really nasty smelling shoes, place a dry tea bag inside the shoe. Leave it overnight and you’ll notice the bag has absorbed the foul smell. #12. Stain remover. Fill your sink with water and dirty dishes. Drop a tea bag and leave it overnight. All the stuck-on food will wash off without a problem. #13. Small burns. Tannins is a healing master. The polyphenolic biomolecule will reduce inflammation and provide relief to the affected area. #14. Smelly hands. After cooking with onions, garlic, and other strong odour foods, run your hands under water while you scrub with a tea bag to get rid of the smell. Mix peppermint tea with a pinch of salt and hot water. Let it cool and use as a mouthwash. This concoction will be gentler on your mouth and will ease existing toothaches.

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According to "Phytochemicals as Bioactive Agents," there is a lot still unknown about how garlic works, including which of its components are the most beneficial, and which is the best delivery system. Without further research, the primary benefit of garlic oil capsules over other forms, such as powdered or fresh garlic, is convenience. However you ingest it, garlic may be beneficial to your health. Garlic is a member of the lily family and produces a substance called allicin, which is a precursor to sulfur. In addition to a high sulfur content, garlic also contains selenium, the amino acid arginine and flavonoids, which are a type of phytochemical -- compounds produced by plants -- that affect humans in a beneficial way. "Phytochemicals as Bioactive Agents" states allicin breaks down quickly, converting to other, more bioactive compounds that are likely what makes garlic possibly beneficial for health. Benefits of Garlic Purported benefits of garlic include lowering high cholesterol, reducing high blood pressure and supporting a healthy immune system. A study in the May 2000 issue of "Applied and Environmental Microbiology" found garlic effective against Helibacter pylori, a type of bacteria that can cause ulcers. Garlic may help prevent a variety of cancers, including gastrointestinal, according to the National Cancer Institute, though the exact amount needed remains undetermined. Metabolic Syndrome Protection A study published in the July 2011 "Nutrition & Metabolism" revealed garlic may have a beneficial effect on metabolic syndrome, which is a collection of disorders -- typically high blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol levels, along with obesity -- that increase your risk of getting diabetes by five times and doubles your chances of having heart disease. Researchers divided rats into three groups, feeding two groups mainly corn syrup to gain weight and increase cholesterol and glucose levels. One of those groups also received raw garlic, and the control group was fed mainly cornstarch. The group receiving raw garlic and corn syrup had less weight gain, improved insulin sensitivity and lower triglyceride and blood sugar levels than the corn syrup-only and control groups. Side Effects and Precautions Using garlic can cause an allergic reaction, bad breath or body odors. High doses might lead to stomach upset, diarrhea or heartburn, especially on an empty stomach. Don't use garlic with the HIV medication saquinavir, because garlic can reduce its potency. Garlic can thin the blood, so avoid using before surgery, during pregnancy or with other blood-thinners. According to Drugs.com, short-term use of garlic supplements during breastfeeding appears safe. Garlic might actually encourage infants to suckle longer and influence future taste preferences.

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In Bangkok last week, representatives of the Obama administration brought a heap of apparent apathy to the negotiating table, refusing to discuss an international treaty to curb global emissions, reported News Day New Zealand, which called the US representatives to informal, UN-hosted climate talks the "elephant in the room." But the US isn't alone in its reticent stance on climate negotiations. Rich countries (like the US, Japan and Canada) continue to face off against poor countries this week as climate change discussions resume on either finalizing an extension of the Kyoto Protocol, which will expire at the end of this year, or getting started on a new, binding agreement that can be finalized at the massive Doha summit in November. Pessimism is palpable, however, as many watchers can sense an impending repeat of May's Bonn conference, where absolutely nothing was accomplished and all parties walked away frustrated. More from GlobalPost: Climate talks in Bonn end in disappointment The Bangkok meetings, like those in Bonn, are focused on designing a extension package to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol so that it can be maintained until 2020. However, while the EU has agreed somewhat to this idea, the US (which never ratified Kyoto to begin with) has made it clear they will not negotiate to curb emissions more than they've already agreed to – 20 percent by 2020, at 1990 levels. China and India have echoed this stance, and most developed countries are pushing for a new treaty entirely. However, the deepest concern in Bangkok isn't the emissions negotiations, or the temperament of the US delegates; it's financial. While the US and others want to end discussions of Kyoto, less-developed countries feel they're absorbing a larger burden than their over-developed, more financially stable counterparts, because they're more at risk for the adverse effects of climate change, and seem to be worst hit by them, such as tsunamis and other forms of weather and natural disasters. While the developed countries face uncertain stock markets, massive debt, and austerity packages (in the case of some EU countries), funding for poorer countries' climate change financial aid packages has been pushed to the back burner across the board, causing a panic in the lower-income countries. More from GlobalPost: The UN climate talks grapple with rich-poor divide "Almost 50 of the world's poorest nations said pledges made by rich countries to provide funds to help them adapt to a warmer planet risk being overlooked," reported Reuters' AlertNet. "The group of mostly African nations said that ill-fated talks launched in 2007 to find a successor to the Kyoto Protocol must not end without richer nations pledging financial aid to help them cope with more extreme weather and rising sea levels caused by climate change." Funding to poor countries has been pledged at $10 billion a year, but that figure is set to expire in December, along with the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol. While the wealthier nations have pledged to find $100 billion per year beginning in 2020, the gap between then and now is large and empty, and an agreement doesn't seem close at hand. "We cannot live with these issues being deferred until a new agreement is negotiated in 2015 and that would not even come into effect in 2020," said Pa Ousman Jarju, the Gambian chair of the Least Developed Countries (LDC) working group, to AlertNet. If negotiations don't pan out by the time talks end this week, sore delegates will take their disagreements to Qatar for the official 18th annual Conference of the Parties of the Kyoto Protocol, where a decision will need to be made and the LDC working group will be forced to take what's offered for the interim years until 2020. "What we need are old fashioned negotiations, an understanding of the term ‘compromise’ and a smidgen of realism," wrote Ed King, editor of the Responding to Climate Change blog, in a post last week about how countries could find common ground and reach an agreement.

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The Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the HIV virus. Heterosexual sex is the main route of transmission in the Caribbean. More than 1.6% of the adult population is infected, and HIV prevalence in the Caribbean is second only to Sub-Saharan Africa. In 2005 more than 27,000 died of AIDS. Haiti has the highest HIV prevalence in the western hemisphere. Alarmingly, this epidemic is fueled by poverty, perilous cultural practices, intimidating legislation, and a high degree of stigma. It has also exacerbated a various of social, economic and development problems. More than half of HIV victims are women, and AIDS is a major cause of death in the region. The barriers of poverty and insufficient resources continue to hinder HIV prevention in the Caribbean. Due to poor public infrastructure, limited resources and fragile economies, have stemmed efforts to respond to the crisis. In the Dominican Republic, the shanty towns are disproportionately affected by HIV, however prevention tools such as condoms are generally unavailable. Some territories face a paucity of health workers to treat AIDS patients. Many Caribbean islands are heavily dependent on tourism. This has stimulated reluctance to elucidate the epidemic, among several officials. They fear that this might discourage visitors, such as sex tourists. Many children have been orphaned by the pandemic, and the depleted labour force threatens to destroy poverty. Traditional and cultural norms prevent Caribbean people from talking openly about HIV and AIDS. Consequently, misinformation and prejudice thrive. Rampant homophobia throughout the region leads to denial and under-reporting. Invariably, the epidemic is heavily stigmatised. This limits public demand and political initiatives. Some groups which attempt to provide AIDS services to homosexuals encounter harassment from the public and the police. In some Caribbean territories, homosexuality is outlawed, and condom provision is limited to groups such as...

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|Online as||Wycliffe's Bible at Wikisource| Wycliffe's Bible is the name now given to a group of Bible translations into Middle English that were made under the direction of John Wycliffe. They appeared over a period from approximately 1382 to 1395. These Bible translations were the chief inspiration and chief cause of the Lollard movement, a pre-Reformation movement that rejected many of the distinctive teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. In the early Middle Ages, most Western Christian people encountered the Bible only in the form of oral versions of scriptures, verses and homilies in Latin (other sources were mystery plays, usually conducted in the vernacular, and popular iconography). Though relatively few people could read at this time, Wycliffe’s idea was to translate the Bible into the vernacular, saying "it helpeth Christian men to study the Gospel in that tongue in which they know best Christ’s sentence". Long thought to be the work of Wycliffe himself, the Wycliffite translations are now generally believed to be the work of several hands. Nicholas of Hereford is known to have translated a part of the text; John Purvey and perhaps John Trevisa are names that have been mentioned as possible authors. The translators worked from the Vulgate, the Latin Bible that was the standard Biblical text of Western Christianity, and the text conforms fully with Catholic teaching. They included in the testaments those works which would later be called deuterocanonical by most Protestants, along with 3 Esdras which is now called 2 Esdras and Paul's epistle to the Laodiceans. Although unauthorised, the work was popular. Wycliffite Bible texts are the most common manuscript literature in Middle English. More than 250 manuscripts of the Wycliffite Bible survive. The association between Wycliffe's Bible and Lollardy caused the kingdom of England and the established Catholic Church in England to undertake a drastic campaign to suppress it. In the early years of the 15th century, Henry IV (De haeretico comburendo), Archbishop Thomas Arundel, and Henry Knighton published criticism and enacted some of the severest religious censorship laws in Europe at that time. Even twenty years after Wycliffe's death, at the Oxford Convocation of 1408, it was solemnly voted that no new translation of the Bible should be made without prior approval. However, as the text translated in the various versions of the Wycliffe Bible was the Latin Vulgate, and as it contained no heterodox readings, there was in practice no way by which the ecclesiastical authorities could distinguish the banned version; and consequently many Catholic commentators of the 15th and 16th centuries (such as Thomas More) took these manuscript English bibles to represent an anonymous earlier orthodox translation. Consequently, manuscripts of the Wycliffe Bible, which when inscribed with a date always purport to precede 1409, the date of the ban, circulated freely and were widely used by clergy and laity. Wycliffe as a Bible Translator It is questioned whether Wycliffe himself translated the whole Bible. In any case, it is certain that at the fifteenth century portions of the Scriptures were called Wyclifite. Supporters of the view that Wycliffe did translate the Bible hold that when Wycliffe took on the challenge of translating, he was breaking a long-held belief that no person should translate the Bible on their own initiative, without approval of the Church. It is said that his frustrations drove him to ignore this and that Wycliffe believed that studying the Bible was more important than listening to it read by the clergy. At that time people mainly heard the Bible at church since they did not know how to read, and the Bible was costly (before the printing press). It is certain though that the Bible itself was familiar even to laymen in the fourteenth century and that the whole of the New Testament at least could be read in translations. Also during the Middle Ages one who could read, could read Latin also, and he who couldn't read Latin, usually couldn't read at all. Wycliffe believed every Christian should study the Bible. When met with opposition to the translation he replied “Christ and his apostles taught the people in that tongue that was best known to them. Why should men not do so now?” For one to have a personal relationship with God, Wycliffe believed that need to be described in the Bible. Wycliffe also believed that it was necessary to return to the primitive state of the New Testament in order to truly reform the Church. So one must be able to read the Bible to understand those times. Wyclifite versions of the Bible were sometimes condemned as such by the Catholic Church because a Wyclifite preface had been added to an orthodox translation. There are two distinct versions of Wycliffe's Bible that have been written. The earlier was translated during the life of Wycliffe, while the later version is regarded as the work of John Purvey. Since the printing press was not invented yet, there exist only a very few copies of Wycliffe's earlier Bible. The earlier Bible is a rigid and literal translation of the Latin Vulgate Bible, and Wycliffe's view of theology is closer to realism than to the spiritual. This version was translated word for word, which often led to confusion or meaninglessness. It was aimed towards the less learned clergymen and the laymen, while the second, more coherent version was aimed towards all literates. It is important to note that after the translations the illiterate and poor still usually lacked the access to the Scripture: the translation originally cost four marks and forty pence, i.e. two pounds, sixteen shillings and eightpence. During Wycliffe's time Bibles were also used as a law-code, which dominated civil law, giving extreme power to the church and religious leaders who knew Latin. The literal taste of the earlier translation was used to give Wycliffe's Bible an authoritative tone. The earlier version is said to be written by Wycliffe himself and Nicholas of Hereford. Surviving copies of the Wycliffite Bible fall into two broad textual families, an "early" version and a later version. Both versions are flawed by a slavish regard to the word order and syntax of the Latin originals; the later versions give some indication of being revised in the direction of idiomatic English. A wide variety of Middle English dialects are represented. The second, revised group of texts is much larger than the first. Some manuscripts contain parts of the Bible in the earlier version, and other parts in the later version; this suggests that the early version may have been meant as a rough draft that was to be recast into the somewhat better English of the second version. The second version, though somewhat improved, still retained a number of infelicities of style, as in its version of Genesis 1:3 - Latin Vulgate: Dixitque Deus fiat lux et facta est lux - Early Wycliffe: And God seide, Be maad liȝt; and maad is liȝt - Later Wycliffe: And God seide, Liȝt be maad; and liȝt was maad - Douay-Reims: And God said: Be light made. And light was made The familiar verse of John 3:16 is rendered in the later Wycliffe version as: For God louede so the world, that he ȝaf his oon bigetun sone, that ech man that bileueth in him perische not, but haue euerlastynge lijf. The later revised version of Wycliffe's Bible was issued ten to twelve years after Wycliffe's death. This version is translated by John Purvey, who diligently worked on the translation of Wycliffe's Bible, as can be seen in the General Prologue, where Purvey explains the methodology of translating holy scriptures. He describes four rules all translators should acknowledge: Firstly, the translator must be sure of the text he is translating. This he has done by comparing many old copies of the Latin bible to assure authenticity of the text. Secondly, the translator must study the text in order to understand the meaning. Purvey explains that one cannot translate a text without having a grasp of what is being read. Third, the translator must consult grammar, diction, and reference works to understand rare and unfamiliar words. Fourth, once the translator understands the text, translation begins by not giving a literal interpretation but expressing the meaning of the text in the receptor language (English), not just translating the word but the sentence as well. Church reaction and controversy At this time, the Peasants’ Revolt was running full force as the people of England united to rebel against the unfairness of the English Parliament and its favouring of the wealthier classes. William Courtenay, the Archbishop of Canterbury was able to turn both the church and Parliament against Wycliffe by falsely stating that his writings and his influence were fuelling the peasants involved in the revolt. (It was actually John Ball, another priest, who was involved in the revolt and merely quoted Wycliffe in one of his speeches.) The Church and Parliament’s anger towards Wycliffe’s “heresy” led them to form the Blackfriars Synod in order to remove Wycliffe from Oxford. Although this Synod was initially delayed by an earthquake that Wycliffe himself believed symbolised “the judgement of God,” it eventually re-convened. At this synod, Wycliffe’s writings (Biblical and otherwise) were quoted and criticised for heresy. This Synod ultimately resulted in King Richard II ruling that Wycliffe be removed from Oxford, and that all who preached or wrote against Catholicism be imprisoned. Then later on, after John Wycliffe was dead, The Council of Constance declared Wycliffe (on 4 May 1415) a heretic and under the ban of the Church. It was decreed that his books be burned and his remains be exhumed. The exhumation was carried out in 1428 when, at the command of Pope Martin V, his remains were dug up, burned, and the ashes cast into the River Swift, which flows through Lutterworth. This is the most final of all posthumous attacks on John Wycliffe, but previous attempts had been made before the Council of Constance. The Anti-Wycliffite Statute of 1401 extended persecution to Wycliffe's remaining followers. The "Constitutions of Oxford" of 1408 aimed to reclaim authority in all ecclesiastical matters, specifically naming John Wycliffe in a ban on certain writings, and noting that translation of Scripture into English by unlicensed laity is a crime punishable by charges of heresy. Influence on subsequent English Bibles Although Wycliffe's Bible circulated widely in the later Middle Ages, it had very little influence on the first English biblical translations of the reformation era such as those of William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale, as it had been translated from the Latin Vulgate rather than the original Greek and Hebrew; and consequently it was generally ignored in later English Protestant biblical scholarship. The earliest printed edition, of the New Testament only, was by John Lewis in 1731. However, due to the common use of surviving manuscripts of Wycliffe's Bible as works of an unknown Catholic translator, this version continued to circulate among 16th-century English Catholics, and many of its renderings of the Vulgate into English were adopted by the translators of the Rheims New Testament. Since the Rheims version was itself to be consulted by the translators working for King James a number of readings from Wycliffe's Bible did find their way into the Authorized King James Version of the Bible at second hand. - "Versions of the Bible", Catholic Encyclopedia, New advent. - Robinson, Henry Wheeler (1970), The Bible in its Ancient and English Versions, Westport, CT, USA: Greenwood Press, pp. 137–45. - "John Wyclif", Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913 - "John Wyclif", Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913 - O'Hare, Patrick F.: "The Facts about Luther", TAN Books and Publishers, 1987, p.181 - John, Stacey. John Wyclif and Reform. Westminster Press, 1964. - "John Wyclif", Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913 - Levy, Ian C, Companion to John Wyclif: Late Medieval Theologian, Brill Academic Publishers, p. 395. - Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (April 1998), "John Wycliffe and the English Bible" (PDF), Churchman, Church society, retrieved March 16, 2011 - "11", The Peasants' Revolt and the Blackfriars Trial, UK: LWBC, retrieved March 15, 2011 - Daniell, David (2003), The Bible in English, Yale, ISBN 0-300-09930-4. - Forshall, Josiah; Madden, Frederic, eds. (1850), The Holy Bible: Wycliffite Versions, Oxford. - Wycliffe, John and John Purvey (2012), Wycliffe's Bible, A Modern-Spelling Version of their 14th Century Translation, with an Introduction by Terence P. Noble, Createspace, ISBN 978-1-4701493-8-3 |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| - Wycliffe, John (1395), Bible, Studylight. Searchable by phrase or chapter/verse reference. - ———, Bible, RU: SBible. - ———, Bible, Wesley NNU; gives each book on a single page - ———, Bible (hardcover ed.), Lamp Post. - ——— (1395), Purvey, ed., Ecclesiastes (audio recording), Geeson, Martin reader, LibriVox. - ———, Bible, Internet Archive. - "John Wycliffe", Catholic Encyclopedia, New advent. - Vernacular Scriptures plentiful before Wycliffe, Veritas Bible. - Works by or about Wycliffe's Bible at Internet Archive - Works by Wycliffe's Bible at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) - 1731 printing of Wycliffe's New Testament - A Digital facsimile - Manuscripts of Lichfield Cathedral - Digital facsimiles of the Cathedral's Wycliffe New Testament, College of Arts & Sciences, University of Kentucky

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Part or all of this entry has been imported from the 1913 edition of Webster’s Dictionary, which is now free of copyright and hence in the public domain. The imported definitions may be significantly out of date, and any more recent senses may be completely missing. derivation (plural derivations) - A leading or drawing off of water from a stream or source. - The act of receiving anything from a source; the act of procuring an effect from a cause, means, or condition, as profits from capital, conclusions or opinions from evidence. - The act of tracing origin or descent, as in grammar or genealogy; as, the derivation of a word from an Indo-European root. - The state or method of being derived; the relation of origin when established or asserted. - That from which a thing is derived. - That which is derived; a derivative; a deduction. - (mathematics) The operation of deducing one function from another according to some fixed law, called the law of derivation, as the of differentiation or of integration. - (medicine) A drawing of humors or fluids from one part of the body to another, to relieve or lessen a morbid process. - The translations below need to be checked and inserted above into the appropriate translation tables, removing any numbers. Numbers do not necessarily match those in definitions. See instructions at Help:How to check translations.

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1a. Objectives (from AD-416) 1. Survey organic orchards on predator release practices 2. Develop methods to allow differentiation between released and naturally occurring predators 3. Develop methods to optimize release methods 4. Conduct laboratory trials to compare efficacy of reared and released species 1b. Approach (from AD-416) Organic apple growers will be surveyed to determine extent to which insectary reared natural enemies are released as components of biological control programs in orchards. We will develop molecular methods allowing us to differentiate among field-collected predators originating from releases versus naturally occurring populations. Tests of release efficacy will be done by comparing pest and predator densities in areas of the orchard receiving releases and areas in which no releases are made. Field trials will be done to assess how release methods (numbers released, timing of releases, stages of predator released, method of release) influences efficacy. Laboratory trials will be done to confirm that insectary-reared predators feed and develop on target pests. Documents Trust with WA Tree Fruit Research Commission. Log 41879. Formerly 5352-22000-017-62T (6/2010). 3. Progress Report The goal of this study is to improve the performance of predatory insects released to control insect and mite pests in orchards. Studies just begun are testing which of four diets produce ladybeetles which are most likely to lay eggs once released in orchards instead of flying away. Methods for applying the eggs of lacewings onto apple trees are also being tested. Monitoring of activities and progress on this project were accomplished by direct supervision of on-site employees, and use of site visits, email and telephone to communicate with off-site collaborators.

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34 CFR 3.1 - Definitions. For the purposes of this part: (a) ED means all organizational units of the Department of Education. (b) Embossing Seal means a display of the form and content of the Official Seal made on a die so that the Seal can be embossed on paper or other media. (c) Official Seal means the original(s) of the Seal showing the exact form, content, and colors. (d) Replica means a copy of the Official Seal displaying the identical form, content, and colors. (e) Reproduction means a copy of the Official Seal displaying the form and content, reproduced in only one color. (f) Secretary means the Secretary of Education.

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Every Thursday MPR meteorologist Paul Huttner joins Kerri Miller on The Daily Circuit for “Climate Cast” on MPR News Stations to talk about the latest research on our changing climate and the consequences that we’re seeing here in Minnesota and worldwide. These days it seems like we are witnessing climate changes unfold right before our very eyes. It’s not our imagination. The nature of our seasons is changing. Spring blooms come earlier. Summer is more humid with a documented increase in extreme localized flash flood events…and more frequent droughts. Fall lingers longer. Lakes freeze up later. Winters are trending shorter and noticeably, measurably milder. New plants are able to thrive in Minnesota’s milder climate. We’re all living witnesses to rapid climate changes in our lifetime. This is no longer your grandparents “Minnesota.” In 2013 at MPR we’re devoting more coverage to the science behind and the growing effects of our changing climate in Minnesota and around the globe. Lilacs leafing out on March 23, 2012 in Deephaven, Minnesota Image: Paul Huttner – MPR News Climate Cast for March 7th, 2013 Buds, birds and animals tell a changing story: Spring is arriving earlier. If current trends continue, spring might come as much as five weeks earlier by the year 2100. Such a pronounced change would have a dramatic effect on Minnesota’s interconnected web of natural systems. On Thursday’s Climate Cast, Kerri Miller and MPR News’ Chief Meteorologist Paul Huttner discussed recent findings and took questions from listeners. Here is an edited transcript of their conversation: Spring arriving much earlier by 2100 according to new study: This one shouldn’t come as a big surprise. It already happened in Minnesota and across the USA last year, when spring literally came a full 5 weeks early. Lilacs leafing out on March 23rd in Minnesota? 80F on St. Patty’s Day? It may not happen every year, but climate changes suggest that springs like last year will become much more common by 2011. Why should we care? Well if you like the BWCA and pine & spruce forests of northern Minnesota you should enjoy them while you can. The sequence of more heat, less snowfall and more droughts means more fires such as the devastating Pagami Creek blaze. Image: Greg Seitz Climate changes mean deciduous trees like Maple will “out-compete” native evergreen trees. That means our northern forests in Minnesota may look much different, and more like the south by 2100. The biological onset of spring could arrive up to five weeks earlier by 2100 in the northern U.S. than it does today, and more than a week earlier in the South, a change that could significantly alter ecosystems from Florida to Maine, according to a paper published in Geophysical Research Letters. As with so many disruptions to natural systems, including rising seas, more frequent and intense droughts and heat waves, and more torrential downpours, this projected rollback in the onset of spring — measured in this case by “budburst,” or the annual emergence of leaves on deciduous trees like maples, poplars and birches — is tied to global warming caused by heat-trapping greenhouse gases. The idea that spring is getting pushed earlier by climate change isn’t new: in fact, scientists have already demonstrated that spring weather has been coming to the U.S. three days earlier during the past 30 years, on average, than it did during the previous 30. Others have documented the shifting, not of weather, but of phenology — that is, biological events of all sorts, including budburst, but also flowering, ovulation, migration and other seasonal changes in plants and animals. Arctic Ocean shipping routes may be open by summer 2050: Time to book that North Pole cruise now? Last year 21 vessels made the voyage through the Northwest Passage. If climate changes continue at our current pace, there’s a 90% chance that shipping may be exploiting the Arctic Ocean by 2050 on routes between China and Norway, between the USA’s east Coast and Rotterdam. As with all changes, this may present both opportunities and problems. The plus side is it can save a ship around $300k per voyage. The down side is it may signal other global changes like rising sea levels that will make major coastal cities even more vulnerable to superstorms like Sandy. Climate change will make commercial shipping possible from North America to Russia or Asia over the North Pole by the middle of the century, a new study says. Two researchers at the University of California ran seven different climate models simulating two classes of vessels to see if they could make a relatively ice-free passage through the Arctic Ocean. In each case, the sea routes are sufficiently clear after 2049, they say. The study, published Monday in the journal PNAS by Laurence C. Smith and Scott R. Stephenson, found that the sea ice will become thin enough that a “corridor directly over the north pole” will open up. “The shortest great circle route thus becomes feasible, for ships with moderate ice-breaking capability.” According to The Guardian: “The northern sea route has been shown to save a medium-sized bulk carrier 18 days and 580 tons of bunker fuel on a journey between northern Norway and China. Ship owners have said it can save them €180,000-€300,000 ($235,000-$390,000) on each voyage. A direct route over the pole could save up to 40 percent more fuel and time.” Arctic sea ice has shrunk to its smallest extent on record in recent years, which has already opened up a seasonal northern route over Canada. Last year, a solo sailor in a 27-foot fiberglass sailboat was one of 18 private yachts to make the voyage. Climate Cast resources: Want to know more about climate change? Here are few quick links to credible climate change sources. -NOAA NCDC’s “State of the Climate” report -Great summary of Modern Day Climate Change from SUNY-Suffolk -Minnesota Climate Working Group climate change resources -Mark Seeley’s Weather Talk -Common climate change myths -Climate change in the news from Climate Central -More coverage from The Yale Forum on Climate Change and Media

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Indian we say... Proud we feel... But how well do we know about our country? How knowledgeable are we when it comes to India’s history and geography? How many of us know why India is called Bharath? Do we know about the epics and purana? Honestly, most of our knowledge about our mighty country is limited to what was taught by our teachers in the History and Geography classes. We have heard about Harappa civilization and Indus Valley civilization... A river named Saraswati that used to flow across the Northern part of India... We know that the emperors built many monuments that still adds to the glory of the country... There is Taj Mahal and Qutub Minar... Then Ganga River... Indeed we know that India is a peninsular... Of course, we also know a little bit of India through our parents and grandparents. The tales of how Lord Krishna was naughty... How Mahabharata was fought... About Lord Rama who built bridge to Sri Lanka for rescuing his beloved wife Sita... And so forth! But, the question is, is that all? India is too old to be limited to such selected incidents. There are so many incidents that has made the country what it is today. Mother India has seen so much. She has endured so much. She has been celebrated for many reasons. Sanjeev Sayal’s Land of Seven Rivers – A Brief History of India’s Geography is an interesting compilation of India’s History through Geography. The author takes us through various landmark incidents which earmarks our identity! I was excited to review the book because of two reasons: · The title was interesting – History through Geography seemed to be an appealing thought! · I wanted to know more about my country. As simple as that. The cover page was simple if we simply glance at it. But it carries high relevance if we try to analyze it. It carries the essence of the book – Seven rivers. Then there is Lotus – India’s National flower. I instantly recognized Kishkindha; thanks to the knowledge on Ramayana I have. And because of Mahabharath, I also identified Pataliputra, Indraprastha and Dwaraka. I was fairly content that I am well-informed and with excitement I started reading the book. Yes, I did fear that it might bore me. However, I completed 100pages in one go! Because it was midnight, I had put it aside. The book shines because the narrative is crisp. There is an easy flow from one topic to another. The author has brilliantly linked one topic to another. I particularly liked how the author has connected various similar types of events that have happened over several thousands of years. However, I have to also put across the fact that there is some dragging moments too. It may be because the book looks like a lengthy essay. There are too many information that as a reader we may feel suffocated. In short, the book is worth reading. This is a book with no shelf-life. PS: I heartily thank THINK WHY NOT for giving away this book for review.

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|Lyme Disease and Mental Illness This article is a work in progress. It is not complete. Please send any comments or questions. Microbes are the greatest predator of man. As medical technology improves, there is increasing recognition that infectious disease contributes not only to acute, but also chronic relapsing illness and mental illness. C. Bransfield, M.D. Probably the biggest challenge facing those sick with Lyme disease manifesting with psychiatric symptoms is to get the Lyme disease diagnosis in the first place. Many people with Lyme and associated mental dysfunction (this is about 95% of all Lyme sufferers) never get diagnosed properly and are left to struggle with palliative treatment, institutionalization, and basically a life sentence of obscurity and panic. Even for those with the right diagnosis, for example, Lyme disease infection, symptoms of mental illness are obviously still devastating. I created this video to address some of the common experiences, and some useful solutions / tips, for people who meet this description. Below the video is an excerpt from a book I wrote in 2007 entitled The Lyme-Autism Connection, which further addresses the topic of the connection between Lyme disease and mental illness. Excerpt: Mental Illnesses and Autism, Lyme Disease From the book, The Lyme Autism Connection Symptom similarities between Lyme disease and autism, especially in children, are astounding. Obviously, symptom similarity alone is not a strong enough scientific indicator to implicate Lyme disease in the autism epidemic. However, when considered within the framework of the other arguments presented in this book, symptom similarity becomes an important, central piece of the puzzle. This chapter was written with three primary goals. First, we will look at the diagnostic procedures used in classifying mental illnesses. Then we will show that a Lyme disease diagnosis overlaps with numerous other mental disorders. Finally, we will show that an autism diagnosis not only overlaps with a variety of different mental illnesses as well, but that they happen to be, in many cases, the same mental illnesses which overlap with Lyme disease. Additionally, the chapter will also cover various data which support the above three points. Symptoms vs. Syndromes At first glance, the obvious question to ask in this chapter is whether or not the symptoms of Lyme disease overlap with the symptoms of autism. As you will see, however, this question is much too broad. You will see that Lyme disease is known as the “great imitator” because it can mimic dozens of seemingly unrelated health problems. Lyme disease symptoms overlap with just about every mental illness, so it is not very impressive to show that they also overlap with autism. For this reason, we will instead take a narrower look at the symptom similarities between Lyme disease and autism, and delve further into analyzing the overlap. Namely, we will not look at individual symptoms the diseases share in common, but instead at entire disease syndromes which the two diseases share in common. For example, we will go further than to just say “Lyme disease and autism both cause headaches.” Rather, we will say that “Lyme disease and autism both manifest as schizophrenia.” A headache is an individual symptom, while schizophrenia is a complex syndrome. For our purpose of further analyzing the Lyme-autism connection, it is more helpful to look at overlapping disease syndromes instead of just overlapping symptoms because disease syndromes are much more complex, specific, and isolated than are individual symptoms. Many things can cause a headache, such as fatigue, a bad lunch, or a fight with a spouse. So, demonstrating that Lyme disease and autism both cause headaches does not add much support to the Lyme-autism connection. Schizophrenia, on the other hand, is not caused by many factors, and cannot be confused with simple triggers like a bad hamburger or emotional stress. By narrowing the comparison down to specific disease syndromes, we can build a much stronger case for the Lyme-autism connection. Blurred Lines Between Disease Labels In order to show that both Lyme disease and autism share in common numerous disease syndromes, we must first accept the fact that the diagnostic lines are blurred between autism, Lyme disease, and numerous other mental illnesses, leading to somewhat arbitrary and meaningless guidelines for diagnosing the diseases. For example, someone diagnosed with the label “schizophrenia” may in fact be suffering from Lyme disease, autism, or both. “Schizophrenia” is not a disease; instead it is a disease presentation. The label schizophrenia says nothing about the reason for the disease, or the cause, but instead simply says that a given person is suffering from a collection of physiologic and symptomatic dysfunctions. It is important to keep this in mind as you think about Lyme disease, autism, and the list of mimicking diseases. You have to ask yourself, “Does the disease label in question tell me anything about what is actually causing this health problem?” Understanding that many of the disease labels used by conventional medicine are actually not indicative of the cause of the disease will help you learn how to adjust your thinking process and see that many “diseases” do not in fact have established, defined boundaries separating them from other “diseases,” but are instead simply a melting pot of symptomatic and physiological characteristics. Why is this important? Let’s again use the example of a headache. When someone says, “I have a headache,” you would never jump to a conclusion about what is causing the headache unless you knew more about the person’s current circumstances. A headache is not a disease in and of itself; instead it is a list of symptomatic and physiologic properties, namely, pain in the head, and typically, inflammation in the head. We all know that many things can cause headaches, hence, if someone mentions their headache, the next thing you might try to do is play detective to discover what is causing the headache. You might ask the person what they ate for lunch, how much sleep they are getting, or what is happening at work. You would never assume that the cause of their headache is the headache itself. Headaches always have underlying, root causes. In the same way, if someone has schizophrenia or autism, you should train your mind to play the same detective role. Schizophrenia and autism are no more the cause of a health problem than is a headache. Instead, schizophrenia and autism are just labels for a set of symptomatic and physiologic characteristics. When you begin to adopt this way of thinking, you can see that the lines between various diseases can easily become blurred. When autism is seen as a set of symptoms rather than a defined “disease,” it leaves a lot more room for questions—questions which can ultimately lead to a better understanding of the disease and its cause(s). Do not passively accept a diagnosis of autism as the final description of your child’s health. You should empower yourself to play detective and get to the bottom of the symptoms, instead of simply accepting the diagnosis and giving up. If you think about Lyme disease and autism as separate diseases, with distinct boundaries, then the Lyme-autism connection seems improbable. However, if you think of the two diseases accurately, as nothing more than arbitrary labels which encompass a grouping of symptoms, some of which overlap, then the question arises and must be answered: what is the root cause of the disease syndromes? Is the root cause potentially the same? Now, a clarifying point is in order here. Some diseases certainly do include causative factors in their label. For example, strep throat is caused by…strep bacteria in the throat. The disease label “strep throat” is one which is accurate in its description of causality. Similarly, Lyme disease is caused by Lyme disease bacteria (the scientific name for which is Borrelia burgdorferi). So, when we are looking at the Lyme-autism connection, what we are really asking is whether or not autism shares the same root cause as Lyme disease, namely, a Borrelia infection. Ok, so this all sounds good in theory, but where is the evidence? Let’s now turn our attention to several scientific studies which provide objective substantiation for the theory we just talked about—the theory that mental disorders have blurred diagnostic lines. Lyme Disease: The Great Imitator To substantiate the theory that disease labels are relatively arbitrary and have blurred defining lines, let’s begin by looking at Lyme disease and the many diseases which it mimics. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry in 2001 published an article in which it was stated that “Children with Lyme disease have…cognitive and psychiatric disturbances…resulting in psycho-social and academic impairments.” According to Dr. Frederic Blanc, of the University of Strasbourg, France, “The neurological and psychiatric manifestations of Borrelia are so numerous that it is called the ‘new great imitator.’ Every part of the nervous system can be involved: from central to peripheral.” It is difficult to convey just how broad and diverse Lyme disease symptoms can be. As the “new great imitator” (Syphilis was considered the original great imitator), Lyme disease mimics dozens of seemingly unrelated illnesses, from physical disorders such as chronic fatigue syndrome and arthritis, to psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia, obsessive compulsive disorder, Tourette syndrome, depression, bipolar disorder, and more. According to psychiatrists at Columbia University, as published in 1994 in the American Journal of Psychiatry: “Lyme disease can trigger a broad range of psychiatric reactions, including paranoia, dementia, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, panic attacks, major depression, anorexia nervosa and obsessive–compulsive disorder.” As you can see, Lyme disease is often the root cause of a long list of diseases. In these cases, there is in fact zero separation between the seemingly distinct diseases on the list—the lines are blurred beyond recognition. A variety of mental disorders can potentially all have the same root cause. Antiquated belief that Lyme disease is characterized by a limited set of mostly benign symptoms is rapidly being replaced by modern, increasingly accurate models of Lyme disease symptomology that encompass a vast diversity of symptomology in numerous body systems. So, if you are doubtful that a simple bacterial infection can cause such diverse symptoms as are present in autism, be forewarned—Lyme disease is a highly advanced neuropsychiatric disease with complicated and poorly understood effects on the brain. The combination of wide-ranging symptoms and the prevalence of false-negative laboratory test results means that Lyme disease may be one of the most rampant, yet under-diagnosed, infections on the planet. And, when the Lyme infection occurs in the womb, a new set of variables and complexities are introduced to the scene which further broaden the potential neurological effects of Lyme disease. Still, the fact that Lyme disease is a great imitator is nothing worth writing home about—this has become accepted science in both mainstream and alternative medicine. Therefore, we will not belabor this point here. To learn more about Lyme disease as a great imitator, read Appendix B and consult available Lyme disease literature. The real point we are tracking down in this chapter is not merely the fact that Lyme disease shares blurred lines with many mental illnesses, but, more importantly, the fact that autism also shares blurred lines with a variety of mental disorders. Even more important yet is the paramount question of whether or not Lyme disease and autism share blurred lines with the same set of mental illnesses. Autism: The Next Great Imitator? You may be surprised to learn that just as Lyme disease is a great imitator, so also is autism. Many autistic people have a broad range of psychological symptoms, not just those few which have historically defined “classic” autism. Autism is currently being re-defined as a multi-systemic, multi-factorial disease. In this section, we will examine some of the science surrounding autism as a great imitator. For each of the scientific studies below, we will note their relevance to the Lyme-autism connection. Swedish researchers have observed a fascinating overlap between symptoms of autism and other mental illnesses. In 2004, the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, at Göteborg University, Sweden, published findings in the Journal of Neural Transmission indicating that patients suffering from autism also sometimes have symptoms of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). The Swedish researchers don’t offer an explanation for this symptom overlap, but they do acknowledge it, and conclude their study by stating that “Current diagnostic criteria have to be revised to acknowledge the co-morbidity of autism with bipolar disorder, AD/HD, schizophrenia, and other psychotic diseases.” The connection: Of the mental illnesses which Lyme disease mimics, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are at the top of the list. Researchers at the University of Michigan published a study in 2004 in the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders which concluded with the following statement: “This study lends support to the validity of depression as a distinct condition in some children with autism/PDD and suggests that, as in the normal population, autistic children who suffer from depression are more likely to have a family history of depression.” The connection: These findings are significant for two reasons: first, the study indicates that depression is part of the autism complex of symptoms, and second, this depression can be found in family history. Both of these points are true of Lyme disease, as well. In London, similar conclusions are being reached. The Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Research Centre published in 1998 a study entitled “Autism, affective and other psychiatric disorders: patterns of familial aggregation.” The report was released by Cambridge University Press in the Journal of Psychological Medicine. In addition to finding a correlation between familial mental disorders and autism, researchers also discovered that “Individuals with a singular diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder were more likely to exhibit autistic-like social and communication impairments.” The connection: This finding is fascinating because it tells us that not only does autism involve symptoms of other, previously believed separate diseases, but the converse of this is also true; that those separate diseases also sometimes include symptoms known to occur in autism. This further blurs the lines between different mental disorders. This is another piece of the puzzle that shatters the previous belief that autism is completely distinct and separate from other psychiatric diseases. Modern medicine likes to put these diseases in their own neatly organized, unrelated files, but reality just won’t comply with such an organizational strategy. City of Hope National Medical Center in California published findings that link autism and Tourette syndrome. Researchers found that “there is an intimate genetic, neuropathologic relatedness between some cases of [autism] and Tourette syndrome.” Additionally, these researchers noted frequent family groupings of the two afflictions, with obsessive compulsive disorder also showing up frequently. The connection: The Lancet in 1998 published a study linking Lyme disease with Tourette syndrome. A 4-year old boy developed typical Tourette symptoms and was subsequently diagnosed with Lyme disease by ELISA IgG antibody testing. Upon antibiotic treatment, all symptoms resolved. From the Lancet: “Rapid efficacy of antibiotic treatment followed by a decrease in Borrelia-specific antibody titres suggests that the multiple motor and vocal tics [in this 4-year old boy] were at least partially caused by the tertiary stage of Borreliosis.” Therefore, both autism and Lyme disease share in common blurred lines with Tourette syndrome. The lines between autism and other mental disorders are further blurred when considering the methods used to diagnose autism. This is an important area to examine because the diagnostic model used in categorizing childhood mental disorders is the primary determinant of the next twenty or more years of treatment decisions. Consider this carefully—if a child is diagnosed with autism but Lyme disease is really the root problem, then parents will spend thousands (or maybe millions) of dollars, thousands of hours, and incalculable stress, pursuing the wrong course(s) of treatment. Hence, proper diagnostic procedures, or at least, proper understanding of the limitations of modern diagnostic capabilities, is essential for ensuring that a lifetime of energy is focused in the right direction. This statement is substantiated by the experiences of numerous mothers, whose stories appear in Appendix E. These mothers only received desirable treatment results after discovering the Lyme infection in their children. Prior to the discovery, they wasted incalculable time, energy and money chasing palliative treatments. Alarmingly, the diagnostic model used for autism can be relatively unreliable. The Indiana University School of Medicine in 1971 evaluated 5 diagnostic systems designed to differentiate infantile autism and early childhood schizophrenia and published their findings in the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. Diagnostic scores from 44 children were examined. Some of the five diagnostic systems contradicted the others, leading to a confusing and disturbing debate about the definitions of autism and schizophrenia. So similar are the two diseases that the lines between them become blurred when using these diagnostic systems, and the results of the diagnostic procedures become relatively meaningless. Obviously, diagnostic systems have improved exponentially since 1971. However, even today, the same symptom similarities exist between autism and schizophrenia, resulting in debate and disagreement about proper courses of treatment for the two disorders, not to mention heated arguments between parents and physicians about which treatments are most logical to pursue. Modern medicine’s appearance of having everything figured out, with white-coated, authoritative doctors passing down final diagnostic decrees to parents, is riddled with an uncertain and ambiguous past. The tendency to over-compartmentalize diseases without sufficient data is not limited to just the commercial medical industry—non-profit research organizations dedicated to healing schizophrenia and autism also suffer the effects of arbitrarily separating autism from schizophrenia when conducting research and presenting information. The reality is that autism and schizophrenia are intimately related, and only when this fact is accounted for will true breakthrough occur in the research of the two conditions. Autism and schizophrenia are not two separate entities like the colors black and white. They resemble more closely a shade of grey, mixing some amount of black and some amount of white. When researchers only look at the black, they miss the big picture, and when they only look at white, they don’t see all of the facts. Only when shades of grey are acknowledged, will the mechanisms behind the afflictions become more apparent. Any parent with an autistic child knows that their child exhibits a wide array of symptoms and that no two days are alike. Unlike high cholesterol or diabetes, which are fairly constant disorders with very few variations in symptoms and presentation, autism is a wildly variable condition that seems to follow no particular pattern or predictable course. Thus far in this chapter, we have worked to establish that not only do Lyme disease and autism act like great imitators, but the diseases which they imitate happen to be the same diseases—namely, mental disorders such as schizophrenia, obsessive compulsive disorder, depression, Tourette syndrome, AD/HD, and others. Although this overlap in associated disease syndromes (and, more broadly, associated individual symptoms) is not sufficient evidence to stand alone as the foundation for the Lyme-autism connection, this observation is, again, one more piece of the puzzle. It really is shocking and insightful to discover that Lyme disease and autism are separated by much less space than medical schools and textbooks teach. If these broad similarities are not explained by an underlying Lyme disease infection, then what is the explanation? Isn’t it a bit improbable that two supposedly separate diseases are so intimately related in so many ways? Before concluding this chapter, we will briefly introduce one more area of overlap: autoimmunity. Lyme disease and autism not only share numerous similarities with regard to psychiatric symptoms and syndromes, but also autoimmunity. The number of studies linking both Lyme disease and autism to autoimmune dysfunction is vast, encompassing dozens of published articles released by several research institutions. For specific studies, visit MEDLINE at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PubMed and search for keywords autism autoimmune and lyme disease autoimmune. At the time of this writing, the first search string yielded 86 studies and the second string yielded 123 studies. The fact that Lyme disease and autism share autoimmunity in common is, of course, fascinating, and lends credit to the Lyme-autism hypothesis. However, the link becomes even stronger in light of the fact that new research is revealing that many autoimmune disorders are caused by stealth infections. Recent research has found that treatments aimed at eradicating stealth infections happen to also provide relief, and in some cases, remission or cure, for autoimmune diseases. One such cutting-edge treatment is the Marshall Protocol, discussed at length in The Top 10 Lyme Disease Treatments. The Marshall Protocol is significant in this context because it defines and reveals the mechanism by which symptoms of autoimmunity can really be an indication of underlying infection. Patients experiencing healing on the Marshall Protocol suffer from a wide range of autoimmune disorders—and healing is taking place via the anti-infective treatments that comprise the protocol. Autoimmunity is defined as the body attacking its own cells. But why would it do that? The new, prevailing theory is that there is a stealth infection inhabiting body tissues and when the immune system attempts to attack that infection, it mistakenly attacks its own proteins which might look similar to the proteins that compose the infectious microorganisms. This new theory of autoimmunity is gaining momentum. It shouldn’t surprise us that autoimmunity is involved in Lyme disease. After all, Lyme disease is known to be caused by an infection. However, what about autism? Why is there autoimmunity in autism? Is there an underlying infection? If, in fact, autoimmunity is caused by an infectious process, then the autoimmune link between Lyme disease and autism becomes quite telling and is, yet again, just another piece of the puzzle. Where the Rubber Meets the Road Hopefully, this chapter has given you a new perspective on childhood developmental disorders. Remember, if your child gets diagnosed with any of the disease labels we have just looked at, do not be satisfied with the diagnosis. Being diagnosed with attention deficit disorder is like being diagnosed with a headache. A headache is not a diagnosis, it is a symptom. A headache is the beginning of the diagnostic journey, not the end. The same can be said of attention deficit disorder. The minute you start treating your child’s attention deficit disorder (or autism, or schizophrenia, or fill-in-the-blank disorder) as if it is a complete diagnosis, you are beginning a losing battle. Why? The reason is logical and simple. Since these disease labels do not factor in the true cause(s) of the disease (whatever the cause(s) may be), the only treatment modern medicine can offer you is palliative treatment. Palliative treatment is that which covers symptoms instead of addressing cause. The word palliative is derived from the Latin word palliare, which means “to cloak.” Antidepressant drugs are an example of a palliative treatment, and, not surprisingly, antidepressant drugs are the treatment most often given for childhood developmental disorders. Other palliative drugs include anti-psychotic, anti-anxiety, and sedative. These drugs only temporarily snuff out the symptoms of the underlying problem. And, these drugs have ghastly, brutal side effects of which the public is becoming increasingly aware—such as aggressive behavior, suicidal thoughts and ideation, and decline in intellect. Are these horrendous side effects justified given that the drugs are not even addressing the cause of the disease? Most of the autism treatment programs and centers in the United States (at least among mainstream medicine) do nothing but offer palliative, or “behavioral” treatment. The government, non-profit research organizations, and parents spend millions of dollars on palliative treatments for childhood developmental disorders. What would happen if some of that money were actually spent on what really matters; that is, trying to locate and treat the cause? Would you offer physical therapy to someone suffering from a broken leg, or would you repair the broken leg? Now that you are equipped with knowledge, and you know that childhood developmental disorders do in fact have underlying, scientific, physiological causes (even though these causes are sometimes elusive and difficult to isolate), you can begin to play detective with your child and treat the causes, not the symptoms, of their disease. Palliative treatments are useful to increase quality of life during the discovery process. But the palliative treatments themselves are not the end goal. Maybe your child’s disorder is caused by an imbalance of intestinal microflora. In this case, you might consider using probiotics, diet, and herbs to correct the problem. Or maybe, it is mercury poisoning, for which you could use chelation. Or possibly, your child’s disorder is caused by food allergies, which you might alleviate by an elimination diet. Or, as this book proposes, maybe your child’s autism is caused by Lyme disease, in which case you may decide to undergo Lyme treatment. Whatever the underlying cause, the thought pattern is the same: you, as the parent, must step up to the plate, take responsibility, reject the “diagnosis” your child was given, and search for the underlying cause. A good friend of mine (Bryan) suffered from migraine headaches for years. She drained her bank account trying the strongest painkillers and anti-migraine medications available. She endured the side effects of powerful, dangerous pharmaceuticals. She only received minimal relief, and suffered greatly. One day, a thinking physician inquired about her diet and discovered that she consumed diet soda pop once or twice a day, every day of her life. In fact, if she ran out of soda, she would make a special trip to the store to replenish her stock. After she objected vehemently, he finally convinced her to go without the soda for a few weeks. Bingo! The headaches disappeared, almost overnight. The palliative, symptom-covering painkillers were not the answer (although they did make a few CEOs and stockholders richer). Eliminating the root cause was the answer. I do not want to oversimplify childhood developmental disorders. In most cases, the detective work necessary is much more difficult than the experience my friend had with her headaches. However, you owe it to yourself and your child to at least try the detective strategy. In the best case scenario, you will cure your child, and in the worst case scenario, you will at least become educated about your son or daughter’s body, and provide him or her with some level of relief, however minor. But most importantly, taking a detective approach will ensure that you are doing absolutely everything you can to be a good parent. You, as a thinking, caring, intelligent parent, have what it takes to be a detective and to reject the superficial diagnosis given by a doctor whose thinking is victim of the dogmatic, palliative treatment paradigm that currently rules American medicine.

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Get the most important digital marketing news each day. FTC: Privacy Disclosures For Kids’ Mobile Apps Incomplete, Deceptive In February 2012 the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) released a study of privacy and mobile apps for kids. The study concluded that parents weren’t given enough information in the app stores to properly evaluate privacy practices. At the time the FTC issued some recommendations for app developers, as well as Apple and Google: - All members of the “kids app ecosystem” – the stores, developers and third parties providing services – should play an active role in providing key information to parents. - App developers should provide data practices information in simple and short disclosures. They also should disclose whether the app connects with social media, and whether it contains ads. Third parties that collect data also should disclose their privacy practices. - App stores also should take responsibility for ensuring that parents have basic information. “As gatekeepers of the app marketplace, the app stores should do more.” The report notes that the stores provide architecture for sharing pricing and category data, and should be able to provide a way for developers to provide information about their data collection and sharing practices. A new follow-up study from the FTC issued today, based on a review of 400 kid-oriented apps for iOS and Android, reports that most of these recommendations have not been followed. The FTC concludes, “Industry appears to have made little or no progress in improving its disclosures since the first kids’ app survey was conducted.” The report adds, “[M]ost apps failed to provide basic information about what data would be collected from kids, how it would be used, and with whom it would be shared.” Kids’ apps that transmitted or shared information This new survey went a step beyond simply examining privacy disclosures. It compared privacy disclosures to actual privacy practices: Specifically, the new survey examined whether the apps included interactive features or shared kids’ information with third parties without disclosing these facts to parents. The answer: Yes, many apps included interactive features or shared kids’ information with third parties without disclosing these practices to parents The FTC found that “Of the 400 apps reviewed, only 20% (81) contained any privacy-related disclosure on the app’s promotion page, on the developer website, or within the app.” The type of information shared In a few cases the FTC found apps that provided assurances that personal data (i.e., device ID, phone number) and location were not being shared even as they were in fact conveyed to multiple ad networks. Ad networks were the most common recipient of the user data in question, although often it was potentially available to social networks. In nearly 60 percent of the apps there was some information transmitted from the device to the developer or a third party: In total, staff found that 59% (235) of the 400 apps transmitted some information from a user’s mobile device back to the developer or to a third-party. The most common piece of information that was collected and shared was a user’s device ID, a string of letters or numbers that uniquely identifies each mobile device. Indeed, all 59% of the apps that transmitted some information transmitted a device ID to the developer or, much more commonly, to a third-party. Of all the apps reviewed, 5% (20) transmitted the device ID back to the developer, while 56% (223) transmitted the device ID to ad networks, analytics companies, or other third parties. Apps with ads and related disclosures The report scolds the industry for not being transparent enough and not acting quickly enough to enact parent and kid-friendly privacy practices. The FTC calls upon developers, publishers and app stores to do the following: - Adopt a “privacy by-design” approach to minimize risks to personal information - Provide consumers with simpler and more streamlined choices about relevant data practices - Provide consumers with greater transparency about how data is collected, used, and shared What’s most interesting about this report and the above recommendations is what it may suggest about the future of privacy regulation in mobile app development and digital/mobile advertising more broadly. There is some sort of privacy regulation on the way; I can all but guarantee it. The FTC however is trying to balance interests of stakeholders and create rules that are both meaningful for consumers and not-too-burdensome to the industry. Those who may believe that the FTC will sit on the sidelines and allow the industry to “self-regulate” are deluded. I’ve read and heard enough from the FTC on this subject to believe that self-regulation is regarded as ineffectual ultimately. Indeed, this report is a spanking for self-regulation and stands as evidence that the FTC believes it largely won’t work.

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Landing a rover on another planet has never been easy. Even at its best, the process can require careful choreography of multiple landing stages and involve parachutes, airbags, and retrorockets. Once you've landed, your wheeled spacecraft will face obstacles of its own, including steep terrain and sand traps. Vytas SunSpiral and Adrian Agogino at NASA Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, Calif. and their colleagues suspect there might be a way to make solar system exploration much simpler and cheaper, by embedding science instruments inside a flexible, deformable robotic exoskeleton. This spherical structure might be able to land without assistance, absorbing most of the shock of impact itself and so saving mass needed for more complex landing gear. Once the spacecraft has reached an extraterrestrial surface, it could use this same structure to roll around without wheels, propelling itself by making slight tweaks to its shape. The design, called the Super Ball Bot, relies on the concept of tensegrity, an approach to building structures that first emerged in the art world. Tensegrity structures consist of rigid components (such as hollow, cylindrical rods) connected by flexible materials (such as elastic cable). You may have already explored the basic properties of tensegrity structures with this classic baby toy. The term itself, coined by architect Buckminster Fuller, is a portmanteau of the words “tensional” and “integrity". There is no single point of failure in a tensegrity robot, says SunSpiral, no axles or hinges that must be strengthened to withstand stress. Instead, the force of an impact—whether it's a landing or a fall off a cliff—is absorbed and diffused over multiple paths. "With a tensegrity structure, the entire structure shares the burden of reducing that stress, which is what you see in human bodies," he says. Since they are deformable, the robots could also interact more effectively with the environment, extricating themselves from surfaces, such as soft sand, that challenge traditional wheeled rovers. But Mars, which has a thin atmosphere that would likely require a ball bot to carry a parachute, isn't the first target the team has in mind. Instead, they're considering Saturn's moon Titan, which boasts an atmosphere which can slow the spacecraft's descent enough so that the robot can be dropped, sans airbag or parachute, from 100 kilometers or more above the surface. In a scenario studied by the team, the robot could be collapsed to a very compact configuration for launch. Once it reaches the moon, it would pop open and drop to the surface, flexing and absorbing the force of impact. By shortening and lengthening the cables that connect its rigid components, the ball bot could then roll about the surface. These same cables could be used to pull back parts of the robot, so that science instruments at the center could be exposed and used. The team won a Phase I award from the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts program to investigate the approach in 2012. Earlier this year, the team was awarded a Phase II grant to continue the research. You can hear SunSpiral and Agogino describe the basic approach and some of the work done so far in the video below. One key challenge described in the video is the problem of control. The structures respond nonlinearly; a small change in the length of a connection can create a fairly big movement. They're also oscillatory – impacts and movements have a habit of reverberating through the structure. The problem is multifaceted and fast-moving enough that the team doesn't expect it to be practical for engineers to command the robot from Earth like they do the rigid Mars rovers, roughly one component at a time. When I visited the lab the August before last, the team was just getting started on their research in an old aircraft control test facility on campus. Agogino told me that that they'd have to invent new ways to handle controls so the robot will move smoothly and efficiently. "This is so new," he said, that "if you can do anything more than a twitching dead thing you’re really ahead of the curve.” To tackle the control problem, the team has used a physics simulator to model the interaction of the robot with simulated ground, on hills and undulating terrain, and with the addition of small obstacles. The simulated environment is used to identify the best approach in an evolutionary fashion, exploring many approaches to coordinating movement until an effective one is identified. (Others, incidentally, have used an evolutionary approach to create new robotic designs from scratch). The team is also investigating more biologically-inspired control mechanisms that use oscillatory signals, similar to the central pattern generators (CPGs) that drive neural signals in animals. CPGs are already used for locomotion in multi-legged robots (see pdf). In addition to the simulation effort, hardware prototypes (see photo at right) are being built to test controls and assess how well the structures protect fragile payloads (like uncooked eggs) from the force of a Titan landing. As the video makes clear, there are still kinks to be worked out. The simulated ball bots perform much more smoothly than their real-world counterparts. But if all goes well, Titan might one day seen an armada of tumbleweed-like robotic explorers, hunting for evidence of life on the hazy moon. The approach, Agogino, says, “is unique. And it could be revolutionary.”

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- Historic Sites Ethan Allen’s Ill-Fated March on Canada A new look at a famous Revolutionary figure questions whether history’s long-standing judgment is accurate Fall 2011 | Volume 61, Issue 2 AT 9 O’CLOCK ON THE morning of September 25, 1775, a French Canadian habitant banged on the main gate of Montreal. The Americans were coming, he blurted breathlessly to a British officer. As drums began to rattle out the alarm and a panicky crowd filled the Place d’Armes, the farmer told Sir Guy Carleton, governor general of Canada, that an American army had crossed the St. Lawrence during the night and was marching south down the island. The invaders numbered in the hundreds. They had already reached the suburb of Longue-Pointe, less than two miles away, and were taking up positions in barns and houses. For weeks Carleton had dreaded just such an attack. Fully one-third of the 9,000 citizens of Montreal’s environs were transplanted New England merchants and their employees. Carleton’s spies had told himthat couriers from Boston were urging the expatriates to join the spreading struggle for American independence from Britain. With only 34 regulars, a handful of Mohawk Indians, and about 30 officials from the Indian Bureau to defend the largest town in Canada, Carleton had threatened to burn Montreal—and its warehouses bulging with furs and wheat—unless the merchants helped defend it. After rounding up suspected American sympathizers and chaining them in ships in the harbor, he had already gathered his papers and was preparing to flee to Quebec, where he would make a last stand. As word spread like a crown fire that the leader of the invading force was Ethan Allen, conqueror of two key British fortresses on Lake Champlain, Carleton placated the townsmen with hard money: he would pay volunteers half a Portuguese silver Johanna a day to join his militia. He had little alternative but to rely on these “shirtmen” and no other hope for timely relief. Of some 700 regulars in the combined 26th Cameronian Regiment of Foot and the 7th Royal Fusiliers assigned to garrison all of Canada, he had lost 80 men when they were taken prisoner during Allen’s raids on Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point. He had deployed most of his remaining regulars and 300 Mohawks to defend Fort St. John to the southeast, now bombarded by the cannon Allen had seized from the forts. Carleton knew little about the boldness of Allen’s plan, how many men he could command, or just how he came to lead an invading army. In fact, Allen, instantly acclaimed by some (although not the Continental Congress) as America’s first war hero for his daring predawn attacks on the two Lake Champlain forts, had found himself caught in a crossfire of conflicting ideologies, officers, and orders. Contemporaries and historians alike viewed him as rash and impetuous, a violent frontiersman with an explosive temper. But his Canadian crusade shows that this portrait is too simple. New research reveals that American Gen. Richard Montgomery encouraged Allen to act, and that Allen was something of a victim—of conflicting orders from the Congress, of apparent abandonment by a fellow officer, and of circumstances themselves—in the drama that followed. Moreover, his Canadian adventure was part of a far larger failing on the Americans’ part: the larger invasion was poorly planned and executed. The chain of events that led to Montreal began earlier, on May 10, 1775, when Allen and 89 Green Mountain Boys from present-day Vermont stormed ashore at Fort Ticonderoga and captured its sleeping garrison of 60 regulars and 50 women and children. Only a handful of delegates from Massachusetts and Connecticut knew of Allen’s raid. Connecticut’s Committee of Correspondence and the Hartford Committee of Safety, aware that Allen had organized the largest paramilitary force in British North America, had authorized himat a secret meeting in Hartford to seize the forts around Lake Champlain and to secure their trove of nearly 200 cannon. After the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, farmers from Connecticut and Massachusetts had rushed in to purchase land in presentday Vermont at bargain prices fromNew Hampshire, which claimed jurisdiction. Some 800 families had cleared homesteads before New York’s government, also claiming the region, demanded the settlers pay again for the land or leave. When sheriff’s posses from New York tried to evict them, the farmers refused to move. They appointed Allen, a professional hunter and small-time speculator, as their spokesman. Hiring lawyer Jared Ingersoll, Allen sailed to Albany to appear before the New York Supreme Court of Judicature. But lawyers and judges representing the British Crown, themselves speculators in Vermont lands, upheld the evictions. At a mass meeting in Bennington, Allen urged the settlers to resist. Committees of Safety from a score of settlements commissioned Allen to form the Green Mountain Boys and to serve as their paid colonel-commandant. In a five-year border war between the settlers and New York authorities, Allen employed an effective mix of propaganda and intimidation to discourage would-be New York settlers. Allen and the Boys pulled down fences, barns, and houses and sometimes flogged foes— acts that would be considered terrorism today. In 1774 the New York Assembly declared them outlaws. With a £100 bounty for his capture, Allen faced summary execution. Shortly before the April 1775 clash at Lexington, Allen had written to Connecticut patriot leader Oliver Wolcott that he couldmuster 2,000 Boys and seize the undermanned New York forts before the British could reinforce them from Montreal. Then Allen sent a message to Montreal wheat exporter James Morrison by way of John Brown, a Pittsfield, Massachusetts, lawyer, and emissary of Sam Adams. Brown’s mission: to urge Montreal merchants to send a delegation to the Continental Congress representing New Englanders living in Canada.

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Did Humans Spring From Australopithecus sediba? Friday, April 12, 2013 WASHINGTON, D.C.—A collection of papers published in the current issue of Science represents the most complete investigation of Australopithecus sediba fossils to date. Discovered in 2008 in South Africa, scientists think that the two-million-year-old hominin may be the oldest direct ancestor of the human lineage. Its long, apelike arms and shoulder blades would have been good for climbing, and its fingers would have been capable of powerful grips. But Australopithecus sediba fingers may also have been able to make and use tools, although no tools associated with the fossils have been found so far. Its legs, trunk, and lower back suggest that Australopithecus sediba was able to climb trees and walk with a primitive, pigeon-toed gait. “These skeletons are just interesting, wonderful blends of characteristics,” said evolutionary anthropologist Steven Churchill of Duke University. Click here for more photos of the Australopithecus sediba composite skeleton. Maya victory monument, Neanderthal cannibals, Paleolithic smorgasbord, King Tut’s meteor dagger, and Melanesian tattooing A Cambridge don’s magic shoe

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CINCINNATI, May 5 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ -- Children enrolled before they are six months old in a home-based program that teaches language skills to the deaf or hard of hearing are not only able to achieve appropriate language skills but also to maintain them over time, according to a new study. The study underscores the importance of appropriate follow-up of newborn hearing screens that determine whether a more detailed evaluation of a baby's hearing by an audiologist is needed, according to Jareen Meinzen-Derr, PhD, a researcher at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and the study's main author. Dr. Meinzen-Derr presented her study Monday, May 4 at the annual meeting of the Pediatric Academic Societies in Baltimore. The researchers studied 328 children enrolled in Ohio's universal newborn hearing screening program. As is the case in many states, all infants born in Ohio hospitals or birthing centers receive hearing screenings before discharge. These screenings determine whether a more detailed evaluation of a baby's hearing is needed. Newborns enrolled before 6 months of age were more likely to have age appropriate language skills than children enrolled at or after 6 months, the study found. They also maintained age appropriate skills through the age of 3 -- the age at which early intervention services cease. Children enrolled at or after six months had lower baseline language skills but made significant language progress, possibly catching up to the group enrolled at an earlier age, irrespective of severity of hearing loss, according to Dr. Meinzen-Derr. The researchers did not study children past the age of three to determine the level of their language skills. "It is important for pediatricians and family physicians to ensure that families follow up on initial screenings that indicate a possible problem with a more thorough evaluation," says Susan Wiley, MD, a developmental pediatrician at Cincinnati Children's and a co-author of the study. "Early intervention can and does have a great impact. We need to preserve early intervention services during these difficult economic times." Approximately 150,000 children are born in Ohio each year. About 6,000 of them do not pass their newborn hearing screening. Ohio infants who are identified with a permanent hearing loss are eligible for home-based language education, assistance with audiology follow-up appointments, connections to community resources, planning for transition to preschool and other services -- all at no cost to families. The Regional Infant Hearing Programs in Ohio are funded by the Ohio Department of Health. The PAS meeting, sponsored by the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Pediatric Society, the Society for Pediatric Research and the Ambulatory Pediatric Association, is the largest international meeting to focus on research in child health. About Cincinnati Children's Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center is one of America's top three children's hospitals for general pediatrics and is highly ranked for its expertise in digestive diseases, respiratory diseases, cancer, neonatal care, heart care and neurosurgery, according to the annual ranking of best children's hospitals by U.S. News & World Report. One of the three largest children's hospitals in the U.S., Cincinnati Children's is affiliated with the For its achievements in transforming healthcare, Cincinnati Children's is one of six U.S. hospitals since 2002 to be awarded the American Hospital Association-McKesson Quest for Quality Prize(R) for leadership and innovation in quality, safety and commitment to patient care. The hospital is a national and international referral center for complex cases, so that children with the most difficult-to-treat diseases and conditions receive the most advanced care leading to better outcomes. Additional information can be found at www.cincinnatichildrens.org. |SOURCE Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center| Copyright©2009 PR Newswire. All rights reserved

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City residents aged 12 to 25 divvy up $1 million in capital improvements annually. Guangzhou, China, is a model of how a leading commercial hub can also pioneer on the knowledge front of 21st-century urbanism—and now it's challenging cities worldwide to do the same. Cities are home to a majority of the human race for the first time in history. But finding a place for them in the U.N.'s Sustainable Development Goals for the next 15 years has proven surprisingly controversial. A new international standard known as “ISO 37120” lays out 46 measures that cities on any continent can measure their performance by.

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Europa beckons, but how to get there faster? Could a CubeSat with an ion drive do? Evidence of water geysers on Europa are pushing Jupiter's moon to the fore in the search for extraterrestrial life. Tiny ion-drive-powered CubeSats could get robotic missions there fast and cheap, researchers say. The current flight schedule is a bit lean, however. NASA's JUNO orbiter is en route and expected to arrive in July 2016, but it will orbit Jupiter to study the planet's atmosphere; it will not visit Europa. The European Space Agency is planning to launch a mission to Jupiter's icy moons in 2022, but it won't arrive until 2030. Budgets for big missions are even leaner. Researchers have another idea: Send CubeSats – small satellites built up from cube-shaped modules about 4 inches on a side. Typically, these tiny tots of the satellite set have been limited to serving as teaching tools for aerospace engineering students or test-beds for new space hardware, or for modest, short-duration missions in low-Earth orbit. But researchers have started to explore the possibility of turning them into the mighty mites of solar-system exploration. To that end, Benjamin Longmier and colleagues at the University of Michigan are developing a small ion-drive propulsion system that could help CubeSats break the bonds of low-Earth orbit. “People are interested in these sorts of missions – going to Europa, finding life in the solar system. Right now the only way we can do missions like that is through NASA or through the European Space Agency and maybe the Russians,” says Dr. Longmier, an assistant professor of aerospace engineering at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. Such missions tend to be so expensive that that for any individual space agency they come around only about once every 10 years. Go small, Longmier says, and the costs drop, increasing the opportunities. For long-time observers of the US space program, that sounds a lot like the “faster, better, cheaper” approach former NASA administrator Dan Goldin championed in the 1990s, with mixed results. Still, the prospect of giving CubeSats an ability to travel beyond low-Earth orbit is getting a serious look. Last December, a team of researchers led by Robert Staehle, with NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, produced a report for the space agency's innovative-advanced-concepts program exploring the technologies needed to turn CubeSats into low-mass tools that could be used for missions lasting up to five years and carrying price tags of less than $30 million. The propulsion approach Dr. Staehle's group examined involved solar sails, which use the radiation pressure from sunlight to propel a spacecraft. NASA and Japan's space agency JAXA have tested solar sails on in orbit. Both were launched in 2010. NASA's version, NanoSail D-2, kept a three-module CubeSat on orbit for 240 days. By contrast, Longmier's team is going high tech. It's working on a small version of ion propulsion – one in which the motor and the fuel, which the team envisions as water, fit into one of three CubeSat modules that would make up their spacecraft. Nor is his team alone. A research group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology also is working on ion propulsion for CubeSats – an approach that the group, led by Paulo Lozano, director of the institute's Space Propulsion Lab, initially plans to test as thrusters for steering CubeSats. Ion technology has long been used to help full-scale satellites maintain their orbits. Over the past 15 years, ion engines have powered four deep-space missions launched by the US, Japan, and Europe. Ion thrusters use electricity to ionize gas and accelerate it to provide thrust. They don't generate much instantaneous push, but they use their fuel more efficiently and can run continuously for years. Chemical rockets generate more thrust, but they gulp fuel in such large amounts that running them for long periods is impractical. Because ion thrusters can operate far longer than their chemical counterparts, the craft they propel can reach higher velocities. Longmier's team calculates that under the right conditions, an ion-propelled CubeSat could reach Jupiter in about two to three years. ESA's JUICE orbiter would take eight years. JUNO is taking five years. The challenge, Longmier says, it to simplify and miniaturize the thrusters. One way is to use water as fuel instead of an inert gas, such as xenon. Big spacecraft store the gas in a pressurized cylinder. CubeSats have no room for that. Because liquids are more dense than gas, water represents a way to pack a lot of atoms – fodder for ionization – into a tight space and with simpler storage. Another is to design the thruster so that it needs no additional source of charged particles to operate properly. Typical ion thrusters require this extra source, which generates a stream of electrons. These bind with the positively charged ions as they hurl from the thruster, returning the atoms to an electrically neutral state as they travel. Without this step, the positive ions from the thruster would merely be drawn to the spacecraft and form a halo around it rather than provide the push the craft needs. Longmier's team has designed a system that uses the electrons the thruster strips from atoms initially as the electrons that will return the ions to their neutral state as they zip from the thruster. The team is working toward a launch late next year of a test CubeSat that uses a prototype motor. “Once we get into space, we're going to learn a lot about how to operate this propulsion system – what fails, what doesn't fail, what works well, what we need to change for the next iteration,” he says.

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Memorial's Archival Treasures Image of a fishery past (March 23, 2000, Gazette) William Charles St. John By Bert Riggs Painted portraits of Newfoundlanders dating from the 1800s appear to be extremely rare. Those that were done were probably painted in England and were done for members of wealthy families who could afford such luxuries. There were very few artists living in Newfoundland during that century, and the few who did were often here for only a short time. One of the few was Henrietta, Lady Hamilton (1780?-1857), wife of Sir Charles Hamilton, who was governor of Newfoundland from 1818-1824. Lady Hamilton lived in St. Johns with her husband during his term as governor. She is best known for her miniature portrait entitled Mary March. It is a watercolour on ivory portrait of Demasduit, one of the last of the Beothuk, painted in 1819, which now resides in the National Archives of Canada, Ottawa. The most successful of the painters who did live in Newfoundland during the first half of the 19th century was William Gosse. Gosse was born in Worcester, England, in 1808 but moved to Carbonear, Newfoundland, in 1822 to work at Pack, Gosse and Fryer, a mercantile establishment in which his uncle, John Gosse, was a partner. William did find some time to paint in Carbonear, but it was not until he moved to St. Johns (probably in the early 1830s) that he set up business as a professional painter. His drawings of various St. Johns locations are the only ones known to exist of downtown St. Johns prior to the 1846 fire. Portrait painting probably occupied a great deal of his time during the years he worked in St. Johns but it appears that very few of these paintings have survived. Gosse left Newfoundland in the 1840s and returned to England. One of Gosses works that has survived is a pencil and watercolour portrait of William Charles St. John. It was painted in 1841 and is in excellent condition. Until recently it was framed and there is a dark border around the edges of the painting which were covered by the frame. The painting does not appear to have faded and the colours are still quite vibrant. This piece provides an example of Gosses work as a portrait painter. It also shows what the well-dressed young man from Harbour Grace would have worn in 1841. William Charles St. John was born in Harbour Grace in 1806, son of Oliver St. John and Charlotte Garland. His education was probably an eclectic mixture of formal schooling and home tutoring. The Church of England mission operated a grammar school in Harbour Grace from 1774 to 1803, and other schools began operating there in the early decades of the 19th century. A Methodist school began operation in Carbonear in 1799 and as the St. John family were Methodists, he may have gone there. As well, his father, as a magistrate, would have been an educated man and would likely have taught his son at home. His early employment involved a clerkship with Slade, Elson and Co. where he met Philip Tocque and Philip Henry Gosse, both of whom would become noted writers later in the century. St. John married Elizabeth Suzannah Comer at Harbour Grace on June 30, 1829. (She was the sister of William S. Comer, who was proprietor and editor of the Harbour Grace newspaper, The Conception Bay Mercury from 1829 to 1831.) The St. Johns had at least two children, Charles Henry St. John (1830-1925) and Ada St. John Bremner (1832?- 1857), and there may have been others. William St. John taught school in Harbour Grace for a number of years. It was during this time that he recognized the need for and compiled A Catechism of the History of Newfoundland, from the earliest accounts to the close of the year 1834, for the use of schools (St. Johns: J. MCoubrey, Printer, 1835). This short volume, dedicated to then Governor Henry Prescott, was the first work of its kind produced for Newfoundland schools and was based upon the writings of such historians as John Reeves and Louis Anspach. It was sanctioned by the government and used in Newfoundland schools for a number of years. In 1842 St. John relinquished his teaching responsibilities and entered the newspaper business. On Nov. 2 of that year he published the first issue of The Weekly Herald and Conception-Bay General Advertiser. Its content was similar to most newspapers operating in Newfoundland at that time, containing local news, especially reports from the Legislature, shipping news, letters to the editor, and births, deaths and marriages. It also contained foreign news and fiction. It was promoted as a nonsectarian and politically independent newspaper but one in which the editor would not be reticent in exposing injustice and championing causes which benefited the hard-working people of Newfoundland. It was noted in St. Johns obituary notice (The Boston Traveller, March 22, 1873) that he was very outspoken in his editorial remarks, and occasionally came into collision with the ruling powers of the island (the mercantile community and the Church). St. John operated The Weekly Herald for almost 12 years. In the spring of 1854 he announced his intention to sell the paper and emigrate to Boston, where he planned to publish a semi-weekly paper. The Weekly Heralds last issue appeared on June 28, 1854. In his final editorial St. John expressed his thanks to all his subscribers and supporters; he emphasized that it had been his intention to treat all fairly and to defend the rights, and promote the interests of the community at large and he felt he had done this. It was possible that he was under pressure from some powerful group to change his editorial policy, as his obituary also states not caring to suppress opinions which he believed should be adopted for the prosperity of the country, he sold the good-will of the paper, to the regret of all who knew his worth, and with the members of his large and intelligent family left the island and took up residence in Boston. It would appear from the list of property that St. John put up for sale before leaving for Boston that he was a well-to-do if not wealthy man. In addition to the newspaper, he advertised for sale 14 separate lots of free-hold property including: Water-side premises on Noad Street; a large dwelling house formerly occupied by Dr. Dow; a cottage with gardens, out-houses and meadowland; a dwelling house and cooperage on Holbrook Street; shops and dwelling houses on Cochrane and Water Streets; shop and dwelling house opposite St. Pauls Church; shop and dwelling house leased to Patrick Quinn; land and dwelling house leased to Capt. Michael Fitzgerald; dwelling house and premises leased to Edmond Hunt; shops, gardens and tenements leased to John Kavanagh; dwelling house and garden leased to John Richards; shop, dwelling house and garden leased to John McDonald; dwelling house and garden leased to Richard Power, all in Harbour Grace, and a piece of meadowland on Carbonear Island. This was an extensive amount of property for one person to have owned in Harbour Grace in the 1850s. Once settled in Boston, St. John soon established a new newspaper, The International Journal, which he operated for a number of years. That same year, 1855, he published a new edition of his Newfoundland catechism. Two years later he founded the newspaper, The Anglo-Saxon Weekly. According to his obituary Mr. St. John was an honorary member of the Royal Geographical Society of London, which honour was conferred upon him in consequence of a criticism he [made] on a geographical report of Newfoundland. Mr. St. John published a series of articles on the set of the currents around the coast of Newfoundland, accounting for the numerous shipwrecks on Cape Race, St. Shotts, &c., which was considered standard authority. In his later years he wrote for the newspaper The Sunday Courier. He also wrote poetry: two of his poems appeared in a volume by his son Charles entitled Poems (1859). St. John died in Boston on February 17, 1873, after a lengthy illness.

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Varicella zoster: Introduction Varicella zoster: A highly contagious disease caused by herpes virus 3. More detailed information about the symptoms, causes, and treatments of Varicella zoster is available below. Symptoms of Varicella zoster See full list of 8 symptoms of Varicella zoster Home Diagnostic Testing Home medical testing related to Varicella zoster: Wrongly Diagnosed with Varicella zoster? Causes of Varicella zoster Read more about causes of Varicella zoster. Disease Topics Related To Varicella zoster Research the causes of these diseases that are similar to, or related to, Varicella zoster: Misdiagnosis and Varicella zoster Sinusitis is overdiagnosed: There is a tendency to give a diagnosis of sinusitis, when the condition is really a harmless complication of another infection, such as a common cold....read more » Whooping cough often undiagnosed: Although most children in the Western world have been immunized against whooping cough (also called "pertussis"), this protection wears off after about 15 years. Thus, any teen...read more » Read more about Misdiagnosis and Varicella zoster Varicella zoster: Research Doctors & Specialists Research related physicians and medical specialists: - Baby & Newborn Health Specialists: - Ear, Nose & Throat Specialists: - Child Health Specialists (Pediatrics): - more specialists...» Other doctor, physician and specialist research services: Hospitals & Clinics: Varicella zoster Research quality ratings and patient safety measures for medical facilities in specialties related to Varicella zoster: Hospital & Clinic quality ratings » Choosing the Best Hospital: More general information, not necessarily in relation to Varicella zoster, on hospital performance and surgical care quality: Evidence Based Medicine Research for Varicella zoster Medical research articles related to Varicella zoster include: Click here to find more evidence-based articles on the TRIP Database Varicella zoster: Animations More Varicella zoster animations & videos Research about Varicella zoster Visit our research pages for current research about Varicella zoster treatments. Varicella zoster: Broader Related Topics Types of Varicella zoster User Interactive Forums Read about other experiences, ask a question about Varicella zoster, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards: Contents for Varicella zoster: » Next page: What is Varicella zoster? Medical Tools & Articles: Tools & Services: Forums & Message Boards - Ask or answer a question at the Boards:

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First, sharpen your observation to recognize the preferred channel. What arouses your child's interest? What does she do to comfort herself? We already identified that Billy's channel is the sense of smell, and Jessica's the feeling of movement. Here are some other examples: A child who likes to hop up and down may need some trampoline time with you, a child who scratches or hits himself may ask to be held closely or be massaged. Once you have identified the preferred sensation, there are two ways in which you can begin to use this, by "switching channels" or by "coupling channels." By "switching channels," you may move your communication to the child's preferred channel. If Billy would rather smell than look, let's provide him with interesting smells when you play with him. You can use different aromatic essences, creams, magic markers with fruit smells or add aromas to toys by spraying them with essential oils, etc. (Of course, check out any allergies before using this, and use only if the child is not mouthing toys.) You may be surprised by your child's level of interest, attention span and motivation to participate in play with you. By "coupling channels," we describe the process by which you combine the child's preferred channel with another channel. If Jessica would rather rock than listen, let's combine the two. Tell her stories or sing songs while she is in your lap in a rocking chair or in a swing. Gradually, you may find that you can reduce some of the movement, and she may show more interest in just listening. Now that you know what sensory input "turns your child on," you may also use sensory activities as a reward for a difficult task. For example, the application of special skin cream after washing hands independently. And finally, you may choose to just spend some special one-on-one time with your child engaging in activities in the sensory language that you both understand. While vision appears to have become the dominant "sensory channel" in our society, it is important to remember that we continue to use all of our other senses. In fact, it is essential that we all get a balanced "sensory diet" every day. For instance, if we sit still all day long in front of a computer, we will feel the need to stretch and "feed ourselves" the sensation of limb movement through a brisk walk of work-out in the gym. On the other hand, if we take in too much of a particular sensation, such as the overwhelming visual stimuli of rush hour traffic, we may have to -- once we get into the driveway -- digest the experience by closing our eyes and tuning everything out. Children with Autism often live with an imbalance in sensory diet. Because of the unique way their nervous systems identify and interpret sensation, they may react differently to sensory experiences than you would expect. Jamie, who we met at the beginning of this article, may not be getting in enough sensation to keep him in an alert state. When he is confronted with a task that requires attention, he may flap his wrists and wave his arms to "wake himself up." Luis, who we also met earlier, perceives being touched lightly on the shoulder as very irritating and even threatening -- more sensation all at once than he can handle. The intensity of this experience is comparable to our hearing chalk squeak on the blackboard - it stops us in our tracks and we will do anything to make it go away! If we watch our children carefully, we can find clues as to what they have figured out to balance their sensory diets. Some have ways of alerting themselves so that they can be ready to interact. Some have identified ways of "making it go away" and to calm themselves down. Unfortunately, many of these behaviors appear unusual to the outsider and are disruptive to other children, and some are even harmful (such as head banging, or pulling hair). Therefore, based on the clues they give us, we need to offer our children alternate means of providing themselves the sensory input they need to balance their diet. Observe what your child does when he gets upset or overwhelmed, identify the sensory channel that works for your child and think of ways to provide the desired "sensory food." Let's look at some examples by starting with Luis and Jamie: We have heard that Luis likes to throw himself in a bean bag chair when he is touched. Aha! Now we know it is the deep pressure sensation that helps Luis "erase" the bad feeling of the initial touch. We can now provide that sensation in more appropriate ways: Through deep bear hugs, by teaching him how to "rub himself down" using a terry cloth or by providing a heavy "comfort jacket." Jamie, as we have observed, likes to flap his wrists and wave his arms when he is asked to do table-top work. Now we know that pressure and movement to the joints makes him feel more alert. We can offer him squeezable toys, such as stuffed animals or balls, provide play dough or thera-putty or ask him to help with household activities that involve pushing or pulling heavy objects, such as setting up furniture, pulling a garden cart, or taking the garbage can to the curb. Does your child bang her hands against her ears? She may be overwhelmed with sounds and benefit from ear muffs that block out noises. Does he run into a corner and hide his face? He may need a quiet area, such as a refrigerator box with pillows, to "regroup." Does he pull at his hair? He may need intensified tactile sensation, such as a body rub or a "brushing down." In this article, we have looked at using sensation as a way to increase our communication with our children. Identifying the preferred sensory channel can help us develop skills in "Sensorish." By either "switching channels" or "coupling channels," we may discover new ways to make contact. By observing a child's reactions to overwhelming stimuli, we can help him develop safe and effective coping mechanisms. And you'll see personalized content just for you whenever you click the My Feed . SheKnows is making some changes!

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How childhood stress can impact mental health in adulthood Extreme stress and young brains are a bad combination, something that sets in motion feelings and behaviors that can haunt us long into adulthood. And just in time for the school year, a new study may help explain why. The Duke University study used neuro-imaging to look at the biological effect of childhood stress on the adult brain. It's important research, because it parallels existing knowledge about the relationship of stress to unhealthy behavior.

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Renewable energy is any source of energy that doesn't consume the finite resources of the Earth and can be easily and quickly replenished. At present only a small proportion of the world's energy needs come from alternative and renewable energy sources. These exist in many forms including Solar Thermal, Photovoltaics, Wind, Hydro, Tidal/Wave and Bioenergy (including Biomass, Biogas and Biofuels). As with fossil fuels the sun's energy is the ultimate source of these energies. A non-renewable resource is made up of mostly dead animal skin. The skin then turns into a resource such as oil. Also considered non-renewable are resources that are consumed much faster than nature can create them. Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas), nuclear power (uranium) and certain aquifers are examples. Metal ores are prime examples of non-renewable resources. In contrast, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered renewable resources. Electrical energy is the energy carried by moving electrons in an electric conductor. It cannot be seen, but it is one of our most useful forms of energy because it is relatively easy to transmit and use. All matter consists of atoms, and every atom contains one or more electrons, which are always moving. When electrons are forced along a path in a conducting substance such as a wire, the result is energy called electricity. Electrical generating plants do not create energy. They change other forms of energy into electricity. For example, power plants can convert chemical energy stored in fuels into thermal energy, which evaporates water into steam, which produces mechanical energy as it moves through turbines. The turbines spin generators, which produce electricity. All matter consists of atoms, and every atom contains one or more electrons, which are always moving....

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"Playing quick paced action video games such as Call of Duty or Assassin's Creed can boost your ability to learn new motor skills, researchers have found. The University of Toronto study discovered people who play action video games such as Call of Duty or Assassin's Creed seem to learn a new sensorimotor skill more quickly than non-gamers do. With such skills, an individual generally moves from novice performance, characterized by a low degree of coordination, to expert performance, marked by a high degree of coordination. As a result of successful sensorimotor learning, one comes to perform these tasks efficiently and perhaps even without consciously thinking about them." Source: The Telegraph UK

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AEC Releases New U.S. History Course American Education Corp. has introduced a new year-long, high school-level United States History course for its A+nywhere Learning System program. The 34-lesson course follows standards set by the National Council of Social Studies, as well as a compilation of state standards for comprehensive U.S. History I courses appropriate for grades 9 through 12. The materials package for each lesson includes a study guide, practice exercises, a mastery test, and an essay or constructed response. Lessons draw from sources such as historical documents, U.S. Census charts, and biographical information. Scott Aronowitz is a freelance writer based in Las Vegas. He has covered the technology, advertising, and entertainment sectors for seven years. He can be reached here.

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by Ron Goellner, Director of Animal Collections stlzoo magazine, November/December 2004 A famous science fiction story A Sound of Thunder, by Ray Bradbury, tells the story of a time-travel company in the year 2055 that arranges to fly wealthy hunters into the distant past to hunt dinosaurs. Every step of the trip is carefully planned so that the activities will not alter the events of the past. To help insure this, an advanced team identifies and mark dinosaurs that are about to die and hunters are sent to the scene, just second before, to make the kill. Unfortunately, one eager hunter steps off the designated trail and accidentally steps on a resting butterfly. When the time-travelers return to the future, things are different! Their once peaceful world is now in chaos...the devastating result of millions of years of effects brought about by the premature death of the butterfly. Given the current conditions found worldwide that persistently contribute to events that result in environmental degradation and the depletion of wildlife, it seems certain that someone from the future must have traveled to the past and stepped on a butterfly. A major problem is the fact that the world economy is based on growth, a situation that demands more development, more expansion, more consumption, and more people. These circumstances contribute to the constant conflict between mankind and the world's wildlife and the continue loss of biodiversity. Over the past 40 years we have watched many flagship species (gorillas, rhinos, elephants and whales to name just a few) decline dramatically while the human population has doubled from three billion to over six billion. The decline of the larger species is obvious and easy to document. Frequently overlooked, however, is the decline of thousands of smaller, seemingly insignificant species. One such species right in our own backyard is the hellbender. This aquatic salamander is native to the fast moving, spring-fed Ozark Mountain streams. Over the past 10 years its population has declined by nearly 80 percent. The Saint Louis Zoo WildCare Institute Hellbender Conservation Center has partnered with the Missouri Department of Conservation, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, a number of universities and other non-governmental governmental organizations to discover the cause (or causes) for this decline and to provide support to help change the current course. Funded through the Zoo's Field Research for Conservation (FRC) program are projects with the University of Missouri, Rolla (investigating the current hematological conditions of wild hellbenders) and the University of Florida (analyzing current conditions of what was once prime hellbender habitat). There is also a potential breeding group of hellbenders in a climate-controlled artificial stream in the Charles H. Hoessle Herpetarium at the Zoo. This last-ditch effort may be of utmost importance if future reintroductions from captive-breedings are necessary to supplement the wild population...a tall order for a species that has never been bred under captive conditions. Discouragement gives way to cautious optimism about the future of the hellbenders as we join forces with the many dedicated, enthusiastic individuals working towards a common goal. Hopefully, conservation biologists here and in the field will be successful and the efforts of our Conservation Centers throughout the world will help overcome the negative effects that may result from the death of one small creature.

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A couple days ago, Fox News broke a story with the unbelievable headline, “Exclusive: NASA Scientist Claims Evidence of Alien Life on Meteorite.” The claims are obvious bunk, but if you don’t believe me, here is PZ Myers with an entertaining demolition of the paper and its credibility. Myers’ main argument is that if the paper was real, it would probably have shown up in Nature or Science, been better written and argued, and received more than a blurb on Fox News’ website. Discover’s own Bad Astronomer Phil Plait has a wonderful summary of other opinions, and gives an excellent conclusion of how a real scientist thinks about an astounding announcement in a field that isn’t his own. Myers’ and Plait’s respective posts are exemplary demonstrations of scientific skepticism. True to form, Plait ends with this interesting little notation: As a scientist and a skeptic I have to leave some room, no matter how small, for the idea that this might be correct. Though the announcement that alien bacteria was found on a meteor is almost certainly false, eventually a scientist may in fact discover real evidence of alien life. I grant Myers’ point about a prestigious journal publishing the direct evidence would probably be the first place we would hear about such a discovery. But then that evidence would be challenged by every reputable scientist breathing. There is a simple rule in science: extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. I thank Bill Nye for teaching me that little tidbit when I was a youngster. It has done me well. But if the evidence is legit, other scientists will analyze, test, and, ultimately, verify the evidence. There would be proof that Earth wasn’t the only place in the universe where life came to be. Which begs the question: How would the evidence of extraterrestrial life be broken to the public? How would the President react? The pope? How would you react? How would the real discovery of alien life happen? Let’s do a thought experiment. My suspicion is that even if the alleged discovery of meteor bacteria had been published in Nature by respected and trusted scientists, it would be met with almost an equal degree of skepticism. Imagine your friend emailing you a link to the Nature article saying that a meteor contained evidence of bacteria from outer space. Your reaction wouldn’t be to sit down, head in hands, overwhelmed by the colossal existential weight of the discovery that Earth is not the sole originator of life. You probably wouldn’t even read the article. Life would carry on as usual. Why? Because you would expect the results to be an error, or a misrepresentation, or contamination of the sample. Except, this time, you would be wrong. The important point here is that a raised eyebrow and dismissal is the appropriate reaction to the claim that extraterrestrial life has been proven to exist. Because it is among the most extraordinary claims a person can make. Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence, and extraordinary evidence requires extraordinary scrutiny. If the evidence was legit, it wouldn’t just go away. It would invite and demand further scrutiny. Over the next few years, scientific journals would publish responses and further verifications. Corroborative evidence would begin to emerge, counter-theories and more plausible terrestrial-bound explanations would be published. The counter-theories and explanations would fail to explain the evidence and be rejected. You might see an article in a respected news paper or your favorite science magazine (ahem) that summarizes the current theories and scientific debates surrounding the alleged evidence of extraterrestrial life. Despite all attempts to remain objective, the articles would have an undercurrent of electric excitement. Yet the veracity of the evidence would remain in question. Most of us would still believe, in the back of our collective mind, that Earth is life’s only home. And then, one day, maybe a decade after the initial discovery, after years of research and verification and testing and challenges and re-testing and debate and consideration, after more scrutiny and attempts at falsification than any single set of observable phenomena has ever faced, a press conference would be announced. Every major scientific organization from around the globe would be represented in some form. Every major media outlet would be present. World leaders would be either in the audience or preparing to address their respective nations. The original team that published the initial data would be seated on the dais. Their team leader would take her place at the podium, and make the announcement: “Based on the evidence discovered by our team over a decade ago, thousands of researchers and scientists from around the world have come to a conclusion. Of the hundreds of hypotheses posited to explain the data, only one is supported: We are not alone. The origins of the bacterium on the meteor are extraterrestrial.” On that day, and that day alone, will anyone truly believe it. There have been three great traumas to the psyche: the Copernican, the Darwinian, and the Freudian. I suspect the remaining trauma is that of the Alien. I cannot begin to guess how humanity will cope with that knowledge. I admit, I might be fantasizing that any scientific announcement could garner that much attention. Then again, the discovery of alien life isn’t just an issue for science, but for humanity. Whatever the magnitude of the discovery’s final announcement, do not pretend we will believe it when we first hear it. I certainly won’t. Awesome image of our pale blue dot by FlyingSinger via Flickr Creative Commons

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- About Us - Our Programs - Farmland Wildlife - History of Farming in Delta - How You Can Help This shorebird species is unique in that they spend more time away from water than any other shorebird. They can be seen in southern British Columbia year-round, and about 400 Killdeer migrate from their northern dwellings to overwinter in the Fraser River Delta each year. Killdeer are a large plover, comparable in size to an American Robin with longer legs and wings. They have large black eyes, two distinct black bands across their breast over a white chest, and a rusty brown back, cap, and face. Killdeer can often be seen moving across the ground in quick spurts, stopping every few seconds to look behind themselves, presumably to see if they have turned up any worthy snacks. They let out high-pitched pips and peeps which sound like “kill deer,”, hence their unique name. They are also sensational actors, pulling the broken-wing distress act when they fear their nest is close to being discovered by a hungry predator. To prevent large-hoofed animals from accidently stomping on their nests, they will fluff themselves up and flaunt their tails high above their head, sometimes running or flying straight at their challenger to deter it. As soon as their young are born and their down dry, the chicks scurry about to begin foraging. Though the parents do not feed their young much, they keep a close watch on all four of their babies to make sure they are not disturbed. Killdeer spend much of their day foraging on recently fertilized or Laser Levelled agricultural fields in the lower mainland. They are beneficial to farmers because they eat agricultural pests including brown fruit beetles, clover root and alfalfa weevils, and wireworm. They also enjoy the taste of mosquitoes and ticks, something many people would enjoy having fewer of. Today, Killdeer populations are protected under the Migratory Birds Convention Act of 1917 and are stable. In fact, there may be more present now than ever due to their protection as well as the additional habitat provided by agricultural development. Photo by Andrew Reding - Get To Know SOME OF OUR WILDLIFE: - Northern Shrike Known as the "Butcher Bird," the Shrike impales prey on thorns to attract mates and mark its territory. - Lesser Snow Goose Snow Geese congregate on farm fields by the tens of thousands searching for potatoes, grain, and grass. - Bumblebee These insects benefit farmers by pollinating crops. They find refuges in Grassland Set-asides and Hedgerows.

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Coastal and Tropical South Eradicate Poison Ivy ASAP Don't wait for poison ivy to get huge and bloom to control the invasive, dastardly vines. Cut the vine at its base, even if it's 20 feet up a tree. A week later, treat the new growth with an organic herbicide containing fatty acids, potassium salts, or orange oils. Train Shrubs to Be Drought Tolerant Many shrubs that could be at least somewhat drought tolerant can get hooked on excessive amounts of water. That makes hot, dry weeks or months more of a challenge. Where rain is plentiful, water sparingly in between. Where it is dry now, water deeply occasionally, then just enough to maintain them. Lucky you -- that poinsettia is still alive and well. Pinch or clip out the tips of new growth, fertilize the plant, and keep watering. When there's 8 inches of new growth, pinch again. You can root these cuttings if you want more poinsettias to force into colorful glory this fall. Weed and Mulch Weed flower beds monthly to keep growth in check. Carry a can or tarp along, pull or dig the weeds, and drop them in. Trash the most invasive and rampant. Take along a cart of fresh mulch and blanket the freshly weeded ground for longer term control. Address Turf Problems June is the time to deal with common turf issues. Fleas are trouble and reproduce weekly; control with pyrethrin sprays. Kick up the mower's deck one notch to make fresh cuts. If the lawn is spongy to walk on, or you can see thatch 3 inches deep along the driveway, dethatch now.

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