Haute Couture

**Haute couture** (*"high sewing"* or *"high dressmaking"* or *"high fashion"*) is the creation of exclusive custom-fitted clothing. *Haute couture* is high-end fashion that is constructed by hand from start to finish, made from high-quality, expensive, often unusual fabric and sewn with extreme attention to detail and finished by the most experienced and capable sewers, often using time-consuming, hand-executed techniques.

Fine examples of high fashion could also be used in materials, furniture makers as well as other artisans and craftsmen. From start to finish, any project of high quality, great use of quality and expensive materials but also a display of national pride can be considered in the lines of Haute-Couture. The outrageous fashions of the 18th century is one of the first things that pops into people's head when the word *"Versailles"* comes up. France was the leading lady in fashion; every court in Europe strove to copy the lavish styles pouring from Paris. In Russia, at the court of Saint-Petersburg, Empress Elizabeth-Petrovna was notorious for never wearing the same gown twice. She had a new dress to wear for each occassion- not to mention, the frequent needs to change attires throughout the day. At Versailles, the Queen of France was the undisputed fashion icon; she was expected by both courtiers and commoners alike to advance new trends, constantly showing-off the highest couture.

## Colours and their Symbolism

### ***Royal, Tyrian, Roman or Imperial Purple***

In Ancient Rome, the colour purple was reserved exclusively for the Emperor himself - it has given rise to the name Imperial Purple which is still used today. The reason for this limitation was not just due to a concept of distinction but a financial one as well. The colour purple was achieved by crushing Murex shellfish - which first had to be removed manually from their shells - which was a very costly procedure.

The idea of purple being the colour of royalty had not abated by the 18th century. Even today, the phrase "born in the purple" refers to a person born into either a royal family or unusually privileged families. During the Byzantine Empire and its successor, the Holy Roman Empire, it was customary for imperial princesses to give birth in bedrooms adorned with purple tapestries and panels in order for their children to be accorded the rank of ''Prince(ss) of the Purple''.

It was customary for a King to wear violet in mourning - but he was the only one to use this colour for mourning, or even white or scarlet. By the 18th century, purple was still an expensive colour to manufacture. It was not until the following century that chemical advances made it more available. Imported *Roccella* (a type of lichen) found on the Canary Islands also produced a purple colour but had to be imported. A similar source was cudbear which was found primarily in England. Due to the symbolic connection between purple and the monarchy, it is hardly surprising that it was a colour often used in official ceremonies.

The purple that was available became most popular in the 1770's and 1780's where popular shades were lilac, mauve and even the infamous puce. For those who could not afford the pure-purple dyes, a common trick was to dye something first red, then blue - the result was a mixture which resembled purple but could not rival the real deal.

### ***Pink, the colour of Youth***

Prior to the 17th century, pink was not found amongst the wardrobes of either aristocracy or commoners. In art, it was usually for skin tones or perhaps flowers but rarely (although not never) clothing. It was not until the 18th century that the word *"pink"* was even coined in the English language. it was referred to as *rose*.

Recently, the colour pink has been associated with femininity but historically this was not the case. The 17th and 18th-centuries did not assign specific colours to genders. Hence, pink and blue were not considered to be *"reserved"* for girls and boys, respectively. On the contrary, both men and women had their portraits painted while wearing completely pink ensembles. To a gentleman in the 18th-century, there was nothing unmanly about a pink, silk suit. In fact, Pink was sought-after as a cheaper alternative to purple, whilst remaining affordable and fashionable.

Madder - or rather, its roots - had traditionally been used to achieve a deep, red colour. However, it could also be used for pink. China and Japan were masters when it came to dyeing (especially silks) so it is hardly surprising that a lot of dyed fabrics were imported. However, the Europeans were not completely behind. Since Roman times, madder had been cultivated in Italy. By 1747, the more modern methods of deriving red from madder were brought to France. A recipe of the mid-18th century describes how silk could be dyed pink. The recipe calls for *safflower, pearl-ash* and *lime juice,* amongst other ingredients. For wool, alum and cream of tartar was called for. The same recipe notes that if the pink is not strong enough, the fabric should be heated while soaking in a madder liquid.

While the 18th-century did not think of pink as a *"girl colour",* it was still subjected to other social rules. ***Pink was a young person's colour.*** For instance, when Marie-Antoinette reached her 30th birthday, she ceased wearing the delicate pinks of her youth. As the ill-fated queen stated, it was not suitable for a woman to continue to wear such a shade. This perfectly illustrates how her contemporary world viewed the colour pink. It was not until the latter half of the 18th century that pink truly became a fashion statement. From this period on, pastel tones became more in vogue compared to the stronger colours that had previously dominated. Consequently, pink took over where a deeper red had previously been preferred.

### ***The King's Red***

Red is one of the tones that is found in a wide array of natural sources, although not all of them were available to the 17th or 18th century markets. One of the oldest in Europe was *madder,* which was widely used by textile manufacturers in this age. It had the definite advantage of being found naturally in France, which meant that the cost of import was avoided. *Kermes* were insects that was originally found in Asia but was brought to southern Europe, specifically with the intention of harvesting them for use as dyes. For this particular reason, oak trees were planted in this region, since this is what the insects fed on. Once the system was in place, it also avoided the expensive taxes placed in imported goods.

However, with the increasing influx of goods from the Americas meant that there were soon competitors to the traditional source - including cochineal beetles. While there were already cochineal in Eastern Europe - *Albania was a hotspot for them* - the cochineal coming from Mexico gave amazingly brilliant red hues. Other more available sources were iron oxide which was readily available in rust. The English created so-called India red in the early 17th century by using just that. Naturally, imported cochineal made fabrics dyed with this very expensive. This also contributed to making it - initially, at least - reserved for the wealthy upper class. The court of Louis XIV was definitely not a stranger to a variety of strong, red colours. The Sun King himself made the red heels on shoes not only fashionable, but also a mark of distinction. He would even pass a sumptuary law in 1673, which meant that only those courtiers who had the king's permission could use the signature red heels.

Another familiar sight at court was the bright red of the Prince-Archbishop-Elector's and the Cardinals' robes. Soldiers, too, were often dressed in red; Prussian infantry regiments were fond of making use of red cuffs. Several regiments also had colours made of red silk, or if some were of *Royal Assent*, had banners even of the *Royal Purple*. The fascination with the Far East from the middle of the 18th century, also contributed to the popularity of red. Symbolically, red has long held an honoured in Asian cultures, particularly in China.

### ***Spanish Black***

Unlike other European powers - particularly Spain - black was never truly *the* colour in courtly fashion during the 17th and 18th-centuries. Instead, the French and other European courts focused on more colourful ensembles to signify wealth and status. Traditionally, entirely black ensembles were worn for mourning by French courtiers, whereas single articles of clothing could be black if combined with other colours. The Spanish and Austrian courts, in contrast, highly valued somber black outfits and that trend spread to a remarkably wide array of European countries: the Netherlands, England, Denmark, Sweden, Naples etc. Yet, while France stuck to their richer colours that is not to say that they abhorred black or only used it for mourning - rather, it was merely used on a far smaller scale. There was another reason behind the French reluctance to don completely black outfits in the 18th century; traditionally, black had been the colour assigned to the Third Estate in the Estates-General and was the colour of the robes worn by magistrates and the provincial *Noblesse de Robe,* who earned their rank through civil service to the King, rather than as a military leader or financial genius.

Surprisingly enough, black was a particularly difficult colour to achieve which made black clothing quite expensive - especially if the fabrics were valuable in themselves, i.e. silk. The original way to achieve black in Europe was to continually dye a fabric with woad which was otherwise used to get a nice blue tone. Already at that point, the extra labour involved in the dyeing process would have spiked up the prices. These did not fall when a more convenient way of dyeing clothing black was found. The Spanish colonies in South America yielded completely new ways of achieving a more pure black colour - undoubtedly, this was another reason for the Spanish fondness for the shade since it thus displayed their imperial power. With French colonies emerging in the Americas too, logwood became the preferred way of dyeing black. The introduction of logwood to Europe was an instant hit with the cloth merchants. Logwood is a hardy plant that grows easily and yields a wide variety of dyes besides black: purple, blue, grey.

Considering Louis XIV's personal ties with Spain *(his wife and mother were both Spaniards and his grandson would become king of Spain),* it is hardly surprising that he would often display the colour in his own wardrobe. Notably, he and his brother, Philippe d'Orléans, took advantage of the dark background to highlight the exquisite diamonds they wore in their outfits. During the reign of Louis XV, there was a general shift from the darker to the lighter colours when it came to fashion. This was largely thanks to the influence of Madame de Pompadour, who championed the rococo style. The death of Louis XV also presented a new opportunity for Rose Bertin to cash in on the royal death. Soon, headdresses with black marigolds or other flowers were seen everywhere.

### ***Nanjing Yellow***

China was one of the larger influence of yellow clothing in the 18th century. So-called "Nankeen"-yellow - originating in Nanjing - became fashionable; it was a paler version of yellow. During the 18th century, the trading between China and Europe became more common which inevitably led to an increased influence of Chinese cultural views in Europe. In fashion, the colour yellow became associated with wealth and prosperity - thus perfect for the aristocracy. As for the Chinese, they had long considered yellow to be an indicator of glory, wisdom and wealth.

The colour yellow could be achieved from a variety of natural sources. The expensive - and imported - silks from China were usually dyed with saffron. Considering that saffron remains the most expensive spice in the world, it is not hard to imagine how high the prices could get for quality silk. The connection was China was not limited to imported goods. From the mid-18th century, most European courts (and Versailles, too) became fascinated with Asia where the colour yellow was often associated with royalty. On a more domestic level, weld was widely used and had been since the Bronze Age. This could come in handy for those courtiers who wanted to imitate the more expensive colourings but lacked the funds for it. Tumeric were also a good, natural source.

A new source of yellow dye became more available in the 18th century, as ships brought back new materials from the Americas and French colonies. Amongst the new sources were fustic and "quercitron" - the inner bark of a specific type of oak (called Eastern Black Oak) growing in North America. However, fustic had the unfortunate tendency to fade, especially on cotton. Different shades of yellow had their own time in the sun. Around 1735, pale yellow was considered very fashionable; a trend that would later be revisited when pastels took over from a more vibrant colour-scheme. Diana Reid Haig mentions that Marie Antoinette and her milliner, Rose Bertin, used lemon yellow which the author refers to as an "unusual hue" - it can therefore be deduced that this particular shade of yellow was not in fashion in the mid-1770's.

Naturally, the colour found its way into the very furniture of the court. When the sickly dauphin, Louis Joseph (son of Louis XVI), was sent to Meudon to recover his health, it was noted that this tutor, the Duc d'Harcourt was given a new bed of yellow damask. In a similar vein, wallpapers and various pieces of furniture were adorned with the sunny colour. For instance, Madame du Barry's antechamber was painted in a mixture of lilac and yellow. Yellow was one of those colours that survived throughout the 18th century, due to its innumerable shades. Everything from the palest yellow, to primrose to a deep saffron yellow could be found in the milliners' shops.

One of the more popular types of using yellow in clothing was embroidering yellow silk with colourful flowers. The Parisians appear to have been particularly creative in this regard. Elisabeth Farnese, queen of Spain, wrote to her friend, the Duchesse de Saint-Pierre in which she spoke of a beautiful silk from Paris which she had recently ordered. It was the colour of straw and had small, embroidered flowers. When Madame de Pompadour began establishing herself at Versailles, she chose yellow as the colour of her livery, for the time being at least. Meanwhile, the House of Bourbon-Conti had long had yellow as their livery.  Towards the last years of the French royal family, yellow was not in good standing with the French people. Yellow and black happened to be the colours of the Habsburg Empire and as their (then) hated queen Marie Antoinette was Austrian, yellow became associated with the counterrevolution.

### ***Blue Serenity***

The production of blue clothing in the 17th and 18th century was a remarkably political subject. Traditionally, European dyers had used woad to achieve a blue hue. France had established centers of dyeing industries in Amiens and Toulouse - both cities used woad. There was a catch, though: dyeing with woad took a long time and a lot of work. With the increased trade with the Far East, indigo became an alternative to woad. Yet, the emergence of indigo threatened the trade at Amiens and Toulouse which is why a ban was placed on import of indigo. Despite the ban, indigo flowed into the French market and Louis XV finally lifted the ban in 1737. While Toulouse - which produced primarily pastel blue - lost almost its entire business, new places were experiencing a boom. This was particularly the case for port cities such as Marseilles and Bordeaux.

Blue was a regular colour at court in another, more martial capacity: uniforms. During the 18th century, blue increasingly became popular as a colour for military uniforms and Prussia, in particular, used its own distinctive shade: ***Prussian Blue***. Thus, the gorgeous officers' uniforms of the age were a common sight at Potsdam and in Berlin. It should be remembered that the majority of young aristocratic men served time in the army and given their status, they were immediately granted an opportunity to serve their fatherland via enrollment in the notorious *kadettenhaus* institutions sprinkled around the major cities.

It was not just the young military men who sported their blue uniforms at court. The Leibgarde- the king's personal bodyguard - wore deep blue uniforms with red cuffs and excessively elaborate silver lace. While the design changed slightly over the decades, the colour scheme remained the same. These uniforms would remain in use for over a century, until the dawn of the Great War in 1914.

### ***Green Wishes and Hopes***

Green was one of the more expensive and difficult colours to achieve. Being a combination of yellow and blue, it was necessary to use two vats for dyeing clothing. Silk was one of the most common fabrics in an 18th century aristocrats wardrobe. So, if they ordered something silky in green, the dyer would have to start the following process; The process would take at least two days and required the following ingredients: *alum, white wine tartar, broom, verdegris, pot-ashes -* and these does not even include what was needed for the yellow and blue vats. Towards the very last decade of the 18th century a new - and deadly - method of producing a brilliant emerald green was discovered. Copper was mixed with arsenic trioxide (white arsenic) created remarkably cheap and durable greens but was eventually prohibited due to its highly toxic nature.

There was another way for green to emerge in fashion - through its link with nature. Leaves and  green foliage were used for towering headdresses. The reason for why green suddenly made a come-back in the late 18th-century, was in large part to the philosophical influences of writers such as *Rousseau*. He praised green for its association with nature. Nevertheless, the shades of green were endless. Apple-green, emerald, sage, grass, moss, pistachio, duck green and pastel greens were only a few available. When Louis XVI sat upon the throne, one of the more popular combinations for satin was green and white stripes. Imported goods from China provided the French court with a new source of "greenery". *Rhamnus* - thorns of a Chinese plant - were found to give a lasting, green shade.

## Perfumes & Scents

It is not for nothing that Versailles was referred to as *"the perfumed court". E*ver since the French court moved to the Palace of Versailles in 1682, the halls and salons were flooded with the sensual notes of perfume. While the Sun King preferred the strong scents of flowers - orange blossom being a favourite - perfume developed over the 18th century to include other scents, such as the essential oils of various botany. By the time of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette, the perfume trade had developed into an art.

Ever more now in modernity, as it was back in days of old, everyone had their own preferences, especially for scents. The difference from most people today and the courtiers at Versailles, is that the French elite had perfume made specifically after their own preferences in scents. Few people understood the delicate art of perfume as well as the royal perfumer, ***Jean-Louis Fargeon***. He was made perfumer to Louis XVI. This lucrative post, which gave him direct access to the royal family, allowed for him to be inspired by the individual persons and their moods of his august patrons.

Other influential perfumers of the time included ***François Houbigant,*** who was under the patronage of the *Duchesse de Charost.* Houbigant was a direct rival of Fargeon's when it came to the queen's favour.  The perfumery of Houbigant still exists and boasts that Marie Antoinette wore three vials of their perfume on her way to the guillotine for strength. Furthermore, there were Vigier who had served the court of Louis XV and ***Jean-Marie Farina*** who invented the still famous **Eau de Cologne**- the base formula for modern perfumes as we know it.

### Perfumes of the 18th-Century

**Eau d'Houbigant**

The second oldest perfumery in France the House of Houbigant launched this particularly popular perfume not long after the ascension of Louis XVI to the throne. It consisted solely of flowers which gave it a sensual but light aroma. The founder advertised his new creation with the following words:

> "*It is to the beauty of the face what the morning dew is to the flowers; it refreshes and stimulates the skin while imbuing it with exquisite smoothness...*"
>
>

**Eau de La Reine d'Hongrie**

The perfume was originally made for *Elizabeth of Poland*, Queen of Hungary in 1370. It was made from rosemary macerated in alcohol. Later bergamot, lavender, jasmine and amber were added. It was immensely popular at the French court. Madame de Maintenon and Madame de Sévigné, mistresses and companions of Louis XIV, both used it habitually.

**Aqua Angeli**

*Agarwood, nutmeg, cloves, storax, benzoin and rose water*

**Aqua Mirabilis or Eau de Cologne**

*Neroli, bergamot, lavender, rosemary, grape spirit*

**Celestial Water or Aqua Coloestis**

*Cinnamon, lemon peel, sandalwood, gith, zedoary and calamus*

**Eau de Câpres**

*Made from buds of the Caper tree*

**Eau de Chypre**

*This was a term which covered a lot of different variants; One consisted of jasmine, neroli, white rose, Angelica, nutmeg and iris*

**Eau aux Herbes de Montpellier**

*Not necessarily a perfume, but a toilette with a scent of thyme*

**Eau de La Reine d'Hongrie**

*Rosemary, marjoram, pennyroyal, lemon, lavender, bergamot, jasmine, amber and orris*

**Eau à la Maréchale**

*Iris, rosewood, benzoin, eau d'ange, nutmeg, bark from a lemon tree, orange, jasmine, marjoram, coriander, lavender, rose*

**Eau de Mélisse**

Several different recipes were used in the 18th century. One consisted of *nutmeg, cinnamon, clove, coriander, lemon and Melissa leaves;* which would be steeped in white wine and ***"eau de vie"***. Another called for *Melissa, lemon, Angelica, nutmeg, coriander, clove* and *cinnamon*. This was used more as a tonic rather than a perfume.

**Eau de Mille Fleurs**

*Lavender, lemon, cassis, orange, rose, geranium, jasmine, orange blossom, orris root, violet, vanilla, vetiver, ambrette seed.*

**Eau de Portugal**

*Neroli, orange, bergamot, lemon, geranium and benzoe*

**Eau du Roi**

*Centered around orange blossom*

**Huile de Venus**

*Iris, sandalwood and rose*

**Jardin Secret**

*Cardamom, bergamot, jasmine, sandalwood, vanilla, patchouli, rose, incense, amber and tonka bean.*

**Parfum du Trianon**

*Rose, orange blossom, lavender, violet, jasmine, iris, galbanum, jonquil, tuberose, cedar wood, sandalwood, amber, vanilla and musk*

**Sillage de la Reine**

*Tuberose, jasmine, iris, cedar, orange blossom and sandalwood*