South America

South America is a continent in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas,
 which is how it is viewed in the Spanish and Portuguese-speaking
regions of the Americas. The reference to South America instead of other
 regions (like Latin America or the Southern Cone) has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics (in particular, the rise of Brazil).
It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean; North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest. It includes twelve sovereign states (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela), a part of France (French Guiana), and a non-sovereign area (the Falkland Islands, a British Overseas Territory though this is disputed by Argentina). In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, and Panama may also be considered part of South America.
South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi). Its population as of 2016 has been estimated at more than 420 million. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe,
 and North America). Brazil is by far the most populous South American
country, with more than half of the continent's population, followed by
Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela and Peru. In recent decades Brazil has
also concentrated half of the region's GDP and has become a first
regional power.
Most of the population lives near the continent's western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. The geography of western South America is dominated by the Andesmountains; in contrast, the eastern part contains both highland regions and vast lowlands where rivers …

South America occupies the southern portion of the Americas. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border, although some may consider the border instead to be the Panama Canal. Geopolitically and geographically all of Panama
 – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is
typically included in North America alone and among the countries of Central America. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate.
South America is home to the world's highest uninterrupted waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela; the highest single drop waterfall Kaieteur Falls in Guyana; the largest river by volume, the Amazon River; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest mountain is Aconcagua at 6,962 m or 22,841 ft); the driest non-polar place on earth, the Atacama Desert; the largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest; the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica, the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro, Chile.
South America's major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum.
 These resources found in South America have brought high income to its
countries especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by
industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in
producing one major export commodity
 often has hindered the development of diversified economies. The
fluctuation in the price of commodities in the international markets has
 led historically to major highs and lows in the economies of South
American states, often causing extreme political instability. This is
leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as
 economies dedicated to one major export.

Prehistory
South America is believed to have been joined with Africa from the late Paleozoic Era to the early Mesozoic Era, until the supercontinent Pangaea
 began to rift and break apart about 225 million years ago. Therefore,
South America and Africa share similar fossils and rock layers.
South America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing the Bering Land Bridge (now the Bering Strait)
 at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day
Russia. They migrated south through North America, and eventually
reached South America through the Isthmus of Panama.
The first evidence for the existence of the human race in South America dates back to about 9000 BC, when squashes, chili peppers and beans began to be cultivated for food in the highlands of the Amazon Basin. Pottery evidence further suggests that manioc, which remains a staple food today, was being cultivated as early as 2000 BC.
By 2000 BC, many agrarian communities had been settled throughout the Andes
 and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along
 the coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food.
Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the
rise of an agrarian society.
South American cultures began domesticating llamas, vicuñas, guanacos, and alpacas
 in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as
sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of
goods.
Pre-Columbian civilizations

Historically, the Hispanic countries were founded as Republican dictatorships led by caudillos. Brazil was the only exception, being a constitutional monarchy for its first 67 years of independence, until a coup d'état proclaimed a republic. In the late 19th century, the most democratic countries were Brazil, Chile, Argentina and Uruguay.
In the interwar period, nationalism grew stronger on the continent, influenced by countries like Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. A series of authoritarian rules broke out in South American countries with views bringing them closer to the Axis Powers, like Vargas's Brazil. In the late 20th century, during the Cold War, many countries became military dictatorships
 under American tutelage in attempts to avoid the influence of the
Soviet Union. After the fall of the authoritarian regimes, these
countries became democratic republics.
During the first decade of
the 21st century, South American governments have drifted to the
political left, with leftist leaders being elected in Chile, Uruguay,
Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. Most
South American countries are making increasing use of protectionist
policies, helping local development.
All South American countries are presidential republics with the exceptions of Peru, which is a semi-presidential republic, and Suriname, a parliamentary republic. French Guiana is a French overseas department, while the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are British overseas territories. It is currently the only inhabited continent in the world without monarchies; the Empire of Brazil existed during the 19th century and there was an unsuccessful attempt to establish a Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia in southern Argentina and Chile. Also in the twentieth century, Suriname was established as a constituent kingdom of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Guyana retained the British monarch.

South America has over 420 million inhabitants and a population growth
rate of about 0.6% per year. There are several areas of sparse
demographics such as tropical forests, the Atacama Desert and the icy portions of Patagonia.
 On the other hand, the continent presents regions of high population
density, such as the great urban centers. The population is formed by
descendants of Europeans (mainly Spaniards, Portuguese and Italians), Africans and indigenous peoples. There is a high percentage of mestizos that vary greatly in composition by place. There is also a minor population of Asians,
 especially in Brazil. The two main languages are by far Spanish and
Portuguese, followed by French, English and Dutch in smaller numbers.
Language
Spanish and Portuguese
 are the most spoken languages in South America, with approximately 200
million speakers each. Spanish is the official language of most
countries, along with other native languages in some countries.
Portuguese is the official language of Brazil. Dutch is the official language of Suriname; English is the official language of Guyana, although there are at least twelve other languages spoken in the country, including Portuguese, Chinese, Hindustani and several native languages. English is also spoken in the Falkland Islands. French is the official language of French Guiana and the second language in Amapá, Brazil.
Indigenous languages of South America include Quechua in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Argentina, Chile and Colombia; Wayuunaiki in northern Colombia (La Guajira) and northwestern Venezuela (Zulia); Guaraní in Paraguay and, to a much lesser extent, in Bolivia; Aymara in Bolivia, Peru, and less often in Chile; and Mapudungunis spoken in certain pockets of southern Chile and, more rarely, Argentina.

South America relies less on the export of both manufactured goods and
natural resources than the world average; merchandise exports from the
continent were 16% of GDP on an exchange rate
 basis, compared to 25% for the world as a whole. Brazil (the seventh
largest economy in the world and the largest in South America) leads in terms of merchandise exports at $251 billion, followed by Venezuela at $93 billion, Chile at $86 billion, and Argentina at $84 billion.
Since
 1930, the continent has experienced remarkable growth and
diversification in most economic sectors. Most agricultural and
livestock products are destined for the domestic market and local
consumption. However, the export of agricultural products is essential for the balance of trade in most countries.
The main agrarian crops are export crops, such as soy and wheat.
 The production of staple foods such as vegetables, corn or beans is
large, but focused on domestic consumption. Livestock raising for meat
exports is important in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Colombia. In
tropical regions the most important crops are coffee, cocoa and bananas, mainly in Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador. Traditionally, the countries producing sugar for export are Peru, Guyana and Suriname, and in Brazil, sugar cane is also used to make ethanol. On the coast of Peru, northeast and south of Brazil, cotton
 is grown. Fifty percent of the South American surface is covered by
forests, but timber industries are small and directed to domestic
markets. In recent years, however, transnational companies have been
settling in the Amazon
 to exploit noble timber destined for export. The Pacific coastal waters
 of South America are the most important for commercial fishing. The
anchovy catch reaches thousands of tons, and tuna is also abundant (Peru
 is a major exporter). The capture of crustaceansis remarkable, particularly in northeastern…

South Americans are culturally influenced by their indigenous peoples,
the historic connection with the Iberian Peninsula and Africa, and waves
 of immigrants from around the globe.
 South American nations have a rich variety of music. Some of the most famous genres include vallenato and cumbia from Colombia, pasillo from Colombia and Ecuador, samba, bossa nova and música sertaneja from Brazil, and tango from Argentina and Uruguay. Also well known is the non-commercial folk genre Nueva Canción movement which was founded in Argentina and Chile and quickly spread to the rest of the Latin America.
 People on the Peruvian coast created the fine guitar and cajon duos or trios in the most mestizo (mixed) of South American rhythms such as the Marinera (from Lima), the Tondero
 (from Piura), the 19th century popular Creole Valse or Peruvian Valse,
the soulful Arequipan Yaravi, and the early 20th century Paraguayan Guarania. In the late 20th century, Spanish rock emerged by young hipsters influenced by British pop and American rock. Brazil has a Portuguese-language pop rock industry as well a great variety of other music genres.
The literature of South America has attracted considerable critical and popular acclaim, especially with the Latin American Boom of the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, Gabriel García Márquez in novels and Jorge Luis Borges and Pablo Neruda in other genres. The Brazilians Machado de Assis and João Guimarães Rosa are widely regarded as the greatest Brazilian writers.
Because of South America's broad ethnic mix, South American cuisine has African, South American Indian, South Asian, East Asian, and European influences. Bahia,
 Brazil, is especially well known for its West African–influenced
cuisine. Argentines, Chileans, Uruguayans, Brazilians, Bolivians, and
Venezuela…

Energy
Due to the diversity of topography and pluviometric precipitation conditions, the region's water resources vary enormously in different areas. In the Andes, navigation possibilities are limited, except for the Magdalena River, Lake Titicaca
 and the lakes of the southern regions of Chile and Argentina.
Irrigation is an important factor for agriculture from northwestern Peru
 to Patagonia. Less than 10% of the known electrical potential of the
Andes had been used until the mid-1960s.
The Brazilian Highlands has a much higher hydroelectric potential than the Andean region
 and its possibilities of exploitation are greater due to the existence
of several large rivers with high margins and the occurrence of great
differences forming huge cataracts, such as those of Paulo Afonso,
Iguaçu and others. The Amazon River system has about 13,000 km of waterways, but its possibilities for hydroelectric use are still unknown.
Most of the continent's energy is generated through hydroelectric power plants, but there is also an important share of thermoelectric and wind energy. Brazil and Argentina are the only South American countries that generate nuclear power, each with two nuclear power plants. In 1991 these countries signed a peaceful nuclear cooperation agreement.
Transport
South American transportation systems are still deficient, with low kilometric densities. The region has about 1,700,000 km of highways and 100,000 km of railways, which are concentrated in the coastal strip, and the interior is still devoid of communication.
Only two railroads are continental: the Transandina, which connects Buenos Aires, in Argentina to Valparaíso.