recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Kepler-186f

**Kepler-186f** is an exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf Kepler-186, about 580 light-years (180 parsecs) from Earth It was the first planet with a radius similar to Earth's to be discovered in the habitable zone of another star. NASA's Kepler space telescope detected it using the transit method, along with four additional planets orbiting much closer to the star (all modestly larger than Earth).

## Habitability

Kepler-186f's location within the habitable zone does not ensure it is habitable; this is also dependent on its atmospheric characteristics, which are unknown. However, Kepler-186f is too distant for its atmosphere to be analyzed by existing telescopes (e.g., NESSI) or next-generation instruments such as the James Webb Space Telescope. A simple climate model – in which the planet's inventory of volatiles is restricted to nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water, and clouds are not accounted for – suggests that the planet's surface temperature would be above 273 K (0 °C; 32 °F) if at least 0.5 to 5 bars of CO2 is present in its atmosphere, for assumed N2 partial pressures ranging from 10 bar to zero, respectively,

One review essay in 2015 concluded that Kepler-186f, along with the exoplanets Kepler-442b and Kepler-62f, were likely the best candidates for being potentially habitable planets.In June 2018, studies suggest that Kepler-186f may have seasons and a climate similar to those on Earth.

## References

1. ↑ # Paul Gilster, Andrew LePage (30 January 2015). "A Review of the Best Habitable Planet Candidates". Centauri Dreams, Tau Zero Foundation. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
2. ↑ # Mack, Eric (29 June 2018). "Two Earth-like exoplanets (Kepler 186f and Kepler 62f) now even better spots to look for life – Two of the earliest Earth-ish exoplanet finds are now more exciting targets in the search for habitable worlds beyond this rock". *CNET*. Retrieved 29 June 2018.
Nebula

A **nebula** is a distinct body of interstellar clouds (which can consist of cosmic dust, hydrogen, helium, molecular clouds). Originally, the term was used to describe any diffused astronomical object, including galaxies beyond the Milky Way. The Andromeda Galaxy, for instance, was once referred to as the *Andromeda Nebula* (and spiral galaxies in general as "spiral nebulae") before the true nature of galaxies was confirmed in the early 20th century by Vesto Slipher, Edwin Hubble and others. Edwin Hubble discovered that most nebulae are associated with stars and illuminated by starlight. He also helped categorize nebulae based on the type of light spectra they produced.

Most nebulae are of vast size; some are hundreds of light-years in diameter. A nebula that is visible to the human eye from Earth would appear larger, but no brighter, from close by. The Orion Nebula, the brightest nebula in the sky and occupying an area twice the angular diameter of the full Moon, can be viewed with the naked eye but was missed by early astronomers. Although denser than the space surrounding them, most nebulae are far less dense than any vacuum created on Earth – a nebular cloud the size of the Earth would have a total mass of only a few kilograms. Many nebulae are visible due to fluorescence caused by embedded hot stars, while others are so diffused that they can be detected only with long exposures and special filters. Some nebulae are variably illuminated by T Tauri variable stars. Nebulae are often star-forming regions, such as in the "Pillars of Creation" in the Eagle Nebula. In these regions, the formations of gas, dust, and other materials "clump" together to form denser regions, which attract further matter, and eventually will become dense enough to form stars. The remaining material is then believed to form planets and other planetary system objects.
4 Vesta

**Vesta** (minor-planet designation: **4 Vesta**) is one of the largest objects in the asteroid belt, with a mean diameter of 525 kilometres (326 mi). It was discovered by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers on 29 March 1807 and is named after Vesta, the virgin goddess of home and hearth from Roman mythology.

Vesta is thought to be the second-largest asteroid, both by mass and by volume, after the dwarf planet Ceres, though in volume it overlaps with the uncertainty in the measurements of 2 Pallas. Measurements give it a nominal volume only slightly larger than that of Pallas (about 5% greater, which is the magnitude of the uncertainties in measurement), but it is 25% to 30% more massive. It constitutes an estimated 9% of the mass of the asteroid belt. Vesta is the only known remaining rocky protoplanet (with a differentiated interior) of the kind that formed the terrestrial planets. Numerous fragments of Vesta were ejected by collisions one and two billion years ago that left two enormous craters occupying much of Vesta's southern hemisphere. Debris from these events has fallen to Earth as howardite–eucrite–diogenite (HED) meteorites, which have been a rich source of information about Vesta.

Vesta is the brightest asteroid visible from Earth. It is regularly as bright as magnitude 5.1, at which times it is faintly visible to the naked eye. Its maximum distance from the Sun is slightly greater than the minimum distance of Ceres from the Sun, though its orbit lies entirely within that of Ceres.

NASA's *Dawn* spacecraft entered orbit around Vesta on 16 July 2011 for a one-year exploration and left the orbit of Vesta on 5 September 2012 en route to its final destination, Ceres. Researchers continue to study data collected by *Dawn* for additional insights into the formation and history of Vesta.

## See also

* Asteroid
* List of largest asteroids
J1407b

**J1407b** is an extrasolar planet located 433.8 light-years from Earth in the constellation of Centaurus. The planet was discovered in 2012 by the University of Rochester, located in New York.

## J1407b

### Mass

13-26 Jupiter mass

J1407b is widely known for the massive size of its rings, which are approximately 640 times the extent of the rings found on Saturn. The planet itself is regarded as the first possible exoplanet, or brown dwarf with a ring system. J1407b orbits its parent star, 1SWASP J140747.93−394542.6 (known simply as V1400 Centauri) in an eccentric (oval) orbit, which could disrupt J1407b's own ring system.
PSR B1257+12 b

**PSR B1257+12 c**, alternatively designated **PSR B1257+12 B**, also named **Poltergeist**, is an extrasolar planet approximately 2,300 light-years away in the constellation of Virgo. It was one of the first planets ever discovered outside the Solar System, and is one of three pulsar planets known to be orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12.

Over four times as massive as the Earth, it circles the primary at a distance of 0.36 AU with an orbital period of approximately 66 days. Because it and Phobetor have very similar masses and orbit close to each other, they were expected to cause measurable perturbations in each other's orbits. Detecting such perturbations confirmed that the planets were real. Accurate masses of the two planets, as well as their inclinations, were calculated from how much the planets perturb each other.

## Nomenclature

Using the letters PSR (Pulsating Radio Source) was followed by the pulsar right acension and degrees of inclination that arose for designating pulsars.

## See also

* Pulsar
* Pulsating radio source
* List of exoplanets#before 2000
Gliese 581 b

**Gliese 581b** is an extrasolar planet orbiting within the Gliese 581 system. Discovered on August 22, 2005,It is the first planet discovered of three confirmed in the system so far, and the second in order from the star. It is estimated to be less massive and smaller than Neptune, but due to radial velocity the respective mass and radius is unknown, and is considered as a Mini-Neptune.
Stephenson 2-18

**Stephenson 2-18** (**St2-18**), also known as **Stephenson 2 DFK 1** or **RSGC2-18**, is possibly a red supergiant or red hypergiant star in the constellation of Scutum, although some sources consider it to be a foreground object or an unrelated red supergiant. It lies near the open cluster Stephenson 2, which is located about 6,000 parsecs (20,000 ly) away from Earth in the Scutum–Centaurus Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, and is assumed to be one of a group of stars at a similar distance. It is possibly among the largest known stars, and one of the most luminous red supergiants, with a possible radius around 2,150 times that of the Sun (R☉), which would correspond to a volume nearly 10 billion times that of the Sun. If placed at the center of earth's Solar System, its photosphere could potentially engulf the orbit of Saturn.
List of Nearest Stars

There are currently 63 stars contained in the 53 stellar systems within 5.0 parsecs (16.3 light-years) of the Solar System. 50 of those stars are red dwarfs; the remaining 13 stars are more massive with the largest of them being Sirius (the brightest star in the night sky). Scientists have also identified 11 brown dwarfs (objects not quite massive enough to fuse hydrogen), and four white dwarfs (extremely dense collapsed cores that remain after stars such as our Sun have exhausted all fusable hydrogen in their core and have shed slowly their outer layers).
Mars trojan

The **Mars trojans** are a group of Trojan objects that share the orbit of the planet Mars around the Sun. They can be found around the two Lagrangian points 60° ahead of and behind Mars. The origin of the Mars trojans is not well understood. One theory suggests that they were primordial objects left over from the formation of Mars that were captured in its Lagrangian points as the Solar System was forming. However, spectral studies of the Mars trojans indicate this may not be the case. Another explanation involves asteroids chaotically wandering into the Mars Lagrangian points later in the Solar System's formation. This is also questionable considering the short dynamical lifetimes of these objects. The spectra of Eureka and two other Mars trojans indicates an olivine-rich composition. Since olivine-rich objects are rare in the asteroid belt it has been suggested that some of the Mars trojans are captured debris from a large orbit-altering impact on Mars when it encountered a planetary embryo.

Presently, this group contains 14 asteroids confirmed to be stable Mars trojans by long-term numerical simulations but only nine of them are accepted by the Minor Planet Center.

Due to close orbital similarities, most of the smaller members of the L5 group are hypothesized to be fragments of Eureka that were detached after it was spun up by the YORP effect (Eureka's rotational period is 2.69 h). The L4 trojan 1999 UJ7 has a much longer rotational period of ~50 h, apparently due to a chaotic rotation that prevents YORP spinup.

**L4 (*leading*):**

* (121514) 1999 UJ7 †

**L5 (*trailing*):**

* 5261 Eureka (1990 MB) †
* (101429) 1998 VF31 †
* (311999) 2007 NS2 †
* (385250) 2001 DH47
* 2009 SE
* 2011 SC191
* 2011 SL25
* 2011 SP189
* 2011 UB256
* 2011 UN63
* 2016 CP31
* 2018 EC4
* 2018 FC4
Hubble Space Telescope

The **Hubble Space Telescope** (often referred to as **HST** or **Hubble**) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation. It was not the first space telescope, but it is one of the largest and most versatile, renowned both as a vital research tool and as a public relations boon for astronomy. The Hubble telescope is named after astronomer Edwin Hubble and is one of NASA's Great Observatories. The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) selects Hubble's targets and processes the resulting data, while the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) controls the spacecraft.

Hubble features a 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) mirror, and its five main instruments observe in the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Hubble's orbit outside the distortion of atmosphere of Earth allows it to capture extremely high-resolution images with substantially lower background light than ground-based telescopes. It has recorded some of the most detailed visible light images, allowing a deep view into space. Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as determining the rate of expansion of the universe. Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923, and the Hubble telescope was funded and built in the 1970s by the United States space agency NASA with contributions from the European Space Agency. Its intended launch was 1983, but the project was beset by technical delays, budget problems, and the 1986 *Challenger* disaster. Hubble was finally launched in 1990, but its main mirror had been ground incorrectly, resulting in spherical aberration that compromised the telescope's capabilities. The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993.

Hubble is the only telescope designed to be maintained in space by astronauts. Five Space Shuttle missions have repaired, upgraded, and replaced systems on the telescope, including all five of the main instruments. The fifth mission was initially canceled on safety grounds following the *Columbia* disaster (2003), but after NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin approved it, it was completed in 2009. The telescope completed 30 years of operation in April 2020 and is predicted to last until 2030–2040.
Smith's Cloud

**Smith's Cloud** is a high-velocity cloud of hydrogen gas located in the constellation Aquila at Galactic coordinates *l* = 39°, *b* = −13°. The cloud was discovered in 1963 by Gail Bieger, *née* Smith, who was an astronomy student at Leiden University in the Netherlands.

## Properties

Using the National Science Foundation's Robert C. Byrd Green Bank Telescope, radio astronomers have found that Smith's cloud has a mass of at least one million solar masses and measures 3,000 parsecs (9,800 ly) long by 1,000 pc (3,300 ly) wide in projection. The cloud is between 11,100 pc (36,000 ly) and 13,700 pc (45,000 ly) from Earth and has an angular diameter of 10 to 12 degrees, approximately as wide as the Orion constellation, or about 20 times the diameter of the full moon, although the cloud is not visible to the naked eye.

The cloud is apparently moving towards the disk of the Milky Way at 73 ± 26 kilometers per second. Smith's Cloud is expected to merge with the Milky Way in 27 million years at a point in the Perseus arm. Astronomers believe it will strike the Milky Way disk at a 45° angle, and its impact may produce a burst of star formation or a supershell of neutral hydrogen.

Projecting the cloud's trajectory backwards through time, it is estimated that it had passed through the disk of the Milky Way some 70 million years ago. To have survived this previous encounter, astronomers have suggested that it is embedded inside a massive dark matter halo. The fact that it survived this previous encounter means that it is likely to be much more massive than previously thought, and may be a candidate for being a dark galaxy. In this scenario it would be a failed dwarf galaxy, with the ingredients to form a stellar galaxy, but few if any detectable stars. However, chemical abundance measurements from the Hubble Space Telescope argue against this hypothesis; these measurements show that the Smith Cloud has an average metallicity of one half of the solar value, indicating that its gas originates in the Galaxy, not from an extragalactic source. The cloud's orbit and metallicity are both consistent with an origin in the outer disk of the Milky Way. The mechanism by which this gas was released is not known.
Callisto

**Callisto** or **Jupiter IV**, is the second-largest moon of Jupiter, after Ganymede. It is the third-largest moon in the Solar System after Ganymede and Saturn's largest moon Titan, and the largest object in the Solar System that may not be properly differentiated. Callisto was discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei. At 4821 km in diameter, Callisto has about 99% the diameter of the planet Mercury but only about a third of its mass. It is the fourth Galilean moon of Jupiter by distance, with an orbital radius of about 1883000 km. It is not in an orbital resonance like the three other Galilean satellites—Io, Europa, and Ganymede—and is thus not appreciably tidally heated. Callisto's rotation is tidally locked to its orbit around Jupiter, so that the same hemisphere always faces inward. Because of this, there is a sub-Jovian point on Callisto's surface, from which Jupiter would appear to hang directly overhead. It is less affected by Jupiter's magnetosphere than the other inner satellites because of its more remote orbit, located just outside Jupiter's main radiation belt.

Callisto is composed of approximately equal amounts of rock and ices, with a density of about 1.83 g/cm3, the lowest density and surface gravity of Jupiter's major moons. Compounds detected spectroscopically on the surface include water ice, carbon dioxide, silicates, and organic compounds. Investigation by the *Galileo* spacecraft revealed that Callisto may have a small silicate core and possibly a subsurface ocean of liquid water at depths greater than 100 km.

The surface of Callisto is the oldest and most heavily cratered in the Solar System. Its surface is completely covered with impact craters. It does not show any signatures of subsurface processes such as plate tectonics or volcanism, with no signs that geological activity in general has ever occurred, and is thought to have evolved predominantly under the influence of impacts. Prominent surface features include multi-ring structures, variously shaped impact craters, and chains of craters (*catenae*) and associated scarps, ridges and deposits. At a small scale, the surface is varied and made up of small, sparkly frost deposits at the tips of high spots, surrounded by a low-lying, smooth blanket of dark material. This is thought to result from the sublimation-driven degradation of small landforms, which is supported by the general deficit of small impact craters and the presence of numerous small knobs, considered to be their remnants

Callisto is the outermost of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter. It orbits at a distance of approximately 1 880 000 km. This is significantly larger than the orbital radius, 1 070 000 km, of the next-closest Galilean satellite, Ganymede. As a result of this relatively distant orbit, Callisto does not participate in the mean-motion resonance, in which the three inner Galilean satellites are locked, and probably never has. Callisto has a diameter of 4,821 kilometres, and the second largest moon of Jupiter, known as Galilean moons. It has a mass of 1.1x10^23 kg, and a gravity of 0.1277 G.
Timeline of space exploration

This is a **timeline of space exploration** including notable achievements and first accomplishments or major events in humanity's exploration of outer space.

## Antiquity

* Ca. 750 BC - The Babylonians discover an 18.6 year cycle in the rising and setting of the Moon.
* 585 BC - Thales first predicts a solar eclipse
* 467 BC - Anaxagoras describes the sun as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese. He also found that the moon shines due to reflected light from the Sun.
* 270 BC - Aristarchus of Samos proposes the heliocentric model
* 164 BC - First recorded observation of Halley's Comet
* 4 BC - Shi Shen made the earliest known observations of sunspots, and is also believed to have cataloged 809 stars in 122 constellations.
* 140 AD - Ptolemy publishes his star catalogue, listing 48 constellations
* 400 AD - Surya Siddhanta gives the length of a sidereal year only 1.4 seconds off
* 499 AD - Aryabhata propounds a heliocentric solar system of gravitation, where the planets spin around their axes and follow elliptical orbits around the sun

## Middle ages

* 628 AD - Brahmagputa first recognizes gravity as a force of attraction, and briefly describes the second law of gravitation
* 830 AD - Zij Al-Sindh is publicated, containing tables for the movements of the Sun, the Moon and the FIve planets known at the time
* 850 AD - Al-Farghani corrects the values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the Earth.
* 928 AD - The earliest surviving astrolabe is constructed by Mohammed al-Fazari.
* 1006 AD - SN 1006 is the brightest recorded supernova on Earth.
* 1054 AD - Chinese astronomers witness SN 1064.
* 1150 AD - Bhaskara II, calculated the latitudes and longitudes of the planets

## Renaissance

* 1543 AD - Nicolaus Copernicus publishes the Heliocentric theory.
* 1572 AD - SN 1572 is observed by Tycho Brahe, who proves that is traveling beyond Earth's atmosphere and therefore provides the first evidence that the heavens can change.
* 9 October 1604 AD - Johannes Kepler observes a Supernova.
* 1608 AD - Dutch eyeglass maker Hans Lippershey invents the refracting telescope.
* 1609 AD - Johannes Kepler announces his three laws of planetary motion, replacing the circular orbits of Pluto with elliptical ones.
* 1610 AD - Galileo discovers the four Jupiter moons proving not everything orbits the Earth.
* 26 November 1610 AD - Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc discovers the Orion Nebula
* 1655 AD - Christian Huygens discovers Titan and Saturn's rings.
* 1687 AD - Sir Issac Newton establishes the theory of gravitation and laws of motion (continue 3:13)
* 1705 AD - Edmond Halley calculates that the comets recorded at 76-year intervals from 1456 to 1682 are one and the same, the comet has been named in his honor.

## External links

* https://www.archive.org/details/timeline-of-space-exploration
Dark matter

In cosmology, **dark matter** refers to matter particles, of unknown composition, that do not emit or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation (light) to be detected directly, but whose presence may be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter such as stars and galaxies. Dark matter explains several anomalous astronomical observations, such as anomalies in the rotational speed of galaxies (the galaxy rotation problem). Estimates of the amount of matter present in galaxies, based on gravitational effects, consistently suggest that there is far more matter than is directly observable. The existence of dark matter also resolves a number of seeming inconsistencies in the Big Bang theory, and is crucial for structure formation.

The dark matter component has vastly more mass than the "visible" component of the universe. At present, the density of ordinary baryons and radiation in the universe is estimated to be equivalent to about one hydrogen atom per cubic meter of space. Only about 4% of the total energy density in the universe (as inferred from gravitational effects) can be seen directly. About 22% is thought to be composed of dark matter. The remaining 74% is thought to consist of dark energy, an even stranger component, distributed diffusely in space. Some hard-to-detect baryonic matter (see baryonic dark matter) makes a contribution to dark matter, but constitutes only a small portion. Determining the nature of this missing mass is one of the most important problems in modern cosmology and particle physics. Its urgency is underlined by David B. Cline in a 2003 article in Scientific American, in which he writes: "The terms . . . 'dark matter' and 'dark energy,' serve mainly as expressions of our ignorance", much as the marking of early maps with 'Terra Incognita'.

## References

* Hot News for Cold Dark Matter
* Most of Our Universe is Missing
* David B. Cline, *The Search for Dark Matter*, in Scientific American, March 2003
2060 Chiron

**2060 Chiron** is a small Solar System body in the outer Solar System, orbiting the Sun between Saturn and Uranus. Discovered in 1977 by Charles Kowal, it was the first-identified member of a new class of objects now known as centaurs—bodies orbiting between the asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt.

Although it was initially called an asteroid and classified only as a minor planet with the designation "2060 Chiron", in 1989 it was found to exhibit behavior typical of a comet. Today it is classified as both a minor planet and a comet, and is accordingly also known by the cometary designation **95P/Chiron**. Michael Brown lists it as possibly a dwarf planet with a measured diameter of 200 km (120 mi), which may be near the lower limit for an icy object to have been a dwarf planet at some point in its history. Chiron is named after the centaur Chiron in Greek mythology.

Chiron possibly has rings, similar to the better-established rings of 10199 Chariklo. Based on unexpected occultation events observed in stellar-occultation data obtained on 7 November 1993, 9 March 1994, and 29 November 2011, which were initially interpreted as resulting from jets associated with Chiron's comet-like activity, Chiron's rings are proposed to be 300 km in radius and sharply defined.

(Depiction of Chiron with rings)
47 Tucanae

**47 Tucanae**, or 47 Tuc (also designated as NGC 104) is a globular cluster located in the constellation Tucana. It is about 15,000 ly (4.45 pcs) away from Earth, and 120 light years in diameter. 47 Tuc can be seen with the naked eye, with an apparent magnitude of 4.1. It appears about 44 arcminutes across including its far outreaches. Due to its far southern location, 18° from the south celestial pole, it was not catalogued by European astronomers until the 1750s, when the cluster was first identified by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille from South Africa.

47 Tucanae is the second brightest globular cluster after Omega Centauri, and telescopically reveals about ten thousand stars, many appearing within a small dense central core. The cluster may contain an intermediate-mass black hole.

In the 19th century, Benjamin Apthorp Gould assigned the Greek letter ξ (Xi) to the cluster to designate it ξ Tucanae, but this was not widely adopted and it is almost universally referred to as 47 Tucanae.
Leo A

**Leo A** (also known as Leo III) is an irregular galaxy that is part of the Local Group. It lies 2.6 million light-years from Earth, and was discovered by Fritz Zwicky in 1942. The estimated mass of this galaxy is (8.0 × 107 solar masses, with at least 80% consisting of dark matter. It is one of the most isolated galaxies in the Local Group and shows no indications of an interaction or merger for several billion years. However, Leo A is nearly unique among irregular galaxies in that more than 90% of its stars formed more recently than 8 billion years ago, suggesting a rather unusual evolutionary history. The presence of RR Lyrae variables shows that the galaxy has an old stellar population that is up to 10 billion years in age.

The neutral hydrogen in this galaxy occupies in a volume similar to its optical extent, and is distributed in a squashed, uneven ring. The galaxy is not rotating and the hydrogen is moving about in random clumps. The proportion of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium is only about 1-2% of the ratio in the Sun. This indicates a much less complete conversion of gas into stars than in the Milky Way galaxy. The Leo A galaxy shows sign of increased star formation some time within the last 1-4 billion years, although the current level is low. There are four H II regions powered by short-lived, O-class stars.
216 Kleopatra

**216 Kleopatra** is a large M-type asteroid with a mean diameter of 120 kilometers (75 miles) and is noted for its elongate bone or dumbbell shape. It was discovered on 10 April 1880 by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa at the Austrian Naval Pola Observatory, in what is now Pula, Croatia, and was named after Cleopatra, the famous Egyptian queen. It has two small minor-planet moons which were discovered in 2008 and later named **Alexhelios** and **Cleoselene**.

## Orbit and classification

*Kleopatra* is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 2.1–3.5 AU once every 4 years and 8 months (1,706 days; semi-major axis of 2.79 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.25 and an inclination of 13° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at Leipzig Observatory (534) on 20 April 1880, ten days after to its official discovery observation at Pola Observatory.
The Fourth Bush

The Fourth Bush is situated in the Year 7 Yard, sandwiched between the Drug Corner, Roadman City and The Woodlands.

It has been there since before Generation Meme.

It is currently the least popular location for sacrifices.

The Fourth Bush has very similar traits and appearance to The Second Bush + The Third Bush.

**Image not yet available.**
Messier 106

**Messier 106** (also known as **NGC 4258**) is an intermediate spiral galaxy in the constellation Canes Venatici. It was discovered by Pierre Méchain in 1781. M106 is at a distance of about 22 to 25 million light-years away from Earth. M106 contains an active nucleus classified as a Type 2 Seyfert, and the presence of a central supermassive black hole has been demonstrated from radio-wavelength observations of the rotation of a disk of molecular gas orbiting within the inner light-year around the black hole. NGC 4217 is a possible companion galaxy of Messier 106. A Type II supernova was observed in M106 in May 2014.
Huge-LQG

A **large quasar group** (**LQG**) is a collection of quasars (a form of supermassive black hole active galactic nuclei) that form what are thought to constitute the largest astronomical structures in the observable universe. LQGs are thought to be precursors to the sheets, walls and filaments of galaxies found in the relatively nearby universe.

## Prominent LQGs

On January 11, 2013, the discovery of the Huge-LQG was announced by the University of Central Lancashire, as the largest known structure in the universe by that time. It is composed of 74 quasars and has a minimum diameter of 1.4 billion light-years, but over 4 billion light-years at its widest point. According to researcher and author, Roger Clowes, the existence of structures with the size of LQGs was believed theoretically impossible. Cosmological structures had been believed to have a size limit of approximately 1.2 billion light-years.

## See also

* List of largest cosmic structures
* Large-scale structure of the cosmos
* Quasar
Orion (constellation)

**Orion** is a prominent constellation located on the celestial equator and visible throughout the world. It is one of the most conspicuous and recognizable constellations in the night sky. It is named after Orion, a hunter in Greek mythology. Its brightest stars are blue-white Rigel (Beta Orionis) and red Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis). It is discovered by Greek astronomer Ptolemy and remains one of the 88 modern constellations.

## Features

### Stars

* Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis), the second brightest star in the night sky.
* Rigel (Beta Orionis), the brightest star in the night sky.
* Bellatrix (Gamma Orionis)
* Mintaka (Delta Orionis)
* Alnilam (Epsilon Orionis)
* Saiph (Kappa Orionis)

### Orion's Belt and Sword

Orion's Belt or The Belt of Orion is an asterism within the constellation. It consists of the three bright stars Zeta (Alnitak), Epsilon (Alnilam), and Delta (Mintaka). Orion's Sword contains the Orion Nebula, the Messier 43 nebula, the Running Man Nebula, and the stars Theta Orionis, Iota Orionis, and 42 Orionis.
90482 Orcus

**90482 Orcus**, provisional designation 2004 DW, is a trans-Neptunian object with a large moon, Vanth. With a diameter of 910 km (570 mi), it is a possible dwarf planet. The surface of Orcus is relatively bright with albedo reaching 23 percent, neutral in color and rich in water ice. The ice is predominantly in crystalline form, which may be related to past cryovolcanic activity. Other compounds like methane or ammonia may also be present on its surface. It was discovered by American astronomers Michael Brown, Chad Trujillo, and David Rabinowitz on 17 February 2004.

Orcus is a plutino, a trans-Neptunian object that is locked in a 2:3 resonance with the ice giant Neptune, making two revolutions around the Sun to every three of Neptune's. This is much like Pluto, except that the phase of Orcus's orbit is opposite from Pluto's: Orcus is at aphelion when Pluto is at perihelion and vice versa. Moreover, the aphelion of Orcus' orbit points in nearly the opposite direction from Pluto's, although the eccentricities and inclinations are similar. Because of these similarities and contrasts, along with its large moon Vanth that recalls Pluto's large moon Charon, Orcus has been regarded as the *anti-Pluto*. This was a major consideration in selecting its name, as the deity Orcus was the Etruscan equivalent of the Roman Pluto, and later became an alternate name for Pluto.
90377 Sedna

**90377 Sedna**, or simply **Sedna**, is a dwarf planet in the outer reaches of the Solar System that was, as of 2014, at a distance of about 85 AU (12,700,000,000 km) from the Sun, about three times farther than Neptune. The size is 1490 km and the 2nd smallest dwarf planet. Spectroscopy has revealed that Sedna's surface composition is similar to those of some other trans-Neptunian objects, being largely a mixture of water, methane, and nitrogen ices with red corals. Its surface is one of the reddest among Solar System objects.

For most of its orbit, it is even farther from the Sun than at present, with its aphelion estimated at 937 AU (31 times Neptune's distance, about 191 billion km, approximately 5.5 light-days), making it one of the most distant-known objects in the Solar System other than long-period comets. By comparison, the Sun's heliopause, which is one definition for the boundary of the Solar System, lies at around 121 AU from the Sun, according to measurements by the Voyager 2 spacecraft. This means that in certain points of its orbit, especially at aphelion, Sedna technically lies in interstellar space and can be considered an "interstellar object," although that term is usually used to refer to an object in interstellar space that is not gravitationally bound to a nearby star.
Sedna has an exceptionally long and elongated orbit, taking approximately 11,400 years to complete with a point of closest approach to the Sun at a distant 76 AU.
Kepler-452b

**Kepler-452b** (sometimes quoted to be an *Earth 2.0* or *Earth's Cousin* based on its characteristics; also known by its Kepler Object of Interest designation *KOI-7016.01*) is a super-Earth exoplanet orbiting within the inner edge of the habitable zone of the sun-like star Kepler-452 and is the only planet in the system discovered by *Kepler*. It is located about 1,800 light-years (550 pc) from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus.
Oort cloud

The **Oort cloud**, (IPA: BrE /ɔːt klaʊd/, AmE /ɔɹt klaʊd/), alternatively termed the **Öpik-Oort Cloud** (/'øpik/-, like /'epik/ with a rounded /e/), is a postulated spherical cloud of comets situated about 50,000 to 100,000 AU from the Sun. This is approximately 2000 times the distance from the Sun to Pluto or roughly one light year, almost a quarter of the distance from the Sun to Proxima Centauri, the star nearest the Sun.

The Oort cloud would have its inner disk at the ecliptic from the Kuiper belt. Although no confirmed direct observations have been made of such a cloud, astronomers believe it to be the source of most or all comets entering the inner solar system (some short-period comets may come from the Kuiper belt), based on direct observations of the orbits of comets.

There is also a theory of a denser, inner part of the Oort cloud coined the Hills cloud; it would have a well-defined outer boundary at 20-30 000 AU, a less well defined inner boundary at 50 to 3000 AU, and would be about 10 to 100 times denser than the remainder.

In 1932 Ernst Öpik , an Estonian astronomer, proposed that comets originate in an orbiting cloud situated at the outermost edge of the solar system. In 1950 the idea was revived and proposed by Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrick Oort to explain an apparent contradiction: comets are destroyed by several passes through the inner solar system, yet if the comets we observe had really existed for billions of years (since the generally accepted origin of the solar system), all would have been destroyed by now. According to the hypothesis, the Oort cloud contains millions of comet nuclei, which are stable because the sun's radiation is very weak at their distance. The cloud provides a continual supply of new comets, replacing those that are destroyed. It is believed that if the Oort cloud exists and supplies comets, in order for it to supply the necessary volume of comets, the total mass of comets in the Oort cloud must be many times that of Earth. Estimates range between 5 and 100 Earth masses.
Orion Nebula

The **Orion Nebula** (also known as **Messier 42**, **M42**, or **NGC 1976**) is a diffuse nebula situated south of Orion's Belt in the constellation of Orion. It is one of the brightest emmision nebulae, and is visible to the naked eye in the night sky. M42 is located at a distance of 1,344 light years and is the closest region of massive star formation to Earth. The M42 nebula is estimated to be 24 light years across. It has a mass of about 2000 times the mass of the Sun. Older texts frequently refer to the Orion Nebula as the **Great Nebula** in Orion or the **Great Orion Nebula**.

The Orion Nebula is one of the most scrutinized and photographed objects in the night sky, and is among the most intensely studied celestial features. The nebula has revealed much about the process of how stars and planetary systems are formed from collapsing clouds of gas and dust. Astronomers have directly observed protoplanetary disks, brown dwarfs, intense and turbulent motions of the gas, and the photo-ionizing effects of massive nearby stars in the nebula. There are also supersonic "bullets" of gas piercing the hydrogen clouds of the Orion Nebula. Each bullet is ten times the diameter of Pluto's orbit and tipped with iron atoms glowing bright blue. They were probably formed one thousand years ago from an unknown violent event.

## Physical characteristics

The Orion Nebula is visible with the naked eye even from areas affected by some light pollution. It is seen as the middle "star" in the "sword" of Orion, which are the three stars located south of Orion's Belt. The "star" appears fuzzy to sharp-eyed observers, and the nebulosity is obvious through binoculars or a small telescope.

The Orion Nebula contains a very young open cluster, known as the Trapezium Cluster due to the asterism of its primary four stars within a diameter of 1.5 light years. Two of these can be resolved into their component binary systems on nights with good naked-eye visibility, giving a total of six stars. The stars of the Trapezium Cluster, along with many other stars, are still in their early years. The Trapezium Cluster is a component of the much larger Orion Nebula, an association of about 2,800 stars within a diameter of 20 light years. The Orion Nebula is in turn surrounded by the much larger Orion Cloud Complex which is hundreds of light years across, spanning the whole Orion Constellation. Two million years ago the Orion Nebula cluster may have been the home of the runaway stars AE Aurigae, 53 Arietis, and Mu Columbae, which are currently moving away from the nebula at speeds greater than 100 km/s (62 mi/s).

Observers have long noted a distinctive greenish tint to the nebula, in addition to regions of red and of blue-violet. The red hue is a result of the Hα recombination line radiation at a wavelength of 656.3 nm. The blue-violet coloration is the reflected radiation from the massive O-class stars at the core of the nebula.

## See also

* Barnard Loop
* Flame Nebula
* Hubble 3D
55 Cancri e

**55 Cancri e** (abbreviated **55 Cnc e**, also named **Janssen**), is an exoplanet in the orbit of its Sun-like host star 55 Cancri. The mass of the exoplanet is about 8.63 Earth masses and its diameter is about twice that of the Earth, thus classifying it as the first super-Earth discovered around a main sequence star, predating Gliese 876 d by a year. It takes less than 18 hours to complete an orbit and is the innermost known planet in its planetary system. 55 Cancri e was discovered on 30 August 2004. However, until the 2010 observations and recalculations, this planet had been thought to take about 2.8 days to orbit the star. In October 2012, it was announced that 55 Cancri e could be a carbon 'diamond' planet.
HD 209458 b

### Discovered by

D. CharbonneauT. BrownDavid LathamM. MayorG.W. HenryG. MarcyKerry O'ConnorR.P. ButlerS.S. Vogt

### Discovery date

9 September 1999

**HD 209458 b**, also nicknamed **Osiris** after the egyptian god, is an exoplanet that orbits the solar analog HD 209458 in the constellation Pegasus,159 light-years (49 parsecs) from the Solar System. The radius of the planet's orbit is 0.047 AU (7.0 million km, 4.4 million mi), or one-eighth the radius of Mercury's orbit (0.39 AU (36 million mi; 58 million km)). This small radius results in a year that is 3.5 Earth-days long and an estimated surface temperature of about 1,000 °C (2,000 °F; 1,000 K). Its mass is 220 times that of Earth (0.69 Jupiter masses) and its volume is some 2.5 times greater than that of Jupiter. The high mass and volume of HD 209458 b indicate that it is a gas giant. HD 209458 b represents a number of milestones in extraplanetary research. It was the first of many categories:

* a transiting extrasolar planet
* the first planet detected through more than one method
* an extrasolar planet known to have an atmosphere
* an extrasolar planet observed to have an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere
* an extrasolar planet found to have an atmosphere containing the elements oxygen and carbon
* one of the first two extrasolar planets to be directly observed spectroscopically
* the first extrasolar gas giant to have its superstorm measured
* the first planet to have its orbital speed measured, determining its mass directly.

Based on the application of newer theoretical models, as of April 2007, it is thought to be the first extrasolar planet found to have water vapor in its atmosphere. In July 2014, NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on HD 209458 b and two other exoplanets (HD 189733 b and WASP-12b) orbiting Sun-like stars. Further, a magnetic field around HD 209458 b was inferred from the way hydrogen was evaporating from the planet. It is the first (indirect) detection of a magnetic field on an exoplanet. The magnetic field is estimated to be about one tenth as strong as Jupiter's.
NGC 2841

**NGC 2841** is an unbarred spiral galaxy in the northern circumpolar constellation of Ursa Major. It was discovered on 9 March 1788 by German-born astronomer William Herschel. J. L. E. Dreyer, the author of the *New General Catalogue*, described it as, "very bright, large, very much extended 151°, very suddenly much brighter middle equal to 10th magnitude star". Initially thought to be about 30 million light-years distant, a 2001 Hubble Space Telescope survey of the galaxy's Cepheid variables determined its distance to be approximately 14.1 megaparsecs or 46 million light-years. The optical size of the galaxy is 8.′1 × 3.′5.

This is the prototype for the flocculent spiral galaxy, a type of spiral galaxy whose arms are patchy and discontinuous. The morphological class is SAa, indicating a spiral galaxy with no central bar and very tightly-wound arms. There is no grand design structure visible in the optical band, although some inner spiral arms can be seen in the near infrared. It is inclined by an angle of 68° to the line of sight from the Earth, with the major axis aligned along a position angle of 148°.

The properties of NGC 2841 are similar to those of the Andromeda Galaxy. It is home to a large population of young blue stars, and a few H II regions. The luminosity of the galaxy is 2×1010 *M*☉ and it has a combined mass of 7×1010 *M*☉. Its disk of stars can be traced out to a radius of around 228 kly (70 kpc). This disk begins to warp at a radius of around 98 kly (30 kpc), suggesting the perturbing effect of in-falling matter from the surrounding medium.

The rotational behavior of the galaxy suggests there is a massive nuclear bulge, with a low-ionization nuclear emission-line region (LINER) at the core; a type of region that is characterized by spectral line emission from weakly ionized atoms. A prominent molecular ring is orbiting at a radius of 7–20 kly (2–6 kpc), which is providing a star-forming region of gas and dust. The nucleus appears decoupled and there is a counter-rotating element of stars and gas in the outer parts of the nucleus, suggesting a recent interaction with a smaller galaxy.
Gliese 777 b

**Gliese 777 b**, also known as **Gliese 777 Ab** or **HD 190360 b**, is an extrasolar planet approximately 52 light-years away in the constellation of Cygnus. The planet was discovered orbiting the primary star of the Gliese 777 system in June 2002 (by the Geneva Extrasolar Planet Search Team) using the radial velocity method. The planet is at least one half more massive than Jupiter but roughly the same size as Jupiter. Because the inclination of the planet's orbit is not known, the true mass is unknown. But it is unlikely to be much more than the given minimum mass.

The planet has one of the longest orbits currently known for an extrasolar planet. The planet's mean distance from the star is close to the distance between Jupiter and the Sun. However, unlike Jupiter it has an eccentric orbit. At periastron the distance between the planet and the star is only 2.51 AU and at apastron the distance is as much as 5.33 AU (compared to the Solar System, distance from the Sun to the inner asteroid belt and from Sun to just beyond the orbit of Jupiter).

The signal produced by the planet is very weak and the eccentricity was originally supposed to be very circular which led to speculations of a very Jupiter-like planet, with a system of several large moons like Jupiter itself. The inner system should be stable for Earth-like planets despite a known, smaller inner Neptune-like planet which is known to orbit the star at distance of 0.12 AU every 17 Earth days.
Barnard's Star

**Barnard's Star** /ˈbɑːrnərdz/ is a red dwarf about six light-years from Earth in the constellation of Ophiuchus. It is the fourth-nearest-known individual star to the Sun after the three components of the Alpha Centauri system, and the closest star in the northern celestial hemisphere. Its stellar mass is about 14% of the Sun's. Despite its proximity, the star has a dim apparent magnitude of +9.5 and is invisible to the unaided eye; it is much brighter in the infrared than in visible light.

The star is named after the American astronomer E. E. Barnard, who in 1916 measured its proper motion as 10.3 arcseconds per year relative to the Sun, the highest known for any star. The star had previously appeared on Harvard University photographic plates in 1888 and 1890.

Barnard's Star is among the most studied red dwarfs because of its proximity and favorable location for observation near the celestial equator. Historically, research on Barnard's Star has focused on measuring its stellar characteristics, its astrometry, and also refining the limits of possible extrasolar planets. Although Barnard's Star is ancient, it still experiences star flare events, one being observed in 1998.
The Bush Church

The Bush Church is one of the nine locations on the Year 7 Yard, located in the Thin Plains area.

It contains The First Bush and The Second Bush along with The Second Hole. These are all used for sacrifices, the most popular being The Second Bush.

There is also The Third Bush, located just outside of The Bush Church, however, it is not considered by many to be apart of the church.

A large tree is located in the corner with an abundance of sticks forming a barrier around it. Speaking of sticks, you will find many here.

The Communists claimed this as their base during The Crusade Of 2020 before moving into other locations such as Observation Corner, Twin Trees and The Woodlands.

During their reign, they established The Spikey Book, written as the Bible of The Spikey Bush. It became a religion.

Anti-Racism Squad and The Communists both hold meetings here and people who praise the church visit frequently.

You can access this area from two different angles and is the first location you come across when you enter through the cafeteria.

**Image of the location currently not available.**