Seleucid Empire

Flag of the Seleucid Empire

The  **Seleucid Empire** was a Hellenistic state in Western Asia that existed from 312 BCE (gained full independence in 305 BCE) to 83 BCE. It was founded by Seleucus I Nicator following the division of the Macedonian Empire established by Alexander the Great. After receiving Babylonia in 321 BCE, Seleucus expanded his dominions to include much of Alexander's Near Eastern territories, establishing a dynasty that would rule for over two centuries. At its height, the empire spanned Anatolia, Persia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and what in OTL are now Kuwait, Afghanistan, and parts of Turkmenistan.

The Seleucid Empire was a major center of Hellenistic culture, privileging Greek customs and language while generally tolerating the wide variety of local traditions. An urban Greek elite formed the dominant political class, and was reinforced by steady immigration from Greece. The empire's western territories were repeatedly contested with Ptolemaic Egypt, a rival Hellenistic state. To the east, conflict with Chandragupta of the Maurya Empire in 305 BCE led to the cession of vast territory west of the Indus and a political alliance.

In the early second century BCE, Antiochus III the Great expanded the empire greatly into the west and east. He would bring peace and prospertiy into the Seleucid Empire until his death in 161 BCE. However, the Seleucid Empire began to slowly decline thereafter.

Mithridates I of Parthia conquered much of the remaining eastern lands of the Seleucid Empire in the mid-second century BCE, while the independent Greco-Bactrian Kingdom continued to flourish in the northeast. The Seleucid kings were thereafter reduced to a rump state in Syria, until their conquest by Tigranes the Great of Armenia in 83 BCE.

## History

### Partition of Alexander the Great's empire

Alexander the Great, who quickly conquered the Persian Empire under its last Achaemenid dynasty, Darius III, died young in 323 BCE, leaving an expansive empire of partly Hellenized culture without an adult heir. The empire was put under the authority of a regent in the person of Perdiccas, and the territories were divided among Alexander's generals, which then became satraps, at the Partition of Babylon, all in that same year.

### Rise of Seleucus

Alexander's generals (the Diadochi) jostled for supremacy over parts of his empire. Ptolemy, a former general and the satrap of Egypt, was the first to challenge the new system; this led to the death of Perdiccas. Ptolemy's revolt led to a new subdivision of the empire with the Partition of Triparadisus in 320 BCE. Seleucus, who had been "Commander-in-Chief of the Companion cavalry" and appointed first or court chiliarch (which made him the senior officer in the Royal Army after the regent and commander-in-chief Perdiccas since 323 BCE, though he helped to assassinate him later) received Babylonia and, from that point, continued to expand his dominions ruthlessly. Seleucus established himself in Babylon in 312 BCE, the year used as the foundation date of the Seleucid Empire.

### Babylonian War (311–309 BCE)

The rise of Seleucus in Babylon threatened the eastern extent of Antigonus I territory in Asia. Antigonus, along with his son Demetrius I of Macedon, unsuccessfully led a campaign to annex Babylon. The victory of Seleucus ensured his claim of Babylon and legitimacy. He ruled not only Babylonia, but the entire enormous eastern part of Alexander's empire.

### Seleucid–Mauryan War (305–303 BCE)

In the region of Punjab, Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrokottos) founded the Maurya Empire in 321 BCE. Chandragupta conquered the Nanda Empire in Magadha, and relocated to the capital of Pataliputra. Chandragupta then redirected his attention back to the Indus and by 317 BCE he conquered the remaining Greek satraps left by Alexander. Expecting a confrontation, Seleucus gathered his army and marched to the Indus. It is said that Chandragupta could have fielded a conscript army of 600,000 men and 9,000 war elephants.

Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received, formalized through a treaty, vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan. Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in southern Afghanistan.

It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Megasthenes wrote detailed descriptions of India and Chandragupta's reign, which have been partly preserved to us through Diodorus Siculus. Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also recorded as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.

Other territories ceded before Seleucus' death were Gedrosia in the south-east of the Iranian plateau, and, to the north of this, Arachosia on the west bank of the Indus River.

### Westward expansion

Following his and Lysimachus' victory over Antigonus Monophthalmus at the decisive Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE, Seleucus took control over eastern Anatolia and northern Syria.

In the latter area, he founded a new capital at Antioch on the Orontes, a city he named after his father. An alternative capital was established at Seleucia on the Tigris, north of Babylon. Seleucus's empire reached its greatest extent following his defeat of his erstwhile ally, Lysimachus, at Corupedion in 281 BCE, after which Seleucus expanded his control to encompass western Anatolia. He hoped further to take control of Lysimachus's lands in Europe – primarily Thrace and even Macedonia itself, but was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus on landing in Europe.

His son and successor, Antiochus I Soter, was left with an enormous realm consisting of nearly all the Asian portions of the Empire, but faced with Antigonus II Gonatas in Macedonia and Ptolemy II Philadelphus in Egypt, he proved unable to pick up where his father had left off in conquering the European portions of Alexander's empire.

### Breakup of Central Asian territories

Antiochus I (r. 281–261 BCE) and his son and successor Antiochus II Theos (r. 261–246 BCE) were faced with challenges in the west, including repeated wars with Ptolemy II and a Celtic invasion of Asia Minor—distracting attention from holding the eastern portions of the Empire together. Towards the end of Antiochus II's reign, various provinces simultaneously asserted their independence, such as Bactria and Sogdiana under Diodotus, Cappadocia under Ariarathes III, and Parthia under Andragoras.

Diodotus, governor of the Bactrian territory, asserted independence in around 245 BCE, although the exact date is far from certain, to form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. This kingdom was characterized by a rich Hellenistic culture and was to continue its domination of Bactria until around 125 BCE when it was overrun by the invasion of northern nomads. One of the Greco-Bactrian kings, Demetrius I of Bactria, invaded India around 180 BCE to form the Indo-Greek Kingdoms.

The rulers of Persis, called Fratarakas, also seem to have established some level of independence from the Seleucids during the 3rd century BCE, especially from the time of Vahbarz. They would later overtly take the title of Kings of Persis, before becoming vassals to the newly formed Parthian Empire.

The Seleucid satrap of Parthia, named Andragoras, first claimed independence, in a parallel to the secession of his Bactrian neighbour. Soon after, however, a Parthian tribal chief called Arsaces invaded the Parthian territory around 238 BCE to form the Arsacid dynasty, from which the Parthian Empire originated.

Antiochus II's son Seleucus II Callinicus came to the throne around 246 BCE. Seleucus II was soon dramatically defeated in the Third Syrian War against Ptolemy III of Egypt and then had to fight a civil war against his own brother Antiochus Hierax. Taking advantage of this distraction, Bactria and Parthia seceded from the empire. In Asia Minor too, the Seleucid dynasty seemed to be losing control: the Gauls had fully established themselves in Galatia, semi-independent semi-Hellenized kingdoms had sprung up in Bithynia, Pontus, and Cappadocia, and the city of Pergamum in the west was asserting its independence under the Attalid Dynasty. The Seleucid economy started to show the first signs of weakness, as Galatians gained independence and Pergamon took control of coastal cities in Anatolia. Consequently, they managed to partially block contact with the West.

### Revival (223–161 BCE)

A revival would begin when Seleucus II's younger son, Antiochus III the Great (r. 223-161 BCE), took the throne in 223 BCE. Although initially unsuccessful in the Fourth Syrian War against Egypt, which led to a defeat at the Battle of Raphia (217 BCE), Antiochus would prove himself to be the greatest of the Seleucid rulers after Seleucus I himself. He spent the next ten years on his anabasis (journey) through the eastern parts of his domain and restoring rebellious vassals like Parthia and Greco-Bactria to at least nominal obedience. He gained many victories such as the Battle of Mount Labus and Battle of the Arius and besieged the Bactrian capital. He even emulated Seleucus with an expedition into India where he met with King Sophagasenus receiving war elephants, perhaps in accordance of the existing treaty and alliance set after the Seleucid-Mauryan War.

In 212 BCE, Antiochus III made Armenia a client state, later ending the Orontid dynasty and starting the Artaxiad dynasty of Armenia. He made Parthia a client state as well in 209 BCE.

When he returned to the west in 205 BCE, Antiochus III found that with the death of Ptolemy IV, the situation now looked propitious for another western campaign. Antiochus and Philip V of Macedon then made a pact to divide the Ptolemaic possessions outside of Egypt, and in the Fifth Syrian War, the Seleucids ousted Ptolemy V from control of Coele-Syria. The Battle of Panium (200 BCE) definitively transferred these holdings from the Ptolemies to the Seleucids. Antiochus appeared, at the least, to have restored the Seleucid Kingdom to glory.

In 192 BCE, Antiochus III and Philip V of Macedon invaded the Kingdom of Thrace, Pergamon and Bithynia, in result of the Thracian League against the Seleucid Empire and his ally, Macedon. This war is known as the Thracian War (192-189 BCE). The Seleucids and Macedonians had won this war, and thus the Seleucid Empire seized control over Pergamon and Bithynia, while Macedonia would occupy Thrace.

#### Carthago-Macedonian War (188-187 BCE)

In 188 BCE, Philip V of Macedon, with the help of the Seleucid Empire, waged a war against the extremely wealthy Carthaginian Empire, aiming to conquer south-east Italy, excluding Sicily. Also known as the Carthago-Macedonian War (188-187 BCE). At first, Philip V suffered a defeat at the Battle of Taras (183 BCE). However, soon after, massive allied **Seleucid** and Macedonian reinforcements arrived in Italy.

#### Battle of Heraclea (187 BCE)

When the two armies met, Hannibal was spreading out his forces into a line against the numerically superior Macedonians and the **Seleucids**. The Macedonians use their mile-long range spears in the flat terrain and inflict heavy losses on the Carthaginians, pushing them back. But as they do so, both forces eventually end up on even terrain, where Hannibal thickens his flanks and began attacking the enemy, as the Greek weapons become less useful. Meanwhile, his famous Numidian cavalry, imported from the recently pacified Numidia, was defeating the opposing cavalry and are now turning around to face the Greeks from behind. Philip V was unaware about Hannibal's plan and believed he had already beaten him at this point. As Philip's army was pushing him back, the Macedonians did not respond properly to the now charging Phoenician cavalry. The numerously superior Greeks were surrounded, which caused panic and only further made the Greeks' situation more terrible. In the end, both the Macedonians and Seleucids would lose more than half of their 80,000 men, while Hannibal lost only around 7,000.

In 179 BCE, Philip V of Macedon, seeing the Egyptian instability of an newborn son as king, attacked the Ptolemaic Kingdom by advancing to their capital Alexandria and sieging it. In the meantime, the Seleucids were invading Cyprus and together with the Macedonian ships they destroyed most of the Egyptian fleet. Alexandria fell after just a few months, as by now, the combined maritime forces were blockading the supply incomes of the city. Shortly after, all of mainland Egypt was occupied by Macedonia, while Cyprus and most of the Levantine Sea were now controlled by the **Seleucids**.

The following years, he would bring peace and prosperity into the Seleucid Empire until his eventual death in 161 BCE.

After his first born son died of unknown reason, his second born son, Seleucus IV Philopator (r. 161-155 BCE) ascended the throne in 161 BCE.

### Seleucid decline (161-129 BCE)

Because of Antiochus III long reign, Seleucus IV ascended the throne with 57 years. That same year, Mithridates I managed to free Parthia from Seleucid rule and would ultimately seek for revenge. Under Seleucus IV reign, Pergamon, Bithynia and Rhodes managed to achieve independence. As well as the Kingdoms of Armenia, Sophene and Atropatene. In 155 BCE, his son Demetrius I Soter (r. 155-138 BCE) ascended the throne after poisoning Seleucus IV.

In 155 BCE, Demetrius, seeing how the Seleucids were declining even further, started the Sixth Syrian War (155-154 BCE), with the goal of recapturing the lost Ptolemaic lands during the Fifth Syrian War (202-195 BCE). The Demetrians defeated the **Seleucids** and conquered the Levant by 154 BCE.

Seeing this instability, Pergamon and Bithynia had taken an opportunity to rise up and regain their lost lands. After defeating the Seleucids in 153 BCE, at the Battle of Ephesus, they soonafter pushed the Seleucids back behind the Taurus Mountains.

Though the Seleucids had to face other problems now; the Parthians under Mithridates I. In 147 BCE, the entire Iranian Plateau had been lost to Parthian control. In 141 BCE, Mithridates I conquered Babylonia and held an official investiture ceremony in Seleucia. The kingdoms of Elymais and Characene shortly afterwards became Parthian vassals. The Seleucids now had to move their capital to Antioch.

Meanwhile, the decay of the Empire's territorial possessions continued apace. In 140 BCE, while Mithridates I was fighting the nomadic Saka in the east, Demetrius I Soter attempted to regain the lost territories; initially successful, he was defeated and captured in 138 BCE, and shortly afterwards sent to one of Mithridates I's palaces in Hyrcania.

After hearing that his father was captured, his son Demetrius II Nicator ascended the throne. However, the Seleucid kingdom was now but a shadow of its former glory, and Demetrius II had a hard time ruling even in Syria. Antiochus VII Sidetes (r. 136-129 BCE) was angered by his brothers incompetence and assassinated him in 136 BCE to usurp the throne. He faced the enormous task of restoring a rapidly crumbling empire, one facing threats on multiple fronts. Antiochus VII Sidetes managed to frighten the Anatolian dynasts into a temporary submission; then, in 133 BCE, he turned east with the full might of the Royal Army to drive back the Parthians.

Sidetes' campaign initially met with spectacular success, recapturing Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Media. After advancing his army into Media, the Parthians pushed for peace, which Antiochus VII Sidetes refused to accept unless the Arsacids gave up all lands to him except Parthia proper, paid heavy tribute, and released his father Demetrius I from captivity. Arsaces released Demetrius I and sent him to Syria, but refused the other demands.

In the winter of 130/129 BCE, Sidetes' army was scattered in winter quarters throughout Media and Persis when the Parthian king, Phraates II, counter-attacked. Moving to intercept the Parthians with only the troops at his immediate disposal, he was ambushed and killed at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BCE. Antiochus VII Sidetes is sometimes called the last great Seleucid king.

After the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes, all of the recovered eastern territories were recaptured by the Parthians. Civil war soon tore the empire to pieces, and the Armenians soon began to attack in Syria from the north.

### Collapse (129-83 BCE)

Sidetes' son, Antiochus IX Eusebes (r. 129-83 BCE) and his half-brother Antiochus VIII Grypus (r. 129-96 BCE) ascended the throne of the crumbling empire as rival kings. Both siblings fought a thirty-year long civil war. The two brothers divided Syria between them until Grypus was killed by his minister Heracleon in 96 BCE.

By 100 BCE, the once-formidable Seleucid Empire encompassed little more than Antioch and some Syrian cities. Despite the clear collapse of their power, and the decline of their kingdom around them, nobles continued to play kingmakers on a regular basis, with occasional intervention from Demetrian Egypt and other outside powers. The Seleucids existed solely because no other nation wished to absorb them – seeing as they constituted a useful buffer between their other neighbours. In the Anatolian wars of Mithridates VI of Pontus against the Anatolian Kingdoms and Scythians, the Seleucids were largely left alone by both combatants.

Mithridates' ambitious son-in-law, Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, however, saw opportunity for expansion in the constant civil strife to the south. In 83 BCE, at the invitation of one of the factions in the interminable civil wars, he invaded Syria and soon established himself as ruler of Syria, putting the Seleucid Empire ultimately to an end.

## List of Seleucid Kings

(These are the names and reign dates).

**Seleucid Dynasty**

Seleucus I Nicator (312-281 BCE)

Antiochus I Soter (281-261 BCE)

Antiochus II Theos (261-246 BCE)

Seleucus II Callinicus (246-225 BCE)

Seleucus III Ceraunus (225-223 BCE)

Antiochus III the Great (223-161 BCE)

Seleucus IV Philopator (161-155 BCE) - Poisoned by his son Demetrius I Soter.

Demetrius I Soter (155-138 BCE) - Captured and killed by Mithridates I of Parthia.

Demetrius II Nicator (138-136 BCE) - Assassinated by his brother Antiochus VII Sidetes.

Antiochus VII Sidetes (136-129 BCE) - Killed by Phraates II of Parthia in the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BCE.

Antiochus IX Eusebes (129-96 BCE) and his half-brother Antiochus VIII Grypus (129-96 BCE) - Reigned as rival kings; both assassinated as a result of a civil war.

1. Antiochus X Eusebes (96-92 BCE) - Killed in battle by the Parthians.
2. Seleucus VI Epiphanes (96-94 BCE), his brother Demetrius III Eucaerus (96-87 BCE ), his brother Philip I Philadelphus (94-83 BCE), and his brother Antiochus XII Dionysus (87-83 BCE) - Former killed by his half-cousin Antiochus X Eusebes at Mopsuestia in 94 BCE.

The Seleucid Empire was conquered by Tigranes II the Great in 83 BCE.

## Source

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid\_Empire

## Flag Credits

This flag was NOT made by me. Credits to https://www.reddit.com/r/vexillology/comments/jayl2v/needed\_to\_make\_a\_flag\_to\_represent\_the\_seleucid/ and "Unpacked/Peperoni Pictures" for making this beautiful flag.