Evidence for Biblical Israel

Following Joshua's Conquest, Israel became a nation state and the majority of the Tanakh narrative takes place. There is a plethora of evidence for the events that took place in this part of the Bible.

## **Book of Samuel**

### **Khirbet Summeily Seals**

This discovery is not directly related to anything in Samuel, however, it is significant to establishing that there was advanced civilisation in Palestine around the time of David.

Six clay seals from the 10th century BC were unearthed at Khirbet Summeily, an early Iron Age site in southern Israel, suggest that there was more political complexity in the region at that time than had been previously thought. The very existence of these 6 seals strongly supports the idea that Khirbet Summeily was a governmental installation across the transitional Iron Age landscape.

This has been acknowledged by many recent scholars who tend to dismiss any emergence of political complexity occurring prior to the arrival of the Assyrians in the region in the later 8th century BC.

### **Tell Qeiyafa Inscription**

The excavations at Tell Qeiyafa have identified the city Shaaraim which was inhabited until the reign of David (1 Samuel 17:52).

Not only does this town date back from the time of David but excavations have also unearthed a Hebrew inscription (opposite figure), which reads:

*1) ...do not exploit, and serve G[od]. Despised by*
*2) the judge, and the widow wept, he had the power*
*3) over the foreign resident and the child, he suppressed them together.*
*4) The men and the chiefs have established a king*
*5) Devoting <sixty> servants among the generations.*
The inscription confirms that around the 11th-10th century, there was a king established by the chiefs of the tribes, just as described in 1 Samuel 8:4-10. It also confirms the existence of the Judges.

### **Ekron Royal Dedicatory Inscription**

The Ekron Royal Dedicatory Inscription is a limestone slab discovered during the excavations at Tel Miqne that confirms Achish as a king.

The inscription is translated as:

> *"The temple (which) he built, ’kys [Achish, Ikausu] son of Padi, son of Ysd, son of Ada, son of Ya’ir, ruler of Ekron, for Ptgyh his lady. May she bless him, and prote[ct] him, and prolong his days, and bless his [l]and."*
>
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Scholars generally accept that the name Ikausu (Heb *’kys*) in the Ekron inscription is the same as Achish, the Philistine king of Gath from the time of Saul and Solomon in 1 Samuel 21:11-14.

### **Tell Dan Stele**

The Tell Dan Stele, discovered in 1993, contained the phrase *“House of David”* first directly mentioned in 1 Samuel 20:16 was identified as part of the inscription.

While this inscription was widely debated, Grabbe maintains that:

*“it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus.”*
With this discovery, Anson Rainey commented that deconstructionists (people who deny there is any single correct meaning or interpretation of a passage or text) *"can safely be ignored by everyone seriously interested in Biblical and ancient Near Eastern studies.”*

## **1** **Kings**

### **High Place of Jeroboam I**

A podium was uncovered at Tel Dan from the time of Jeroboam I that most archaeologists agree was the one Jeroboam constructed to house the Golden Calf (1 Kings 12:28-30 also at Bethel), in order that the Israelites did not have to go up to Jerusalem to worship. These high places were forbidden by Hebrew law, and ordered to be destroyed (Deut 12:2-3), so this site is particularly important if Jeroboam really did build it as it would show that the Israelites did indeed fall into idolatry.

Laughlin states that the idolatrous podium:

> "... i*s probably the one built by Jeroboam in the late tenth century B.C. (This Jeroboam is known as Jeroboam I to distinguish him from a later Israelite king of the same name.)"*
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### **Shishak Inscription**

In the precinct of Amun-Ra within the Karnak Temple in Luxor, Egypt, there is a large relief commemorating the conquests of Shishak I that mentions his invasion of Judah and Israel, which is also recounted in 1 Kings 14-15.

Although Jerusalem or Judah is not mentioned on the inscription, some have explained that Jerusalem, while subdued, was protected from destruction by the payment of the ransom of the Temple treasures, which were given to the Pharaoh at Gibeon (1 Kings 14:26).

Wiseman summarises the archaeological implications best:

*"In the early divided kingdom the raid by Shishak (Sheshonq I) against Rehoboam c. 928 BC (1 Kgs 14:25–26) is shown in his triumphs depicted on the walls of the Karnak temple of Amun in Thebes, which lists 150 towns in Phoenicia, Judah as far as the Esdraelon valley, and into Edom and south Syria. Megiddo was invaded (so a broken stele there) and destruction levels at Beth-Shemesh and Tell Beit Mirsim (Debir or Kirjath-Sepher) attest the raid, after which the Egyptians renewed the defences of Sharuhen, Gezer, Tell el-Ajjul and Tell Jemneh to maintain a strong presence against which Rehoboam reacted by strengthening Lachish and Azekah. Meanwhile Jeroboam I reinforced the gate of Dan, built at Shechem, Gibeah, Bethel and Tell en-Nasbeh (Mizpah?) which became the northern boundary of Judah in subsequent clashes with Israel (cf. 1 Kgs 15:15–22). About this time Dan was destroyed (1 Kgs 15:20), but soon thereafter the city gate and fortifications were rebuilt. The massive (4 metre wide) walls and towers and finely preserved city gate at Tell en-Nasbeh appear to be the work of Asa (cf. 1 Kgs 15:22)."*
### **Shishak Scarab**

A rare scarab seal or amulet was found at Khirbet Hamra Ifdan, Jordan that provides support for the military campaign of Pharaoh Sheshonq I (945–924 BC; ca. known in the Bible as Shishak, 1 Kings 14:25) who controlled the region after Solomon’s death in *ca.* 931 BC and even invaded Jerusalem (*ca.* 925 BC; 2 Chronicles 12).

The Scarab states:

*“Bright is the manifestation of Re, chosen of Amun/Re,”*
 The name found on the scarab corresponds to the throne name of Sheshonq I, who ruled from 943 to 924 BC.

Thomas Levy, the director of the excavations at Khirbet Hamra Ifdan, states:

> *"The scarab from Khirbat [sic. Khirbet] Hamra Ifdan contributes to understanding of what Kenneth Kitchen describes as the “flying column”  of Sheshonq I’s forces during their Asiatic campaign when they made their way across the northern Negev, to the southern end of the Dead Sea and then south through the Wadi Arabah."*
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### **Kurkh Monolith**

The Kurkh Monoliths, dating to 879-853 BC are two Assyrian stelae from the reign of Ashurnasirpal II and his son Shalmaneser III, discovered by John G. Taylor in 1861 in Üçtepe, Turkey. Both stelae record the annals of the kings along with a large relief of the king. The main stele states:

*"I destroyed, devastated, and set fire to Karkar, his royal city. Irhulêni brought twelve kings to his support; they came against me to offer battle and fight: 1,200 chariots, 1,200 cavalry, and 20,000 soldiers belonging to Hadad-ezer of Damascus; 700 chariots, 700 cavalry, and 10,000 [or 20,000] soldiers belonging to Irhuleni of Hama; 2,000 chariots, and 10,000 soldiers belonging to Ahab, the Israelite..."*
The Monolith of Shalmaneser III verifies the historical accuracy of Ahab, king of Israel and the fact that he had a large army as well as the account of him in 1 Kings 16-22). As Ackerman points out concerning the discovery:

> *"The size of Ahab’s contribution to the anti-Shalmaneser fighting force at Qarqar indicates, for example, that Israel was still a major military power in Syria-Palestine at the end of the first half of the ninth century B. C. E."*
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## **2 Kings**

### **Mesha Stele**

The Mesha Stela (or Moabite Stone) is a basalt slab inscription that was discovered near Dibon (modern  Dhiban, Jordan) in 1868 by Frederick Augustus Klein. It dates to 850-840 BC and speaks to the Moabite/Israelite relations in the 9th century BC the time of King Ahab and King David.

David and Solomon subdued Moab as a vassal state, but after 930 BC it threw off the yoke of Israel.  However, the Bible records that by 853 BC (the Year Ahab died) Moab had long been subdued once again by Israel, and was preparing for a second attempt at independence. (See 2 Kings 3:4-5)

In 39 lines of writing he tells us:

> *“I am Mesha, son of Chemosh, the king of Moab … As for Omri the king of Israel, and he humbled Moab for many years, … And his son reigned in his place: and he also said, “I will oppress Moab!” In my days he said so. But I triumphed over him and over his house, and Israel has perished; it has perished forever!”*
>
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Peter Masters calls the Mesha Stele *"a most significant confirmation of the accuracy of the historical details in the Bible."*

### **Black Obelisk**

Sir Henry Layard discovered this black limestone obelisk in 1846 during his excavations at Kalhu, the ancient Assyrian capital. The obelisk, now on display in the British Museum, celebrates the military achievements of Shalmaneser III (reigned 858–824 BC) and mentions Jehu, king of Israel.

*"I received tribute from Jehu, son of Omri: silver, gold, a gold bowl, a gold tureen, gold vessels, gold pails, tin, the staffs of the king’s hand, and spears."*
However, while the Black Obelisk states that Jehu is the son of Omri, 2 Kings 9:2, 14 states that Jehu is the son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi. Tammi Schneider argues that Jehu may have been a descendant of Omri.

However, even if the mystery is not resolved, the presence of both Omri and Jehu mentioned in an extrabiblical text lends credibility to the notion that they were real historical individuals.

### **Jehoash Inscription**

The Jehoash Inscription is a tablet that is reported to have surfaced near the Temple Mount in Jerusalem in 2003. The inscription records the renovation done to the First Temple under King Jehoash, which are also mentioned in 2 Kings 12:1-16.

*‘‘[I am Yeho’ash, son of A]hazyahu, k[ing over Ju]dah, and I executed the re[pai]rs. When men’s hearts became replete with generosity in the (densely populated) land and in the (sparsely populated) steppe, and in all the cities of Judah, to donate money for the sacred contributions abundantly, in order to purchase quarry stone and juniper wood and Edomite copper/ copper from (the city of) ‘Adam, (and) in order to perform the work faithfully, - (then) I renovated the breach(es) of the Temple and of the surrounding walls, and the storied structure, and the mesh-work, and the winding stairs, and the recesses, and the doors. May (this inscribed stone) become this day a witness that the work has succeeded (and) may God (thus) ordain His people with a blessing.’’*
Ammon Rosenfield states concerning the genuineness of the inscription:

*"The authenticity of the Jehoash Inscription has been a fiercely debated topic over the past few years. Epigraphic and philologic analyses of the tablet are inconclusive as to its authenticity. Cohen contended that if a forgery, it is a brilliant one, near genius.  Freedman advised not to rush to judgment; the Jehoash inscription may be authentic. Sasson noted that the text of this inscription is not a forgery. If it is a forgery, then a combination of some incredible factors must have operated in producing it."*
Scholars and archaeologists, therefore, seem 50/50 over it's genuineness. This means that I will not bank on this inscription as "proof" but will merely keep it here are a reminder in case more information results from the debate over its authenticity.

### **Seal of Shema**

While excavating Megiddo from 1903 to 1905 Gottlieb Schumacher uncovered a seal made of jasper engraved with a roaring lion (the symbol of Judah) and accompanied by an inscription which read:

*“(Belonging) to Shemac (the) Servant (of) Jeroboam.”*
 Most scholars agree that the inscription refers to Jeroboam II, king of Israel, recorded in 2 Kings 14:23-25.

### **Incirli Stele**

The Incirli Stele of Tiglath Pileser III was uncovered by Elizabeth Carter of the UCLA in 1993 during excavations in the Karamanmarash Valley (Turkey) at a site called Incirli. It was discovered in a farmer’s garden and identified to belong to Tiglath Pileser III and date to the Assyrian Empire (745-727 BC).

The Incirli stela confirms the existence of Tiglath Pileser in an extra-biblical account. The bible states that Menahem of Israel was taken captive by the Assyrian king Tiglath Pileser in 2 Kings 15:19-29). The Bible states:

Tiglath-Pileser had this to say about Menahem:

> *As for Menahem, I overwhelmed him like a snowstorm and he ... fled like a bird, alone, and bowed at my feet.*
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### **Ahaz Bulla**

In 1995 a 8th century BCE (732-716) clay seal bulla impression was discovered by Robert Deutsch in the possession of an antiquities dealer. It was soon discovered to contain the name of King Ahaz of the Bible (2 Kings 16:2) and his father, Yehotam (Jotham).

The bulla also amazingly contains a fingerprint which may belong to Ahaz himself.

Deutsch describes its condition and use:

> *"This lump of clay, called a bulla, was used to seal a papyrus document. We know this because the back of the bulla still bears the imprint of the texture of the papyrus. Also on the back of the bulla, we can see the impression of the double string with which the document was tied."*
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The bulla itself reads:

>     *"Belonging to Ahaz,*son of Yehotam,
>
> king of Judah."
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### **Sargon's Prism**

In 1842 to 1944 Paul-Émile Botta and Eugène Flandin excavated the annals of king Sargon II.

Sargon's annals found on the prism state:

*“The city of Samaria I besieged, I took; 27,280 of its inhabitants I carried away; fifty chariots that were among them I collected.”*The Bible states that in the ninth year of Hoshea, the king of Assyria captured Samaria, and he carried the Israelites away to Assyria and placed them in Halah, and on the Habor, the river of Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes. (2 Kings 17:6)
### **Hezekiah Bulla**

This stamped clay seal, inscribed with the name of Hezekiah, king of Judah (2 Kings 18:1), was discovered in the Ophel excavations led by Dr. Eilat Mazar at the foot of the southern wall of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.

The translation states:

*“Belonging to Hezekiah [son of] Ahaz, King of Judah."*
### **Lachish Reliefs**

The Lachish reliefs are a group of stone reliefs carved in the walls of the Palace of Sennacherib (704-681 BC) that depict the Assyrian victory over the kingdom of Judah in the siege of Lachish (701 BC) one of Judah’s major cities.

*“Sennacherib, the mighty king, king of the country of Assyria, sitting on the throne of judgment, before the city of Lakhisha. I give permission for its slaughter.”*
The Bible mentions the siege of Lachish and that Hezekiah offered to pay tribute to Sennacherib to prevent the siege of Jerusalem (2 Kings 18:13-16).

### **Azekah Inscription**

Azekah Inscription tablets are several Akkadian cuneiform tablets, discovered in 1903 by Henry Rawlinson in the Library of Ashurbanipal.

The tablets mention the Assyrian attack by Sennacherib against Hezekiah, the king of Judah, and the conquest of Azekah (2 Kings 18-19).

The inscription on the combined tablets has been translated as follows:

*(3) […Ashur, my lord, encourage]ed me and against the land of Ju[dah I marched. In] the course of my campaign, the tribute of the ki[ng(s)...*
*(4) […with the mig]ht of Ashur, my lord, the province of [Hezek]iah of Judah like […*
*(5) […] the city of Azekah, his stronghold, which is between my [bo]rder and the land of Judah […*
*(6) [like the nest of the eagle? ] located on a mountain ridge, like pointed iron daggers without number reaching high to heaven […*
*(7) [Its walls] were strong and ricaled the highest mountains, to the (mere) sight, as if from the sky [appears its head? …*
*(8) [by means of beaten (earth) ra]mps, mighty? Battering rams brought near, the work of […], with the attack by foot soldiers, [my] wa[rriors…*
*(9) […] they had seen [the approach of my cav]alry and they had heard the roar of the mighty troops of the god Ashur and [their] he[arts] became afraid […*
*(10) [The city Azekah I besieged,] I captured, I carried off its spoil, I destroyed, I devastated, [I burned with fire…*
### **Taylor Prism**

This six-sided clay prism derives its name from Colonel R. Taylor who acquired it in 1830 among the ruins of Sennacherib’s palace in Nineveh. Israel had already been conquered when Sennacherib turned his attention to Judah. This prism boasts of his siege of Jerusalem and King Hezekiah of Judah, which started in 701 BC, stating that:

“Hezekiah the Judahite . . . like a caged bird I shut up in Jerusalem . . . the awful splendor of my lordship overwhelmed him.”
The Assyrians claimed complete victory and withdrew from Judah. This Prism is royal propaganda to show off Sennacherib's might when he had actually lost. Herodotus claimed that a plague of field mice entered the camp of Sennacherib and gnawed the leather components of their weapons, disarming the military force and leading to many of the soldiers being killed or fleeing The Bible states that it was the angel of death sending plague on the troops, causing many thousands to die (2 Kings 19:35–37; Isaiah 37:38).

### **Babylonian Chronicles**

The Babylonian Chronicles are a group of Babylonian texts describing the exploits of the Babylonian rulers. The tablet depicted in the photograph describes the Fall of Jerusalem to Nebuchadnezzar in 597 BC mentioned in 2 Kings 24:10-14.

Other tablets from the Babylonian Chronicles mention the rebellion which resulted in the murder of Sennacherib, the king of Assyria by his son (747-668 BC, 2 Kings 19:36; Isaiah 37:37), the fall of Nineveh (612 BC, 2 Kings 23:29; Jeremiah 46:2; 2 Chronicles 35:20-25), the Battle of Charchemish (605 BC, 2 Kings 24:7), and the Fall of Babylon predicted by the prophets (539 BC, Isaiah 13, 21; Jeremiah 50-51).

### **Jehoiachin Ration Tablet**

This text was found near the Ishtar gates and details the defeat, capture and imprisonment of Jehoiachin and his family in 2 Kings 24:12-15.

The text reads:

*"... for Ja'ukinu, the king of the country of Judah... for the five sons of the king of the land of Judah."*
The text in 2 Kings mentions that Jehoiachin and "his princes" were captured, however, a specific number is not given in the text. This tablet not only confirms that the king was captured by the Babylonian forces, but also reveals to us specific details not known to us through the Bible. This is one of the most significant discoveries that affirm the historicity of the Bible.

## **Book of Chronicles**

### **Hezekiah's Tunnel**

The tunnel of Hezekiah, briefly mentioned in 2 Chronicles 32:30 was discovered in 1880.

Also known as the Siloam Tunnel, the underground pathway connected the Pool of Siloam with the spring of Gihon. This would ensure that Jerusalem had sufficient water supplies in case of a siege, which came to fruition in 2 Kings 19. It was a monumental task taking Judean workers through 1,777 feet of solid rock.

Albright gives a translation of an inscription found in the tunnel:

*"[...when] (the tunnel) was driven through. And this was the way in which it was cut through:-- While [...] (were) still [...] axe(s), each man toward his fellow, and while there were still three cubits to be cut through, [there was heard] the voice of a man calling to his fellow, for there was an overlap in the rock on the right [and on the left]. And when the tunnel was driven through, the quarrymen hewed (the rock), each man toward his fellow, axe against axe; and the water flowed from the spring toward the reservoir for 1,200 cubits, and the height of the rock above the head(s) of the quarrymen was 100 cubits."*
### **Cyrus Cylinder**

The Cyrus Cylinder (*ca.*539–530 BC) written in Akkadian cuneiform script discovered in Babylon by Hormuzd Rassam in 1879.

One of the most well known Old Testament prophecies is Isaiah 44:28–45:4 and was delivered about 200 years before King Cyrus was born (600 BC or 576 BC). Isaiah predicts that Cyrus would allow the Jews to return to their country (539 BC) and mentions him by name. The order given by Cyrus (Ezra 1:1–4) is also recorded on the famous cylinder.

## **Prophets**

### **Isaiah Bulla**

Excavations just south of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, archaeologist Eilat Mazar discovered a small seal impression. The upper portion of the impression is missing, and its left side is damaged. Reconstructing a few Hebrew letters in this damaged area would cause the impression to read:

*“[belonging] to Isaiah the prophet.”*

### **Winged Bull of Sargon II**

Between 1842 and 1944, the French archaeologist Paul-Emile Botta, excavated the Palace of Sargon II at Dur-Sharrukin, modern Khorsabad, and discovered the two colossal winged bulls dating to 710-705 BC). King Sargon’s achievements and titles are inscribed in a detailed cuneiform inscription that resides between the legs of the winged bull. The inscription also described Sargon’s capture of Samaria (Isaiah 20:6) and the destruction of Ashdod in 711 BC:

*25) "[The inhabitants of Sa]merina, who agreed with a king*
*26) [hostile (?) to ] me, not to endure servitude*
*27) [and not to br]ing tribute*
*28) [to Ashur (?)], did battle.*
*29) [Wit]h the power of the great gods, my [lord]s*
*30) [aga]inst them I foug[ht].*
*31) [2]7,280 people, together with [their] chariots,*
*32) and the gods, in which they trusted, as spoil*
*33) I counted. With 200 chariots for [my] royal force*
*34) from them I formed a unit.*
*35) The rest of them*
*36) I settled in the midst of Assyria. 37 I repopulated Samerina more than before.*
*38) People from countries, conquered by my hands,*
*39) I brought in it. My commissioner*
*40) I appointed as Governor over them.*
*41) I counted them as Assyrians."*
### **Sheba Inscription**

The Royal Steward Inscription or Shebna Inscription is a Hebrew inscription from a lintel over a tomb discovered at Siloam (Silwan) in the Kidron Valley in Jerusalem in 1870.

Although severely damaged and only two letters of the name (*hw*) preserved, the title of the occupants position is preserved and reads “over the house” of the king. With the help of the date of the script the inscription was finally deciphered in 1953 by the Israeli epigrapher Nahman Avigad after Yigal Yadin suggested that the name was Shebna.

*"This is ... [the tomb of Shebna] ...iah, the royal steward. There is no silver or gold here, only ... [his bones] ... and the bones of his maidservant with him. Cursed be the man who opens this."*
The inscription over the cave is accepted by most scholars as the tomb of Shebna, the royal steward of King Hezekiah (716-686 BC) who is mentioned in Isaiah 22:15.

### **Immer Seal**

The Immer Seal is an impression from the Temple Mount with a partial inscription that reads:

*“(Belonging to) […]lyahu (son of) Immer,”*
Immer was the priestly family which controlled the Temple area during Solomon’s day and who beat and imprisoned the prophet Jeremiah (Jer 20:1).

### **Lashich Letters**

Between 1935 and 1938 James L. Starkey found 18 pottery sherds (ostraca) written in black ink at the excavations at Lachish and thus became known as the Lachish Letters..

In 1938 Olga Tufnell found 3 more to make a total of 21 ostraca. They were a series of correspondence written in an ancient form of Hebrew from the time of Jeremiah describing how there were only three cities remaining under Judean control just prior to the fall of Judah, the southern kingdom of Israel, to the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar. They indicate that the town of Azekah, under the control of Nebuchadnezzar’s rebellious puppet king, had just fallen. This is confirmed by Jeremiah 34:6-7

Mitchell states:

*"The ostraca belong to this time, and are mostly letters written from outposts to a man named Ya’oah, the military commander at Lachish, reporting on the situation.  Most of them use the language of polite formality, rather unexpectedly in view of the critical situation which culminated in total defeat. ‘May Yahweh cause my lord to hear news of peace, even now, even now. Who is your servant but a dog that my lord should remember his servant?’"*
### **Gemariah Bulla**

This seal was excavated in the official archaeological dig in the city of David in 1982.

The Ritmeyers describe the discovery:

*"...it is on a bulla found among a hoard of 51 bullae in the City of David that we find the only name of a character known from Scripture firmly tied to a specific location. It bears the name of Gemariah the son of Shaphan the scribe, from whose office Baruch the scribe read the prophecies of Jeremiah in the hearing of all the people (Jeremiah 36:10)."*

Yigal also states:

*“first time that so large a group of easily legible Hebrew sealings has come to light in a controlled excavation, in a clear stratigraphic context and accompanied by architectural, ceramic and historical evidence”*

### **Nabonidus Cylinder**

The Nabonidus Cylinder was discovered at Ur by John Taylor in 1854. It mentions Nabonidus' son Balshazzar also mentioned in Daniel 5:11, 18. The inscription at Umqeer (Ur of the Chaldees), read by Sir Henry Rawlinson, shows that Nabonidus admitted his son Belshazzar into a share of the kingdom. Daniel knew that Balshazzar was the last Babylonian king before it was conquered by Darius the Mede of the Persians in 538 BC.

The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia states:

> *"The Babylonian monuments speak a number of times of a Bel-shar-usur who was the “firstborn son, the offspring of the heart of” Nabunaid, the last king of the Babylonian empire, that had been founded by Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchadnezzar, at the time of the death of Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, in 626 BC."*
>
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### **Zoilos Inscription**

The site of the ancient city of Dan has been identified with a strong degree of certainty. This is because an inscription was found at the site that bears the city's name:

*“To the God who is in Dan, Zoilas made a vow”*
The prophet Amos, foretelling the coming Assyrian exile, explicitly condemns the shrines at both Bethel and Dan, saying "As your god lives, O Dan... even they shall fall and not rise again," (Amos 8:14).

## **Sources**

### **Academic Sources**

1. ↑ James W. Hardin, Christopher A. Rollston, Jeffrey A. Blakely - *Iron Age Bullae from Officialdom's Periphery: Khirbet Summeily in Broader Context* in: *Near Eastern Archaeolog*y, vol. 77:4, pp. 299-301
2. ↑ Yosef Garfinkel and Saar Ganor - *Khirbet Qeiyafa: Sha’arim* in: *The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures* 8, article 22.
3. ↑ Seymour Gitin - *Trude Dothan and Joseph Naveh. “Ekron Identity Confirmed,”* *Archaeology* 51, no. 1: 30.
4. ↑ Seymour Gitin, Trude Dothan and Joseph Naveh - *“A Royal Dedicatory Inscription from Ekron.”* *Israel Exploration Journal* 47, No. 1/2, pg. 11
5. ↑ K. A. Kitchen - *“A Possible Mention of David in the Late Tenth Century BCE, and "Deity Dod as Dead as the Dodo,”* *Journal for the Study of the Old Testament*, no. 76 : 39–41.
6. ↑ Lester L. Grabbe, Ahab Agonistes - *The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty,* pg. 333.
7. ↑ Anson F. Rainey - *“The ‘House of David’ and the House of the Deconstructionists,”* *Biblical Archaeology Review* 20, no. 6: 47.
8. ↑ Laughlin, John. “The Remarkable Discoveries at Tel Dan.” *Biblical Archaeology Review* 7 No. 5: 20-37.
9. ↑ Gary A. Byers - *“The Bible According To Karnak,”* *Bible and Spade* 17, no. 4: 98.
10. ↑ Yohanan Aharoni - *The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography,* trans. Anson F. Rainey, 2nd ed, pg. 326
11. ↑ K. A. Kitchen - *The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, 1100-650 BC,*2nd ed., Egyptology, pg. 447
12. ↑ Donald J. Wiseman - *1 and 2 Kings: An Introduction and Commentary.*Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries 9, pg. 40
13. ↑ K.A. Kitchen - *The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, 588; Contra Rupert L. Chapman III, “Putting Sheshonq I in His Place,”* *Palestine Excavation Quarterly* 141, no. 1: 4–17.
14. ↑ Tiffany Fox - *A Scarab from a Biblical Pharaoh*, Artifax 29, no. 4: 4–5.
15. ↑ Retrieved from http://journal.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/levy341
16. ↑ Daniel David Luckenbill - *Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylon: Historical Records of Assyria from Sargon to the End,* vol. 2, 2 vols, pg. 200-252
17. ↑ Susan Ackerman - *“Assyria in the Bible,”* in *Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II: A Cultural Biography*, ed. Ada Cohen and Steven E. Kangas, pg. 127
18. ↑ William F Albright - *“Palestinian Inscriptions: Moabite Stone.” The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures.*Edited by James B. Pritchard, pg. 287
19. ↑ Peter Masters - *Heritage of Evidence in the British Museum*, pg. 28
20. ↑ Bill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer - *Readings from the Ancient Near East: Primary Sources for Old Testament Study,* Encountering Biblical Studies, pg. 144–45
21. ↑ Tammi Schneider - *“Did King Jehu Kill His Own Family?,”* *Biblical Archaeology Review* 21, no. 1: 26–33, 80–82.
22. ↑ Chaim Cohen - *“Yeho’ash Inscription – a new addition: philological aspects.” Abstract. In The 14th World Congress of Jewish Studies.*
23. ↑ Amnon Rosenfeld - *“Archaeometric Analysis of the ‘Jehoash Inscription,’”* *Journal of Archaeological Science* 35: 2966–72.
24. ↑ G. Schumacher and C. Steuernagel - *Tell el- Mutesellim I: A. Text*, pg. 99-100
25. ↑ S. Yeivin - *“The Date of the Seal ‘Belonging to Shemaʿ (The) Servant (Of) Jeroboam.’”* *Journal of Near Eastern Studies*19, no. 3: 205.
26. ↑ James Bennett Pritchard - *Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement,*3rd ed, pg. 283-84.
27. ↑ Robert Deutsch - *"First Impression: What We Learn from King Ahaz’s Seal."* *Biblical Archaeology Review*24 no. 3: 56.
28. ↑ Ibid
29. ↑ Lawrence J. Mykytiuk - *Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E.,* SBL Academia Biblica 12
30. ↑ Victor Harold Matthews, Don C. Benjamin - *Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East*, pg. 185-88
31. ↑ Zénaïde Alexeïevna Ragozin - *The Story of Assyria from the Rise of the Empire to the Fall of Nineveh*, pg. 247
32. ↑ Lubetski, Meir - *“King Hezekiah’s Seal Revisited: Small Object Reflects Big Geopolitics,”* *Biblical Archaeology Review* 27/4: 44-51, 59
33. ↑ David Ussishkin - *“The ‘Lachish Reliefs’ and the City of Lachish.”* *Israel Exploration Journal*30: 174-95.
34. ↑ Austen H. Layard - *Discoveries Among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon*, pg, 128
35. ↑ Henry Rawlinson - *The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia, Bd. III: A Selection from the Miscellaneous Inscriptions of Assyria,* Bowler, 1870
36. ↑ David Miano and Sarah Miano - *Milk and Honey: Essays on Ancient Israel and the Bible* in *Appreciation of the Judaic Studies Program at the University of California*, pg. 126
37. ↑ David W. Thomas - *Documents from Old Testament Times*, pg. 302
38. ↑ *Heritage of Evidence: In the British Museum*, pg. 73-80
39. ↑ Charles F. Pfeiffer - *Wycliffe Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology*, pg. 133-36
40. ↑ David Winton Thomas - *Documents from Old Testament Times* pg. 84
41. ↑ John W. Rogerson and Philip R. Davies - *“Was the Siloam Tunnel Built by Hezekiah?”* *Biblical Archaeologist* 59, no. 3: 138–49.
42. ↑ W.F. Albright in J. B. Pritchard - *Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament*, pg. 321.
43. ↑ Elias J. Bickerman - *“The Edict of Cyrus in Ezra 1,”* *Journal of Biblical Literature* 65, no. 3: 249–75
44. ↑ Eilat Mazar - *Is This the Prophet Isaiah’s Signature?* Biblical Archaeology Review, 44:2
45. ↑ Paul Emile Botta and Eugene Flandin - *Monument de Ninive, in 5 volumes*, Imprimerie nationale, 1946-1950
46. ↑ Bob Becking - *The Fall of Samaria: An Historical and Archaeological Study*, pg. 29-30
47. ↑ Nahman Avigad - *“The Epitaph of a Royal Steward from Siloam Village,”* *Israel Exploration Journal*3, no. 3: 138.
48. ↑ Retrieved from https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/collection\_online/collection\_object\_details.aspx?objectId=369626&partId=1
49. ↑ Robert Deutsch - *“Tracking Down Shebnayahu, Servant of the King.”* *Biblical Archaeology Review* 35, no. 3: 45-49, 67.
50. ↑ Retrieved from https://www.timesofisrael.com/temple-mount-sifting-project-reboots-to-seek-more-direct-evidence-of-1st-temple/
51. ↑ T. C. Mitchell - Biblical Archaeology: Documents from the British Museum, pg. 78-79
52. ↑ Leen Ritmeyer, Kathleen Ritmeyer - *Archaeological Discoveries In Jerusalem*, Bible and Spade, Vol. 10, pg. 12
53. ↑ Yigal Shiloh - *A Group of Hebrew Bullae from the City of David.* *Israel Exploration Journal* 36/1-2: 16-38.
54. ↑ Retrieved from https://www.internationalstandardbible.com/B/belshazzar.html
55. ↑ Biran, Avraham - *“Sacred Spaces: Of Standing Stones, High Places and Cult Objects at Tel Dan.”* *Biblical Archaeology Review* 24.5: 45