recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Tokugawa Shogunate

The **Tokugawa Shogunate** was a shogunate led by the Tokugawa clan from 1603 to 1868, reigning for exactly 265 years. It was founded by Ieyasu Tokugawa after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, where he crushed his Toyotomi opponents, and oversaw years of peace. In 1868, the shogunate was destroyed as the result of the Boshin War, with the Empire of Japan taking power.

## History

   The Tokugawa clan of Mikawa Province were loyal to the Oda clan from 1562, after Nobunaga Oda took Ieyasu Tokugawa into his clan and let him retake Mikawa Province from the Imagawa clan. In 1582, when Nobunaga was slain, the Tokugawa were some of the first to get involved in the succession crisis, fighting the Toyotomi clan of Hideyoshi Hashiba. Backed by Nobukatsu Oda, they were given a legitimate claim. However, in 1584, they were defeated at the Battle of Komaki-Nagakute by Hideyoshi, who took the Tokugawas in as vassals. Ieyasu remained an ally of the Toyotomi until Hideyoshi's death in 1598, when Ieyasu again tried to claim succession. He crushed the Toyotomi at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, and took the shogunate over in 1603.

From 1603 to 1868, peace was common in Japan. There were rare conflicts, such as the Toyotomi peasant rebellion in Osaka Castle in 1615 led by Hideyoshi's son Hideyori Toyotomi, which was brutally crushed. In 1868, the shogunate was overthrown by the Tosa, Choshu, and Satsuma clans, who reinstated Imperial authority over the country. Yoshinobu Tokugawa, the last Shogun, put up a good fight alongside the Aizu, Nagaoka, and Jozai clans, but their allies in France were outmatched by the Imperial allies of Great Britain, who gave them Gatling Guns and Armstrong Guns, which mowed down the Samurai. At last, the Fall of the Samurai was at hand.

## Culture

By January 21, 1840, the population of Tokugawa Japan was 7,110,000 people. 97.7% were Japanese and 2.2% were Ainu. 78.5% were Mahayana, 19.5% Shinto, and 2% Animist. The region with the largest population was Osaka with 2,240,000 people; the second-largest was Fukuoka with 1,070,000, and the third was the capital of Edo, with 1,060,000 people. The least-populated region was Bonin with 41,110 people, with the second-smallest of Shumshu jumping up to 251,630 people. The Bonin Islands were small in population due to their distance from Japan, 620 miles south of Tokyo/Edo.
Tokyo

**Tokyo** is a metropolis which doubly serves as a prefecture of Japan and the national capital. In 1868, Emperor Meiji moved his court from the city of Kyoto to the city of Edo, which he then renamed Tokyo and created it as the new national capital. In 1943, the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo merged into the Tokyo Metropolis, which also included some islands to the south of Honshu. Tokyo became the world's most populous metropolitan area with a population of over 38 million people, and it became known as a world city with (according to *TripAdvisor* in 2014) the world's best helpfulness of locals, nightlife, shopping, local public transportation, and cleanliness of streets. In 2018, Tokyo proper had a population of 13,839,910 people.
Irish

The **Irish** are a Gaelic ethnic group native to the island of Ireland in the British Isles. The Irish population, like the island, is divided between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, a colony of the United Kingdom. Almost all ethnic Irish people are Catholic, maintaining their culture for centuries. Most Irish people can speak both English and Irish. The Irish diaspora is one of the largest diasporas, as years of British oppression led to millions of Irish moving overseas and forming large communities. 4,581,269 live in Ireland, 1,810,863 in Northern Ireland, 40,000,000+ in the United States, 14 million in the United Kingdom, 7 million in Australia, 4,544,870 in Canada, 1 million people in Argentina, 600 thousand in Mexico, and 600 thousand people in New Zealand; there are more Irish-Americans than there are Irish people in any other country, including the island itself.
Naples

**Naples**, called **Napoli** in Italian, is the capital of the Campania region of Italy. It is the third-largest city in Italy after Rome and Milan, housing 4,000,000 people in one of the largest cities on the Mediterranean Sea. It was founded around 700 BC by the Greeks, and it was part of the Magna Graecia region of southern Italy until its conquest by the Roman Republic. Naples changed hands between the Greeks, Romans, Ostrogoths, Byzantine Empire, Saracens, Holy Roman Empire, the Byzantines again, the Norman Kingdom of Naples, the Angevin Kingdom of Naples, the Aragonese Empire, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and finally Italy, having a rich history and various cultural influences.

## History

More than 2,800 years old, Napoli (or Naples) has a deep and rich history, its roots lying in a Greek settlement founded during the 8th century BCE. Control of the city changed hands numerous times throughout its existence and for a period bounced back and forth between the Goths and Romans. In one famous account, the Byzantine Empire retook the city by entering on its aqueduct and bypassing the heavily guarded gates.

In the Middle Ages, the Normans took control and stayed in power for 300 years while their leaders and nobles feuded over who the rightful ruler was. Following their reign, control of the prosperous merchant city shifted between a host of city states and countries including France and Spain. French rule began in 1501 under Louis XII of France. French control, however, only lasted until 1505, when Ferdinand seized power in the name of Spain. During this time, Naples became one of Europe's biggest cities, second only to Paris, as well as a cultrual powerhouse of the Renaissance boasting artists like Laurana, de Messinia, and Poliziano.

Naples was a kingdom after Spanish rule in the 1700s up to 1860, when it was conquered by Giuseppe Garibaldi's Italian patriot Redshirts, who united the kingdom with Sardinia to form the Kingdom of Italy. Naples has been an integral part of Italy ever since, remaining an important trade city and one of the largest cities on the Mediterranean Sea.
Rhodesia

**Rhodesia** was an unrecognized state in Africa that existed from 11 November 1965 to 1 June 1979, with Salisbury serving as its capital. The country was formed when Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom, with the white elite doing so with the goal of preventing the transition to black majority rule. In 1970, Rhodesia reconstituted itself as a republic, abandoning its hopes of joining the Commonwealth. Rhodesian premier Ian Smith implemented white minority rule, leading to the Rhodesian Bush War with the socialist ZANU and ZAPU rebel groups. In 1978, Smith was forced to concede to multiracial democracy, and Smith and his moderate colleague Abel Muzorewa headed the interim government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia during the second half of 1979. The guerrilla war continued, however, and the country reverted to British colonial rule for three months before being recognized as independent "Zimbabwe".
T-62

**T-62** is a Soviet main battle tank that was produced from 1961 to 1975 in the Soviet Union, from 1975 to 1978 in Czechoslovakia, and in North Korea during the 1980s. First introduced in 1961, the tank was the first to have a smoothbore tank gun that could fire kinetic energy penetrator rounds, but its higher manufacturing costs led to the T-54/55 remaining the USSR's most-produced tank. The Israeland Tiran-6 was designed after Israel captured some Egyptian T-62s during the Yom Kippur War, and the tank found its way into the hands of several former Soviet republics and Eastern Bloc nations. Over 22,700 have been built since 1961.
Slavery

**Slavery** is the legal classification of humans as property, in which a person can be held as property by a slaveholder. Slavery originated in the first few millenia BCE, when the first civilizations forced prisoners of war and lowborn people to do manual labor in the households of wealthy families. This system would remain in place in Western Europe for thousands of years, but most European nations abolished this type of slavery during the Middle Ages; Russia would not emancipate its serfs until the Emancipation Reform of 1861. In the 1400s, a new type of slavery would take hold in the West - race-based slavery. Africans and Native Americans were enslaved by the Europeans, although the extermination of the Native Americans through disease led to most slaves being African-Americans. Slaves were mostly employed in colonies as unpaid laborers, usually working on plantations to pick cotton or farm sugarcane. The slave trade was outlawed in the late 1700s and early 1800s in most countries, and slavery would be abolished over the course of the 19th century, with slavery causing the start of the American Civil War in 1861. Since then, slavery has been unacceptable, and Mauritania was the last country to abolish slavery, doing so in 1981. Human trafficking, an illegal practice, has since replaced slavery.

## Gallery

Slaves in Roman Libya, 73 BCA woman's teeth being tested at an eastern slave market.webpA woman's teeth being tested at an eastern slave market
Yusef Salaam

**Yusef Salaam** (1975-) was an African-American man from Harlem, New York City who was wrongfully convicted of rape and attempted murder in the 1990 Central Park jogger case and sentenced to 10 years in a detention facility. After his release, he became an activist, speaking about his experiences.

## Biography

Yusef Salaam was born in Harlem, New York City in 1975, the son of Sharon Salaam. He was friends with Korey Wise during their high school years, and, in 1989, Salaam was wrongfully arrested by Detective John Taglioni as a suspect in the Central Park jogger case; Wise was invited to accompany Salaam and support him, but the two of them were both interrogated as suspects. Salaam was deprived of food, drink, or sleep for an entire day, and his family received death threats after Donald Trump called for the death penalty to be reinstated. He was sentenced to 5-10 years in a juvenile detention facility after being found guilty, despite the efforts of his lawyer Bobby Burns (his mother's divorce lawyer, who was unequipped for a criminal trial) and the other boys' attorneys. He was released in 2002 when the trial was vacated, and he was awarded $7.1 million in recompense for his time served; he went on to work for a telemarketing company, and he was later awarded a lifetime achievement award from President Barack Obama in 2016.
Persian Gulf

The **Persian Gulf** is a sea in western Asia, lying between Iran to the northeast and the Arabian Peninsula to the southwest. It is connected to the Indian Ocean by the Strait of Hormuz, and, ever since the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s, there has been a naming dispute over the gulf, which the Arab nations sought to rename to the "Arabian Gulf".
Rockies

The **Rockies**, also called the **Rocky Mountains**, are a major mountain range in North America that stretches 3,000 miles from Canada to the United States. Much of the mountains consist of public parks and forest lands, and the regions to the west of the Rockies are typically considered to be the American West; the regions in the center are in the Great Plains and Midwest regions, and the lands to the south are counted as parts of the American Southwest.

## Gallery

Location of RockiesThe Teton Range of Wyoming in 1899.
New England

**New England** is a region of the northeastern United States that was settled in 1620 by Pilgrims from England. It began with the Plymouth Colony, and in 1630 Boston was also settled by the colony, beginning an era of expansion in the region against the native tribes. During the 1760s and 1770s, the Sons of Liberty led an independence movement against Great Britain in response to the Intolerable Acts, and the American Revolutionary War began due to the rebellion of colonists in Massachusetts. In the aftermath of American independence, the region was one of the first to be industrialized, and today it has a strong cultural identity as a region of America. In 2015, the region had a population of 14,727,574 people.

## Gallery

New England flag.Location of New England.
Westminster

**Westminster** is an inner London borough, occupying much of the central area of Greater London, including most of the West End. It is to the west of the ancient City of London, and its southern boundary is the River Thames. For centuries, Westminster and the City of London were quite distinct, and it was not until the sixteenth century that houses were built on the adjoining fields. In 1540, King Henry VIII briefly made Westminster a city when he gave it its own bishop. In 1900, Westminster became a "metropolitan borough", and it became a city (within London) in 1963. St. James' Palace, Buckingham Palace, the Palace of Westminster (Houses of Parliament), and 10 Downing Street are all located in Westminster, as are a large number of parks and open spaces. In 2016, Westminster had a population of 247,600.

## Gallery

View of London from Westminster in 874Westminster in 2020
White supremacism

**White supremacism** is the belief that white people are superior to other races and should thus dominate them. Justified by the pseudo-science of "scientific racism", white supremacy, once established, entails the maintenance and defense of white privilege and political/socioeconomic power. Examples of white supremacist policies include Jim Crow laws in the United States from the 1890s to 1960s, Australia's "White Australia" immigration policy from the 1890s to 1970s, and apartheid in South Africa from 1948 to the 1990s. In the United States, white supremacy was first threatened by the Union victory during the American Civil War and the enfranchisement of African-Americans during Reconstruction (1865-1877), but neither the business-oriented Northern whites, urban immigrant laborers, nor Southern whites of all classes supported the complete equality of emancipated former slaves, and many Southern whites took up arms and formed neo-Confederate and white supremacist militia groups such as the White League, Red Shirts, and Ku Klux Klan to suppress Black voting rights and intimidate white Republican voters in the American South. White supremacism was reinforced by the Redeemer coalitions from the 1870s to 1890s through resegregation and cemented by the populist Democrats who came to power in the 1890s through Jim Crow laws. Institutional white supremacism in the South was overturned by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965, and many other civil rights laws passed under President Lyndon B. Johnson during the Civil Rights era of the 1950s-1970s, but Black and other minoritized Americans remained economically and politically disenfranchised for decades to come, and white supremacists soon fought a defensive and uphill battle against the demographic "browning" of America through non-white immigration and population growth. During the 2010s, militant white supremacism experienced a resurgence concurrent to the rise of the Trumpist movement, leading to violent confrontations at the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Virginia and the 2021 United States coup d'etat attempt.
Welfare

**Welfare** is the provision of well-being and social support for people who are unable to provide for their own basic needs, funded by taxes and a few charities. Universal healthcare and unemployment insurance are two government-provided welfare systems, and the welfare system seeks to eradicate poverty through assisting citizens with being able to take care of themselves using minimal resources. In many nations, conservatives are opposed to welfare, claiming that the poor are simply poor because they are lazy; most people to the left of centrist politics support the poor, arguing for welfare due to human rights.
Roman Empire

The **Roman Empire** was a massive empire, centered around the city of Rome and Roman culture, which existed from 27 BC to 395 AD. The empire was founded in 27 BC by Octavian, the nephew of the late Roman statesman and general Julius Caesar, who had overthrown the Roman Senate and became dictator before being assassinated in 44 BC. Octavian defeated Caesar's assassins at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC and then defeated Caesar's former ally Mark Antony and his Egyptian ally Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, conquering Egypt and uniting the Roman world under his rule. The Roman Senate then granted him overarching power and the new title "Augustus", effectively making him Emperor.

The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity, the *Pax Romana*, and the empire reached its greatest territorial expanse under Emperor Trajan, who died in 117 AD. The empire stretched from northern England to Mesopotamia, dominating the Mediterranean world, Western Europe, North Africa, and the Levant. However, a period of increasing trouble and decline began with the tyrannical reign of emperor Commodus from 180 to 192 AD, and the Crisis of the Third Century threatened the empire's existence, although Aurelian was able to reunite the empire.

In an effort to stabilize the empire, Diocletian set up two different courts: one in the east, and one in the west. In 313 AD, Constantine the Great legalized the practice of Christianity, which soon became the dominant religion in the empire; Theodosius' 380 AD Edict of Thessalonia made Christianity the only legal religion in the empire. Shortly after, several Germanic tribes migrated West due to the rampage of the Huns across Central Asia and Eastern Europe. In 395 AD, Emperor Theodosius formally divided the empire between the Western Roman Empire (with its capital at Rome) and the Eastern Roman Empire (with its capital at Constantinople). The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD after the Heruli king Odoacer deposed Emperor Romulus Augustulus at Ravenna (which had replaced Rome as capital due to two sackings of Rome in the 5th century alone), but the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, survived until 1453, when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople.
Second Spanish Republic

The **Second Spanish Republic** was the republican regime that ruled Spain from April 14, 1931 in the *Pronunciamiento* to the April 1, 1939 final offensive of the Spanish Civil War. Ruled by the Frente Popular from February 19, 1936 to April 1, 1939, the republic was created after King Alfonso XIII of Spain and Prime Minister Miguel Primo de Rivera were overthrown. The republic was opposed initially by Alfonsists and Carlists, and after the leftist Frente Popular took power in 1936, far-right groups such as the Falange party were also opponents of the republic. In the ensuing civil war between the Republicans and the far-right Nationalist Spain, the Republic was defeated by Francisco Franco's fascist armies. Hundreds of thousands of former Republicans were sent to concentration camps, while many Republican leaders were either executed or went into exile into places such as Latin America.
Social justice

**Social justice** is a social ideology that promoted equality between individuals and their society, including opportunities for social privileges and personal activity, the fulfillment of societal roles in exchange for receiving what is due, and people receiving the benefits and burden of cooperation. Social justice is a key concept in liberalism and social democracy.
Vermont

**Vermont** is a US state located in the New England region of the northeast, with its capital at Montpelier. Due to its location among the Green Mountains, Vermont is the second least-populous state in the United States, having a small population of 646,042 people in 2015. The state was known for its snow sports and for being the largest producer of maple syrup in the country, and it was rated the safest state in the country. Along with California, Hawaii, and Texas, Vermont was one of four US states to be former sovereign states, as the Vermont Republic existed at the same time as the American Revolutionary War before being admitted to the union on 4 March 1791 as the 14th state. The state was also the first to abolish slavery, abolishing adult slavery in 1777.
Silver Star

The **Silver Star Medal** (**SSM**) is the United States Armed Forces' third-highest military decoration for valor in combat. The Silver Star Medal is awarded primarily to members of the United States Armed Forces for gallantry in action against an enemy of the United States.

## History

The Silver Star Medal (SSM) is the successor award to the "Citation Star" (silver star) which was established by an Act of Congress on July 9, 1918, during World War I. On July 19, 1932, the Secretary of War approved the conversion of the "Citation Star" to the SSM with the original "Citation Star" incorporated into the center of the medal.

Authorization for the Silver Star Medal was placed into law by an Act of Congress for the U.S. Navy on August 7, 1942, and an Act of Congress for the U.S. Army on December 15, 1942. The current statutory authorization for the medal is Title 10 of the United States Code, for the United States Army, for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps, and for the US Air Force and U.S. Space Force.

The U.S. Army awards the medal as the "Silver Star". The U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard award the medal as the "Silver Star Medal". Since 21 December 2016, the Department of Defense (DoD) refers to the decoration as the "Silver Star Medal".

## Award criteria

The Silver Star Medal is awarded for gallantry, so long as the action does not justify the award of one of the next higher valor awards: the Distinguished Service Cross, the Navy Cross, the Air Force Cross, or the Coast Guard Cross. The gallantry displayed must have taken place while in action against an enemy of the United States, while engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing foreign force, or while serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party. The Silver Star Medal is awarded for singular acts of valor or heroism over a brief period, such as one or two days of a battle.
Washington DC

**Washington, D.C.**, formally the **District of Columbia**, is the capital of the United States. The city was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital, with Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson choosing the site of the capital so that it was equadistant between the northern and southern states. The city was named in the honor of George Washington, the first President of the United States, and the city became its own independent district, located between Maryland and Virginia along the Potomac River. The centers of the three branches of the US government: executive (the White House), judicial (the Supreme Court), and the legislative branch (US Congress) are all located in the city, as are several national monuments and museums such as the Smithsonian Museum, the Washington Monument, the Lincoln Memorial, the World War II memorial, the Vietnam War memorial, the Korean War memorial, and various other sites. By 2016, by city had a population of 681,170 people, with 48.3% being African-American, 36.1% white, 10.6% Hispanic, and 4.2% Asian.

## Gallery

Location of DCWashington DC in 1841.DC in 2016The DC skyline in 2020
Socialism

**Socialism** is a political ideology and economic system that is characterized by social ownership and democratic control of the means of production (meaning either collective/public/cooperative ownership or citizen ownership of equity). There are various forms of socialism in both market and non-market forms, with non-market socialism substituting factor markets and money with engineering and technical criteria, and market socialism retaining the use of monetary prices and factor markets. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism had become the two dominant political tendencies within the socialist movement, and democratic socialism would also develop as an important socialist ideology. Today, socialists head national governments in many parts of the world, and socialist parties are present (with varying degrees of power and influence) in nearly every democratic country around the world. Today, some socialists adopt causes such as feminism, liberal socialism, and environmentalism.
Ukraine

**Ukraine** is a country located in Eastern Europe, with its capital at Kiev. Ukraine has had a long and rich history, at one point being a part of the Cossack Hetmanate and then the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. Ruled by Volodymyr Zelensky.

Ukraine had two brief periods of independence in the 20th century, in 1918-1921 and 1944-1945, but it was conquered by the USSR both times. It would not be until 1991 that Ukraine would become an independent republic for a long period of time, and Ukraine maintained its historical ties to Russia by being involved in the Confederacy of Independent States. However, Ukraine had to deal with the unification of Europe in the European Union, and the 2014 overthrow of dictator, Viktor Yanukovych led to the new Kiev government seeking membership in NATO and the EU and the abolition of economic ties to Russia that had flourished under the Russophile Yanukovych.

As a result, the culturally Russian regions of Crimea, Donetsk, and Luhansk declared their independence, with Russia annexing Crimea and the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic becoming independent republics.

Ukraine's government, accused by many of being fascist and anti-Semitic, was supported by the West and NATO against the pro-Russian rebels.

In 2016, Ukraine had a population of 42,539,010 people, with the ethnicities being made up 77.8% of Ukrainians, 17.3% Russians, .6% Belarusians, .5% Moldovans, .5% Tatars, .4% Bulgarians, .3% Hungarians, .3% Romanians, .3% Poles, and 1.7% others, and 72% were Orthodox Christian, 15.8% Catholic, 2.4% Protestant, .6% Muslim, .2% Jewish, and 9.9% others; 22% of the population as a whole is atheist.
Nation of Islam

The **Nation of Islam** (**NOI**) is an African-American political and religious movement that was founded by Wallace Fard Muhammad on 4 July 1930. The Nation of Islam believes that the Moon was once a part of the Earth (which it claims is over 76,000,000,000,000 years old), that black people were the original inhabitants of the Earth, that white people were a race of devils created by an evil scientist called Yakub in Greece, that black people were superior to whites but were dominated by a system of white supremacy, and that Jewish doctors injected African-Americans with the AIDS virus. Many of the hateful views of the NOI were adopted under Elijah Muhammad, causing Civil Rights movement leader Malcolm X to leave the group for mainstream Sunni Islam; Malcolm X was killed by NOI hitmen in 1965 due to his split with the group. The Nation of Islam encourages its members to assume Islamic names, claiming that the European names of most African-Americans were imposed upon them by their slaveowners, and that their names before slavery were Islamic and that their religion was Islam, not Christianity. In 2007, the NOI had between 20,000 and 50,000 members.
Henry III of England

**Henry III of England** (1 October 1207-16 November 1272) was the King of England from 28 October 1216 to 16 November 1272, succeeding John and preceding Edward I. Henry came to the throne amid the Barons' Wars, and he found his power hamstrung by his father's acceptance of the Magna Carta. His reign was marked by costly failures to regain the French lands lost during his father's reign, the increased persecution and segregation of the Jews, and a second round of wars against England's powerful barons under Simon V de Montfort.

## Biography

   Henry Plantagenet was born to King John I of England and Isabella of Angouleme. After his father refused to abide by the Magna Carta in 1215, the First Barons' War broke out, and when his father died in 1216, the nine year-old king took control of the government forces. He won the Battle of Lincoln and the Battle of Sandwich in 1217, and later made peace with the rebellious barons.

### Independent reign

   Henry III became an independent ruler in 1224 at the age of 17, and in 1230 he planned an invasion of France to expand England's lands. It resulted in a fiasco, and in 1232 he had to crush a rebellion by Richard Marshal, the son of Henry's trusted vassal William Marshal. Following the revolt, he brushed aside senior ministers and took full control of the government. He extorted Jews and eventually banished them from England, and he invaded France again in 1242, resulting in the disastrous Battle of Taillebourg. Henry also tried to intervene in Europe: he tried and failed to place his son Edmund Crouchback on the throne of Sicily and also failed to make his brother Richard of Cornwall King of the Romans in 1256. Henry later planned a crusade, but rebellions in Gascony halted him.

In 1258, Henry III faced rebellions in Wales and Ireland against his rule, causing him to make peace with France in 1259. He used the exterminations of populations of captured cities and the execution of prisoners to invoke fear into the hearts of his enemies, and when Simon V de Montfort rebelled with the Baron's Alliance in 1261, Henry brutally crushed the uprising. He was captured in the 1264 Battle of Lewes, but after his son Prince Edward won the Battle of Evesham a year later, he freed his father. To repair England, Henry had to harass Jews even further, and exacted harsh measures. He died in 1272, and was succeeded by Prince Edward.
Silesia

**Silesia**, known as ***Schlesien*** in German and ***Slask*** in Polish, is a region of Central Europe that is located in present-day Poland. The region was historically located in the Austrian Empire and Germany, with Silesia being conquered by Prussia during the Seven Years' War and being under German control until it was granted to Poland in 1945 at the end of World War II. Its traditional capital was Breslau, now the city of Wroclaw in Poland. In 1861, Silesia had a population of 616,260 people, with 67.8% being northern Germans, 29.8% Poles, and 2.5% Czechs (in Czech Silesia). 57.6% of the population was Protestant, while the remaining 41.8% adhered to Catholicism.
Sunni Islam

**Sunni Islam** is by far the most widespread form of Islam. It is the more orthodox of the two main branches of Islam but the origin of the Sunni-Shia schism was largely political in nature. The Sunnis accepted the first Caliph, Abu Bakr, whereas the Shiites rejected him in favor of Ali. Sunni Muslims hold strictly to the Sunnah - the sayings and actions of Muhammad - as collected in the Hadiths, which form the basis for Sunni jurisprudence. The formal head of Sunni Islam was the caliph. Some of its denominations were Ash'ari, Mu'tazil, Deobandi, Salafi/Wahhabism, and Sufism (the latter also includes includes both Sunnis and Shi'ites and is nearly its own Islamic denomination in itself).
M4 Sherman

The **M4A3E8(76)W Sherman** was a medium tank built by the United States from 1942 to 1955, seeing action in World War II. It was later sold to US allies such as the Allied Powers of WWII, Israel, South Korea, Nicaragua, and India, seeing action in wars from the Chinese Civil War to the Nicaraguan Revolution.
US 505th Infantry Regiment

The **505th Infantry Regiment**, originally the **505th Parachute Infantry Regiment**, was an airborne infantry regiment of the United States Army that was formed in 1942. The regiment was one of four regiments in the US 82nd Airborne Division, and the 505th first fought in the 1943 Operation Husky during World War II. The 505th later fought at the Battle of Salerno, Operation Overlord, the Netherlands, and the Battle of the Bulge, and the regiment occupied Berlin after the war's end. The 505th went on to fight in the Dominican Republic during the Dominican Civil War, the Vietnam War, Operation Urgent Fury, Operation Just Cause, the Gulf War, Operation Restore Hope, the Afghanistan War, and the Iraq War. The regiment was headquartered at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.
Pirates

**Pirates** are people who rob or commit illegal violence at sea or on shore. In the most commonly-used sense, pirates were seafaring adventurers and criminals that were most famous for their exploits in the Caribbean and the Indian Ocean. Pirates such as Blackbeard, William Kidd, Bartholomew Roberts, Henry Morgan, Jack Rackham, Charles Vane, Anne Bonny, and Mary Read rose to fame for their exploits in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean, attacking and plundering merchant ships. Some pirates would be recruited as privateers by the empires in the Caribbean such as Great Britain, Spain, and France, being allowed to attack enemy ships in the name of their patron country. This would allow them to head to the ports of their employing country and to fly their flag, giving them the license to kill and plunder. The Golden Age of Piracy lasted from the late 17th to the early 18th centuries, with most of the famous pirates being captured and killed by the 1720s.
Underworld

The **Underworld**, also known as **Hades**, is the afterlife for souls in Greek mythology, located beneath the planet of Earth. The realm is ruled by god Hades and it is invisible to the living, as it is the kingdom of the dead, unlike Mount Olympus, the shining kingdom of the gods.

## History

The Underworld was the realm of Hades, the God of the Dead, who was given control over those who died and passed to the afterlife. The underworld was where souls went (in the forms of their former selves) and were judged, and they would be given a pleasant or dark afterlife. Those who were favored by the gods would go to Elysium, while those whom the gods were hostile to went to Tartarus or remained in the underworld, a realm of lava and fire. The underworld's inhabitants were the shades, and the dead were prevented from escaping by Hades' three-headed dog, the Cerberus, which also prevented mortals from entering the underworld.
Oregon Trail

The **Oregon Trail** was a long wagon route and emigrant trail that began in Independence, Missouri and ended at the Pacific Ocean in Oregon, both in the United States. The trail was established from 1811 to 1840 by fur trappers, and the trail was originally only passable by foot or horseback. Eventually, the trails were cleared for wagons, and bridges, cutoffs, ferries, and roads were built, facilitating travel.
Turkmen

The **Turkmen** are a Turkic people that live primarily in Central Asia in addition to Khorasan, Persia, and the Middle East. The Turkmen of Central Asia have little to do with the "Turkmen" of the Levant, who are descended from the people of Turkey and not the Turkmen of Turkestan. 4,248,000 live in Turkmenistan, 1,328,585 in Iran, 200,000 in Afghanistan, 152,000 in Uzbekistan, 110,000 in Pakistan, 46,885 in Russia, 15,171 in Tajikistan, and 7,709 in Ukraine. As many as 3,000,000+ Iraqi Turkmen live in Iraq and 3,500,000 Syrian Turkmen in Syria.
Quakers

**Quakers**, or the **Society of Friends**, are a Protestant Christian denomination dating to mid-17th century England, founded by George Fox. Quakers believed that God spoke directly to each individual through an "inner light" and that individuals needed neither a preacher nor a Bible to discover God's Word. Maintaining that all human beings were equal in God's eyes, they refused to conform to laws and governments unless God requested otherwise. Quakers also refused to observe the Sabbath, insisting that God had not set aside a specific day for worship, and that believers were expected to worship him each day. Women often took a leading role in Quaker meetings. New England Puritan communities ruthlessly persecuted the Quakers, with some being branded on the face with an "H" for "heresy"; from 1659 to 1661, four Boston Quakers were hanged for refusing to be banished. However, the Quakers found a new home in Pennsylvania, where William Penn established a Quaker colony which promoted religious freedom. Quakers became known for using *thee* as a usual pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dressing, refusal to swear oaths, abolitionism, and teetotalism. In 2012, there were 377,000 adult Quakers, with 52% in Africa.
Richard Nelson Gale

**Richard Nelson Gale** (25 July 1896 – 29 July 1982) was a General of the British Army during World War II and the commander of the British 6th Airborne Division.

## Biography

Richard Nelson Gale was born on 25 July 1896 in London, England, and he became a prolific reader while studiyng at the Merchant Taylors' School. Gale was commissioned into the British Army as a Lieutenant on 22 December 1915 during World War I, and he was awarded the Military Cross for bravery shown during the Imperial German Army's failed Spring Offensive of 1918. In 1918, he volunteered to serve in the British Indian Army in British Raj, and he rose to the rank of Captain in 1930 and to Major in 1938. In 1941, he was promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel and given command of a parachute brigade, and he was given command of the British 6th Airborne Division in May 1943 with the rank of Major-General. The division was known for its invasion of Normandy in Operation Tonga in 1944, and Gale landed in Normandy by glider to accompany the division into battle. On 5 September 1944, the division was pulled from the front lines for rest and recuperation, and Gale was promoted to Lieutenant-General on 24 May 1945. In September 1958, he replaced Bernard Montgomery as deputy commander of the NATO forces in Europe, and he retired in 1960. Gale died in 1982 at the age of 86.
Hera

**Hera** was the goddess of the home in Greek mythology. One of the three sisters of Zeus and his wife, Hera was the mother of Hephaestus, Ares, and several other gods and goddesses. She was known to have been one of the goddesses that was angered by Paris of Troy's decision to choose Aphrodite as the most beautiful goddess, although many believe that Hera was the most beautiful (despite the fact that she was the goddess of cuckolded wives).
Savoy

**Savoy** is a region of France located on the Alps borders with Switzerland and Italy, located to the east. The historical region is divided between the three countries, and from 1003 to 1860 the House of Savoy ruled the region, the longest-lasting royal house in Europe. Savoy was ruled as a county and duchy with its capital at Turin (Torino), and it would become a part of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Sardinia would unify Italy under its banner in 1860, and France ceded its Savoyard lands to the Italians, and Torino became an Italian city. In 2008, the region had a population of 1,125,119 people.
Mongolia

**Mongolia** is a landlocked country in East Asia, located to the north of China and to the south of Russia. With its capital at Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia is still mostly undeveloped, with 30% of its population of 3,000,000 people still living a nomadic lifestyle as the Mongols of old did. The country has little arable land, and much of the country consists of grassy steppe, the Gobi Desert, and some mountain ranges. In 1992, Mongolia became a market economy after the fall of the Mongolian People's Republic, but state atheism still influences the culture of Mongolia. 53% of the population is Buddhist, 38.6% non-religious, 3% Muslim, 2.9% Tengri, 2.1% Christian, and .4% other religions.
Iowa

**Iowa** is a state in the Midwest region of the United States, with its capital at Des Moines. The state touches the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River to the west, and it used to be a part of French Louisiana (its state flag is patterned after the tricolor of France) before the America acquired it in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase. On December 28, 1846, Iowa was admitted to the union as the 29th state, and it is currently the safest state in America. In 2015, it had a population of 3,123,899 people.
United States Supreme Court

The **Supreme Court of the United States** is the highest federal court of the United States, established on June 21, 1788 as the judicial branch of the federal government. The Supreme Court consists of a total of nine justices, with one Chief Justice and eight associate justices. Justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, or are impeached, and most justices vote according to conservative, liberal, or moderate ideologies when deciding court cases. The Supreme Court's objective is to judge high-profile cases and apply them to constitutional law, and the court often votes unanimously, although there have been a few occasions in which there have been dissenters during major cases. The Supreme Court meets in Washington DC in the Supreme Court Building on 1 First Street, Northeast.
Parliament Square

**Parliament Square** is a square at the northwest end of the Palace of Westminster in Westminster, London, England. It was laid out in 1868 to open up the space around the Houses of Parliament and to improve traffic flow, and, starting in 1874, twelve statues of British, Commonwealth, and foreign political figures were erected in the square: George Canning, Edward Smith-Stanley, Lord Palmerston, Robert Peel, Benjamin Disraeli, Abraham Lincoln, Jan Smuts, Winston Churchill, Nelson Mandela, David Lloyd George, Mahatma Gandhi, and Millicent Fawcett. It is one of London's main tourist attractions, as well as a popular protest site.
North Africa

**North Africa** is a geopolitical region of Africa that includes Morocco, Western Sahara, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Egypt, and Sudan, with the countries of Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and Chad sometimes being counted as part of North Africa despite being located in the Maghreb. The region is overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, and much of the populace consists of Berbers and Arabs, including Arabized indigenous peoples and mixed-race Tuaregs. Culturally, it has more in common with the Middle East than the other parts of Africa south of the Sahara, with the language of Arabic and Arab culture being widespread in the region.
Wilhelm I of Germany

**Wilhelm I of Germany**(27 March 1797-9 March 1888) was the Emperor of the German Empire from 1861 to 1888, succeeding Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia and preceding Frederick III of Germany.

## Biography

Wilhelm was the second son of Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia and Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and he fought in the War of the Sixth Coalition during the 1814 phase of the Napoleonic Wars. Wilhelm succeeded Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia upon his death in 1861, and during his reign Prussia would grow into a major contender in Europe. Wilhelm surrounded himself with military geniuses like Helmuth von Moltke and Otto von Bismarck, although he opposed Bismarck's reactionary policies. In 1864, Prussia conquered Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark, and in 1866 Prussia won the Seven Weeks' War against the Austrian Empire and their many German allies. Prussia's North German Federation now included Bavaria, Hannover, and other states that allied with Austria. In 1870, Prussia continued its conquests, seizing Alsace-Lorraine from France in the bloody Franco-Prussian War, and Wilhelm's victory overthrew Napoleon III of France and defeated the new and weak French Republic. Wilhelm's terms for victory included a march down the Champs d'Elysees, and he was crowned Emperor of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles Palace. Germany was finally united, and was also a great power. Wilhelm died in 1888, having brought Germany to power as a major player in Europe's power struggles.
Walloons

The **Walloons** are a Francophone ethnic group native to the Wallonia region of southern Belgium. The Walloons are closely binded to the French people due to their shared Catholic religion, language, traditions, and folklore, and they are descended from the Gallo-Romans with Germanic Frankish admixture. The Walloons are one of two main ethnic groups in Belgium, the other being the Dutch-related Flemish people. In 2017, the world Walloon population was around 4 million, including 3,240,000 in Belgium.
Romans

The **Romans** were a Latin culture from Latium in central Italy which dominated the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic, and the Roman Empire from 753 BC to 476 AD.

## History

The Romans were said to have been descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas's refugee followers and the Latins, and, when Romulus founded the city of Rome in the Alban Hills in 753 BC, he had the Roman men abduct Sabine women and rape them to populate the new city. The Romans came to speak the Latin language, and the Romans would break free of Etruscan rule in 509 BC and become an independent republic.

Over the next several centuries, the Romans gradually conquered (or vassalized) and assimilated their neighbors, starting with the Latins and Etruscans, and later including the Italic tribes of central Italy, the Gauls of northern Italy, the Greeks of southern Italy, and other cultural groups outside of Italy.

The Romans bestowed citizenship upon their conquered and assimilated peoples, and they also spread the Latin and Greek languages, expanded their infrastructure and political system, and also converted "barbarians" into Roman subjects. By 117 AD, at the height of the Roman Empire, the Roman culture stretched from England, France, Portugal, and Morocco in the west to Germania Inferior, Austria, Dacia, Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Egypt in the east, and the empire also included the entire Mediterranean world and North Africa. The spread of Roman culture influenced modern philosophy, linguistics, civilization, and nation-states. The Romans ceased to be a single ethnic group as the result of assimilation, instead becoming a Latin-speaking civilized culture. The empire was divided during the 4th century AD, and the Eastern Roman Empire came to be more Greek due to its situation at the former Greek city-state of Byzantium, while the Western Roman Empire was overrun by barbarians during the 5th century AD.

Over the next several centuries, the Romans, the original inhabitants, and the new barbarian tribes combined cultures to create new cultures, including the French, the Romano-British, the Spanish, the Portuguese, and others.

Today, Romance (of Latin origin) languages include Romanian, Spanish, French, Portuguese, and Italian, and Roman culture is carried on through linguistics and through politics (the republican system was later adopted in the United States and many other countries after the late 18th and 19th centuries).
US Army Rangers

The **US Army Rangers** are an elite formation of the US Military historically formed since 1751 during the Thirteen Colonies in the French and Indian War. Rangers have seen action in several wars such as the American Revolutionary War, War of 1812, Black Hawk War, American Civil War, and World War I before the modern unit's formation in 1942 during World War II. With six battalions, the Rangers have since been deployed in the Korean War, Vietnam War, Operation Eagle Claw, Operation Urgent Fury, Operation Just Cause, the Gulf War, the Somali Civil War, Kosovo War, Afghanistan War, and Iraq War, and they have been used as elite forces in several wars.
Vanuatu

The **Republic of Vanuatu** is a Pacific island nation located in the South Pacific, with Port Vila serving as its capital. The islands are inhabited mostly by the Melanesians, and Portuguese explorer Fernandes de Queiros discovered the island in 1606. Queiros claimed the archipelago for Spain, but it was claimed by France and the United Kingdom during the 1880s. In 1906, the two nations decided to create a condominium to govern the "New Hebrides", but an independence movement rose during the 1970s. On 30 July 1980, Vanuatu was granted its independence. In 2016, Vanuatu had a population of 272,459 people.