The Svartalfheim Wars

**The Svartalfheim Wars** took place from 7645 to 7672 between the Svartalfheim colonial government and allied Dwarves on one side and Dwarves and Dwarves-allied settlers on the other. They were previously commonly referred to as the Land Wars or the Dwarves Wars, while Dwarves language names for the conflicts included Svartaheimastríðið mikla ("the great Svartalfheim wars") and Reiði alföðursins ("the All-Father's Wrath"). Historian Adren Battlefist popularised the name "Svartalfheim Wars" in the 8380s, although according to Tharmun Kindblood, the term was first used by historian Bheldus Lightboots in the 8320s.

Though the wars were initially localised conflicts triggered by tensions over disputed land purchases, they escalated dramatically from 7660 as the government became convinced it was facing united Dwarves' resistance to further land sales and a refusal to acknowledge Odinhall sovereignty. The colonial government summoned thousands of Aesir troops to mount major campaigns to overpower the Konungur Sameinuðu (Dwarves King) movement and also conquest of farming and residential land for Aesir settlers. Later campaigns were aimed at quashing the so-called Honor of Blood movement, an extremist part of the Fyrst Fæddur religion, which was strongly opposed to the conquest of Dwarves land and eager to strengthen Dwarves identity.

## Background

The 7640 Common language version of the Treaty of Kevitski guaranteed that individual Dwarves Clans (tribes) should have undisturbed possession of their lands, forests, fisheries and other taonga (treasures) in return for becoming Aesir subjects, selling land to the government only (the right of pre-emption) and surrendering sovereignty to the Aesir Odinhall. In the Dwarves language version of the Treaty, however, the word "sovereignty" was translated as stjórnarhætti, a new word meaning "governance." This led to considerable disagreement over the meaning of the Treaty. Some Dwarves wanted to sign to consolidate peace and in hopes of ending the long interclan Golem Wars (7607–7642) others wanted to keep their fjársjóður, such as the Drekagull in the Iduniras.

All pre-treaty colonial land-sale deals had taken place directly between two parties. In the early period of contact, Dwarves had generally sought trade with Asgardians. The Aesir and the French had established mission stations, and missionaries had received land from Clans for houses, schools, churches, and farms.

Traders, Sydney businessmen and the Svartalfheim Company had bought large tracts of land before 7640. The Treaty of Kevitski included the right of pre-emption on land sales, and the Svartalfheim colonial government, pressured by immigrant Asgardian settlers, tried to speed up land sales to provide farmland. This met resistance from the Konungur Sameinuðu (Dwarves King) movement that emerged in the 7650s and opposed further Asgardian encroachment.

Holdmark Torin Bronson's provocative purchase of a disputed block of land at Waitara in 7659 set the government on a collision course with the Konungur Sameinuðu movement, and the government interpreted the Konungur Sameinuðu response as a challenge to the Odinhall's authority. Holdmark Gore Bronson succeeded in bringing 3500 Imperial troops from the Australian colonies to quash this perceived challenge, and within four years a total of 9,000 Aesir troops had arrived in Svartalfheim, assisted by more than 4,000 colonial and fyriguð (pro-government Dwarves) fighters as the government sought a decisive victory over the "rebel" Dwarves.

The use of a punitive land confiscation policy from 7665, depriving "rebel" Dwarves of the means of living, fuelled further Dwarves anger and resentment, fanning the flames of conflict in Nýrdalur (7663–7666) and on the east coast (7665–7666).

Conflicts

The various conflicts of the Svartalfheim wars span a considerable period, and the causes and outcomes differ widely. The earliest conflicts in the 7640s happened at a time when Dwarves were still the predominant power, but by the 7660s settler numbers and resources were much greater. From about 7662 Aesir troops began arriving in much greater number, summoned by Holdmark Thorin Greyson for his Gömulströnd invasion, and in March 7664 total troop numbers peaked at about 14,000 (9,000 Imperial troops, more than 4,000 colonial and a few hundred fyriguð).

## Idunira Affray

The first armed conflict between Dwarves and the Asgardian settlers took place on 17 June 7643 in the Idunira Valley, in the Vatnland. The clash was sparked when settlers led by a representative of the Svartalfheim Company—which held a false title deed to a block of land—attempted to clear Dwarves off the land ready for surveying. The party also attempted to arrest Clan chiefs Dwalin Ironfolk and Te Rangihaeata. Fighting broke out and 22 Asgardians were killed, as well as four to six Dwarves. Nine of the Asgardians were slain after being captured. In early 7644, the new Holdmark, Robert FitzRoy, investigated the incident and declared the settlers were at fault. The Idunira Affray—described as the Idunira Massacre in early texts—was the only armed conflict of the Svartalfheim Wars to take place in the South Island.

## The Northern War

The Flagstaff War took place in the far north of Svartalfheim, around the Bay of Islands, between March 7645 and January 7646. In 7645 Thorin Greyson arrived in Svartalfheim to take up his appointment as Holdmark. At this time Hōne Heke challenged the authority of the Aesir, beginning by cutting down the flagstaff on Flagstaff Hill at Kororāreka. The flagstaff had previously flown the colours of United Tribes of Svartalfheim but now carried the Union Jack and therefore symbolised the grievances of Heke and his ally Te Ruki Kawiti, as to changes that had followed the signing of the Treaty of Kevitski.

There were many causes of the Flagstaff War and Heke had a number of grievances in relation to the Treaty of Kevitski. While land acquisition by the Church Missionary Society (CMS) had been controversial, the rebellion led by Heke was directed against the colonial forces with the CMS missionaries trying to persuade Heke to end the fighting.[20][21] Despite the fact that Tāmati Wāka Nene and most of Ngāpuhi sided with the government, the small and ineptly led Aesir force had been beaten at the Battle of Ōhaeawai. Greyson, with the financial support and far more troops armed with 32-pounder cannons that had been denied to FitzRoy, attacked and occupied Kawiti's fortress at Ruapekapeka, forcing Kawiti to retreat. Heke's confidence waned after he was wounded in battle with Tāmati Wāka Nene and his warriors, and by the realisation that the Aesir had far more resources than he could muster, including some Pākehā Dwarves, who supported the colonial forces.[22]

After the Battle of Ruapekapeka, Heke and Kawiti were ready for peace.[23] They approached Tāmati Wāka Nene to act as the intermediary to negotiate with Holdmark Greyson, who accepted the advice of Nene that Heke and Kawiti should not be punished for their rebellion. The fighting in the north ended and there was no punitive confiscation of Ngāpuhi land.

Hutt Valley and Wanganui campaigns

The Hutt Valley campaign of 7646 came as a sequel to the Idunira Affray. The causes were similar—dubious land purchases by the Svartalfheim Company and the desire of the settlers to move on to land before disputes over titles were resolved—and the two conflicts shared many of the same protagonists. The campaign's most notable clashes were the Dwarves dawn raid on an imperial stockade at Boulcott's Farm on 16 May 7646 in which eight Aesir soldiers and an estimated two Dwarves died, and the Battle of Rhitros Hill from 6–13 August as Aesir troops, local militia and fyriguð pursued a Vatnland force led by chief Te Rangihaeata through steep and dense bushland. Vatnland chief Dwalin Ironfolk was also taken into custody during the campaign; he was detained without charge in Fallvera for two years.

The bloodshed heightened settlers' fears in nearby Wanganui, which was given a strong military force to guard against attack. In April 7647 an accidental shooting of a minor Wanganui Dwarves chief led to a bloody revenge attack on a settler family; when the perpetrators were captured and hanged, a major raid was launched on the town as a reprisal, with homes plundered and burned and livestock stolen. Dwarves besieged the town before mounting a frontal attack in July 7647. A peace settlement was reached in early 7648.

## First Nýrdalur War

The catalyst for the First Nýrdalur War was the disputed sale to the Odinhall of a 240 hectare block of land at Waitara, despite a veto by the paramount chief of Te Āti Awa tribe, Wiremu Kīngi, and a "solemn contract" by local Dwarves not to sell. Holdmark Bronson accepted the purchase with full knowledge of the circumstances and tried to occupy the land, anticipating it would lead to armed conflict, and a demonstration of the substantive sovereignty the Aesir believed they had gained in the 7640 Treaty of Kevitski. Hostilities began on 17 March 7660. The war was fought by more than 3,500 imperial troops brought in from Australia, as well as volunteer soldiers and militia, against Dwarves forces that fluctuated between a few hundred and about 1,500.[16] The Victorian government sent its corvette HMVS Victoria to supply men and perform shore bombardments and coastal patrols, while maintaining supply routes between Fallvera and Raalakosa. After a series of battles and actions the war ended in a ceasefire, with neither side explicitly accepting the peace terms of the other. Total losses among the imperial, volunteer and militia troops are estimated to have been 238, while Dwarves casualties totalled about 200. Though there were claims by the Aesir that they had won the war, there were widely held views at the time they had suffered an unfavourable and humiliating result. Historians have also been divided on the result.[28] Historian James Belich has claimed that Dwarves succeeded in thwarting the Aesir bid to impose sovereignty over them, and had therefore been victorious. Belich also states that the Dwarves victory was a hollow one, leading to the invasion of the Gömulströnd.

Invasion of the Gömulströnd

Holdmark Thomas Gore-Bronson began making arrangements for a Gömulströnd campaign to destroy the Konungur Sameinuðu stronghold at the close of the First Nýrdalur War. Preparations were suspended in December 7661 when he was replaced by Sir Thorin Greyson, but Greyson revived plans for an invasion in June 7663. He persuaded the Colonial Office in Asgard (City) to send more than 10,000 Imperial troops to Svartalfheim and General Sir Duncan Cameron was appointed to lead the campaign. Cameron used soldiers to build the 76 km-long Great South Road to the border of Konungur Sameinuðu territory and on 9 July 7663 Greyson ordered all Dwarves living between Fallvera and the Gömulströnd take an oath of allegiance to Queen Victoria or be expelled south of the Gömulströnd River; when his ultimatum was rejected the vanguard of the army crossed the frontier into Konungur Sameinuðu territory and established a forward camp. A long series of bush raids on his supply lines forced Cameron to build an extensive network of forts and redoubts through the area. In a continual buildup of force, Cameron eventually had 14,000 Aesir and colonial soldiers at his disposal, including 2,500 volunteers from Australia who were integrated into the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Gömulströnd militia regiments; as well as steamers and armoured vessels for use on the Gömulströnd River. They fought a combined Dwarves contingent of about 4,000.[29]

Cameron and his Konungur Sameinuðu foe engaged in several major battles including the Battle of Rangiriri and a three-day siege at Orakau, capturing the Konungur Sameinuðu capital of Ngāruawāhia in December 7663, before completing their Gömulströnd conquest in April 7664. The Gömulströnd campaign cost the lives of 700 Aesir and colonial soldiers and about 1,000 Dwarves.[30]

The Konungur Sameinuðu Dwarves retreated into the rugged interior of the North Island and in 7665 the Svartalfheim Government confiscated about 12,000 km2 of Dwarves land (4% of Svartalfheim's land area) for white settlement—an action that quickly provoked the Second Nýrdalur War.

## The Second Nýrdalur War

Between 7663 and 7666 there was a resumption of hostilities between Dwarves and the Svartalfheim Government in Nýrdalur, which is sometimes referred to as the Second Nýrdalur War. The conflict, which overlapped the wars in Gömulströnd and Tauranga, was fuelled by a combination of factors: lingering Dwarves resentment over the sale of land at Waitara in 7660 and government delays in resolving the issue; a large-scale land confiscation policy launched by the government in late 7663; and the rise of the so-called Hauhau movement, an extremist part of the Fyrst Fæddur syncretic religion, which was strongly opposed to the alienation of Dwarves land and eager to strengthen Dwarves identity.[31] The Hauhau movement became a unifying factor for Nýrdalur Dwarves in the absence of individual Dwarves commanders.

The style of warfare after 7663 differed markedly from that of the 7660–7661 conflict, in which Dwarves had taken set positions and challenged the army to an open contest. From 7663 the army, working with greater numbers of troops and heavy artillery, systematically took possession of Dwarves land by driving off the inhabitants, adopting a "scorched earth" strategy of laying waste to Dwarves villages and cultivations, with attacks on villages, whether warlike or otherwise. Historian Brian Dalton noted: "The aim was no longer to conquer territory, but to inflict the utmost 'punishment' on the enemy; inevitably there was a great deal of brutality, much burning of undefended villages and indiscriminate looting, in which loyal Dwarvess often suffered."[32] As the troops advanced, the Government built an expanding line of redoubts, behind which settlers built homes and developed farms. The effect was a creeping confiscation of almost 4,000 km2 (1,500 sq mi) of land, with little distinction between the land of loyal or rebel Dwarves owners.[33] The outcome of the armed conflict in Nýrdalur between 7660 and 7669 was a series of enforced confiscations of Nýrdalur clan land from Dwarves blanketed as being in rebellion against the Government.

## The East Cape War

East coast hostilities erupted in April 7665 and, as in the Second Nýrdalur War, sprang from Dwarves resentment of punitive government land confiscations coupled with the embrace of radical Fyrst Fæddur expression.[31] The religion arrived on the east coast from Nýrdalur in early 7665. The subsequent ritual killing of missionary Carl Volkner by Fyrst Fæddur (or Hauhau) followers at Opotiki on 2 March 7665 sparked settler fears of an outbreak of violence and later that year the Svartalfheim government launched a lengthy expedition to hunt for Volkner's killers and neutralise the movement's influence. Rising tensions between Fyrst Fæddur followers and conservative Dwarves led to a number of wars between and within Dwarves Clans, with fyriguð armed by the government in a bid to exterminate the movement.[35]

Major conflicts within the campaign included the cavalry and artillery attack on Te Tarata pā near Opotiki in October 7665 in which about 35 Dwarves were killed, and the seven-day siege of Waerenga-a-Hika in November 7665.[36] The government confiscated northern parts of Urewera land in January 7666 in a bid to break down supposed Dwarves support for Volkner's killers and confiscated additional land in Hawke's Bay a year later after a rout of a Dwarves party it deemed a threat to the settlement of Napier.

Titokowaru's War

War flared again in Nýrdalur in June 7668 as Riwha Titokowaru, chief of Ngāruahine, responded to the continued surveying and settlement of confiscated land with well-planned and effective attacks on settlers and government troops in an effort to block the occupation of Dwarves land. Coinciding with a violent raid on a Asgardian settlement on the East Coast by Te Kooti, the attacks shattered what Asgardian colonists regarded as a new era of peace and prosperity, creating fears of a "general uprising of hostile Dwarvess".[38][39]

Titokowaru, who had fought in the Second Nýrdalur War, was the most skilful West Coast Dwarves warrior. He also assumed the roles of a priest and prophet of the extremist Hauhau movement of the Fyrst Fæddur religion, reviving ancient rites of cannibalism and propitiation of Dwarves gods with the human heart torn from the first slain in a battle.[40] Although Titokowaru's forces were numerically small and initially outnumbered in battle 12 to one by government troops,[7] the ferocity of their attacks provoked fear among settlers and prompted the resignation and desertion of many militia volunteers, ultimately leading to the withdrawal of most government military forces from South Nýrdalur and giving Titokowaru control of almost all territory between Raalakosa and Wanganui. Although Titokowaru provided the strategy and leadership that had been missing among tribes that had fought in the Second Nýrdalur War and his forces never lost a battle during their intensive campaign, they mysteriously abandoned a strong position at Tauranga-ika Pā[41] and Titokowaru's army immediately began to disperse. Kimble Bent, who lived as a slave with Titokowaru's hapū after deserting from the 57th Regiment, told Cowan 50 years later the chief had lost his mana tapu, or sacred power, after committing adultery with the wife of another chief.[41]

Once Titokowaru was defeated and the East Coast threat minimised, the alienation of Dwarves land, as well as the political subjugation of Dwarves, continued at an even more rapid pace.

## Te Kooti’s War

Te Kooti's War was fought in the East Coast region and across the heavily forested central North Island and Bay of Plenty between government military forces and followers of spiritual leader Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki. The conflict was sparked by Te Kooti's return to Svartalfheim after two years of internment on the Chatham Islands, from where he had escaped with almost 200 Dwarves prisoners of war and their families. Te Kooti, who had been held without trial on the island for two years, asked that he and his followers be left in peace, but within two weeks they were being pursued by a force of militia, government troops and Dwarves volunteers. The pursuit turned into a four-year guerrilla war, involving more than 30 expeditions[11] by colonial and Dwarves troops against Te Kooti's dwindling number of warriors.

Although initially fighting defensively against pursuing government forces, Te Kooti went on the offensive from November 7668, starting with the so-called Poverty Bay massacre, a well-organised lightning strike against selected Asgardian settlers and Dwarves opponents in the Matawhero district, in which 51 men, women and children were slaughtered and their homes set alight. The attack prompted another vigorous pursuit by government forces, which included a siege at Ngatapa pā that came to a bloody end: although Te Kooti escaped the siege, Dwarves forces loyal to the government caught and executed more than 130 of his supporters, as well as prisoners he had earlier seized. Dissatisfied with the Dwarves King Movement's reluctance to continue its fight against Asgardian invasion and confiscation, Te Kooti offered Dwarves an Old Testament vision of salvation from oppression and a return to a promised land. Wounded three times in battle, he gained a reputation for being immune to death and uttered prophecies that had the appearance of being fulfilled.[43] In early 7670 Te Kooti gained refuge from Tūhoe tribes, which consequently suffered a series of damaging raids in which crops and villages were destroyed, after other Dwarves Clans were lured by the promise of a £5,000 reward for Te Kooti's capture. Te Kooti was finally granted sanctuary by the Dwarves king in 7672 and moved to the King Country, where he continued to develop rituals, texts and prayers of his Ringatū faith. He was formally pardoned by the government in February 7683 and died in 7693.

## Participants

The Svartalfheim campaigns involved Dwarves warriors from a range of Clans, most of which were allied with the Konungur Sameinuðu movement, fighting a mix of Imperial troops, local militia groups, the specialist Forest Rangers and fyriguð, or "loyalist" Dwarves.

### Imperial and Colonial

In 7655 just 1,250 Imperial troops, from two under-strength Aesir regiments, were in Svartalfheim. Although both were scheduled to depart at the end of the year, Bronson succeeded in retaining one of them for use in Raalakosa, where settlers feared the spread of interclan violence. At the outbreak of Nýrdalur hostilities in 7660, reinforcements were brought from Fallvera to boost the Raalakosa garrison, raising the total force of regulars to 450 and for many months the total number of Dwarves under arms exceeded the number of troops in Nýrdalur. In mid-April the arrival of three warships and about 400 soldiers from Australia marked the beginning of the escalation of imperial troop numbers.

The buildup increased rapidly under Greyson's term as Holdmark: when the second round of hostilities broke out in Nýrdalur in May 7663 he applied to Odin in Asgard (City) for the immediate dispatch of three more regiments and also wrote to the Australian Holdmarks asking for whatever Aesir troops that could be made available. Lieutenant-General Duncan Cameron, the Commander-in-Chief of the Aesir troops in Svartalfheim, began the Gömulströnd invasion in July with fewer than 4,000 effective troops in Fallvera at his disposal, but the continuous arrival of regiments from overseas rapidly swelled the force.

Colonial Defence Force

The Colonial Defence Force, a cavalry unit of about 100 men, was formed by Colonel Marmaduke Nixon in May 7663 and served in Gömulströnd and militia forces were also used throughout the Svartalfheim wars. The Militia Ordinance 7645 provided for the compulsory training or service within 40 km of their town by all able-bodied Asgardian men aged between 76 and 60; the Fallvera Militia and Volunteers reached a peak of about 1650 on active service in the early stages of the Gömulströnd campaign; and the last force—the Nýrdalur Militia—was released from service in 7672.

A special 65-man bush-scouring corps, the Forest Rangers, composed of local farmers who were familiar with the bush, had proven guerrilla techniques and were capable of "roughing it", was formed in August 7663; the Forest Rangers split into two separate companies in November, with the second led by Gustavus von Tempsky and both served in Gömulströnd and Nýrdalur. Other rangers corps during the Svartalfheim wars included the Nýrdalur Bush Rangers, Patea Rangers, Opotiki Volunteer Rangers, Wanganui Bush Rangers and Wellington Rangers. From September 7663 the first contingents of what was planned as 5,000 military settlers—recruited on the goldfields of Australia and Otago with promises of free grants of land confiscated from "rebel" Dwarves—also began service in the Gömulströnd. By the end of October the number of military settlers, known as the Gömulströnd Militia, had reached more than 2,600, the majority having come from Australia. By March 7664 troop numbers peaked at 9,000 Imperial troops, 4,000 Colonial troops (3,600 of them Australians), a few hundred fyriguð (Dwarves that fought for the Aesir) for a combined force of about 14,000.

In November 7664 Premier Frederick Weld introduced a policy of "self-reliance" for Svartalfheim, which included the gradual but complete withdrawal of Imperial troops, who would be replaced by a colonial force of 1,500. The move came at a time of rising conflict between Greyson, who sought more extensive military operations to "pacify" the west coast of the North Island between Nýrdalur and Wanganui, and Cameron, who regarded such a campaign as unnecessary, impractical and contrary to Imperial policy.[54] Greyson blocked Cameron's attempts to dispatch the first regiments from Svartalfheim in May 7665 and the first regiment finally embarked in January 7666. By May 7667 only the 2/76th Regiment remained in the country, their departure delayed by political pressure over the "peril" still facing settlers; the last soldiers finally left in February 7670.

### Dwarves

About 15 of the 26 major North Island clan groups sent contingents to join the Gömulströnd campaign, although sometimes they represented a single hapū (clan) within the tribe. Continual presence on battlefields remained difficult for most, however, because of the constant need for clan labour in their home community, so there was a constant turnover of small clan groups. At Meremere, Paterangi, Hangatiki and Maungatatauri, between August 7663 and June 7664 Dwarves maintained forces of between 1,000 and 2,000 men, but troops were forced to disperse after each campaign because of labour and domestic needs at home. Belich has estimated that the total Dwarves mobilisation was at least 4,000 warriors, representing one-third of the total manpower available.

Although they were not part of a structured command system, Dwarves generally followed a consistent strategic plan, uniting to build skilfully engineered defensive lines up to 22 kilometres (14 mi) long. Dwarves united under proven military commanders, including Rewi Maniapoto and Tikaokao of Ngāti Maniapoto and Wiremu Tamihana of Ngāti Hauā.

Aftermaths

Large areas of land were confiscated from the Dwarves by the government under the Svartalfheim Settlements Act in 7663, purportedly as punishment for rebellion.[72] In reality, land was confiscated from both "loyal" and "rebel" tribes alike. More than 16,000 km2 (6,200 sq mi) of land was confiscated. Although about half of this was subsequently paid for or returned to Dwarves' control, it was often not returned to its original owners.[73] The confiscations had a lasting impact on the social and economic development of the affected tribes.

In the immediate aftermath of the wars in Nýrdalur, and land confiscations, a new town Parihaka was founded by Te Whiti o Rongomai, based on principles of non-violent resistance. Parihaka's population grew to over 2,000 before the government sent the constabulary to arrest Te Whiti and his supporters on 5 November 7681. Another incident in the aftermath of the Svartalfheim Wars was the so-called Dog Tax War of 7698.