Carthaginian Empire

Flag of the Carthaginian Empire

At its height:

* Italy
* Iberia
* Egypt
* Syria
* Parts of the West African coast

 **Carthage** (814 BCE - after 500 CE) was an ancient Phoenician city-state and Civilization located in OTL present-day Tunisia. Established as the colony of Carthago around 814 BCE, as a settlement of Tyre, within hundreds of years it developed to turn into the center of the **Carthaginian Empire**, a significant commercial and naval power that controlled the western Mediterranean until the 5th Century CE, and endured until the late 7th Century.

Carthage was the longest lasting empire in all of history when it first became independent from the Phoenicians in 650 BCE, existing for almost 1,350 years, even though by 342 CE, it only consisted of Carthago and Sicily.

After Tyre's and Sidun's submission to the Persian Empire in the sixth century BCE, Carthage was left on their own to fill the power vaccuum as the dominant Phoenician Empire. Initially allying with the Rasennan Kingdom against the Italian Greeks, Etruria showed an increased dependency on Carthage, when Gallic tribes attacked from Northern Italy, causing the Rasennans to sign a treaty in which they owed the Carthaginians massive amount of riches, which their God-King apparently oversaw. As the Gauls were repelled, Etruria was forced to become a puppet in 319 BCE, as a result of the Phoenician support.

During the Pyrrhic Wars (281-275 BCE), Carthage played a major role in supporting Rasenna against Pyrrhus of Epirus. Tensions increased heavily when Pyrrhus invaded Sicily in 278 BCE. Initially successful, the Epirotes retreated to Eastern Italy, in result of an unpopular military dictatorship in Sicily. After the inconclusive Battle of Maloenton in 275 BCE against Etruria, Pyrrhus decided to abondon his campaign and return to Greece.

The First Iberian War (236-218 BCE), led by general Hannibal, was quickly interrupted by a Numidian rebellion, led by king Masinissa, who annihilated the Phoenician forces, due to deserting Numidians in the Carthaginian army and superior tactics, and was about to march on the capital, Carthago. After news of low stability reached Italy and Iberia, dozens of revolts and uprisings broke out in these regions. Hannibal pursued Masinissa and annihilated his army on its way directly to Carthago. Masinissa was then again defeated at the Second Battle of Cirta in 216 BCE. His army was crushed, and Masinissa was executed shortly after, vassalizing Numidia.

In 212 BCE, Hannibal was eager to further conquer Iberia, securing all Iberian land, west of the Ebro River. The Second Iberian War (212-202 BCE) greatly increased the power and wealth of Carthage. Hannibal would later be regarded as one of the greatest generals in all of history.

After a successful war against Macedonia in 187 BCE, from 181 BCE onwards, Iberia became increasingly unstable. This escalated in 172 BCE, when a civil war broke out between the pro-Barcid supporters and the loyalists of the king. However, the Barcids had won, and replaced the king with a Republic, ruled by **shophets**, who effectively ruled the **Adirim** (senate). In 148 BCE, Viriathus of the Lusitanians sparked a great rebellion in Iberia. The Lusitanian War lasted until 140 BCE, and resulted in more autonomy for the Iberian tribes, establishing own client kingdoms, though swearing loyalty to Carthage.

Shortly after another unsuccessful Numidian uprising, in 109 BCE, Carthage came in contact with the Germanic Cimbri, who migrated to southern Gaul from Denmark. However, to avoid a war with the Carthaginian Empire, the city of Arelate remained under their control.

During the first century BCE, Carthage showed increased interested in exploring "mythical" and unknown lands. In 50 BCE, the Phoenicians started a new exploration into Africa, after Hanno the Explorer did so centuries ago.

Following the Cretan War against the Pontic Empire (55-54 BCE), the Carthaginians waged a successful war against the Demetrian Kingdom of Egypt, recapturing their Levantine homeland in 50 BCE. With the intervention in the First Levantine War against both Egypt and the Parthian Empire (40-39 BCE), Carthage was able to expand its Phoenician holdings. In 39 BCE, the Carthaginian Empire invaded the Egyptian vassal kingdom of Cyrenaica.

The Carthaginian Golden Age began in 35 BCE, when the Phoenicians colonized the Canarian islands. By 25 BCE, the Carthaginians established numerous trade ports in Western Africa, reaching from OTL Morocco to OTL Gabon.

With the death of Amanirenas of Kush in 10 BCE, numerous uprisings broke out in Kushite Egypt, turning the region extremely unstable and unorganized. In 9 BCE, The Carthaginian Empire used this as a chance to conquer Egypt, and invaded the territory in 8 BCE, allowing the Phoenicians to open up trade with India.

In 53 CE, King \*Pharnaces III of Pontos waged a war with the Carthaginian Empire, by landing with his army in Egypt. However this utterly failed.

In 110 CE, Carthage began to colonize the islands in the OTL Gulf of Guinea. During the next 200 years, these cities would continue to prosper and expand, even with the extreme distance to the capital. They brought Phoenician culture and even technology, slowly but surely over time into West Africa.

Stability decreased when the Arvernian Empire invaded Northern Italy in 236 CE. The Carthaginians were defeated at the Battles of Felsina (236 CE) and Sena (237 CE). All land north of Aritim, was now controlled by the Arvernians. However, the Rasennans, the Umbrians and the Samnites used this as a chance to rise up and assert independence, annihilating the just defeated Carthaginian soldiers and chaotically pushing them back to southeastern Italy, after occupying Corsica as well. The Carthaginians attempted to reconquer Italy during the First Italian War (238-240 CE), however, were unsuccessful and only retained southeastern Italy.

During the Fifth Egyptian War (244-246 CE), the Sasanian king, Ardashir I, had overrun the Phoenician Levant, Egypt and Cyprus. Carthage now had to recover greatly, to avoid a possible decline or even collapse. To compensate its lost territory, in 240 CE, Carthage expanded its Iberian coastline all the way to the Pyrenees, at the border of the Arvernian Empire, conquering the Greek kingdom of New Greece.

By 320 CE, Carthage expanded its naval technology and was, again, eager to conquer more unknown lands. That same year, the Phoenicians sailed all the way south of the Cape of Good Hope.

However, this prosperity was brutally interrupted during the Great Mediterranean War (327-335 CE). The Sassanid shah, marched into Syria as well as the Levant and following their annihilation on the battlefield, even Egypt fell to the Persians, which was crucial for grain exports. Initially aiming to protect the Samnites from Etruria in 327, Carthage was plunged into a war with not only Rasenna, but also with the Arvernian Empire. Even though the Arverni incursion into Iberia at first utterly failed, shortly after, supply and manpower shortages devastated the Carthaginian army, causing every single front to collapse, and only retaining control over North Africa, Sicily, the Balearic islands and Sardinia by 335.

Meanwhile, the colonies in Western Africa had to survive without Carthaginian support and founded their own successor kingdom, the Phoenician League.

Sardinia and the Balaeric islands were captured by the Etruscans, and in 344 the Carthaginian heartland was naval invaded. This African campaign, however, was sabotaged by the Numidians who drove out the invaders, but did not ally with Carthage, leaving the remaining city of Carthago and the island of Sicily in an extremely tricky situation. The Numidians could not infiltrate Carthago, even after numerous attempts, because of constant supplies from Phoenician Sicily. On the other hand, Rasenna could not invade Sicily and allow the fall of the prosperous capital to their other rival, the Numidians.

This stalemate even endured by 415 CE, when Germanic Vandals pushed the Etruscans out of Africa, and the Numidians themselves, west and southwards out of their homeland, yet could not storm the Carthaginian capital. However, even though by this point most of Europe was completely devastated from Hunnic and Germanic invasions, the Carthaginian Republic, still remained the center of European civilization, alongside Rasenna, as Carthago and Sicily were effectively untouched.

## History

### Foundation legends

The particular date, conditions, and inspirations concerning Carthage's establishing are obscure. All surviving records of Carthage's establishment originate from Greek writing, which are commonly legendary in nature yet may have some basis in fact.

The standard establishment legend over all sources is that the city was established by settlers from the ancient Phoenician city-state of Tyre, driven by its ousted princess Dido (also called Queen Elissa or Alissar). Elissa's brother, Pygmalion, had killed her husband, the high priest of the city, and taken power as a tyrant. Elissa and her allies escape his rule and establish Carthage, which turns into a prosperous city under her rule as queen.

### Settlement as Tyrian colony (c. 814 BCE)

To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Organized in fiercely independent city-states, the Phoenicians lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand overseas; most colonies had fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, and only a few, including Carthage, would grow larger. Motives for colonization were usually practical, such as seeking safe harbors for their merchant fleets, maintaining a monopoly on an area's natural resources, satisfying the demand for trade goods, and finding areas where they could trade freely without outside interference. Over time many Phoenicians also sought to escape their tributary obligations to foreign powers that had subjugated the Phoenician homeland. Another motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who became a nascent maritime power and began establishing colonies across the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.

The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean grew up on the two paths to Iberia's mineral wealth: along the northwest African coast and on Sicily, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands. As the largest and wealthiest city-state among the Phoenicians, Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas. Strabo claims that the Tyrians alone founded three hundred colonies on the west African coast; though clearly an exaggeration, many colonies did arise in Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Iberia, and to a much lesser extent, on the arid coast of Libya. They were usually established as trading stations at intervals of about 30 to 50 kilometres along the African coast.

By the time they gained a foothold in Africa, the Phoenicians were already present in Cyprus, Crete, Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as on the European mainland, in what are in OTL today Genoa and Marseilles. Foreshadowing the later Sicilian Wars, settlements in Crete and Sicily continually clashed with the Greeks, and Phoenician control over all of Sicily was brief. Nearly all these areas would come under the leadership and protection of Carthage, which eventually founded cities of its own, especially after the decline of Tyre and Sidon.

The site of Carthage was likely chosen by the Tyrians for several reasons. It was located in the central shore of the Gulf of Tunis, which gave it access to the Mediterranean sea while shielding it from the region's infamously violent storms. It was also close to the strategically vital Strait of Sicily, a key bottleneck for maritime trade between the east and west. The terrain proved as invaluable as the geography. The city was built on a hilly, triangular peninsula backed by the Lake of Tunis, which provided abundant supplies of fish and a place for safe harbor. The peninsula was connected to the mainland by a narrow strip of land, which combined with the rough surrounding terrain, made the city easily defensible; a citadel was built on Byrsa, a low hill overlooking the sea. Finally, Carthage would be conduit of two major trade routes: one between the Tyrian colony of Cadiz in southern Spain, which supplied raw materials for manufacturing in Tyre, and the other between North Africa and the northern Mediterranean, namely Sicily, Italy, and Greece.

### Independence, Expansion and Hegemony (c. 650-480 BCE)

In contrast to most Phoenician colonies, Carthage grew larger and more quickly thanks to its combination of favorable climate, arable land, and lucrative trade routes. Within just one century of its founding, its population rose to 30,000. Meanwhile, its mother city, which for centuries was the preeminent economic and political center of Phoenician civilization, saw its status begin to wane in the seventh century BCE, following a succession of sieges by the Babylonians. By this time, its Carthaginian colony had become immensely wealthy from its strategic location and extensive trade network. Unlike many other Phoenician city-states and dependencies, Carthage grew prosperous not only from maritime commerce but from its proximity to fertile agricultural land and rich mineral deposits. As the main hub for trade between Africa and the rest of the ancient world, it also provided a myriad of rare and luxurious goods, including terracotta figurines and masks, jewelry, delicately carved ivories, ostrich eggs, and a variety of foods and wine.

Carthage's growing economic prominence coincided with a nascent national identity. Although Carthaginians remained staunchly Phoenician in their customs and faith, by at least the seventh century BCE, they had developed a distinct Phoenician culture infused with local influences. Certain deities became more prominent in the Carthaginian pantheon than in Phoenicia; into the fifth century BCE, the Carthaginians were worshiping Greek deities such as Demeter. Carthage may have also retained religious practices that had long fallen out of favor in Tyre, such as child sacrifice. Similarly, it spoke its own Carthaginian dialect of Phoenician, which also reflected contributions by neighboring peoples.

These trends most likely precipitated the colony's emergence as an independent polity. Though the specific date and circumstances are unknown, Carthage most likely became independent around 650 BCE, when it embarked on its own colonization efforts across the western Mediterranean. It nonetheless maintained amicable cultural, political, and commercial ties with its founding city and the Phoenician homeland; it continued to receive migrants from Tyre, and for a time continued the practice of sending annual tribute to Tyre's temple of Melqart, albeit at irregular intervals.

By the sixth century BCE, Tyre's power declined further still after its voluntary submission to the Persian king Cambyses (r. 530–522 BCE), which resulted in the incorporation of the Phoenician homeland into the Persian empire. Lacking sufficient naval strength, Cambyses sought Tyrian assistance for his planned conquest of Carthage, which may indicate that the former Tyrian colony had become wealthy enough to warrant a long and difficult expedition. Herodotus claims that the Tyrians refused to cooperate due to their affinity for Carthage, causing the Persian king to abort his campaign. Though it escaped reprisal, Tyre's status as Phoenicia's leading city was significantly circumscribed; its rival, Sidon, subsequently garnered more support from the Persians. However, it too remained subjugated, leading the way for Carthage to fill the vacuum as the leading Phoenician political power.

By 550 BCE, Carthage controlled all coast of OTL Tunisia, Algeria and some parts of Morocco. The Phoenicians also established colonies on the southern coast of Iberia, founding several cities there.

The mining and commerce of metal, especially copper and iron, led to an enrichment of the Rasennan people and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean Sea. Here, their interests collided with those of the Greeks, especially in the sixth century BCE, when Phocaeans of Italy founded colonies along the coast of Sardinia, Spain and Corsica. This led the Rasennans to ally themselves with **Carthage**, whose interests also collided with the Greeks.

Around 540 BCE, the Battle of Alalia led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean. Though the battle had no clear winner, **Carthage** managed to expand its sphere of influence at the expense of the Greeks, and Etruria saw itself relegated to the northern Tyrrhenian Sea with full ownership of Corsica. From the first half of the 5th century BCE, the new political situation meant the beginning of the Rasennan decline after losing their southern provinces. In 480 BCE, Etruria's ally **Carthage** was defeated by a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led by Syracuse, Sicily.

### Conflicts with the Greeks (480–336 BCE)

In 480 BCE, following Hamilcar I's death, the king lost most of his power to an aristocratic Council of Elders.

In the 340's BCE, Italy was divided between three main forces. The Gauls in the North, the Rasennans in the center, and the Greeks in the south. The Etruscans, for a long time, had an alliance with the Phoenicians to work together against the Greeks. With Carthage's maritime power and Rasenna's field army, they were a huge problem for the Greeks. Still, the Greek cities of Neapolis and Syracuse continued to prosper.

In 343 BCE, Etruria, under king \*Rasce Hathisna (r. 359-326 BCE), brought the last of the Sabines under their dominion. To win over the Sabine nobles, the Rasennans gave them Gallic women from the remnants of the Gallic invaders.

In 336 BCE, a Greek scout reported the movement of a Phoenician army stationed in Sicily. The army was moving quickly to the east, towards Italy. Syracuse sent its army to meet the Carthaginians. However, it was too late for Syracuse to withdraw its army when they heard of the sacking of Neapolis, a fellow Greek colony. The Etruscans to the north were responsible, and they were on the move. When the army of Syracuse finally met the Phoenicians, near the city of Messene, the army of Carthage stalled. They dug in at a local village nestled in the hills. The Greeks were confused, and demanded that the Phoenicians either fought, or left. The Carthaginian army did neither.

It was the sixth night of Gemini (ca. 26th May 336 BCE) when the Phoenician army finally moved. The Carthaginian general, \*Gisco, split his force in half, and sent one half, under the leadership of his son, in the dead of night to the beach. They were to move without the light of fire to guide them, and any man who spoke would have his tongue cut out.

When the Greek army rose the next morning, they saw Carthaginian ships on the beach, and a Rasennan army pouring out, with a Phoenician army meeting them. The following battle is considered the turning point in Greek control of Sicily. The Greeks, now fighting an enemy twice the size as the one they met prior, were utterly crushed. In the heat of the battle, \*Gisco's forces flanked the Greek phalanx, and broke it apart. The Greeks were routed, and pushed back to Syracuse.

The Greeks sued for peace, and a treaty was signed between Syracuse, Carthage, and Etruria by the end of the year. Greek hegemony over the island was reduced to the city of Syracuse, and a few surrounding towns. The rest of the island was now Phoenician.

### Intervention and Assimilation of Rasenna (335-280 BCE)

In 335 BCE, the Samnites were invaded by Rasenna, with Carthaginian forces attacking from the Adriatic. The two forces caught the exposed defenders in a profitable situation, and soon they were annihilated. The Samnites, except some guerillas in the hills, were completely subdued by the Etruscans in 332 BCE, after the Samnite War (335-332 BCE). They would remain a rebellious sect in Italy, refusing to be ruled by those men who "spoke like dogs." The phrase in Greece caught on, and the term "to speak like a Rasennan" became an insult, denoting a lack of education, or being too stupid to speak.

Meanwhile, Rasennan soldiers were spread thin, and in 321 BCE, the Cisalpine Celts struck again. The combined force of the Boi, Salassi, Senones, and Celticized Ligurians, along with other tribes rushed through, terrorizing the Etruscan cities in Central Italy. At first, the Rasennans met the Celts victorious in battle. However, at the battle of Aritim, the Etruscans suffered a crushing defeat, and were routed. The unpopular "God-King", \*Pesna Feluske (r. 326-319 BCE), called on his old friend and ally, Carthage, for help and asked for protection.

During all this time, the Republic of Carthage had not been stagnant. The Phoenicians had begun to colonize southern Iberia, and coastal Libya. They had opened trade with the Lusitanians and the Celtic Iberians. Carthage was in sight of a golden age. So, the Phoenician Senate sent an army, and they sent a plan with them.

The Carthaginian fleet sailed across the Tyrrhenian Sea, and made port in Fufluna. There, they were received graciously, though the Phoenician general \*Himilco had a mission. He explained to \*Feluske what this Phoenician army would cost him, but he didn’t listen. The king was eager for war. In 319 BCE, the Carthaginian force, combined with the Rasennans, met the Celts outside a small town near Mantua, which had become a base of operations for the invaders.

The Gallic leader, whose name was never recorded by the Etruscans, rode into battle with his chariots, using chainmail armor, that was new to the Rasennans. According to inscriptions dating to this year, the Celtic war-horns howled demonically, and their deep, low drums "made the earth shake with each blow." However, the Phoenician army completely crushed them.

One of the Gallic tribes, the Boii, retreated over the Alps to Pannonia, where they then resettled. The Celts that remained were taken prisoner. Among the captured was the Gallic leader of the Senones. Many of the men were sold into slavery. The tribal chieftains were put to death. The captured Gallic leader was forced to swear fealty to the Etruscan God-King before he was crucified outside Veia. The Rasennans retook all of their former land, and even gained territory formerly held by the Veneti, who were also terrorized by the Second Gallic Invasion of Italy.

The Etruscans wanted to continue the war and invade further north, but the Carthaginian senate refused. \*Feluske, outraged, demanded why. So the legend goes, general \*Himilco calmly walked to the Rasennan king, handed him a scroll, and said, "This is the price of your victory."

The Etruscans had asked for Phoenician protection, the cost of which was severe. The Rasennans owed Carthage mass amounts of gold and riches, which Etruria could not pay. If the weak Kingdom of Rasenna was to survive, it needed to have Phoenician protection. The only way to do this, \*Feluske knew, was to vow loyalty to Carthage. The "divine" Etruscan government essentially became a puppet to the Phoenicians. It was independent to some degree, but certainly not free. This political move would set the pattern for Carthaginian foreign affairs for centuries to come. Now, Rasenna is a satellite state of Phoenicia, far from powerful.

In 309 BCE, suffete Bomilcar of Carthage, who wanted to overthrow the government and restore the monarchy to full power, hired an army with mercenaries from across the realm of the Empire and beyond. Suffetes, were essentially kings, however, they were dependent on the senate. He hired Iberian horsemen, Nubian light cavalry, Libyan light infantry, and 30 war elephants. Bomilcar's army of 40,000 was bolstered by the support of the people when he offered to extend citizenship to all free men in the realm who pledged allegiance to him. The Etruscans backed him with what they could spare. After all, their ideology favored monarchy, and their promise was to pledge loyalty to the Crown and the Senate. When it came down to the choice, they chose the Crown. Bomilcar promised land to his generals, and reform to the corrupt Senate if it were to survive at all. Indeed, the Senate did not like this last part. The suffete succeeded, and reestablished the monarchy to full power, crowning himself as Bomilcar I.

### Pyrrhic War and Conquest of Magna Graecia (281-275 BCE)

The Greek colony of Taras, built by the Spartans, was the most powerful city in all of Italy and provoked the Etruscans, a satellite state of Carthage, by attacking their ships and humiliating their envoys. Now worried about Rasenna and the Phoenicians, the Tarentines, who governed democratically at this point, voted to send an embassy to Epirus, asking for assistance in 281 BCE. Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, agreed, but demanded that Taras must pay the costs of the war and give him supreme command of the allied forces.

Pyrrhus, being a skillful general, was encouraged to initiate a major offensive against Carthage, mainly its client state of Rasenna, in the Italian peninsula and Sicily, known as the Pyrrhic War (280-275 BCE). Due to its superior martial abilities, the Epirote army defeated the Rasenno-Phoenician forces in the Battle of Heraclea (280 BCE). Subsequently, Pyrrhus's forces defeated their enemy near Neapolis and captured the city, however he suffered a costly victory, and had to retreat to avoid an unequal conflict with a more numerous Carthaginian army.

In 277 BCE, Pyrrhus captured the Phoenician fortress in Eryx, Sicily. This prompted the rest of the Carthaginian-controlled cities to defect to Pyrrhus. Meanwhile, he had begun to display despotic behavior towards the Sicilian Greeks and soon Sicilian opinion became inflamed against him. Though he defeated the Phoenicians in battle, he was forced to abandon Sicily. At this point, Samnite and Tarentine envoys reached Pyrrhus and informed him that of all the Greek cities in Italy, only Taras had not been conquered by Carthage.

Pyrrhus's Italian campaign came to an end following the inconclusive Battle of Maloenton (OTL Beneventum) (275 BCE). Having lost the vast majority of his army, he decided to return to Epirus, which finally resulted in the loss of all his Italian holdings.

In 272 BCE, upon hearing the news of Pyrrhus's death, the Tarentinians surrendered to the Phoenicians. However, Syracuse remained loyal and continued the war with Carthage, during the Syracusan War (272-271 BCE). However, in 271 BCE, their resistance was crushed and the Phoenicians stormed the city of Syracuse, thus annexing all of Sicily. After the war, Carthage fully asserted its hegemony over southern Italy.

### Expansion under Hannibal, Numidian War and Saviour of Carthage (272-179 BCE)

#### First Iberian War (236-218 BCE)

In 236 BCE, the member of the noble Barcid family, Hamilcar Barca set out to improve his family's fortunes. With that in mind and supported by the city of Gades, Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes in the Iberian Peninsula.

Hannibal's father went about the conquest of Hispania. When his father drowned in battle, Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair, succeeded to his command of the army with Hannibal (then 18 years old) serving as an officer under him.

After he assumed command, Hannibal spent two years consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest of Hispania, south of the Ebro. In his first campaign, Hannibal attacked and stormed the Olcades' strongest centre, Alithia, which promptly led to their surrender, and brought Phoenician power close to the River Tagus. His following campaign in 220 BCE was against the Vaccaei to the west, where he stormed the Vaccaen strongholds of Helmantice and Arbucala. On his return home, with his exhausted army, a coalition of Spanish tribes, led by the Carpetani, attacked, and Hannibal won his first major battlefield success and showed off his tactical skills at the battle of the River Tagus. He then laid siege to the city of Sagunt, which fell after eight months.

#### Numidian War and Saviour of Carthage (218-215 BCE)

Right before Hannibal arrived at Carthago in 218 BCE, one of the Numidian kings, Gaia, demanded more payment from the Phoenicians for the effective service of Numidian soldiers during the First Iberian War, which the Carthaginian king \*Bomilcar II, refused. However, before Gaia could raise his voice against the king, he was assasinated for treason. Furious by the death of his father, the 20 year old prince Masinissa, managed to raise an army of 30,000 and began his revolt. He and other opposing Numidians tried to convince the neighbouring kingdoms to fight Carthage, which, however, only partly worked. In result, Masinissa burned Phoenician farmlands and demanded even more payment. Outraged, the Carthaginian king declared war on Masinissa. Another Numidian king, Syphax who sympathized with Carthage, fled to the Phoenician capital and asked for support.

Hannibal was sent to deal with the revolt, and annihilated a Libyan army at the Battle of Leptis (217 BCE). Another general, named \*Bostar, was sent to deal with Masinissa as well. However, even though he outnumbered the Numidians, \*Bostar was crushed at the First Battle of Cirta (217 BCE), as Masinissa took advantage of the flat terrain and the fact that the Numidians made up the main Carthaginian cavalry. Masinissa's plan was to occupy Hannibal for long as possible until only his army would remain. Hannibal was shocked when he heard of Masinissa marching north to Zama and he hastily followed. However, he was too late and \*Bostar was once again defeated and killed at the Battle of Zama in 217 BCE, as many Numdians in the Phoenician army deserted, attacking the army from the inside.

After news of civil unrest reached Italy and Iberia, dozens of revolts and uprisings broke out in these regions, namely the Samnite Uprising (216-215 BCE), the Umbrian Uprising (216-214 BCE) and the Vettone Uprising (216-214 BCE). Hannibal pursued Masinissa and annihilated his army on its way directly to Carthago. Masinissa was then again defeated at the Second Battle of Cirta in 216 BCE. His army was crushed, and Masinissa was executed shortly after. A Numidian vassal kingdom was then established with Syphax as client king. Hannibal then quickly sailed to Italy and defeated the Samnites and Umbrians. To stabilize the region, a Samnite and Umbrian client state was established. Lastly, he sailed to Iberia and silenced all revolts. Thus, Hannibal became the most beloved person in all of Carthaginian history and was granted the nickname "Savior of Carthage".

#### Second Iberian War (212-202 BCE)

In 212 BCE, after receiving reports that the northern coast of Iberia was rich in resources, namely gold and tin, Hannibal was sent for an expedition to conquer these tribes and to get his family a higher esteem. First, Hannibal subdued and conquered the mighty Lusitanians, thanks to his war elephants. Then, the Carthaginians defeated the powerful Gallaeci and conquered them as well. Afterwards, he did the same with the Astures and Cantabri. Finally, Hannibal conquered the Celtiberians, securing all Iberian land, west of the Ebro River. These conquests, known as the Iberian Wars (236-218 BCE; 212-202 BCE) greatly increased the power and wealth of Carthage. Hannibal would later be regarded as one of the greatest generals in all of history.

After Hannibals conquests, Carthaginians founded the city of Olissipo (OTL Lissabon) on the Iberian west coast. Later, they also founded the cities of \*Mando (OTL Porto), \*Palva (OTL A Coruña), Noega (OTL Gijón) and \*Anxos (OTL Santander).

#### Carthago-Macedonian War (188-187 BCE)

In 188 BCE, Philip V of Macedon, with the help of the Seleucid Empire, waged a war against the Carthaginian Empire, aiming to conquer south-east Italy, excluding Sicily. Also known as the Carthago-Macedonian War (188-187 BCE). At first, Philip V suffered a defeat at the Battle of Taras (188 BCE). However, soon after, massive allied Seleucid and Macedonian reinforcements arrived in Italy.

#### Battle of Heraclea (187 BCE)

When the two armies met, Hannibal was spreading out his forces into a line against the numerically superior Macedonians and the Seleucids. The Macedonians use their mile-long range spears in the flat terrain and inflict heavy losses on the Carthaginians, pushing them back. But as they do so, both forces eventually end up on even terrain, where Hannibal thickens his flanks and began attacking the enemy, as the Greek weapons become less useful. Meanwhile, his famous Numidian cavalry, imported from the recently pacified Numidia, was defeating the opposing cavalry and are now turning around to face the Greeks from behind. Philip V was unaware about Hannibal's plan and believed he had already beaten him at this point. As Philip's army was pushing him back, the Macedonians did not respond properly to the now charging Phoenician cavalry. The numerously superior Greeks were surrounded, which caused panic and only further made the Greeks' situation more terrible. In the end, both the Macedonians and Seleucids would lose more than half of their 80,000 men, while Hannibal only lost around 7,000.

As Carthage was in no position to naval invade Greece, both factions agreed on a white peace, without any terms.

#### Celtiberian Uprising (181-179 BCE)

In April 181 BCE, rebellious Celtiberians attacked the southern Carthaginian colonies. Their reason was overpopulation. This sparked the Celtiberian War (181-179 BCE). However, the Celtiberians lost the war and were subdued once again. This would be the last war for Hannibal, who died in 172 BCE at the age of 75.

### War of Hannibal's Succession (172-168 BCE)

#### Prelude (172-164 BCE)

With the death of Hannibal in 172 BCE, the situation in Iberia and Rasenna became increasingly unstable. The "Carthaginization" of Iberia, following Phoenician settlers and the integration of their language came to the cost of unrest and instability, especially in Lusitania.

In 170 BCE, the conservative and corrupt king \*Gisco III, as well as various rich families realized that the commercial families, popularized by Hannibal, were too famous and because of fear that his dynasty could be replaced, \*Gisco assassinated Hasdrubal Barca. This resulted in Carthaginian holdings in Spain and North Africa to be divided between the supporters of the Barcid family and the Hannonian dynasty. After a failed assassination attempt that same year, the son of Hannibal, Aspar Barca, together with his uncle, Mago Barca dived under for six years, in order to avoid being targeted by \*Gisco, once again. During those years, both managed to gain the support of numerous families and generals in Iberia and North Africa whose ancestors profited during the Iberian conquest of Hannibal, and slowly raised his army, while carrying out sabotages against Carthaginian guards.

#### Civil War (164-162 BCE)

In 164 BCE, Mago Barca was noticed by a garrison inside the city of Gadir. As a result he was captured, sent to \*Gisco, and publicly executed. It was this moment that Aspar could no longer wait and began to rise up, securing control over Southern Iberia, with his headquarters positioned in Gadir. \*Gisco III swiftly tried to gain more support from his army and population, by allegedly stating the Barca family had failed and that it only brought chaos to the Empire. In 163 BCE, pro-Barcid troops were besieged at Utica, and 30,000 men commanded by general \*Bomilcar desperately called Aspar for help.

Meanwhile, the pro-Gisco general, \*Bodo, was defeated at the Battle of Carthago Nova by Aspar's army of 60,000 soldies, completely crushing his forces of 40,000. He then marched with his army to break the stalemate between the pro-Barcid and pro-Gisco forces in North Africa, and to lift the siege of Utica. On his way, Mago subjugated and bribed multiple pro-Gisco garrisons, including powerful Numidian cavalry, strengthening his army. In 162 BCE, Aspar successfully lifted the siege of Utica. However, by that point, \*Bomilcar had already commited suicide, leaving his army demoralized. After incorperating and supplying \*Bomilcar's forces, Aspar and 80,000 soldiers were on their way to meet \*Gisco near the capital, while civil unrest was ravaging the empire. 70,000 troops approached the Barcid forces, including the king himself. Aspar then ordered \*Gisco to fight him in single combat. At first, \*Gisco was about to kill him, after stabbing his leg. However, it was at this moment when Aspar pulled out another knife and slit his throat, killing the king.

That same year, Philip V of Macedon used the instability, caused by the civil war, to his advantage and successfully invaded south eastern Italy, excluding the island of Sicily.

After the death of \*Gisco III, Aspar Barca established a republican government, depriving the rich pro-monarchy politicians from all their power and influence, as well as even exiling some of them. The Hannonian Dynasty was thus replaced by the Carthaginian Republic, with Aspar electing himself as the first military shophet.

The new government revived and improved the old initial Republican system, and consisted of two branches of shophet, one leading the armed forces of Carthage when at war and the other running the government at home, which was each led by five people, that were voted by the numerously larger *Adirim* (senate) of 100 people. The shophets ruled for three years, until a new group was voted, though it is possible for a shophet to be voted again up to three times, like in the case of Aspar Barca. If a decision was to be made, the Senate first voted, and if there was no absolute majority of over 70%, the shophets, depending on their respective branch, gave the final decision.

#### Aspar's Political Reforms (162-159 BCE)

However, these political reforms came for a certain price. During the civil war, multiple client states and provinces had split off from Carthaginian rule and established their own independent government, which were Numidia (under king Vermina of the Masaesyli, the son of Syphax, and the Massylii kingdom, led by Micipsa, the son of Masinissa). Lusitania, Mauretania, the Rasennan Republic, as well as Umbria and the Samnites, with Etruria and Lusitania in 163 BCE, and the other states one year later.

Aspar, having successfully reestablished control and dominance for the Barcid clan and its supporters, had captured the remaining Hanno's as well as 30 other wealthy clans who opposed the Barcids and had them excecuted, including a few people who made up the Adirim. Their wealth was plundered and used to repair the damages of the civil war, as well as bribe the high priests into breaking the tradition of sacrificing Punic children and to sacrifice animals instead. Those who refused were being silently killed and their slaves and servants freed, and given citizenship, as well as equal rights. The refusing priests were given the same treatment as those from the clans he purged. Aspar gave equal rights to all Carthaginian territories, including people with at least one Phoenician parent.

After 3 years Aspar would step down from his role as a shophet, despite the wishes of the public. Yet, his rule over the Punic Empire was far from over. His successors were close supporters of him and his family. Aspar had his own personal guard made up mostly of around 5,000 Iberian levies, as he was the son of Imilce, an Iberian noblewomen. He is effectively an Emperor in all but in name, and now with the empire having recovered, he draws up plans of war to reintegrate the fragmented Carthaginian territory.

During his reign as shopet, Aspar Barca also popularized the use of Iberian swords in military, called the *Falcata*. However, he made changes to the weapon, by increasing its length

#### Reconquest of Greater Carthage (159-154 BCE)

##### Second Numidian War (159-158 BCE)

After three years of recovery and peace, Carthage's army slowly began to mobilize for a great reconquest campaign. During this year, shophet Aspar raised a huge army. Numidia was divided between king Vermina of the Masaesyli, the son of Syphax, and the Massylii kingdom, led by Micipsa, the son of Masinissa. Even though Aspar stormed the capital of the Massylii, Cirta, and their city of Lambaesis, Micipsa fled to the rural regions of the Masaesyli kingdom. Advancing into these arid and sparsely populated regions, would mean total annihilation by guerilla warfare. Realizing this, Aspar made peace with the Masaesyli, and vassalized the kingdom of the Massylii, now under the rule of the 18 year old Hiempsal I, the son of Micipsa.

##### Reconquest of Mauretania, Lusitania and Italy (158-154)

In 158 BCE, Mauretania faced the same fate, regaining full control of the Strait of Gibraltar. In the meantime, Aspar successfully recaptured south eastern Italy from Macedon, which was experiencing a civil war itself.

As Carthage slowly strengthened, most of the Lusitanians, now suffering from poverty, realized how much more wealth they obtained under Carthaginian authority, and thus, Lusitania had dragged itself into a civil war between the pro-Phoenicians, commanded by \*Labaecus, and the pro-independence faction, led by chieftain Punicus. This situation was exploited in 156 BCE by Carthage, and thus the Phoenicians marched into Lusitania without facing a large resistance. Nonetheless, pro-Carthaginian Lusitanian officials were secretly executed, and during the next years, Phoenician sympathy began to diminish.

Unlike in Lusitania, a civil war was not the case in Central Italy. Because the region was greatly self sufficient, the Etruscans not only neglected Carthaginian occupation but even expanded northwards, establishing a frontier at the Po River and gaining access to the Adriatic Sea, back in 161 BCE. Though, Carthage did not ignore this region and in 155 BCE, under the command of suffete Aspar, began to march into the Samnite kingdom, which fell that same year. However, Rasenna and Umbria faced greater resistance and it was only at the Battle of Reate (155 BCE), the ancient capital of the Sabine tribe, that the Italian allied forces were annihilated, suffering losses of 50,000 men. A final encounter between Etruscans and Carthaginians was near the Rasennan capital, Veia, which resulted in the collapse of independent Etruria. The last Umbrian resistance was crushed at the Battle of Ikuvium, one year later.

### Iberian uprisings and Viriathus (154-139 BCE)

However, peace was not what followed. In 154 BCE, the Lusitanian chieftain Punicus secretly assassinated a Carthaginian suffete, named \*Hanno, who was visiting the Lusitanian capital, Oxthracae, leaving the remaining garrisons completely unorganized because of a missing high-tier command. Using this to their advantage, Punicus liberated most of the former Lusitanian land, killing a great portion of the garrisons located in Lusitania, which numbered around 10,000. 5,000 of which, became prisoners of war. Punicus forced them to desert, otherwise the soldiers would get executed. The 4,000 mercenaries accepted, while most of the 1,000 Phoenicians remained loyal and were executed thereafter. After this first victory, the Lusitanians gained the alliance of the Vettones and together layed siege to Olissipo, a Carthaginian city.

Meanwhile, Aspar Barca was replaced by a new group of suffetes, but even though the Senate overwhelmingly voted for him, the rules only allow a consul to be voted again three times. Nonetheless, that same year, he sailed to Iberia and served as a general in the Lusitanian War.

The Lusitanians on the other side of the Tagus River were led by the chief Caucenus and pushed south, gaining the alliance of the Phoenician-controlled Celtici and capturing Conistorgis. Some of the Lusitanians proceeded to raid North Africa, laying siege to a city named Ocile. However, when general Aspar arrived in aid of suffete \*Himilco, the Carthaginians achieved victory against the Lusitanian rebels and ended the Siege of Ocile.

The Carthaginian reinforcements, which continued fighting the Lusitanians, reconquered the Celtici, killed another 700 Lusitanians and took their largest city, Oxthracae. This terrified the neighboring tribes (including the Vettones), which made terms of surrender in 152 BCE.

During the winter of 152 BCE, the Lusitanians rebelled again, besieging some Carthaginian settlements. The Phoenician army rushed to rescue them. After an initial victory, \*Himilco was defeated while trying to pursue the fleeing Lusitanian forces. About 7,000 Carthaginians were killed and the army took refuge in a settlement called Carmone. The Phoenicians reassembled their forces and wintered in Gadir. Another Carthaginian army was wintering in Turdetania. When they discovered that Lusitanians were nearby, they started by attacking them (killing 4,000), then those crossing the straits near Gadir (killing another 1,500 of them) and then setting off to invade Lusitania in 150 BCE, recapturing most of the territory.

In 148 BCE, the Lusitanians assembled a force of 10,000 and attacked Turdetania. Meanwhile, \*Himilco and Aspar were amassing a force double the size of their opponent. The Carthaginians won against the Lusitanians, who asked for peace terms. Meanwhile, Viriathus holds a speech and convinces his fellow Lusitanians that they should not let themselves be subdued anymore. The Lusitanians choose Viriathus as their leader and obey his escape plan: they should organize as if going into battle, but then flee in every direction and later reassemble in a city named Tribola. The Phoenicians, seeing the Lusitanian forces scattering, decided to attack Viriathus head on, but Viriathus (and 1,000 of his best men) proceeded to flee and attacked repeatedly, occupying the Carthaginians for enough time (two days) for the others to flee to safety and then flees himself to join them. With this feat, Viriathus gains great fame and reinforcements from neighboring tribes.

Viriathus was to gain renown throughout the ancient world as a guerrilla fighter. In 148 BCE, \*Himilco and Aspar followed Viriathus into Tribola. Viriathus' forces ambushed the Carthaginians. About 16,000 Phoenicians managed to flee to Carpessus, the remaining of the original 20,000 being either killed or imprisoned. Suffete \*Himilco was captured and killed in this ambush, as well as a couple of mighty war elephants. The Carthaginians asked for reinforcements and about 10,000 men arrived. However, 5,000 of them were slayed in skirmishes against Viriathus' forces.

In 146 BCE, Viriathus raids Carpetania, slaying another 5,000 Phoenicians.

In 145 BCE, Aspar was tired of defeats and assembled a force of 18,000 men on foot, 2,000 on horse and a few war elephants. The forces assembled in Urso, skirmished with the Lusitanians frequently, but without full-scale battle.

In 144 BCE, the Pheonicians attacked Viriathus and managed to put him into flight, capturing two of his cities. They pursued Viriathus into a place called Baecor, killing many of his men and failing to capture Viriathus. The Carthaginians wintered in Corduba.

In 143 BCE, Viriathus managed to persuade several Celtic tribes (Celtici, Arevaci, Titii, Belli and even the Astures, Gallaeci and Cantabri) to resist the Carthaginians, leading to the Third Iberian War. Afterwards, Viriathus skirmishes with Aspar, takes refuge in a place called Venus mountain, but later returns to battle, slaying 1000 Phoenicians. He then drove out many Carthaginian garrisons and raided south-eastern Iberia. The Phoenician army wintered at Corduba in the middle of Autumn.

In 142 BCE, up to a total of 18,000 men on foot, 2,000 on horse and some war elephants were sent to deal with Viriathus, once for all. They got attacked by Viriathus, who does not succeeded in disrupting the Carthaginian plans. The Phoenicians were reinforced by 500 horsed and ten more elephants. The Carthaginians won over Viriathus, who fled but manages to inflict 3,000 deaths and to drive them back to camp. The Phoenicians are saved by night time and manage to defend their camp initially, but after constant attacks from Viriathus during the night or during the heat of day, fall back to Itucca. Viriathus returns to Lusitania and the Carthaginians, instead of following him, raided a couple of towns in Turdetania, who had sided with the Lusitanians. Afterwards, they marched against the Celtici and only then into Lusitania.

While moving against Viriathus, Aspar was attacked by Curius and Apuleius, who led 10,000 men. Curius is killed in battle and the Carthaginians succeeded in capturing the Lusitanian cities of Escadia, Gemella, and Obolcola. While following Viriathus, the Carthaginian army rested in Erisana. However, Viriathus managed to infiltrate the town and defeated the Phoenician armies.

#### Battle of Tucci (141 BCE)

The Carthaginians and the Lusitanians were exhausted, though both were not willing to give up yet. Meanwhile, Viriathus prepared for a decisive battle near Tucci to finally turn the tide of the war. While the Phoenicians rested in Tucci, Viriathus planned to outflank them from every side, using guerilla tactics: First encircling the city, then capturing it and defeating the 15,000 Carthaginians with around 10,000 Lusitanians. However, he had to be fast as there were news about a 10,000 strong army on its way to reinforce Aspar.

In 141 BCE, Viriathus attacked from all sides. First, he surrounded the city and pushed the Carthaginians into the city walls. Though, some of these managed to hold their position on the nearby mountain, which was easily defendable. Virathus captured the mountain, killing 1,000 Phoenicians, though losing 500 men himself. Now, Virathus could observe the exact location of the enemy soldiers. Using this to their advantage, the Lusitanians infiltrated the city multiple times using hit and run tactics, which was highly effective, killing around 1,500 soldiers. Most of these attacks were short-lived however, as there were multiple war elephants stationated in the city, which made further attacking suicidal. The Carthaginians tried a few sorties, though most of which were ineffective.

Viriathus knew, he had to defeat Aspar quickly before the reinforcements arrive, and he had a plan. He sent messages to the Lusitanian tribes, asking if they could send the captured Carthaginian war elephants to Tucci. Around a week later the elephants arrived, though later than assumed. His plan was to sabotage and destroy the city walls, leaving the Phoenicians completely encircled. Then he should attack the exposed Carthaginians using the war elephants and guerilla tactics. Viriathus began to destroy the city walls, which turned out to be effective. After most of the wall was destroyed and the Carthaginians confused and anxious, Virathus launched an all out attack. Both sides inflicted huge casualties from the war elephants and the battle was a brutal bloodshed. However, the Lusitanians seemed to have gained the upper hand and the Phoenicians were on low moral, slaying almost 11,000 Carthaginians.

However, during the heat of the battle, the Phoenician reinforcements finally arrived and decisively flanked the Lusitanians from behind, after capturing the mountain. The Lusitanians were completely annihilated from behind and the wounded Viriathus as well as a few hundred men barely managed to escape and retreated, completely traumatized. The rest was either captured or killed. In the capital, Oxthracae, the remaining Lusitanians finally wanted an end to the war and Virathus accepted, more or less. Meanwhile, Aspar requested the high council and the senate to end the war with the Lusitanians.

In 140 BCE, a peace treaty was arranged. The Carthaginians would establish a client kingdom, with some degree of autonomy, for most of their tribal Iberian holdings, establishing Viriathus as the vassal king of Lusitania. In return, the Lusitanians and all other Iberian tribes involved, would swear loyalty to Carthage. Both sides were shattered and Viriathus knew he couldn't continue this war for much longer and accepted the treaty. However, a few tribes, like the Gallaeci, Astures and Cantabri, continued fighting for another year. This marked the end of the Lusitanian- (154-140 BCE) and Third Iberian War (143-139 BCE).

### Intermediate Era (139-40 BCE)

#### Contact with the Cimbri (109-102 BCE)

In 109 BCE, the Cimbri, a Germanic people from the Jutland peninsula had turned to the Kingdom of Massalia, together with their allies, the Teutons and Tigurini, where they overran the Greek cities, with a massive army of over 200,000 men. In 108 BCE, the city of Massalia was stormed by the Cimbri. Thousands of civilians fled to the Greek colonies of Eastern Iberia, namely Emporion, establishing a united kingdom, called "New Greece" (Neos Ellas). Meanwhile, the Cimbrian Kingdom was established, centered around the city of Massalia and the Rhone Valley. The Cimbri adopted much of Greek culture, especially Greek army tactics and equipment. Their allies, the Teutons, established a kingdom to their west, centered around the city of Agathe. In the center of both, was the Kingdom of their Celtic allies, the Tigurini, centered around Nemausus. However, to avoid a war with the Carthaginian Empire, the city of Arelate remained under their control, and thus, trading with the Phoenicians increased.

#### Trading with the Albians and Northern Gauls (102-60 BCE)

During the early first century BCE, Carthaginian trading ports were established in the land of the land of the Dumnonii and Aremorica, as well as small outposts at Western Gallic coast. During the the next decades, Carthaginian culture was gradually brought to these regions.

#### Scramble for Illyria (84-74 BCE)

In 84 BCE, constant naval raids from the Ardiaei, caught the attention of Pontic king, Mithridates VI the Great, who now ruled over Greece after defeating the Macedonians two years earlier. Even though the Dardani often raided the Macedonian region, Mithridates had to give in, if he wanted to succeed with his plans, and began seeking an alliance with the Dardani, under king \*Bardylis, against the Ardiaei and promised to split their territory, in two equal pieces, with the condition that Pontos gains the full coast, to "pacify the sea". The Dardani, seeing this as a chance to finally beat their rival, and to gain the alliance of a powerful Empire at the same time, accepted and together conquered the Ardiaei during the Ardiaeic War (84-82 BCE).

However, the Carthaginian Empire, took note of this expansion, and demanded that if Pontos were to build ships in the Adriatic Sea, a war would be inevitable. Mithridates was not ready for such a war yet, and obeyed. Only one year later, tensions increased, when the Phoenician suffete, \*Adherbal, assisted the Liburni against an invasion from the Dalmatians. Carthaginian soldiers were poured into the region, and the Liburni essentially became a vassal state.

From 80-78 BCE, Mithridates conquered the Dindari and Daesitiates, while \*Adherbal assimilated the Dalmatians. Numerous skirmishes followed between the two clashing empires, however, no full scale war. The Phoenicians proceeded to invade the Iapydes and Histri, securing their north. To establish a land bridge, in 76 BCE, \*Adherbal annexed the Veneti, and established a client state, during the Venetic War (76-74 BCE).

During the next decades, a Cold War between the two Empires, mainly over Illyria, began, which was ended by Carthage during the Cretan War (55-54 BCE).

#### Early explorations, Cretan War and Conquest of Phoenicia (60-44 BCE)

##### Early African explorations (60-44 BCE)

The Carthaginian Empire, now ruled the entire western Mediterranean for almost 300 years. After founding several cities in OTL northern Morocco by 60 BCE (Soloeis and Karikon Teichos), Carthage showed increased interested in exploring "mythical" and unknown lands. In 50 BCE, the Phoenicians started a new exploration into Africa, after Hanno the Explorer did so centuries ago.

##### Cretan War (55-54 BCE)

After the death of Mithridates VI of Pontos, in 55 BCE, the Empire experienced a short period of instability, which was intensified by a Dacian invasion from (55-54 BCE). The Carthaginians used this instability to their advantage and had invaded Crete, during the Cretan War (55-54 BCE). Pontos was heavily defeated and was forced to sign an armistice, leaving Crete under Phoenician control. This was only the first step for a future invasion of Phoenicia itself.

##### First Egyptian War (52-50 BCE)

In 52 BCE, the Carthaginians, under the command of suffete \*Carthalo, had invaded the Demetrian controlled island of Cyprus. First, landing near the city of Soloi, the Phoenicians had quickly overrun the entire island. The Egyptians were completely taken by surprise and the Demetrian king, \*Hakor II was outraged. When the Carthaginians landed near the city of Sidun, the Egyptian army was marching to Tyre, leaving a garrison at Jerusalem. However, due to huge Phoenician naval support, the Egyptians were completely defeated at the battle of Tyre (52 BCE) and were forced to retreat to Jerusalem, to link up with the rest of their army. When the Carthaginians were at the gates of Jerusalem, the Egyptians were suprise attacked and sabotaged by a Jewish rebellion, leaving the Demetrians, commanded by general \*Weneg, completely unorganized. As the Phoenicians entered the city, many Jews were welcoming them as brothers, and together they massacred the Demetrians from all sides, who suffered around 23,000 casualties and lost their general.

When in 51 BCE, \*Hakor II, died from a heart attack, his more ambitious son, \*Nexeu I ascended the throne. Meanwhile, the Carthaginians were sailing towards Egypt, capturing the city of Gaza on their way. The pharaoh was anticipating that the Carthaginians would sail into the Nile or directly to Alexandria. Most of the Egyptian fleet was sent to guard every entrance of the Nile and Alexandria. When the Demetrians met the Phoenicians at the mouth of the Rosetta Nile branch, they attacked the Carthaginian ships, specifically those loaded with siege engines and support equipment, implying an attack on the city of Sais. As the infantry noticed the missing ships, the Phoenicians ignored this loss, and, likely light-headed by their high morale, the Carthaginians continued sailing down, not knowing they just lost one the most important things for the siege, the siege engines.

\*Nexeu caught the Carthaginians in a profitable situation and ordered his fleet to chase the Phoenicians, while preparing the city garrisons for an invasion of Sais. As the Carthaginians tried to disembark near the city, they noticed the missing siege engines, and simultaneously, the Demetrians attacked them, from both the ships behind them, and the garrisons from the other side. The Phoenicians were completely annihilated and destroyed from every side, loosing their entire army of 40,000 soldiers. Suffete \*Carthalo, was taken a prisoner.

Stationed in Phoenicia, another Carthaginian suffete named \*Bostar, was completely shocked and ordered 50,000 reinforcements, which arrived at Sidun in 50 BCE. In the meantime, \*Nexeu, captured the cities of Gaza and Jerusalem (50 BCE) with an army of 40,000 men, while the Phoenicians were preparing for a battle in the city of Akko.

As the Demetrians met the Carthaginians near Akko, the former was building up their formation. However, the Phoenicians had a decisive advantage: Their famous Numidian cavalry. \*Nexeu was stationed at the head of the army. However, as the Carthaginians charged, together, with the Numidian cavalry, both launched a hail of arrows at their enemy, targeted to hit the opposing leader. As the now wounded elite bodyguards attempted to protect their pharaoh, one lucky arrow had hit \*Nexeu directly in his right eye, who was then knocked from his horse. As the now unconscious king was the only leading force in the army, the morale of the Egyptians gradually sunk. As the Demetrians were engaged with securing the king to a safe place, the cavalry slaughtered the Egyptians, who were, at the same time, desperatly trying to pull the king away, in a great bloodshed. The Numidian horsemen now had enough time to encircle the entire army, and with support from the rest of army, including war elephants, the Demetrians were completely crushed, and lost 20,000 men, while the rest managed to retreat. The Phoenicians believed this arrow was a message from their god, Baal.

As the Carthaginians clashed with the Demetrians in Jerusalem, the latter was again, completely annihilated, with once again, support from the Jews. However, this time, the entire army of 20,000 men was killed. When the king woke up during the end of the battle, \*Nexeu, being the only survivor, got on his horse and rode during the heat of the days and the cold, dead nights alone towards Gaza, with a shortage of food and water. When the king, completely traumatized, was received at the city, he immediately asked the Phoenicians, desperately for peace.

A peace treaty was signed in 50 BCE, between the two powers. Carthage would assert control over Cyprus and the Phoenician coastal cities, from Oyat to Akko, while the Demetrian Kingdom of Egypt, would retain control over the remains of their holdings. Specifically the Phoenician coast would experience a reintegration of Phoenician language and culture. The island city of Sur, which was turned into a peninsula by Alexander the Great, was again disconnected from the mainland, and instead a bridge was built. This would make the city much more easily defendable and in a case of war the bridge could be destroyed. Phoenicia itself would be attractive for colonization and pilgrims, and would be seen as their "Holy Land".

#### The Volcanic Eruption of 44 BCE and aftermath (44-40 BCE)

However, this prosperity were shortly interrupted, as in 44 BCE, written sources describe a period of unusually cold climate, crop failures, famine, disease, and unrest in the Mediterranean Region. These factors caused food scarcity in Carthage, which halted further explorations for a time. The reason for this is a volcanic eruption in Okmok, Alaska.

Climate models suggest that seasonally averaged temperatures may have been as much as 7°C (13°F) below normal during the summer and autumn that followed the eruption of Okmok in 44 BCE.

The cooling effects lasted more than two years, resulting in the second and eighth coldest summertime temperatures of the past 2,500 years in 43 and 42 BCE, respectively, based on the European tree-ring climate proxy records. This short "dark age" lasted until around the collapse of the Demetrian Kingdom in 38 BCE.

However, what followed the next centuries, is a Carthaginian golden age, marked by peace, prosperity, exploration, consolidation of power and extreme wealth.

#### Illyrian War (44-40 BCE)

In 44 BCE, King Burebista of Dacia died, and his kingdom began to collapse. After this, the Iazyges began to take possession of the Pannonian Basin, the land between the Danube and Tisa rivers in OTL modern-day south-central Hungary. The Iazyges had allied with Pontos during the Macedonian War (88-86 BCE), and were encouraged by Pontic king \*Pharnaces II, to continue their migration into the **Carthaginian** vassal kingdoms of Dalmatia, Iapydos and Liburnia, followed by a Pontic charge into the region. The **Phoenicians** were completely overwhelmed, though managed to hold onto the region for another 3 years, before being driven out, and pushed behind the Kolapis River (OTL Kupa River) by the intense pressure of the combined Pontic and Iazygid forces in 40 BCE.

Meanwhile, the Iazyges were resettled around Lake Balaton to keep Illyria stable, defeating the Boii and pushing them, eastwards, behind the Danube.

### Golden Age and Exploration of Africa (40 BCE-212 CE)

#### Second Egyptian-, First Levantine- and Cyrenaican War (40-38 BCE)

In 40 BCE, the Parthian prince Pacorus I subdued all Egyptian settlements along the Levantine coast as far south as the city of Shechem, initiating the Second Egyptian War (40-38 BCE). In reaction to this, \*Nexeu I sent an army to meet the Parthians at Jerusalem. However, the Carthaginians, took this oppurtunity and invaded Syria as far as Damascus. After Pacorus I, defeated the Demetrians at Jerusalem, he immediately sent his army to Damascus, only to be defeated by the Phoenicians. Pacorus, was forced to sign an armstice, and thus, the Carthaginian territory in Phoenicia now reached from the cities of Arwad, to Damascus and all the way south to Dor, marking the end of the First Levantine War (40-39 BCE).

The Egyptians, however, are in decline and had just experienced a great flood and a famine, causing shortages of soldiers and supplies. Pacorus I, decisively outflanked the low-moraled Demetrians with their Parthian cavalry at the Battle of Gaza in 39 BCE, killing their entire army of 20,000 men, including the Egyptian general. The Parthians, now with reinforcements from their king Orodes II, swept into Egypt and quickly overran the almost non-protected cities of Paramoun (Pelusium), and Memphis. In 38 BCE, Pacorus clashed with another 20,000 Egyptian soldiers at Sais, however, \*Nexeu, was again defeated and began fortifying in Alexandria.

In 39 BCE, the Carthaginian Empire invaded the Egyptian vassal kingdom of Cyrenaica, during the Cyrenaican War (39-38 BCE). The Phoenicians captured as far as the city of Amunia (Paraitonion), annexing the region from the declining Demetrian Kingdom, which was now attacked from both sides. Meanwhile, Pacorus I destroyed the remaining Egyptian army and had stormed their capital, during the Siege of Alexandria in 38 BCE. Knowing that he would be taken to Orodes' II court in Parthia, (and likely executed thereafter), \*Nexeu and his son \*Akhem both committed suicide in 38 BCE. Orodes II submitted the throne to Pacorus I, in 37 BCE. Egypt itself became a Parthian vassal kingdom, as well as Carthaginian Cyrenaica.

#### Beginning of the Golden Age, Exploration Campaigns and Conquest of Egypt (35 BCE-50 CE)

The Carthaginian Golden Age began in 35 BCE, when the Phoenicians colonized the Canarian islands. By 25 BCE, the Carthaginians established numerous trade ports in Western Africa, reaching from OTL Morocco to OTL Gabon.

The Carthaginians traded with peoples whose language they did not understand, originially accounted by Herodotus: (Herodotus, Histories 4):

> "The Carthaginians tell us that they traded with a race of people living in a part of Libya (i.e. Africa) outside the Pillars of Heracles (i.e. Strait of Gibraltar). Upon reaching this land, they (the Carthaginian merchants) unload their trade goods, spread them out neatly on the beach, and while returning to their boats, they make a smoke signal (with fire). Upon seeing this sign, the locals come down to the beach, deposit a certain amount of gold there as barter goods, and then leave again at a certain distance. The Carthaginians now come back to the beach and examine the gold. If they find it represents a fair price for their goods, they collect it and leave with it; otherwise, if it seems too little, they go back to their boats and wait for the locals to come back and deposit more gold until both are satisfied with it. There is perfect honesty on both sides; the Carthaginians do not take the gold until its quantity equals the value of what they have offered for sale, and the natives do not take any goods offered until the gold has been taken away by the Carthaginians as the price for it."
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#### Dalmatian War (16-14 BCE)

In 16 BCE, the new Pontic king, Darius I, followed a new policy of disbanding vassal states in the Pontic Empire, and replacing them with less autonomous provinces, to achieve more control under a direct rule. However, this decision was greatly unpopular, as numerous vassal kings rebelled, especially in Illyria and Greece. The greatest of all revolts was led by the native Dalmatian vassal king, \*Balaios, who completely ravaged Illyria, reaching as far as Macedonia. However, two tribes refused to support \*Balaios rebellion, namely the Liburni and Iapydes, who were bribed by the Pontic authorities, even pirating and plundering the Dalmatians.

Shortly after, an envoy was sent to Carthage, stating that if they assisted the Dalmatians in gaining independence from Pontos, the Phoenicians would be allowed to conquer the Liburnian and Iapydian coast, without considerable resistance from the natives, as occupation under Carthage would grant the kingdoms far more autonomy than direct rule under Pontos, as well as protecting the region from the Iazyges.

The Phoenicians accepted the offer and began capturing the Liburnian and Iapydian coast in 15 BCE, reestablishing vassal states. In return, the Carthaginians sent 30,000 men, under general \*Carthalo as assistance for \*Balaios against Pontos. After defeating the Greeks at the Battle of Salona (14 BCE), Darius withdrew from Dalmatia, which achieved full independence, and began cooperating with the Phoenicians, for example, in trading.

#### Third Egyptian War (9-7 BCE)

With the death of Amanirenas of Kush in 10 BCE, numerous uprisings broke out in Kushite Egypt, turning the region extremely unstable and unorganized. In 9 BCE, The Carthaginian Empire used this as a chance to conquer Egypt, under the command of shophet \*Mithonbaal, that same year. Simultaneously, the Parthian king, \*Orodes III took note of this, and marched into Egypt as well. Alexandria was quickly captured by the Phoenicians, yet first contact between Carthage and Parthia occured at the Battle of Memphis in 8 BCE. 70,000 Carthaginian soldiers stood against 50,000 Parthians. \*Orodes III was defeated and suffered 25,000 casualties, while \*Mithonbaal only lost about 10,000 men. The shophet pursued \*Orodes III to the city of Pelousion, defeating him once again. He abandoned his campaign, while Carthage secured the remaining regions of Egypt, by 7 BCE.

The new client kingdom of Egypt, thus had become the breadbasket of Carthage, and while unrest was only of limited presence, the region enjoyed some form of autonomy, as well as Phoenician wealth and prosperity. Furthermore, a southern frontier was established to prevent more attacks from Kush.

In 20 CE, the Carthaginians expanded south of OTL Morocco, reaching all the way to OTL Western Sahara. There they established the city of Arambys, originally founded as a trade port by Hanno the explorer.

Almost addicted to the wealth of gold and ivory in West Africa, in 50 CE, the Phoenicians expanded their colonies all the way to OTL Gambia. On their way, the Carthaginians founded the cities of Cerne (OTL an island near El Mamghar) and Imma (OTL Dakar).

#### Trade with India (14-50 CE)

With the capture of Egypt in 8 BCE, Carthage now had the ability to explore the Arabian Sea, allowing the Phoenicians in 14 CE, to open up trade relations with Arabia, Parthia and India. This greatly increased Carthaginian wealth, as well as power and contributed to its Golden Age.

#### Fourth Egyptian War (53-54 CE)

After the Second Levantine War (50-52 CE), in which Pontos defeated Parthia, king \*Pharnaces III of Pontos, was greedy for more power and wealth. In 53 he waged a war with the Carthaginian Empire, by landing with 80,000 soldiers near Alexandria. Meanwhile, civil unrest was highly present in the Pontic Empire, and many generals, as well as the kings own son, saw this as a suicidal attack. In result, the suffete \*Adherbal, was sent to deal with the invaders. While Alexandria was besieged, and about to fall, in 54 CE, \*Adherbal successfully lifted the siege by launching an offensive into the Pontic formations. After clashing into the enemy lines, a bloodbath had begun. Even though the battle seemed inconclusive at first, it turned to Carthage's favor when their war elephants were devastating the Pontic forces. The situation even worsened for Pontos, when their famous Numidian cavalry encircled the enemy, slaughtering every single soldier, including \*Pharnaces III himself.

#### Colonies in Albion and Gaul (61-73 CE)

In 61 CE, trading ports in South-West Albion and Aremorica were expanded inland, now called the "Colonies of the Two Horns". An outpost in the Isle of Mann was established as well. These colonial settlements resulted in an increased Carthaginian influence in the North Sea region.

#### Further explorations (110-170 CE)

In 110 CE, Carthage began to colonize the islands in the OTL Gulf of Guinea, and from 130-170 CE onwards, the Phoenicians founded the cities of \*Targusis (OTL Freetown), \*Alingis (OTL Accra), \*Mathra (OTL Abidjan), \*Didonos (OTL Lagos), \*New Sur/Tyros (Ph. Qartsūr) (OTL Malabo), \*Oxis (OTL Libreville) and \*Malecula (OTL Port-Gentil). During the next 200 years, these cities would continue to prosper and expand, even with the extreme distance to the capital. They brought Phoenician culture and even technology, slowly but surely over time into West Africa.

#### The Cult Rebellion (144-146 CE)

In 144 CE, news from an extremist group, who were walking down the streets of Carthage, breaking into civilian homes, and murdering newborns, were shocking the Empire. This escalated, when the son of suffete \*Bomilcar, born that same year, was murdered as a newborn, but because most of the other government suffetes still voted for the continuation of child sacrifice, \*Bomilcar was completely outraged. Meanwhile, a prominent army suffete, named \*Bodo, who had witnessed this crime on his own son, turned against the sacrifice of children, and was stationated at the city of Syracuse, when a civil war had broke out, between the loyalists and the anti-cultist faction. \*Bodo and \*Bomilcar, had become the leader of the rebellion, and the former took Italy under his control, with support from \*Bomilcar, as well as the native Greek, Italic and Rasennan population, while the latter tried to achieve greater political influence in the Carthaginian senate. When he learned from \*Bodo's success, army suffete \*Mago was planning to prepare a siege on Utica, as he knew about \*Bodo's plans from a deserting soldier. \*Bomilcar immediately tried to inform \*Bodo, but the message arrived too late.

In late 145, \*Bodo sailed to Utica in order to establish a foothold in North Africa. After capturing the city, his forces of 70,000 troops were besieged by suffete \*Mago, as well as 80,000 soldiers, and a bloody fight was to follow. The siege lasted 3 months, and ended when \*Bodo, disguised as a scout, was infiltrating the enemy formation. He had climbed up a nearby hill on horseback, and rode down the hill, while shooting an arrow directly at the head of \*Mago. The first arrow, though, had only hit his helmet, disorienting the king. The second bolt, however, had struck \*Mago's neck, while he was shouting at his generals to kill the man on the horse. This shot was fatal, and the suffete fell dead onto the ground. At the same time, \*Bomilcar, with an army of 40,000 clashed the enemy formation into their back. With \*Mago dead, the besieged army launched a sortie, slaughtering the demoralized and encircled enemy from both sides.

In early 146, \*Bodo, together with \*Bomilcar marched on the capital and presented the senate the head of suffete \*Mago. They had been given two options: Either let the voters for sacrifice be sent to exile and hand over the position of consul peacefully, or be executed. The distressed senate, chose the former, and the other voters, as well as the pro-sacrifice suffete, \*Bostar, were sent to the West African city of \*Malecula, depriving them of their power. Thus, \*Bodo and \*Bomilcar have successfully overthrown the pro-infant sacrificing government, self-electing \*Bodo and \*Bomilcar for another three years. As a result, child sacrifice will be punished severely, and anyone who still supports it, will be persecuted. Not only political, but also judicial reforms were made, being the first introduction of human rights; primary the right to live. This was also the first time, a ministry of wealth and health was introduced to deal with poverty and diseases. However, while murdering will be punished, the slave trade continued.

In 173 CE, Berber tribes had invaded (OTL) modern-day Morocco and southern Iberia. However, those were repelled and defeated in 174 CE.

### Loss of Territory and Dark Age (212-243 CE)

#### First Contact with the Arverni (212 CE)

Tensions between the newly established Teutarist Arvernian Empire and Carthage had risen in 212, after the capture of Phoenician outposts at the West Gallic coast.

#### Invention of Concrete (216 CE)

To strengthen Carthaginian fortifications, in 216, a prototype of concrete was invented. It was made by mixing volcanic ash with lime and seawater to make a mortar, and then incorporating into that mortar chunks of volcanic rock, the "aggregate" in the concrete. The combination of ash, water, and quicklime produces what is called a catanian reaction, named after the city of Catania near the volcano Etna in Sicily. The Carthaginians may have gotten the idea for this mixture from naturally cemented volcanic ash deposits called tuff that are common in the area.

#### Invasion of Aremorica (227 CE)

The Carthaginian Decline began in 227 CE, when the Arverni invaded the Phoenician colony of Aremorica, officially waging a war with the Carthaginian Empire.

#### Padanian War (236-237 CE) and Italian War (238-240 CE)

In 223 CE, the Cimbrian and Teuton kingdoms in southern Gaul, had fallen to the Teutarist Arvernian Empire. Carthage now feared an invasion into its main territory of Italy. By 236 CE, the Gauls had attacked the Carthaginian satellite state of Rasenna, starting the Padanian War (236-237 CE). The Arverni were weakened, when in Summer of 237, the Alemanni invaded OTL western Switzerland, halting further advance for a short time. However, greatly underestimating the "barbarians", the Carthaginians were defeated at the Battles of Felsina (236 CE) and Sena (237 CE). As a result, all land north of Aritim (OTL Arretium), was now controlled by the Arvernians. However, the Rasennans, under the command of general \*Aranthur Meclasia, as well as the Umbrians and the Samnites used this as a chance to rise up and assert independence, annihilating the just defeated Carthaginian soldiers and chaotically pushing them back to southeastern Italy, after occupying Corsica as well. The Carthaginians then attempted to reconquer Italy during the Italian War (238-240 CE), however, were unsuccessful and retained southeastern Italy. The Umbrian capital Ikuvium at the border with the Arverni, was victim to numerous Gallic skirmishes in the following years.

#### Loss of Albian Colonies (238-240 CE)

In 238 CE, the Arverni attacked the Island of Albion, launching a naval offensive at the south-eastern coast, in order to avoid superior naval confrontation with the Carthaginian Empire, which occupied the south-western coast. After the embarking of 20,000 soldiers, the Arverni marched on to the Carthaginian colony, occupying settlements, and taking along thousands of auxiliary units, who wanted to end Carthaginian influence in the region. In 239 CE, an invasion was launched into the colony, capturing the capital city Isca. As the **Phoenicians** were already suffering enormous casualties in the First Italian War (238-240 CE), a lack of manpower caused the province to fall after a few months.

#### New Grecian War (243 CE)

Meanwhile, the Arverni expansion did not come to a halt. After conquering Aquitania from 241-242 CE, the Gauls began craving for the rich north Iberian coast, inhabited by Greeks. In 243, Leucorix assaulted New Greece, and quickly broke through the city gates of Rhode (OTL Roses), yet the unfamiliar Greek military tactics had kept further advances stagnant. Out of panic, the main capital of Nova Graecia, Emporion sent a letter to Carthage, asking for military assistance. The Phoenician senate initially hesitated, but after realizing the importance of a buffer state securing Iberia from the Arverni, they then sent a 30,000 strong army, under suffete \*Sicarbal to defend Emporion. The combined forces then managed to drive back \*Leucorix, forcing him to retreat behind the Pyrenees. Relations between Carthage and New Greece remained stable. Trading, as well as Phoenician influence, increased, especially in the neighbouring cities of Tarraco (OTL Tarragona) and Barcino (OTL Barcelona).

### Great Mediterranean War and Decline (244-406 CE)

#### Fifth Egyptian War (244-246 CE)

Following the dream of a second Acheaemenid Empire, in 244, Shapur, king of the Persian Empire, invaded the Carthaginian Levant with a force of 80,000 men, defeating them at the Battle of Tyre, and slaughtering around 20,000 Phoenicians. When a massive army, under suffete, \*Gisco was sailing to Phoenicia, the Sassanids wasted no time and vassalized the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem to consolidate their power in the Levant. Even though Shapur was initially defeated at the battle of Oyat; near Damascus, he tricked the Carthaginians into an ambush by pretending to retreat, slaying half of their army, and forcing them to withdraw to Egypt. Meanwhile, another Phoenician army, under suffete \*Hanno was on its way to reinforce \*Gisco, with 50,000 fresh troops. However, before the suffete was able to receive his reinforcements, \*Gisco was continiously pursued by Shapur, who inflicted casualties by smashing with Persian cataphracts into the back of the enemy army. To ensure a safe retreat, 20,000 men were tasked to hold their ground while the other half, including \*Gisco, could retreat. Unfortunately, the detachment was quickly annihilated, and only a quarter of the initial Carthaginian army reached \*Hanno, near Pelousion, where they prepared for their next battle. One of the captured Phoenicians, was a war elephant breeder, who deserted, and told the Persians about a effective counter against them.

##### Battle of Pelousion (245 CE)

The 65,000 strong Sassanid army met with the 70,000 Carthaginians near the city. In contrast to the Phoenicians, however, the Persian forces were more tightly positioned, with a "A" shape formation, with caused the Phoenicians to underestimate the Sassanid troops. When the Carthaginians set out their skirmishes and light infantry, the Sassanid cavalry that was hidden behind their vanguard, clashed into the skirmishes and almost wiped them out. Meanwhile, the Numidian cavalry was sent against the Persian cataphracts who fought fiercely. However it were the cataphracts that came out successful, and at the same time, the main Sassanid army began to charge forward, while their enemy unleashed their war elephants who were kept in reserve. To counter them, the Persians prepared a horde of pigs, that were poured on with tar and set on flames. The elephants completely panicked and out of fear smashed into their own army, while the Sassanid troops did the rest, slaughtering the entire demoralized Carthaginian army, thus killing 65,000 men, including \*Gisco, and \*Hanno, while 5,000 soldiers surrendered and were taken prisoner.

After this great victory of Shapur, Egypt was open to invade, and thus the Persians marched into Egypt, defeating numerous garrisons. Another 50,000 Carthaginians under the more ambitious suffete \*Hamilcar, were sent to Alexandria, and when Shapur attempted a naval blockade, his fleet was quickly annihilated by the superior Phoenician navy. The Sassanids were not able to capture the city, and a peace treaty was signed in 246, after months of siege warfare. Persia would gain most of Egypt, while Carthage would retain Alexandria, Cyrenaica and Cyprus.

#### Phoenician War (249-251 CE)

In 249, the governor of Sassanid Phoenicia, \*Abibaal crowned himself as Lord "*Malik*" of the region. Shortly after, he told the Persian authorities that he would be travelling to Arabia in order to bring goods. However, instead he sailed to the Carthaginian capital, Carthago, where the Phoenician king offered the senate and suffetes support, along with an army of 30,000 men, to reconquer the Levant and Egypt from the Persians, if the Phoenician Empire will be allowed to rule Syria as well. The Carthaginians, though having other plans with the self proclaimed king later on, agreed, and a 50,000 strong army under the command of suffetes \*Adherbal and \*Paltibal, together with the forces of \*Abibaal, was sent to Egypt. Meanwhile, the son of \*Abibaal, \*Adonibaal, was building up another army near their hometown, Gebal (OTL Byblos), under the false assumption that they were trained for the Persian counterattack, and that he would want to take revenge on his father for the betrayal.

After the arrival of Carthaginian and Phoenician forces in Alexandria, during the next weeks, thousands of garrisons were slaughtered, and the Persians hastily sent a massive army to Egypt under the command of Shapur I. \*Adonibaal and his army of 20,000 men, mostly comprised of cavalry, followed the Persians unnoticed, and the former was going to meet the Carthaginians near Raphia.

In January of 250, nomadic tribes, possibly Nubians, had raided Egypt and interrupted the Carthaginian conquest. However, they were pushed back only a few months later.

That same year, the Goths launched an invasion into the Sassanid city of Mithripolis, as well as Dacia and the Kingdom of Ardiaei in Illyria under king Cniva. A Sassanid general named \*Peroz was sent to deal with the invaders, who repelled the Goths the next year.

##### Battle of Raphia (250 CE)

As Carthaginian and Phoenician troops approached the city, Shapur's army of 70,000 men was already in sight. As both began their formation, and charged onto each other, the battle seemed to be evenly matched, with no side taking the upper hand. However, it was this moment that \*Adonibaal's cavalry clashed into the Persian forces from behind, who were completely taken by surprise. Shapur immediately ordered a retreat; However the damage had already been made and the Shah only managed to escape with 10,000 men.

This was a disastrous defeat for the Sassanid king, who had no other choice but to reinforce his army near Damascus. The Carthaginians now had two options. The first one was to finish off Shapur at Damascus, though which may could be a trap set for the attackers. The second option was to swiftly conquer Phoenicia, gaining support and likely reinforcements from the natives. Probably tempted by their desire to regain their homeland, the Carthaginians chose the second option and invaded the Levant, after capturing Jerusalem. Their army was resupplied by 20,000 native volunteers, and together their combined army, numbered a gigantic 105,000 men. A few garrisons were placed in the nearby cities, as well as in allied Gebal.

Meanwhile, Shapur managed to resupply his army, and now assembled a force of 50,000 men, along with siege engines. Driven by rage, he planned to sack Gebal, and raze it to the ground. When Palmyran scouts brought the message, that a Persian army was approaching the capital, \*Abibaal and \*Adonibaal immediately returned to Gebal, taking the Carthaginian forces along with them.

##### Battle of Gebal (250 CE)

Fortunately, it were the Phoenicians who arrived first. The Carthaginians began their formation outside of the city, while \*Adonibaal and \*Abibaal fortified the city. The king told the citizens about the Persian arrival, and promised everyone that they are going to save the city, together with their allies, the Carthaginians. This gave hope and motivated the population, which helped with constructing the defences.

However, shortly after, Shapur arrived in front of the Carthaginian army. Then, the Sassanids sent an envoy, which offered peace to \*Adherbal and \*Paltibal, as well as the unopposed control of Egypt, if they would let the Persians enter the city without facing resistance. The Carthaginian suffete answered: "I am not a traitor, I do not destroy entire cities and I do not let my brothers die in a fire or be enslaved. Now tell me Persian, what are you?"

The Shah was, again, completely outraged and ordered a full-scale charge onto the city, and demanded that no single dog should be left alive. This was a fatal mistake, as the Persians were not only outnumbered 2 to 1, but additionally on low morale because of the devastating defeat, they had just suffered at Raphia. When the Sassanid siege towers approached the city walls, the Phoenicians used a decisive counter. Before the impact, volleys of flaming arrows were fired at the towers, which caused them to collapse as they burned down, killing hundreds of men along with them.

The Carthaginians then counter charged, and annihilated the Persian defense line. Only a handful of soldiers, including Shapur escaped to their capital, Ctesiphon, where they sued for peace.

In 251, a peace treaty was arranged. Carthage was allowed to control Egypt, Cyprus and Israel, stretching from the cities of Berenice Troglodytica to Gerasa, while the Phoenician kingdom gained the Levant and Syria.

#### Vassalization of Phoenicia (273-276 CE)

After the assasination of \*Abibaal by his nephew in 273, interal strife ravaged Palmyra, which was now ruled by \*Abibaals' son, \*Adonibal. As Phoenicia weakened, Carthage had to reinforce border garrisons with their own troops, and began pouring thousands of soldiers into their allied territory. Phoenician power essentially dimished, and by 276, the once independent empire, turned into a Carthaginian client kingdom.

#### Naval Expansion (280-327 CE)

By 280 CE, Carthage expanded its naval technology and was, again, eager to conquer more unknown lands. That same year, the Phoenicians sailed all the way south of the Cape of Good Hope, though some suggested they even circumnavigated Africa back to the Mediterranean. On their way, the Carthaginians established the trading posts of \*Payus (OTL Soyo), \*Tara Olas (OTL Luanda), \*Mintes (OTL Lüderitz) and \*Bema (OTL Cape Town). During the next 50 years, these cities expanded, though still remained much smaller, compared to the West African cities. Near the city of \*Payus (OTL Soyo), the Carthaginians sailed deep into Central Africa through the Congo River and established more, though tiny, trade ports. However, these efforts were interrupted in 327 CE, when the Great Mediterranean War broke out.

#### Skirmishes with Rasenna (315-327 CE)

Meanwhile, after partitioning Umbria in 315, together with their Arvernian allies, the interest of Etruscan king \*Larth Vulca (r. 312-346 CE), slowly shifted to the east, into the Illyrian kingdoms. The most powerful of them, the Ardiaei and Dardania, were conquered by the Gothic King Cniva, back in 250 CE. Thus, hostilities between the two were used as a tool for Rasenna, to offer an alliance, if they adopted Teutarism. The Illyrians accepted. During the next years, the three kingdoms raided and pirated Gothic and even Carthaginian trading ships, as well as harbors.

#### Great Mediterranean War (327-335 CE)

##### Levantine Front

By 327, the king of Persia, Shapur II had set himself more ambitious goals. As the shah proved to be a military genius, his army has gained a high level of experience, thus reachieved its renown. The focus of Sassanid expansion now turned to the west, with plans to reconquer Syria, the Levant and Egypt. However, this would mean a war with the Carthaginian Empire. After years of preperation, on January 17th 327, with the age of 18, he crossed the border into the Carthaginian vassal kingdom of Syria, laying the groundwork for the Great Mediterranean War.

###### Battle of Palmyra (327 CE)

As Shapur II approached the city of Palmyra, he and his massive force of 130,000 men enganged in combat with the Syrian governor, \*Barekbaal, along with 40,000 soldiers. The defenders were outnumbered more than 3 to 1, and the Persians completely annihilated any kind of resistance, killing the governor, in the process.

###### Sack of Gebal (327 CE)

Shapur continued to march west, and reached the town of Gebal. When the shah entered the city, he had let his entire army loot it, and afterwards, Gebal was sacked and razed to the ground. This was a brutal act of revenge for their annihilation during the Phoenician War (249-251 CE).

The destruction of Gebal came to a shock for the Carthaginians, who immediately sent a huge army of 90,000 men, commanded by suffetes \*Bostar, and \*Carthalo. After the Sassanid capture of Damascus, the Phoenicians met the Persians near the city of Tyre.

###### Siege of Tyre (327 CE)

The island of Tyre was connected with the mainland through a wooden bridge, built centuries earlier by the Phoenicians, that could be destroyed in case of war. The Carthaginians fortified themselves on Tyre, with a naval support force guarding the coast, and preventing the Persians from rebuilding the bridge. To counter the fleet, a hail of flaming arrows was fired at the ships, which caused some of them to burn down, and forced the others to retreat. This occupied the Carthaginians long enough for the incoming Sassanid navy to outflank and destroy the enemy fleet, effectively encircling the city.

However, after several failed naval assaults to free Tyre, Carthage was unable to send large portions of their navy into the Levant, because it was this year, that after hearing from the war with Persia, the Arvernian Empire, together with the Etruscans and Illyrians, marched into Italy, and in 328, into Iberia. Thus, most of the fleet was needed to transport troops, or to prevent naval incursions and piracy, from which they suffered for years in the Adriatic Sea.

Instead of rebuilding the bridge and entering the city by force, the Sassanids chose the easiest method, and waited. The defenders were so desperate, that they attempted to rebuild the bridge by themselves, which however, failed utterly. Months later, in early 328, the Siege of Tyre was put to an end, when every single Carthaginian soldier, including both suffetes, starved to death, taking 90,000 casualties with them.

Carthage now had to fight a three front war, and began seeking an alliance with the Kingdom of the Goths. At the same time, Shapur II, allied with the Greeks in the Peloponnese, and Thracian rebels, to consolidate their strength in the region, by funding numerous uprising and revolts.

Meanwhile, the Persian army advanced further into the Levant. To counter the invaders, an army of 60,000 men was raised, commanded by the more ambitious suffete \*Malchos.

###### Battle of Ashkelon (328 CE)

Both armies met each other near the city of Ashkelon. The Carthaginians, though being outnumbered 2 to 1, began setting up their formation in the so-called Oblique Order, by positioning the vanguard of their army and the best veteran soldiers behind their right flank, while the Persians kept their best troops in the center. When the Sassanids charged, the Phoenician center and left flank slowly retreated, to protect the rear and the flank of the attacking force on the right, which managed to punch through the defense line, and using light cavalry, managed to outflank the enemy from behind. As the Sassanid center tried to catch up with the retreating force, 15 war elephants were unleashed and weakened the attackers. With the Persian right flank destroyed and their army encircled, the Sassanids had no other choice but to retreat. However this proved to be costly as the Sea was behind their back, which desperately forced them to create a gap in the Carthaginian forces. The rest managed to escape. However, this came to a certain price, suffering 40,000 casualties, while the Phoenicians lost 15,000 men.

At the same time, the Carthaginian army was reinforced by a native volunteer force of 20,000 troops.

###### Battle of Nazareth (328 CE)

Standing with 65,000 men against 70,000 Sassanid soldiers; this time, \*Malchos used a smiliar tactic. He positioned most of his men behind their central force, instead of the flanks. However, Shapur learned from his defeat, and was smart enough to know, that the Phoenicians expected the Persian forces to now be concentrated on their flanks. Therefore, the Sassanid vanguard was kept behind the center, while a small number of light infantry was positioned at the central front, to maintain the illusion. When the Carthaginians charged, they easily punched a gap into the enemy forces, and poured in most of their troops in order to split the Persian army in two. What \*Malchos did not realize, however, was that the Sassanid veteran reserve force, commanded by Shapur himself, was directly charging, along with Persian Cataphracts, into the Phoenician army. Simultaneously, both Sassanid flanks were smashing into the enemy, completely annihilating the attackers. \*Malchos only managed to escape with some 10,000 men, while their opponent still had 60,000 left.

This defeat was a complete disaster for the Carthaginian Empire, which already suffered from manpower shortages. Nonetheless, \*Malchos was reinforced by another 30,000 troops. A great part of this force consisted of enslaved black Africans, shipped from the colonies of West Africa, who were forced to serve in the army; and if they refused, the slaves would get executed.

###### Battle of Jaffa (328 CE)

Near Jaffa, only 20,000 Phoenicians, and 20,000 Black African slaves, faced 60,000 Persians. When the Carthaginians attempted to charge; during the attack, thousands of slaves turned their arms against the Phoenicians, and the assault turned into an internal massacre. At the same time, the Sassanids counter charged, and their enemy army basically dissolved, as the Persians made an alliance with the slaves, promising them payment, if they joined the army. The shah's army, together with the prisoners, crushed the last spark of resistance, capturing \*Malchos in the process, and only losing about 5,000 men.

However, before he could be used as a leverage, the Phoenician general, as well as a few hundred soldiers managed to escape imprisonment, and began fleeing to Egypt.

###### Battle of Pelousion and Alexandria (329 CE)

Shapur pursued the Carthaginians for hundreds of kilometers, until he managed to catch up with the enemy near Pelousion, forcing them to engage in combat. \*Malchos attempted to hold a desperate last stand inside the city. Predictably, the entire force was crushed, killing the general, and capturing Pelousion.

Near Alexandria, Shapur's advance was slowed down, when a local Egyptian general, named \*Adofo, with a force of 20,000 men met the Persians. The battle quickly turned out to be one-sided, and after the resistance was crushed, Alexandria was finally captured.

During the next months, the Shah advanced to Cyrenaica, defeating a few garrisons, and annexing the region, and in 233, Cyprus was invaded by the Sassanids. One year later, Crete followed, consolidating their naval strength in the Mediterranean Sea.

##### Italian Front

After Shapur II, king of the Persian Empire, marched into the Carthaginian Levant, Rasenna and the Gauls used this as a chance to assert dominace in Italy, as well as in the Adriatic Sea. In 327, the Etruscans, together with a few thousand Gaulish reinforcements, after the refusal of an alliance from the Samnites, began to siege their capital, Aeclanum, with a force of 50,000 men. Having no other choice, the Samnite king, \*Cassius Papius, sent an envoy to Carthage, asking for help. The Phoenicians accepted, and shortly after, a 60,000 strong army, commanded by suffete \*Mastanabal, was sent to Italy. After the Carthaginians disembarked, the siege was succesfully lifted, as their enemy was completely taken by surprise, and retreated, after suffering 15,000 casualties. This act of protection, slowly but surely vassalized the Samnite kingdom.

Meanwhile, king \*Larth Vulca asked for more reinforcements, and thus, 35,000 Gaulish soldiers, under general \*Eburo, were sent to Etruria. At the same time, the Illyrians, planning to distract the Carthaginians, naval raided the city of Barion (OTL Barium). This turned out to be effective, as around 15,000 Phoenician troops were respositioned to deal with the Illyrians.

###### Second Battle of Aeclanum (328 CE)

In early 328, the Etruscans once again besieged Aeclanum, together with 70,000 men. However, as the Gaulish force was kept invisible behind the Rasennan vanguard, their Carthaginian counterpart underestimated their enemy, and thus, \*Mastanabal charged into the invaders with only 45,000 soldiers. However, before the impact, the Arvernian troops were moved to the front, widening the army. When \*Mastanabal noticed the full might of the Etruscans, it was already too late, and the outnumbered Phoenicians were defeated utterly. The general managed to escape with 15,000 troops, and later met with the victorious detachment in Barion, but now lost the Samnite capital, forcing king \*Papius to flee into Carthaginian territory.

Simultaneously, while the Phoenicians were reinforced in Barion, Vulca's army laid siege on Neapolis, while their enemy hastily followed. When the Carthaginians tried to defend the city and were about to enter it, the Etruscans blocked the gate and defeated the outnumbered Phoenicians once again, killing 10,000 men, who demanded more troops. Neapolis fell shortly after, followed by the nearby cities of Capua, Cumae, as well as Poseidonia.

\*Mastanabal was then resupplied by 30,000 fresh soldiers, and engaged the advancing invaders near Metapontion.

###### Battle of Metapontion (328 CE)

The Carthaginian army consisted of 15,000 Phoenician veteran units, 10,000 Samnite infantry commanded by \*Papius, 8,000 Numidian cavalry, as well as 12,000 Balearic slingers. Their counterpart numbered 65,000 men; 35,000 of which were Gaulish skirmishes, 5,000 Gallic cavalry, as well as 25,000 Etruscan infantry. The Phoenicians began their formation in an inverted crescent shape, that slighty exposed their army center, while the flanks were kept behind. When king \*Vulca charged, the vanguard of the Carthaginian army slowly retreated, while their flanks advanced.

As the center was fighting head on against a force almost double their size, the Numidian cavalry, that was kept in reserve and directly commanded by \*Mastanabal, was now charging forward, allowing them to encircle and defeat parts the enemy army. With their opponents flanks unprotected, the Phoenician troops could now surround the Rasennan force, while the Balearic slingers inflicted even more damage, using hit and run tactics.

The Etruscan defense slowly began to collapse, and only a few thousand men, including king \*Vulca, managed to escape the massacre, while the Carthaginians only lost about 17,000 troops.

\*Vulca, now realizing that the Gauls needed all of their own troops to defend the Iberian front, scrapped the barrel and raised a force of 40,000 men, comprised of his best trained Etruscan soldiers; and desperate for victory, he even implemented his royal guard into the army.

Meanwhile, in 329, the Carthaginians were reinforced by another 10,000 Samnites. However, when \*Mastanabal sent an envoy to Carthago asking for reinforcements, the senate replied:

> *"We have less gold in reserve, than we have men. Our precious homeland has fallen to the Persians once again, and so did our breadbasket Egypt. Even though we are winning in Iberia against a Gaulish invasion, this will not hold for long, and all other fronts came to the cost of uncountable casualties and loss of wealth. We are in a state of emergency and have moved our last reserves to defend Africa. Either fight to the end or retreat to safety."*
>
>

Confused by this message, and overwhelmed by the situation, in order to sustain the high morale of his army, \*Mastanabal decided to keep this message secret, which would later turn out to be a huge mistake.

Even though the Carthaginians were penetrating deep into southern Gaul, that same year, a disastrous famine had struck Africa, Italy, and Iberia, as Egypt, the main food exporter, had fallen to the Persians, while trading goods, and thus gaining wealth, was almost impossible, due to the war with the other main commercial powers and restrictions in regions of warfare. To worsen the situation, Numidian raids, lootings, and burnings of Carthaginian farmlands inflicted a crippling damage to the country.

At the same time, the newly assembled Etruscan army was marching to Poseidonia. The Phoenicians followed them, meeting the enemy near the city.

###### Battle of Poseidonia (329 CE)

Before the battle began, the now desperate and paranoid general \*Mastanabal held a speech, where he stated that reinforcements from Carthago will arrive soon. This was a lie. However, his second-in-command general, \*Azdrubal, had stolen the letter from the envoy, and spread the truth through the army. The general then directly ordered to arrest him for treason. But by that point, \*Mastanabal, even though being a successful general, had lost all respect from the soldiers. He was arrested, and the leadership of the forces was granted the young \*Azdrubal. Unfortunately, he had only little experience in combat.

However, it was this key moment, that before \*Azdrubal considered a full scale retreat, another envoy arrived, but this time from Gaul, stating that the Carthaginians were currently laying siege to the prosperous city of Massalia. This skyrocketed the morale of the army, who even partly believed that the first message from the senate was a fabrication.

As the 38,000 strong Carthago-Samnite force, met the 40,000 Rasennans, both began preparing their formation. Though, likely blinded by their high morale, things did not go as planned, as one of the factors was the lack of communication. The Carthaginians, Balaerics and Numidians, could not understand the Samnite language, while the Samnites could not understand the Carthaginian language, which forced both parts of the army to use interpreters. Once again reusing the inverted crescent formation, \*Azdrubal, having no other choice, decided to wait for the enemy to attack first.

When the Etruscans charged, as usual, the Carthago-Samnite army center slowly retreated, while the Numidian cavalry moved forward. However, this time, \*Vulca was smart enough, to not make the mistake once again. So he slowly advanced, but did not attack yet, waiting for the enemy cavalry. When the Numidians reached the front, confused where the Rasennans are, \*Vulca ordered a full scale assault onto \*Azdrubal's forces, completely annihiliating his unorganized army, and slaughtering every single soldier, inculding \*Azdrubal, and the Samnite king, \*Papius. Meanwhile, \*Mastanabal escaped imprisonment, and after rescuing a few thousand Phoenician garrisons from capture, he hopelessly fled to Carthago, where he was ordered to naval command the defense of the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia, while the rest of Italy was overrun.

##### Iberian Front

A third front was opened against the Carthaginian Empire, in Iberia, in 328, when the Arverni king, \*Dumnorix I, crossed the Pyrenees. The first clash between Gauls and Phoenicians occurred at the city of Barcino, overpowering the local garrisons and then capturing, as well as plundring Tarraco. The Carthaginian senate quickly sent suffete \*Atarbas, nicknamed "the Bald", alongside an army of 60,000 men, to meet their enemy at Sagunt.

###### Battle of Sagunt (328 CE)

The Carthaginian army met the Gaulish forces, consisting of 80,000 soldiers, on a field near the town. \*Atarbas himself was surprised when he saw how organized the so-called "barbarians" were, forming up a phalanx, protected by cavalry on each flank, with around 15,000 Belgic javelinmen behind the center. The Phoenician formation was similar, however, with the difference that 25 war elephants were kept in reserve. When both armies charged, none of the two could overpower the other. This rapidly changed, when the Carthaginian war elephants were unleashed, causing panic inside the Arverni ranks, who had never seen those beasts before. The Gaulish cavalry was frightened and smashed into its own army, inflicting great casualties. \*Dumnorix ordered a full scale retreat, but had to endure losses of 25,000 men, while the Phoenicians only suffered around 5,000 casualties.

After a failed attempt to fortify in Tarraco, because they were catched up too fast, the Arverni prepared for battle near the city of Emporion.

###### Battle of Emporion (329 CE)

As both armies began settung up their formation, the Gauls were the first one to charge, numbering an army almost identical in size, compared to their opponent. Once again, no dominance could be achieved on either side, until the Carthaginian war elephants were sent in. However, this time the Gauls attempted to counter these beasts, by throwing spears from Belgic javelinmen onto them, targeting the riders. Nonetheless, this tactic only succeeded partly, and in the end, the elephants stomped out any resistance, forcing the Arverni into retreat once again, suffering casualties of 20,000 troops, with the other side lost about 5,000 men, and 5 war elephants. The Carthaginians now entered Gaulish territory, advancing along the coast after crossing the Pyrenees.

###### Siege of Massalia (330 CE)

After defeating the Arverni at the Battle of Agathe (329 CE), the Phoenicians slowly reached the wealthy and prosperous city of Massalia, and began besieging it. However, constant naval raids, centered on Corsica, made it almost impossible to resupply the siege or to assault the harbor, and while the other Carthaginian fronts began to collapse, \*Atarbas experienced the first signs of equipment shortages and low morale, after months of sieging the city, which was able to be reinforced with food and supplies.

Realizing that \*Atarbas was trapped inside enemy territory, he decided to abandon the siege and retreat, only barely escaping a Gaulish reinforcement of 50,000 troops, forcing the Phoenicians to leave their rather slow war elephants behind, not even having enough time to kill all of them, in order to prevent the elephants to fall into enemy hands. \*Dumnorix pursued \*Atarbas, and decisively defeated the Phoenicians at the Battle of Rhode (330 CE), decimating their army by 30,000 men, by using their own war elephants against them.

###### Aftermath

Leading an insufficient ground army, now the Carthaginian fleet showed its first signs of ineffectiveness, after losing dozens of ships to raids on Corsica, which fell in 331. The island was initially captured by the Etruscans; however, this enraged \*Dumnorix, and thus, Corsica was split in half.

Meanwhile, the Gauls penetrated far into Iberia, plunging it into chaos, and shattering the region into various kingdoms, namely: Lusitania, the Gallaeci Confederation, the Astures, Cantabri, Vascones, Vaccaei, Celtiberians, Carpetani, Vettones, Celtici, Turduli, Turdetani, Bastetani, Oretani, Constestani, Edetani and the Ilercavones, after being sacked and looted by the invaders. To avoid total annihilation, \*Atarbas managed to evacuate with his 20,000 men at Carthago Nova, leaving the peninsula to its own fate.

With the Arverni annexing the north eastern coastal region between the Ebro River and the Pyrenees, the Phoenicians gathered every man they could to defend their homeland.

In 333, the commander of the Carthaginian navy, \*Mastanabal, was defeated during a naval battle against Etruscan and Gaulish warships, near the coast of Bocchoris. After constant incursions into naval facilities, the Phoenicians were forced to retreat from the islands and the Arverni occupied it.

However, the Carthaginians managed to strike back, and one year later, they launched an amphibious assault into Corsica, capturing the key town of Ourkinion (OTL Ajaccio), as well as around half of the island. Nonetheless, in 334, the Gauls and Rasenanns landed in northern Sardinia, and the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw their forces from Corsica yet again, successfully defending Sardinia.

By this point, the war turned into a war of attrition, and in 335, a peace treaty was finally signed. However, Carthage had to pay massive war reparations, that drained out their economy even further.

#### Sardinian Wars (338-342 CE)

##### Prelude

In 338, the situation on the divided island of Corsica escalated, after years of skirmishes. On June 14th, Etruscan troops crossed the border and marched into the Gaulish territory, encircling the island with their superior navy in the process.

Meanwhile, the population of the Carthaginian Empire was extremly discontent with the war reperations they had to pay, and began revolting. The war of Corsica appeared to be the chance to recapture Southern Italy, and so in 339, they went for it, crossing the channel under the command of \*Atarbas, and advancing northwards to the city of Sybaris.

By this point however, Corsica already fell, and after subjugating the isolated Balearic islands from the Arverni, a two sided naval attack was carried out on Sardinia, overwhelming the local forces. The Italian front began to stagnate, and slowly but surely the Carthaginians were pushed out of Italy.

One year later, the Gauls launched an offensive into Rasenna from Northern Italy, and \*Vulca swiftly made peace with the exhausted Phoenicians, agreeing on Sardinia being divided in half.

However, \*Dumnorix I was heavily defeated at the Battle of Aretim (OTL Arretium), after failing to command the army properly, giving completely unlogical orders, like placing the phalanx behind the archers, which made him suffer casualties of over 70,000. It is believed that by this point he had developed a disease similar to Alzheimer, and after he was sent back to the court, his son was now in command. The problem was, that his son, \*Dumnorix II, did not want a full war scale with the Etruscans, especially after the humiliation they had just witnessed, so he made peace with \*Vulca in 341, shortly after his father died from the illness.

The Carthaginians did not reach the news yet, and that same year an invasion into Northern Sardinia began. The Rasennan king swiftly defeated the Phoenician navy at the Battle of Olbia (342), and captured the entire island, during the Second Sardinian War (341-342 CE).

#### Carthaginian War (344-372 CE)

With Sardinia secured, in 344, the Rasennans began assaulting Sicily, and so the Carthaginians concentrated their naval forces and infantry on defending the island, under the command of \*Mastanabal. However, this turned out to be a false flag attack, while the main enemy force began landing near the city of Utica, with a force of 60,000 men, striking directly into the heart of Carthage. This caught the attention of Numidian king, \*Hiarbas, who intervened in the war by raiding and looting Phoenician cities. After Utica fell, general \*Atarbas, alongside 50,000 soldiers, met \*Vulca near the city of Zama.

##### Battle of Zama (345 CE)

Before the battle started, \*Atarbas was shocked of how the Phoenicians were tricked so easily. However, he had a decisive advantage: War elephants, and even sixty of them. So he placed those in reserve for later, while charging forward, clashing with the Etruscans. \*Atarbas was about the gain the upper hand, until everything changed drastically. \*Hiarbas was directly charging into the Carthaginian formation from behind, using an army of 15,000 troops, that almost completely consisted of the famous Numidian cavalry. When they attacked the elephants from behind, the animals panicked, and while \*Hiarbas penetrated from behind, casualties heavily increased, and having no other choice, \*Atarbas ordered a retreat, suffering losses of 30,000 men, while their counterpart lost only about 10,000.

Communication with any African territory west of Carthago and its surrounding cities quickly broke away, placing the capital in an extremly vulnerable position.

##### Defense of Carthago (346-372 CE)

However, in 346, when \*Vulca made plans with \*Hiarbas on how to besiege Carthago, the Etruscan king was betrayed and stabbed in the back. He died of his wounds, and the Rasennan army was routed, forcing Etruria, now under king \*Marce Vulca (346-378 CE), to abandon its African campaign, allowing them to capture the important cities of Utica, Hippo, and as far west as Cartenna.

One year later, Carthago was besieged. Nonetheless, the city managed to stand firm, thanks to its constant supply from Sicily and extremely dense fortifications made from concrete. \*Hiarbas besieged it for 9 years, until he died. In 358, another siege was laid by his son, \*Gauda, which lasted for another 14 years. He then gave up his efforts, when the Phoenician population in Northern Africa began to revolt, forcing his army to disperse.

Fortunately, Sicily was not attacked by Rasenna anymore, as this would cause the Numidian capture of Carthago, which \*Marce Vulca could not let fall into the hands of their enemy.

##### Exile in West Africa (347-500 CE)

Meanwhile, the colonies in Western Africa had to survive without Carthaginian support and founded their own Carthaginian successor kingdom, the Phoenician League. It would take about 4 months for any Carthaginian trading ship to arrive at \*Didonos (OTL Lagos), the new capital of the Phoenician League, comprised of multiple city states, allied to each other. \*Didonos and the other African cities were slowly but steadily rising in population, and by 425 CE, the capital had a population of about 25,000 people. Altogether the population of the Phoenician League reached 100,000 by 500 CE. Contact with the Phoenician League between the capital and Sicily was virtually non-existent.

### Encounter with the Vandals and Isolationism (406-500 CE)

In 406, reports from chaos, raids and the collapse of the Arvernian Empire, caused by Germanic tribes, reached the Phoenicians. Carthage was concerned, as these tribes were reported to be moving south into Iberia. At the same time, the Huns were devastating Eastern Europe and the Balkan peninsula.

In 409 CE, the Vandals, Suevi and Alans established kingdoms in Iberia, while raiding and occupying almost all of the Western Iberian kingdoms. Due to pressure from the resisting natives, the Vandals, under king Gunderic, invaded Northern Africa in 415, moving along the coast into Numidian territory. By 416, the barbarians advanced to the Numidian city of Hippo, close to the border of the Carthaginian Republic, and sieged it. After its capture, the city was made the capital of the Vandal Kingdom.

Shortly after, Cirta, the capital of the Numidian kingdom experienced a devastating blow. The Vandals had sacked, raided and looted the court of Numidian king \*Dabar, almost razing it to the ground. The Numidians were forced to retreat into the more arid lands west, at the border of the Mauretani, and south into the Sahara desert.

Meanwhile, Carthage itself was only comprised of Carthago and Sicily. After the two year long brutal Siege of Carthago itself, from 420-422 CE, the Phoenician resistance stood firm once again, isolating the city from the rest of Africa, and intensifying its dependency on supply from Sicily.

However, as Europe was completely devastated during this time, the Carthaginian Republic, still remained the center of European civilization, alongside the Etruscan Empire, and the Hellenic League.

As constant Phoenician and Numidian uprisings devastated the Vandal Kingdom, it was only a matter of time until the Carthaginian Empire could reclaim its territory.

Yet Carthage never fully opened to the world as a commercial power again, and their only trading partner was Rasenna, after their tensions cooled down during the next centuries.

*\* Indicates that a name or event is fictional, though made to fit with the timeline.*

## List of Carthaginian Leaders

These are the names and reign dates.

**Didonian Dynasty**

- Dido (814-760 BCE) (Queen)

*- unknown*

- Hanno I (580-556 BCE)

- Malchus I (556-550 BCE)

**Magonid Dynasty**

- Mago I (550-530 BCE)

- Hasdrubal I (530-510 BCE)

- Hamilcar I (510-480 BCE) - In 480 BCE, following Hamilcar I's death, the king lost most of his power to an aristocratic Council of Elders.

- Hanno II (480-440 BCE)

- Himilco I (in Sicily) (460-410 BCE)

- Hannibal I (440-406 BCE)

- Himilico II (406-396 BCE)

- Mago II (396-375 BCE)

- Mago III (375-344 BCE)

- Hanno III (344-340 BCE)

**Hannonian Dynasty**

- Hanno IV "the Great" (340-337 BCE)

- Gisco I (337-330 BCE)

- Hamilcar II (330-309 BCE)

- Bomilcar I (309-283 BCE) - Succeeded in a coup, which restored the monarchy to full power. Born 359 BCE, died in 283 BCE with 76 years.

- \*Gisco II (283-256 BCE) - Born 331 BCE, died in 256 BCE, with 75 years.

- \*Carthalo I (256-230 BCE) - Born 304 BCE, died in 230 BCE, with 74 years.

- \*Bomilcar II (230-199 BCE) - Born 276 BCE, died in 199 BCE, with 77 years.

- \*Adherbal I (199-173 BCE) - Born 249 BCE, died in 173, with 76 years.

- \*Gisco III (173-168 BCE) - Born 221 BCE, died in 168 BCE, with 53 years, in combat with Mago Barca.

***Republic***

- Aspar (Aspar Barca) "the Great" (162-153 BCE) - Born 217 BCE, died in 139 BCE, with 78 years. Successfully overthrew the government in 162 BCE, and established a republic. First, self elected, member of the High Council. Voted three times for the position of consul.

In 168 BCE, a Republic was formed as the government of Carthage. The new government revived and improved the old initial Republican system, consisted of two branches of suffetes, one leading the armed forces of Carthage when at war and the other running the government at home, which was each led by five people, that were voted by the numerously larger senate of 100 people. The suffetes ruled for three years, until a new group was voted, though it is possible for a suffete to be voted again up to three times, like in the case of Aspar Barca. If a decision was to be made, the Senate first voted, and if there was no absolute majority of over 70%, the suffetes, depending on their respective branch, gave the final decision.

- *High Council (168 BCE- CE)*

## See also

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jUclYyioFwg YouTube video about Carthage (However, extremely outdated and inaccurate. Consider this article as the most accurate information source)

## Source

This page uses content from **Wikipedia**. The original article was at **Carthaginian Empire** (view authors). As with Sine Roma - What if Rome never existed? Wiki, the text of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike License 3.0 (Unported).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient\_Carthage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List\_of\_monarchs\_of\_Carthage

https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanno\_der\_Seefahrer (translated parts into English).

https://www.alternatehistory.com/forum/threads/barbaria-a-world-without-rome.169251/page-1 (Thank you for inspiration).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusitanian\_War

https://classicalstudies.org/annual-meeting/149/abstract/carthaginian-manpower

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-8447745/Massive-volcanic-eruption-Alaska-43-BC-triggered-global-climate-shock.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2QBA6ZPmj3Q

https://www.engineering.com/story/the-secret-ingredient-in-ancient-roman-concrete-is-seawater

## Flag Credits

This flag was NOT made by me. Credits to https://www.reddit.com/r/vexillology/comments/ee3ntv/flag\_of\_carthage/ for making this beautiful flag.