Czech-German War

* Czech control secured in German-speaking areas in Moravia

**Support from:**
Ludwig Renn
Josef Šnejdárek
20,000 soldiers (1919)
12,000 soldiers (1919)

The **Czech-German War** was a conflict between the nascent Czechoslovak Republic and the socialist German Spartacists, supported by left-wing German Bohemian rebels. Fighting occurred primarily in North Bohemia, but also extended to other German-speaking areas of Bohemia and Moravia. It occurred concurrently with the German Civil War, as well as the Hungarian-Czechoslovak War in the early phases.

## Background

### Early History

Germans first settled in Bohemia during the Middle Ages under the Holy Roman Empire, as part of a greater trend of settlement of eastern lands termed *Ostsiedlung*. Forming a majority in most of the Bohemian borderlands, as well as in the major cities, German speakers held important positions in the Bohemian court and nobility. This was further established under Habsburg rule, which led to a sidelining of Czech political influence.

During the 19th century both a German and Czech identity began consolidating in a tide of nationalism particularly heightened in the 1848 revolutions. Although Czechs and Germans lived largely separately from each other the German dominance of Bohemian political institutions inflamed tensions with the Czechs. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the Czechs sought to obtain a similar level of autonomy, or even outright independence. Despite various efforts to quell tensions through establishing Czech institutions and expanding Czech representation, Czech nationalism continued to grow more and more popular.

When the Great War began many Czechs deserted the Austro-Hungarian army, while Czech nationalist leaders formed the Czechoslovak National Council in exile. They formed various branches of the Czechoslovak Legion. The Austrian government vainly attempted to offer new concessions for autonomy, but the end of the war was already on the horizon and the Entente had already decided to dismantle Austria-Hungary.

### After the Great War

With Austria-Hungary falling apart the Czechoslovak declaration of independence was published in October 1918 and on 28 October Czech politicians took power in Prague and other major Czech cities. However, the German majority borderlands were opposed to the new Czechoslovak state and established provincial governments loyal to the newly declared Republic of German-Austria. The Czechoslovak government, however, insisted on annexing the entirety of the Bohemian crownlands, as without the German majority regions they would be deprived of industry and natural defenses. In November the Czechoslovak Army began occupying the German regions and completed their conquest in December despite armed resistance.

Despite establishing control in the Bohemian crownlands resistance from German Bohemians did not end, with their representatives making an appeal to the Entente on the basis of national self-determination. Though these efforts were supported to an extent by the Americans, the Austrians were nonetheless forced to relinquish their claims on the German-majority Bohemian lands. In 1919 the Czechoslovak Army was drawn into conflict with Poland over the Trans-Olza region, and with Hungary over Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia. The German-Austrian National Assembly was elected in February 1919, but the Czechs prevented the election of representatives from Bohemia. A protest was held in the form of a one day general strike on 4 March 1919, endorsed by the German Bohemian Social Democrats and other German parties. This was partly due to aspirations for self-determination, but also in great part because of economic instability caused by the currency reform. The protest developed into clashes in most German-majority cities and a total of 54 demonstrators were killed and around 200 wounded, with most deaths occurring in Kaaden, Sternberg and Karlsbad. Additional clashes occurred on both the preceding and following day in Eger and Karlsbad respectively. Although the protest was suppressed, it continued a trend of inflaming tensions that would only strengthen the desire for Germans to separate from Czechoslovakia. With the onset of the May Revolution in neighboring Germany, German Bohemians turned increasingly towards a military solution for the struggle.

## War

### First Phase (1919)

#### Rebellions

On 23 May 1919 Spartacist militias in Saxony initiated an offensive towards Prague to support the Hungarian Soviet Republic during its own war with the Czechoslovaks. Their appeal for a revolution was largely met only by the German Bohemian population, which rose to arms throughout the country. Branches of the German Social Democrats in North Bohemia were primarily under the influence of the radical wing, characterized by Reichenberg politician Karl Kreibich, who was also the chief editor of the Social Democratic newspaper *Vorwärts*. Though not yet unified into a singular party as a result of regionalization under Austrian rule, the chief German Social Democratic figure Josef Seliger did not speak out against the Spartacist appeal, despite his right-leaning stance, in great part because of his staunch advocacy for unification with Germany. This decision was also influenced by the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), which held an integral position in the Spartacist government and had many ties with the German Bohemian Social Democrats. An endorsement of the Spartacist appeal was published in *Vorwärts* and subsequently endorsed nearly unanimously by local branches throughout the country. In the wake of the rebellions workers' councils were organized in most German-speaking cities and towns. On the other hand, the Czech Social Democrats did not support the appeal, with even the influential left-wing avoiding an endorsement despite their outspoken sympathies for the Bolsheviks and Spartacists. Their inaction would lead to scathing criticism from the Communist International that would play a factor in their eventual split to form the Communist Party of Czechia.

The cooperation of the German Social Democrats in Bohemia was a critical necessity for any Spartacist successes, due to the disorganized nature of the offensive. Though some war veterans and officers were a part of the Spartacist militia many others lacked any fighting experience, and they were further brought down by insufficient arms and ammunition. Despite these factors, the Czechs were not in an opportune position either, as their resources were tied down in Hungary. Only a single brigade could be dedicated to the defense of the north, where the Czechs had not taken the German threat seriously despite French warnings to the contrary. However, they could be joined by the gendarmerie and border guards. As the Czechs had excluded Germans from military formations they were able to avoid potential defections, but this also contributed to a lack of manpower, made worse by the inability for the Czechoslovak Legion to leave Russia.

#### Prague Offensive

Czech forces in the border regions were insufficient to prevent the Spartacist breach across the border. The primary Spartacist force moved southwards from Dresden by railway, where they were met by cheering crowds in Aussig. Advancing along the Elbe towards the Moldau/Vltava river, they gradually began the advance towards Prague. Auxiliary forces moved from Chemnitz to Karlsbad and Eger, and from Zittau to Reichenberg. A number of border guards were captured, while the local gendarmes were largely overpowered or forced to flee, despite some attempts to suppress the rebellions. The capture of gendarmerie stations and military depots enabled the creation of militias that would be integrated into the Spartacist forces.

The Czechs staged their first major resistance at the town of Nelahozeves on 28 May after sabotaging the rail lines leading towards Prague. Around fifty Spartacist soldiers advanced into the town ahead of the main force, with larger forces directed towards Kladno to the west. The route of advance was predictable, forced along narrow forested terrain adjacent to the railway and the river. The Spartacists were caught in a trap, ambushed from the forests and houses by waiting Czech soldiers, and fired upon by snipers in the castle. Unprepared for this kind of fight, the Spartacists were routed with seven dead. The most decisive battle was shaping at Kladno, where the Czechs had assembled the bulk of their forces to blunt the Spartacist advance. Digging into positions in the hills and forests north of the town, the Czechs drew the Spartacists into a frontal assault, which commenced on 3 June. The Spartacists could not achieve a breakthrough after four days of fighting, lacking the necessary heavy armament to support their advance and brought down by poor leadership. The Czechs soon organized a counterattack on the flank at Smečno, and the Spartacists were driven back to a defensive line stretching from Slaný to Velvary. To the Czechs it was becoming quickly apparent that the Spartacists had not prepared for this kind of fighting, and they were eager to exploit this. By 10 June the Spartacists were driven back to the Eger/Ohře river, and the threat to Prague was diminished.

#### Ceasefire

Despite these successes, the Czechs were still stretched extremely thin, lacking the forces necessary for a front wide offensive to expel the Spartacists. Nothing could be spared from the Hungarian front, as forces had already been diverted to quell the German uprising in Moravia, which had become particularly strong around the town of Troppau. Furthermore, even though the Spartacists were poorly led and equipped, the Czechs were facing a shortage of ammunition in Hungary, which necessitated the diversion of ammunition away from the front with the Spartacists. The Spartacists were also able to achieve success under the leadership of famed Vogtland militant Max Hoelz, who broke through the Czech defenses at Plzeň. The Czechs now found themselves practically surrounded, facing a hostile Germany, Hungary and Poland, and an unsympathetic Austria. They agreed to a peace with Hungary on 18 June and withdrew from their remaining positions in Slovakia, and the Spartacists agreed to a ceasefire on the same day. Although the Spartacists had failed to toppled the Czech government and incite a socialist revolution, they had succeeded in aiding Hungary and seizing a large portion of the German-inhabited region of Czechia.

The poor performance of the Spartacist forces in battle was one of a number of catalysts that prompted drastic reforms to the structure and command of the Volksarmee, an effort that would be spearheaded by Ludwig Renn, a Saxon nobleman and Great War officer turned communist. His reforms to the underperforming Saxon militias would become a universal model, and he would quickly rise to the high command.

### Skirmishes

The ceasefire left the Spartacists in control of many of the most valued regions of Bohemia, with the bulk of the industry and mining. Though the Czechs had practically acceded to the loss of Slovakia, the Czechoslovak Army immediately began preparations for a future conflict to reclaim the lost Bohemian lands. Despite offers from the Spartacists to negotiate an official peace treaty, the Czechs were reluctant, largely because they hoped that the Spartacists would lose the German Civil War, and also partly because of French pressure to not do anything that could amount to an official recognition of the socialist German government. Though the Spartacists suspected the Czechs would strike eventually, the responsibilities of the civil war made another offensive against Czechia impossible. Both sides dug in positions along the ceasefire border, and the peace was broken intermittently by brief skirmishes, claiming the lives of a few dozen soldiers in total over a nearly ten month period.