Swamps

* Title
* I
* II
* III
* IV
* V
* U-I
* U-II

***“ In a drought-stricken basin where much has perished, an old Pachycephalosaurus bull defends his leadership against a young challenger. ”***

― The official Apple TV+ episode synopsis for *Swamps*
***Swamps*** is the third episode of the second season of Prehistoric Planet, and the eighth episode of the series overall.

## Segment I: Azhdarchids and *Shamosuchus*

* Greenfield Lake Park, Wilmington, North Carolina, USA
* Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia, USA
* Black River, North Carolina, USA

**Swamps**, Segment I
**Setting**
Songliao Basin, Songnen Block, northeast China

**Filming Location**

* Greenfield Lake Park, Wilmington, North Carolina, USA
* Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia, USA
* Black River, North Carolina, USA

In the first segment of the episode, on the islands of vast swamplands in northeast Asia, are newly-hatched juvenile azhdarchids. One female, only a few hours old, takes her first steps and practices flight within the safety of the hatching grounds. To feed, however, the young azhdarchids need to fly out of their sanctuary and make their way to the forests past the swamps, with the light breeze of the day providing some help with extra lift. One youngster flies off, but, with insufficient strength, it loses lift and lands in the water. As it resorts to just swimming all the way to the forest on the other side of the swamp, it is grabbed by a crocodilian creature.

***“ Shamosuchus. Fifteen feet-long predators. This island might offer safety, but the surrounding waters certainly do not. If their takeoff isn't perfect, it's difficult to gain height. And this is not high enough. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Sensing an incoming feast, several *Shamosuchus* emerge from the mangroves, closing in on the island of the youngsters. More hatchlings attempt to fly for the forest, but some fly too low and get grabbed in midair, while others splash into the swamp and become easy pickings either way. Some of the stronger fliers were close to reaching the forest, while others are still hesitant to take off. Staying on the island is not an option, however, as one *Shamosuchus* clambers up onto land and begins chasing the female juvenile from earlier. Left with no choice, she runs for the edge of the island and take flight. Appearing to be successful at first, the juvenile slowly loses height, but still seems to be close to her destination. Suddenly, a *Shamosuchus* springs out of the water and almost grabs her, the impact causing the juvenile to plummet into the water, forcing her to swim the rest of the way to the forest, the *Shamosuchus* right on her tail. Upon reaching land, the crocodilian continues to go after her, but she manages to run off and finally evade her pursuer by taking flight once again, going further inland before landing on a rock, safe at last.

***“ A near-miraculous escape. And now, the chance to collect her rewards. In these rich swamp forests, there's all the food she needs. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Seeing a lizard scampering across the roots of the trees, the young azhdarchid pursues it and snaps it up. In this forest, she and the rest of the survivors will grow, with plenty of food around them. The feeding opportunity over, one *Shamosuchus*, flies buzzing and walking atop its head, submerges back to the depths of the swamp.

## Segment II: *Austroraptor*

**Swamps**, Segment II
**Setting**
Allen Formation, Neuquén, Río Negro, and La Pampa Provinces, Argentina

**Filming Location**
Great Otway National Park, Victoria, Australia
***“ Here in the wetlands of South America, long summer days are fueling a greater feast. These swamps are teeming with animals of all kinds... and hunters are gathering. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
In the second segment of the episode, in South America, under the summer heat, the rivers are teeming with life. In the river, a one-meter garfish swims, looking for prey.

***“ A ferocious, three foot-long garfish... lunch, for a giant Austroraptor. They are relatives of Velociraptors, but much, much bigger. Twenty feet from head to tail, and weighing over 800 pounds. And with teeth not unlike those of a crocodile, these dinosaurs are very skilled at catching fish. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Suddenly, the garfish is snatched up by an *Austroraptor*, which stomps its catch down on the ground to rip off and devour only the lower half of the fish. Since it is summer, when many fish are present, a large number of *Austroraptors* are found gathering all over a shallow river, with some fishing by the banks and others fishing in the middle of the river.

***“ For most of the year, they're solitary hunters. But, as the number of fish increases during summer, so does the number of Austroraptors. The biggest try to keep the best fishing spots for themselves. They won't tolerate rivals. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
One *Austroraptor* senses a larger, more robust individual with red eye patches sneaking up behind it, intent on taking its fishing spot, and turns around to snarl back at the trespasser. The two individuals hiss and growl at each other before the owner of the fishing spot, being slimmer, is forced to back away.

***“ For those not yet in their prime, it's a challenging time of year. This young male, still in his juvenile colors, has little hope of securing a place to fish. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
For the younger ones who haven't established their fishing spot nor have enough experience to find a good place to fish, this is a challenging time of year. A young adult male, still in his juvenile colors, attempts to fish from atop a log, but this is suspended too high over the river.

***“ With so much food around, the adults are very wasteful feeders. They often eat only the choicest parts of the fish. And for the youngster, any leftovers will do very nicely... but it's risky. To succeed, he will have to be sneaky. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Upon seeing the other *Austroraptors* rip off only the lower half of their catch, the youngster tries to sneak in and grab the discarded upper half of the fish while one of the adults is busy catching and feeding on another fish. Unfortunately, his attempt wasn't stealthy enough, and the adult notices him and attacks him, forcing the young male to retreat back behind a tree.

***“ Bruised and empty handed. But with the adults still feasting around him, there might be another opportunity. Two adults, fighting over the best fishing spot. Time for the youngster to make a move... and time to leave. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
The youngster then sees two adults fighting over a fishing spot, and, as one adult chases the other into the forest, he sneaks in to steal the latest catch of one of them, a fully-intact garfish lying on the ground. He grabs it and runs off just as the owner of the fishing spot rushes back in to attack him, getting away in a nick of time as the adult slips on the ground.

***“ Success, and more than just scraps. A lesson learnt. And when the good conditions return next year, perhaps he'll be able to challenge for a fishing spot of his own. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Needing all the food he can get, the young *Austroraptor* looks around warily one last time before swallowing the entire fish. While he resorts to opportunistic thievery now, perhaps, when fishing season returns next year, he can properly challenge one of the adults for a good fishing spot of his own.

## Segment III: *Beelzebufo* and *Rapetosaurus*

**Swamps**, Segment III
**Setting**
Maevarano Formation, Mahajanga Province, Madagascar

**Filming Location**
Lower Zambezi National Park, Lusaka Province, southeast Zambia

***“ In Northern Madagascar, conditions are already changing. The first rain in months is reviving the parched land. As pools and channels refill, the animals return. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
In the third segment of the episode, as rains bring back the rivers and marshes of Madagascar, a *Masiakasaurus* runs across the quenched lands, and stops by a pool of water to drink. Suddenly, seeing an incoming threat, the *Masiakasaurus* yelps in surprise and fear.

***“ And they're not all dinosaurs. Lurking in these muddy pools is a monster. Beelzebufo, the 'Devil Toad'. It's so big, it can swallow a small dinosaur whole. But this male isn't here to hunt. He is looking for a mate. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
The small theropod runs off as a male *Beelzebufo* drives it away with a guttural bellow. However, the toad is uninterested in eating the small dinosaur, and instead returns to his muddy pool, intent on finding a mate.

***“ Female devil toads are fussy, so he needs to find a good spot. Only then will he he able to entice them in. His deep croaks travel far and wide. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Patiently, the *Beelzebufo* sits in his pool, calling out to any female in the area that might reciprocate his desire to mate. For a long while, however, nothing answers him, the half-dry muddy riverbed silent. However, he soon hears the sound of something else, something he doesn't appear pleased to hear.

***“ This isn't quite what he was hoping for. Fifty foot-long Rapetosaurs. They have been attracted here by the promise of a mud bath. For Beelzebufo, their timing couldn't be much worse. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
A herd of six *Rapetosaurus* have arrived to take a mud bath in the river bed. Looking up in disbelief, the *Beelzebufo* flinches back for a moment before scurrying away as the sauropods stomp down on his pool and proceed to roll around in the mud.

***“ His pools now lie beneath 70 tonnes of sauropod. Time is short. Female devil toads will only mate at the start of the rainy season. He needs a new pool. There's one. Reaching it will be dangerous. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Retreating up a log at the edge of the river, the *Beelzebufo* assesses the situation, watching on as the six titanosaurs relieve themselves right where used to sit. Spotting an undisturbed pool of mud beyond the sauropods, just by a patch of fresh vegetation, he tumbles off, walking and leaping across the lumpy terrain, making the risky trip to get to where he wants to be. Just as he gets close, the rolling titanosaurs splatter around some mud, which the toad nonchalantly rubs off his face before finally settling down in his new pool.

***“ Finally he's got there... but he's been noticed. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
As he settled down, trying to get his bearings straight, one *Rapetosaurus* notices him, and curiously approaches him. At first, the *Beelzebufo*, blinking at the sight of the sauropod's muzzle slowly coming towards him, backs off, sinking slightly into his pond. Eventually, however, as the sauropod continues to inspect him, he loses his temper and leaps forward at the *Rapetosaurus*, growling in irritation. The titanosaur, getting the message, backs away as the frog gives out another croak of anger.

***“ Time to try more singing. But he can't make himself heard above the sound of satisfied sauropods. Luckily for him, there's one thing that Rapetosaurs enjoy even more than wallowing in mud, and that is food. The hungry herd moves on, although not without leaving something useful behind. Dozens of giant footprints, full of water. Perfect for a Beelzebufo to continue his quest for a mate. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Turning around, the *Beelzebufo* returns to his priorities for the day, calling for females to mate with. However, his croaks are drowned out by the satisfied rumbling growls of the titanosaurs. Still, he perseveres, continuing his song in hopes that a female would hear and reciprocate. Eventually, feeling hungry, the *Rapetosaurus* herd leaves, and the *Beelzebufo*, taking advantage of the deep puddles formed by their footprints, leaps into a new pool, singing his guttural song of courtship once again.

***“ A devil toad can only survive here because every year, the land is flooded by seasonal rains. However, there are places where changing climate means the rains are less certain. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
The segment ends with a view of the river (or, at the very least, another section of it), now fully replenished, the constantly-wet environment just right for amphibians, a sharp contrast to the setting of the following segment.

## Segment IV: *Pachycephalosaurus*

**Swamps**, Segment IV
**Setting**
Scollard Formation, southwest Alberta, Canada

**Filming Location**
Lake Morena County Park, San Diego, California

***“ This inland basin in North America was, in the past, several feet deep in water. But after a decade of drought, it's now bone-dry. Nonetheless, some dinosaurs still linger here. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
The fourth, penultimate segment of the episode is set in an arid, rocky basin. The region, once several feet deep in water, has been rendered dry by a decade of drought. The wind blows the dust off the long-desiccated bones of a fish that once thrived in the area, now overtaken by beetles and plant life suited to the harsh climate. Even so, some dinosaurs continue to live and endure the challenges of the environment.

***“ A herd of pachycephalosaurs, bizarre creatures with thick, dome-shaped skulls. They prefer to feed on fruit and leaves. But now, they're forced to make do with roots and insects. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Running through the parched lands is a herd of ten pachycephalosaurs searching for food and water. While the pachycephalosaurs are stated to prefer fruits and leaves, given the harsh conditions of their habitat, they are forced to subsist on roots and bugs, with the leader, a large male, headbutting a dead tree to the ground in order to feed on the insects within.

***“ The herd is led by a large male. He keeps order, so everyone is able to search for food in peace. But trouble is brewing within the herd... ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Soon after this, the leader gets up on a rock, with most of the other members assembling around him as he looks around to observe for threats as well as to check on every member in the herd. He then notices a young male making trouble by aggressively ramming another member to assert his dominance. This disrupts the order of the herd, and the young male may eventually gain enough courage and strength to challenge the dominant male's leadership.

***“ The young male is throwing his weight around. It's time for the dominant male to put him in his place, or kick him out. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Not willing to let the troublemaker continue on with this behavior, the leader leaps off the rock to confront him and tries to intimidate him by swinging around his massive, vibrantly-colored dome, scars, horns, and all, in order to force him back in his place. Undeterred, the troublemaker does the same, energetically swinging his less-impressive dome, the rest of the herd watching in anticipation as the two males continue to bellow and try to intimidate each other. Eventually, the leader, seeing that there is no real progress being made, loses his patience and rushes head-on at the young challenger, who promptly blocks him with his own dome. The leader recovers more quickly from the collision and knocks the younger male away with a strike to the flank. When he gets rammed in the side by the challenger in retaliation, the leader quickly follows up by trying to crash his head downwards on his enemy, only for the young challenger to block his attack with his own dome again.

***“ The older male is heavier. But the younger is more agile and has more stamina. And that tips the balance in his favor. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
The fight escalates from there, with the dominant male becoming more offensive, nullifying the challenger's defensive blocks by continuing to push him back whenever their heads collide. Forced to be on the defensive, the younger male rushes off to catch a break, gain more space, and continue from there, while the older male pursues him and attempts to knock him down with a side swipe, eventually tackling his rival into a shallow ditch that appears to be the remnants of a dried-up river, while the other herd members rush around them to continue observing the battle.

Quickly getting up, the two males forego their usual headbutting attacks and begin wrestling like monitor lizards, pressing their bodies and necks against each other to force the other down on the ground. They even attempt to lock the spikes on the back of their heads to gain control and twist each other into submission. The leader, utilizing his superior weight, tries to subdue the troublemaker by pressing down on him. However, the young challenger relies on his agility and stamina to swing his neck at the enemy's neck, successfully knocking him to the ground. Asserting his dominance, the young challenger places his foot on the defeated leader.

Believing that he can now firmly establish himself as the new head of the herd, the young male walks around and triumphantly bellows to the rest of the pachycephalosaurs. However, as the upstart continued to proclaim his victory, the older male, who was not fully incapacitated, suddenly rushed at him and violently rammed into his left flank, catching him off-guard and forcefully knocking him down to the ground, cutting short his premature rise to power.

***“ A bellow of victory... but, too soon. The loser has to pay a heavy price. Exile. Alone, it will be a struggle to fend for himself. But life here will not be easy for the winner either, unless the water returns to this land, and soon. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Standing triumphantly over him, the dominant male, along with the rest of the pachycephalosaurs, drives the troublemaker out of the herd, reducing the members from ten to nine. Forced into exile, the young male would find it difficult to fend for himself, though the victorious leader and the remaining members of his herd will also continue to face hardship as long as water does not return to the area. As he watches the banished member run off into the distance, the leader, panting due to exhaustion, walks off to continue the search for sustenance in the impoverished wilderness of their prehistoric world.

## Segment V: *Tyrannosaurus* Brothers

**Swamps**, Segment V
**Setting**
Hell Creek Formation, Montana - South Dakota, USA

**Filming Location**
Bog Pond, Waterford, Oxford, Maine, USA

In the fifth and final segment of the episode, a swampy region, flooded all year round and turned into a lush, excellent feeding ground during springtime, attracts herds of *Edmontosaurus* and *Triceratops*. The large number of herbivores in the area, however, attracts the attention of two subadult *T. rex* brothers. They would prefer to ambush their prey, but with many of the herbivores already aware of their presence (including a formidable trio of *Triceratops*, which glare back at them while drinking from the swamp), the *T. rexes* postpone their attack for a better time.

***“ As darkness falls, some of the herds that had been grazing out in the open retreat into the forest for shelter. Now, the odds switch in favor of the predators. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
As night falls, one tyrannosaur quickly looks over the area before waking his brother up, and together, using their superb low-light vision (due to having the largest eyes of any dinosaur) and near-silent movement (helped in part by their cushioned foot pads muffling every step) to their advantage, they sneaking up on a herd of *Edmontosaurus*. Their plan in place, the *T. rex* brothers split and take up different positions. One deliberately makes a noise, alarming the herd, which is now aware that hunters are close by, but don't know exactly where the predators are. Taking advantage of this air of uneasiness spreading through the herd, one *T. rex* rushes out, attacking one *Edmontosaurus*, ramming at it full force while biting its back right leg. This sudden attack causes the herd to panic and rush right where the other hunter is waiting, allowing him to ambush an *Edmontosaurus* and bring his jaws down on its neck.

***“ A perfectly-executed plan by one of the greatest land predators that have ever lived in the swamps of our Prehistoric Planet. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Swamps*
Their target now singled out, the other *T. rex* arrives to help, and both brothers wrestle the *Edmontosaurus* to the ground. The hadrosaur, refusing to go down, put up a decent struggle, pushing, shaking, and kicking its attackers off at times, but in the end, the theropods put the *Edmontosaurus* down for good with bites to the neck and stomach. That night, as the rest of the hadrosaurs fled in fright, the *Tyrannosaurus* brothers feasted on their hard-earned catch.

## Uncovered Segment I: Was Pachycephalosaur Really A Headbutter?

  **Was Pachycephalosaur Really A Headbutter?**
**Subject**
The overall function of pachycephalosaur domes as display features and as ramming weapons.

**Experts**
Dr. Susannah Maidment, Professor Paul Barrett
***“ When they first saw these very thick, domed skulls, and these domes could be up to 30 centimeters in thickness, they were thought to be very strong. It was thought that maybe they were using them for headbutting each other in contests over social hierarchy. ”***

― **Professor Paul Barrett**, *Natural History Museum*
Footage from the pachycephalosaur segment is reused in the Uncovered segment following Swamps, where the purpose of pachycephalosaur domes is discussed, for it is believed that they are strong enough to be used for headbutting, like modern-day bighorn sheep, to settle disputes over social hierarchy. Following the slicing of some pachycephalosaur domes, it was then theorized that they were not able to withstand head-on collisions. Marks across the skull indicate a mesh of tiny fibers that are suggested to support brightly-colored skin for display purposes, like attracting a mate.

***“ This new theory seemed to be accepted until 2013, when a new discovery was made. A pachycephalosaur was found with marks showing it had survived multiple injuries to the top of its head. And it wasn't a one-off. ”***

― **David Attenborough**, *Prehistoric Planet: Uncovered - Was Pachycephalosaur Really A Headbutter?*
When the domes of several pachycephalosaur species in various museum collections were studied, they were also found to have had similar injuries in the same place (with one specimen, BMR P2001.4.5, bearing as many as 23 head lesions). Virtual models generated by CT scans were subjected to various engineering tests, with the results further supporting the usage of pachycephalosaur domes for headbutting.

***“ What they've shown is that pachycephalosaur domes could actually have withstood an enormous amount of force. The sort of force that goes through American footballers when they hit each other. ”***

― **Dr. Susannah Maidment**, *Natural History Museum*
With this, it is now believed that pachycephalosaurs used their domes as colorful displays and also as formidable weapons to prove which individual is superior.

## Uncovered Segment II: How Good Were *T. rex* Senses?

  **How Good Were *T. rex* Senses?**
**Subject**
The acute senses of a *T. rex*, the brain behind these senses, and nocturnality in dinosaurs.

**Experts**
Dr. Susannah Maidment, Professor Paul Barrett, Dr. Darren Naish
Footage from the final segment of Swamps, following two tyrannosaurs hunting in the night, is reused in this Uncovered segment, where the key factors to a tyrannosaur's success are discussed. Their senses of sight, smell, and hearing are described as great, with the question at hand being how great, exactly. The problem with this is that dinosaur sense organs are not really preserved, though the characteristics of observable parts, like the skull, can still give clues regarding the understanding of dinosaur senses. For example, the eye sockets can help indicate the size of the animal's eyeball and the direction in which it faced. With this, it can be inferred that *T. rex's* eyes, the size of grapefruits, faced forward, proof of binocular vision.

***“ The fields of vision of its two eyes overlap substantially, giving it very good depth perception, which would have made it a very effective predator. ”***

― **Professor Paul Barrett**, *Natural History Museum*
Of course, sight is just one great hunting tool out of many. As shown by modern-day hunters like African wild dogs, which have superb vision, acute senses of hearing and smell can help predators track and pinpoint prey from miles away. In order to determine whether *T. rex* can rely on these same senses, it is important to take of note of key areas that relate to different senses, which can be gauged by observing different lobes of the animal's brain, and the bigger those lobes are, the better. As CT scans of *T. rex's* head reveal, the optic (sight) and olfactory (smell) lobes of its brain are exceptionally large. The CT scans also reveal that the inner ear of the theropod is adapted to picking up low frequencies, which can help detect prey over long distances.

***“ These really impressive senses would have combined to allow them to hone in on prey very quickly and very accurately. ”***

― **Dr. Susannah Maidment**, *Natural History Museum*
With this, an exciting new theory is formed. Today, predators with such a deadly combination of senses are observed using these senses to hunt effectively during the night. It is believed that *T. rex* may have done the same.

***“ Until recently, it was assumed that dinosaurs were animals of the daytime. But if we actually look at the behavior of living animals, there's no reason to think this is true. ”***

― **Dr. Darren Naish**, *Lead Scientific Consultant*
In low-light conditions, where predators can use their acute senses and the cover of darkness to zero in on prey and ambush them, *T. rex* would have made most of such an advantage, using its excellent senses of sight, smell, and hearing to make it one of the greatest predators to ever live on the Prehistoric Planet.

## Fauna

Mongolian Azhdarchid*Shamosuchus djadochtaensis**Austroraptor cabazai**Masiakasaurus knopfleri**Beelzebufo ampinga**Rapetosaurus krausei**Pachycephalosaurus wyomingensis**Edmontosaurus annectens**Triceratops horridus**Tyrannosaurus rex*
## References

### General

1. ↑ Distributions of Cranial Pathologies Provide Evidence for Head-Butting in Dome-Headed Dinosaurs (Pachycephalosauridae)

### Dr. Darren Naish

1. ↑ The fifth segment of Swamps has two subadult *T. rex* brothers hunting together in order to show the idea that dinosaurs of many sorts likely maintained familial social bonds throughout life.

### Prehistoric Planet

1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 I Know Dino: The Big Dinosaur Podcast, Episode 445: Dinosaurs in Swamps: Featuring Prehistoric Planet 2
2. ↑ As indicated by the name of the *T. rex* pair's theme in the Official Soundtrack, "Tyrannosaurus Brothers".