Cello

## Origin

Along with the Violin and the Viola, the cello is a part of the violin family. In English, the full name, violoncello, is almost always shortened to "cello".

## Description

The cello is held between the legs with an adjustable end pin that braces the instrument against the floor. The neck is held against the left shoulder.

The length of a 4/4 (full-sized) cello is around 122 cm (48 in) from scroll to the end of the tailpiece. The effective string length is around 68 cm (27 in). A 4/4 cello bow is 71 cm (28 in) and shorter than a violin and viola bow, but it is more robust and powerful.

## Characteristics

### Tuning

There are 4 strings on the cello. The lower string is C2 and each string is tuned a perfect fifth above the last. The strings, in order, are: C2, G2, D3, A3. This is one octave lower than the viola's strings.

### Range

The lowest note on a cello is the "open" C (C2). In theory, the cello can get extremely high notes; however, in practice, notes get much more difficult as the range goes up so the practical limit to notes is probably G5. Adding in harmonics [see Techniques: Harmonics], it is relatively reasonable to reach the note D6. Any harmonic higher than this is difficult to sound. As in most instruments, a solo cello part can be expected to reach higher notes than an orchestral cello part. The cello normally uses the bass clef, but if notes get higher the tenor clef is used. If the notes exceed A4, the treble clef should be used to avoid too many ledger lines.

### Tone

The tone of the cello is very singing, especially in the upper registers. The C and G strings are very rich and peaceful, but can be played aggressively to produce an extremely harsh tone as well. The D string is very warm and pure. The A string can be very bright and is full of overtones making it stand out.

## Techniques

### Left-hand (cello hand)

#### Vibrato

Vibrato is a technique in many instruments to increase the resonance of the tone. On the cello, it is achieved by rocking the fingertip back and forth to oscillate the pitch of the note. This is mainly achieved on the cello by arm vibrato (movement originating in the arm/biceps). Vibrato is hugely varied between styles such as baroque and romantic, but cellos tend to use very slow and wide vibrato to match the deep sound of the cello as compared to the violin.

#### Glissando

Glissando (or slide) is a technique used to connect two notes by a slide. It can be approximated between two fingers (for example starting the slide on the ring finger (3rd finger) and ending on the index finger (1st finger) if needed) or between two strings by sliding on one string and simply crossing the string for the last note. Vibrato can be added to a glissando to more effectively sound each note.

#### Trills

A trill is the rapid change of notes between two adjacent notes. On a cello, this is achieved by simply stopping on note (unless an open string is used as the lower note) and rapidly putting down and picking up the finger above the stopped note. In advanced techniques, trills can be played at the same time as solid notes on a different string to achieve multiple voices at once.

#### Fingered Tremolo

Fingered Tremolo is simply a trill but of an interval greater than a second (adjacent notes). This will almost never exceed a major third interval. The same advanced techniques with trills apply to fingered tremolo as well.

#### Harmonics

There are two types of harmonics: natural and artificial. Natural harmonics are produced by lightly touching the string with the left hand at a length that evenly and simply divides the string (such as 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 3/4, etc.). These can also be played two at a time without too much difficulty. Since the cello is very large, there are a very large number of natural harmonics that can be consistently used.

Artificial harmonics are much more difficult, but give more options for harmonic tones (lighter, airier, etc.) to other notes. These are produced by stopping the string with one finger and setting a higher finger (almost always a perfect fourth above the stopped notes) lightly on the string. As well as the perfect fourth, artificial harmonics can be sounded at the perfect fifth and the minor third. The harmonic of the perfect fourth above the stopped note creates a note two octaves higher than the stopped note. Artificial harmonics, despite being more difficult to produce can be combined with vibrato unlike natural harmonics.

#### Left-hand Pizzicato

Pizzicato is when a cellist plucks the instrument instead of using the bow. This is normally done with the right-hand (bow hand), but can be done with the left-hand, though it is much harder. There are a couple of reasons for choosing left-hand pizzicato over normal pizzicato: 1) It does not require time to change hand positions; 2) it can be performed faster; 3) you can play with the bow and use pizzicato at the same time. Since the strings of the cello are very thick, left-hand pizzicato is quite difficult as compared to the violin and viola.

### Right-hand (bow hand)

#### Sul Ponticello

*Sul ponticello* (at the bridge) is when the bow is played very near to the bridge. This creates a harsh sometimes cracking tone. This is notated by writing *sul ponticello* above the first note of the section sul ponticello and ending the section with *normale* or *in modo ordinario* to indicate that a normal bow stroke should be used.

#### Sul tasto

*Sul tasto* (at the fingerboard) is when the bow is played over the fingerboard. This creates a light and feathery tone. This is notated by writing *sul tasto* above the first note of the section sul tasto and ending the section with *normale* or *in modo ordinario* to indicate that a normal bow stroke should be used. Some players will automatically used the sul tasto technique to create a soft dynamic.

#### Portato

Portato is the technique of a cello to play notes legato (smooth) and in one bowstroke, but give a separate push on each note. This is best utilized in slow expressive passages.

#### Staccato

Staccato, in general, means making a particular note very short, but with the cello, there is a technique called staccato. It means that notes are taken in one bowstroke, but each note is given its own sharp impulse. It is similar to portato, but the notes are not played legato and are given a stronger impulse. Staccato is notated like portato, but with dots instead of lines.

#### Spiccato

Spiccato simply means playing with a bouncing (off-the-string) bow. When the notes are faster or are indicated with staccato markings (dots), the term *sautillé* is used as the stroke is much shorter and more rapid. There is no notation for spiccato as players or conductors will typically use their own experience to decide where it is appropriate. Sometimes for the sautillé stroke, the word *sautillé* is written above the first note of the passage.

#### Ricochet

Ricochet is the rapid bouncing of the bow on a down-bow, usually in the upper third of the bow. This is usually accomplished by thrusting the bow into the string with just enough force to let gravity and the tension of the strings to bounce the bow with the player adding energy during the bow stroke. The notation is the same as a fast staccato, but on a down-bow.

#### Tremolo

As opposed to fingered tremolo [See Techniques: Fingered Tremolo], bowed tremolo is the rapid changing of the bow. This, especially with the dark sound of the cello, can create a stormy feel when loud and an ethereal feel when soft (or sul ponticello/tasto). There are two types of tremolo:

1. "Measured" Tremolo. This is when the rapid changing of the bow is in accordance with repeated fast notes. In other words, the players are changing their bow with some consistent rhythm (16th notes, for example).
2. "Unmeasured" Tremolo. This is when the rapid changing of the bow is as fast as possible.

Tremolo can be combined with different dynamics as well as techniques such as double stops (2-note chords). The notation for both measured and unmeasured tremolo is the same, unmeasured only being used when the pulse it too fast to keep a true measured tremolo.

#### Pizzicato

Pizzicato, as discussed in Techniques: Left-hand Pizzicato, is when the strings are plucked instead of bowed. This is very simple with the right hand, but can not be combined with bowed notes like left-hand pizzicato can. It is not necessary to write pizzicato notes with a short note value as the sound will fade very quickly regardless of the note length written. Pizzicato can be used with vibrato to a small extent. On the cello, pizzicato in the lower register is extremely effective for accompaniment in an orchestral setting. The indication *pizz.* is used to indicate the start of the pizzicato passage and the word *arco* is used to indicate the return to bowing the notes. It is best to leave time for the player to change to pizzicato or arco in the music.

#### Col legno

*Col legno* is when the strings are played with the stick (wood) of the bow instead of the hair. This is best used sparingly as this technique can damage the bows of the cellists. In addition, *col legno* is most effective when the notes are short as the wood does not catch the strings to create a good sustained pitch.

1. ↑ Stephen Burton - "Orchestration"
2. ↑ https://musicalinstrumenthire.com/cello-sizing-guide-how-to-measure/