Nuke

The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of the Japanese city of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 rose some 11 miles (18 km) above the bomb's hypo center

A **nuclear weapon** is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion (thermonuclear weapon). Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first fission ("atomic") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT (see Trinity (nuclear test)). The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10,000,000 tons of TNT.[1]
A thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg) can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation
of more than 1.2 million tons (1.1 million tonnes) of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and radiation. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of mass destruction, and their use and control have been a major focus of international relations policy since their debut.

Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II. On August 6, 1945, the U.S. Army Air Forces detonated a uranium gun-type fission bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima; three days later, on August 9, the U.S. Army Air Forces detonated a plutonium implosion-type fission bomb code named "Fat Man" over the Japanese city of Nagasaki. The bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japan's surrender remain the subject of scholarly and popular debate.

Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations
 possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them. The only
countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons—and acknowledge
possessing them—are (chronologically by date of first test) the United States, the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, the People's Republic of China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are NATO nuclear weapons sharing states. Israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them.One state, South Africa, fabricated nuclear weapons in the past, but as its apartheid regime was coming to an end, it disassembled its arsenal, acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and accepted full-scope international safeguards.[7] Following the fall of the Soviet Union, the former Soviet republics of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine inherited nuclear weapons. They were all transferred to Russia. The Federation of American Scientists
 estimated there were more than 15,700 nuclear warheads worldwide as of
2015, with around 4,100 of them considered "operational" (ready for immediate use).

## Types

Main article: Nuclear weapon design

The two basic fission weapon designs

There are two basic types of nuclear weapons: those that derive the
majority of their energy from nuclear fission reactions alone, and those that use fission reactions to begin nuclear fusion reactions that produce a large amount of the total energy output.

### Fission weapons

All existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy
from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is
exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as **atomic bombs** or **atom bombs** (abbreviated as **A-bombs**). This has long been noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom, just as it does with fusion weapons.

In fission weapons, a mass of fissile material (enriched uranium or plutonium) is assembled into a super critical mass—the amount of material needed to start an exponentially growing nuclear chain reaction—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the "gun" method) or by compressing using explosive lenses a sub-critical sphere of material using chemical explosives to many times its original density (the "implosion" method). The latter
 approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the
latter approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium.

A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a
significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys
itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from
the equivalent of just under a ton of TNT, to upwards of 500,000 tons (500 kilotons) of TNT.

All fission reactions necessarily generate fission products,
 the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission
reactions. Many fission products are either highly radioactive (but
short-lived) or moderately radioactive (but long-lived), and as such are
 a serious form of radioactive contamination if not fully contained. Fission products are the principal radioactive component of nuclear fallout.

The most commonly used fissile materials for nuclear weapons applications have been uranium-235 and plutonium-239. Less commonly used has been uranium-233. Neptunium-237 and some isotopes of americium
 may be usable for nuclear explosives as well, but it is not clear that
this has ever been implemented, and even their plausible use in nuclear
weapons is a matter of scientific dispute.[10]

### Fusion weapons

Main article: Thermonuclear weapon

The basics of the Teller–Ulam design for a hydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to compress and heat a separate section of fusion fuel.

The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of
 its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are
generally referred to as **thermonuclear weapons** or more colloquially as **hydrogen bombs** (abbreviated as **H-bombs**), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium). All such weapons derive a significant portion, and sometimes a
majority, of their energy from fission. This is because a fission
reaction is required as a "trigger" for the fusion reactions, and the
fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions.[11]
Only six countries—United States, Russia, United Kingdom, People's
Republic of China, France and India—have conducted thermonuclear weapon
tests. (Whether India has detonated a "true", multi-staged thermonuclear weapon is controversial.) North Korea claims to have tested a fusion weapon as of January 2016, though this claim is disputed. Thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to
successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. Almost
all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design
because it is more efficient.[*citation needed*]

Thermonuclear bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb to compress and heat fusion fuel. In the Teller-Ulam design, which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel (tritium, deuterium, or lithium deuteride) in proximity within a special, radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated, gamma rays and X-rays
 emitted first compress the fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear
temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of
high-speed neutrons, which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it, such as depleted uranium.
 Each of these components is known as a "stage", with the fission bomb
as the "primary" and the fusion capsule as the "secondary". In large,
megaton-range hydrogen bombs, about half of the yield comes from the
final fissioning of depleted uranium.[9]

Virtually all thermonuclear weapons deployed today use the
"two-stage" design described above, but it is possible to add additional
 fusion stages—each stage igniting a larger amount of fusion fuel in the
 next stage. This technique can be used to construct thermonuclear
weapons of arbitrarily large yield, in contrast to fission bombs, which
are limited in their explosive force. The largest nuclear weapon ever
detonated—the Tsar Bomba of the USSR, which released an energy equivalent of over 50 million tons (50 megatons)
 of TNT—was a three-stage weapon. Most thermonuclear weapons are
considerably smaller than this, due to practical constraints from
missile warhead space and weight requirements.[14]

Edward Teller, often referred to as the "father of the hydrogen bomb"

Fusion reactions do not create fission products, and thus contribute
far less to the creation of nuclear fallout than fission reactions, but
because all thermonuclear weapons contain at least one fission stage,
and many high-yield thermonuclear devices have a final fission stage,
thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclear fallout as
fission-only weapons.

### Other types

Main articles: boosted fission weapon, neutron bomb and radiological bomb

There are other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a boosted fission weapon
 is a fission bomb that increases its explosive yield through a small
amount of fusion reactions, but it is not a fusion bomb. In the boosted
bomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to
increase the efficiency of the fission bomb.
Some weapons are designed for special purposes; a neutron bomb is a thermonuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of neutron radiation;
 such a device could theoretically be used to cause massive casualties
while leaving infrastructure mostly intact and creating a minimal amount
 of fallout. The detonation of any nuclear weapon is accompanied by a
blast of neutron radiation. Surrounding a nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as cobalt or gold) creates a weapon known as a salted bomb. This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of radioactive contamination.

Research has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs:
 nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a
fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler
path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required development of
fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create
significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons,
because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the United States Department of Energy
 divulged that the United States had, "...made a substantial investment"
 in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, "The U.S. does
not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon", and that, "No
credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE
investment".[15]

Most variation in nuclear weapon design is for the purpose of achieving different yields for different situations, and in manipulating design elements to attempt to minimize weapon size.[9]

Antimatter, which consists of particles resembling ordinary matter particles in most of their properties but having opposite electric charge, has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons.[16]
 A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large
enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it is feasible beyond
the military domain.[17] However, the U.S. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the Cold War, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself.[18] A fourth generation nuclear weapon design is related to, and relies upon, the same principle as Antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion.[19]

## Weapons delivery

See also: Nuclear weapons delivery, nuclear triad, Strategic bomber, Intercontinental ballistic missile and Submarine-launched ballistic missile

The first nuclear weapons were gravity bombs, such as this "Fat Man" weapon dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. They were very large and could only be delivered by heavy bomber aircraft

A demilitarized and commercial launch of the Russian Strategic Rocket Forces R-36 ICBM; also known by the NATO reporting name: SS-18 Satan. Upon its first fielding in the late 1960s, the SS-18 remains the single highest throw weight missile delivery system ever built.

Nuclear weapons delivery—the
 technology and systems used to bring a nuclear weapon to its target—is
an important aspect of nuclear weapons relating both to nuclear weapon design and nuclear strategy.
 Additionally, development and maintenance of delivery options is among
the most resource-intensive aspects of a nuclear weapons program:
according to one estimate, deployment costs accounted for 57% of the
total financial resources spent by the United States in relation to
nuclear weapons since 1940.[20]
Historically the first method of delivery, and the method used in the two nuclear weapons used in warfare, was as a gravity bomb, dropped from bomber aircraft.
 This is usually the first method that countries developed, as it does
not place many restrictions on the size of the weapon and *weapon miniaturization*
 requires considerable weapons design knowledge. It does, however, limit
 attack range, response time to an impending attack, and the number of
weapons that a country can field at the same time.

With the advent of miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both strategic bombers and tactical fighter-bombers,
 allowing an air force to use its current fleet with little or no
modification. This method may still be considered the primary means of
nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for
example, are free-fall gravity bombs, namely the B61.[9][*dated info*]

Montage of an inert test of a United States Trident SLBM (submarine launched ballistic missile), from submerged to the terminal, or re-entry phase, of the multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles

More preferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weapon mounted onto a missile, which can use a ballistic
 trajectory to deliver the warhead over the horizon. Although even
short-range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the
development of long-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles
 (SLBMs) has given some nations the ability to plausibly deliver
missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success.

More advanced systems, such as multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), can launch multiple warheads at different targets from one missile, reducing the chance of a successful missile defense.
 Today, missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of
nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile,
though, can be difficult.[9]

Tactical weapons have involved the most variety of delivery types, including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also artillery shells, land mines, and nuclear depth charges and torpedoes for anti-submarine warfare. An atomic mortar
 was also tested at one time by the United States. Small, two-man
portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as suitcase bombs), such as the Special Atomic Demolition Munition, have been developed, although the difficulty of combining sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility.[9]

## Nuclear strategy

Main articles: Nuclear strategy and Deterrence theory

See also: Nuclear peace, Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence, Single Integrated Operational Plan, nuclear warfare and On Thermonuclear War

Nuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with
preventing or fighting a nuclear war. The policy of trying to prevent an
 attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear
retaliation is known as the strategy of nuclear deterrence.
 The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike capability
 (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of
its own) and potentially to strive for first strike
 status (the ability to completely destroy an enemy's nuclear forces
before they could retaliate). During the Cold War, policy and military
theorists in nuclear-enabled countries worked out models of what sorts
of policies could prevent one from ever being attacked by a nuclear
weapon, and developed weapon game theory models that create the greatest and most stable deterrence conditions.
The now decommissioned United States' Peacekeeper missile was an ICBM developed to entirely replace the minuteman missile in the late 1980s. Each missile, like the heavier lift Russian SS-18 Satan,
 could contain up to ten nuclear warheads (shown in red), each of which
could be aimed at a different target. A factor in the development of MIRVs was to make complete missile defense very difficult for an enemy country.

Different forms of nuclear weapons delivery
 (see above) allow for different types of nuclear strategies. The goals
of any strategy are generally to make it difficult for an enemy to
launch a pre-emptive strike against the weapon system and difficult to
defend against the delivery of the weapon during a potential conflict.
Sometimes this has meant keeping the weapon locations hidden, such as
deploying them on submarines or land mobile transporter erector launchers whose locations are very hard for an enemy to track, and other times, this means protecting them by burying them in hardened missile silo bunkers.

Other components of nuclear strategies have included using missile
defense (to destroy the missiles before they land) or implementation of civil defense measures (using early-warning systems to evacuate citizens to safe areas before an attack).

Note that weapons designed to threaten large populations, or to generally deter attacks are known as *strategic weapons.* Weapons designed for use on a battlefield in military situations are called *tactical weapons.*

There are critics of the very idea of nuclear strategy for waging
nuclear war who have suggested that a nuclear war between two nuclear
powers would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the
 significance of nuclear weapons is purely to deter war because any
nuclear war would immediately escalate out of mutual distrust and fear,
resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism.

Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment[*citation needed*] have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. According to an advisory opinion issued by the International Court of Justice
 in 1996, the use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally
be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed
conflict, but the court did not reach an opinion as to whether or not
the threat or use would be lawful in specific extreme circumstances such
 as if the survival of the state were at stake.

Another deterrence position in nuclear strategy is that nuclear proliferation
 can be desirable. This view argues that, unlike conventional weapons,
nuclear weapons successfully deter all-out war between states, and they
succeeded in doing this during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.[21] In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gen. Pierre Marie Gallois of France, an adviser to Charles DeGaulle, argued in books like *The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age* (1961) that mere possession of a nuclear arsenal, what the French called the *force de frappe*, was enough to ensure deterrence, and thus concluded that the spread of nuclear weapons could increase international stability. Some very prominent neo-realist scholars, such as the late Kenneth Waltz, formerly a Political Science at UC Berkeley and Adjunct Senior Research Scholar at Columbia University, and John Mearsheimer of University of Chicago,
 have also argued along the lines of Gallois. Specifically, these
scholars have advocated some forms of nuclear proliferation, arguing
that it would decrease the likelihood of total war, especially in troubled regions of the world where there exists a unipolar nuclear weapon state.
 Aside from the public opinion that opposes proliferation in any form,
there are two schools of thought on the matter: those, like Mearsheimer,
 who favor selective proliferation,[22] and those of Kenneth Waltz, who was somewhat more non-interventionist.[23][24]

The threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of nuclear terrorism) complicates the decision process. The prospect of mutually assured destruction may not deter an enemy who expects to die in the confrontation. Further, if the initial act is from a stateless terrorist
 instead of a sovereign nation, there is no fixed nation or fixed
military targets to retaliate against. It has been argued by the New York Times, especially after the September 11, 2001 attacks, that this complication is the sign of the next age of nuclear strategy, distinct from the relative stability of the Cold War.[25] In 1996, the United States adopted a policy of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons at terrorists armed with weapons of mass destruction.[26]

Robert Gallucci, president of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation,
 argues that although traditional deterrence is not an effective
approach toward terrorist groups bent on causing a nuclear catastrophe,
Gallucci believes that "the United States should instead consider a
policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not solely on the would-be
nuclear terrorists but on those states that may deliberately transfer or
 inadvertently lead nuclear weapons and materials to them. By
threatening retaliation against those states, the United States may be
able to deter that which it cannot physically prevent.".[27]

Graham Allison
 makes a similar case, arguing that the key to expanded deterrence is
coming up with ways of tracing nuclear material to the country that
forged the fissile material. "After a nuclear bomb detonates, nuclear forensics
 cops would collect debris samples and send them to a laboratory for
radiological analysis. By identifying unique attributes of the fissile
material, including its impurities and contaminants, one could trace the
 path back to its origin."[28]
 The process is analogous to identifying a criminal by fingerprints.
"The goal would be twofold: first, to deter leaders of nuclear states
from selling weapons to terrorists by holding them accountable for any
use of their own weapons; second, to give leader every incentive to
tightly secure their nuclear weapons and materials."[28]

## Governance, control, and law

Main articles: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, START I, Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty, Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and New START

The International Atomic Energy Agency
 was created in 1957 to encourage peaceful development of nuclear
technology while providing international safeguards against nuclear
proliferation.

Because of the immense military power they can confer, the political
control of nuclear weapons has been a key issue for as long as they have
 existed; in most countries the use of nuclear force can only be
authorized by the head of government or head of state.[29]
 Controls and regulations governing nuclear weapons are man-made, and so
 are imperfect. Therefore, there is an inherent danger of "accidents,
mistakes, false alarms, blackmail, theft, and sabotage".[30]

In the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust was preventing the United
States and the Soviet Union from making ground towards international
arms control agreements. The Russell–Einstein Manifesto was issued in London on July 9, 1955 by Bertrand Russell
 in the midst of the Cold War. It highlighted the dangers posed by
nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful
resolutions to international conflict. The signatories included eleven
pre-eminent intellectuals and scientists, including Albert Einstein, who signed it just days before his death on April 18, 1955. A few days after the release, philanthropist Cyrus S. Eaton offered to sponsor a conference—called for in the manifesto—in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Eaton's birthplace. This conference was to be the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, held in July 1957.

By the 1960s steps were being taken to limit both the proliferation
of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of nuclear testing. The Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) restricted all nuclear testing to underground nuclear testing, to prevent contamination from nuclear fallout, whereas the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
 (1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities
signatories could participate in, with the goal of allowing the
transference of non-military nuclear technology to member countries without fear of proliferation.

In 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established under the mandate of the United Nations
 to encourage development of peaceful applications for nuclear
technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and
facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. In 1996, many
nations signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty,[31]
 which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. A testing ban imposes a
 significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying
country.[32]
 The Treaty requires the ratification by 44 specific states before it
can go into force; as of 2012, the ratification of eight of these states
 is still required.[31]

Additional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons
stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles, the
United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States
and Russia. These include treaties such as SALT II (never ratified), START I (expired), INF, START II (never ratified), SORT, and New START, as well as non-binding agreements such as SALT I and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives[33]
 of 1991. Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements
helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons
between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia.

Nuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Treaty of Pelindaba (1964) prohibits nuclear weapons in many African countries. As recently as 2006 a Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone was established amongst the former Soviet republics of Central Asia prohibiting nuclear weapons.

In the middle of 1996, the International Court of Justice, the highest court of the United Nations, issued an Advisory Opinion concerned with the "Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons". The court ruled that the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons would violate various articles of international law, including the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions, the UN Charter, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In view of the unique, destructive characteristics of nuclear weapons, the International Committee of the Red Cross calls on States to ensure that these weapons are never used, irrespective of whether they consider them lawful or not.[34]

Additionally, there have been other, specific actions meant to
discourage countries from developing nuclear arms. In the wake of the
tests by India and Pakistan in 1998, economic sanctions were
(temporarily) levied against both countries, though neither were
signatories with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. One of the stated
 *casus belli* for the initiation of the 2003 Iraq War was an accusation by the United States that Iraq was actively pursuing nuclear arms (though this was soon discovered not to be the case as the program had been discontinued). In 1981, Israel had bombed a nuclear reactor being constructed in Osirak, Iraq, in what it called an attempt to halt Iraq's previous nuclear arms ambitions; in 2007, Israel bombed another reactor being constructed in Syria.

In 2013, Mark Diesendorf
 says that governments of France, India, North Korea, Pakistan, UK, and
South Africa have used nuclear power and/or research reactors to assist
nuclear weapons development or to contribute to their supplies of
nuclear explosives from military reactors.[35]

### Disarmament

Main article: Nuclear disarmament

See also: Nuclear Tipping Point

The USSR and USA nuclear weapon stockpiles throughout the Cold War until 2005, with a precipitous drop in total numbers following the end of the Cold War in 1991.

Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating
 nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in which
nuclear weapons are completely eliminated.
Beginning with the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty and continuing through the 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, there have been many treaties to limit or reduce nuclear weapons testing and stockpiles. The 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
 has as one of its explicit conditions that all signatories must "pursue
 negotiations in good faith" towards the long-term goal of "complete
disarmament". The nuclear weapon states have largely treated that aspect
 of the agreement as "decorative" and without force.[36]

Only one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear
weapons they had independently developed. The former Soviet republics of
 Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the collapse of the USSR.

Proponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the
probability of nuclear war occurring, especially accidentally. Critics
of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present nuclear peace and deterrence and would lead to increased global instability. Various American elder statesmen,[37] who were in office during the Cold War period, have been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. These officials include Henry Kissinger, George Shultz, Sam Nunn, and William Perry. In January 2010, Lawrence M. Krauss
 stated that "no issue carries more importance to the long-term health
and security of humanity than the effort to reduce, and perhaps one day,
 rid the world of nuclear weapons".[38]

Ukrainian workers use equipment provided by the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency
 to dismantle a Soviet-era missile silo. After the end of the Cold War,
Ukraine and the other non-Russian, post-Soviet republics relinquished
Soviet nuclear stockpiles to Russia.

In the years after the end of the Cold War, there have been numerous
campaigns to urge the abolition of nuclear weapons, such as that
organized by the Global Zero movement, and the goal of a "world without nuclear weapons" was advocated by United States President Barack Obama in an April 2009 speech in Prague.[39] A CNN poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.[40]

Some analysts have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia.[41][42] Kenneth Waltz
 has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and
further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large
scale conventional wars that were so common prior to their invention at
the end of World War II.[24] But former Secretary Henry Kissinger
 says there is a new danger, which cannot be addressed by deterrence:
"The classical notion of deterrence was that there was some consequences
 before which aggressors and evildoers would recoil. In a world of
suicide bombers, that calculation doesn’t operate in any comparable
way".[43] George Shultz
 has said, "If you think of the people who are doing suicide attacks,
and people like that get a nuclear weapon, they are almost by definition
 not deterrable".[44]

Further information: See List of states with nuclear weapons for statistics on possession and deployment

### United Nations

Main article: United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs

The UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) is a department of the United Nations Secretariat established in January 1998 as part of the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan's plan to reform the UN as presented in his report to the General Assembly in July 1997.[45]
Its goal is to promote nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation and the strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to other weapons of mass destruction, chemical and biological weapons. It also promotes disarmament efforts in the area of conventional weapons, especially land mines and small arms, which are often the weapons of choice in contemporary conflicts.

## Controversy

See also: Nuclear weapons debate and History of the anti-nuclear movement

### Ethics

Even before the first nuclear weapons had been developed, scientists involved with the Manhattan Project were divided over the use of the weapon. The role of the two atomic bombings of the country in Japan's surrender and the U.S.'s ethical
 justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular
debate for decades. The question of whether nations should have nuclear
weapons, or test them, has been continually and nearly universally
controversial.[46]

### Notable nuclear weapons accidents

See also: United States military nuclear incident terminology

* February 13, 1950: a Convair B-36B crashed in northern British Columbia after jettisoning a Mark IV atomic bomb. This was the first such nuclear weapon loss in history.
* June 7, 1960: the 1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident destroyed a Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc nuclear missile and shelter and contaminated the BOMARC Missile Accident Site in New Jersey.
* January 24, 1961: the 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash occurred near Goldsboro, North Carolina. A B-52 Stratofortress carrying two Mark 39 nuclear bombs broke up in mid-air, dropping its nuclear payload in the process.[47][48]
* 1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash, where a Skyhawk attack aircraft with a nuclear weapon fell into the sea.[49] The pilot, the aircraft, and the B43 nuclear bomb were never recovered.[50] It was not until 1989 that the Pentagon revealed the loss of the one-megaton bomb.[51]
* January 17, 1966: the 1966 Palomares B-52 crash occurred when a B-52G bomber of the USAF collided with a KC-135 tanker during mid-air refuelling off the coast of Spain.

 The KC-135 was completely destroyed when its fuel load ignited, killing
 all four crew members. The B-52G broke apart, killing three of the
seven crew members aboard.[52] Of the four Mk28 type hydrogen bombs the B-52G carried,[53] three were found on land near Almería,
 Spain. The non-nuclear explosives in two of the weapons detonated upon
impact with the ground, resulting in the contamination of a
2-square-kilometer (490-acre) (0.78 square mile) area by radioactive plutonium. The fourth, which fell into the Mediterranean Sea, was recovered intact after a 2½-month-long search.[54]

* January 21, 1968: the 1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash involved a United States Air Force (USAF) B-52 bomber. The aircraft was carrying four hydrogen bombs when a cabin fire forced the crew to abandon the aircraft. Six crew members ejected safely, but one who did not have an ejection seat was killed while trying to bail out. The bomber crashed onto sea ice in Greenland, causing the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse, which resulted in widespread radioactive contamination.

### Nuclear testing and fallout

Main article: Nuclear fallout

See also: Downwinders

Over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted, in over a dozen different
sites around the world. Red Russia/Soviet Union, blue France, light blue
 United States, violet Britain, black Israel, orange China, yellow
India, brown Pakistan, green North Korea and light green (territories
exposed to nuclear bombs)

This view of downtown Las Vegas shows a mushroom cloud
 in the background. Scenes such as this were typical during the 1950s.
From 1951 to 1962 the government conducted 100 atmospheric tests at the
nearby Nevada Test Site.

Over 500 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests were conducted at various sites around the world from 1945 to 1980. Radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when the Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test at the Pacific Proving Grounds contaminated the crew and catch of the Japanese fishing boat *Lucky Dragon*.[55] One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later, and the fear of contaminated tuna
 led to a temporary boycotting of the popular staple in Japan. The
incident caused widespread concern around the world, especially
regarding the effects of nuclear fallout and atmospheric nuclear testing, and "provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries".[55]

As public awareness and concern mounted over the possible health hazards associated with exposure to the nuclear fallout, various studies were done to assess the extent of the hazard. A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/ National Cancer Institute
 study claims that fallout from atmospheric nuclear tests would lead to
perhaps 11,000 excess deaths amongst people alive during atmospheric
testing in the United States from all forms of cancer, including
leukemia, from 1951 to well into the 21st century.[56][57] As of March 2009, the U.S. is the only nation that compensates nuclear test victims. Since the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act
 of 1990, more than $1.38 billion in compensation has been approved. The
 money is going to people who took part in the tests, notably at the Nevada Test Site, and to others exposed to the radiation.[58][59]

### Public opposition

See also: History of the anti-nuclear movement and International Day against Nuclear Tests

Women Strike for Peace during the Cuban Missile Crisis

Demonstration against nuclear testing in Lyon, France, in the 1980s.

Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a
 unified "Japanese Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs". Japanese
opposition to nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific Ocean was widespread,
 and "an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions
calling for bans on nuclear weapons".[60]
In the United Kingdom, the first Aldermaston March organised by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament(CND) took place at Easter 1958, when, according to the CND, several thousand people marched for four days from Trafalgar Square, London, to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment close to Aldermaston in Berkshire, England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons.[61][62] The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches.[60]

In 1959, a letter in the *Bulletin of Atomic Scientists* was the start of a successful campaign to stop the Atomic Energy Commission dumping radioactive waste[*quantify*] in the sea 19 kilometres from Boston.[63] In 1962, Linus Pauling won the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to stop the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, and the "Ban the Bomb" movement spread.[46]

In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty
 prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing. Radioactive fallout became
less of an issue and the anti-nuclear weapons movement went into decline
 for some years.[55][64] A resurgence of interest occurred amid European and American fears of nuclear war in the 1980s.[65]