Ottoman Empire (1299-

The Ottoman Empire (turkish: دولت عليه عثمانیه), historically and colloquially known as the Turkish Empire, was an state that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa between the 14th and . The empire also controlled a southeastern region of Central Europe from the 16th to the late 17th century.

The empire was founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia in the town of Söğüt(modern-day Bilecik Province) by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe and, with the conquest of the Balkans, the Ottoman beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II.

Under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566, the Ottoman Empire marked the peak of its power and prosperity, as well as the highest development of its governmental, social, and economic systems. At the beginning of the 17th century, the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy over the course of centuries. With Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean Basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Middle East and Europe for six centuries.

While the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The newer academic consensus posits that the empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military throughout the 17th and for much of the 18th century. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of its European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. The Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The successful Greek War of Independence concluded with the establishment of modern Greece as an independent state, under the London Protocol (1830) and Treaty of Constantinople (1832). This and other defeats such as Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833) prompted the Ottoman state to initiate a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as the *Tanzimat*. Thus, over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became vastly more powerful and organized internally, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in the Balkans and Levant, where a number of new states emerged.

## History 1808-1833

### Coup d’états

Selim III, sultan since 1789, was thoroughly under the influence of French ambassador to the Porte Horace Sébastiani. The imperial fleet was compelled to retire without effecting its purpose. However, the anarchy, manifest or latent, existing throughout the provinces proved too great for Selim III to cope with. The Janissaries rose once more in revolt, induced the Sheikh ul-Islam to grant a fetva against the reforms, dethroned and imprisoned Selim III, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne, as Mustafa IV (1807–08), on 29 May 1807.

The ayan of Rustchuk, Alemdar Mustafa, a strong partisan of the reforms, collected an army of 40,000 men and marched on Constantinople to reinstate Selim III. The night of Thursday, 28 July 1808, he was with two of his consorts, Refet Kadın and Pakize Hanım. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, a loyalist of Selim, was approaching the city with his army to reinstate Selim. Therefore, Mustafa IV gave orders to murder him and his brother Prince Mahmud.

Once the men entered the Palace, Refet Kadın was informed by a running Georgian slave girl who saw the swords poking out of the oficial’s clothings. Thus she was advised and managed to alert both the late emperor and the prince Mahmud. Both brothers managed to escape and left the city to join Alemdar. Later theordered the assassins to be executed.

Once both princes were safely in the hands of Alemdar Mustafa, he stormed the city and killed the usurper Mustafa IV. Safely back in power, Selim III’s previously calm reforming demeanor now turned sour and he decided that the reforms ought to be much more radical than before if he was to keep onto power.