Key Events in Time Period 4

## Politics and Power (PCE)

#### The Election of 1800

Also known as the Revolution of 1800 or A Peaceful of Revolution, this election showed that despite the rivalry between the Democratic-Republican and the Federalists (First Party System), a peaceful election can still be carry out and no coup needed to remove the outgoing president. It also showed that United States' Constitution and system of governance will prevail and endure. Due to this mistake within the Democratic-Republicans, both Burr and Jefferson received the same amount of electoral college votes. House of Representatives, per the Constitution, were called to decide the winner. Ultimately, with supports of Hamilton (who called Jefferson less dangerous and higher character), was the true victor.

#### The Louisiana Purchase (1803)

Jefferson wanted to purchase key commercial ports of New Orleans since now the Western frontier has expanded to the east of Mississippi River. He wanted to purchase the port for $10 million, but Napoleon, with the increasing revolt in Santo Domingo and war with Britain (and literally the entire Europe), decided to sell the entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million. This purchase drastically increased the size of the United States. It also brought Jefferson into a dilemma. He believed in strict interpretation of the Constitution, however nowhere did it state president has the power to add territories. Ultimately, Jefferson set his ideal aside and used loose interpretation to support the addition. This purchased remove a European presence from the nation's border and extended western frontier. It also showed Federalists are a sectionalist party that can do little to stop Jefferson's agrarian America vision. After the purchase, Jefferson appointed expedition became known as the **Lewis and Clark Expedition** to explore the newly purchased territory. This expedition allowed Americans to know more about geographic feature, scientific knowledge, stronger US claims to future territories, better relations with the Natives and routes for future settlers.

#### The Era of Good Feelings (1817-1825)

Americans often called Monroe's years "The Era of Good Feeling". Indeed, Americans often felt optimistic to the future and increasingly nationalistic. With the fading of the Federalist, United States reached an increasing unity and harmony. Still, debates of internal improvement, national banks, slavery and tariffs intensified and soon Democratic-Republicans will follow the fate of the Federalist.

#### Henry Clay's American System

Henry Clay, a senator who tried to run for presidents 4 times and failed all of them, called for an economic plan to advance US' economic growth. His plan involved creation of: protective tariffs, national bank and internal improvement (improve domestic infrastructures). American Presidents implemented protective tariff such as Tariff of 1816 and creation of the **Second Bank of the United States**. However, both Madison and Monroe argued the Constitution did not provide fund directly to build bridges and canals, so internal improvements were left much to the individual states.

#### The Panics of 1819

As the Second Bank of the United States attempted to control inflation, many state banks closed and depression hit, in the West especially due to land speculation. Westerners, now, began to look for reforms and opposed national banks and debtors' prisons.

#### Split in Democratic-Republican

Democratic-Republican splitted as some members, like Randolph, embraced Federalist ideas: strong military, heavy tariffs and national banks. While others, like Calhoun, opposed and remained a strong advocates for states rights. Political fractions and increasing beliefs in **sectionalism** splitted the party. This was intensified by the election of 1824 (John Q. Adams) and 1828 (Andrew Jackson). As they splitted their supports, the supporter of Jackson became known as the Democrats, embracing Old Democratic-Republican ideologies, and the formation of the Whigs Party led by Clay, who embraced the Federalist.

#### The Missouri Compromise (1820)

At this time, states applied for statehood in pairs to maintain the balance of free and slave states. With Northern population grew significantly faster than the South, Southerners saw holding balanced power in Senate as crucial. When Missouri applied for statehood, Northerners worried the imbalance of power as slavery was well-established there. With Tallmadge Amendment ordering gradual emancipation of all slaves, Southerners were outraged and blocked this bill. Clay proposed the Missouri Compromise, stating:

1. admit Missouri as a slave state
2. admit Maine as a free state
3. prohibit slavery to any territory north to the 36º 30'

This compromise won broad support, even though most of the Louisiana Territory were closed to slavery by this compromise. Still, even with increasing of nationalism and sectionalism, Clay applied a band-aid and prevented a bloody Civil War.

#### Greater Equality and Participatory Democracy

(White) Americans, at this time, dressed mostly same regardless what classes they are from. They eat together, sit in a railcar together and Europeans cannot believe this. Furthermore, multiple western states passed Universal White Male Suffrage, removing property qualifications as part of the requirements to vote. Political office can be held by almost everyone, regardless their socio-economic class. Starting with Andrew Jackson, more candidates, regardless of their political affiliations, began to appeal to the **Common Man**. Democracy was further expanded by popular election and nominating convention (rather than a close-door caucus).

#### The Election of 1824 and The Election of 1828

America was deeply polarized and divided again with the election of 1824. This time, four candidates from the Democratic-Republican party campaigned for the presidency: Adams, Clay, Crawford and Jackson. Jackson won the majority of the popular votes but all lacked electoral majority. Clay, as the Speaker of the House, used his power to persuade Congress to elect Adams as the new president. Jackson and his supporters accused them of making "**corrupt bargain**". Adams further alienated Jackson's supporters by "wasting" money on internal improvement and by passing new Tariff which alienated southern planters. In 1828, Jackson won by a large margin. As a war hero and man of the western frontier, he is the first president of the common man.

#### Jackson's Presidency - Natives, Nullifications, and Banks

Jackson's presidency were marked by controversies. He opposed federal spending and national debts. He vetoed more bills than all six preceding presidents combined. His informal "kitchen cabinet" influenced him more than the actual appointed cabinets. He, represented the common white men, which definitely did not include the Natives nor the blacks, as proven by Indian Removal Act and did not follow the jurisdiction of Worcester v. Georgia (1832). Subsequently, the drastic movement of Natives to the Indian Territory lead to a infamous trail known as the **Trail of Tears**.

Jackson favored states rights but not secession. In 1828, South Carolina declared the Tariffs of 1828 as unconstitutional and must be removed, and they called the tariff the **Tariff of Abominations**. This affirmed the nullification theory: each state had rights to obey a federal law or declare it null. In 1832, South Carolina furthered nullified the Tariff of 1832, which Jackson responded by Force Bill and used military to force South Carolina into submitting. Jackson also opposed slavery. He ordered a immediate ban on sending antislavery literature through mail. Jackson also vetoed the rechartering of the Bank of the United States.

#### Pet Banks and Specie Circular

Jackson critics claimed creation of the pet banks as he withdrew all federal funds and transferred the funds to his states banks. Jackson also issued an executive order known as Specie Circular, which stated purchasing all future federal lands must be paid in gold and silver to reduce inflation. Banknotes soon lost their values and right after Jackson left the office, the nation once again descended into an economic depression.

#### The Election of 1836

Democrat Van Buren won the election of 1836, despite Whigs strategy of nominating three candidates to prevent an electoral majority of force House to decide.

#### Panics of the 1837 and the Campaign of 1840

Jackson's Specie Circular and veto on the rechartering of the Bank of the United States were among the numerous causes of the Panic. Whigs also blamed Democrats on their **laissez-faire** economic policy. Van Buren is very unpopular, which gave Whigs a good chance to win. They nominated Harrison and framed his humble origin with the "Log Cabin and Hard Cider". Harrison carried most of the electoral votes and established the Whigs as a national party. However, Harrison died a month after inauguration. Tyler, Harrison's Vice President, was not much a Whig and favored Democrats policies more than Whigs.

## America in the World (WOR)

### Barbary Pirates and Struggle to be Neutral

The Barbary Pirates in North Africa demanded tribute for the U.S. vessel ships. Jefferson reluctantly decided to pay. However, as the demand for tribute increases, Jefferson sent U.S. marine to fight out these Barbary Pirates. Even though without a decisive victory, US secured some respect and offered some protection to U.S. Ships.

Meanwhile, war between France and Britain intensified and both imposed a sea blockade. Both regularly seized neutral ships and Britain even forced American sailors to join British Navy. Jefferson, in an attempt to avoid war, persuade congress to pass **Embargo Act (1807)**, which forbidden US merchants to trade with any foreign country. The intention was for Britain to damage economically thus to lift their economic blockades. However, Britain refused and turns out the Act damaged US businesses way more than British's, especially in the North.

In his last days of presidency, Jefferson convinced Congress to appeal the Embargo Act (1807). The next president, Madison, led the passage of the **Non-intercourse Act (1809)**, which allowed US merchants to trade with any nation except Britain and France.

### Crisis Emerges: War of 1812

Various reasons caused the War of 1812. For example, the denial of crucial free sea and trade by Britain and France, pressure of the Frontier on both expanding westward and war of the Natives. Most supporters of the war comes from the South. Led by Calhoun and Clay, the war hawks argued the war is the only way to defend American honor, gain more territory and destroy Native resistances. Soon, the War of 1812 was declared.

The nation was divided. Most northern states voted against the declaration. In the election of 1812, pro-War Democratic-Republican Madison war against anti-war Federalists. Anti-war and Quids, "old" Democratic-Republican, argued impression of US sailor is merely an inconvenience. The protestants align themselves with the Protestant England. Quids criticized the war because it was violation of limiting federal power and maintain peace.

Britain with clear superior naval abilities required Madison's strategists to rethink their approaches. The first thing they came up with was the invasion of Canada, which was easily defeated by the British. did achieve some significant Naval Battle. For example, the US won the war in Lake Erie, to abandon their plan to invade New England on land. However, with the defeat of Napoleon in Europe, Britain sent more troop to America and through Chesapeake, they burned Washington to the ground. In the siege for Baltimore, Key captured the scene in his famous "The Star-Spangled Banner". Most notably was the fame of Andrew Jackson. Jackson, in his Southern campaign, defeated Natives and prevented British from using the Mississippi River.

The war was going to end soon, but New England decided to secede from the union. Radical Federalists in New England might in Hartford to discuss secession. However, such plan failed to be ratified by New England states. Tired of fighting and see no signs of victory, British and America signed a peace treaty known as the Treaty of Ghent. The war ended practically in stalemate. Even though the wear ended in stalemate, the war had significant consequences to the newly born American republic, such as denouncement secession, opening new territories for White settlers, moving toward industrialization and self-sufficiency and most importantly, increase in nationalism.

### Monroe Doctrine

Monroe improved relation between US and Britain with Treaty of 1818. Jackson's military campaign led to the capture of Florida. Spain decided to sell Florida to the U.S. for $5 million in Adams-Onis Treaty. With series of actions by European nations to further conquering and imperializing the Western Hemisphere, Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine: American continents will be free and independent which they have assumed. They shall not be subjected to further colonization. Later, many presidents used Monroe's Doctrine to justify their actions.

## Work, Exchange, and Technology (WXT)

### Agriculture Development

Most of the Old Northwest (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota) were unsettled. However, later, with the military campaign to further push the Natives toward the West and the building of canals and railroads, these places will be interconnected with the North. Agricultural production was greatly enhanced by McCormick's mechanical reaper and Deere's steel plow. Most notably, Eli Whitney's invention of cotton gin greatly improved cotton production. He also pioneered interchangeable parts, which standardized each individual part, making them mass producible. In the early 1800s, farming became more commercialized. Many farmers switched to cash crops.

### Transportation and Communication

Roads were greatly improved during this time period. However, interstate roads were often still remained nonexistent since states' rights advocates blocked these internal improvement bills, with one exception: the construction of the National Road. National Road was a highway and major route to the West and is constructed using both state and federal money. Not only roads, railroads were also constructed, enabling western towns like Detroit and Chicago to turn into booming commercial centers. Travel time drastically decreased as well.

Beyond road and railroads, the completion of the Erie Canal linked economies of western farms and eastern cities. Eventually, these canals will link the Mississippi, lowering the food prices in the East and forge stronger economic ties between East and West. In addition to canals, steamboats were also invented. Developed by Fulton, these steamboats can travel upriver and made possible for more efficient interstate shipping. The invention of telegraph improved communication.

### Systematic Improvement

Factory system also became more efficient. For example, Lowell recruited young women and housed them in company dorms. These factories also made extensive amount of child labor. Slater carried British's secret textile mills and brought it to America. He started the first U.S. textile factory in New England. With ever increasing struggle for workers rights, unions were formed. These Unions advocated for limiting in work hours. However, immigrants, state laws and economic depressions greatly hindered their progress.

## Social Structures (SOC)

### Women

Women's role changed during this time period. As women no longer worked in a family farm with their husband, they can either work in domestic service or teaching. Lowell's factory is not common. In both urban and rural regions of the United States, **cult of domesticity** began to form and women had somewhat increase in control over their own lives.

### Stability, Mobility and Changes

Real wages improved for most urban workers and moving across the socio-economic classes did happen across generations;

US Population increased dramatically during the 1800s thanks to increase in birth rates. Notably, despite the banning of international slave trade in 1808, enslaved African Americans actually increased. Immigrations also contributed to the significant population growth in 1830s. As transportation became cheaper, Europe is increasingly torn apart by famines, and America has now a reputation of religious and political freedom, many immigrants from Northern Europe came. The mostly came to the North since South is mainly plantations ran on slave economy. These immigrants provide cheap labor and increase in demand for consumer goods.

As Northern cities grew, cities were often crammed with people. In some neighborhoods, poor sanitation, crowded housing, and infectious diseases plagued these neighborhoods. Still, Industrial Revolution offered these residents many new opportunities.

While standard of living did increase for most Americans and middle class began to surface, some issues, too, began to unveil themselves. For example, some of the independent artisans are now working in a factory for someone else. The poor working conditions, hours and wages led to workers try to protect their interests. Unions began to form and they advocated for strikes if employers don't meet their demands. However, their efforts were hindered by economic depression, lack of legal and legislative support, and low-wage immigrants.

### Free African Americans

50% of the free African Americans lived in the North, where they can start their family and own land if possible. However, they were faced with discrimination in churches and racial prejudices prevented them from suffrage. Their jobs were often threatened by low-wage immigrants. In the South, their lives were harder. Not only with the same struggle in the North, but also constantly worrying being kidnapped by the slave traders.

### Slave Resistance

Slaves were deprived their freedom and often separated from their families. Sexual exploitation were common to women. Still, in this hopeless time, African Americans strive to find hope. Most of the slaves employed strategy of "restrained actions", which basically slaves worked slower during the day and committed to equipment sabotage. The so-called "laziness" is a defiance by these African Americans. Some decided to runaway to escape the enslavement. Due to the Fugitive Slaves Act of 1793, slaves can be captured across states. Runaway slaves put themselves at huge risks, even with the support of "Underground Railroad".

Sometimes slaves decided to gather up and revolt against their masters to achieve true freedom. The most nameable slave rebellion has to be **Nat Turner's Rebellion**. He organized an attack on his surrounding communities with fellow slaves. Over 50 Whites were killed in just a day. Quickly, the state militia killed Turner, his followers and many innocent African Americans. Efforts like these scared Whites, they decided to impose already strict slave codes to tighten their control on slaves by forbidden them to gather or to learn how to read and write.

## American and Regional Culture (ARC)

### A Changing Culture

By early 1800s, Americans increasingly created a culture of their own, influenced by European heritage and American ideologies. Within United States, each region are also becoming rapidly different. The new generation are different from their Founding Fathers, by believing America have entered an era of unlimited prosperity. American artists and writers, rather than believing order, reason, balance, and nature established by the Enlightenment, now embraced romanticism and are now called **transcendentalists**.

These transcendentalists generally challenged established churches and called for mystical thinkings to discover one's own relationship to inner self and seeking God in nature. Challenging the increasing materialism in America society, these transcendentalists valued individualist above anything else. They supported reform movement like anti-slavery.

Two most notable transcendentalist writers are Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Emerson expressed individualism and urged Americans to create a distinct American culture. He stressed "self-reliance, optimism, self-improvement, self-confidence, and freedom" and heavily criticized slavery. Thoreau, similarly, expressed the idea of self-reliance through his refusal to pay taxes to support **Mexican-American War**. His work, such as "On Civil Disobedience" served as proof for his protest on such war. Other famous writers include Ripley, Fuller (advocate for women's rights) and Hawthorne.

### Communal Experiments

Various communities had their experiments as well. Many attempted to create utopia, or a perfect, society. These communities attempted to reform their concerns in their own ways. Shakers, for example, was one of the earliest religious movement. They kept women and men separate and held properties in common, somewhat like socialist ideologies. The Oneida community dedicated to ideal of perfect socio-economic equality. They shared property and even marriage partners. Oneida community prospered through selling silverwares.

### The Second Great Awakening

With religious revivals, the Second Great Awakening marked the reassertion on traditionalist Puritan ideologies and predestination. The Second Great Awakening was caused by growthing stress on democracy and individual influenced politics and religion, shift to use emotional expressions for worship, market revolution stressed the increasing materialistic and commercialization of American society. This new religious revival was first led by highly intellectual people like Dwight, president of Yale, inspiring many new young men to become preachers. Then, Finney spread the faith to upstate New York by appealing to people's emotions and fear for damnations. In the South and Western frontiers, Baptist preachers would travel to camp meetings to advocate people to join the church.

The Mormons, also known as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, was founded by Joseph Smith. Facing religious persecution, they migrated to the Western frontier, namely Utah. However, the Church was faced with strong opposition because the practice of polygamy.

During this time period, many religious activists also sought reforms as well.

### Reform: Temperance, Asylum, Education

Causes for this age of reform include religious revival, Enlightenment belief and emphasis on Democracy.

As consumption of alcohol increased, many activists looked at alcohol as a cause of evil. To practice temperance, Protestant ministers and other concerned founded American Temperance Society (esta. 1826). This society urged public to practice absolute abstinence from alcohol. Irish and German immigrants were largely opposed to this movement; however, lacking political power, they can do little. In contrast, politicians and factory owners joined the Temperance movement as workers' productions clearly increased. Eventually, this issue will be brought up again post-Civil War and lead to the passage of the prohibition amendment.

Led by Dorothea Dix, these humanitarian reformers in this era sought ways to improve lives of the criminals and the mentally ill. Dix traveled across the country and criticized the inhuman treatment she witnessed in prison. Some states built new mental hospitals and/or improved existing facilities. Special schools for blind and deaf people were formed by Gallaudet and Howe. Prisons reforms were led by the state of Pennsylvania. The prison reform focused on how to improve prisoners' morals.

Public education system were created during this time period. Led by Mann, he worked for mandatory attendance for all children and creation of the first public school system in the US in Massachusetts. Public education focused on the virtues of "hard work, punctuality (being on time), and sobriety (being sober, not drunk)". With the Second Great Awakening, many states, especially in the west, created colleges for adult and postsecondary education.

### Women's Culture

Women were often viewed as someone who stayed at home while men were working. Women were expected to take care of kids and household, known as the Cult of Domesticity. Some women, like Grimké sisters and Stanton, advocated for women's rights. Grimké' sisters wrote *Equality of the Sexes, and the Condition of Women* (1837), which argued women are entitled to the same rights and opportunities as men, and that gender-based discrimination is a violation of natural law by using religious and moral arguments to support their claims and advocate for women's education and political participation. Most importantly during this time era on Women's Rights was the **Seneca Falls Convention** (1848). This is the first woman's rights convention in US history. At the end, they issued Declaration of Sentiments which used rhetorics of the Declaration of Independence.

### Abolition Movement

**American Colonization Society** (est. 1817) supported the idea of transporting those freed from slavery back to Africa. While some Whites argreed, it was largely impractical as most of the slaves were born in United States.

Then comes **American Antislavery Society** (est. 1833). Led by Garrison and his newspaper *The Liberators*, together they, and other radical abolitionists, demanded immediate abolition of all slaves without compensating slave owners. He even burned the Constitution, proclaiming "no Union with slaveholders". Some other slavery decided to speak out of their brutal experiences. Abolitionist like Douglass advocated for both political and direct action to end slavery and racial prejudice. People like Walker and Garnet proposed slaves should revolt against their masters to achieve freedom. Such actions inspired Turner's Rebellion, which led Southerners brutal crackdown on all antislavery talk in the South.

## Geography and the Environment (GEO)

### "King Cotton"

Ever since Eli Whitney's invention of cotton gin making cotton cloth more affordable and efficient, southern planters have proclaimed cotton as their king. Planters moved westward in new territory as cotton yields much desired profits. As demanded for cotton grew, so did slaves. However, 19th century justification for slavery is slightly more nuanced than pure economic reasons in 1700s. Still, demands for cotton drove the dramatic increase in population of slavery in Deep South. Many slave owners actually sold their slaves from north to the Deep South. This meant that South has less capital than North to experience and undergo industrialization. Due to the complexity in moral justification of owning slaves, most religions splitted into North and South.

### White Society

A small amount of elites in South controlled most of the slaves and were able to control the state legislature. In fact, most Southerners did not own a single slave. Majority (3/4) of the Southern whites population were poor. They could not afford the rich plantations and still defended the slavery system because they felt superior socially than the slaves. There are only few major cities in the South, and most are for transporting goods. With the development in their society, Southerners became increasingly defensive on slavery, while literally everyone else (North, Britain, Latin America) thought, or have already, abolished slavery altogether. Education and reform movements only mainly impacted the North rather than South.

## Resources

* Historical Developments from APUSH CED
* 2022 DBQ
* 2021 SAQ #3
* 2021 LEQ #3 (Evaluate the relative importance of causes of reform activity in the United States from 1800 to 1848)
* 2017 LEQ #2 (Evaluate the extent to which the market revolution marked a turning point in women's lives in the United States)