recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Jefferson Davis

**Jefferson Finis Davis** (June 3, 1808 – December 6, 1889) was President of the Confederate States of America from February 18, 1861 to May 5, 1865, leading the rebellious American South during the American Civil War. Previously, he served in the US House of Representatives (D-MS) from December 8, 1845 to 28 October 1846 (succeeding Tilghman Tucker and preceding Henry T. Ellett), as a US Senator from Mississippi from 10 August 1847 to 23 September 1851 (succeeding Jesse Speight and preceding John J. McRae) and from March 4, 1857 to January 21, 1861 (succeeding Stephen Adams and preceding Adelbert Ames), and US Secretary of War from March 7, 1853 to March 4, 1857 (succeeding Charles Conrad and preceding John B. Floyd).

## Biography

Jefferson Davis was born in Fairview, Kentucky in 1808 to a modest farming family, and he grew up in Wilkinson County, Mississippi as the youngest of ten children. He served as a colonel of United States Army volunteers during the Mexican-American War, and he also embarked on a political career, representing Mississippi as a Democrat in the US House of Representatives from 1845 to 1846 and in the US Senate from 1847 to 1851 and from 1857 to 1861; he also served as Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857. Although Davis was opposed to secession in 1858, he believed that states had an unquestionable right to leave the union.

When the Confederacy seceded and the American Civil War broke out, Davis was chosen as the President of the Confederate States due to his political and military background. He was known to be an unpopular leader who was more concerned with the minute details of the war than any other issue, and he was incomparable to the Union leader, President Abraham Lincoln, who managed both the war and his country. After the war ended in 1865, Davis was imprisoned for two years, and he was never charged with a crime. He completed a memoir in 1881, and he died in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1889.
MP40

The **MP40** (*Maschinenpistole 40*) was a submachine gun in service with the German Wehrmacht from 1938 to 1945 during World War II. The gun was nicknamed the "Schmeisser" after its designer, who had patented the magazine for the gun; however, the gun itself was not invented by Schmeisser. 1,100,000 MP40s were produced during the war, rivaling the Karabiner 98k as the main weapon of the Heer. However, the StG 44 was later designed to replace the MP40.
Newton Knight

**Newton Knight** (November 10, 1829 – February 16, 1922) was an American southern unionist who, during the American Civil War, deserted from the Confederate States Army and formed the rebellious "Free State of Jones" in south-east Mississippi.

## Biography

### Free State of Jones

Newton Knight was born in Jones County, Mississippi in 1829, and he came from a family of yeoman farmers. He joined the Confederate States Army in July 1861, serving as a medic; he survived the Second Battle of Corinth, during which his nephew Daniel Knight was killed. Knight decided to desert to take his nephew's body home, and he was enraged when he found that the Confederates had pillaged farmers' homes for "taxes", as well as by a law allowing for people with over 20 slaves to be exempted from military service, subjecting the poor to service while excusing the rich. In October 1862, he deserted from the army and joined the escaped slave community led by Moses Washington in the swamps of Mississippi. He was soon joined by Confederate deserters who fled following the Siege of Vicksburg in July 1863, and the blacks and whites formed a rebel group which looted and burned houses in Jones County and ambushed Confederate convoys. From 1863 to 1865, Knight and his rebels fought fourteen skirmishes with the Confederate States Army, and Knight even killed Major Amos McLemore, who was sent to hunt down the deserters. Knight also married Rachel, a learned runaway slave, and they had a mixed-race family; his great-grandson Davis Knight was convicted of miscegenation in 1948, despite looking white and being of mostly white descent.

### Reconstruction

After the war, Knight took part in the distribution of food to struggling families in Jones County, and, as a Southern Unionist, he became a Republican Party supporter. In 1870, he unsuccessfully petitioned for the US government to compensate the Free State veterans. He supported Governor Adelbert Ames' Republican administration, and he became a deputy US Marshal in 1872. With the end of Reconstruction in 1877, he withdrew from politics, and he died in 1922.
Parliamentarians

The **Parliamentarians**, also known as the **Roundheads** for their close-cropped hair, were the forces loyal to the parliament of England during the English Civil War from 1642 to 1652. The Parliamentarians dominated the south and east, as well as the urban centers, and they sought to decentralize the government and have more of a say in the government. The Parliamentarian cause was led by Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell during its early years, and it would win the civil wars due to the "New Model Army" reforms. In 1660, the Cavaliers ("royalists") of Charles II of England would return to England and overthrow Parliament, and Parliament was overthrown.

The Parliamentarians found most of their support in the south and east of England. Their largest support groups were religious minorities such as Puritans and Presbyterians, as well as some independents; many Roundheads were also members of the Church of England, the largest denomination among the Cavaliers. The Parliamentarians initially supported constitutional monarchy, but Oliver Cromwell reinvented the ideology as a republican one, leading to the formation of the Commonwealth of England. In the post-Civil War era, many former Roundheads formed the constitutionalist Whigs.

## Gallery

Regions loyal to the Parliamentarians in 1642.
Protestantism

**Protestantism** is the second largest denomination of Christianity (after the Catholic Church), accounting for nearly 40% of all Christians by 2015. Protestantism emerged during the Reformation of the 16th century, during which theologians such as Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin sought to fix "errors" in the Catholic Church, such as rejecting papal supremacy and sacraments, emphasizing the priesthood of all believers, justification by faith alone rather than by good works, and the authority of the Bible alone over tradition. Luther's publishing of the Ninety-Five Theses in 1517 led to the creation of Lutheranism, while Calvinism emerged from Calvin's teachings, and King Henry VIII of England created a new Christian denomination, Anglicanism, which had both Catholic and Protestant attributes. Protestantism lacks structural unity, and there are 9,000 Protestant denominations alone, in addition to 22,000 "independent" churches (which agree with Protestant theology, but which define themselves as simply Christian), 168 Anglican denominations, and 1,600 marginal denominations. Protestantism's main sub-denominations are Adventism, Anabaptism, Anglicanism, the Baptists, Calvinism, Lutheranism, Methodism, and Pentecostalism, while Protestants movements include evangelicalism, nondenominationalism, independent churches, and Charismatic Christianity.
Herbert Hoover

**Herbert Hoover** (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964) was the 31st President of the United States from March 4, 1929 to March 4, 1933, succeeding Calvin Coolidge and preceding Franklin D. Roosevelt. His tenure was defined by the Great Depression, during which his "rugged individualism" policy led to widespread unemployment and poverty. He lost for re-election in a landslide in 1932.

## Biography

Herbert Hoover was born in West Branch, Iowa in 1874, and he graduated with an AB in engineering from Stanford in 1895. He became a gifted administrator and self-made millionaire with an extensive knowledge of mining engineering, and he directed the Belgian relief operations from 1917 to 1919. Hoover became Commerce Secretary in Warren Harding's administration after being passed over for the Republican presidential nomination despite gaining influential support in 1920. His brief honeymoon after victory in 1929 over Al Smith, the Democratic nominee and the first serious Catholic candidate for the presidency, collapsed after the Wall Street crash. Since then his name was associated with the Great Depression, and his insistence that "prosperity was just around the corner", and all that was required was fiscal caution as the depression deepened, caused his reputation to plummet. He was beaten by Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 election. After leaving office, he chaired several important commissions on the reorganization of the federal government and executive for Presidents Truman and Eisenhower, and was also consulted regularly by Presidents Kennedy and Johnson. He died in 1964.
Michael P. Murphy

**Michael Patrick "Murph" Murphy** (May 7, 1976-June 28, 2005) was a Lieutenant in the US Navy SEALs who was killed in Operation Red Wings during the Afghanistan War.

## Biography

Michael Patrick Murphy was born in Smithtown, Suffolk County, New York in 1976, and he graduated from Pennsylvania State University before accepting a commission in the United States Navy. Murphy joined the US Navy SEALs in July 2002, and he participated in several missions during the Iraq War and Afghanistan War. In June 2005, he was placed in command of a four-man squad which was tasked with assassinating Taliban commander Ahmad Shah near Asadabad in eastern Afghanistan in "Operation Red Wings". However, the four-man squad was ambushed by the Taliban after locals betrayed their positions to the insurgents, and Murphy decided to sacrifice himself to make a distress call. He climbed up to a cliff which was being overwhelmed by the Taliban, using the stronger cell reception to demand close air support from Jalalabad. Murphy was then shot many times in the back by Taliban commander Taraq, and he died of his wounds on the cliffside. The Chinook helicopter sent to rescue the survivors was shot down, leading to 16 more deaths.
Multilateralism

**Multilateralism** is the belief that policy decisions should be made by the people that the policy could effect. It is the opposite of Unilateralism, which believes that the people have no say in the laws. Multilateralism plays a major part in democracy and socialism, with democracies' inhabitants personally electing their leaders while, in socialism, the people made decisions about labor law changes.
Malays

The **Malays** are an ethnic group of Austronesians that live in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. Malay peoples, however, spread out across Southeast Asia, and the inhabitants of Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, and southern Thailand are all descended from Malays. 24,380,000 Malays live in the world, with almost 15,000,000 living in Malaysia, 5,365,000 in Indonesia, 1,964,000 in Thailand, 653,500 in Singapore, 262,000 in Brunei, 200,000 in South Africa, 40,000 in Sri Lanka, 33,000 in Australia, 33,000 in the United Kingdom, and 27,000 in Burma. The Malay identity means adherence to Sunni Islam and, therefore, all ethnic Malays are Muslim (not counting Chinese Malays and other minorities).
Latium

**Latium** is the region of central western Italy which was home to the Latins and the Romans. During the 13th century BC, the Trojan refugees under Aeneas married with the Latins and created a new people, the Romans, who founded Rome in 753 BC. Rome became the most powerful of the 12 Latin city-states by the 6th century BC, and it went on to annex its neighbors in the Latin War, which ended in 338 BC. Latium became known as Lazio in the Italian language, and it is famous for being the birthplace of the Latin language and Roman culture.
North America

**North America** is a continent in the Western Hemisphere of Earth. It is a subcontinent of the Americas, covering 16.5% of the world's land area and 4.8% of its total surface. In 2013, it had 565 million people (including the Caribbean), 7.5% of the world population. Its two largest cities are Mexico City (the capital of Mexico) and New York City (economic center of the United States).
Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure

**Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure** (27 February 1767 – 3 March 1855) was the acting Prime Minister of France from 24 February to 8 May 1848, succeeding the regime of King Louis Philippe I and preceding Francois Arago.

## Biography

Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure was born in Le Neuborg, Normandy, France on 27 February 1767, and he was a member of the French Directory's Council of Five Hundred after working as a lawyer during the French Revolution. From 1817 to 1849, he was a member of the Chamber of Deputies of the Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy goverments, and he represented the conservative French Republicans political party. In 1830, he briefly served as Minister of Justice, but he resigned soon after. In February 1848, he became the provisional leader of France, and he served as acting Prime Minister from February to May. In 1849, he failed to win re-election to the chamber, and he died in 1855 at the age of 88.
Mississippi

**Mississippi** is a US state located in the American South, with its capital at Jackson. The state was admitted to the union on 10 December 1817 after being ceded by France following the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, and its capital of Jackson (named for war hero Andrew Jackson) was built in 1821. Most settlements and plantations were built along the Yazoo and Mississippi rivers, as much of the state consisted of forest before the American Civil War. Slavery was legal in Mississippi until the end of the war in 1865, leading to African-Americans making up the majority of the population until the 1930s. 400,000 rural African-Americans moved to northern and midwestern cities during the first half of the 20th century to find work, and the state began to have a working-class white majority. Segregation existed until the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, and the state still maintains its Confederate legacy in some ways; it was not until 2013 that a high school prom in the state was desegregated, and the flag still displays the Confederate battle flag. In 2015, the state had a population of 2,922,333 people.
Jainism

**Jainism** is a religion of incredible antiquity, stemming from the ascetic Sramana tradition of India, in opposition to the priestly Brahmins and the caste system. The standing principle of Jainism is Ahimsa - non-violence - which is more radically interpreted than in any other religion.

The strict nature of the religion may have played a role in it being relatively little known and not having spread much outside of India. For instance, strictly observant Jains (followers of Jainism) traditionally carry brooms with which to sweep the ground ahead of where they walk, so as to avoid stepping on and killing insects or other small creatures.

Ahimsa has been interpreted differently by different Jain thinkers, with some considering that it dictates total pacifism, while others have stated that defensive violence can be permitted, an interpretation very similar to the Non-Aggression Principle, which states that people should not *initiate* force or fraud against others.
Joseph Smith

**Joseph Smith** (December 23, 1805 – June 27, 1844) was an American religious leader and the founder of Mormonism and the LDS Church. In 1823, he said that he was visited by the angel Moroni and told the location of a buried book made of golden plates, as well as a set of interpreters. He supposedly translated the plates from "reformed Egyptian" into English and published them as "the Book of Mormon" in 1830; that same year, he created the LDS Church, which he claimed was a restoration of the early Christian church. During the 1830s, Smith and his followers moved out west to establish a communalistic American "Zion", and he became a political leader in Nauvoo, Illinois after several forced relocations. He was imprisoned after destroying an anti-Mormon newspaper, and a lynch mob stormed his prison in Carthage, Illinois and shot him dead.

## Biography

Joseph Smith was born on December 23, 1805 in Sharon, Vermont, United States, the son of Joseph Smith Sr. and Lucy Mack Smith, and the brother of Hyrum and Alvin Smith. In 1817, Smith's family moved to western New York, where the Second Great Awakening had begun. Smith had only a third-grade education, and he worked as a farmer during his youth. While praying for clarity in which Great Awakening religion was the true faith, he experienced a series of visions, including one in 1823, in which he saw God and Jesus and another where an angel named Moroni guided him to buried golden plates which contained an ancient history of American civilization. Smith dug up the golden plates in his backyard at Hill Cumorah in Rochester, and the angel Moroni appeared to him and told him the history of Moroni's people. Smith was told to never show the plates to anyone else, and he wrote down what he found on the plates, publishing the Book of Mormon. Smith believed that it was his duty to restore the original Christian church, so he founded Mormonism and sought to deliver this message to everyone's house. In 1831, Smith and his followers set up "Zion" in Independence, Missouri, and he sent out missionaries and published revelations to convert others to his religion. Smith sought to find a town for his followers to settle in, but they were kicked out of every town that they had stayed in. Skirmishes with non-Mormon Missourians led to the Mormons relocating to Nauvoo, Illinois, and in 1844 he angered non-Mormons again by destroying a newspaper that criticized his belief in polygamy. He was jailed for his destruction of the newspaper, and on 27 June 1844 a mob of angry people stormed the jail and shot and killed Smith and his brother Hyrum Smith. Brigham Young became the new leader of the Mormons.
Nova 6

**Nova 6** is a biochemical weapon that was developed by Nazi and Soviet scientists during the later years of World War II and early in the Cold War. The weapon, consisting of the elements neodymium, rhenium, and sulfur, was developed in concentration camp laboratories and tested on detainees, with development starting in January 1944 based off the Nebula V weapon.

By 1945, Nazi Germany had armed a battery of V-2 rockets with Nova 6, but the original Nova 6 test site in Poland was destroyed by heavy bombing. The compounds were moved from the Elbe River to a freighter in the North Sea, and the SS survivors sailed to the Arctic, where they rigged the ship with explosives and encamped at a research facility. In October 1945, General Nikita Dragovich launched Operation Olympus, capturing the Nova 6 and holding off British commandos as they attempted to steal it for the Western Allies. The Soviets tested it on Captain Viktor Reznov's men, though Reznov destroyed the Nova 6 cache.

By 1959, Dragovich and Nazi scientist Friedrich Steiner developed a new and improved version of Nova 6. They gained the CPSU's approval to use Nova 6 as a first strike weapon against the United States in the event of a war. In Project Nova, Dragovich planned for the bombs to be activated by communist sleeper cells in the US state capitals as a part of the Soviet sleeper cell program, and they would be instructed by broadcasts from a numbers station. However, the CIA destroyed the Soviet Nova 6 base at Mount Yamantau and another base in Laos, and the numbers station was destroyed during the 1968 Rusalka crisis. The Nova 6 program was finally put to an end after the CIA destroyed its remaining facilities in the USSR; though it did not threaten the West again, some samples were still kept by Soviet officers.
Ham

**Ham** (2448 BC-1912 BC) was a son of Noah and Emzara, the brother of Shem and Japheth, and the husband of Na'eltama'uk. He survived the Great Flood aboard the Ark, and, following the Flood, he noticed his own father's drunkenness when he lay naked in his vineyard. Ham told his brothers about his father's nudity, and, when Noah awoke with garments, he had his grandson Canaan made a slave to his brothers as a curse. Ham also went on to father Cush, Mizraim, and Phut, and died in 1912 BC. His descendants went on to populate Egypt and Africa.
Mexican Army

The **Mexican Army**is the armed wing of the government of Mexico, which first fought in the Texan Revolution of 1836. The Mexican Army was weak in its initial wars against the Republic of Texas and the United States, but it would later be reorganized as a Westernized fighting force, becoming a strong military during the 20th century.

## History

The Mexican Army was founded in 1810, when Mexico was fighting for independence against New Spain in the South American Wars of Independence. It was originally a force of guerrilla fighters, and was not a professional army until the end of the war in 1821. Mexico was an infant nation when faced with a rebellion by its American subjects in Texas in 1835, and they were defeated in the war with Texas. President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna won a great victory at the Battle of the Alamo in 1836, having been the commander of the Mexican invading army of the disputed Republic of Texas, and fought France in the Pastry War a year later, losing his leg to grapeshot.

In 1846, the USA invaded Mexico to settle a dispute over California and the mouth of the Rio Grande, and they conquered all of the American West as well as the Southwest from Mexico. Santa Anna again proved to be a skilled commander but narrowly lost the Battle of Buena Vista in 1847 and eventually agreed to a peace. Mexico declined as a series of coups began in the 1830s, ending only with the 1911 Mexican Revolution.

### Mexican revolutions

The Mexican Army was taken over by the House of Habsburg in 1863 when the French Intervention placed Maximilian von Hapsburg on the Mexican throne. The Mexican rebels fought the Mexican Army in a guerrilla war even after the fall of Ciudad Mexico, winning in 1869. Mexico had relative peace in their lands until 1911, when Ignacio Sanchez was overthrown after having taken part in a coup a year before in which he killed his brother. Led by Abraham Reyes, the rebels ambushed supply convoys and trains, and the Mexican Army responded by committing illegal executions by firing squad, sowing terror into the people. Elements of the Mexican Army deserted when Reyes besieged Mexico City later in 1911, and many continued to fight under the command of Arsenio Baldizon against Reyes, even after he became President. Only in 1920, when the revolution ended, did the Mexican Army have a true commander: Alvaro Obregon.

### Mexican drug war

    During the 2000s, the Mexican Army began to fight against the illegal drug trade in the country with the help of the United States. The US trained Mexican soldiers and death squads to be used against suspected drug dealers and dissidents, and the Mexican Army fought against the cartels violently and the Autodefensas vigilantes peacefully. They disarmed vigilantes in liberated towns and allowed for the cartels to retake the towns, leading to suspicion that many Mexican soldiers had been paid off by the cartels; many Mexican Army veterans joined the Los Zetas mercenary group.
Michoacan

**Michoacan** is a state of western Mexico, with Morelia serving as its capital. The state borders Colima and Jalisco to the west and northwest, Guanajuato to the north, Queretaro to the northeast, and Guerrero to the southeast. The region is home to sizeable Native American populations, and it is also home to the La Familia Michoacana cartel. In 2015, Michoacan had a population of 4,584,471 people.
Assassin Order

The **Assassin Order**, also known as the **Assassin Brotherhood**, **Assassins**, **Hidden Ones** duringancient timeor by its Persian nickname ***Hashshashin***, is a secretive brotherhood that was founded *circa* 500 BC. The brotherhood was founded on the tenets of "Nothing is true, everything is permitted", emphasizing the need for free thoughts and for fighting for "peace in all things". The Assassins believed in staying their blades from innocent people, "hiding in plain sight" by being one with the crowd, and never compromising the brotherhood, whose secrecy was well-maintained both before and after the Middle Ages. The Assassins championed the poor against tyrants and oppressors and advocated a libertarian ideology, encouraging for people to choose their own ways; slavery and physical abuse were abhorred. Throughout their existence, they fought against the rival Templar Order, which sought to establish "order" through force instead of allowing for people to act freely. The two secret societies clashed for centuries through intrigues and assassinations, and the Assassins were known for their conflict with the crusaders in the Holy Land and their resistance to the Mongol Empire before their fortresses were destroyed by the Mongols during the 13th century. Today, the Assassins are still secretly operating, plotting against their Templar rivals, who also survived "extinction" in the Middle Ages.
Belarusians

**Belarusians** are a Slavic ethnic group native to the Eastern European country of Belarus. Around 10,000,000 Belarusians are spread across the world, with 7,950,000 living in Belarus, 768,000 in the United States, 521,443 in Russia, and 275,763 in the Ukraine. Most Belarusians adhere to Orthodox Christianity, and they can speak Belarusian and/or Russian, the two major regions of Belarus.
Canaan

**Canaan** was a region of the southern Levant that existed during antiquity, being located west of the Jordan River. In the Book of Genesis, God promised the land of Canaan to Abraham, and Abraham's descendants later left for Egypt, leaving Canaan in the hands of the Canaanites, who proceeded to absorb the Philistines into their culture. The Israelites, led by Joshua, conquered Canaan after the Exodus from Egypt in around 1400 BC. The conquest of Canaan was a genocide, as God commanded the Israelites to exterminate the Canaanites. Following the Battle of Jericho, the Israelites left only one prostitute alive, having killed every man, woman, and child in the city.
Inuit

The **Inuit**, also known as **Eskimos**, are the indigenous peoples of Greenland and the Arctic regions of Canada and the American state of Alaska. In around 2000 BC, the Inuit split from the Aleuts and other northeastern Siberian migrants and spread eastwards across the Arctic, settling in Greenland by 1100. The Inuit established contact with Basque whalers in Labrador in the mid-16th century, and Martin Frobisher's 1576 expedition to the Northwest Passage led to contact with the Inuit at their city of Iqualuit. It was not until the early 20th century that the European settlers had taken an interest in the Inuit hinterlands, contacting all of the Inuit tribes by the 1920s and systematically converting them to Christianity, initating a series of assimilatory relocations in the 1950s, and forcing the Inuit into year-round permanent settlements during the 1960s. During the 1960s and 1970s, Inuit political activism grew in Canada, fighting for indigenous rights. In Greenland, the Inuit were extended European Union citizenship as Danish citizens. By 2018, there were around 148,863 Inuit in the world, with 65,025 living in Canada, 50,787 in Greenland, 16,470 in Denmark, and 16,581 in the USA.
Ares

**Ares** is a minor god in Greek mythology who is the god of war. The son of Zeus and Hera, Ares embodied the violent aspect of war, while Athena embodied strategy and generalship. Ares was the father of Phobos and Deimos and the brother of Enyo, while he also had an affair with the goddess of love Aphrodite.
Crazy Horse

**Crazy Horse** (1840-September 5, 1877) was a Lakota war leader who resisted the United States as they attempted to expand into the Black Hills.

## Biography

Crazy Horse was born in 1840, and his birth name was either "Light Hair" or "Curly Hair". His second cousin Chief Black Elk said that he received his adult name when he had a vision of a horse strangely dancing about like a shadow, and "Crazy Horse" believed that he had immortality in battle as a result of this vision. He survived many battles over the years, resisting the United States in Red Cloud's War and fighting against encroaching white settlers during the 1870s. In 1876, the white immigration that came with the Gold Rush led to more conflict, and Crazy Horse defeated the US 7th Cavalry Regiment at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, slaughtering George Armstrong Custer's command. He would be forced to surrender in May 1877 due to food supplies running out, and he was relocated to the Red Cloud Agency reservation, where he continued to be active against the Americans. However, a statement saying that Indians would fight until all of the Nez Perce were killed would be mistranslated by a half-Tahitian scout, who believed that he wanted to kill all of the white people, and that he intended to kill General George Crook. Crook had Crazy Horse arrested, and he allegedly resisted arrest while being led to the stockade at Fort Robinson. Crazy Horse was bayonetted in a scuffle with the United States Army soldiers, and he died of his wounds.
Pakistan People's Party

The **Pakistan Peoples Party** (**PPP**) is a social democratic political party in Pakistan that was founded on 30 November 1967 by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and led by the Bhutto and Zardari families. The PPP supported public ownership, equality, and strong national defense, with the southern province of Sindh being its power base. In 1970, 1977, 1988, 1993, and 2008, the PPP won elections, and it was once regarded as the most important political party in the country before Bhutto's execution by Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq's dictatorship. The PPP lost the 2013 elections, but it retained control over Azad Kashmir and Sindh.
Continental Army

The **Continental Army** was the armed forces of the United States from the Second Continental Congress of June 14, 1775 to the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783, fighting in the American Revolutionary War. Led by General George Washington, the Continental Army was commanded mostly by veterans of the French and Indian War and consisted of everyday people, from farmers, brewers, and craftsmen to librarians, plantation owners, and wealthy people. The soldiers were as diverse in ethnic background as they were in occupation; New England Yankees initiated the revolution at the Battle of Lexington; up to 1/3 of the Continental Army was Irish (especially Scots-Irish; including 1,500 officers, 22 generals, and over 12 sea captains - the British even estimated that half of the army was Irish); an all-African-American Rhode Island regiment was raised by Christopher Greene, and several foreign volunteers from France, Poland, and Sweden fought alongside the Americans. After the war's end in 1783 and the adoption of the US Constitution in 1787, the Continental Army became the United States Army.

## History

The Continental Army was formed by the Second Continental Congress on June 14, 1775 just three days before the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Congress named the Virginia plantation owner George Washington as its commander-in-chief due to his military experience during the French and Indian War. The Continental Army was made up of average colonists who wanted to oust the British from the Thirteen Colonies and make the United States an independent nation, and it gained the support of people from all backgrounds. Even some freed African-Americans decided to join the army, fighting at the Battle of Newport and elsewhere.

General Washington commanded the army during its war against the British Army, and the Continentals were considered to be the regular American army while militias and partisans gave support to them. They were used in the main battles of the war, with their first test being at the Battle of Quebec in late 1775 when Benedict Arnold launched an invasion of Canada. The battle was a devastating loss, and 1776 brought more defeats in New York at the Battle of Long Island and the Battle of White Plains. However, Washington won surprise attacks at the Battle of Trenton on December 24, 1776 and the Battle of Princeton in January 1777, turning the tide of the war. France sent aid to the Continentals, and they were assisted by foreigners such as the Marquis de Lafayette, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, and Casimir Pulaski. The Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after their final victory at the Siege of Yorktown in 1781 and the surrender of the British two years later. In 1796, it was replaced by the US Army, which took up most of the Continental Army's old traditions.
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan

The **Islamic Republic of Afghanistan** was an Islamic republic that governed most of Afghanistan from 26 January 2004 to 15 August 2021, with Kabul serving as its capital. The Islamic Republic was established with United States support following the US-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and the US-led coalition and Afghan Northern Alliance's overthrow of the Taliban-ruled Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The Islamic Republic was led by President Hamid Karzai from 2004 to 2014 and by President Ashraf Ghani from 2014 to 2021, and the government suffered from rampant corruption as warlords exerted great political and military power, and leading Afghan government figures purchased multi-million-dollar villas outside Dubai in the United Arab Emirates with embezzled money. The Afghan government was effectively a US client state, as it was dependent on American military and financial support, and the withdrawal of US troops from the Afghanistan War in 2021 and a concurrent Taliban offensive led to the collapse of the Afghan National Army and the surrender of several provincial capitals due to secret deals between the Taliban and local politicians. On 15 August 2021, Kabul itself fell to the Taliban, who declared the abolition of the Islamic Republic and the restoration of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.
Justo Jose de Urquiza

**Justo Jose de Urquiza y Garcia** (18 October 1801-11 April 1870) was the President of the Argentine Confederation from 31 May 1852 to 4 March 1861, succeeding Juan Manuel de Rosas and preceding Santiago Derqui. He seized power from the bluff *gaucho* Juan Manuel de Rosas in the Battle of Caseros with aid from the Brazilian Empire and Uruguay, but he was in turn overthrown by Bartolome Mitre after the Battle of Pavon in 1861. He was murdered in 1870.

## Biography

Urquiza was born in Entre Rios Province in the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, and became the Governor from 1842 to 1852 and 1868 to 1870. A friend and confidant of dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, he later reached a disagreement over plans for a new constitution, and Urquiza gained the support of the Brazilian Empire and Uruguay. In the Battle of Caseros, the Coalition won against Rosas' army, many of whom surrendered before the fighting began.

Urquiza became the third president of the Argentine Confederation in the aftermath of the battle, and was known for his reforms that he placed upon Argentina. He implemented public education, increased foreign relations, and began the construction of railroads. The only factor that hindered his modernization of Argentina was the secession of Buenos Aires from the confederation, and although he defeated the rebels in 1859, he was overthrown in 1861 by the forces of Bartolome Mitre. He retired to his home in Entre Rios until he was assassinated by the forces of Ricardo Lopez Jordan, a *caudillo* who was rebelling against Buenos Aires's rule.
Hinduism

**Hinduism** is an Indian religion that is widely practiced in the Indian Subcontinent. The oldest world religion, Hinduism holds that all gods are manifestations of Brahma, the supreme being of the Hindu pantheon, who is part of a trinity with Vishnu (the all-preserver) and Shiva (the mystic, miracle-working deity). Into Brahma, the ultimate world-spirit, the reincarnated, purified individual spirit is finally absorbed. The oldest extant scriptures are the eighth-century BC Sanskrit texts, the Upanishads, from which the systems of Hindu law and social structure are derived, including the caste system. Of later texts the Mahabharata remains extremely influential, within which is the Bhagavad Gita (300 BC), where Krishna, the lord of creation, teaches self-mastery through the Yoga, which aims at the harmonization of body, soul, and spirit.

Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, and it was formed as a combination of several traditions; it has no founder. Prominent themes include *dharma* (ethics/duties), *artha* (prosperity/work), *kama* (desires/passions), and *moksha* (salvation). Other major tenets include *karma* (action, intent, and consequences), *samsara* (rebirth), and the various *yogas* (paths to achieve salvation). Hinduism is generally seen as henotheistic, as Hindus devote themselves to a single god, while they do accept the existence of others.

Cows are revered animals in Hinduism, and beef consumption is strictly prohibited. The sects of Hinduism are Vaishnavism (the worship of Vishnu as the Supreme Lord), Shaivism (the worship of Shiva as the supreme being), Shaktism (the worship of Hindu goddesses), and Smarta (the equal worship of Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Surya, and Devi). Hinduism is the world's third-largest religion, having 1,150,000,000 adherents (16% of the global population). In India, Nepal, and Mauritius, Hindu is the largest faith.

Perhaps the greatest modern Hindu reformer was Mahatma Gandhi, who based his campaign on the deep roots of Hinduism, such as his *satyagraha* ("holding fast to the truth"), which emphasized nonviolent methods of protest, as well as his practice of yoga, meditation, fasting, and nonviolence to any living thing (*ahimsa*). At the same time, Gandhi was concerned to reform some fundamental aspects of Hinduism, in particular the rejection of the caste of the untouchables, whom he addressed as *harijans* ("children of God"). This pointed to a fundamental problem of modern India, namely the tension between the old Hindu caste system, the traditional subservience of women, and the insistence on nonviolence on the one hand, and the requirements of a modern secular state with equal reponsibilities towards all its citizens, and with frequent involvement in wars with religious undercurrents (such as the wars with Pakistan or the Sri Lankan Civil War) on the other. Currently, the world Hindu population is 1,150,000,000, or 16% of the global population.
Gun rights

**Gun rights** is a major political issue in the United States, which is legally regarded as a fundamental right according to the 1788 US Constitution (the Second Amendment in the US Bill of Rights). The Second Amendment declared that "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed," a statement which gun owners used to justify their possession of weapons (seeing themselves as a militia). By 2018, US citizens owned 393 million firearms, and up to 42% of households owned at least one gun. The gun rights movement is often challenged by the gun control movement, which seeks to, at least, restrict gun ownership, or, at most, abolish it.
Bible

The **Holy Bible** is a collection of sacred texts (scriptures) that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. With over 5 million copies, it is the most influential and best-selling book of all time. The Bible was written from c. 1400 BC to6 AD, covering history from 4004 BC (when the Book of Genesis claims the world was created) to 96 AD (when the New Testament was finished). The Bible is divided between the Jewish Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament) and the Christian New Testament, with the former being the scriptures of the Jewish faith, and the latter being the additional scriptures of Christianity. While the Old Testament is based on the history of the Judeo-Christian prophets, the New Testament is based on the history of Jesus and his disciples in the Common Era.

## List of Books

#### Old Testament

The names of the books in chronological order of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament; Apocrypha are in *italics*.

* Book of Genesis (4004-1689 BC)
* Book of Exodus (1706-1490 BC)
* Book of Leviticus (1491-1490 BC)
* Book of Numbers (1490-1451 BC)
* Book of Deuteronomy (1451 BC)
* Book of Joshua (1451-1427 BC)
* Book of Judges (1425-1120 BC)
* Book of Ruth (1325-1312 BC)
* 1 Samuel (1171-1056 BC)
* 2 Samuel (1056-1017 BC)
* 1 Kings (1015-897 BC)
* 2 Kings (896-588 BC)
* 1 Chronicles (4004-1015 BC)
* 2 Chronicles (1015-610 BC)
* Book of Ezra (536-457 BC)
* Book of Nehemiah (519-434 BC)
* *Book of Tobit*
* *Book of Judith* (656-650 BC)
* Book of Esther (521-509 BC)
* Book of Job (1520 BC)
* Book of Psalms
* Book of Proverbs (1015 BC)
* Book of Ecclesiastes (997 BC)
* Song of Solomon (1014 BC)
* *Wisdom of Solomon*
* *Book of Sirach*
* Book of Isaiah (760-698 BC)
* Book of Jeremiah (629-587 BC)
* Book of Lamentations (588 BC)
* *Book of Baruch*
* Book of Ezekiel (595-572 BC)
* Book of Daniel (607-534 BC)
* Book of Hosea (785-725 BC)
* Book of Joel (800 BC)
* Book of Amos (787 BC)
* Book of Obadiah (887-885 BC)
* Book of Jonah (862 BC)
* Book of Micah (750-710 BC)
* Book of Nahum (713 BC)
* Book of Habakkuk (626 BC)
* Book of Zephaniah (630 BC)
* Book of Haggai (520 BC)
* Book of Zechariah (520-487 BC)
* Book of Malachi (397 BC)
* *1 Maccabees* (175-134 BC)
* *2 Maccabees* (180-161 BC)

### New Testament

* Gospel of Matthew (4 BC-33 AD)
* Gospel of Mark (26-33 AD)
* Gospel of Luke (7 BC-33 AD)
* Gospel of John (26-33 AD)
* Acts of the Apostles (33-62 AD)
* Epistle to the Romans (60 AD)
* 1 Corinthians (59 AD)
* 2 Corinthians (60 AD)
* Epistle to the Galatians (58 AD)
* Epistle to the Ephesians (46 AD)
* Epistle to the Philippians (64 AD)
* Epistle to the Colossians (64 AD)
* 1 Thessalonians (54 AD)
* 2 Thessalonians (54 AD)
* 1 Timothy (65 AD)
* 2 Timothy (66 AD)
* Epistle to Titus (65 AD)
* Epistle to Philemon (64 AD)
* Epistle to the Hebrews (64 AD)
* Epistle of James (60 AD)
* 1 Peter (60 AD)
* 2 Peter (66 AD)
* 1 John (90 AD)
* 2 John (90 AD)
* 3 John (90 AD)
* Epistle of Jude (66 AD)
* Book of Revelation (96 AD)
Prussia

**Prussia** was a German state which existed from 1525 to 1947, existing as a duchy from 1525 to 1701, as a kingdom from 1701 to 1871, and as a region of the German Empire and Germany from 1871 to 1947. The region was granted independence in 1525 by Poland, and Prussia became a nation of Protestant German settlers. The capital was the city of Koenigsberg until 1701, when Friedrich I of Prussia proclaimed himself "King in Prussia" and made Berlin the capital. Prussia would become a military power in Europe during the 1700s and 1800s, defeating the Austrian Empire, Poland, Denmark, and other neighboring nations to acquire more lands. Once a nation with two separated regions - Brandenburg and East Prussia - Prussia would later become a mighty nation spanning northern Germany and parts of Poland. In 1871, after defeating Austria in the Austro-Prussian War and defeating France during the Franco-Prussian War, Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany declared himself "Emperor of Germany", making Prussia a part of the German Empire. In 1918, the Free State of Prussia was created in the aftermath of World War I, although it was still a part of the Weimar Republic. On January 30, 1934, the Prussian Coup ended the independence of Prussia, which would be abolished in 1947.

## Culture

Prussia was located in northern Germany, and it presided over a predominantly-North German culture. 87.7% of Prussians were northern Germans, while 10.9% were Poles and 1.4% from other groups. 68.2% of Prussians were Protestant Christians, while 31.5% were Catholics. Prussia was a mostly conservative state, as its military tradition and its form of government both advocated right-wing policies. The Conservative Party of Prussia, led by Otto von Bismarck, would dominate Prussian politics until the 1910s.

## Gallery

Location of Prussia within the German Empire, 1871
Coup of 18 Brumaire

The **Coup of 18 Brumaire** occurred on 9 November 1799 when Napoleon Bonaparte led a bloodless military coup against the French Directory in Paris, France and established the French Consulate with himself as its leader. Directory leader Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes became the dominant figure in the Directory after eradicating the Jacobin Club in the 30 Prairial coup of 18 June 1799, and he sought to recruit the successful Napoleon as the leader of a coup that would bring himself to power as a French dictator. Napoleon himself sought to lead a coup, and his brother Lucien Bonaparte had the Directory members move to the Chateau de Saint-Cloud on 9 November 1799 after warning them of an attempted Jacobin coup. Napoleon was given command of all nearby troops and ordered to put down the insurrection, and directors Paul Barras, Sieyes, and Roger Ducos resigned so that a new constitution could be drafted to meet the Jacobins' demands. Directors Louis-Jerome Gohier and Jean-Francois-Auguste Moulin refused to step down, protesting furiously. Napoleon's ally Jean Victor Marie Moreau had the two directors arrested, and he stormed the parliament building with grenadiers. When he was accused of violating the constitution, he accused the Directory of violating the coup on 18 Fructidor, 22 Floreal, and 30 Prairial, when both monarchist and liberal deputies had been ejected from the government. The Council of 500 eventually backed down, and a new constitution was passed, establishing the French Consulate with Napoleon as "First Consul".
Classical liberalism

**Classical liberalism** is a branch of liberalism that advocates civil liberties and political freedom under a representative democracy in addition to free market capitalism. Classical liberalism was championed by men such as Thomas Jefferson, Adam Smith, John Locke, Thomas Malthus, Jean-Baptiste Say, and David Ricardo, and it favored liberty as the most valued social end, as opposed to traditionalist conservatism, which favored order to liberty. Classical liberals sought to open up their countries to trade, capitalism, and responsible government, as well as to champion abolitionism, the reduction of government power, and the expansion of liberty. The ideology unfailingly supported political reform, with representative and transparent government being the lynchpins of 19th century liberalism. Today, classical liberalism is considered as a conservative or libertarian political ideology, as modern social liberalism advocates governmental control over the economy; classical liberalism is a center-right ideology, while social liberalism is a center-left ideology.
Latins

The **Latins** were an Italic tribe which inhabited the region of Latium in central Italy from 1000 BC to 338 BC. The Latins historically originated in eastern Hungary, Moravia, and Austria, and they later migrated to Latium. Following the end of the Trojan War in 1240 BC, Aeneas and his band of Trojan refugees landed in Latium near the mouth of the Tiber, and the Latin king Latinus - the founder of Laurentum - was defeated after attempting to drive them out. Latinus decided to accept Aeneas as an ally and allowed him to marry his daughter Lavinia. Aeneas founded the city of Lavinium, named in honor of his wife, and it became the Latin capital after Latinus' death. Aeneas' son Ascanius went on to found the city of Alba Longa in the Alban Hills, and it remained the Latin capital for 400 years, replacing Lavinium. In 753 BC, Ascanius' descendant Romulus founded the new city of Rome, and the later king Tullus Hostilius burned Alba Longa to the ground and resettled its inhabitants on the Caelian Hill in Rome in the mid-7th century BC. After 600 BC, Rome became the most powerful and most populous Latin state, and the 14 other Latin states became rivals with Rome. After the fall of the Roman monarchy in 509 BC, the Romans and Latins allied against the invading Volsci and Aequi, but the alliance broke down after 390 BC, after which the Romans fought to conquer the Latin states. In the Latin War of 341-338 BC, the Romans decisively defeated and conquered the Latins, who were either annexed or permanently subjugated into Rome and assimilated as Romans.