recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Diplocaulus

Diplocaulus is a diplocaulid nectridean amphibian from the Pennsylvanian-Lopingian of the United States of America and Morocco. It was named in 1877 by Edward Drinker Cope. It was one of the largest nectridean amphibians, and by extension, one of the largest lepospondyls.

## Physiology

Eryops was a unique amphibian. It was a fish-like animal with 4 short legs, a long, thin tail similar to that of a tadpole, a bulky body (similar to that of a salamander), and a big, flat, boomerang-shaped head with small jaws. Its body would have been covered in smooth skin.

## Diet

Diplocaulus was a predator, preying on insects and small fish. Its teeth were small yet sharp, and were used to get a hold of struggling prey as the amphibian swallowed them whole.

## Ecology

The function of Diplocaulus's head remains open to debate. One theory says that it would have functioned as a hydrofoil to help the creature swim through the water; another theory says that it would have been used for stopping predators such as Dimetrodon or Eryops from effortlessly swallowing it. When swimming through the water, Diplocaulus would have moved its tail similarly to the swimming style of an eel, making large, wriggling undulations from left to to right.
Liliensternus

Liliensternus is a theropod dinosaur from the Late Triassic of Germany. It was officially named in 1984 by Samuel Paul Welles. It was one of the largest early theropods, and is considered to be another saurischian intermediate, this time between small Late Triassic theropods such as Coelophysis and large Early Jurassic theropods such as Dilophosaurus.

## Physiology

Liliensternus was a small theropod with a slender body, a long tail, long arms with three fingers on each hand, a moderately long neck, and a long, conical head with large jaws. Most of its body would have been covered in short, fuzz-like feathers.

## Diet

Liliensternus was a predator, preying on mid-sized sauropodomorphs, small crocodylomorphs, pterosaurs, and smaller theropods. Its teeth had knife-like serrations from front to back, and were used to cut into the hides of large prey.

## Ecology

Due to its size, Liliensternus would have been one of the more dominant predators of the area; however, it wouldn't have been able to prey on large sauropodomorphs like Plateosaurus unless it hunted in a small gang. By itself, it would have eaten smaller animals, like small crocodylomorphs, smaller theropods, and even pterosaurs. Contrary to popular belief, it wasn't an exceptionally fast runner, as its lower leg was shorter than its upper leg. However, this was irrelevant, as it was able to catch up with most of its prey items.

## In popular culture

Liliensternus appears in a live-acted version of the renowned documentary *Walking with Dinosaurs*, known as *Walking with Dinosaurs: The Arena Spectacular*: there, it was shown as preying on baby Plateosaurus babies a few seconds after they hatched. Fortunately for the baby sauropodomorphs, their mother comes in and wards the theropod off.
Hippodraco

Hippodraco is an ornithopod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of the United States of America. It was named in 2010 by Andrew T. McDonald and his crew. It was one of the many iguanodontians (advanced ornithopod dinosaurs) that roamed North America, and was discovered alongside Iguanacolossus.

## Physiology

Hippodraco was a bipedal ornithopod with a semi-bulky body, long forelimbs, long, muscular hindlimbs, a moderately long tail, and a large head with a small beak in front of its mouth. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Hippodraco was an herbivore, feeding on leaves, horsetails, cycads, and conifers. Its round beak was used to strip leaves off branches, while the many teeth in the back of its mouth would grind together, processing the leaves.

## Ecology

So far, all we know about Hippodraco is that it may have been a primarily bipedal, swift-running animal, only going down on all fours when foraging for food.
Peteinosaurus

Peteinosaurus is a dimorphodontid pterosaurian reptile from the Late Triassic of Italy. It was named in 1978 by Rupert Wild. It was one of the earliest pterosaurs, and it also had the shortest wings out of any pterosaur.

## Physiology

Peteinosaurus had a build true to its primitive origins, with 4 legs (2 of which served as wings), 4 fingers on each hand (one of which was elongated and supported the wing membrane), a small body, a long tail with a diamond-shaped vane on its end, and a large head with large jaws. Most of its body (excluding its snout, wings, and vane) would have been covered in a fur-like covering called pycnofibers.

## Diet

Peteinosaurus was a predator, preying on insects, lizards, and small mammals. Its jaws had 3 types of small, conical teeth, all of which were used for getting a hold of and making short work of struggling prey.

## Ecology

Peteinosaurus had skeletal features that would carry on further in pterosaur evolution, such as lightweight (but strong) bones, as well as an elongated fourth finger that serves as support for its wing membranes. However, as a dimorphodontid, Peteinosaurus had extremely short wings (its wings were only twice as long as its legs), which meant that it probably wasn't an extremely competent flier; rather, it spent most of its time on the ground and in the trees, only flying in order to escape predators or reach a location that could not be accessed by climbing. Due to its 3 types of small teeth, many people have considered it to be an insectivore; however, one of its close relatives, Dimorphodon, had a somewhat similar dentition, but is considered to have been a generalist predator of small animals. We can assume that Peteinosaurus had a similar lifestyle, chasing down lizards and small mammals, as well as snapping its jaws on insects before they had a chance to fly away.

## In popular culture

Peteinosaurus was featured in the first episode of the 1999 documentary *Walking with Dinosaurs*, where it is depicted as a competent aerial predator that is able to even snatch dragonflies out of the air with its jaws. As well as this, it was mentioned to be a somewhat successful reptile that would give way to the appearance of more advanced pterosaurs, similarly to its dinosaurian counterpart, Coelophysis.
Yanornis

Yanornis is a songlingornithid bird from the Early Cretaceous of China. It was named in 2001 by Zhou Zhonghe and Zhang Fucheng. It was one of the first piscivorous birds to evolve, and its digestive system was much like those of modern birds.

## Physiology

Similarly to many Cretaceous birds, Yanornis bore a resemblance to its modern brethren. It had a small, sleek body, moderately long legs, a short, feathery tail, long wings, and a small head with a long beak. However, unlike modern birds (and like its Cretaceous relatives), its beak was adorned with small teeth. Most of its body (excluding its beak and legs) would have been covered in long, vaned feathers.

## Diet

Yanornis was a predator, preying on fish. Its teeth were small yet sharp, and were used to get a hold of struggling prey as the bird swallowed them whole.

## Ecology

Previously, Yanornis was thought to have had a seasonally flexible diet, switching between fish and seeds every few months or so; this was based off by the discovery of what were presumed to be gastroliths in its gizzard (as gastroliths are associated with herbivorous animals). However, it turns out that the "gastroliths" were spread throughout its digestive system rather than clumping together in the gizzard, telling us that it may have accidentally swallowed sand while feeding, causing its digestive process to stop working and ultimately killing it; due to this, there is no evidence of an herbivorous diet in Yanornis, and it can be said with confidence that the bird was a piscivore. A close look at the exact specimen that died from indigestion showed that the species had a relatively modern digestive system, featuring a long esophagus that ran from the back of the mouth to the middle of the body, a crop for storing food, a gizzard for grinding food, and long, packed intestines for excreting waste. Finally, its shoulder structure was nearly identical to that of modern birds, allowing it to raise its wings above horizontal position and, by extension, fly more efficiently than other birds in its time.
Sunset Beach Wikia

***Sunset Beach*** is an American television soap opera that aired on NBC from January 6, 1997 to December 31, 1999. The show follows the loves and lives of the people living in the Orange County coastal area named Sunset Beach, on the coast of California. Although there is a town in California called Sunset Beach, the show's beach scenes were shot on nearby Seal Beach. The show was co-produced by NBC and Spelling Television.

Gregory RichardsOlivia Blake RichardsCole DeschanelMeg CummingsBen EvansCaitlin Richards DeschanelBette KatzenkazrahiEddie ConnorsMichael BourneVanessa HartVirginia Harrison

**NBC Shows**
*Go to these sites for info or for help with your own wiki!*

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Bird

The birds are another product of many years of evolution. They have 4 limbs (2 legs for walking and 2 wings for flying in most cases), feathers for keeping warm, and a toothless beak. Having been descended from a branch of small theropod dinosaurs in the Jurassic, the birds were usually small, but had still proven worthy to be the rivals of the kings of the skies at the time: the pterosaurs. After all the non-avian dinosaurs died, they diversified so much that they had outnumbered the mammals 2 to 1. As well as this, they grew to large sizes, started to show uniqueness in themselves, and in some cases, went on a terrestrial and carnivorous lifestyle, as shown in quite a bit of the Cenozoic.

## Birds Throughout Time (note that those are not all the ones that exist)

### Jurassic Birds

* Anchiornis
* Archaeopteryx

### Cretaceous Birds

* Iberomesornis
* Yanornis
* Confuciusornis
* Ichthyornis
* Hesperornis

### Paleogene Birds

* Gastornis
* Anthropornis
* Palaeeudyptes
* Pelagornis

### Neogene Birds

* Brontornis
* Phorusrhacos
* Kelenken
* Argentavis
* Titanis

### Quaternary Birds

* Teratornis
* Haast's Eagle
* Giant Moa
* Genyornis
* Dodo
Broomistega

Broomistega is a rhinesuchid temnospondyl amphibian from the Early Triassic of South Africa. It was named in 2000 by Michael A. Shishkin and Bruce Sydney Rubidge. It was one of the last temnospondyls to exist, and was once considered to be a juvenile form for another, bigger rhinesuchid, right before it was discovered to be its own genus.

## Physiology

Broomistega resembled the generic temnospondyl. It was a fish-like amphibian with 4 legs, a moderately-sized tail, a broad body, a big, semi-flat head with big jaws, and eyes on the top of its head. Its body would have been covered in smooth skin.

## Diet

Broomistega was a predator, preying on insects, worms, and small reptiles. Its teeth were small yet sharp, and were used to get a hold of struggling prey as the amphibian swallowed them whole.

## Ecology

So far, all we know about Broomistega's lifestyle is that it was a semi-aquatic predator that possibly ambushed prey. However, an interesting thing to note is that a juvenile Broomistega individual got seriously injured (left with a few broken ribs on the right side of its ribcage) and fled into the burrow of a sleeping Thrinaxodon; even more interesting is that the cynodont didn't dare to attack the temnospondyl. A possible explanation for this is that the proto-mammal either tolerated the amphibian or couldn't remove it from its burrow (due to a prolonged dormancy).
Pachycephalosaurus

Pachycephalosaurus is a pachycephalosaurid pachycephalosaurian marginocephalian dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of the United States of America. It was named in 1931 by Charles W. Gilmore. Unlike other popular prehistoric animals, it is known from fragmentary remains, and so, is modeled off of similar, more complete relatives; this is also the case with two other dinosaurs, Spinosaurus and Ankylosaurus.

## Physiology

Pachycephalosaurus was a bipedal marginocephalian with a broad body, long legs, a long, slender tail, short arms, and a small beak in the front of its mouth. Its most notable feature is the large, bony, spiky dome atop its forehead, hence the meaning of its name, "thick-headed lizard". Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Pachycephalosaurus would have been an omnivore, feeding on leaves, seeds, fruits, and insects. Having small, ridged teeth, it would have shredded leaves rather than chewing tough, fibrous plants.

## Ecology

Pachycephalosaurus's bony head dome was used as a weapon against predators like juvenile Tyrannosaurus, as well as rival males during mating season. It has long been suspected that Pachycephalosaurus would charge at each other at full speed and butt heads; however, this was disproved, as the structure of their head domes were partially filled with spongy bone marrow rather than completely solid bone, and would crumble when hit successively. As well as this, it held its neck in a curved orientation, making it unfit for direct head combat. Instead, rival male Pachycephalosaurus would have either circled each other and butt heads, or hit each other in the sides of their bodies with their heads.

## In popular culture

Pachycephalosaurus was first introduced to the public in the 1988 movie, *The Land Before Time*, where it was depicted as a rather territorial brute. Since then, it has appeared in major pieces of media like *Jurassic Park* and *Primeval*.
Didelphodon

Didelphodon is a marsupial mammal from the Late Cretaceous of the United States of America and Canada. It was named in 1889 by Othniel Charles Marsh. It was one of the biggest Mesozoic mammals, and lived on both land and water, showing how diverse mammals were in the Cretaceous.

## Physiology

Didelphodon was a unique mammal. It had a long, slim, otter-like body, as well as semi-short legs with webbed toes. It also had a skull similar to a Tasmanian devil, with short and big jaws, and opossum-like dentition, hence the meaning of its name, "opossum tooth". Its body would have been covered in fur.

## Diet

Didelphodon would have been an aquatic predator, mainly feeding on mollusks. However, it would sometimes rely on dry land for food, subsisting on lizards, plants, and small dinosaurs. Its massive jaws were filled with mostly bladelike teeth, but also had large premolars designed for crushing.

## Ecology

Once thought to be a hunter of insects and small mammals, similar to modern day opossums, Didelphodon was confirmed to be a semi-aquatic predator, using its long body and webbed toes to quickly propel itself through the water. Its huge, crushing jaws were used for penetrating the shells of mollusks, mainly so it can eat the soft-bodied content inside. As well as this, it would sometimes dig small burrows in the ground for it to hide in, protecting it from predators like tyrannosaurs and dromaeosaurs.

## In popular culture

Didelphodon was briefly featured in the final episode of the 1999 documentary *Walking with Dinosaurs*, where it was shown feeding on carcasses and eating the eggs of Tyrannosaurus. However, it was depicted as a badger-like oppurtunist, when in reality, it was an otter-like hunter.
Sinosauropteryx

Sinosauropteryx is a compsognathid theropod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of China. It was named in 1996 by Ji Qian and Ji Shu'an. It was the first confirmed feathered non-avian dinosaur to be found, and led way to a new era of discoveries like it; as well as this, it is one of the most extensively-studied non-avian theropods, even being studied to the point where we know its color.

## Physiology

Much like Compsognathus, Sinosauropteryx was a small, bird-like theropod with a slender body, long legs, an extremely long tail, moderately-sized arms with 3 fingers on each hand, a moderately long neck, and a small, conical head with large jaws. Most of its body (excluding some of its legs and all of its snout) would have been covered in short, fuzz-like feathers; most of its body would have been reddish brown in color, with a lighter-colored underside, a striped tail, and bandit mask-like facial markings similar to those of a raccoon.

## Diet

Sinosauropteryx was a predator, preying on insects, lizards, small pterosaurs, small mammals and primitive birds. Its teeth were small yet sharp, and were used to get a hold of struggling prey (along with its arms).

## Ecology

Sinosauropteryx' colors give us lots of insight into how it lived. In a similar case to Psittacosaurus, Sinosauropteryx had a darker-colored (reddish brown) back and lighter-colored underside, which was useful for sneaking up on small prey or hiding from larger predators more effectively; this kind of color patterning is called countershading, and is most often found on animals that live in open habitats like grasslands and plains, a lifestyle most fitting for Sinosauropteryx. In addition to this, Sinosauropteryx bore a large area of darker-colored feathers around its eyes, similar to the "bandit mask" of a raccoon; it is clear that these facial markings were used for reducing glare and thus enhancing its vision, but, along with the theropod's striped tail, they may have been used for recognition by other members of its species. In terms of what animals it ate, a fossilized individual with stomach contents revealed that, much like the earlier Compsognathus, it was an agile hunter of lizards, small mammals, and other small, fast-moving animals that shared its open grassland habitat; as well as this, that same specimen preserved eggs in front of and above the pubis (bone that extends below the pelvis), meaning that it had two oviducts (egg-laying passageways) much like other theropods.
Kentrosaurus

Kentrosaurus is a stegosaurid stegosaurian thyreophoran dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of Tanzania. It was named in 1915 by Edwin Hennig. It is one of the most studied stegosaurs (right behind Stegosaurus itself), as well as one of the smallest.

## Physiology

Tuojiangosaurus resembled its close relative, Stegosaurus; it was a round-bodied, robust thyreophoran with 4 erect legs, a relatively long neck, a large thagomizer on its tail, a row of keratinous plates running down its back, and a small head with a beaked mouth. However, it had a few major differences; the plates on its back were shaped like large spikes (as opposed to the diamond-shaped plates boasted by Stegosaurus) and were limited to its upper body (with spikes running down the rest of its body), and it had large spikes on its shoulders as well. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin, with a large clump of osteoderms covering its throat, and a few crocodile-like scutes running down its hips.

## Diet

Kentrosaurus was an herbivore, feeding on soft vegetation. Its small, flat teeth were used to shred leaves, as well as to chew on soft food.

## Ecology

Kentrosaurus was a low-level browser, plucking soft vegetation on the ground and swallowing it up; however, it might have been also capable of rearing up in order to reach higher vegetation. Due to many small bonebeds containing many individuals, we can assume that the stegosaurians moved in groups. Kentrosaurus' tail was highly mobile, and was able to swing in a 180° arc (covering the distance behind its lower body); combined with the many massive spikes on its tail, this would have allowed it to cause great harm to attacking theropods. With its presumed social behavior, Kentrosaurus may have formed a wall in order to fend off predators.
Mammal

The mammals are the product of many years of evolution. They have limbs for walking, fur for keeping warm, and unlike all other animals (which lay eggs), they usually live-birth their young. Having been descended from the primitive synapsids in the Jurassic, the mammals started out small, and stayed small for all of the Mesozoic, as they were always hiding from the rulers of the land at the time: the dinosaurs. However, after all the dinosaurs died, the mammals started to diversify, grow to large sizes, and show uniqueness in themselves, as shown in quite a bit of the Cenozoic. However, they would not rule alone, as the birds had also came to rule the earth with them. Soon, a branch of mammals would evolve into the largest group of noticeable vertebrate organisms: us.

## Mammals Throughout Time (note that those are not all the ones that exist)

### Jurassic Mammals

* Volaticotherium
* Fruitafossor

### Cretaceous Mammals

* Repenomamus
* Steropodon
* Didelphodon

### Paleogene Mammals

* Mongolonyx
* Leptictidium
* Godinotia
* Andrewsarchus
* Ambulocetus
* Propalaeotherium
* Palaeotherium
* Hyaenodon
* Dorudon
* Basilosaurus
* Llanocetus
* Cynodictis
* Entelodon
* Mongolestes
* Embolotherium
* Moeritherium
* Anoplotherium
* Arsinoitherium
* Sarkastodon
* Paraceratherium
* Apidium
* Chalicotherium

### Neogene Mammals

* Hipparion
* Astrapotherium
* Epicyon
* Borhyaena
* Deinotherium
* Amphicyon
* Cetotherium
* Teleoceras
* Patagosmilus
* Pelagiarctos
* Barbourofelis
* Gomphotherium
* Theosodon
* Granastrapotherium
* Stegodon
* Thylacosmilus
* Livyatan
* Gigantopithecus
* Dinofelis
* Macrauchenia
* Megantereon
* Ancylotherium
* Mastodon
* Odobenocetops
* Megatherium
* Eremotherium
* Praeanthropus
* Woolly Rhinoceros
* Pachycrocuta
* Toxodon
* Elasmotherium

### Quaternary Mammals

* Smilodon
* Glyptodon
* Doedicurus
* Aurochs
* Homo erectus
* Thylacine
* Armbruster's Wolf
* Short-Faced Bear
* Steppe Bison
* Procoptodon
* Marsupial Lion
* Diprotodon
* Cave Lion
* Giant Deer
* Cave Hyena
* Cave Bear
* Neanderthal
* Ancient Bison
* Woolly Mammoth
* Cave Wolf
* Dire Wolf
* Cro-Magnon
Xenacanthus

Xenacanthus is a xenacanthid xenacanthid cartilaginous fish from the Late Devonian-Late Triassic of the United States of America, Czech Republic, and India. It was named in 1848 by Heinrich Ernst Beyrich. It was a unique, widespread, and successful shark, fulfilling the very latter by lasting for 3 periods.

## Physiology

Xenacanthus was a unique shark. It was a cartilaginous fish with a long, eel-like body, rounded pectoral (arm) and pelvic ("leg") fins, two thin, rounded anal (rear) fins, a long, ribbon-like dorsal (back) fin, a moderately long, pointed caudal (tail) fin, a small, pointy head with big jaws, and a long spine protruding from the back of its head. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Xenacanthus was a predator, feeding on small fish and crustaceans. Its teeth had a unique V-shape, and were used for getting a hold of struggling prey.

## Ecology

Xenacanthus lived in freshwater rivers, swimming around in search of prey. It swam much like a conger eel, moving its tail from side to side to propel it through the water. The long spine on its head is speculated to have stopped predators like Dimetrodon or Eryops from effortlessly biting its head off, and some may even speculate that it was venomous (like the barb of a stingray). It would have been an ambush predator, floating a meter below the surface, right before gaining a burst of speed to snatch prey.

## In popular culture

Xenacanthus was featured in a special episode of the documentary *River Monsters*, appearing alongside Xiphactinus, Leedsichthys, Megapiranha, Helicoprion, Dunkleosteus, and Rhizodus as candidates for the most terrifying prehistoric river dweller. During the research about it, it is compared to the alligator gar, mainly as a reminder about its teeth and hunting style.
Koolasuchus

Koolasuchus is a chigutisaurid temnospondyl amphibian from the Early Cretaceous of Australia. It was named in 1997 by Anne Warren. It was one of the last temnospondyl amphibians to survive, as well as one of the most adapted for the cold climate of the South Pole.

## Physiology

Koolasuchus resembled a fairly standard temnospondyl. It was a fish-like amphibian with 4 legs, a moderately-sized tail, a broad body, a massive, rounded, semi-flat head with big jaws, and eyes on the top of its head. Its body would have been covered in smooth skin.

## Diet

Koolasuchus was a predator, preying on fish, smaller amphibians, and small dinosaurs. Its teeth were small yet sharp, and were used to get a hold of struggling prey as the amphibian swallowed them whole.

## Ecology

As a large amphibian, Koolasuchus was surprisingly well-adapted for living in polar climates; a few possible reasons why it was able to survive the cold temperatures of the North Pole could possibly include a slow metabolism that it could completely lower into a state of hibernation, similarly to modern giant salamanders. Another similarity that Koolasuchus shared with modern giant salamanders was its preferred habitat; based on the coarse rocks in which its remains were found, it could be assumed that it lived in fast-moving streams. Due to its size, Koolasuchus was likely a very important predator in its environment, feeding on smaller dinosaurs that wandered too close to the water. In general, like many Paleozoic amphibians, it filled an ecospace similar to modern crocodiles; in fact, due to warming temperatures later in the Early Cretaceous, crocodylomorphs would migrate to Australia and outcompete Koolasuchus as the freshwater apex predator of the region.

## In popular culture

Koolasuchus was featured in the 5th episode of the 1999 documentary *Walking with Dinosaurs*, where it is depicted as living alongside and sometimes preying on Leaellynasaura; in this case, it is potentially misplaced through time, as Koolasuchus likely went extinct before Leaellynasaura evolved. Oddly enough, the show correctly acknowledges that Koolasuchus was the apex predator of mid-Cretaceous Australia, before modern crocodylomorphs settled there and drove it to extinction; as well as this, it portrays the large amphibian as being able to hibernate through cold winters, something that may have been true about the real animal.
Cynognathus

Cynognathus is a cynognathid therapsid synapsid from the Middle-Late Triassic of South Africa, Argentina, and Antarctica. It was named in 1895 by Harry Govier Seeley. It was one of the most successful cynodonts, as it achieved a wide distribution within the Southern Hemisphere.

## Physiology

Cynognathus was a cynodont with 4 semi-erect legs, a slender body, and a big head. Like all other cynodonts, its legs were more erect than those of the other therapsids. Its body would have been covered in fur.

## Diet

Cynognathus was a predator, preying on small reptiles, small anomodonts, and smaller cynodonts. Its teeth were large and sharp, and were designed for piercing the hides of large prey.

## Ecology

One interesting thing about Cynognathus is that its hind legs were erect, much like a mammal, while its forelegs assumed a sprawling gait, much like a reptile; this would have probably made it run in a unique fashion, but would have still allowed it to catch up to its prey. As well as this, it had large, robust, muscle-bound jaws capable of inflicting a powerful bite, as well as large canines that would allow it to tear through the hides of prey; in addition to this, it had 3 different types of teeth, which allowed it to effectively chew its food before swallowing it. Along with this, its body ribs did not extend into its abdomen; this freed up space for a diaphragm that allowed it to breathe efficiently, and it also allowed for more body flexibility. Finally, the presence of small pits on Cynognathus' snout indicates that concentrations of nerves and blood vessels were present near its nose; although this would suggest that Cynognathus had whiskers, the fact that lizards also have small pits on their skulls, yet do not have whiskers, invalidates this suggestion.
Aegirosaurus

Aegirosaurus is an ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaurian reptile from the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous of Germany and France. It was officially named in 2000 by Nathalie Bardet and Marta S. Fernandez. It was one of the more successful ichthyosaurs (surviving the Jurassic extinction event and persisting into the Cretaceous), and was thought to be a species of Ichthyosaurus before finally being described as its own genus.

## Physiology

Aegirosaurus was an ichthyosaur with a sleek, streamlined body, 4 flippers, a long tail with a shark-like fin on its end, a large fin on its back, a conical head with large jaws, and small eyes on the sides of its head. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Aegirosaurus was a predator, preying on fish and cephalopods. Its teeth were small yet sharp, and were used to get a hold of slippery prey.

## Ecology

So far, all we know about Aegirosaurus is that it was a generalist predator of aquatic prey, similar to many plesiosaurs.
Brachiosaurus

Brachiosaurus is a brachiosaurid sauropod sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of the United States of America. It was named in 1903 by Elmer Samuel Riggs. It was one of the most unique sauropods to walk the Earth (being proportioned like a giraffe rather than an early sauropod), and it was one of the tallest dinosaurs to walk the earth.

## Physiology

Brachiosaurus was a unique sauropod, as it had a bulky body, a deep torso, 4 large, erect, pillar-like legs, a moderately long tail, a long neck, and a small head. Another interesting thing to note is that its forelegs were just as long as its hindlegs (causing its body to slope downwards), and it had a large, bony arch above its eyes and just behind its nostrils. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Brachiosaurus was an herbivore, feeding on leaves from large trees. Its peg-like teeth were used to strip branches of their leaves, and its long neck and limbs allowed it to access vegetation some 11 meters in the air without rearing.

## Ecology

Like its semi-distant cousins, Brontosaurus and Diplodocus, Brachiosaurus was thought to be a swamp-dwelling herbivore, constantly feeding on underwater plants; however, recent findings have confirmed that it was almost completely terrestrial, feeding on large ground plants such as trees. Due to its extremely long, upwards-pointing neck, it was able to feed off the treetops without having to rear up like the smaller diplodocids would have needed to (it still would have been able to rear up, due to a light upper body); this would have minimized competition with other Jurassic herbivores. As well as this, despite its enormous mass, it had avian air sacs that lay in its neck and trunk and connected to its lungs; this lowered its body density, and by extension, it lowered its weight. Along with this, its head had a large, bony arch located just above its eyes and behind its snout; earlier, this arch was thought to house the nostrils, before being hypothesized as a resonating chamber used for amplifying its calls (similar to to the crest of the large hadrosaur Parasaurolophus).

## In popular culture

Brachiosaurus was first introduced to the public through its display at the Berlin Museum of Natural History, where the African species of Brachiosaurus, *Brachiosaurus brancai* (now Giraffatitan) was showcased. Since then, it has gained a little bit of attention, appearing in major pieces of media such as *The Lost World* and *Fantasia*. Its splendid, awe-inspiring appearance in the 1993 science fiction movie *Jurassic Park* (once again based on Giraffatitan) has managed to give it a large popularity boost, causing it to seriously complete with the American public's Brontosaurus and the European public's Diplodocus for the place of "most popular long-necked dinosaur".
Patagotitan

Patagotitan is a sauropod sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Early-Late Cretaceous of Argentina. It was offically named in 2017 by José Carballido and his associates. It was one of the largest dinosaurs to roam the Earth, as well as one of the better-preserved large sauropods.

## Physiology

Patagotitan was a large sauropod with a bulky, downwards-sloping body, a deep torso, 4 large, erect, pillar-like legs, a long tail, a long neck, and a small head. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Patagotitan was an herbivore, feeding on leaves from large trees. Its peg-like teeth were used to strip branches of their leaves, and its long neck and limbs allowed it to access vegetation some 13 meters in the air without rearing.

## Ecology

So far, all we know about Patagotitan is that its long, upwards-pointing neck allowed it to feed off the treetops without having to rear up, and could also be used to feed off plants closer to the ground. As well as this, it would have traveled in small herds in order to protect juveniles from harm; juveniles and subadults may have fallen prey to predators, while adults were impervious to predation.

## In popular culture

Patagotitan was featured in the 2016 documentary *Attenborough and the Giant Dinosaur*, where the history of its discovery and reconstruction are discussed in great detail. As Patagotitan was first announced in 2014 (3 years before it was officially named), it is only referred to as a "titanosaur".
Tiktaalik

Tiktaalik is a lobe-finned bony fish from the Middle-Late Devonian of Canada. It was named in 2006 by Ted Daeschler,‭ ‬Neil Shubin‭, and ‬Farish Jenkins. It was a truly remarkable fish, as it started the transition from water to land, and was one of the missing links between lobe-finned fish and amphibians.

## Physiology

Tiktaalik was a unique lobe-finned fish. It had a streamlined body, fleshy, strong, lobe-like fins resembling tetrapod arms, a long tail similar to that of a tadpole, a big, flat head with big jaws, and eyes on the top of its head. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Tiktaalik was a predator, preying on insects and smaller fish. Its teeth were small yet sharp, and were used to get a hold of struggling prey as the lobe-finned fish swallowed them whole.

## Ecology

Tiktaalik was an evolutionary step-up from Eusthenopteron, as it had improved features that more resembled those of the tetrapods. For example, it had strong fins with a skeletal makeup very similar to those of tetrapod legs, allowing it to crawl out of the water and onto dry land (very much like a lungfish. As well as this, it had flexible neck bones (which allowed it to look around without turning its body) and a sturdy rib cage (which supported the lobe-finned fish and prevented it from being crushed by its own weight). It would have hunted very similarly to a crocodile, lying in wait near the surface (with its eyes just above the water), right before raising itself up and turning its head to capture its prey.

## In popular culture

Tiktaalik was featured in the 1st episode of the 2013 documentary *Rise of Animals: Triumph of the Vertebrates*, where it is shown as the animal that made the transition from water to land. The scene which features it also takes a look at its fins, one of the features that made it more than capable of doing this task.
Edaphosaurus

Edaphosaurus is an edaphosaurid pelycosaur synapsid from the Pennsylvanian-Cisuralian of the United States of America and possibly Germany, Czech Republic, and Slovakia. It was officially named in 1882 by Edward Drinker Cope. It was one of the first herbivorous vertebrates to walk the earth, and was thought to be a species of Dimetrodon before finally being described as its own genus.

## Physiology

Edaphosaurus had the generic pelycosaur synapsid build, with 4 legs, a long tail, a bulky body, and a moderately-sized head. However, it had a few major differences; for example, it had a large sail on its back, its head was more lizard-like than any other synapsid, and instead of having big, knife-like teeth, it had blunt, peg-like teeth. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Edaphosaurus was an herbivore, feeding on plants low to the ground. Its small teeth were shaped like pegs, and were used to process vegetation before the synapsid swallowed it.

## Ecology

The function of Edaphosaurus's large sail remains open to debate; many theories that emerged include being used as a wind sail for blowing it across the swamps, as well as protection from potential predators such as Dimetrodon, a fatty hump for surviving droughts, or regulation of body temperature. Today, the most widely accepted theory is that it possibly was just used for display. As well as this, it was once believed that Edaphosaurus's teeth were used to grind up mollusks on the riverbeds; however, recent tooth examinations have shown that they were more adapted to shredding plants. Wear marks on its teeth meant that it was capable of a limited chewing mechanism used for grinding food.

## In popular culture

Edaphosaurus was featured in the 2nd episode of the 2005 documentary *Walking with Monsters*, where it is depicted as evolving from Petrolacosaurus over a course of 22 (or 2) million years. As well as this, it is shown as using its sail for thermoregulation, as well as for flashing its colors in an attempt to scare off predators like Dimetrodon.
Waptia

Waptia is a waptiid waptiid arthropod from the Cambrian Series 3 of Canada and the United States of America. It was named in 1912 by Charles Doolittle Walcott. It was akin to modern crustaceans, and was even one of the ancestors of them.

## Physiology

Waptia was a very shrimp-like arthropod. It had a bivalved carapace, a head with 5 segments (which had a pair of feeding appendages on each segment), big eyes, and long, slender antenna, a body made of 10 segments (with a pair of walking legs on each segment), and a tail made of 5 segments with a tail fan on the end of it. Its body would have been covered in a hard, chitinous exoskeleton.

## Diet

Waptia was a detritivore, feeding on organic matter. Once it came across a piece of detritus, it would use its feeding appendages to pick it up and pass it into its mouth.

## Ecology

Aside from its shrimp-like looks, Waptia also had a shrimp-like lifestyle. It was a bottom-dwelling detritivore that fed on any piece of organic debris that sunk to the seafloor. However, its feeding appendages were not very strong, so it would feed by sifting through the seafloor to find organic particles to eat. As well as this, the fan on its tail proved that it was an active swimmer, and could flick its tail to propel itself backwards, as an attempt to escape predators.
Mamenchisaurus

Mamenchisaurus is a mamenchisaurid sauropod sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of China. It was named in 1954 by Chung Chien Young. It had the longest neck out of any sauropod, and it also had a unique tail.

## Physiology

Mamenchisaurus resembled the generic sauropod, a large saurischian with a bulky body, 4 large, erect, pillar-like legs, a long tail, an long neck, and a small head. However, it did differ from the generic sauropod body plan in a few ways; for example, its neck was extremely long (considerably longer than those of other sauropods), and the tip of its tail might have been covered in a club. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Mamenchisaurus was an herbivore, feeding on leaves from large trees. Its peg-like teeth were used to strip branches of their leaves, and its long neck and limbs allowed it to access vegetation some 15 meters in the air without rearing.

## Ecology

Due to its extremely long neck, Mamenchisaurus was able to sweep its neck across a wide area of vegetation without having to constantly move from one area to another. This feeding strategy was often times very useful, as it would allow the mamenchisaurid to eat for a long time without expending energy once it found a suitable area for feeding. As well as this, the tip of its tail was robust and had relatively tall spinal extensions; such uniqueness would lead people to believe that the sauropod had a club on the tip of its tail. The exact use of the club is unknown; some say that it was used for communication with other members of its species, while others say that it was used for defense against predators like Yangchuanosaurus or Sinraptor.

## In popular culture

Mamenchisaurus was featured in the 1997 science fiction movie, *The Lost World: Jurassic Park*. It appears near the beginning of the film, where it is chased by motorcycle-driving mercenaries alongside large herds of Parasaurolophus, Gallimimus, and Pachycephalosaurus.
Anzu

Anzu is a caenagnathid theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of the United States of America. It was named in 2014 by Matthew Lamanna. It was found out to be the large caenagnathid from Dakota, and has been nicknamed "the chicken from Hell", due to the fact that it has the same chicken-like appearance as all other caenagnathoid theropods.

## Physiology

Like its cousin, Oviraptor, Anzu had the generic oviraptorosaur body plan. It had long legs, long, slender arms, a short tail, a short, toothless beak, and a tall, comb-like crest atop its head. Most of its body (excluding most of its legs and all of its beak as well as possibly its crest) would have been covered in long, vaned feathers.

## Diet

Anzu would have been an omnivore, feeding on leaves, small animals, and possibly eggs. Although its beak was not as heavily constructed as those of its Asian cousins, it would have been constructed in a way similar to them, mainly so the theropod would be able to eat the same food as its relatives did.

## Ecology

Anzu lived in a swampy environment, so its lifestyle would have been slightly different from those of its desert-dwelling Asian cousins. In this case, its lifestyle would have been that of a fast-running ecological generalist that wasn't limited to an herbivorous or carnivorous lifestyle. Its swift speed would often come in handy, as it would often have to run away from predators like Tyrannosaurus. It had a lot of bird-like traits, and its head crest was used to attract mates, similar to a cassowary (and of course, all other oviraptorosaurs).
Pikaia

Pikaia is a pikaiid cephalochordate from the Cambrian Series 3 of Canada. It was named in 1911 by Charles Doolittle Walcott. It was an early chordate, and it resembled a few modern marine organisms.

## Physiology

In terms of physiology, Pikaia resembled a lancelet. It had a long, worm-like body, a small, worm-like head, and a tail fin on its posterior end. Its body would have been covered in smooth skin.

## Diet

Pikaia's diet remains unknown, although some may speculate that it was a detritivore, sucking up pieces of organic debris suspended in the water.

## Ecology

Pikaia swam much like an eel, moving its tail from side to side to propel it through the water. However, this swimming method was by no means efficient, and it was a slow swimmer. An interesting theory about Pikaia was that it was a detritivore, filtering organic particles from the water as it swam along. As well as this, despite its worm-like appearance, it had a head distinct from the body, similar to another early vertebrate, Haikouichthys.
Gars

Side view of the alligator gar (credits to Michael Patrick O'Neill)

The gars are a successful family of ray-finned bony fish from the Late Jurassic-Holocene of the entire world. They were named in 1803 by Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric, Baron Cuvier. They are one of the few animals to be called "living fossils" (due to surviving up until now); as well as this, similarly to other "living fossils", they used to have a worldwide distribution, but are now only limited to bodies of water near a single landmass (in this case, the Americas).

## Physiology

Gars vaguely resemble more typical ray-finned fish, having a long, streamlined body and rounded pectoral (arm), dorsal (back), pelvic ("leg"), anal (rear) and caudal (tail) fins. However, unlike more typical ray-finned fish, gars lack a spiny dorsal fin; as well as this, their soft dorsal fin and their anal fin are in close proximity to their caudal fin, and their jaws are elongated and filled with sharp, interlocking teeth, giving them a vaguely crocodile-like appearance. Their bodies are covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Gars are predators, feeding mainly on crustaceans and smaller fish, but also sometimes snacking on birds, small mammals, and turtles. Their teeth are long and needle-like, and are used to get a hold of slippery prey; some species of gar, such as the alligator gar (*Atractosteus spatula*) have two sets of teeth to further assist in prey capture.

## Ecology

Gars are slow-moving ambush predators that inhabit slow-moving or tranquil freshwater ecosystems, such as lakes and bayous; when hunting, they often put on a burst of speed to catch up with their prey before snagging it in their jaws with a sideways swipe of their heads. Their elongated, interlocking bony scales give them a tougher body than that of most other fish; these scales rest upon a network of collagen fibers that further reinforce them, allowing them to withstand a fair amount of damage. Along with this, they have specialized swim bladders that function as lungs, allowing them to rise to the surface to swallow air; this allows them to survive in low-oxygen water caused by algal blooms in their ecosystems. As well as this, their eggs contain a poison that induces vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, and decreased blood pressure in humans; surprisingly enough, while this poison kills small mammals, birds, and even crustaceans, it has no effects on other fish, meaning that it likely was not evolutionarily selected for as a means of protection, and may have only arisen via coincidence.