Hindu

**Hinduism** is an Indian religion and *dharma*, or way of life.Template:RefnTemplate:Refn It is the world's third-largest religion, with over 1.25 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global population, known as Hindus. The word ***Hindu*** is an exonym,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world,Template:Refn many practitioners refer to their religion as *Sanātana Dharma* (Template:Lang-sa: Template:Transl), which refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history, as revealed in the Hindu texts.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn Another, though less fitting, self-designation is *Vaidika dharma*,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn the 'dharma related to the Vedas.'

Hinduism includes a range of philosophies, and is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, pilgrimage to sacred sites and shared textual resources that discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics.Template:Sfn Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (*Ahiṃsā*), patience, forbearance, self-restraint, virtue, and compassion, among others. Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life; namely, dharma (ethics/duties), artha (prosperity/work), kama (desires/passions) and moksha (liberation/freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth/salvation),Template:Sfn as well as karma (action, intent and consequences) and saṃsāra (cycle of death and rebirth).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Hindu practices include rituals such as puja (worship) and recitations, japa, meditation (dhyāna), family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages. Along with the practice of various yogas, some Hindus leave their social world and material possessions and engage in lifelong Sannyasa (monasticism) in order to achieve Moksha.

Hindu texts are classified into Śruti ("heard") and Smṛti ("remembered"), the major scriptures of which are the *Vedas*, the *Upanishads*, the *Purānas*, the *Mahābhārata*, the *Rāmāyana*, and the *Āgamas*.Template:Sfn There are six āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, who recognise the authority of the Vedas, namely Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā and Vedānta.

While the Puranic chronology presents a geneaology of thousands of years, starting with the Vedic *rishis*, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusionTemplate:Refn or synthesisTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn of Brahmanical orthopraxyTemplate:Refn with various Indian cultures,Template:Refn having diverse rootsTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn and no specific founder.Template:Sfn This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between ca. 500Template:Sfn–200Template:Sfn BCE and ca. 300 CE,Template:Sfn in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the Epics and the first Purānas were composed.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India.Template:Sfn

Currently, the four largest denominations of Hinduism are the Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.Template:Sfn Sources of authority and eternal truths in the Hindu texts play an important role, but there is also a strong Hindu tradition of questioning authority in order to deepen the understanding of these truths and to further develop the tradition. Hinduism is the most widely professed faith in India, Nepal and Mauritius. Significant numbers of Hindu communities are found in Southeast Asia including in Bali, Indonesia, the Caribbean, North America, Europe, Oceania, Africa, and other regions.
Template:TOC limit

## Etymology

Further information: **Hindu**
 File:Bratan Bali Indonesia Balinese-family-after-Puja-01.jpg
The word *Hindū* is derived from Indo-AryanTemplate:Sfn/SanskritTemplate:Sfn root *Sindhu*.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Proto-Iranian sound change *\*s* > *h* occurred between 850 and 600 BCE, according to Asko Parpola.

The use of the English term "Hinduism" to describe a collection of practices and beliefs is a fairly recent construction: it was first used by Raja Ram Mohun Roy in 1816–17.Template:Sfn The term "Hinduism" was coined in around 1830 by those Indians who opposed British colonialism, and who wanted to distinguish themselves from other religious groups.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Before the British began to categorise communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead identities were largely segmented on the basis of locality, language, varṇa, jāti, occupation and sect.Template:Sfn

The word "Hindu" is much older, and it is believed that it was used as the name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn According to Gavin Flood, "The actual term *Hindu* first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: *Sindhu*)",Template:Sfn more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I (550–486 BCE).Template:Sfn The term *Hindu* in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.Template:Sfn Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text *Record of the Western Regions* by Xuanzang,Template:Sfn and 14th-century Persian text *Futuhu's-salatin* by 'Abd al-Malik Isami.Template:Refn

Thapar states that the word *Hindu* is found as *heptahindu* in Avesta – equivalent to Rigvedic *sapta sindhu*, while *hndstn* (pronounced *Hindustan*) is found in a Sasanian inscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia. The Arabic term *al-Hind* referred to the people who live across the River Indus.Template:Sfn This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term *Hindū*, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, *Hindustan* emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus".Template:SfnTemplate:Refn

The term *Hindu* was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the later *Rajataranginis* of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450) and some 16th- to 18th-century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts including *Chaitanya Charitamrita* and *Chaitanya Bhagavata*. These texts used it to distinguish Hindus from Muslims who are called Yavanas (foreigners) or Mlecchas (barbarians), with the 16th-century *Chaitanya Charitamrita* text and the 17th-century *Bhakta Mala* text using the phrase "*Hindu dharma*". It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as *Hindus*.

The term *Hinduism*, then spelled *Hindooism*, was introduced into the English language in the 18th century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.

## Definitions

Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, henotheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. According to Doniger, "ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even caste – are subjects of debate, not dogma."Template:Sfn

Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.Template:Sfn The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it".Template:Sfn Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life".Template:SfnTemplate:Refn From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India, the term *dharma* is preferred, which is broader than the Western term *religion*.

The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism,Template:SfnTemplate:Refn and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn

### Typology

Main article: Hindu denominations

 File:Aum Om navy blue circle coral.svg
Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent. Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Devi) and Smartism (five deities treated as same).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God, while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme.Template:Sfn Other notable characteristics include a belief in the existence of ātman (soul, self), reincarnation of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living).

McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand the expression of emotions among the Hindus. The major kinds, according to McDaniel are Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and is the oldest, non-literate system; Vedic Hinduism based on the earliest layers of the Vedas traceable to 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the Upanishads, including Advaita Vedanta, emphasizing knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali emphasizing introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste"; and bhakti or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.

Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.Template:Sfn The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism", "folk religions and tribal religions", and "founded religions".Template:Sfn The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma-marga",Template:Sfn jnana-marga,Template:Sfn bhakti-marga,Template:Sfn and "heroism", which is rooted in militaristic traditions. These militaristic traditions include Ramaism (the worship of a hero of epic literature, Rama, believing him to be an incarnation of Vishnu) and parts of political Hinduism.Template:Sfn "Heroism" is also called virya-marga.Template:Sfn According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practicing or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions" such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are salvation-focussed and often de-emphasize Brahman priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism.Template:Sfn He includes among "founded religions" Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism that are now distinct religions, syncretic movements such as Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society, as well as various "Guru-isms" and new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and ISKCON.Template:Sfn

Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytizing missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests. Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project. From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of Indology. Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.

### Hindu views

#### Template:IAST

See also: Sanātanī

To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life. Many practitioners refer to the "orthodox" form of Hinduism as *[[Sanātanī|Template:IAST]]*, "the eternal law" or the "eternal way".Template:Sfn Hindus regard Hinduism to be thousands of years old. The Puranic chronology, the timeline of events in ancient Indian history as narrated in the Mahabaratha, the Ramayana, and the Puranas, envisions a chronology of events related to Hinduism starting well before 3000 BCE. The Sanskrit word *dharma* has a much broader meaning than *religion* and is not its equivalent. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (artha), fulfillment of desires (kama), and attaining liberation (moksha), are part of dharma, which encapsulates the "right way of living" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfillment.Template:Sfn

According to the editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica, *Template:IAST* historically referred to the "eternal" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (*ahiṃsā*), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of a Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted with svadharma, one's "own duty", in accordance with one's class or caste (varṇa) and stage in life (puruṣārtha). In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the "eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian".

According to other scholars such as Kim Knott and Brian Hatcher, Sanātana Dharma refers to "timeless, eternal set of truths" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is viewed as those eternal truths and tradition with origins beyond human history, truths divinely revealed (Shruti) in the Vedas – the most ancient of the world's scriptures.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn To many Hindus, the Western term "religion" to the extent it means "dogma and an institution traceable to a single founder" is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher. Hinduism, to them, is a tradition that can be traced at least to the ancient Vedic era.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn

#### *Vaidika dharma*

Some have referred to Hinduism as the *Vaidika dharma*.Template:Sfn The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means 'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'. Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka. According to Klaus Klostermaier, the term Vaidika dharma is the earliest self-designation of Hinduism.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Arvind Sharma, the historical evidence suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term *vaidika dharma* or a variant thereof" by the 4th-century CE. According to Brian K. Smith, "[i]t is 'debatable at the very least' as to whether the term *Vaidika Dharma* cannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'."

According to Alexis Sanderson, the early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions. However, the late 1st-millennium CE Indic consensus had "indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms of antinomian Shakta-Shaiva" from its fold. Some in the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy considered the *Agamas* such as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the Vedas. Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika dharma. The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were superior than those of the Vaidikas. However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition viewed themselves as being genuinely true to the Vedic tradition and "held unanimously that the Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, [...] and that as such they [Vedas] are man's sole means of valid knowledge [...]".

The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is "based on the Vedas", but it is unclear what "based on the Vedas" really implies, states Julius Lipner.Template:Sfn The Vaidika dharma or "Vedic way of life", states Lipner, does not mean "Hinduism is necessarily religious" or that Hindus have a universally accepted "conventional or institutional meaning" for that term.Template:Sfn To many, it is as much a cultural term. Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian, might relate to the Bible or a Muslim might to the Quran. Yet, states Lipner, "this does not mean that their [Hindus] whole life's orientation cannot be traced to the Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it".Template:Sfn

Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu,"Template:SfnTemplate:Refn and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text." Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.Template:Sfn

#### Hindu modernism

See also: Hindu reform movements
 File:Swami Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg
Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation,Template:Sfn meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elementsTemplate:Sfn and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasizing the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems.Template:Sfn This approach had a great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west.Template:Sfn Major representatives of "Hindu modernism"Template:Sfn are Raja Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.Template:Sfn
[Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the Hindu Renaissance. He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902), who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism".Template:Sfn Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity",Template:Sfn and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.Template:Sfn According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.Template:Sfn According to Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today".Template:Sfn Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience".Template:Sfn

This "Global Hinduism"Template:Sfn has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundariesTemplate:Sfn and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism",Template:Sfn both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions.Template:Sfn It emphasizes universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity".Template:Sfn It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation",Template:Sfn or the Pizza effect,Template:Sfn in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India.Template:Sfn This globalization of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin".Template:Sfn

#### Legal definitions

The definition of Hinduism in Indian Law is: "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large".Template:Sfn

### Scholarly views

The term *Hinduism* was coined in Western ethnography in the 18th century,Template:Refn and refers to the fusionTemplate:Refn or synthesisTemplate:RefnTemplate:Sfn of various Indian cultures and traditions,Template:Refn with diverse rootsTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn and no founder.Template:Sfn This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between c. 500Template:Sfn–200Template:Sfn BCE and c. 300 CE,Template:Sfn in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the Epics and the first Puranas were composed.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India.Template:Sfn Hinduism's tolerance to variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.Template:Sfn

Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Gabriella Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.

## Diversity and unity

### Diversity

See also: Hindu denominations
 File:Ganapati.1..JPG
Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions rather than a single religion. Within each religion in this family of religions, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts. Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed",Template:Sfn but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.Template:Sfn According to the Supreme Court of India,

> Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".Template:Sfn
>
>

Part of the problem with a single definition of the term *Hinduism* is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder.Template:Sfn It is a synthesis of various traditions, the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions".Template:Sfn

Theism is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, other Hindus are or have been atheists.

### Sense of unity

Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.Template:Sfn Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas,Template:Sfn although there are exceptions.Template:Sfn These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, with Louis Renou stating that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".Template:Sfn

Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",Template:Sfn there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"Template:Sfn of each tradition that indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".Template:Sfn

#### Classical Hinduism

Brahmins played an essential role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis, disseminating Vedic culture to local communities, and integrating local religiosity into the trans-regional Brahmanic culture.Template:Sfn In the post-Gupta period Vedanta developed in southern India, where orthodox Brahmanic culture and the Hindu culture were preserved,Template:Sfn building on ancient Vedic traditions while "accommoda[ting] the multiple demands of Hinduism."Template:Sfn

#### Medieval developments

The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE. Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking shape, at c. 300–600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion.Template:Sfn Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other".Template:Sfn According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other"Template:Sfn is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools.Template:Sfn

According to the Indologist Alexis Sanderson, before Islam arrived in India, the "Sanskrit sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but they had no name that denotes the first five of these as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism". This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By late 1st-millennium CE, the concept of a belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged. This complex tradition accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except certain antinomian tantric movements. Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas, or were invalid in their entirety. Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual premises, and the soteriologies were the same. "This sense of greater unity", states Sanderson, "came to be called Hinduism".

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' (*saddarsana*) of mainstream Hindu philosophy."Template:Sfn The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.Template:Sfn Hacker called this "inclusivism"Template:Sfn and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit".Template:Sfn Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,Template:Sfn and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn which started well before 1800.Template:Sfn Michaels notes:

> As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism ... [S]aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609–1649) and Ramdas (1608–1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.Template:Sfn
>
>

#### Colonial period and neo-Vedanta

See also: Orientalism and Neo-Vedanta

This inclusivism was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta,Template:Sfn and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.Template:Sfn

The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition"Template:Sfn was also popularised by 19th-century proselytizing missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils,Template:Refn while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the *Vedas*, *Bhagavad Gita*, *Manusmriti* and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature".Template:SfnTemplate:Refn Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention.Template:Sfn He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn

#### Modern India

The Hindutva movement has extensively argued for the unity of Hinduism, dismissing the differences and regarding India as a Hindu-country since ancient times.

## Beliefs

 File:Halebid3.JPG
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma (ethics/duties), [[Samsara|Template:IAST]] (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth), Karma (action, intent, and consequences), Moksha (liberation from saṃsāra or liberation in this life), and the various yogas (paths or practices).Template:Sfn

### Purusharthas (objectives of human life)

Main article: Purusharthas

See also: Initiation, Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Mokṣa

Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas: dharma, artha, kama and moksha.Template:Sfn

#### Dharma (righteousness, ethics)

Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism. The concept of dharma includes behaviors that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living". Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous. Dharma, according to Van Buitenen, is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is, states Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states it as:

> Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (*Satya*); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.
>
> Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.4.xiv

In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word *Sanātana* means *eternal*, *perennial*, or *forever*; thus, *Sanātana Dharma* signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.

#### Artha (livelihood, wealth)

Main article: Artha

Artha is objective and virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations, and economic prosperity. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy, and material well-being. The artha concept includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.Template:Sfn The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.Template:Sfn

#### Kāma (sensual pleasure)

Main article: Kama

Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations. In Hinduism, kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.

#### Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from saṃsāra)

Main article: Moksha

Moksha (Sanskrit: Template:Lang *Template:IAST*) or **mukti** (Sanskrit: Template:Lang) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. In one sense, moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering and saṃsāra (birth-rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle, in after life, particularly in theistic schools of Hinduism is called moksha.Template:Sfn Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul, death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self.

The meaning of *moksha* differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha a person knows their "soul, self" and identifies it as one with Brahman and everyone in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools, in moksha state, identify individual "soul, self" as distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven). To theistic schools of Hinduism, moksha is liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools such as the monistic school, moksha is possible in current life and is a psychological concept.Template:Sfn According to Deutsch, moksha is transcendental consciousness to the latter, the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".Template:Sfn *Moksha* in these schools of Hinduism, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the full sense; the concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been blocked and shut out. Moksha is more than liberation from life-rebirth cycle of suffering (saṃsāra); Vedantic school separates this into two: jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and videhamukti (liberation after death).

### Karma and saṃsāra

Main article: Karma

*Karma* translates literally as *action*, *work*, or *deed*, and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect". The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth. Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in the past. These actions and their consequences may be in a person's current life, or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives. This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called *saṃsāra*. Liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.Template:Sfn Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.

### Concept of God

Main articles: Ishvara and God in Hinduism
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs; its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.Template:Sfn

Template:Rquote
The *Nasadiya Sukta* (*Creation Hymn*) of the *Rig Veda* is one of the earliest textsTemplate:Sfn which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being. The *Rig Veda* praises various deities, none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner. The hymns repeatedly refer to One Truth and Reality. The "One Truth" of Vedic literature, in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.

Template:Multiple image

Hindus believe that all living creatures have a soul. This soul – the spirit or true "self" of every person, is called the *ātman*. The soul is believed to be eternal.Template:Sfn According to the monistic/pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one's soul is identical to supreme soul, that the supreme soul is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.Template:Sfn Dualistic schools (Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual souls. They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. God is called *Ishvara*, *Bhagavan*, *Parameshwara*, *Deva* or *Devi*, and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualized as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances. There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents. It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence. This seeing divinity in everything, state Buttimer and Wallin, makes the Vedic foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from Animism. The animistic premise sees multiplicity, power differences and competition between man and man, man and animal, as well as man and nature. The Vedic view does not see this competition, rather sees a unifying divinity that connects everyone and everything.

The Hindu scriptures name celestial entities called *Devas* (or *Template:IAST* in feminine form), which may be translated into English as *gods* or *heavenly beings*.Template:Refn The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their *Template:IAST*, or chosen ideal.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The choice is a matter of individual preference, and of regional and family traditions.Template:Refn The multitude of Devas are considered as manifestations of Brahman.

The word *avatar* does not appear in the Vedic literature, but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE. Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the *avatars* of Hindu god Vishnu, though the idea has been applied to other deities. Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten Dashavatara of the *Garuda Purana* and the twenty-two avatars in the *Bhagavata Purana*, though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable.Template:Sfn The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition, avatars of the Devi are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same metaphysical Brahman and Shakti (energy). While avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.

Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early Nyaya school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist/atheist, but later Nyaya school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic. Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. Samkhya, Mimamsa and Carvaka schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption".Template:Sfn Its Vaisheshika school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God.Template:Sfn The Yoga school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god" and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god. Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious". Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.

According to Graham Schweig, Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present.Template:Sfn The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric Saiva traditions.Template:Sfn

### Authority

Template:Anchor
Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism. Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars. But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through [...] an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason." Narratives in the Upanishads present characters questioning persons of authority. The Kena Upanishad repeatedly asks *kena*, 'by what' power something is the case. The Katha Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticizes the teacher's inferior answers. In the Shiva Purana, Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma. Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata. Jayadeva's Gita Govinda presents criticism via the character of Radha.

## Main traditions

Main article: Hindu denominations
 File:Ganesha pachayatana.jpg
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.Template:Sfn Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: *Vaishnavism*, *Shaivism*, *Shaktism* and *Smartism*.Template:Sfn These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the soteriological outlook. The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practicing more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".Template:Sfn

Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships VishnuTemplate:Refn and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama.Template:Sfn The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful" *Krishna* and other Vishnu avatars. These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.Template:Sfn Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism. The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations. Philosophically, their beliefs are rooted in the dualism sub-schools of Vedantic Hinduism.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools. Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga.Template:Sfn Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasize yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within. Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualize god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva. Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela. Shaivism has been more commonly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.

Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother, and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with Tantra practices. Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.

Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda.Template:Sfn The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes (Saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realizing God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge). The term *Smartism* is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts. This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self's oneness with God.

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism. Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%. In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.Template:Sfn

## Scriptures

Main articles: Shruti, Smriti, List of Hindu scriptures, and Sources of dharma
 File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg
The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two: Shruti and Smriti. Shruti is *apauruṣeyā*, "not made of a man" but revealed to the *rishis* (seers), and regarded as having the highest authority, while the smriti are manmade and have secondary authority.Template:Sfn They are the two highest sources of dharma, the other two being *Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara* (conduct of noble people) and finally *Ātma tuṣṭi* ("what is pleasing to oneself")Template:Refn

Hindu scriptures were composed, memorized and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.

*Shruti* (lit. that which is heard)Template:Sfn primarily refers to the *Vedas*, which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (*rishis*).Template:Sfn There are four *Vedas* – *Rigveda*, *Samaveda*, *Yajurveda* and *Atharvaveda*. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).Template:Sfn The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the *Template:IAST* (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the *Template:IAST* (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought, and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions. Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), they alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance. There are 108 Muktikā Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars as Principal Upanishads.
The most notable of the Smritis ("remembered") are the Hindu epics and the *Puranas*. The epics consist of the *Mahabharata* and the *Ramayana*. The *Bhagavad Gita* is an integral part of the *Mahabharata* and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is sometimes called *Gitopanishad*, then placed in the Shruti ("heard") category, being Upanishadic in content. The *Puranas*, which started to be composed from c. 300 CE onward,Template:Sfn contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The *Yoga Sutras* is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained a renewed popularity in the 20th century.
Since the 19th-century Indian modernists have re-asserted the 'Aryan origins' of Hinduism, "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elementsTemplate:Sfn and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In Tantric tradition, the *Agamas* refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti,Template:Sfn while *Nigamas* refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva.Template:Sfn In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.

## Practices

### Rituals

Main articles: Puja (Hinduism), Aarti, Abhisheka, Japa, Havan, Yajna, and Hindu wedding
 File:(A) Hindu wedding, Saptapadi ritual before Agni Yajna.jpg
Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home. The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing bhajans (devotional hymns), yoga, meditation, chanting mantras and others.Template:Sfn

Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (*yajna*) and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding. Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include the *yajña* and chanting of Vedic mantras.

The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred,"Template:Sfn and "do not constitute linguistic utterances."Template:Sfn Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become magical sounds, "means to an end."Template:Refn In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered as "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.Template:Sfn By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the *mantras* will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."Template:Sfn

### Life-cycle rites of passage

Main article: Saṃskāra
Major life stage milestones are celebrated as *sanskara* (*saṃskāra*, rites of passage) in Hinduism. The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally. Gautama Dharmasutras composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras, while Gryhasutra and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16 sanskaras. The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude.
The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include Garbhadhana (pregnancy), Pumsavana (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman's hair, baby shower), *Jatakarman* (rite celebrating the new born baby), *Namakarana* (naming the child), *Nishkramana* (baby's first outing from home into the world), *Annaprashana* (baby's first feeding of solid food), *Chudakarana* (baby's first haircut, tonsure), *Karnavedha* (ear piercing), *Vidyarambha* (baby's start with knowledge), Upanayana (entry into a school rite), *Keshanta* and *Ritusuddhi* (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), Samavartana (graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), *Vratas* (fasting, spiritual studies) and Antyeshti (cremation for an adult, burial for a child). In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these sanskaras are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such as *Śrāddha* (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practiced.Template:Sfn

### Bhakti (worship)

Main articles: Bhakti, Puja (Hinduism), Japa, Mantra, and Bhajan
Template:Multiple image
*Bhakti* refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee. *Bhakti-marga* is considered in Hinduism as one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternative means to moksha. The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are *Jnana-marga* (path of knowledge), *Karma-marga* (path of works), *Rāja-marga* (path of contemplation and meditation).

Bhakti is practiced in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, japas (incantations), to individual private prayers in one's home shrine, or in a temple before a murti or sacred image of a deity.Template:Sfn Hindu temples and domestic altars, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism. While many visit a temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at a domestic altar, typically a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or gurus.

One form of daily worship is aarti, or “supplication,” a ritual in which a flame is offered and “accompanied by a song of praise.” Notable aartis include Om Jai Jagdish Hare, a prayer to Vishnu, Sukhakarta Dukhaharta, a prayer to Ganesha. Aarti can be used to make offerings to entities ranging from deities to “human exemplar[s].” For instance, Aarti is offered to Hanuman, a devotee of God, in many temples, including Balaji temples, where the primary deity is an incarnation of Vishnu. In Swaminarayan temples and home shrines, aarti is offered to Swaminarayan, considered by followers to be supreme God.

Other personal and community practices include puja as well as aarti,Template:Sfn kirtan, or bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees. While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotion include Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism. A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Bhakti-marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalizing god.Template:Sfn While bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice bhakti, or believe in god-with-attributes (*saguna Brahman*). Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god-without-attributes, and god within oneself.

### Festivals

Main article: Hindu festivals
 File:Deepawali-festival.jpg
 File:Holi Festival of Colors Utah, United States 2013.jpg
Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: *Utsava*; literally: "to lift higher") are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma. Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar Hindu calendar, many coinciding with either the full moon (*Holi*) or the new moon (*Diwali*), often with seasonal changes. Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as *Holi* and *Diwali* are pan-Hindu.
The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the Sister-Brother bond over the *Raksha Bandhan* (or Bhai Dooj) festival. The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers, Puja rituals and feasts.

Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:
Template:Div col

* Makar Sankranti
* Pongal
* Thaipusam
* Vasant Panchami
* Maha Shivaratri
* Shigmo
* Holi
* Gudi Padwa
* Ugadi
* Bihu
* Vishu
* Ram Navami
* Guru Purnima
* Raksha Bandhan
* Krishna Janmastami
* Gowri Habba
* Ganesh Chaturthi
* Onam
* Navaratri
* Dussera
* Durga Puja or Durga Ashtami
* Diwali or Tihar or Deepawali
* Chhath
* Bonalu
* Rath Yatra
* Dashain

Template:Div col end

### Pilgrimage

See also: Tirtha (Hinduism), Tirtha locations, and Yatra
Many adherents undertake pilgrimages, which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so today.Template:Sfn Pilgrimage sites are called *Tirtha*, *Kshetra*, *Gopitha* or *Mahalaya*.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The process or journey associated with *Tirtha* is called *Tirtha-yatra*.Template:Sfn According to the Hindu text *Skanda Purana*, Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a sadhu, a rishi, a guru; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, soul. *Tīrtha-yatra* is, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the Puranas.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Most Puranas include large sections on *Tirtha Mahatmya* along with tourist guides, which describe sacred sites and places to visit.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn In these texts, Varanasi (Benares, Kashi), Rameshwaram, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Puri, Haridwar, Sri Rangam, Vrindavan, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Mayapur, Nathdwara, twelve Jyotirlinga and Shakti Peetha have been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major rivers meet (*sangam*) or join the sea.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Kumbhamela is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the solar festival Makar Sankranti. This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four sites: Prayag Raj at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, Haridwar near source of the Ganges, Ujjain on the Shipra river and Nasik on the bank of the Godavari river.Template:Sfn This is one of world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river,Template:Sfn a tradition attributed to Adi Shankara.

Some pilgrimages are part of a *Vrata* (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of a rite of passage such as a baby's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness.Template:Sfn It may, states Eck, also be the result of prayers answered.Template:Sfn An alternative reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect wishes or in memory of a beloved person after his or her death.Template:Sfn This may include dispersing their cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honor the wishes of the dead. The journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn

Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by traveling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts.Template:Sfn The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from traveling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible.Template:Sfn

## Person and society

### Varnas

Main article: Varna (Hinduism)
 File:12BCM11.jpg
Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called *varṇas*. They are the *Brahmins*: Vedic teachers and priests; the *Kshatriyas*: warriors and kings; the *Vaishyas*: farmers and merchants; and the *Shudras*: servants and labourers.Template:Sfn
The *Bhagavad Gītā* links the varṇa to an individual's duty (*svadharma*), inborn nature (*svabhāva*), and natural tendencies (*guṇa*).Template:Sfn The *Manusmṛiti* categorises the different castes.
Some mobility and flexibility within the varṇas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists,Template:Sfn although some other scholars disagree. Scholars debate whether the so-called *caste system* is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime.
A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called *Varṇatita* or "beyond all varṇas" in Vedantic works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman beyond all varṇas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.

### Yoga

 File:Shiva Bangalore .jpg
Main article: Yoga

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Yoga is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind, and consciousness for health, tranquility, and spiritual insight. Texts dedicated to yoga include the *Yoga Sutras*, the *Hatha Yoga Pradipika*, the *Bhagavad Gita* and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Yoga is means, and the four major *marga* (paths) of Hinduism are: Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion), Karma Yoga (the path of right action), Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation), and Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom) An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. The modern practice of yoga as exercise (traditionally Hatha yoga) has a contested relationship with Hinduism.Template:Sfn

### Symbolism

 File:Shiva Nataraja, AK-MAK-187.jpg
Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllable *Om* (which represents the *Brahman* and Atman) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the Swastika sign represent auspiciousness,Template:Sfn and *Tilaka* (literally, seed) on forehead – considered to be the location of spiritual third eye, marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one's participation in a ritual or rite of passage. Elaborate *Tilaka* with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala drawings, objects, idols are all part of symbolic iconography in Hinduism.

### Ahiṃsā, vegetarianism and other food customs

Main articles: Ahimsa, Diet in Hinduism, Sattvic diet, and Mitahara
 File:Gosala in Guntur, India.jpg
Hindus advocate the practice of Template:IAST (nonviolence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.Template:Sfn The term *Template:IAST* appears in the Upanishads, the epic Mahabharata and Template:IAST is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.

In accordance with Template:IAST, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of strict lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20% and 42%, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians. Those who eat meat seek Jhatka (quick death) method of meat production, and dislike Halal (slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal. The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in Himalayan regions, or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish. Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,Template:Sfn and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.Template:Sfn
There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood. Food affects body, mind and spirit in Hindu beliefs. Hindu texts such as Śāṇḍilya Upanishad and Svātmārāma recommend Mitahara (eating in moderation) as one of the Yamas (virtuous self restraints). The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.

Some Hindus such as those belonging to the Shaktism tradition, and Hindus in regions such as Bali and NepalTemplate:Sfn practise animal sacrifice.Template:Sfn The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food. In contrast, the Vaishnava Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice.Template:Sfn The principle of non-violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice.

### Temple

Main articles: Hindu temple, Murti, and Hindu iconography
A Hindu temple is a house of god(s).Template:Sfn It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representing Mount Meru – reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe,Template:Sfn the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksha and karma.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, rite of passage rituals, and community celebrations.Template:Sfn

Template:Multiple image
Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs. Two major styles of Hindu temples include the Gopuram style found in south India, and Nagara style found in north India. Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples. Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.
Many temples feature one or more idols (murtis). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (*darsana*, a sight) in a Hindu temple.Template:Sfn In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa (Brahman), the universal essence.

### Ashrama

Main article: Ashrama (stage)
Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery). The four ashramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (retired) and Sannyasa (renunciation).
Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life. Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered as the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind.Template:Sfn Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world. The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.
The Ashramas system has been one facet of the dharma concept in Hinduism.Template:Sfn Combined with four proper goals of human life (Purusartha), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation.Template:Sfn While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage. Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.

### Monasticism

 File:Indian sadhu performing namaste.jpg
Main article: Sannyasa
Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation. A Hindu monk is called a *Sanyāsī*, *Sādhu*, or *Swāmi*. A female renunciate is called a *Sanyāsini*. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simple ahiṃsā-driven lifestyle and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) – believed to be the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs.

## History

Main article: History of Hinduism
 File:Shore temple, mahabalipuram.jpg
Hinduism 's varied historyTemplate:Sfn overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. It has thus been called the "oldest religion" in the world.Template:Refn Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesisTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn of various Indian cultures and traditions,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn with diverse rootsTemplate:Sfn and no single founder.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn

The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations, starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions",Template:Sfn and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c. 320-650 CE), which coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical periodTemplate:Sfn or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's influential consolidation of Advaita Vedanta.

Hinduism under both Hindu and Islamic rulers from c. 1200 to 1750 CE, saw the increasing prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. The colonial period saw the emergence of various Hindu reform movements partly inspired by western movements, such as Unitarianism and Theosophy. The Partition of India in 1947 was along religious lines, with the Republic of India emerging with a Hindu majority. During the 20th century, due to the Indian diaspora, Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in the United States and the United Kingdom.

## Demographics

Main article: Hinduism by country
 File:Hinduism percent population in each nation World Map Hindu data by Pew Research.svg
Hinduism is a major religion in India. Hinduism was followed by around 79.8% of the country's population of 1.21 billion (2011 census) (960 million adherents). Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.9 million). The majority of the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion in Ninh Thuận Province.

Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:

Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.

### Conversion debate

In the modern era, religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial subject. Some state the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.

Religious conversion to Hinduism has a long history outside India. Merchants and traders of India, particularly from the Indian peninsula, carried their religious ideas, which led to religious conversions to Hinduism in southeast Asia. Within India, archeological and textual evidence such as the 2nd-century BCE Heliodorus pillar suggest that Greeks and other foreigners converted to Hinduism. The debate on proselytization and religious conversion between Christianity, Islam and Hinduism is more recent, and started in the 19th century.

Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the Arya Samaj launched *Shuddhi* movement to proselytize and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism, while those such as the Brahmo Samaj suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion. All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytization activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined.

The appropriateness of conversion from major religions to Hinduism, and vice versa, has been and remains an actively debated topic in India, and in Indonesia.

## See also

**Hinduism**

Template:Div col

* Anti-Hindu sentiment
* Atheism in Hinduism
* Avatar
* Balinese Hinduism
* Criticism of Hinduism
* Gautama Buddha in Hinduism
* Shaivism
* Vaishnavism
* Shaktism
* **Hindu**
* Hindu calendar
* Hindu deities
* Hindu denominations
* Hindu eschatology
* Hinduphobia
* Hindu mythology
* Hindu reform movements
* Hinduism by country
* Hinduism in Arab states
* Hinduism in Southeast Asia
* Jagran
* List of Hindu Empires and Dynasties
* List of Hindu organisations
* List of Hindu temples
* List of converts to Hinduism
* Lists of Hindus
* Outline of Hinduism
* Persecution of Hindus
* Puranic chronology
* Tulsi in HinduismTemplate:Div col end

**Related systems and religions**

Template:Div col

* Adivasi religion
* Ayyavazhi
* Ayyavazhi and Hinduism
* Bathouism
* Buddhism
* Buddhism and Hinduism
* Christianity and Hinduism
* Donyi-Polo
* Dravidian folk religion
* Eastern philosophy
* Folk Hinduism
* Gurung shamanism
* Hindu philosophy
* Hinduism and Judaism
* Hinduism and Sikhism
* Hinduism and Theosophy
* Indian religions
* Jainism
* Jainism and Buddhism
* Jainism and Hinduism
* Jainism and Sikhism
* Kiratism
* Manichaeism
* Proto-Indo-European religion
* Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
* Relationship between religion and science
* Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia
* Sanamahism
* Sarnaism
* Sikhism
* Tribal religions in India
* Zoroastrianism

## External links

* "Hinduism". *Encyclopædia Britannica* Online.
* Hindu Philosophy and Hinduism, IEP, Shyam Ranganathan, York University
* Vedic Hinduism SW Jamison and M Witzel, Harvard University
* The Hindu Religion, Swami Vivekananda (1894), Wikisource
* Hinduism by Swami Nikhilananda, The Ramakrishna Mission (one of the Theistic Hindu Movements)
* All About Hinduism by Swami Sivananda (pdf), The Divine Life Society (one of the Theistic Hindu Movements)
* Advaita Vedanta Hinduism by Sangeetha Menon, IEP (one of the non-Theistic school of Hindu philosophy)
* Heart of Hinduism: An overview of Hindu traditions, ISKCON (Hare Krishna Movement)
* What is Hinduism?, Editors of *Hinduism Today*
* Hinduism outside India, A Bibliography, Harvard University (The Pluralism Project)
* What's in a Name? Agama Hindu Bali in the Making – Hinduism in Bali, Indonesia Michel Picard, Le CNRS (Paris, France)

**Research on Hinduism**

* The Oxford Center for Hindu Studies, University of Oxford
* Latest issue of *The Journal of Hindu Studies*, Oxford University Press
* Latest issue of the *International Journal of Hindu Studies*, Springer
* Latest issue of *The Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies*, Butler University
* Latest issue of *The Journal of Indo-Judaic Studies*, Florida International University
* Latest issue of the *International Journal of Dharma Studies*, Springer (Topical publications on Hinduism, other Indic religions)

**Audio on Hinduism**

* Hinduism as a Religion, by Swami Vivekananda, *World Parliament of Religion*, Chicago in 1893 (Audio Version, TextTemplate:Dead link)
* Scholarly lectures on Hinduism, OCHS, University of Oxford

Template:Hindudharma

Template:Religion topics

Template:Portal bar

Template:Authority control

1. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `pewforum_Hinduism`
2. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `gordonconwell.edu`
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Monier-Williams, Monier (1988). Sanskrit English Dictionary.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Template:Cite encyclopedia
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Sanderson, Alexis (March 2016). Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part One.
6. ↑ Sanderson, Alexis (May 2016). Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part Two.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Sanderson, Alexis (July 2016). Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part Three.
8. ↑ Hinduism.
9. ↑ Basics of Hinduism. Kauai's Hindu Monastery.
10. ↑ Is Hinduism monotheistic? (2004-06-15).
11. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
12. ↑ Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra I.92.
13. ↑ Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
14. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
15. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
16. ↑ Taylor, Alan (14 January 2013). Kumbh Mela: The Largest Gathering on Earth.
Memmott, Mark (14 January 2013). Biggest Gathering On Earth' Begins In India; Kumbh Mela May Draw 100 Million.
17. ↑ Manu Smriti Laws of Manu.
18. ↑ V, Jayaram. The Hindu Caste System.
19. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
20. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
21. ↑ The World Factbook.
22. ↑ Vietnam (22 October 2002).
23. ↑ The Future of World Religions (2015).

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Template:Cite journal
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Template:Cite journal
3. ↑ Template:Cite book See also Template:Harvnb
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Template:Harvnb; see also Template:Harvnb.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Template:Cite book
6. ↑ Template:Cite book
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Template:Cite book
8. ↑ Template:Cite book
9. ↑ Template:Cite book
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb
11. ↑ Template:Cite book
12. ↑ Peringatan.
13. ↑ Template:Cite book
14. ↑ Hindus (18 December 2012).;
Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers (2010) (18 December 2012).
15. ↑ Template:Harvp: "In Iranian languages, Proto-Iranian \*s became h before a following vowel at a relatively late period, perhaps around 850–600 BCE."
16. ↑ Template:Cite book
17. ↑ Template:Cite journal
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Template:Cite book
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Template:Harvnb Quote: "[...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic,henotheistic, panentheistic ,pandeistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."
20. ↑ Template:Cite book
21. ↑ MK Gandhi, *The Essence of Hinduism Template:Webarchive*, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 June McDaniel "Hinduism", in Template:Cite book
23. ↑ Definition of RAMAISM (en).
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Ronald Inden (2001), *Imagining India*, Indiana University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 117–122, 127–130
25. ↑ Template:Cite book
26. ↑ Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb
27. ↑ Template:Cite journal
28. ↑ Template:Harvnb; see also Template:Harvnb; and Template:Cite book
29. ↑ Template:Cite book
30. ↑ Template:Cite book
31. ↑ Template:Cite book
32. ↑ Template:Cite book
33. ↑ Template:Cite book
34. ↑ Template:Cite document
35. ↑ Template:Cite book
36. ↑ Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb
37. ↑ Template:Cite journal
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Template:Cite book
39. ↑ Template:Cite book
40. ↑ Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb
41. ↑ Hackel in Template:Harvnb
42. ↑ Template:Cite book
43. ↑ "Dharma" Template:Webarchive, The *Oxford Dictionary of World Religions*: "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Template:Cite book
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Template:Cite journal
46. ↑ Charles Johnston, The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, Kshetra, Template:ISBN, page 481, for discussion: pages 478–505
47. ↑ Paul Horsch (Translated by Jarrod Whitaker), *From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma*, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol 32, pages 423–448, (2004)
48. ↑ Template:Cite book
49. ↑ Bruce Sullivan (1997), *Historical Dictionary of Hinduism*, Template:ISBN, pp. 29–30
50. ↑ Template:Cite journal
51. ↑ Monier Williams, काम, kāma Template:Webarchive *Monier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary*, pp 271, see 3rd column
52. ↑ See:

	* "The Hindu Kama Shastra Society" (1925), *The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana*, University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8;
	* A. Sharma (1982), *The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology*, Michigan State University, Template:ISBN, pp. 9–12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (Jul. 1984), pp. 140–142;
	* A. Sharma (1999), "The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism" Template:Webarchive, *The Journal of Religious Ethics*, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223–256;
	* Chris Bartley (2001), *Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy*, Editor: Oliver Learman, Template:ISBN, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, p. 443
53. ↑ R.C. Mishra, "Moksha and the Hindu Worldview", *Psychology & Developing Societies*, Vol. 25, Issue 1, pp. 23, 27
54. ↑ J. Bruce Long (1980), "The concepts of human action and rebirth in the Mahabharata", in Wendy D. O'Flaherty, *Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions*, University of California Press, Template:ISBN, Chapter 2
55. ↑ Template:Cite book
56. ↑ Template:Cite book
57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 Karl Potter, "Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View", *Philosophy East and West*, Vol. 8, No. 1/2 (Apr.–Jul. 1958), pp. 49–63
58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 58.3 Klaus Klostermaier, "Mokṣa and Critical Theory", *Philosophy East and West*, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Jan. 1985), pp. 61–71
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksha", *Philosophy East and West*, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr.–Jul. 1957), pp. 41–48
60. ↑ Template:Cite journal
61. ↑ Andrew Fort (1998), *Jivanmukti in Transformation*, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN
62. ↑ Template:Cite book
63. ↑ Template:Cite book
64. ↑ Karl Potter (1964), "The Naturalistic Principle of Karma", *Philosophy East and West*, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Apr. 1964), pp. 39–49
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), *Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions*, University of California Press, Template:ISBN, pp. xi–xxv (Introduction) and 3–37
66. ↑ Karl Potter (1980), in *Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions* (O'Flaherty, Editor), University of California Press, Template:ISBN, pp. 241–267
67. ↑ Template:Cite book (8th Printing 1993)
68. ↑ Christopher Chapple (1986), *Karma and Creativity*, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN; pp. 60–64
69. ↑ Template:Cite book
70. ↑ Gill, N.S. Henotheism. About, Inc.
71. ↑ Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb
72. ↑ \* Original Sanskrit: Rigveda 10.129 Template:Webarchive Wikisource;

	* **Translation 1**: Template:Harvnb
	* **Translation 2**: Template:Harvnb
	* **Translation 3**: Template:Harvnb
73. ↑ Template:Cite book
Template:Cite book
74. ↑ Template:Cite journal
Template:Cite journal
Template:Cite journal
75. ↑ Template:Harvnb
76. ↑ John Koller (2012), *Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion* (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 99–107
77. ↑ Lance Nelson (1996), "Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita", in *Living Liberation in Hindu Thought* (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)
78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, Template:ISBN, pages 345–347
79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 79.3 Template:Cite book
80. ↑ Template:Cite book
81. ↑ Taittiriya Upanishad Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Robert Hume (Translator), pages 281–282;
Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 229–231
82. ↑ Template:Cite book
83. ↑ Template:Cite book
84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 Template:Harvnb

	* Template:Harvnb. "Three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of Brahman."
	* Template:Harvnb. "The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities is understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality."
	* Template:Harvnb. "The devas are powerful spiritual beings, somewhat like angels in the West, who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. Certain devas, such as Ganesha, are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful. Note that, while Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas."
86. ↑ Template:Cite book
87. ↑ Template:Cite book
88. ↑ Template:Cite book
89. ↑ Template:Cite book
90. ↑ Template:Cite book
91. ↑ Template:Cite book
92. ↑ "Shiva" in Template:Harvnb
93. ↑ John Clayton (2010), *Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion*, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, page 150
94. ↑ Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 209–10
95. ↑ Template:Cite journal
96. ↑ Template:Cite book
97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 Template:Harvnb: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."
98. ↑ Template:Cite book
99. ↑ A Goel (1984), *Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science*, Sterling, Template:ISBN, pages 149–151
100. ↑ Collins, Randall (2000), The sociology of philosophies, Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 836
101. ↑ Template:Cite book;
Template:Cite book;
Template:Cite book
102. ↑ Knut Jacobsen (2008), *Theory and Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson*, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 77–78
103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 103.2 103.3 103.4 103.5 103.6 103.7 103.8 Template:Cite book
104. ↑ 104.0 104.1 104.2 104.3 104.4 Template:Harvc
105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 105.2 105.3 SS Kumar (2010), *Bhakti – the Yoga of Love*, LIT Verlag Münster, Template:ISBN, pages 35–36
106. ↑ Template:Cite book
107. ↑ Template:Harvc
108. ↑ Template:Cite book
109. ↑ James Lochtefeld (2010), *God's Gateway: Identity and Meaning in a Hindu Pilgrimage Place*, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN
110. ↑ Natalia Isaeva (1995), *From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism*, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 141–145
111. ↑ Template:Cite journal
112. ↑ **History:** Hans Koester (1929), The Indian Religion of the Goddess Shakti, Journal of the Siam Society, Vol 23, Part 1, pages 1–18;
**Modern practices:** June McDaniel (2010), *Goddesses in World Culture*, Volume 1 (Editor: Patricia Monaghan), Template:ISBN, Chapter 2
113. ↑ Template:Cite book
114. ↑ Template:Cite book
115. ↑ Template:Cite book
116. ↑ Template:Cite book
117. ↑ The global religious landscape: Hindus Template:Webarchive, Pew Research (2012)
118. ↑ Template:Cite book
119. ↑ A Bhattacharya (2006), *Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology*, Template:ISBN, pages 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 285
120. ↑ Jan Gonda (1975), *Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas)*, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
121. ↑ Template:Harvnb; "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul."
122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 Template:Cite book
123. ↑ 123.0 123.1 Template:Harvnb: "The Upanishads supply the **basis of later Hindu philosophy**; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
124. ↑ Template:Cite book
125. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `McDowell`
126. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Olivelle2014p3q`
127. ↑ Template:Cite book
128. ↑ Template:Cite book
129. ↑ *Sarvopaniṣado gāvo*, etc. (*Gītā Māhātmya* 6). *Gītā Dhyānam*, cited in Template:Cite book
130. ↑ Template:Cite journal
131. ↑ Template:Cite book
132. ↑ Template:Cite book
133. ↑ Template:Cite book
134. ↑ Template:Harvnb. "rituals daily prescribe routine"
135. ↑ Template:Cite journal
136. ↑ 136.0 136.1 Template:Cite book
137. ↑ Template:Cite book
138. ↑ 138.0 138.1 138.2 Template:Cite book
139. ↑ 139.0 139.1 Template:Cite book
140. ↑ Template:Cite book
141. ↑ For Vedic school, see: Template:Cite journal
142. ↑ For music school, see: Template:Cite book For sculpture, crafts and other professions, see: Template:Cite book
143. ↑ Template:Cite journal
144. ↑ Template:Cite book
145. ↑ Template:Harvnb; also see articles on karmamārga and jnanamārga
146. ↑ Template:Cite book
147. ↑ Template:Cite book
148. ↑ Template:Cite book
149. ↑ Template:Cite journal
150. ↑ 150.0 150.1 Template:Cite book
151. ↑ 151.0 151.1 Template:Cite book
152. ↑ Template:Cite book
153. ↑ Template:Cite book
154. ↑ Template:Cite book
155. ↑ Template:Cite book
156. ↑ Template:Cite book
157. ↑ Template:Cite book
158. ↑ Template:Cite book
159. ↑ Template:Cite book
Template:Cite book
160. ↑ Template:Cite book
161. ↑ Template:Cite book
Template:Cite book
162. ↑ Template:Cite book
163. ↑ 163.0 163.1 Template:Cite book
164. ↑ 164.0 164.1 Template:Cite book
165. ↑ 165.0 165.1 Template:Cite book
166. ↑ Template:Cite book
167. ↑ Template:Cite book
168. ↑ Template:Cite book
169. ↑ Template:Cite book
170. ↑ Template:Cite book
171. ↑ Template:Cite book
172. ↑ Template:Cite book
173. ↑ Template:Cite journal
174. ↑ Template:Cite book
175. ↑ Template:Harvnb
176. ↑ Template:Cite book
177. ↑ Template:Cite journal
178. ↑ Template:Cite book
179. ↑ Template:Cite book
180. ↑ Template:Harvnb
181. ↑ Template:Cite book
182. ↑ Template:Cite book
183. ↑ Template:Cite book
184. ↑ Template:Cite book
185. ↑ Template:Cite book
186. ↑ Template:Cite book
187. ↑ For *Template:IAST* as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the Template:IAST see: Template:Cite book
188. ↑ For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of *Template:IAST* as "vow of self-restraint", see: Template:Cite book
189. ↑ Surveys studying food habits of Indians include:

	* Growth and Concentration in India (24 July 2003). “An analysis of consumption data originating from National Sample Survey (NSS) shows that 42 percent of households are vegetarian, in that they never eat fish, meat or eggs. The remaining 58 percent of households are less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians.”
	* Goldammer, Ted. Passage to India. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service.
	* Landes, Maurice R. (February 2004). The Elephant Is Jogging: New Pressures for Agricultural Reform in India. “Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical.”
190. ↑ Template:Cite book
191. ↑ Template:Cite book
192. ↑ Template:Cite book
193. ↑ Template:Cite book Template:Cite book
194. ↑ Template:Cite book
195. ↑ Template:Cite book
196. ↑ Template:Cite book
197. ↑ Template:Cite book
198. ↑ Template:Cite book
199. ↑ Template:Cite book
200. ↑ Template:Cite book
201. ↑ Template:Cite book
202. ↑ Template:Cite book
203. ↑ Template:Cite book
204. ↑ Template:Cite book, Quote: "It is well known that Vaishnavas abhor animal sacrifice. In this province, like nearly all Bengalis, they celebrate Durga Puja, but their ceremonies are bloodless".
205. ↑ Template:Harvnb, Quote: "The acceptance of the principle of nonviolence has been so through that animal sacrifice among Hindus today is uncommon, and many Indians are of the opinion that such things as cow slaughter were never practiced in ancient India".
206. ↑ Template:Cite book
207. ↑ 207.0 207.1 207.2 207.3 Template:Harvnb
208. ↑ Template:Cite journal
209. ↑ Template:Cite book
210. ↑ Template:Cite journal
211. ↑ Template:Cite book
212. ↑ 212.0 212.1 Template:Cite book
213. ↑ Template:Cite book
214. ↑ Template:Cite book
215. ↑ Template:Cite journal
216. ↑ 216.0 216.1 Template:Cite book
217. ↑ Template:Cite book
218. ↑ Template:Cite book
219. ↑ Template:Harvnb
220. ↑ Blackwell's History of India; Stein 2010, page 107
221. ↑ Some Aspects of Muslim Administration, Dr. R.P.Tripathi, 1956, p.24
222. ↑ Table: Religious Composition (%) by Country Global Religious Composition, Pew Research Center (2012)
223. ↑ Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut (id). Statistics Indonesia.
224. ↑ Template:Cite book
225. ↑ Chapter 1 Global Religious Populations (January 2012).
226. ↑ 226.0 226.1 226.2 Template:Harvnb
227. ↑ Template:Cite book
228. ↑ Template:Cite book
229. ↑ Template:Cite book
230. ↑ Template:Cite book
231. ↑ Template:Cite book
232. ↑ Template:Cite book
233. ↑ 233.0 233.1 Template:Cite book
234. ↑ Template:Cite book
235. ↑ Template:Cite book
236. ↑ Template:Cite book
237. ↑ Template:Cite book
238. ↑ Template:Cite book

Cite error: `<ref>` tags exist for a group named "note", but no corresponding `<references group="note"/>` tag was found