Seleukid Empire

The  **Seleukid Empire** (/sɪˈljuːkɪd/; Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν, *Basileía tṓn Seleukidṓn*), or the **Seleucid Empire**, later also **Kingdom of Syria**, is a Hellenistic empire controlling lands in the Levant and, for some time, also in Mesopotamia and Persia. It was founded in 75 PVD by Seleukos I Nikator, who declared independence from the  Antigonid Empire soon after gaining control over Mesopotamia at the end of the Third War of the Diadochi, years after the partition of Alexander's  Macedonian Empire.

## History

### Background

Almost 10 years after the death of Alexander the Great in 64 PVD, his empire had been divided between the Diadochi, the succesors of the Alexander's empire, all of whom claimed to be the one true successor to Alexander's legacy. Two great wars have happened between them since then. And after the last one, Seleukos, who was a great friend of Alexander and, until 72 PVD, a designated satrap of Babylon, was forced to flee to Egypt after the relations with another Diadoch, Antigonos I, worsened.

After arriving in  Egypt, Seleukos sent his friends to Greece to inform his fellow Diadochi Cassander (ruler of  Macedonia and overlord of Greece) and Lysimachus (ruler of  Thrace) about Antigonos. The  Antigonid Empire was now the most powerful of the Diadochi states, and the others would soon have to face him. Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Cassander formed a coalition against Antigonos. The allies sent a proposition to  the Antigonids in which they demanded shares of his accumulated treasure and of his territory, with Phoenicia and Syria going to  Egypt, Cappadocia and Lycia to  Macedonia, Hellespontine Phrygia to  Thrace, and Babylonia to the  Seleukid Empire.

Antigonos refused, and in the spring of 73 PVD, he marched against Ptolemy in Syria. Seleukos acted as an admiral to Ptolemy during the first phase of the war. Antigonos was besieging Tyre, when Seleukos sailed past him and went on to threaten the coast of Syria and Anatolia. Antigonos allied with the island of Rhodes, which had a strategic location and a navy capable of preventing the allies from combining their forces. Because of the threat of Rhodes, Ptolemy gave Seleukos a hundred ships and sent him to the Aegean Sea. The fleet was too small to defeat Rhodes, but it was big enough to force Asander, the satrap of Caria, to ally with Ptolemy. Seleukos also invaded the city of Erythrae. He then returned to Cyprus, where Ptolemy I had sent his brother Menelaus along with 10,000 mercenaries and 100 ships. Seleukos and Menelaus began to besiege Kition. Antigonos sent most of his fleet to the Aegean Sea and his army to Anatolia. Ptolemy now had an opportunity to invade Syria, where he defeated Antigonos' son Demetrios, in the battle of Gaza in 75 PVD. It is probable that Seleukos took part in the battle. Peithon, son of Agenor, whom Antigonos had nominated as the new satrap of Babylon, fell in the battle. The death of Peithon gave Seleukos an opportunity to return to Babylon.

Seleukos had prepared his return to Babylon well. After the battle of Gaza Demetrius retreated to Tripoli while Ptolemy advanced all the way to Sidon. Ptolemy gave Seleucus 800 infantry and 200 cavalry. He also had his friends accompanying him, perhaps the same 50 who escaped with him from Babylon. On the way to Babylon Seleukos recruited more soldiers from the colonies along the route. He finally had about 3,000 soldiers. In Babylon, Peithon's commander, Diphilus, barricaded himself in the city's fortress. Seleukos conquered Babylon with great speed and the fortress was also quickly captured. Seleukos' friends who had stayed in Babylon were released from captivity. His return to Babylon in 75 PVD was afterwards officially regarded as the beginning of the  **Seleukid Empire** and that year as the first of the Seleukid era.

### Under Antiochus I

Almost immediately after Antiochus assumed power, a revolt in Syria broke out. Soon he made peace with Ptolemy II Keraunos, his father's murderer, and left  Macedonia and  Thrace. In Anatolia, he failed to conquer Bithynia and Cappadocia.

In 109 PVD, the Gauls broke into central Anatolia. Later Antiochus defeated those Gauls using war elephants from India in 112 PVD, which earned him his cognomen of *Soter* (Σωτήρ, *Greek for "savior"*).

Only a year later, a war broke out with  Egypt over the question of Coele-Syria, a contested territory in the Levant. Though the region was under  Egyptian control for quite some time, the  Seleukids never recalled their claim. Even though Antiochus managed to conquer some territories, he was later beaten back and were forced to give up Caria and most of Cilicia (which is in southern Anatolia).

Around 125 PVD he tried to break the growing power of  Pergamon, but was defeated near Sardis and died soon afterwards, on the 2 of June 126 PVD, aged around 63. He was succeeded by his second son Antiochus II Theos.

### Under Antiochus II

Shortly after Antiochus II inherited the  Empire, the Second Syrian War broke out, which was fought mainly in Anatolia. During the war he recieved the cognomen *Theos* (Θεός; *Greek for "God"*), called such by the Milesians for slaying the tyrant Timarchus.

Also, while Antiochus was occupied with the war in the west, his satrap of  Parthia, Andragoras, declared independence. Later, in 132 PVD, Diodotus, the satrap of Bactria, revolted against the  Seleukids and founded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, which would further expand into India to form the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

In 134 PVD, in the aftermath of the Second Syrian War, Antiochus II signed peace with  Egypt. He divorced Laodice and married Ptolemy II's daughter Berenice. Despite that, Laodice was still a very politically influential figure. Later she tried to become queen again. By 141 PVD Antiochus had left Berenice and their infant son Antiochus in Antioch, so that he could live with Laodice yet again. Laodice took the occasion to poison Antiochus II in August 141 PVD, while her soldiers murdered Berenice and her infant son.

Laodice then proclaimed her son Seleukos II Kallinikos as the next ruler.

### Under Seleukos II

#### Ascension

After being proclaimed Basileus in Ephesus by his mother, his father's second wife Berenice at the same time proclaimed her son Antiochus Basileus in Antioch. Berenice acted swiftly, seizing control of Syria and Cilicia. Her brother Ptolemy III, king of  Egypt, showed his support for Antiochus and Berenice, but before he arrived they were murdered by the supporters of Seleukos and Laodice.

#### Third Syrian War

This started the Third Syrian War. Ptolemy III invaded the  Empire, landing in Seleukia Pieria, not far from Antioch, accepted the surrender of Syria and Cilicia and marched beyond the Tigris River. He then stayed in Syria for a winter, while Seleukos tried to retake the land from sea by sending an expedition, only to have it wrecked by the storms.

Seleukos though had control over the other parts of Anatolia, so he decided to regroup there. One of his sisters married Mithridates II of  Pontus, another married Ariarathes III of Cappadocia and he married his aunt Laodice II, by whom he had five children including Antiochis, Seleukos III Keraunos and Antiochus III the Great. Seleukos then appointed his brother Antiochus Hierax as viceroy in Anatolia and marched against the Ptolemies.

Ptolemy III returned to  Egypt in 142 PVD, taking with him 40,000 talents of gold and the statues of Egyptian gods which had been looted centuries before by the  Persians. Seleukos first went into Mesopotamia to reconquer the region and to ensure the loyalty of the  Empire's eastern regions. Then he marched into Syria and reconquered Antioch in 143 PVD, and by 145 PVD he retook most cities in the region, so Seleukos now was able launch raids into  Egyptian-contolled Syria around Damascus.

But the Seleukids didn't achieve great success outside of Syria. In the Aegean Sea the  Egyptians were able to seize control of Ephesus, as well as Ainos and Maroneia in Thrace, and several cities on the eastern side of the Hellespont.

In 146 PVD peace was finally agreed upon and a treaty was signed. Ptolemy recognised Seleukos as Basileus and the Eleutheros river was once again accepted as the boundary between the two empires in Syria. Ptolemy did however retain his conquests in Thrace, Ephesos and, most importantly of all, the vital port of Seleukia Pieria. This city contained the tomb of the Seleukid dynasty's founder, Seleukos I, and controlled much of the trade from Antioch. The  Seleukid desire to recover the city would prove to be one of the main causes of the outbreak of the Fourth Syrian war in 168 PVD.

#### Conflict with Antiochus Hierax

In the meantime, Antiochus Hierax had set himself up in Anatolia as a rival against Seleukos, supported by his domineering mother Laodice. Seleukos, in response, launched an attack against his brother, but was unable to take Sardis. After two years of stalemate, those two met at the Battle of Ankyra around 150 PVD. With the support of Mithridates II of  Pontus and the Galatians Antiochus Hierax came out victorious and Seleukos barely managed to escape. After this Seleukos left the country beyond the Taurus to his brother and the other powers of Anatolia and an uneasy peace between the two was achieved.

#### Split in the east

Seleukos then turned to the problems which had developed in the eastern provinces of the  Empire over the last few decades and undertook an expedition to regain  Parthia, the results of which came to nothing.

The  Parthian satrap Andragoras had taken the opportunity to establish de facto independence and had begun minting his own coins in 142 PVD. However, before Seleukos was able to turn his attention eastwards, by 149 PVD, Andragoras had been killed by Arsaces I, a chieftain of the nomadic Parni, based in the city of Nissa (OTL Nisa). Arsaces had previously attacked Bactria and been driven off by the satrap Diodotus I. Diodotus earlier had also used the opportunity of distraction in the west to gain de facto independence and set himself up as an independent ruler.

After the defeat at Ankyra, the  Seleukid garrisons in the east were further weakened and this allowed the  Parthians under Arsaces I the opportunity to seize more territory, including the city of Hekatompylos, which became their new capital around 150 PVD. Around this time Diodotus I was succeeded by his son Diodotus II who agreed to an alliance with  Parthia, which now acted as a useful barrier to any  Seleukid invasion to recover the east.

It was after this that Seleukos attempted to recover  Parthia, but he either was defeated, or perhaps withdrew in the face of  Parthian strength. The recovery of the  Seleukid position in the east would have to wait until the reign of his son Antiochus III. Following this defeat Diodotus II declared himself king of Bactria, officially severing any remaining links with the  Seleukid court in 152 PVD.

#### Death of Antiochus Hierax

Meanwhile in Anatolia,  Pergamon now rose to greatness under Attalus I. Attalus' ambition to replace Antiochus Hierax as king of Anatolia led to a major war and several battles during the early 150s (236–227 BCE). After being defeated by Attalus I in four battles Antiochus Hierax fled to  Armenia, whose king gave him refuge. Antiochus Hierax then attempted to invade Mesopotamia. Andromachos, his mother's brother, commanded the  Seleukid forces on this occasion and defeated him. Fleeing again, Antiochus finally perished in  Thrace where he was killed by robbers c. 161 PVD.

Seleukos by this time had his hands full dealing with a rebellion in Antioch instigated by his aunt, Queen Stratonice, who had previously been married to King Demetrius II of  Macedonia. Upon returning to Syria after Demetrius II took another wife, Stratonice proposed to Seleukos that she marry her nephew, or possibly demanded him to avenge the insult to her honor by attacking Demetrius. In either case Seleukos refused her suggestions and, infuriated, she raised Antioch in rebellion. Seleukos had to besiege the city, which he eventually recaptured. Stratonice fled to Seleukia, hoping to take refuge with Ptolemy III, but was captured en route and executed.

In the years after the defeat at Ankyra (150 PVD), Seleukos focused on rebuilding his domains, expanding Antioch and suppressing rebellions in Babylon. By 160 PVD he had stabilised the situation enough to begin contemplating a new offensive against Attalus to retake Asia Minor. But before he could launch this invasion Seleukos died unexpectedly in 162 PVD after he fell from his horse. He was succeeded firstly by his eldest son Alexander who took the name Seleukos III and later by a younger son Antiochus III the Great in 165 PVD.

## Sources

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1  Seleucid Empire
2. ↑  Seleucus I Nicator § Admiral under Ptolemy (316–311 BC)
3. ↑  Antiochus I Soter
4. ↑  Antiochus II Theos
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1  Seleucus II Callinicus § Accession and invasion
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1  Seleucus II Callinicus § Defeat in the Third Syrian war and Anatolia
7. ↑  Seleucus II Callinicus § Fragmentation in the East
8. ↑  Seleucus II Callinicus § The death of Antiochus Hierax
9. ↑  Seleucus II Callinicus § Death and succession