Breads

Bread is the staple food of the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Europe, and in European-derived cultures such as those in the Americas, Australia, and Southern Africa, in contrast to parts of South and East Asia where rice or noodle is the staple.

* Bread is usually made from a wheat-flour dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and finally baked in an oven. The addition of yeast to the bread explains the air pockets commonly found in bread. Owing to its high levels of gluten (which give the dough sponginess and elasticity), common or bread wheat is the most common grain used for the preparation of bread, which makes the largest single contribution to the world's food supply of any food.
	+ Bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species (including spelt, emmer, einkorn and kamut).

* Non-wheat cereals including rye, barley, maize (corn), oats, sorghum, millet and rice have been used to make bread, but, with the exception of rye, usually in combination with wheat flour as they have less gluten.

* Gluten-free breads are made using ground flours from a variety of ingredients such as almonds, rice, sorghum, corn, or legumes such as beans, and tubers such as cassava, but since these flours lack gluten they may not hold their shape as they rise and their crumb may be dense with little aeration. Additives such as xanthan gum, guar gum, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch, or eggs are used to compensate for the lack of gluten.

## Whipped egg based

### Copper

From Wikipedia: Cookware and bakeware

Copper is reactive with acidic foods which can result in corrosion, the byproducts of which can foment copper toxicity. In certain circumstances, however, unlined copper is recommended and safe:

* In the preparation of meringue, where copper ions prompt proteins to denature (unfold) and enable stronger protein bonds across the sulfur contained in egg whites.

* Unlined copper is used in the making of preserves, jams and jellies. Alone, fruit acid would be sufficient to cause leaching of copper byproducts, but naturally occurring fruit sugars and added preserving sugars buffer copper reactivity.
	+ Copper does not store ("bank") heat, and so thermal flows reverse almost immediately upon removal from heat. This allows precise control of consistency and texture while cooking sugar and pectin thickened preparations.

Unlined pans have thereby been used safely in such applications for centuries.

Lining copper pots and pans prevents copper from contact with acidic foods. The most popular lining types are tin, stainless steel, nickel and silver.

### Marzipan

From Wikipedia: Marzipan

Marzipan is a confection consisting primarily of sugar or honey and almond meal (ground almonds), sometimes augmented with almond oil or extract.

From Wikipedia:Almond

The almond is native to Iran. Selection of the sweet type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication. Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees, due to "the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed.

### Nougat

From Wikipedia: Nougat

Nougat is a family of confections made with whipped egg whites, sugar or honey, roasted nuts (almonds, walnuts, pistachios, hazelnuts, and macadamia nuts are common), and sometimes chopped candied fruit.

From Wikipedia: Candied fruit

Candied fruit consists of pieces of fruit placed in heated sugar syrup, which absorbs the moisture from within the fruit and eventually preserves it.
Food preservation methods using sugar (palm syrup and honey) were known to the ancient cultures of China and Mesopotamia.

### Meringue

From Wikipedia: Meringue

Meringue is a type of dessert or candy traditionally made from whipped egg whites and sugar, and occasionally an acidic ingredient such as lemon, vinegar, or cream of tartar. A binding agent such as salt, flour, or gelatin may also be added to the eggs. The key to the formation of a good meringue is the formation of stiff peaks by denaturing the protein ovalbumin (a protein in the egg whites) via mechanical shear. Meringues are often flavoured with vanilla, a small amount of apple juice, or orange juice.

There are three main ingredients in a meringue recipe that interact to form the foam structure, egg whites, sugar, and cream of tartar or acid.

* Egg whites provide the meringue with necessary proteins that form the meringue foam. The proteins are originally oriented in a tangled ball but must be uncoiled into strands; this is referred to as denaturation. The egg whites are beat until the proteins are denatured. As the proteins are being stretched during the process they are also coagulating together forming a protein network. Also by beating the egg whites, air is incorporated into the protein structure until the egg whites are six to eight times their original size. If the proteins are beat for too long they will become stretched out too far and become too weak to support the foam structure.

* Cream of tartar is an acid that is used to lower the pH to help bring the proteins near their isoelectric point to allow them to be denatured easier. The isoelectric point is a specific pH where a molecule has no net electrical charge. The electrical charge on a protein would normally hold the protein together in its coiled clump.
	+ The cream of tartar also acts as a catalyst affecting the sugar structure. Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of glucose and fructose. Cream of tartar inverts the sugar during the baking process, meaning the molecule is split into two parts containing glucose and fructose. This prevents the sugar from recrystallizing and giving the meringue a gritty, undesirable texture.

* Sugar is the final ingredient that is used to help form and stabilize the foam structure. Sugar is hydrophilic, extracting water out of the egg whites. This will lighten the protein network, allowing the foam to be stronger and more elastic. The sugar dissolves in the protein network but does not become part of the protein network. The sugar must be added slowly to the egg whites, while continuously mixing. If it is added all at once, it will not be evenly distributed, causing the protein network to collapse due to the weight of the sugar in one area of the meringue.

After a strong protein network has formed a complete foam, the meringue is ready to be baked. Adding heat to the mixture is the final step to strengthen the foam structure. The meringue must be baked at a low temperature for a long period of time. This allows the proteins to finish coagulating, strengthening the meringue evenly throughout. If the proteins are not baked evenly, the bottom of the meringue will not be able to support the structural weight, causing the meringue to collapse. The heat causes the air bubbles to expand, creating an airier structure. The water in the structure evaporates, causing the meringue to become lighter with a stronger foam structure. It is important to not evaporate all of the water out of the meringue, as some water is necessary to hold the foam together.

### Foam cake

From Wikipedia: Foam cake

Foam cakes are cakes with very little (if any) fatty material such as butter, oil or shortening. They are leavened primarily by the air that is beaten into the egg whites that they contain. They differ from butter cakes, which contain shortening, and baking powder or baking soda for leavening purposes. Foam cakes are typically airy, light and spongy.

Examples of foam cakes are sponge cakes, angel food cake, meringue, genoise and chiffon cake.

From Wikipedia:Sponge cake

The sponge cake is thought to be one of the first of the non-yeasted cakes. The basic whisked sponge cake does not contain any fat. It is made by whisking eggs and superfine sugar and gently folding in flour. Anne Willan has said that "sponge may have some butter added, but not much or it will not rise".

Foam cakes tend to be dry because they have little or no fat.

Korean sponge called saeng is usually made with rice flour and topped with whipped topping and fruit. Some Vietnamese varieties may have fresh herbs like mint, lemon grass or basil added to the batter, and be topped with caramelized tropical fruit.

## Yeast bread

 From Wikipedia: Rye bread
Rye bread is a type of bread made with various proportions of flour from rye grain. It can be light or dark in color, depending on the type of flour used and the addition of coloring agents, and is typically denser than bread made from wheat flour. It is higher in fiber than white bread and is darker in color and stronger in flavor.
Whilst rye and wheat are genetically similar enough to interbreed (resulting in hybrids known as triticale), their biochemistries differ enough that they affect the breadmaking process. The key issue is differing amylases, the enzyme which breaks starch down into sugar. While wheat amylases are generally not heat-stable rye amylase remains active at substantially higher temperatures. Since rye gluten (secalin) is not particularly strong, rye dough structure is based on complex polysaccharides, including rye starch and pentosans.
The traditional method uses dough acidification to impede the function of rye amylases which can break down dough structure, inhibiting it from rising. The addition of naturally acidic Lactobacillus "sourdough" cultures lowers bread pH, facilitating the growth of an acid-tolerant yeast strain, and helping gelatinize starches in the dough matrix. The byproduct of this approach is lighter bread.
In areas where high-gluten hard wheat is readily available, the need for a complex polyculture of bacteria and yeast can often be reduced or removed by adding a large proportion of hard wheat flour to the rye flour. Its added gluten compensates for amylase activity on the starch in the dough, allowing the bread to retain its structure as it bakes.
 From Wikipedia:Sourdough
Sourdough remained the usual form of leavening down into the European Middle Ages until being replaced by barm from the beer brewing process, and then later purpose-cultured yeast
The preparation of sourdough begins with a pre-ferment, a fermented mixture of flour and water, containing a colony of microorganisms including wild yeast and  lactic acid bacteria (lactobacilli) which are aerotolerant anaerobes, which means that though they are anaerobes, they can multiply in the presence of oxygen.
The bacteria ferment starches that the yeast cannot metabolise, and the byproducts, chiefly maltose, are metabolised by the yeast which produces carbon dioxide gas, leavening the dough. The lactic acid produced by the lactobacilli gives it a more sour taste and improved keeping qualities.
* In the presence of lactic acid bacteria some sourdough yeasts have been observed to produce twice the gas of baker's yeast.

The starter must be fed 4 to 12 hours prior to being added to dough, by mixing flour and water to the starter. This creates an active leaven, which should grow in size and is ready to use when it is bubbly and floats in water.
The leaven is mixed with flour and water to make a final dough of the desired consistency.
 From Wikipedia:Sponge and dough
In the 19th century, bread bakers obtained their yeast from beer brewers, and this led to sweet-fermented breads which in general lacked the sourness created by the acidification typical of Lactobacillus.
The sponge and dough method is a two-step bread making process:
* In the first step a sponge is made and allowed to ferment for a period of time
* In the second step the sponge is added to the final dough's ingredients, creating the total formula.

In this usage, synonyms for sponge are yeast starter or yeast pre-ferment. The method is reminiscent of the sourdough or levain methods; however, the sponge is made from all fresh ingredients prior to being used in the final dough.
The sponge is allowed to rest and ferment for a period of time in an environment of a desired temperature and humidity.
Fermentation does several important things such as activate protease and amylase (the enzyme which breaks starch down into sugar). Proteases, dependent on their time of action and concentration levels, soften the gluten in the dough, hydrolyzing peptide bonds, increasing dough extensibility which allows the protein matrix to stretch out as the mix expands, thus leading to increased baked volumes and better structure.
Just like sourdough, the longer the ferment, the greater the taste difference.
When the sponge's fermentation time has elapsed or it has reached a desired volumetric growth characteristic, the final dough's ingredients are added.
The gluten is developed in the mixing or kneading process, and it may then be processed through further work and rest cycles before being proofed then baked.
Sponge doughs were used before bread improvers were invented.
 From Wikipedia:Straight dough
The straight dough method became popular after the discovery and later mass production of baker's yeast, as well as the mass production of mixing machines
Straight dough is a single-mix process of making bread. The dough is made from all fresh ingredients, and they are all placed together and combined in one kneading or mixing session.
After mixing, a bulk fermentation rest of about 1 hour or longer occurs before division.
 From Wikipedia:Chorleywood bread process
The Chorleywood bread process allows the use of lower-protein wheats and reduces processing time, through the addition of Vitamin C, fat, yeast, and intense mechanical working by high-speed mixers, not feasible in a small-scale kitchen.
Before the development of the CBP, UK bread was reliant on imported wheat, particularly from North America. Since the introduction of the process, many UK domestic wheat varieties have been improved. Flour suitable for traditional high-quality pan bread (12%–13.5% protein) can now be sourced in the United Kingdom.

## Beaten biscuits

From Wikipedia:Biscuit (bread)

Early European settlers in the United States brought with them a simple, easy style of cooking, most often based on ground wheat and warmed with gravy. Most were not wealthy men and women, and so it was a source of cheap nutrition. A very similar practice was also popular once with the Royal Navy as hard, flour based biscuits would keep for long journeys at sea but would also become so difficult to chew that they had to be softened up.

Cooks created a cheaply produced addition for their meals that required no yeast, which was expensive and difficult to store. With no leavening agents available, beaten biscuits were laboriously beaten and folded to incorporate air into the dough which expanded when heated in the oven causing the biscuit to rise. In eating, the advantage of the biscuit over a slice of bread was that it was harder, and hence kept its shape when wiping up gravy in the popular combination biscuits and gravy.

## Quick bread

From Wikipedia: Quick bread

Quick bread is any bread leavened with leavening agents other than yeast or eggs. An advantage of quick breads is their ability to be prepared quickly and reliably, without requiring the time-consuming skilled labor and the climate control needed for traditional yeast breads.

Quick breads include many cakes, brownies and cookies—as well as banana bread, beer bread, biscuits, cornbread, muffins, pancakes, scones, and soda bread.

During the chemical leavening process, agents (one or more food-grade chemicals—usually a weak acid and a weak base) are added into the dough during mixing. These agents undergo a chemical reaction to produce carbon dioxide, which increases the baked good's volume and produces a porous structure and lighter texture. Yeast breads often take hours to rise, and the resulting baked good's texture can vary greatly based on external factors such as temperature and humidity. By contrast, breads made with chemical leavening agents are relatively uniform, reliable, and quick. Usually, the resulting baked good is softer and lighter than a traditional yeast bread.

Chemical leavening agents include a weak base, such as baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) plus a weak acid, such as cream of tartar, lemon juice, or cultured buttermilk, to create an acid–base reaction that releases carbon dioxide. (Quick bread leavened specifically with baking soda is often called "soda bread".) Baking powder contains both an acid and a base in dry powdered form, and simply needs a liquid medium in which to react.

### Cake

Cake is made from cake flour which has less gluten. It is eggs that hold the cake together.

Icing on the cake prevents it from going stale.

### Cookie

From Wikipedia: Cookie

Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, but some kinds of cookies are not baked at all. Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits. The softness of the cookie may depend on how long it is baked.

A general theory of cookies may be formulated this way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base (in the case of cakes called "batter") as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles – responsible for a cake's fluffiness – to better form. In the cookie, the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils, whether they be in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is far denser after removal from the oven.

Oils in baked cakes do not behave as baking soda tends to in the finished result. Rather than evaporating and thickening the mixture, they remain, saturating the bubbles of escaped gases. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not sink into it.

### Pastry

From Wikipedia: Pastry

Pastry is a dough of flour, water and shortening (solid fats, including butter) that may be savoury or sweetened. Common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches, croissants, and pasties.

Pastry is differentiated from bread by having a higher fat content, which contributes to a flaky or crumbly texture. A good pastry is light and airy and fatty, but firm enough to support the weight of the filling. When making a shortcrust pastry, care must be taken to blend the fat and flour thoroughly before adding any liquid. This ensures that the flour granules are adequately coated with fat and less likely to develop gluten. On the other hand, overmixing results in long gluten strands that toughen the pastry. In other types of pastry such as Danish pastry and croissants, the characteristic flaky texture is achieved by repeatedly rolling out a dough similar to that for yeast bread, spreading it with butter, and folding it to produce many thin layers.

Different kinds of pastries are made by utilizing the natural characteristics of wheat flour and certain fats. When wheat flour is mixed with water and kneaded into plain dough, it develops strands of gluten, which are what make bread tough and elastic. In a typical pastry, however, this toughness is unwanted, so fat or oil is added to slow down the development of gluten. Pastry flour can also be used, since it typically has a lower level of protein than all-purpose or bread flours.

Lard or suet work well because they have a coarse, crystalline structure that is very effective. Using unclarified butter does not work well because of its water content; clarified butter, or ghee, which is virtually water-free, is better, but shortcrust pastry using only butter may develop an inferior texture. If the fat is melted with hot water or if liquid oil is used, the thin oily layer between the grains offers less of an obstacle to gluten formation and the resulting pastry is tougher.