Big Bang

The **Big Bang** theory is a cosmological model of the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. The model describes how the universe expanded from an initial state of extremely high density and high temperature, to its current state 13.8 billion years later.

One of the most important cosmological discoveries ever made, together with the Copernican Principle, is that our Universe is expanding. It forced us to consider dynamic models of the Universe, and also implies the existence of a timescale or age for the Universe. In 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered that the greater the distance a galaxy is from an observer on the Earth, the faster it recedes. The distances between galaxies, or galactic clusters, are continuously increasing and, therefore, the Universe is expanding. The movement of a galaxy away from an observer on the Earth can be estimated from the red shift of a galaxy, which is an observed increase in the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation received by a detector on the Earth compared to that emitted by the source. Such red shifts occur because galaxies are moving away from our own galaxy at high speeds due to the expansion of space itself. The change in the wavelength of light that results from the relative motion of the light source and the receiver is an example of the Doppler Effect. Although an observer on the Earth finds that all distant galactic clusters are flying away from the Earth, our location in space is not special. An observer in another galaxy would also see the galactic clusters flying away from the observer’s position because all of space is expanding. This is one of the main lines of evidence for the Big Bang from which the early Universe evolved and the subsequent expansion of space.

### Model of the Big Bang

#### Protoverse

A protoverse is a singularity or infinitesimally small point (0d) just before the Big Bang. This is similar to a singularity in a black hole, which implies a universe could be a black hole. The initial explosion could have been a brane collision impacting from outside or with the protoverse, creating an inertial force in at least 5d allowing for gravity.

#### Inflationary epoch

Cosmic inflation, some hypothesized a long enough period of inflation could explain the high degree of homogeneity in the observed universe, even if the cosmos before inflation was highly disordered.

#### Planck epoch

Shorter than 10-43 seconds. The 4 fundamental forces (electromagnetism, gravity, weak and strong nuclear interactions) are one.

#### Grand unified epoch

Between 10-43 seconds and 10-36 seconds after the Big Bang, gravity separated from gauge forces, and unified forces separated into strong and weak forces.

#### Electroweak epoch

Between 10-36 seconds (end of inflation) and 10-32 (end of Big Bang), electromagnetism and weak forces separate from strong forces.

#### Quark epoch

Between 10-12 and 10-6 seconds after the Big Bang, all fundamental forces take current forms. Previously massless, all elementary particles gain mass.

#### Hadron epoch

Between 10-6 and 1 second after the Big Bang, quark-gluon plasma cools until protons and neutrons form.

#### Lepton epoch

Between 1 and 10 seconds after the Big Bang, a small residue of leptons appear as by-products.

#### Photon epoch

Matter domination: 70,000 years after Big Bang, antimatter weight on the D-brane dominates, paving the way for gravitational collapse to amplify the tiny inhomogeneities left by cosmic inflation, making dense regions denser and rarefied regions more rarefied.

Recombination: Ca. 377,000 years after Big Bang, a decoupling event made the cosmos transparent, and Cosmic Microwave Radiation Background (CMRB) begins.

Dark ages: 380,000 to 150 million years after Big Bang, ending 1 billion years after Big Bang, earliest galaxies were formed.

#### Habitable epoch

Ca. 1-17 million years after Big Bang, possibility of liquid water up to 6.6 million years after Big Bang

Reionization period: 150 million to 1 billion years after Big Bang, first stars and quasars form from gravitational collapse causing reionization. A few stars (virtually no metal) start making heavier elements. First stars 500 million years post Big Bang resulted in large volumes of matter collapsing to form galaxies.

Current Age: 13.7 billion years

#### D-brane cosmos

The areas believed to possess dark matter are occupied by antimatter weight from the other side of the D-brane. The separation by the 2d matter does not compensate for the dimensional effect of time (gravity) following its parameters, which is why these areas are spare of matter. The galaxies gathering together is assisted by their opposite antimatter galaxies as the weight of stars and SMBH assist in sweeping matter together by these overlapping 4d fields. Super-partners, antibaryons and magnetic monopoles exist on antimatter side, hence their absence from our side. Galaxies are too lightweight unless that weight is from both sides of the D-brane.

#### Arrow of time

Time moves in one direction from the Big Bang. Dimensional waves from the creation of 3/4/5d as their linearity and motion expand outward with the 2d expansion.

#### Fine tuned universe

2d: Conditions that allow life in the universe can only occur when certain dimensionless physical constants lie within a very narrow range. This is because of the 2d aspect, where complexity moves towards 1d allowing an empty cosmos to become more complex by introducing new elements such as life. Only way to calculate DPC is by 0-2d ratio per elements.

#### Cosmic inflation

Inflation in this model is the expanse of 2d space from colliding 0d and 1d masses in a true Newtonian Steady State universe, the continued expansion is due to the continued change of both masses interacting. This could be the source of Dark energy. Dark flow or the Great Attractor is the interaction of antimatter galaxies on the opposite side of the D-brane and inflation, causing a 5d collateral effect of attraction through mass.

#### Vacuum catastrophe

A disagreement between measured values of the vacuum energy density (the small value of the cosmological constant) and the zero-point energy suggested by quantum field theory. The energy values are too low for QFT because the energy is divided by 3 points 0-2d; this cancels out the zero-point energy of the vacuum.

#### Locality violation

In 1935 Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen in their EPR paradox theorized that quantum mechanics might not be a local theory, because a measurement made on one of a pair of separated but entangled particles causes a simultaneous effect, the collapse of the wavefunction, in the remote particle (i.e. an effect exceeding the speed of light). But because of the probabilistic nature of wavefunction collapse, this violation of locality cannot be used to transmit information faster than light. In 1964 John Stewart Bell formulated the "Bell inequality", which, if violated in actual experiments, implies that quantum mechanics violates either locality or realism, another principle which relates to the value of unmeasured quantities. The two principles are commonly referred to as a single principle, local realism. Quantum entanglement works because the subatomics existed in a 2d state meaning they were affected by coterminus space where time and motion didn’t exist until post Big Bang.

#### Supermassive black hole

Created from gathered black holes inside galaxies meaning 0d was not contained until 500 million years after the Big Bang. The M-sigma relation is due to 0/1d masses on either side of the D-brane. Quasars grew their SMBH in the early cosmos by unknown means.

#### Lack of age-metallicity relation

The discrepancy of AMR in the Milky Way galactic disk and other 220 nearby thick disc stars is because of relative time dilation from the increase of gravity from galaxy building. The heavier the SMBH the slower time passes within.

#### Lithium problem

Discrepancy in very old stars due to division amongst 3 sides.

### Inflation cosmos pre Big Bang

Where did it come from and why expand? Inflation pre-Big bang, general law of relativity was intact, and all matter moved towards order (now polarized to antimatter) for the Big Bang (reverse second law of thermodynamics). First law (energy can not be created nor destroyed) intact from 2d mass.

#### Large scale anisotropy

Matter of 2d nature had formed prior to the Big Bang meaning afterwards the different properties of region were affected giving a difference not homogeneity of region

#### Flatness problem

In the case of the flatness problem, the parameter which appears fine-tuned is the density of matter and energy in the universe. Almost like they were distributed prior to the Big Bang, this is because they were, the inflation cosmos saw matter and energy created without gravity. Lacking density but equally made by 2d interaction with 0/1d matter.

#### Horizon problem

The observed homogeneity of causally disconnected regions of space in the absence of a mechanism that sets the same initial conditions everywhere. This is because 4d or the Arrow of Time was created as a cosmological constant in an age of timelessness, the effect was across the cosmos.

#### Clumpiness issue

The distribution of galaxies is clumpier than expected on very large scales. In fact the level of fluctuation is about a factor two higher than expected on the basis of the standard cosmological model. A side effect of the Big Sink.

#### Counter law of entropy

The cosmos descends to entropy counter to the formation of stars and galaxies, yet seems to form more complexity over time. This is because the 2d matter moves antimatter counter to entropy and bleeds over the effect.

#### BMR limiting temperature of space

Space is not as cold as it should be as the temperature is affected by the background microwave radiation, yet it is evenly spread because as 4d was being created by the Big Bang the event existed in a period or state of time absence allowing it to spread everywhere as a coterminus.

#### Element abundance

After each cosmos stage event (Big Bang, Big Sink, Reionization), stars produced heavier elements which novas spread throughout the galaxies.

#### Quasar redshift

Quasars evolved their intrinsic properties and became smaller and fainter during these cosmos changes, resulting in the most distant galaxies quasar's higher redshifts.

#### Unusual star scale

The presence of stars with unusual scale or size is due to them being from prior cosmos changing events, as 4/6/9d and the effect of gravitational time dilation resulted in their continuation due to the time away from their gravity travelling faster than they were.

* Re-ionisation age scales Gleise 229, Alpha centuari A, Kic 8462852, Regulus
* Second event scales Aldebaran, Rigel – pistol star (blue supergiant), Chi cygni, Rho cassiopea, R leporis
* Big bang age scales Antares, Mu cephei, Jy canio, Westerlund, Vy scuti
* Inflation age scales Sdss j0100+2802

#### HVS

Hypervelocity stars that come from the LMC are not from binaries casting off their twins but are younger galaxies affected by relativity, travelling faster by the effects of gravitational time dilation.

#### CMB Cold spot

Sign of BMR bleed off, likely resulting from next cosmos changing event.

#### Time dilation on Earth

Earth’s core is 2.5 years younger than its surface due to close proximity of gravitational mass.

#### Relativity and Dark Space

Observation of stars at the outer edges of galaxies moving faster than Newton’s theory of gravity is resultant of those objects being away from the SMBH.

#### Neutron stars Dimness

Neutron stars are 10 times the solar mass; massive time dilation results in the speed of light slowing need these masses.

### Big sink

Dimensional sinking creating 6-8d physics during the Dark Ages in cosmology history.

### Reionization

Believed to be a result of the first stars and quasars forming after gravitational collapse and 9-11d physics.