recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Structure

***General facts***

Water is a molecule made up of one oxygen atom, and two hydrogen atoms. These atoms share a covalent bond, which means that they share atoms with each other. The molecule has a bent shape, meaning that the two hydrogen atoms are non-collinear. A water molecule has a hexagonal crystal structure.

Water as a solvent

Water is a polar molecule. This means that the atoms are both partially positive and negative. Furthermore, water is a covalent bond, which means that the oxygen atom and the hydrogen atoms share electrons. Due to this bonding, the oxygen is partially negative due to its mass. On the other hand, the hydrogen is partially positive. This happens due to the covalent bonding, and the mass of the atoms. Since the oxygen atom has more mass, the electrons will "hang around" more with the oxygen. Due to this, the oxygen partially negative, while leaving the hydrogen partially positive.

When something dissolves in water we call it a solute, and since water is the thing that dissolves this, we refer to it as a solvent. Since water is a polar molecule, something that either has a charge or is polar can be dissolved in water. For example, Sodium Chloride will be dissolved in water. Sodium Chloride is an ionic bond, where sodium is positive while Chlorine is negative. Since water is a covalent bond, the hydrogen atoms will be attracted to the Chlorine when it dissolves. The hydrogen atoms will still be in the water molecule. Same thing would happen with Sodium and Oxygen. These solutes that dissolve in water are called hydrophilic.

Bibliography

K. (2015, July 01). Retrieved October 22, 2018, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lCvBp73ZJ-A
Protein

Protein is an important nutrient that gives the body energy. They are important building blocks for the body, and are needed for maintenance. Muscles, skin, tendons, and hair are all made up of proteins. They also have many other functions, like breaking down different things in the body, transporting oxygen, and fighting off bacteria. They make chemical reactions work like they should, and are therefore important "tools" for all cells and organisms. Proteins like Hemoglobin are important for carrying oxygen through your blood. Enzymes are proteins which causes chemical reactions in the cells. Foods like meat, eggs, seafood and beans highly consist of proteins. It is recommended to get about 56 - 91g of protein for the average male, and 46 - 75g for the average female. However, there are many factors for each individual person that would change this number. If the body does not get enough proteins, it will negatively affect health and body composition. Proteins are therfore extremely important for the body and can be found in all cells and living organisms.

Proteins are build up of long chains of aminoacids attached to one another in a particular order. The structure of the proteinmolecules all depend on the order of the aminoacids:

Chemical structure

Proteins have a lot of functions in the body:

Functions in the body

Works Cited:

Brandt, H., Hushovd, O. T., & Tellefsen, C. W. (2016). *Naturfag SF.* Oslo: Aschehoug.

Gunnars, K. (2018, July 5). *Protein Intake – How Much Protein Should You Eat Per Day?*Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/how-much-protein-per-day
19

Is this a healthy breakfast?

My breakfast has a very large percentage of carbohydrates compared to the percentage of protein and fat, as it my breakfast consists of around 74% carbs. in addition to that, it also has around 10% protein and 7% fat. a healthy breakfast often consists largely of carbs, and since the amounts protein and fat are quite balanced, I would say that this is a healthy breakfast. However, if I would eat this for every meal of the day, it would be too many carbs, as that should maximum be 65% of your daily consumption. Therefore, I would have to keep this in mind when eating lunch and dinner for this to be a healthy breakfast.

10% is the minimum amount of protein one should have in a day, and considering how I shouldn't eat too much carbohydrates later in the day, I would say that 10% of proteins is a good amount for breakfast as well. Considering that the fat fills up the rest of the breakfast, that would have to be a healthy amount as long as the other two are of healthy amounts.

Breakfast is recommended to have between 350 and 500 calories, so the 452 calories in my breakfast is a healthy amount as well.
Chapter 2

Carbohydrates

Fats

Protein

Vitamins

Minerals and trace elements

Water

Consider the following before writing the page:

1. What is interesting to include? (Make a list, and turn the points in that list into subpages)
2. How should the article be structured?
3. Where should I get information on the topic?
4. How should I handle the use of sources?
Why do we need them

Minerals and trace elements have various different jobs. They are generally needed in order for the body to function properly and for overall growth. They are important to building strong bones, teeth, skin, hair, nerve function and muscles, as well as being important to the metabolic process. Minerals and trace elements are also vital for making enzymes and hormones.
The electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the distribution of electromagnetic radiation by frequency or wavelengths. Wavelengths are the distance between two succesive wave tops. Frequency is how fast the wave osillates up and down, measured in Hertz (Hz) or (1/s)

Visible lights is a small part of a visible wave spectrum, the electromagnetic spectrum.

Radio waves

Microwaves

Infrared radiation

Visible light

Ultraviolet

X-ray

Gamma ray
Planck curve

All objects that have temperature emit electromagnetic radiation. Furthermore, the character of that radiation is determined by its wavelength (e.g. long wavelength radiation are radio waves, intermediate ones are microwaves, short ones are visible light, really short ones are X-rays, etc.)

It turns out that there's a relationship between the temperature of an object and the character, or wavelengths, of the radiation it emits. That relationship is: as an object gets hotter it emits shorter wavelengths at higher power.

An example of this is the unit on an electric stove (which is an approximate blackbody): When the unit is cool it's black. This is because most of the radiation it's emitting is long wavelength, which your eye doesn't perceive as visible light. As the unit heats up, it will begin to glow red. This is because, as the temperature increases, shorter wavelength light, which is visible to your eye, is being emitted at higher power.

In fact, if you could get the unit as hot as the Sun (you can't) it would glow white, with the same spectrum as the sun.
Chapter 7.3

**Assisted Fertilization and Treatment of Fertilized Eggs**

Artificial insemination has long been a method of conceiving children to those who struggle to have children. Up to 15% of couples today are infertile and unable to get babies despite having frequent unprotected sex. It is said that 5 million babies have been born using IVF (In vitro-fertilising) since the world's first ever IVF in 1978. There are different methods of artificial fertilization.

In vitro-fertilising (IVF) - Fertilisation outside the body

The first in vitro fertilizing attempt that successful was in England in 1978. Norway followed behind in 1984. In vitro means "Glass".

Artificial Insemination (IUI)

Intrauterine Insemination is the fertility treatment that involves placing sperm inside a woman's uterus to facilitate fertilization.

Egg Donation and Surrogacy
Continuous spectrum

**Definition of a continuos spectrum:**

A continuous spectrum is defined as a spectrum that shows all the different wavelengths. As wavelengthes have different colours you could say that a continuous spectrum includes all the colours. An example would be a rainbow that includes all the colours with no gaps in between the different colours. The sun or any other star can produce a continuous spectrum.
Doppler effect w/color

The Doppler Effect works with light exactly the same as with sound. Just as sound seems higher or lower in pitch as the object is moving towards or away from you, light appears higher in frequency (color) when the object is moving towards you, and lower in frequency/color when moving away from you. The order of colors/frequency of light that we can see is:
Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are the building blocks for more complex carbohydrates (disaccharides and polysaccharides) and are often called simple sugars because they are carbohydrates built up by one singular sugar molecule. Monosaccharides are divided into groups based on the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. Monosaccharides, similarly to disaccharides, are water soluble. Glucose, fructose and galactose are three of the most well-known monosaccharides. Monosaccharides are sugars and they are needed by humans as an energy source. With the presence of oxygen (O) in the blood, the monosaccharides are metabolised in human cells creating energy. Water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are released as byproducts (Carbohydrate Metabolism from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 2018.).

Glucose is classified as a hexose as it has six carbon atoms in its molecule. Five of these atoms create a hexagon-like structure alongside one oxygen atom. The sixth carbon is located in the molecule's CH2OH-group. It is found in a variety of fruits and vegetables.

Similarly to glucose, fructose is a hexose. However, the fructose molecule is structured like a pentagon. It has four carbon atoms as well as an oxygen atom in the base structure. The remaining two carbon atoms are in the molecule's two CH2OH-groups. Fructose, as the name implies, is found in many fruits.

Galactose is a hexose as well. It is less sweet than fructose and is found in various dairy products and avocados (Peter Kierulf. 2018.).

Galactose, fructose and galactose all share the same chemical formula (C6H12O6). However, their own unique structure gives them different sets of traits.

```
   Sources:

```

Carbohydrate Metabolism from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 2018. "Carbohydrate Metabolism". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate\_metabolism. Accessed 23/10/18.

Peter Kierulf. 2018. "Galaktose". https://sml.snl.no/galaktose. Accessed 23/10/18.
Hormesis

Hormesis is a biological phenomenon by which a beneficial effect is recorded as a result of something that is ordinarily considered toxic. Simply put, in some cases **it can be more harmful to not be exposed to any toxicity than to a small dose.**

## Examples of hormesis

Many common substances and can be harmful in large amounts, but are beneficial in smaller dosages. This includes salt, UV-rays in sunlight, and dioxin (a well-known environmental toxin), as well as other activities that subject the body to biological, chemical or physical stress, such as calorie restriction, cold temperatures, heat shock and hypergravity.

Interestingly, the same phenomenon has been present in **people exposed to radiation**, such as radon. Though its radiation is considered ionizing and detrimental, often linked to an increased risk of cancer, studies show that people exposed to low radon levels are less likely to develop cancer than those exposed to none at all. They document reduced rates of cancer and death for in certain demographics with a higher general exposure to radiation, such as industrial workers who handle low-level radioactive materials, residents of high altitude regions, people exposed to higher levels of natural radon gas and survivors of atomic blasts who lived outside of the immediate blast areas.
Ethics and laws

Gene-technology comes with several opportunities and possibilities but with that comes the question of whether it is ethically correct to use. Even though it creates countless possibilities we still have to take into consideration questions like; can the new technology be abused? What should be allowed to do? Who should decide and make the rules?

The Norwegian government decided to create *Bioteknologirådet* to consider the factual, ethical, environmental and safety questions linked to the modern biotechnology.

In Norway there are two rules that regulate the way modern biotechnology is used;

*Genteknologiloven -* regulates the portrayal and the use of gene modified organisms

*Bioteknologiloven -* securing that medical use of biotechnology is used the best way for all humans
Radon

Radon (Rn) is a radioactive noble gass, and is a decay product from some isotopes of Uranium and Thorium. Radon is the next step from Radium in the decay chain, and is (unlike Radium) a gas in earth's temperatures. It flows into the atmosphere, and can in large dozes have unfavourable effects on creatures' health, such as neusea and increased risk of cancer. Some houses are build on foundations with high concentartions of Radium, which sucks for its inhabitants I guess. Radon is coloruless and odourless, so you can never know if you're having this season's hottest sickness, or if cancer's coming your way.
Forces in the nucleus

The law of electrostatic says that like charges repel each other, so if a nucleus contains two or more positively charged protons, they should repel each other. This doesn't happen however. The protons are pulled together in a small area inside the nucleus. This is because of "the strong nuclear force" which is part of the *four fundamental forces of nature*. The first force is gravity but because it is dependent on the mass of the object, it's impossible to measure the pull it has on the protons. The second force is the electromagnetic force. It exists both on the inside and outside of the nucleus. It repels like charges and attract different charges.

The two other forces only operates inside the nucleus. The first one is the *weak nuclear force* and the second is the *strong nuclear force.* The weak nuclear force is stronger than gravity but weaker than the electromagnetic force. Its presence is only apparent in certain forms for radiation. The strong nuclear force is the one that is pulling the protons and neutrons together. The strong nuclear force is much stronger than the electromagnetic force, but only in small areas such as inside a nucleus. The strong nuclear force prevents the electromagnetic force from blowing up the nucleus.
The brightness of a star.

There is no direct method currently available to measure the distance to stars farther than 400 light years from Earth, so astronomers instead use brightness measurements. It turns out that a star's color spectrum is a good indication of its actual brightness. The relationship between color and brightness was proven using the several thousand stars close enough to earth to have their distances measured directly. Astronomers can therefore look at a distant star and determine its color spectrum. From the color, they can determine the star's actual brightness. By knowing the actual brightness and comparing it to the apparent brightness seen from Earth (that is, by looking at how dim the star has become once its light reaches Earth), they can determine the distance to the star.
8

In the morning usually just eat a simple sandwitch to start the day. The measurements are taken for 100 grams each.

My normal sandwitch takes white bread on top and on the bottom. Hence they will be multiplied by two.

Following healthline.com, the reccomended amount of proteins per day is 0.8 g per kil that i weight. My weight is around 65.5 kilos, meaning that my reccomended intake of protein is 52.4. I'm a little over it, meaning i should lower my intake of proteins by just a tiny bit. I belive I eat a ton of fat, however following livestrong.com I have found out that usually i need to obtain around 500 calories in my breakfast. There are 4 calories per gram of fat. Calculating the calories, would mean i have 471.6 cal of fats. Meaning I'm good in that area. Carbohydrates have always been a place where i don't know if i eat a lot or less. When i researched i found out that carbs should be 45%-60% of energy per day. With a 50cal-75cal of carbs in the morning is what is reccomeneded, meaning that I should take down my intake of carbs.
The process

When the DNA is transcribed to RNA- occurring inside the nucleus of a cell. In this process, RNA polymerase aids in breaking the two DNA-strands from one another, exposing the nucleotides in both strands and also helping out with the construction of RNA- switching Thymine for Uracil. However, only one of the strands in the DNA is used in this process and ends up as RNA which later loses its introns and becomes mRNA (messenger RNA).

After the DNA has been transcribed to RNA in the nucleus (by making a pair to the antisense strand- basically the sense strand just with thymine swapped with uracil), it is transferred outside of the nucleus, and while doing this, transformed to mRNA (messenger RNA) by some processes when the introns are removed from the RNA. When this mRNA is moving in the cytoplasm, it will go through ribosomes, which are substances in the cytoplasm, aiding with creating proteins. The triplets of bases in the mRNA are called codons, and need anticodons in order for the protein synthesis to be complete. The anticodons are tRNA with amino acids connected to them. The tRNA will create base pairs with the mRNA, and be able to connect with them while they are being processed in the ribosome. The part of the ribosome that gets connected to the mRNA is called the "small sub-unit" and it will use the amino acids from the tRNA which connects to the mRNA, to create polypeptides. These will eventually also grow and create proteins. The types of proteins created vary on the genes in that specific part of the mRNA, as they will have the "recipe" of those specific proteins

Special thanks to Isabella, cause she da best.
Biological half-life

**Biological half-life**

Biological half-life is the time required for a radioactive substance to reduce to half its original amount in a biological organism, through excretion and absorption. The biological half-life depends on the half-life of the radioactive isotope in question, and the amount of it being absorbed and/or excreted from the biological organism. Therefore, biological half-life can range from seconds to hundreds of years.

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Nuclear/biohalf.html
Sustainable energy

## Energy sources

There are different types of energy sources, some are sustainable and some are not sustainable. Things like the tides, the sun and geothermic energy are all renewable, meaning it can be reused, while fossil fuels and nuclear power are non-renewable. We can’t deplete a renewable energy source so it’s referred to as sustainable because it can sustain us no matter how long we need it for.

Fossil fuels like oil and natural gas take millions of years to form and are extracted and used in a very short time. So our use is going to deplete it one point. With, for example, windmills we cannot really deplete the resource, because wind is something that is always going to be around.

## Efficiency

We know that some things are more efficient at transferring energy than other things. For example, diesel engines have better efficiency than petrol engines, meaning that cars that run on diesel can run further than those who use petrol. This means that Diesel engines convert more of the chemical energy in the diesel to useful energy which moves the car.

Obviously, high efficiency is economically good, unfortunately, most forms of sustainable energy sources are not very efficient, meaning that not only are they expensive to manufacture, but they also don’t make much energy.

## The UN’s sustainability goals

Our use of fossil fuels releases a very large amount of greenhouse gasses. The UN aims to use mainly sustainable energy moving forwards.
17

Jeg syntes at frokosten min er relativt sunn. Med unntak av fett, inneholder frokosten omtrent 25% av næringsstoffene anbefalt til en jente 14-17 år som er aktiv. Det er kun 10-15% av den anbefalte dagsinntaket i dette måltidet. Selv om det ikke er skrevet i tabellen, er en del av karbohydratene fiber. Fiber letter fordøyelsen, så dette er positivt. Noe som ikke er så bra, er at en del av karbohydratene er sukker. Selv om kroppen trenger sukker, vil et for høyt sukkerinntak kunne føre til problemer med tenner og overvekt. For å gjøre denne frokkosten sunnere ville jeg ha vurdert å kutte ut juicen og heller drikke vann. Dette vil kutte ned sukkermengden i måltidet. I tillegg trenger kroppen vann for å bryte ned diverse stoffer, så ekstra vann i kostholdet skader ikke.
Ozone

Ozone (O3) molecules consist of three oxygen atoms. The ozone layer in our atmosphere protects us from ultraviolet radiation from the sun The balance between the creation and splitting of ozone molecules is called the Chapman cycle, and is a deciding factor in the thickness of the ozone layer.

### Chapman cycle:

#### Destruction of ozone:

Ozones (O3) are split as a result of the sun's UV-B and UV-C radiation in the stratosphere. When ozone is exposed to UV radiation, it splits into singular oxygen atoms. Some of these singular oxygen atoms react together to form O2. So (O3 → O + O + O), and then some do (O + O → O2 ). The simplified equation is 2O3 → 3O2-

#### Creation of ozone:

The O2 and the O from the previous equations form O3. This is written as: O2 + O → O3. The simplified equation is 3O2 → 2O3
11

According to this rough calculation, my breakfast's ratio of protein, fat, and carbohydrates is about 22%, 15%, 63% respectively. This translates to 19%, 28% and 53% in energy intake, which correlates with Helsedirektorate's recommendations. As a slightly active female, I should consume a little under to about 2000kcal a day, and as I don't snack that much, it seems about right my breakfast is about 1/3 of my daily intake.
Fats

Fats are considered one of the necessary food groups, and should make up between 25-40% of consumed foods in humans. It has many important uses in the body.

## Structure of fats

Fat consists of the alcohol glycerol and some combination of three fatty acids. These fatty acids are the distinguishing factor between the two main types of fats; they can have single or double bonds, which will have different effects on the cell walls and classify them as saturated fats or unsaturated fats respectively. In the body, the fatty acids are hydrophobic, meaning they don't mix with water. Basic substances detach the glycerol from the fatty acid chains, some of which are absorbed, and some are excreted.

## Function of fats in the body

Fats are an energy-giving food group. They help the body absorb and process the vitamins A, D, E and K (which are fat soluble). In addition, fats are building blocks for hormones. Fats also help to protect our vital organs, which would be easier to damage without them, and they function as insulators that help us maintain the correct body temperature.

## Consumption of fats

Fatty acids chains become part of the cell membranes upon consumption, and a combination of the stiff single-bonded chains and the fluid poly-bonded chains is needed for optimal cell function. In other words, both saturated and unsaturated fats are very necessary to the body. Despite this, there seems to be a general misconception about the nature of saturated fats and its detrimental effects, owing to the advice of health professionals to avoid this type of fat. In actuality, it is simply the disproportionate amount of saturated fat in processed foods that leads to a virtually guaranteed baseline consumption of saturated fats, and that necessitates actively consuming unsaturated fats.

## Sources

http://lazysupply.co/saturated-and-unsaturated-fat-diagram.html

https://kidshealth.org/en/kids/fat.html
The Doppler Effect in Astronomy

The Doppler Effect in Astronomy

Astronomers may use the information in the shift in frequency of electromagnetic waves produced by moving stars in our galaxy and beyond in order to derive correct information about those stars. The theory that the universe is expanding is actually based on the electromagnetic waves emitted by stars beyond our galaxy. Specific information about these stars can be determined by applying the Doppler effect. Since galaxies are ususally clusters of stars moving around a central point, electromagnetic radiation emitted by such stars in a distant galaxy would appear to be shifted down in frequency if a star in its cluster is moving away from Earth. If the star would be moving towards Earth, it would result in an upward shift of frequency.
Photons

When explaining light and spectrums, we use photons.

A **photon** is an **elementary particle** and a **quantum** of electromagnetic energy. Photons do not have a real size, and can not be split, only created or destroyed. Light sources will emit light in bits, and these bits are photons. Photons are "packets", and contain a certain little bit of energy. The more photons a light source reflects or sends back, the brighter the light will be. The energy of the photon depends on its wavelength.

## Definitions

**Photon** elementary particle, light quantum of electromagnetic energy

**Elementary particle** simplest and smallest particles that make up everything in the universe

**Quantum** "how much" in latin, defined as smallest discrete amount of a unit or something
Saturated fats

In a saturated fat's chemical structure there are no double bonds between carbon molecules. Saturated fats are "saturated" with hydrogen atoms, which means every carbon atom in the hydrocarbon molecules are filled with hydrogen atoms. By comparison, unsaturated fat has double bindings which means the carbon atoms bind to each other instead of binding to hydrogen atoms, and thus not completely saturated with hydrogen atoms.

In some studies consuming to much saturated fats indicate high blood cholesterol and worsen lipid profiles. Lipid profiles is something that determines whether your cholesterol is high and estimate your risk of developing heart disease.

The American Heart Associations studies reveals that consuming saturated fat raises cholesterol levels in your blood, increasing risk for cardiovascular problems and Alzheimer’s disease. Setting aside saturated fat can also decrease your risk for obesity, diabetes, and cancer.
Batterier

I kjemi blir et enkelt galvanisk element ofte kalt et element, mens to eller flere elementer som er koblet sammen, kalles et batteri. Jo lengere fra hverandre i spenningsrekka, desto høyere blir spenningen mellom dem. Dette er blant annet hvorfor litium er et attraktivt metall å bruke i batterier.

**Batterityper - ems og kapasitet**

Den elektromotoriske spenningen (emsen) til batteriet er den spenningen vi måler når batteriet ikke er i bruk. Den er bestemt av hvilke metaller som er negativ og positiv pol. Med høy spanning kan elektronene i strømmkretsen overføre mer energi.

De vanligste batteriene kommer i forskjellige størrelser: AAA, AA, C og D. Ems-en er den samme (1,5V), men et D-batteri varer for eksempel nesten ti ganger så lenge som et AA-batteri, så batterikapasiteten er derfor større.

**Engangsbatterier og ladbare batterier**

De enkleste og billigste batteriene er som regel ikke ladbare. De er laget for at de skal bli kastet når de er tomme (*lever brukte batterier tilbake til forhandleren eller til en miljøstasjon).* De er enkle å bruke og tilgjengelig over hele verden.

Ladbare batterier er laget sånn at de kjemiske reaksjonene som skjer i hvert av polene kan reverseres med hjelp av elektrolyse. Ladbare batterier er som regel dyrere enn engangsbatterier, men det kan være verdt pengene siden du kan lade de opp mange ganger. Når man lader et batteri er det viktig å bruke en spenning som er tilpasset til batteriet for å unngå å skade det.
Function in the body

***Protein*** is very important for the body, as the body needs proteins to function. Proteins have many different tasks, they provide energy, and maintain and protect the bodies functions. Proteins are also responsible for many of the chemical reactions in the body.

***Hemoglobin*** is a protein which binds the oxygen molecules to the red blood cells. The red blood cell transports the oxygen through the body and provides the cells with the oxygen, as they need this to function.

An ***antibody*** is a protective protein produced by the immune system as a response to the presence of an antigen, which is a foreign substance in the body. These substances are for example toxic materials and disease-causing organisms such as venom. Antibodies are produced in the plasma cells of the body, and they are found in the blood, and outside of the blood veins, such as in the mucosal. When an unknown substance enters the body, it is recognized as foreign because the molecules on the surface of an antigen is different from those found in the body. The antibodies' task is to recognize and latch onto antigens. They don't destroy the bacteria themselves, but send signals to cells so that they can destroy the bacteria. Interestingly, antibodies are very specific in the sense that a specific antibody reacts only to a specific antigen.

Moreover, some ***hormones*** are also proteins. For instance, insulin.

***Enzymes*** are proteins which function as a catalyst in the cells. They regulate the chemical reactions in the body, and make sure they go as they should. For example, they catalyze cell metabolism. This includes helping the body with the digestion of food. They break the food into smaller molecules, and conserve and transform the energy. In addition, some inherited human diseases come from a deficiency of a particular enzyme.

Workes sited:

Britannia.com. "Antibody". https://www.britannica.com/science/antibody

Morten Harboe. Store Norske Leksikon. (18/05/2018) "Antistoffer". https://sml.snl.no/antistoffer

Brandt, H., Hushovd, O. T., & Tellefsen, C. W. (2016). *Naturfag SF.* Oslo: Aschehoug.
Biomass

Biomass is an important source of energy for about half of the human population. Biomass is in essence organic materials that can be used to create heat and fuel when they combust. It is considered a CO2-neutral and renewable resource.

## Types of biomass

Lumber, hay, manure, organic waste from landfills and sewage are all amongst what we use as biomass today. Additionally, biogases, such as methane, can be used as fuel, for instance in buses. Bioalcohols like bioethanol and biomethanol, as well as biodiesel, are all examples of liquid biofuels that are often used in transportation. These can be derived from oils that are also produced for food, such as rapeseed oil.

## Sustainability

As long as we don't extract biomass as fuel in large quantities at a time or too quickly, it can be considered a form of renewable energy, because our supplies can be replenished as long as plants can grow and organic waste is created. This gives it an edge over fossil fuel, because it's not something that will ever run out with conscientious usage.

### CO2 neutrality

   Even though carbon dioxide is released with the combustion of biomass, it is considered a *CO2-neutral r*esource because the carbon dioxide that is released is used back up when the resource is replenished, for instance through plants growing. In other words, no more carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere when we use biomass as fuel.

## The problem with biomass as a resource

Despite the CO2 neutral aspect of biomass, it is still not a perfect source of renewable or eco-friendly energy. The problem lies in the collection and production of the biomass, which is often not done through completely sustainable means. That means that the use of biomass (because that includes how we manufacture them) often releases carbon dioxide, even though the act of burning them doesn't increase atmospheric carbon load. An example of this is for instance that the machines we use to cut down trees that will be used as biomass may run on fuel derived from fossil energy, as well as the cars used to transport them and the storage facilities for the biomass. In this way, we do release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, even with a renewable energy source.

This is also an issue because it means that biomass isn't a good competitor or replacement for fossil fuel usage, as we need the fossil fuel to be able to use biomass in the first place. However, most people will agree that the lesser release of carbon dioxide compared to from fossil fuels makes using them a good first step in avoiding fossil fuels (and eventually cutting them out altogether), and thereby also the enormous carbon dioxide emissions that follow.

## Sources

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwij\_93DssXiAhUKuIsKHQEoAhkQjhx6BAgBEAM&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eia.gov%2Fenergyexplained%2F%3Fpage%3Dbiomass\_home&psig=AOvVaw0plSt1XL92b812IkB7SBeN&ust=1559379241142467

http://www.biomasspackaging.com/education/carbon-neutrality/
28

My breakfast is relatively healthy as it consists of various foods that give me a balance in how much protein, fat, carbohydrates and energy I consume according to my needs. The energy consumed during my breakfast accounts for roughly 24% of my needs, carbohydrates consumed account for 18%, fats consumed account for 23% and proteins consumed account for 23% of my total needs. Furthermore, my breakfast could be improved by consuming more fat through additions like cod liver oil, or by consuming natural fruits instead of juices. Through adding more fruits I will consume more vitamins, and especially now during the winter thats really important.
22

Yoghurt

 Fett
 Karbohydrater
 Protein

Frokosten min består som regel av yogurt, enkelte ganger har jeg drysset litt havregryn eller musli over, andre ganger har jeg ikke det. I dag skal jeg ta utgangspunkt i kun yoghurt. Jeg spiser omtrent 3 dl(350g) yoghurt til frokost. Dette tilsvarer tallene som kan sees i den tredje kolonnen i tabellen øverst. En vanlig frokost burde inneholde ca. 300 kcal så jeg har fortsatt litt å gå på der. Med frokostblandingen vil jeg regne med at frokosten min inneholder omtrent det riktige antallet kaloriene man skal få i seg i frokosten.
Heritage

Sex chromosomes

Sex-linked heritage

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) var en av de første arveforskerne, og var en pioner innen genetikk og arvelære. Han brukte erteplanter til å utforske og forklare nedarving av egenskaper fra generasjon til generasjon.

Genetikk - læren om hvordan gener blir overført fra én generasjon til den neste.

Kromosomer og gener finnes i par.I alle kroppsceller er det 46 DNA-molekyler; kromosomer, hvorav 23 er fra mor og 23 er fra far. Disse er parret opp i kromosompar, og vi har dermed 23 par. Ett av kromosomene i paret er fra mor, mens det andre er fra far. De to genene i et genpar blir også kalt alleler.

Det er to typer celledeling; mitose og meiose (reduksjonsdeling).
Avl

Avl kan også kalles "kunstig utvalg". Dette har blitt brukt av mennesker i flere tusen år. På grunn av den genetiske varisjonen ved kjønnet formering og mutasjoner, har individer alltid ulike egenskaper. Dyr eller planter med ønskede egenskaper blir plukket ut og avlet videre. Denne metoden er veldig omstendig og tar lang tid. et eksempel på dette er platen villkål som har blitt avlet til hodekål, rosenkål, kålrot, grønnkål, brokkoli og blomkål.
Minerals

## **What is a mineral?**

A mineral is an element our body needs in order to function, as it assists our body in essential processes. Our daily intake of minerals varies from a few micrograms to about a gram (Store Medisinske Leksikon, 2018), depending on the mineral itself- whether the mineral in question is a macronutrient or micronutrient. As ingesting pure minerals is fatal, we need to consume them as organic molecules in food or liquids and include certain products in our diet to cover our daily need for certain elements.

## **What happens if we don't get enough of them?**

With minerals it is important to achieve a balance of not having to much or too little of any minerals. What happens when you dong get enough of a certain mineral depends on exactly what minerals it is.

**Calcium (Ca)**

When you have calcium deficiencies your teeth and bones will start deteriorating as your body uses their calcium stores for other vital functions, like forming new cell membranes and muscle contraction. When your body starts using calcium reserves it will put you at risk for the bone disease osteoperosis.

**Sodium(Na)**

Sodium deficiency can lead to a dangerous condition called hyponatremia. Mild symptoms of hyponatremia include headaches, nausea and poor balance while severe symptoms include seizures and coma.

**Potassium(K)**

Potassium deficiency is know as hypokalaemia, symptoms include fatigue, leg cramp and constipation. hypokalaemia increases the risk of an abnormal heath rhythm, and can lead to cardiac arrest.

**Magnesium(Mg)**

When the body does not get enough magnesium and has a magnesium imbalance there are different symptoms. The symptoms of magnesium deficiency include nystagmus, seizures, tremors and cardiac arrest.
16

## Breakfast Project - 16

### Is this a healthy breakfast?

According to the USDA's recommendation of lean meats, whole-grain foods, low-fat dairy and produce, I, today, fulfilled only two of the four requirements. It should be noted, however, that I would typically drink milk instead of fruit juice, but we had run out, so consuming more dairy products is not a necessary goal for me in itself. Overall, I feel it would benefit me to introduce more fruits and vegetables into my diet.

The general consensus among nutritionists seems to be that a healthy breakfast has fiber, whole grain and some source of lean protein. My meal today complies nicely with these guidelines, at least in terms of WHAT I should eat.

How much, on the other hand, is greatly disputed, and there seem to be big differences in what you should do based on what you are trying to achieve. Googling "healthy breakfast" reveals mostly articles on weight loss and dieting, which is not strictly relevant to me and my health at this time. Most lifestyle and fitness blogs, in particular American ones, recommend that women have breakfasts that are between 300 and 400 calories. According to this information, I should eat more in general, so a healthy breakfast for me would be a larger one. However, I am not yet the adult woman the numbers may apply to, so it could be argued that a slightly smaller breakfast is okay, especially considering I do not do very much physical activity and do not necessitate significant amounts of energy beyond those in the recommendations.

### Sources

http://www.matvaretabellen.no/cod-liver-oil-moellers-tran-08.008

https://kolonial.no/produkter/425-lerum-lerum-solbaersirup-15l/?gclid=CjwKCAjwgabeBRBuEiwACD4R5v5bi3TfLv7AwJ4ojkBVWjHfdjEOI7YXkwfKvFLrHPg8O9zN5jeEIRoCTfMQAvD\_BwE

http://www.prior.no/produktkatalog/palegg/kyllingfil-paprikaurter-100g/

https://www.mollerens.no/produkt/mollerens-solsikkebrod/

https://www.mollers.no/produkt/mollers-tran/

www.eatingwell.com/article/277628/what-makes-a-healthy-breakfast/

https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/toolkit\_serving.pdf
Different ways of modifying cells

**Microinjection**

Microinjection is the injection of DNA into another cell at a microscopic level. Genetic material is directly injected into a cell through a glass micropipette. Microinjection is one of the least effective methods of modifying cells because the low probability of the cells accepting the injected genes.

**Virus**

Certain genes are injected into the virus and then injected into the cell. When the cell attacks the virus, the virus-DNA with the new genes are transferred to the cell.

**Genepistol**

A genepistol directly shoots genes attached to small, golden bullets into a cell. It is neither effective or precise whether the genes are shot into the right place or if they are accepted at all.
Treatment of cancer

Ionizing radiation is often used in treatment of cancer. At high doses, the radiation can kill cancer cells or slow the development by damaging its DNA. The tricky part of radiation treatment is to kill all the cancer cells without harming the normal healthy cells. Therefore the radiation must aim as much as possible at the cancer cells. Radiation treatment will not kill the cells right away. It can take a few days to weeks damaging its DNA enough for it to die. The cancer cells will continue to die after the treatment. The cancer cells DNA will be damaged beyond repair, die or stop dividing. When they die they will be broken down and removed from the body.

Today, fifty percent of cancer patients get some form of radiation treatment to kill cancer cells. There are two main radiation treatment, external beam and internal. The type of radiation treatment that a person get depends.

**External Beam Radiation Treatment**

External beam radiation treatment is used by a machine which sends out ionizing radiation. Multiple ionizing radiation will aim on the cancer tumour for a high radiation dose. Not only does the cancer tumour receive radiation, but also the healthy cells behind and in front of the tumour. But because it only receives radiation from one angle it does not cause much damage in contrary to the cancer tumour which receives radiation from multiple angles.

**Internal Radiation Treatment**

Internal radiation is done by putting or consuming a source of radiation in your body. The radiation source may be injected in your blood and the cancer tumour will receive radiation from inside your body
Forbrenning

The process of combustion is a chemical reaction when burning a substance. It is a process in which the fuel (hydrocarbon) reacts quickly with oxygen (the oxidiser), giving off heat. New chemicals are created as a result: CO2 + water / CO + soot depending on the type of combustion: incomplete/complete.

Complete oxidation: The complete oxidation of fuel, producing high amounts of energy. It occurs where there is sufficient oxygen present. As major byproducts it produces CO2 and H2O. Creates a blue-coloured flame.

Incomplete oxidation: The partial oxidation of fuel, producing low amounts of energy. It occurs where there is not enough oxygen present and produces CO, carbon dust, and H20 as major byproducts. Also creates a yellow-coloured flame.
Gamma ray

## Gamma Radiation

Gamma is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Gamma rays are the most energetic form of radiation, and they have very short wavelengths, being less than one tenth of a nanometer. It is one of the three types of natural radioactivity, along with alpha and beta radiation. Gamma waves are produced by the hottest and most energetic objects in the universe, such as supernova explosions, regions around black holes and neutron stars and pulsars. The more local methods of creating gamma waves are. Nuclear explosions, lighting and radioactive decay.

### How to detect it

As opposed to x-rays and optical light, gamma rays can’t be captured and reflected through the use of mirrors. The wavelengths in gamma radiation are so small that they can pass through the space between the atoms of detectors. To detect gamma-rays you will usually need to use a special detector specifically for gamma-rays. These machines contain very densely packed crystal blocks. The gamma-rays that pass through the blocks collide with the electrons, this process is called Compton scattering. The gamma-ray strikes an electron and loses energy, this process creates particles that can be detected by the sensor.
Infared Radiation

**Infrared radiation**

Infrared radiation is commonly referred to as heat radiation. The wavelength of infrared radiation is slightly longer than that of visible light. The wavelength is between 1 mm and 0.00007 mm. All objects radiate heat radiation. Objects send out more heat radiation as they get warmer. Therefore, hot objects send out more energy than cold ones. Heat radiation is also a factor that could lead to global warming, seeing as the earth also sends out heat waves.

Infrared radiation has many uses. Common uses include night vision, meteorology and thermography.
Spenningsrekka

**Ems og metallenes spenningsrekke**

Jo lengere fra hverandre metallene står i spenningsrekka, desto høyere blir spenningen (ems-en) mellom dem.

Li, Na, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb, **H**, Cu, Ag, Hg, Au, Pt

Det metallet som står lengst til venstre i spenningsrekka (uedle metaller), blir negativ pol. Disse metallatomene vil gjerne avgi elektroner. Ioner av metallene til høyre i spenningsrekka (edle metaller) vil derimot gjerne ta opp elektroner, og de blir positiv pol.
20

My Breakfast

 Apple
 Sum

My normal breakfast is usually one oatmeal with a piece of fruit, in this case an apple. I Feel like this breakfast could easily become a bit small and repetitive over time. I think it could be smart to change it up now and then, and maybe eat a slice of bread instead of oatmeal everyday.
Alexander Litvinenko

Alexander Valterovich Litvinenko was a Russian security agent. He joined the Russian army and in 1988 he joined the KGB (Comittee for State Security). In 1991 he joined the moved to the Federal Security Service (FSB) where he fought against terrorism and organized crime. He was arrested and imprisoned in Moscow where he was charged for "exceeding his authority at work". He was aquitted and escaped to London.

In 2006, Litvinenko began investigating the death of the journalist Anna Politskovkaya. On 1st of November he met a former KGB member and an Italian academic at a hotel in London. The day after he was admittet to the hospital. Two weeks later it was announced that there was a possibility that he had been posioned with Thallium.

Alexander Litvinenko died on November 23rd 2006. It was later confirmed that he had been poisoned by a radioactive material.
Uncertainty and sources of error

It is vital that we know that no instruments create entirely precise measurements. We can't say with absolute certainty that there is only one answer to what we're trying to figure out regardless. The result we get will depend on how we carry out the measurement. If we are for example are trying to measure the width of a glass, our result will depend on which two points of the glass we measure between.

There are also errors with measurement devices. They often have limits to how accurate they can express a result. Sometimes devices can be broken or used incorrectly, giving an inaccurate result.

There are several steps one can take to combat the naturally occurring uncertainty. One can for example take several measurements and see how much or little the results vary. One could also use different devices, especially if they are very unsure about the results they've received. It is important that if you have received varying results or unexpected results, that you try to justify why that may be the case. Remaining critical to your results and measuring devices will often conclude in a better result.
Stem cells

Stem cells are special cells able to renew themselves and replace dead cells.

There are four different types of stem cells:

* Totipotent
	+ Can create all cell types
* Pluripotent
	+ Can create many cell types, but not all
* Multipotent
	+ Can only develop into a few cell types
* Unipotent
	+ Can only develop into one cell type - muscle stem cells
15

Breakfast Club

 Cheese
 tomato
 orange juice

Although I don't eat breakfast very often, this is something I would eat in a normal breakfast. In total my breakfast adds up to about 658 calories. Generally people should eat about 400 calories for breakfast, so this just about goes over the mark. I would consider it healthy to a certain extent, surely some things could be exchange in order to make this healthier.
Half-life

Half-life is how much time it takes exactly one half of a radioactive sample to decay. Say you have 100 grams of a certain element radioactive element. The half life of that element is the time it takes for half of it to decay, leaving you with 50 grams of the original sample.

For example, Radon-222 has a half life of 3.83 days. If we had 100 grams of radon-222, it would take 3.83 days for half the sample to decay, leaving us with 50g of radon-222. If we waited for another 3.83 days for the 50g sample to decay them we would be left with 25g. If we waited another 3.83 days then there would be 12,5 grams of radon-222 left.. and so on.