Notes on "General Systems Theory"

General
System Theory Foundations, Development, Applications

by Ludwig von Bertalanff

systems theory-originally intended to overcome current
**overspecialization**

A steam engine, automobile, or radio receiver was within the
competence of the engineer trained in the respective specialty. But when it
comes to ballistic missiles or space vehicles, they have to be assembied from
components originating in heterogeneons technologies, mechanical,
electronic, chemical, etc.; relations of man and machine come into play; and
innumerable financial, economic, social and politica! problems are thrown into
the bargain. Again, air or even automobile traffic are not just a matter of the
number of vehicles in operation, but are systems to be planned or arranged – *growing complexity of life and technology necessitates a*
“systems” approach

It is a change in basic categories of thought of which the complexities
of modern technology are only one-and possibly not the most important
manifestation. In one way or another, we are forced to deal with complexities,
with "wholes" or "systems," in all fields of knowledge.

social phenomena must be considered as "systems"

Contemplating contemporary history in the making, it is
difficult to ascribe its irrationality and bestiality solely to individuals
(unless we grant them a superhurnan-or subhuman-capacity for malice and
stupidity). Rather, we seem to be victims of "historical
forces"-whatever this may mean. Events seem to involve more than just
individual decisions and actions and to be determined more by socio-cultural
"systems"

systems analysis treating "organization as a system of
mutually dependent variables"· therefore "modern organization theory
leads almost inevitably into a discussion of general system theory" – *theory of organization demands systems theory*

On the history of Systems Theory

Although the term "system" itself was not
emphasized, the history of this concept includes many illustrious names. As
"natural philosophy," we may trace it back to Leibniz; to Nicholas of
Cusa with his coincidence of opposites; to the mystic medicine of Paracelsus;
to Vico's and ibn-Kaldun's vision of history as a sequence of cultural entities
or "systems"; to the dialectic of Marx and Regel, to mention but a
few narnes from a rich panoply of thinkers. The literary gourmet may remember
Nicholas of Cusa's De ludo globi (1463; cf. von Bertalanffy, 1928b) and Hermann
Hesse's Glasperlenspiel, both of them seeing the working of the world reflected
in a cleverly designed, abstract game.

The present author, in the early 20's, became puzzled about
obvious lacunae in the research and theory of biology. The then prevalent
mechanistic approach just mentioned appeared to neglect or actively deny just
what is essential in the phenomena of life. He advocated an organismic
conception in biology which emphasizes consideration of the organism as a whole
or system, and sees the
main objective of biological sciences in the discovery of the principles of
organization at its various levels. The author's first statements go
back to 1925-26

GST attempts at “higher generality than that in the special
sciences”.

The Society for General Systems Research was organized in
1954 to further the development of theoretical systems which are applicable to
more than one of the traditional departments of knowledge. Major functions are
to: (l) investigate the isomorphy of concepts, laws, and models in various
fields, and to help in useful transfers from one field to another; (2)
encourage the development of adequate theoretical models in the fields which
lack them; (3) minimize the duplication of theoretical effort in different
fields; (4) promote the unity of science through improving communication among
specialists.

three fundamental contributions appeared at about the same
time: Wiener's Cybernetics (1948), Shannon and Weaver's information theory
(1949) and von Neumann and Morgenstern's game theory (1947)

the universe was based on the operation of anonymous
particles moving at random, in a disorderly fashion, giving rise, by their
multiplicity, to order and regularity of a statistical nature, as in classical
physics and gas laws

Following Kuhn (1962), a scientific
revolution is defined by the appearance
of new conceptual schemes or "paradigms." These bring to the
fore aspects which previously were not seen ór perceived,vor even suppressed in
"normal" science, i.e., science generally accepted and practiced at
the time. Hence there is a
shift in the problems
noticed and investigated and a change of the rules of scientific practice

*2* The Meaning of General System Theory

In many cases, isomorphic laws hold for certain classes or
subclasses of "systems," irrespective of the nature of the entities
involved. *There appear to exist general system laws which apply to any system*
of a certain type, irrespective of the particular properties of the system and
of the elements involved. These considerations lead to the postulate of a new
scientific discipline which we call general system theory. lts subject matter
is formulation of principles that are valid for "systems" in general,
whatever the nature of their component elements and the relations or
"forces" between them

major aims of general system theory:

(1) There is a general tendency towards integration in the
various sciences, natural and social.

(2) Such integration seems to be centered in a general
theory of systems. . .

(3) Such theory may be an important means for aiming at
exact theory in the nonphysical fields of science.

(4) Developing unifying principles running vertically
through the universe of the individual sciences, this theory brings us nearer
to the goal of the unity of science. . . . .

(5) This can lead to a much-needed integration of scientific
education

So, goal of “systems theory” is
unity of science

definition of a system: a "set of elements standing
in interaction"

the violent contradiction between Lord Kelvin's degradation
and Darwin's evolution, between the law of dissipation in physics and the law
of evolution in biology. According to the second principle of thermodynamics,
the general trend of events in physical nature is toward states of maximum
disorder and levelling down of differences, with the so-called heat death of
the universe as the final outlook, when all energy is degraded into evenly distributed
heat of low temperature, and the world process comes to a stop. In contrast,
the living world shows, in embryonic development and in evolution, a transition
towards higher order, heterogeneity, and organization. Being the basis of the
theory of open systems, the apparent contradiction between entropy and evolution
disappears. In all irreversible processes, entropy must increase. Therefore,
the change of entropy in closed systems is always positive; order is
continually destroyed. In open systems, however, we have not only production of
entropy due to irreversible processes, but also import of entropy which may
well be negative

mechanisms of a feedback nature are the base of teleological
or purposeful behavior in man-made machines as well as in living organisms, and
in social systems

you cannot conceive of a living organism, not to speak of
behavior and human society, without taking into account what variously and
rather loosely is called adaptiveness, purposiveness, goal-seeking and the like – *understanding a goal is the most essential in*
understanding an organism*.*

Also, a social system: capitalist
system is understood by the formula of Marx. Our system: Убил – Вошел во власть – Украл
(урвал) – Убежал. Существуют и другие формы, как то капиталистическое пр-во,
бюрократическое (ради отчета), и др., но они вторичные или третичные. Главное что
творится – это большая кража и передел собственности.

Characteristic of organization, whether of a living organism
or a society, are notions like those of *wholeness, growth, differentiation,*
hierarchical order, dominance, control, competition*, etc. Such notions do not*
appear in conventional physics

A unifying conception of the world can be based on
isomorphism of laws governing different systems.

The unifying principle is that we find *organization* at all
levels (of the Universe)

we need men who practice science - not a particular science,
in a word, we need scientific generalists (Bode et al., 1949).

Conventional education in physics, biology, psychology or
the social sciences treats them as separate domains, the general trend being
that increasingly smaller subdomains become separate sciences, and this process
is repeated to the point where each specialty becomes a triflingly small field,
unconnected with the rest. In contrast, the educational demands of training
"Scientific Generalists"

Our knowledge of the laws of physics is excellent, and
consequently our technological control of inanimate nature almost unlimited.
Our knowledge of biological laws is not so far advanced, but suflicient to
allow for a good amount of biological technology in modern medicine and applied
biology. It has extended the life expectancy far beyond the limits allotted to
human beings in earlier centuries or even decades. The application of the
modern methods of scientific agriculture, husbandry, etc., would well suffice
to sustain a human population far surpassing the present one of our planet.
What is lacking, however, is knowledge of the laws of human society, and
consequently a sociological technology

3. Some
System Concepts in Elementary Mathematical Consideration

A system can be defined as a complex of interacting elements
– to discuss “Restoration” in the ex-USSR in isolation
from rest of the world is a non-systematic approach. It can be seen only as a
stage.

there is true finality or purposiveness, meaning that the
actual behavior is determined by the foresight of the goal. This is the
original Aristotelian concept. It presupposes that the future goal is already
present in thought, and directs the present action.

demograpbic dynamics may he developed homologous to
mechanical dynamics (Volterra, cf. d'Ancona, 1939). A principle of minimum
action may he found in various fields, in mechanics, in physical chemistry as
Le Chatelier's principle which, as may he proved, is also valid for open
systems, in electricity as Lenz's rule, in population theory according to
Volterra, etc. A principle of relaxation oscillations occurs in physical
systems as well as in many biological phenomena and certain models of
population dynamics. A general theory of periodicities appears as a desideratum
of various fields of science

The existence of laws of similar structure in different
fields makes possible the use of models which are simpler or better known
for more complicated and less manageable phenomena

*If an object is a system, it must have certain general*
system characteristics, irrespective of what the system is otherwise

**analogies**i.e., superficial similarities of phenomena which
correspond neither in their causal factors nor in their relevant laws

**homologies** Such are present when the efficient factors are
different, but the respective laws are formally identical. Such homologies are
of considerable importance as conceptual models in science. They are frequently
applied in physics. Examples are the consideration of heat flow as a flow of a
heat substance, the comparison of electrical flow with the flow of a fluid…

the question whether a hypothetico-deductive system
embracing all sciences from physics to biology and sociology may ever be
established

Unity of Science is granted, not by a utopian reduction of
all sciences to physics and chemistry, but by the structural uniformities of
the different levels of reality

4 Advances
in General System Theory

"system" - a complex of interacting components

This development is closely connected with modern
automation - *how? Automation implies a system. To "automate" means to organize a system to function by itself, independently of a human operator.*

the main function of theoretical models in the explanation,
prediction and control of hitherto unexplored phenomena

5 The
Organism Considered as Physical System

the organism as a whole, it shows characteristics similar to
those of systems in equilibrium

The organism is not a closed, but an open system. We term a
system "closed" if no material enters or leaves it; it is called
"open" if there is import and export of material

The organism grows when building-up surpasses breaking-down,
and becomes stationary, when both processes are balanced.

6 The Model
of Open System

In a living being innumerable chemical. and physical
processes are so "ordered" as to allow the living system to persist,
to grow, to develop, to reproduce, etc.

The model of open systems is applicable to many problems and
fields of biology

In an open system increase of order and decrease of entropy
is thermodynamically possible. The magnitude, "informatiön," is
defined by an expression formally identical with negative entropy. However, in
a closed feedback mechanism information can only decrease, never increase,
i.e., information can be transformed into "noise," but not vice versa

Order is the basis of organization and therefore the most
fundamental problem in biology.

As is well-known, information is defined by a term formally
identical with negative entropy, thus indicating a correspondence between the two different theoretical
systems of thermodynamics and of information theory. Elaboration of a
dictionary, as it were, for translating the language of thermodynamics into
that of information theory and vice versa, would seem to be the next step. – *Information technology is the next step after mechanics*

The mechanistic concept of nature dominant so far
emphasized the resolution of happenings into linear causal chains; a conception
of the world as a result of chance events, and a physical and Darwinistic
"play of dice" (Einstein); the reduction of biologica! processes to
laws known from inanimate nature. In contrast to this, in the theory of open
systems (and its further generalization in general system theory), principles of
multivariable interaction (e.g., reaction kinetics, fluxes and forces in
irreversible thermodynamics) become apparent, a dynamic organization of
processes and a possible expansion of physical laws under consideration of the
biological realm. Therefore, these developments form part of a new formulation
of the scientific world view.

7 Some
Aspects of System Theory in Biology

Bohr's model of the atom was one of the most arbitrary
simplifications ever conceived-but nevertheless became a cornerstone of modern
physics. *Oversimplifications progressively corrected in subsequent development*
are the most potent, indeed the only means toward conceptual mastery of
nature - this is true also for construction of things, e.g. boat, robots.

“Categories” point to higher
generalizations that exist in every system of knowledge, every system of
culture. E.g.

The models of both open system and feedback apply to a wide range of phenomena in
physiology, and represent essential expansions of physical theory

8 The System
Concept in the Sciences of Man

The 19th and first half of the 20th century conceived of **the world as chaos**. Chaos
was the oft-quoted blind play of atoms which, in mechanistic and positivistic
philosophy, appeared to represent ultimate reality, with life as an accidental
product of physical processes

Now we are looking for another basic outlook on the world - **the world as organization**.
Such a conception-if it can be substantiated-would iudeed change the basic
categories upon which scientific thought rests, and profoundly influence
practical attitudes. This trend is marked by the emergence of a bundle of new
disciplines such as cybernetics, information theory, general system theory,
theories of games, of decisions, of queuing and others; in practical
application, systems analysis, systems engineering, operations research, etc.
They are different in basic assumptions, mathematical techniques and aims, and
they are often unsatisfactory and sometimes contradictory. They agree, however,
in being concerned, in one way or the other, with "systems,"
"wholes" or "organization"; and in their totality, they
herald a new approach.

One leading concept is the stimulus-response scheme

A second principle is that of environmentalism which states,
in accordance with the S-R scheme, that behavior and personality are shaped by
outside influences

The third is the equilibrium principle. In Freudian
formulation, this is the "principle of stability": the basic function
of the mental apparatus consists in maintaining homeostatic equilibrium.
Behavior essentially is reduction of tensions, particularly those of a sexual
nature. Hence, let them release their tensions by way of promiscuity and other
tension reduction, and you will have normal and satisfied human beings.

Fourthly, behavior is governed by the principle of economy.
It is utilitarian and should be carried through in the most economie way, that
is, at minimum expense of mental or vital energy. In practice, the economie
principle amounts to the postulate of minimum demands

If life, after disturbance from outside, had simply returned
to the so-called borneostatic equilibrium, it would never have progressed
beyond the amoeba which, after all, is the best adapted creature in the
world-it has survived billions of years from the primeval ocean to the present
day. Michelangelo, implementing the precepts of psychology, should have
foliowed his father's request and gone in the wool trade, thus sparing bimself
lifelong anguish although leaving the Sistine Chapel unadorned.

I, for one, am unable to see how, for example, creative and
cultural activities of all sorts can be regarded as "response to
stimuli," "gratification of biological needs,"
"reestablishment of homeostasis" or the like. It does not look
particularly "homeostatid" when a businessman follows his restless
activities in spite of the ulcers he is developing; or when mankind goes on
inventing super-bombs in order to satisfy "biological needs."

let us understand "social science" in a broad
sense, including sociology, economics, political science, social psychology,
cultural anthropology, linguistics, a good part of history and the humanities,
etc. Let us understand "science" as a nomothetic endeavor, i.e. *not a*
description of singularities but an ordering of facts and elaboration of
generalities*.*

The reign of nature is dominated by laws progressively
revealed in science. **Are**
there laws of history? **In view of the fact that laws are relations in a**
conceptual model or theory, this question is identical with another one: apart
from description of happenings, is a theoretical history possible? If this is
possible at all, it must be an investigation of systems as suitable units of
research-of human groups, societies, cultures, civilizations, or whatever the
appropriate objects of research may be – “Revolution”,
as I understand it, consists of a long-cycle of {evolution, contradiction of productive
forces with relations of production leading to crisis, an uprising, a civil
war, a development on a new platform of relations, Thermidor, Bonapartism,
Restoration, a series of new political revolutions with the purpose of negation
of Restoration} – may be a law of human history.

Another law: a progressive
succession of human modes of production: stone based, agricultural revolution,
slave society, feudal society, capitalist society, transitional society.

The above (“first” law) describes
how the cycle proceeds; the “second” law describes a succession of the cycles.

Science is essentially a nomothetic endeavor-it establishes
laws, based on the fact that events in nature are repeatable and recurrent. In
contrast, history does not repeat itself. It has occurred only once, and
therefore, history can only be idiographic i.e., a description of events which
have occurred in a near or distant past.

Regularities in "microhistory," i.e., happenings
in limited spaces, time-spans, and fields of human activity, certainly are
vague, needy of exploration, and far from being exact statements; but their
existence is hardly disputable. The attempts at finding regularities in
"macrohistory" are almost unequivocally rejected by official history.

One point of agreement makes the issue into more than an
academic question. This issue has, as it were, touched a raw nerve, and gained
for Toynbee and Spengler both popular acclaim and an emotional reaction
otherwise uncommon in academic debate. It is the thesis expressed in Spengler's
title, The Decline of the West, the statement that in spite or perhaps because
of our magnificent technological achievements, we live in a time of cultural
decay and impending catastrophe.

"We note the psychological change in those classes of
society which had been up till then the creators of culture. Their creative
power and creative energy dry up; men grow weary and lose interest in creation
and cease to value it; they are disenchanted; their effort is no longer an
effort toward a creative ideal for the benefit of humanity, their minds are
occupied either with material interests, or with ideals unconnected with life
on earth and realized elsewhere." This is not an editorial of yesterday's
newspaper, but a description of the decay of the Roman Empire by its well-known
historian, Rostovtzeff.

9 General
System Theory in Psychology and Psychiatry

Mental disease is essentially a disturbance of system functions of the
psychophysical organism. For this reason, isolated symptoms or syndromes do not
define the disease entity

the answer whether an individual is mentally sound or not is
ultimately determined by whether he has an integrated universe consistent
within the given cultural framework

1 0 The
Relativity of Categories

the Whorfian thesis of the dependence of
categories on linguistic factors is part of a general conception of cultural
relativism