recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Northern Qiang phonology

The phonemic inventory of Northern Qiang of Ronghong village consists of 37 consonants, and eight basic vowel qualities. The syllable structure of Northern Qiang allows up to six sounds.

## Consonants

* A glottal stop [ʔ] may be heard in word-initial position when preceding vowels.
* /ɸ/ can also be heard as a labio-dental [f].
* /ʐ/ can also be heard as an alveolar [ɹ].
* /ɕ x/ can have voiced allophones of [ʑ ɣ].
* Approximants [w j] are not distinct from /i u/ but are transcribed in intervocalic position, and initially /i u/, to clarify syllable division.

## Vowels

Northern Qiang distinguishes between unstressed and long vowels (signified by two small dots, "ː") for all of its vowels except for /ə/ . In addition, there exist 15 diphthongs and one triphthong in the language of Northern Qiang.

The Northern Qiang Vowel Inventory
 High-mid
 Low-mid
 Low

There may not be a significant phonetic difference in sound between /i/ and /e/, and /u/ and /o/, respectively. In fact, they are often used in place of one another without changing the meaning.

### Diphthongs and Triphthongs

Diphthongs: ia, iɑ, ie, ye, eu, əu, ei, əi, oi, uɑ, ua, uə, ue, ui, ya

Triphthong: uəi

### R-coloring

As the Northern Qiang language becomes more endangered, the use of r-coloring is not being passed down to younger generations of the Northern Qiang people. As a result, there is great variation in its use. R-coloring is not considered its own phoneme because it is a vowel feature and only used to produce vowel harmony (see below), most commonly signifying a first person plural marking.

* Example: *mi**ʴ**wu* [person (<mi):all] 'all the people'
Open central unrounded vowel

i
y

ɨ
ʉ

ɯ
u

ɪ
ʏ

ʊ

e
ø

ɘ
ɵ

ɤ
o

e̞
ø̞

ə

ɤ̞
o̞

ɛ
œ

ɜ
ɞ

ʌ
ɔ

æ

ɐ

a
ɶ

**ä**

ɑ
ɒ

Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded

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Nso orthography

Nso uses an orthography based on the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages (AGLC). An orthography had initially been created before being modified to follow the recommendations of the AGLC.

Nso uses 23 digraphs ⟨bv, dz, gb, gh, gv, gw, jw, kf, kp, kw, mb, mf, mt, mv, nj, ns, nt, ny, ŋg, ŋk, ŋw, sh, ts⟩ et 7 trigraphs ⟨ghv, mbv, ndz, nsh, ŋgv, ŋgw, shw⟩. Long vowels are indicating by doubling the vowel ⟨aa, ee, əə, ii, oo, uu⟩. Diphthongs are noted ⟨ay, ey, əy, oy, uy, iy⟩.

The high tone is indicated with the acute accent and the low tone with the grave accent on the vowel.
Obokuitai phonology

The following discussion is based on Jenison & Jenison (1991).

Unusual phonological features of Obokuitai and other Lakes Plain languages are the complete lack of nasals, even allophones, and a series of extra high or fricativized vowels that developed from loss of a following stop consonant. Obokuitai has one of the smallest phonemic inventories in the world, equal to the Pirahã and Rotokas languages.

## Consonants

The small consonant inventory is typical of Lakes Plain languages.

Obokuitai does have some more sounds as allophones.
The voiced velar stop, [g], occurs syllable initial following a syllable final /k/. For example, /dikka/ -> [digga], 'husband of wife's sister'.

The voiced alveolar tap or flap, [ɾ], occurs between vowels in the syllable initial position and also as the second member of a consonant cluster in the syllable initial position. For example, /bɛda/ -> [bɛɾa], 'kind of sweet potato'.

## Tone

Like the other Lakes Plain languages, Obokuitai is tonal. L, H, and HL pitch contours occur on monosyllabic words. A phonological analysis of the tone system remains to be completed. However, the probable phonemic aspect of the tone is shown through the minimal triad *kuik1* 'rock', *kuik2* 'insect' (sp.) and *kuik12* 'lizard' (sp.).

## References

1. ↑ Jenison, Scott; Jenison, Priscilla (1991). "Obokuitai phonology". Workpapers in Indonesian languages and cultures. 9: 69–90.
2. ↑ UC Berkeley Phonology Lab Annual Report (2009), *The Representation of Tone*, Larry M. Hyman, University of California, Berkeley. Available online at http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/phonlab/documents/2009/Hyman\_Representation\_PLAR.pdf.
Old Turkic script

## Consonants

Synharmonic sets

Other consonantal signs

A colon-like symbol (**⁚**) is sometimes used as a word separator. In some cases a ring (**⸰**) is used instead.

A reading example (right to left): 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃/𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃 (  ) transliterated **t²ñr²i**, this spells the name of the Turkic sky god, Täñri (/tæŋri/).

## References

1. ↑ According to Gabain (1941)
2. ↑ According to Gabain (1941), not listed in Thomsen (1893)
3. ↑ According to Tekin (1968); not listed in Thomsen (1893) or Gabain (1941); Malov (1951) lists the sign but gives no sound value.
Occitan phonology

## Consonants

Below is an abstract consonant chart that covers multiple dialects. Where symbols for consonants occur in pairs, the left represents a voiceless consonant and the right represents a voiced consonant.

## Vowels

### Vowel pronunciation according to position

Note:

* The grapheme ⟨a⟩, when in final position and after the word's stress, is pronounced /ɔ/ in general (locally: /a/, /ə/).
* The grapheme ⟨á⟩ is pronounced /ɔ/ in general (locally: /e/, /ɛ/).
* Final ⟨o⟩ is generally used in loanwords, especially from Catalan, Spanish and Italian.
Nkore orthography

## Latin alphabet

* a - [a]
* b - [b]
* c - [t͡ʃ]
* d - [d]
* e - [e]
* f - [f]
* g - [ɡ/d͡ʒ]
* h - [h]
* i - [i]
* j - [ɟ]
* k - [k/t͡ʃ]
* l - [ɰ]
* m - [m]
* n - [n]
* o - [o]
* p - [p]
* q - [c]
* r - [r/ɹ]
* s - [s]
* t - [t]
* u - [u]
* v - [v]
* w - [w/ʋ]
* y - [j]
* z - [z]

* ai - [ai̯]
* br - [br/ʙ]
* ei - [ɛi̯]
* gy - [ɡj/ɡʲ]
* ky - [kj/kʲ]
* mp - [mp/ᵐp]
* mw - [ᵐw]
* nd - [nd/ⁿd]
* ng - [nɡ/ŋ/ŋɡ]
* ny - [nj/ɲ/ɲj]
* oi - [ɔi̯]
* sh - [sh/ʃ]
* ts - [t͡s]
* zh - [zh/ʒ]

D and P are only used in the digraphs *ND* and *MP* and in loanwords.

G and K are [d͡ʒ] and [t͡ʃ] before I, [k] and [g] elsewhere.
Nisga'a phonology

The phonology in Nisga'a is presented as follows:

## Vowels

The high and mid short front vowels /i/ and /e/ as well as the high and mid short back vowels /u/ and /o/ are largely found to be in complementary distribution in native Nisga'a words but these pairs of sounds contrast one another in words borrowed into the language, making them distinct.
Nivaclé phonology

Its phonemic inventory has 21 *consonants* and 8 *vowels*, including glottalized (ejective) stops and affricates, and a unique phoneme, /k͡l/.

Even within single syllables the Nivaclé consonant cluster /t/ + /ʃ/ (orthographic ⟨tsh⟩) contrasts with the alveopalatal affricate /t͡ʃ/ (orthographic ⟨ch⟩); whereas the cluster /t/ + /s/ contrasts with the alveolar affricate /ts/, both across morpheme boundaries and within single morphemes – this is unusual cross-linguistically.
Northwest Gbaya phonology

The following information is based on the 'Bodoe (Kàrà) and northern dialects:

## Consonants

* The labio-dental flap /ⱱ/ appears only in ideophonic adverbs within word-initial or intervocalic position.

## Vowels

* /w/ can be heard as centralized [ẅ] when preceding front vowels /i, e, ɛ/.

Nasal vowels
 Close-mid | ø̃ ø̃ː
 Open-mid | ɛ̃ ɛ̃ː
 Open | æ̃ æ̃ː

* /w/ is heard as nasalized [w̃] when preceding nasal vowels.
Oroha phonology

## Phonemes

The Oroha language consists of the ten consonants and five vowels presented below.

Consonant Phonemes

Vowel Phonemes

Vowels have long and short versions. Doubling a vowel elongates the sound. A <ʻ> indicates the removal of a consonant, usually [k] or [t] are usually removed. The [r] is not rolled. Oraha lack a velar nasal [ŋ]; the dental nasal [n] is used instead.

Words can sometimes be spelled differently, indicating a slightly different pronunciation as well. For example, for 'go, come', both *raa* and *ra* are written.

## Diphthongs

The diphthongs in Oroha are *ae*, *ai*, *ao*, *au*, *ei*, and *ou*.

## Syllable Structure

Oroha consists only of open syllables. There are no closed syllables.

## Reduplication

Verbs may be reduplicated to intensity the meaning of words. This may be done in three ways:

1. repetition of the first syllable; *suri* to *susuri*
2. repetition of the whole word; *horo* to *horohoro*
3. repetition of the whole word with the omission of the inner consonant in the former member. *rahi* to *rairahi*

It can also be used to form plurality of words. For example, *mere* means child while *meramera* means children.
Oral consonant

An **oral consonant** is a consonant sound in speech that is made by allowing air to escape from the mouth, as opposed to the nose, as in a nasal consonant. To create an intended oral consonant sound, the entire mouth plays a role in modifying the air's passageway. This rapid modification of the air passageway using the tongue and lips makes changes to the waveform of the sound by compressing and expanding the air. In addition to the nose and mouth, the vocal cords and lungs also make a contribution to producing speech by controlling the volume (amplitude) and pitch (frequency) of the sound. The use of the vocal cords will also determine whether the consonant is voiced or voiceless. The vast majority of consonants are oral, such as, for example [p], [w], [v] and [x]. The others are nasal, such as the nasal occlusives [m] or [ɲ].
Northern Ndebele phonology

## Consonants

Many consonant sounds may result in depressed (or breathy) allophones. Alveolar consonants, *t*, *d*, and *n*, may have dentalized allophones of [t̪ʼ, d̪, n̪]. Consonants *k* and *h* can result in allophones of [ɣ, ɣʱ] and [ɦ].

Ndebele /t͡ʃ/ generally correspond to Zulu /ʃ/.

### Click consonants

In Northern Ndebele, there are fifteen click consonants.

The five clicks spelled with a ***c*** [ǀ] are made by placing the tip of the tongue against the front upper teeth and gums, the centre of the tongue is depressed and the tip of the tongue is drawn backwards. The resulting sound is similar to the sound used in English to express annoyance.
Some examples are **cina** (end), **cela** (ask).

The five clicks spelled with a ***q*** [!] are made by raising the back of the tongue to touch the soft palate and touching the gums with the sides and tip of the tongue. The centre of the tongue is depressed and the tip drawn quickly away from the gum. The resulting sound is like the "pop" heard when quickly removing the cork from a bottle.
Some examples are **qalisa** (start), **qeda** (finish).

The five clicks spelled with a ***x*** [ǁ] are made by placing the tongue so that the back of the tongue touches the soft palate and the sides and tip of the tongue touch the gums. One side of the tongue is quickly withdrawn from the gums.
Some examples are **xoxa** (discuss), **ixoxo** (frog).

## Vowels

There are five vowel phonemes, written with the letters *a*, *e*, *i*, *o*, *u*.

* *a* is pronounced [a], approximately like *a* in father; e.g. **abantwana** (children)
* *e* is pronounced [ɛ] or [e], sometimes like *e* in bed; e.g. **emoyeni** (in the air)
* *i* is pronounced [i], like *ee* in see; e.g. **siza** (help)
* *o* is pronounced [ɔ] or [o], sometimes approximately like *o* in bone; e.g. **okhokho** (ancestors)
* *u* is pronounced [u], like *oo* in soon; e.g. **umuntu** (person)

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Shenk, J.R. *A New Ndebele Grammar*
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 NorthernNdebele at blogspot.com
Nogai alphabet

## Arabic alphabet

Before 1928 the alphabet used for the Nogai language was based on the Arabic script. It included all the letters of the Arabic plus additional symbols for the specific sounds of the Nogai. This alphabet was not widely used.

ڮ ۇ ۋ پ ںُ چ ژ گ‎

## Latin alphabet

In 1928 the Nogai alphabet based on Latin as part of the Soviet-wide Latinisation campaign. A. Sh. Dzhanibekov, a high school teacher was the author of this alphabet.

The letters **C c, I̡ ı̡, F f, H h, X x, Ƶ ƶ** were added in 1931, and the letter **S̷ s̷** in 1933. In 1936 the letters **Ç ç, Ә ә, H h, I̡ ı̡** were excluded from the alphabet.

As a result, by 1936 the Nogai alphabet had the following form:

## Cyrillic alphabet

The Nogai alphabet based on Cyrillic was created in 1938. It included all of the Russian alphabet letters except **Ё ё**, and also the digraphs **Гъ гъ, Къ къ, Нъ нъ**. The digraphs **Оь оь, Уь уь** were added in the same year. In 1944 the digraphs **Гъ гъ, Къ къ** were excluded from the alphabet. The last reform of the Nogai alphabet took place in 1950, when it attained the current form.
Oroqen phonology

## Consonants

* Allophones of /x/ are heard as [ɣ], [h].
* A bilabial /ɸ/ can also be heard as a labio-dental [f].
* A rhotic trill /r/ tends to sound as a tap [ɾ], when occurring word-finally.

## Vowels

 Near-high | ɪ ɪː
 High-mid | e eː
 Low-mid | ɛ ɛː
 Low | æ æː

* /ə, əː/ are often heard as lower sounds [ɐ, ɐː].
* Short allophones of /o, u/ are heard as [ɵ, ʉ].
Niuean phonology

[s] is an allophone of /t/ before front vowels (both long and short /i/ and /e/; this most likely arose from the affrication of /t/ to [ts] before these vowels and subsequent change of [ts] to [s]. While older foreign borrowings (such as *tī* from English *tea*) underwent this change along with (or perhaps by analogy with) native words, words borrowed into Niuean after this development retain the original [t] (for example, *telefoni* and *tikulī* from *telephone* and *degree*).

/r/ and /s/ are marginal phonemes, only appearing in foreign borrowings. Some speakers substitute [l] and [t], respectively.

## Vowels

 high

Vowel length is distinctive in Niuean; vowels are either long or short. Furthermore, two adjacent identical vowels (whether short-short, short-long, long-short, or long-long) form a *rearticulated vowel*; the sound is distinct from one long vowel.

Both short and long vowels can occur in any position.

All short vowels may combine with one another to form diphthongs. The possible diphthongs are:

* /ae/ /ai/ /ao/ /au/
* /ea/ /ei/ /eo/ /eu/
* /ia/ /ie/ /io/ /iu/
* /oa/ /oe/ /oi/ /ou/
* /ua/ /ue/ /ui/ /uo/
Nostratic phonology

The phonemes tabulated below are commonly reconstructed for the Proto-Nostratic language (Kaiser and Shevoroshkin 1988). Allan Bomhard (2008), who relies more heavily on Afroasiatic and Dravidian than on Uralic, as do members of the "Moscow School", reconstructs a different vowel system, with three pairs of vowels represented as: /a/~/ə/, /e/~/i/, /o/~/u/, as well as independent /i/, /o/, and /u/. In the first three pairs of vowels, Bomhard is attempting to specify the subphonemic variation involved, inasmuch as that variation led to some of the vowel gradation (ablaut) and vowel harmony patterning found in various daughter languages.

## Consonants

The reconstructed consonants of Nostratic are shown in the table below. Every distinction is supposed to be contrastive by the Nostraticists who reconstruct them.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 These phonemes do not occur in some or most reconstructions of Proto-Nostratic. They are omitted or put in brackets in the "Sound correspondences" table below, except for \*/p/.
2. ↑ The phoneme \*/y/ appears in Bomhard but not in some other reconstructions of Proto-Nostratic.
3. ↑ Some (such as Kaiser and Shevoroshkin [1988]) regard the inconsistency in the evolution of this phoneme as evidence that it did not exist. Compare the extreme, and mysterious, rarity of its expected derivative, /b/, in Proto-Indo-European.
4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 The values of the Proto-Indo-European *\*h₁, \*h₂, \*h₃* and of the Proto-Uralic *\*x* are controversial; the only evidence for the precise values shown here comes from the comparison with other Nostratic languages.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Which phoneme appears in Proto-Indo-European depends on the vowel that followed it in Proto-Nostratic: a following /a/ kept the consonant plain (and changed itself into /e/ in the process); a following /æ/, /e/, or /i/ produced palatalization (and became /e/ in the process), except in the cases where /i/ became a diphthong; and a following /o/, /u/, or /y/ produced labialization (and again became /e/ in the process), except where /u/ became a diphthong.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 In Proto-Indo-European, all vowels became /e/ unless preceded by /ʔ/ or diphthongized or affected by ablaut. In the Afroasiatic languages, ablaut is so pervasive that it prevents reconstruction of vowels in most Proto-Afroasiastic roots; in addition, /i/ partially merged with /j/ and /u/ (at least sometimes derived from Proto-Nostratic /u/, /o/, and /y/) with /w/. Kartvelian, too, has ablaut.
Northwest Gbaya orthography

Paulette Roulon-Doko uses a uses a phonetic transcription in her works on Northwest Gbaya. The nasal vowels are noted there with the tilde under the vowel letter ⟨a̰, ɛ̰, ḭ, ɔ̰, ṵ⟩.

In Cameroon, an alphabet based on the General Alphabet of Cameroonian Languages is used, notably in the translation of the Bible into Gbaya published by the Alliance biblique du Cameroun. The nasal vowels are noted there with the cedilla under the vowel letter ⟨a̧, ɛ̧, i̧, ɔ̧, u̧⟩.
Northern Sotho phonology

## Consonants

Within nasal consonant compounds, the first nasal consonant sound is recognized as syllabic. Words such as *nthuše* "help me", are pronounced as [n̩tʰuʃe]. /n/ can also be pronounced as /ŋ/ following a velar consonant.

Urban varieties of Northern Sotho, such as Pretoria Sotho (actually a derivative of Tswana), have acquired clicks in an ongoing process of such sounds spreading from Nguni languages.

## References

1. ↑ Ethnologue.com: Languages of South Africa
Nottoway phonology

## Syllable structure

The English-based spelling Wood used makes it difficult to determine syllable structure. Most words, however, are consistent with the syllable structure (C)V(C)(C):

 CV
 CVC
 CVCC
 VC

An exception is words that begin with /kw/ (which may have been a complex segment):

There is also limited evidence that words could end in three consonants:

Consonant clusters must include /w/ or /s/, and possibly /n/. /w/ is the most common, but /s/ is still regularly seen in words like *Whisk* 'five'. The status of /n/ is uncertain since Wood used ⟨n⟩ to represent nasal vowels.

Aside from *Whisk* 'five', most content words are multisyllabic.
Niuafoʻou phonology

The phonology of Niuafoʻou is similar to that of Tongan, with 24 consonants and 16 vowel phonemes.

## Consonants

Sometimes the phoneme /t/ is realized as a apico-alveolar flap (/ɾ/). /h/ is only realized as /h/ at the beginning of words. In the middle of words, it is either /ɦ/ or /x/.

## Vowels

Vowels are more centralized when unstressed. /i/ and /u/ are de-voiced under some conditions.

## Syllable structure

Niuafoʻou has a very simple syllable structure, (C)V. However, it is apparently transitioning towards allowing consonant clusters, due to the influence of foreign languages and the de-voicing of vowels.
Nuer phonology

A phonological analysis has yet to be done. The following consonants may therefore not all be distinct.

Voicing is not distinctive at the end of a stem, regardless of whether it's at the end of a word or utterance. Consonant clusters due to suffixes tend to be simplified.

Dental consonants are written *th dh nh* in the practical orthography. /h/ is written *ɣ*.

Vowels may be long or short, modal or breathy voiced. The latter are written with an underscore in the practical orthography, except for *u* and *ä* /ə̤/, where there is no modal-voiced vowel to contrast.

{æ}  is rare. (Curly brackets indicate the set of *æ* vowels.) Final {i}  is always breathy voiced. There does not appear to be a distinction between short *a* and *ə*. Breathy {o}  is pronounced [ʊ] or [ɵ].

Faust & Grossman did not find strong evidence for lexical or grammatical tone, with a few exceptions such as the 1sg suffix /ə̌/ and the plural suffix /nǐ/ ~ /ǐ/, which have a rising tone.
Otomi phonology

The following phonological description is that of the dialect of San Ildefonso Tultepec, Querétaro, similar to the system found in the Valle del Mezquital variety, which is the most widely spoken Otomian variety.

The phoneme inventory of the Proto-Otomi language from which all modern varieties have descended has been reconstructed as /p t k (kʷ) ʔ b d ɡ t͡s ʃ h z m n w j/, the oral vowels /i ɨ u e ø o ɛ a ɔ/, and the nasal vowels /ĩ ũ ẽ ɑ̃/.
Pangasinan phonology

## Vowels

Pangasinan has the following vowel phonemes:

In native vocabulary, /i/ and /u/ are realized as [i ~ ɪ ~ ɛ] and [u ~ ʊ ~ ɔ]. The close variants [i]/[u] are only used in stressed open syllables, while the open-mid variants [ɛ]/[ɔ] occur in open final syllables before a pause. The default variants [ɪ]/[ʊ] occur in all other environments.

Some speakers have /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ as distinct phonemes, but only in loanwords.
Poqomchiʼ phonology

## Consonants

* In Western Poqomchi', /ɓ/ is non-existent and a glottalized /wʼ/ occurs in alteration. Sometimes an allophone of /wʼ/ can be heard as [mʼ].
* /pʼ/ mainly exists among the western dialects.
* /r/ can be heard as a flap sound [ɾ] when occurring word-medially.
* If a glottal sound precedes /l/, it is then heard as a voiceless fricative [ɬ].

## Vowels

* Short allophones of vowels /i/, /ɵ/, /a o/ can be heard as [ɪ], [ʊ], [ə].
Oromo phonology

## Consonants

The Oromo language has 24 to 28 consonant phonemes depending on the dialect.

/ᶑ/ is a voiced retroflex plosive. It may have an implosive quality for some speakers.

The voiceless stops /t/ and /k/ are always aspirated.

/d/ and /t/ are dental

The velar fricative [x] is mainly used in the eastern dialect (Harar) as a phoneme. It is represented as ⟨kh⟩ in the Oromo script (*Qubee*) though it is pronounced as a ⟨k⟩ in most other dialects.

## Vowels

Oromo has five vowels which all contrast long and short vowels. Sometimes there is a change in vowel quality when the vowel is short. Short vowels tend to be more centralized than their counterparts.

Though sometimes diphthongs may occur, there are none that occur in a word's unaltered form.

Oromo Vowels

## Tone

When needed, the conventions for marking tone in written Oromo are as follows:

* acute accent - high tone
* grave accent - low tone
* circumflex - falling tone

Tones on long vowels are marked on the first vowel symbol.

In Oromo, the tone-bearing unit is the mora rather than the vowel of the syllable. A long vowel or a diphthong consists of two morae and can bear two tones. Each mora is defined as being of high or low tone. Only one high tone occurs per word and this must be on the final or penultimate mora. Particles do not have a high tone. (These include prepositions, clitic pronouns for subject and object, impersonal subject pronouns and focus markers.) There are therefore three possible "accentual patterns" in word roots.

Phonetically there are three tones: high, low and falling. Rules:

1. On a long vowel, a sequence of high-low is realized as a falling tone.
2. On a long vowel, a sequence of low-high is realized as high-high. (Occasionally it is a rising tone.)

This use of tone may be characterized as pitch accent. It is similar to that in Somali.

Stress is connected with tone. The high tone has strong stress; the falling tone has less stress and the low tone has no stress.

## Phonological processes

### Allophones

* /b/ becomes [β] between two vowels.
* /d/ becomes [ð] between two vowels.
* /k/ is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative before /n/ and /t/.
* The /k/ and /x/ (i.e. the Arabic Kha) are used interchangeably in the Borana dialect.
* In the Goma dialect, vowels are nasalized before ⟨ng⟩ and ⟨ns⟩,

### Epenthesis

When a vowel occurs in word-initial position, a glottal stop ([ʔ]) is inserted before it.

### Elision

* /n/ is dropped before /w/.
* /d t ɗ/ are dropped before /n/.

### Sandhi

Phonological changes occur at morpheme boundaries (sandhi) for specific grammatical morphemes. There may be assimilation.

* The cluster /ln/ becomes a geminated [lː].
* /bn/ becomes [mn]
* /t/ assimilates into the proceeding /d/, /ɗ/ and /tʼ/.
* /ɗ/ becomes [ɾ] between vowels
Quechan phonology

## Vowels

Quechan has five vowel phonemes, which all occur in short and long forms. Vowel length is contrastive, as shown in *ʔa·vé* "snake" versus *ʔa·vé·* "mouse".

 Close-mid | e eː
 Open-mid | ɛ ɛː
 Open | æ æː

## Consonants

The consonants in Quechan are given in the table below.

Quechan features word-medial and word-final consonant clusters. Word-medial clusters may be biconsonantal or triconsonantal, while word-final clusters only appear with two consonants.

The semivowels w and j occur as consonants when in a word-initial position, when intervocalic, and as final members of consonant clusters. They occur as vowels when in the word-final position and as initial members of vowel clusters.

## Phonological processes

A variety of processes affect the realization of sounds in Quechan, a few of which are listed below.

* kʷ is delabialized before the vowel u· as in *kwu·hamí* "the procreator", which is typically pronounced [kuːxami]. The orthography kʷ is retained because a labialized pronunciation of kʷ is accepted as over-careful.
* xʷ is similarly delabialized as in *hwu·ʔá·vənʸ* "her jealousy."
* The affricate c varies in pronunciation from a dental to an alveolar affricate. When followed by a t, c is pronounced as s, as in *aʔíctaʔa* "so they said," which is pronounced [aʔistaʔa].
* The phonemes m, n, l, and r are pronounced as long forms when preceded by an accented short vowel as in *nakkámək* "he touches."
* r is typically pronounced as [r], but when it is preceded by š and an unaccented short vowel it has a retroflex pronunciation as in *šaréq* "he grasps."
* When two of nʸ, lʸ and łʸ come into contact, the first loses its palatalization but is articulated at a slightly higher point than the corresponding unpalatalized phoneme, as in *nu·mínʸnʸa* "their passing by."
Panará phonology

## Consonants

The consonantal inventory of Panará is as follows.

The underlying nasals /m n ɲ ŋ/ are post-oralized to [mp nt ns ŋk] preceding an oral vowel or one of /w ɾ j/, as in *intwêê* /nweː/ [iˈntɥej] ‘new’.

The geminates occur both in underived roots (such as *ippẽ* /ppẽ/ [ipˈpẽ] ‘foreigner’) and at morpheme junctions, as in *tepi* /tɛp/ ‘fish’ + *ty* /tɯ/ ‘dead’ → [tɛtˈtɯ] ‘dead fish’. Consonant length is phonemic in Panará, hence the inclusion of geminates in addition to the existing Panará obstruents. A geminate is a consonant that is held for a longer period of time than a singleton consonant.
The geminates occur both in underived roots (such as *ippẽ* /ppẽ/ [ipˈpẽ] ‘foreigner’) and at morpheme junctions, as in *tepi* /tɛp/ ‘fish’ + *ty* /tɯ/ ‘dead’ → [tɛtˈtɯ] ‘dead fish’. The geminate /ss/ is realized as [t͡s] by many speakers as a sociolinguistic variation between generations. The use of [t͡s] is associated with pre-contact with the colonizers and is thus used by the older generation of Panará speakers. The younger generation uses [t͡s] as well as the geminate [ss] as the language shifts.

## Vowels

The vowel phonemes of Panará are as follows.

The vowels /oː, ɔː, õː, eː, ẽː/ are realized as the diphthongs [ow, ɔw, õw̃, ej, ẽj̃] as a result of the phonological rule long vowel diphthongization. Low vowel reduction is also used in Panará; the vowel /a/ can be reduced to [ɐ] or [ə] when unstressed.
Nisenan phonology

The phonology of Nisenan is similar to both Konkow and Maidu. Taking into account the various dialects, there appears to be a fair amount of allophones across the dialects.

## Consonants

The single affricate consonant has been most commonly described as alveolar [ts], though some sources describe it as postalveolar [tʃ]. According to the Nisenan Workbook by Alan Wallace, [tʃ] and [ts] appear in complementary distribution. For example, the word for 'ten' is transcribed as 'maacam' (/c/ being realized as [tʃ]) in Workbook #1 and 'maatsam' in Workbook #2. Similar allophony occurs between [s] and [ʃ].

/pʼ tʼ kʼ/ have been listed as ejectives (lenis ejectives according to "Central Hill Nisenan Texts with Grammatical Sketch" by Andrew Eatough) while other sources have labeled them simply as emphatic not specifying further as to how they contrast with the plain plosives. The Nisenan Workbooks depict these in transcription, though the sound guides have yet to distinguish them from the plain plosives.

One source noted an audible click with /b/ and /d/ among some older speakers of at least one dialect of one of the Maiduan languages. The sound guides in the Nisenan Workbooks hold /b/ and /d/ as voiced plosives as in English.

Some words have a double consonant (i.e. wyttee [one], dappe [coyote], konna [girl]) but it has not been made clear as to whether this is due to gemination as the double consonants in Japanese, or just simply the same consonant being on the end of one syllable and the start of the next.

## Vowels

All vowels come in long/short pairs

Long vowels are indicated by a doubling of the vowel.

/e/ is a bit lower, level with /ə/, somewhere between cardinal [e] and [ɛ]

/ɨ/ is sometimes further back, closer to cardinal [ɯ]

/u/ and /o/ are a bit lower and more centralized than the cardinal forms transcribed.
Nukuria phonology

The Nukuria language's alphabet contains five vowels: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/, and fifteen consonants: /p/,/b/,/m/,/f/,/v/,/t/,/s/,/n/,/l/,/r/,/k/,/g/,/ŋ/,/w/,/h/. There are five stops, four fricatives, three nasals, two approximants, and one trill. Of those consonants three are bilabial, two are labiodental, five are alveolar, four are velar, and one is glottal.

To provide a comparison, the Nukuria Language has seven more consonants than the Hawaiian language ('Ōlelo Hawaiʻi'): /m/,/n/,/p/,/t ~ k/,/ ʔ/, /h/,/ w~v/,and /l/. It also has five consonants more than Māori, (te reo): /p/,/t/,/k/,/wh/**,/**h/**,/**m/,/n/,/ŋ/,/r/,and /w/. Hawaiian and Māori are used for comparison because they are two of the more commonly known Polynesian Languages. In addition, the English language has twenty-four consonants and at least fourteen vowels.

The ŋ is a voiced velar nasal and is present in the suffix "ing" such as in the English word "ending". It is the "ng" sound in the words: "laughing", "crying", "hiking", "jumping" and so on.
Old Italic scripts

21 of the 26 archaic Etruscan letters were adopted for Old Latin from the 7th century BC, either directly from the Cumae alphabet, or via archaic Etruscan forms, compared to the classical Etruscan alphabet retaining B, D, K, O, Q, X but dropping Θ, Ś, Φ, Ψ, and F. (Etruscan U is Latin V; Etruscan V is Latin F.)
Pohnpeian phonology

The modern Pohnpeian orthography uses twenty letters — sixteen single letters and four digraphs — collated in a unique order:

As German missionaries designed an early form of the orthography, Pohnpeian spelling uses -h to mark a long vowel, rather like German: dohl 'mountain'. The IPA equivalents of written Pohnpeian are as follows:

Pohnpeian vowels

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 /mʷ/ and /pʷ/ are rounded before a vowel, but have unrounded allophones when in final position.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 In Pohnpeian, *i* is used to represent /j/ when written, and *u* may represent /w/.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Written Pohnpeian does not distinguish between [e] and [ɛ]: both are *e*.
Pyu phonology

Marc Miyake reconstructs the syllable structure of Pyu as:

(C.)CV(C)(H)
(preinitial) + syllable
7 vowels are reconstructed.

 High-mid
 Low-mid
 Low

Miyake reconstructs 43-44 onsets, depending on whether or not the initial glottal stop is included. Innovative onsets are:

* fricatives: /h x ɣ ç ʝ s z θ ð f v/
* liquids: /R̥ R L̥ L/
* implosive: /ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ/

10 codas are reconstructed, which are -k, -t, -p, -m, -n, -ŋ, -j, -r, -l, -w. Pyu is apparently isolating, with no inflection morphology observed.
Pitch-accent language

A **pitch-accent language** is a language that has word accents in which one syllable in a word or morpheme is more prominent than the others, but the accentuated syllable is indicated by a contrasting pitch (linguistic tone) rather than by loudness, as in a stress-accent language. Pitch-accent also contrasts with fully-tonal languages like Standard Chinese in which each syllable can have an independent tone.
Permyak phonology

In the Komi-Permyak standard language there are the same 26 main consonants and 7 vowels as in Komi-Zyryan.

## Consonants

Komi-Permyak's modern consonant system includes 26 native ones, and the additional consonants /**ts**/, /**f**/, /**x**/ in Russian loanwords. In traditional speech the "foreign sounds" were replaced with respectively /t͡ɕ/, /p/, and /k/, respectively.

1. Only in Russian loanwords.

## Vowels

The Komi-Permyak vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by three features: front and back, rounded and unrounded and vowel height.

Komi-Permyak does not distinguish between long and short vowels and does not have vowel harmony. There are no diphthongs; when two vowels come together, which occurs at some morpheme boundaries, each vowel retains its individual sound.

**Vowels**
Polci phonology

## Consonants

Polci contains 35 consonant phonemes.

/ɓ/ and /ɗ/ are implosive consonants, which are common in the languages of Sub-Saharan Africa.

## Vowels

Polci contains six vowels qualities, which can be pronounced as short or long.

Short vowels: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /ə/, and /u/

Long vowels: /aː/, /eː/, /iː/, /oː/, /əː/, and /uː/

Table 2: Polci Vowels

## Tones

Polci is a three-tone language: Lo = à; Mid = a; Hi = á.

## References

1. ↑ Caron, B. 2005: *Polci languages.*. Paper Presented at 3rd Biennial International Colloquium on the Chadic Languages, Villejuif.
Quileute phonology

Quileute has three vowels, /e/, /a/, /o/ (written as ⟨i a o⟩) long and short (pronounced [e]~[i]~[ɪ]~[ɛ], [a]~[ə], [o]~[u] when short and in non-tonic syllables), as well as /æː/ (written as ⟨a̱⟩) which only occurs long. Stress is historically penultimate, though this has become somewhat obscured and is no longer predictable. There are no nasal consonants. It has the following consonants (t͡ɬ and ɡ are rare):
Pawnee phonology

The following describes the South Band dialect.

## Consonants

Pawnee has eight consonant phonemes, and according to one analysis of medial- and final-position glottal stops, one may posit a ninth consonant phoneme.

* /ʔ/ is predictable when it occurs in the middle of words. However, since /ʔ/ is not completely predictable at the end of words, it may also need to be considered a phoneme.

## Vowels

Pawnee has four short vowel phonemes and four long counterparts (also phonemic).
Patwin phonology

## Consonants

Patwin has 24 consonant phonemes. In the table below, the IPA form(s) of each consonant are given. This is followed by the form commonly used in published Patwin linguistics literature, if this is different from the IPA form.

* /ʔ/ is a marginal phoneme, occurring exclusively at morpheme boundaries. Its distribution is not entirely predictable, however.
* Ejective and aspirated consonants occur only syllable-initially.
* Some or all of the "alveolar" consonants (both central and lateral) would be more accurately described as being retracted alveolar consonants.

## Vowels

Patwin has 16 vowels:

* Patwin vowels have a simple length distinction (short vs. long).
* All vowels are voiced and oral.
Rakahanga-Manihiki phonology

Manihiki has a rather standard Cook Islands Māori inventory, but is notable for not having any sibilant fricatives.

## Consonants

This is similar to Tongareva's phonology, but Manihiki has a glottal stop [ʔ], and the fricative [f]. Tongareva on the other hand has [s] while Manihiki lacks it, making it very uncommon among world languages.

## Vowels

 open | æ æː | a aː | ɒ ɒː

This vowel system is also typical of many Polynesian languages. Long vowels are romanized with a macron.
Qʼeqchiʼ phonology

Below are the Qʼeqchiʼ phonemes, represented with the International Phonetic Alphabet. To see the official alphabet, see the chart in the Orthographies section of this article.

## Consonants

Qʼeqchiʼ has 29 consonants, 3 of which were loaned from Spanish.

* 1 In their respective descriptive grammars of Qʼeqchiʼ, both Juan Tzoc Choc and Stephen Stewart have the bilabial implosive as a voiced /ɓ/. The report on Qʼeqchiʼ dialect variation by Sergio Caz Cho, however, only discusses this consonant as a voiceless /ɓ̥/.
* 2 The non-glottalized voiced plosives /b d ɡ/ have appeared as a result of influence from Spanish.

## Vowels

Qʼeqchiʼ has 10 vowels, which differ in quality and also in length.

## Prosody

With a few exceptions—interjections, such as *uyaluy*, and adjectives which have an unstressed clitic on the end—stress always falls on the final syllable.
Pazeh phonology

Pazeh has 17/18 + 22 = 40 consonants, 4/6 + 15 = 21 vowels, and 4 diphthongs (-ay, -aw, -uy, -iw).

1. /t/ and /d/ do not actually share the same place of articulation; /d/ is alveolar or prealveolar and /t/ (as well as /n/) is interdental. Other coronal consonants tend to be prealveolar or post-dental.
2. The distribution for the glottal stop is allophonic, appearing only between like vowels, before initial vowels, and after final vowels. It is also largely absent in normal speech
3. /ɡ/ is spirantized intervocalically
4. /z/ is actually an alveolar/prealveolar affricate [dz] and only occurs as a syllable onset.
5. /h/ varies between glottal and pharyngeal realizations ([ħ]) and is sometimes difficult to distinguish from /x/

Although Pazeh contrasts voiced and voiceless obstruents, this contrast is neutralized in final position for labial and velar stops, where only /p/ and /k/ occur respectively (/d/ is also devoiced but a contrast is maintained). /l/ and /n/ are also neutralized to the latter. Voiceless stops are unreleased in final position.

Mid vowels ([ɛ] and [o]) are allophones of close vowels (/i/ and /u/ respectively).

* Both lower when adjacent to /h/.
* /u/ lowers before /ŋ/. [u] and [o] are in free variation before /ɾ/
* Reduplicated morphemes carry the phonetic vowel even when the reduplicated vowel is not in the phonological context for lowering.
	+ /mutapitapih/ → [mu.ta.**pɛ**.taˈpɛh] ('keep clapping').

/a/ is somewhat advanced and raised when adjacent to /i/. Prevocally, high vowels are semivocalized. Most coronal consonants block this, although it still occurs after /s/. Semivowels also appear post-vocally.
R-colored vowel

In phonetics, an **r-colored** or **rhotic vowel** (also called a **retroflex vowel**, **vocalic r**, or a **rhotacized vowel**) is a vowel that is modified in a way that results in a lowering in frequency of the third formant. R-colored vowels can be articulated in various ways: the tip or blade of the tongue may be turned up during at least part of the articulation of the vowel (a retroflex articulation) or the back of the tongue may be bunched. In addition, the vocal tract may often be constricted in the region of the epiglottis.
Red Karen orthography

According to Aung 2013, Manumanaw Karen does not yet have a standardized script. Catholic missionaries developed a spelling using the Latin script which is used in religious documents, including the translation of the Bible. A Manumanaw Karen literature committee has been set up and is developing literacy programs with SIL, using spelling based on Burmese script , so that it is accepted by Catholics and Baptists.

The tones are indicated using the caron, the acute accent or without the addition of these on the vowels: ⟨á, é, è́, í, î́, ó, ố, ò́, ú, û́⟩, ⟨ǎ, ě, è̌, ǐ, î̌, ǒ, ô̌, ò̌, ǔ, û̌⟩. The diaeresis below is used to indicate the breathy voice on the vowels: ⟨a̤, e̤, i̤, o̤, ṳ⟩.

Seven digraphs are used.

Digraph

The five vowels of the alphabet are supplemented by four accented letters representing their own vowels.

Vowels

Tones are represented using the acute accent and the caron over the vowel. The breathy voice is indicated with an umlaut below the vowel letter. Breathy voiced vowel letters can also have a diacritic indicating the tone.
Rajbanshi phonology

## Consonants

* /ts, tsʰ, dz, dzʱ/ can often be heard as post-alveolar [tʃ, tʃʰ, dʒ, dʒʱ], when following back vowels.
* /r/ and /rʱ/ can have allophones of [ɽ ɾ] and [ɽʱ ɾʱ].
* /b/ can have allophones of [β w].
* /pʰ/ can also be realised as [f].
* /h/ can be realized as voiceless or voiced [ɦ] in word-initial positions.
* /n̪/ can be heard as alveolar [n] before an alveolar consonant, and as a retroflex [ɳ] when preceding a retroflex consonant.
* A word-final /r/ may tend to be voiceless [r̥].
* Central approximants [w j] occur, but are deemed allophones of /u i/.

## Vowels

In addition to these vowels, Rangpuri has the following diphthongs: /ie, iæ, iu, iʌ, ui, uæ, uʌ, ei, eu, æi, æu, ʌi, ʌu/.

* Vowels /i, e/ can have shortened allophones of [ɪ, ɛ].
* /æ/ can also be articulated more central as [ɐ].
* /ʌ/ may also be heard as two sounds [ɜ, ə] in free variation.
Palawa Kani phonology

The vowels are a e i o u ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ æ ə ɜ ʌ ɒ and the diphthong ay ('ei') and uy ('oi').

Consonant clusters include *pr*, *tr* and *kr*.

Like most mainland languages, Tasmanian languages lacked sibilants (which is apparent in the aboriginal pronunciation of English words like *sugar*, where the 's' was replaced with a *t* in pidgin English), and this is reflected in Palawa kani.

The pronunciation of Palawa kani may reflect those words preserved in the now English-speaking Palawa community, but does not reflect how the original Tasmanian words were likely to have been pronounced. Taylor (2006) states that "the persons who contributed to the project would appear to have uncritically accepted phonological features of the Australian Mainland languages as a guide to Palawa phonology without
undertaking an adequate comparative analysis of the orthographies used by the European recorders", and gives four examples:

* In transcriptions with consonant + 'y', the 'y' is taken to be the vowel *i* or *ay* despite Milligan's statement that it was a 'y'-like sound. In word-final position, 'y' did not indicate a vowel, as Palawa kani assumes, but rather forms a digraph for one of the consonants *ty* (tj), *ny*, *ly*, etc.
* The sequence 'tr' is treated as a consonant cluster, when it was presumably a postalveolar affricate closer to English *j* or *ch*.
* 'r' transcribed before a consonant or at the end of a word is taken to indicate a long vowel or the kind of vowel quality found in modern Australian English words with such spellings, but the English-speaking transcribers of Tasmanian spoke rhotic dialects of English, while others spoke Danish or French, and apparently the r's were to be pronounced.
* All Palawa-kani words must end in a vowel, and it is assumed that in Tasmanian words transcribed without a final vowel, that vowel was overlooked. However, there is good reason to think that many Tasmanian words actually did end in a consonant. In this they differed from many Mainland languages.

## References

1. ↑ John Albert Taylor (2006), *The Palawa (Tasmanian Aboriginal) Languages: A Preliminary Discussion*. Master's thesis, University of Tasmania March 2006
Pumi orthography

The pinyin-based Roman script for Pumi has been proposed, but yet to be promoted.

Tones:

* Monosyllabic words
	+ *f* – falling tone
	+ *v* – high tone
	+ *none* – rising tone
* Polysyllable words
	+ *f* – nonspreading of the high tone
	+ *v* – spreading of the high tone to the next syllable
	+ *r* – rising tone
	+ *none* – default low tone
Phuthi alphabet

A Phuthi orthography has not yet been standardised. Donnelly (1999, 2007) uses a proposed alphabet based uncontroversially on that of other Nguni and Sesotho languages:

vowels
* a e i o u

There are two superclose vowels, also found in the Sesotho languages. In the Phuthi orthography they are indicated with a circumflex diacritic, thus:

* î û

consonants
* b bh d dl (dv) dz f g gr h hh hl j jh k kg kgh kh l lh m mh n ng nh ny nyh p ph r rh s t (tf) th tj tjh tl tlh ts tsh v w wh y yh z

The following Phuthi consonant and vowel graphs have the same values they receive in Xhosa ⟨bh d gr hl kh⟩, in Swati ⟨dv tf⟩, and in Sesotho ⟨j kg ng r⟩.
Symbols in parentheses are allophones of ⟨tf dv⟩.
Most (non-labial) consonants can also occur with a secondary labial glide articulation ⟨w⟩, e.g. as ⟨z⟩, so also ⟨zw⟩.

clicks and click combinations
⟨c⟩ is dental; ⟨q⟩ is palatal; ⟨x⟩ is lateral.

* plain: c q x
* aspirated: ch qh xh
* voiced: gc gq gx
* nasalised: nc nq nx
Porome phonology

Porome has 9 native consonants. /s/ occurs in loanwords. There are no glottal consonants.

There are five vowels, which are /a, e, i, o, u/.

Like the surrounding languages, Porome is a tonal language. It has 5 tones.

* High-level: *kóí* ‘cloth’
* Low-level: *kòì* ‘selfish’
* Rising: *mèrí* ‘road’
* Falling: *mérì* ‘pandanus’
* Peaking: *pàkúmì* ‘feather’

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Petterson, Robert. 2019. *Interesting Features of Porome: An Isolate Language of PNG*. Paper presented at the LSPNG 2019 Conference. 30pp.
Pre-stopped consonant

In linguistics, **pre-stopping**, also known as **pre-occlusion** or **pre-plosion**, is a phonological process involving the historical or allophonic insertion of a very short stop consonant before a sonorant, such as a short [d] before a nasal [n] or a lateral [l]. The resulting sounds ([ᵈn, ᵈl]) are called **pre-stopped consonants**, or sometimes **pre-ploded** or (in Celtic linguistics) **pre-occluded** consonants, although technically [n] may be considered an occlusive/stop without the pre-occlusion.

A pre-stopped consonant behaves phonologically as a single consonant. That is, like affricates and trilled affricates, the reasons for considering these sequences to be single consonants lies primarily in their behavior. Phonetically they are similar or equivalent to stops with a nasal or lateral release.