recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Istiodactylus

Istiodactylus is an istiodactylid pterosaurian reptile from the Early Cretaceous of the United Kingdom. It was officially named in 2001 by Stafford House, Andrew Milner, and David Martell. It was one of the most specialized pterosaurs to exist, and its remains were thought to have belonged to a dromaeosaurid dinosaur, right before they were discovered to be more pterosaurian in nature.

## Physiology

Istiodactylus was a pterosaur with with 4 legs (2 of which served as wings), 3 regular fingers on each hand (joined by an elongated 4th finger which supports the wing membrane), a small body, a short tail, and a long, toothy beak. However, it did have a few interesting traits; its beak was somewhat wide and did not taper off into a sharp point, its eyes were smaller than the already proportionally small eyes of pterosaurs such as Tropeognathus, and its teeth were smaller in size. Most of its body (excluding its beak and wings) would have been covered in a fur-like covering called pycnofibers.

## Diet

Istiodactylus was a scavenger, feeding off of dinosaur carcasses. Its razor-sharp, interlocking teeth were used for cutting into flesh, allowing it to pull chunks of meat off a carcass.

## Ecology

It was once speculated that Istiodactylus ate fish, due to its wide bill and interlocking teeth; however, later examinations of its skull gave rise to the notion that it scavenged carcasses like a vulture, which has been supported by many of its cranial features. Its skull was deep, which helped resist bending or snapping when the pterosaur was eating, and it had large jaw muscles, giving it a strong bite; at the same time, individual bones in the skull were slender and shallow (meaning that the skull was not built for subduing struggling prey), its teeth were short, and its eyes were smaller than those of truly predatory pterosaurs (which meant that it was not able to see prey that well or watch their every move). These skeletal features correspond with those of scavenging birds such as vultures, making Istiodactylus the perfect obligate scavenger; in fact, the pterosaur may have even acted a bit like its avian counterpart, always being the first carnivore to arrive at the carcass of a large dinosaur, but retreating from it whenever larger carnivores like Neovenator showed up to dine on it. As well as this, Istiodactylus' wings were shorter than those of sea-faring pterosaurs, which had a body plan built for soaring over long distances; along with the fact that the istiodactylid has always been found in terrestrial settings, we can assume that it was better built for taking off and landing.
Dunkleosteus

Dunkleosteus is a dunkleosteid arthrodire placoderm fish from the Late Devonian-Mississippian of the United States of America, Canada, Poland, Belgium, and Morocco. It was named in 1873 by John Strong Newberry. It was one of the biggest placoderms to exist, only beaten in size by the later Titanichthys.

## Physiology

Dunkleosteus resembled the generic placoderm. It was a modern-looking fish with an armored head, toothless jaws, blade-like bony plates protruding off its jaws, large pectoral (arm) fins, a tiny, semi-circular dorsal (back) fin, and a crescent-shaped, shark-like caudal (tail) fin. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin, with bony plates protecting its head.

## Diet

Dunkleosteus was a predator, preying on trilobites, ray-finned fish, lobe-finned fish, sharks, and smaller placoderms. Even though it lacked teeth, it had sharp, beak-like, bony plates protruding off of its jaws, which were used to cut up prey.

## Ecology

Dunkleosteus was very similar to Titanichthys in terms of size and build; however, while Titanichthys was simply a giant planktivore, Dunkleosteus was an apex predator that ate anything it could get its jaws on. Its body armor would have impeded its movement, and so, it would have been a slow swimmer; because of this, it would have been a partial ambush hunter in order to catch fast prey. However, it could open its jaws in less than a second, creating a vacuum that sucked water particles and small fish into its mouth. Another interesting thing to note is that once it ate a small placoderm, it would only digest the softer flesh, coughing up the harder armor plates.

## In popular culture

Due to documentaries and books focusing on prehistoric animals, Dunkleosteus has risen to a great height among popular prehistoric fish, only being overshadowed by the giant *Otodus megalodon*. So far, its biggest public appearance was in the 1st episode of the 2003 documentary *Chased by Sea Monsters*, where it is shown as the apex predator of the Devonian, eating anything it would come across; as well as this, it is shown as being able to bite through chainmail, much to the explorers' delight.
Coelophysis

Coelophysis is a coelophysid theropod dinosaur from the Late Triassic of the United States of America. It was officially named in 1887 by Edward Drinker Cope. It was one of the most successful early theropods (persisting up to the Jurassic), and is often hailed as the mother of theropods, due to having anatomical traits that would carry on as theropods evolved.

## Physiology

Coelophysis was a small theropod with a slender body, a long tail, long arms with three fingers on each hand, a moderately long neck, and a long, conical head with large jaws. Most of its body would have been covered in short, fuzz-like feathers.

## Diet

Coelophysis was a predator, preying on small crocodylomorphs, small cynodonts, pterosaurs, fish, and smaller theropods. Its teeth had knife-like serrations from front to back, and were used to cut into the hides of large prey.

## Ecology

Coelophysis had skeletal features that would carry on further in theropod evolution, such as a bipedal stance, erect legs, relatively small arms, a long tail, a curved neck, and a mouth filled with serrated teeth. Contrary to popular belief, it wasn't an exceptionally fast runner due to its leg proportions; however, this didn't matter, as it was able to catch up with most of its prey items. Due to large quarries containing many individuals, people may regularly assume that Coelophysis hunted in packs; however, while pack-hunting is suitable for almost any carnivorous theropod, it doesn't apply to these scenarios, with possible alternate explanations being that the theropods congregated in order to drink the last drops of a shrunken river or to feed on a migrating school of fish before getting killed by a flash flood. A comparison of its sclerotic rings to those of modern reptiles and birds indicates that it was diurnal.

## In popular culture

Coelophysis was introduced to the public in the 1974 adaptation of *Land of the Lost*. Since then, it has been featured in many books focusing prehistoric animals, with an occasional movie appearance. So far, its biggest public appearance was in the first episode of the 1999 documentary *Walking with Dinosaurs*, where it was shown as an extremely versatile theropod that could survive harsh droughts (along with a cynodont); as well as this, it was mentioned to be a somewhat successful reptile that would give way to the appearance to larger, more advanced theropods.
Marshosaurus

Profile view of Marshosaurus bicentesimus

Marshosaurus is a piatnitzkysaurid theropod dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of the United States of America. It was named in 1976 by James Madsen. It was one of the smaller Jurassic theropods in the Western United States, as well as one of the most obscure.

## Physiology

Marshosaurus was a theropod with a slender body, a long tail, long arms, and a big head with large jaws. Most of its body would have been covered in scaly skin. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Marshosaurus was a predator, preying on small ornithopods, small mammals, small pterosaurs, and smaller theropods. Its teeth had knife-like serrations from front to back, and were used to cut into the hides of large prey.

## Ecology

So far, all we know about Marshosaurus is that it had longer arms than most other theropods; those arms might have been used for getting a hold of prey, as well as slashing it.
戰術牌

戰術牌為遊戲中的功能牌。

每張戰術牌都有特別的效果，可讓王發動戰術來改變遊戲的局勢；

而每張戰術牌在發動完後，就會進入棄牌堆。

## 戰術牌 - 標準版

標準版的戰術牌總共有 6 種，分別為：「 合縱連橫 」、「 安息戰術 」、「 遠交近攻 」、「 在商言商 」、「 走為上策 」和「 巧取豪奪 」。

合縱連橫 ( 戰術 - 001 )在商言商 ( 戰術 - 002 )走為上策 ( 戰術 - 003 )安息戰術 ( 戰術 - 004 )遠交近攻 ( 戰術 - 005 )巧取豪奪 ( 戰術 - 006 )
## 戰術牌 - 寶島傳奇

寶島傳奇的戰術牌總共有 7 種，分別為：「 黑布揮舞 」、「 二十二K 」、「 零的轉移 」、「 政權在握 」、「 妙手回春 」、「 仙拆座殿 」和「 做好做滿 」。

寶島傳奇的卡片在打出或達成條件時，可以唸出專有的特別臺詞氣死對手！

黑布揮舞 ( 戰術 - 016 )二十二K ( 戰術 - 017 )零的轉移 ( 戰術 - 018 )政權在握 ( 戰術 - 019 )妙手回春 ( 戰術 - 020 )仙拆座殿 ( 戰術 - 021 )做好做滿 ( 戰術 - 022 )
## 戰術牌 - 擴充版

擴充版的戰術牌總共有 6 種，分別為：「 木馬屠城 」、「 戰火圍城 」、「 拖延戰術 」、「 堅壁清野 」、「 擒賊擒王 」和「 騎兵衝鋒 」。

原本標準版能夠影響「 王國點 」的牌和技能非常少，擴充版新增戰術牌能彌補這項缺點。

擴充版的戰術牌新增了防禦效果，可讓王免除即將受到的干擾或中斷其他王的計劃；也新增了攻擊效果，快發動戰術讓對方措手不及吧！

木馬屠城 ( 戰術 - 007 )戰火圍城 ( 戰術 - 008 )拖延戰術 ( 戰術 - 009 )堅壁清野 ( 戰術 - 010 )擒賊擒王 ( 戰術 - 011 )騎兵衝鋒 ( 戰術 - 012 )
## 戰術牌 - 推廣版

推廣版的軍事牌總共有 3 種，分別為：「 重文抑武 」、「 強幹弱枝 」和「 宗教狂熱 」。

推廣版還細分成「 政權版 」和「 宗教版 」，其玩法相同，只差在其勝利條件不同。

「 重文抑武 」屬於政權版；「 宗教狂熱 」屬於宗教版；「 強幹弱枝 」兩個版本都有。

備註：詳細說明請參考推廣版。

重文抑武 ( 戰術 - 012 )強幹弱枝 ( 戰術 - 013 )宗教狂熱 ( 戰術 - 014 )
Barosaurus

Barosaurus is a diplodocid sauropod sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of the United States of America. It was named in 1890 by Othniel Charles Marsh. It had a very long neck for a sauropod (only being beaten by Mamenchisaurus in terms of neck length); as well as this, it was the largest sauropod, and by extension, the largest dinosaur to walk the Earth.

## Physiology

Barosaurus was a sauropod with a bulky body, 4 large, erect, pillar-like legs (with one large claw on each hand and 3 clawed toes on each foot), an extremely long, whip-like tail, and a small head. Perhaps the most defining trait of Barosaurus was its extremely long neck. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin, with a row of spines running down its back.

## Diet

Barosaurus was an herbivore, primarily feeding on ferns, cycads, horsetails, and leaves, but also snacking on algae from time to time. Its peg-like teeth were used to strip branches of their leaves, and its long neck would have helped it reach plants further away from its body.

## Ecology

So far, all we know about Barosaurus is that it was able to sweep its extremely long neck across a wide area of vegetation without having to constantly move from one area to another, it used its peg-like teeth to strip branches of their leaves, and in order to breathe properly, it received a steady supply of oxygen through avian air sacs running all the way from its neck to its lungs (like any other dinosaur).
Diictodon

Diictodon is a pylaecephalid therapsid synapsid from the Lopingian of South Africa and China. It was named in 1876 by Richard Owen. It was the most common anomodont therapsid synapsid in South Africa, and led a unique lifestyle.

## Physiology

Diictodon was an anomodont with 4 legs, a regularly-shaped body, a short tail, and a big head with a small beak, and in some cases, two downwards-facing tusks. Its body would have been covered in smooth skin.

## Diet

Diictodon was an herbivore, feeding mainly on sparse shrubs, but also snacking on plant tubers. Its beak was used for breaking off pieces of shrubs, as well as chewing into plant roots.

## Ecology

As an anomodont therapsid synapsid, Diictodon had a unique and interesting lifestyle. It was able to burrow, and typically dug spiral burrows about 1.5 meters deep, which could have served as an escape from the hot and arid desert environments of the Late Permian. Of course, they were also very social animals, as evidence suggests that multiple individuals dug burrows in close proximity to each other; however, those burrows did not connect to each other. As well as this, it was once believed that all Diictodon individuals had tusks; however, fossil finds had shown that Diictodon skulls come in tusked and non-tusked variants, which may or may not suggest an instance of sexual dimorphism.

## In popular culture

Diictodon was featured in the 3rd episode of the 2005 documentary *Walking with Monsters*, where it is placed in Russia alongside Inostrancevia, Scutosaurus, and an inaccurately misplaced Rhinesuchus (Diictodon did live in Asia, but only in China). As well as this, near the end of the segment, it survives the deadly sandstorm that kills the Inostrancevia, evolving into Lystrosaurus over a course of 9.8 (or 4.8) million years.
Hybodus

Hybodus is a hybodontid hybodontiform cartilaginous fish from the Early Jurassic of France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. It was named in 1837 by Louis Agassiz. It was one of the most distinctive extinct sharks to exist; as well as this, it was a wastebasket taxon, as many other hybodontiforms, such as Asteracanthus, were once considered to be species directly related to this genus before being reclassified.[1]

## Physiology

Hybodus was a unique shark. It was a cartilaginous fish with a torpedo-shaped body, triangular pectoral and dorsal fins, a crescent-shaped caudal fin, and a mid-sized head with a blunt nose and mid-sized jaws; however, its dorsal fins had spines attached to them, and its tail was upturned and had a single, elongated upper lobe. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Hybodus was a predator, preying on small fish, cephalopods, crustaceans, and bivalves. Its jaws had two kinds of teeth; at the front of its jaws, it had sharp, pointed teeth designed for grabbing prey, while at the back of its jaws, it had more rounded teeth designed for crushing shells.

## Ecology

Hybodus's main key features were its dorsal fins; it is speculated that the spines attached to them were used to stop predators like Temnodontosaurus from effortlessly ripping the shark into pieces, while it is certain that the fins themselves helped the shark steer itself. Along with this, it was a successful predator with a wide diet, as its two teeth were very useful for eating; its sharper front teeth were used for grabbing soft-bodied prey, while its rounded back teeth were used for penetrating the defenses of hard-shelled bottom-dwellers. So far, the only animals that weren't on its list were animals too big to fit in its mouth; this included large marine reptiles such as Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus. Along with this, unlike other sharks, which had completely smooth cartilaginous skeletons, Hybodus had a hard, bone-like cartilaginous skeleton; this has helped scientists find out its physiology.

## In popular culture

Hybodus was featured in the 3rd episode of the 1999 documentary *Walking with Dinosaurs*, where it is depicted as an ancient and long-lived predator, but one that could still could fall prey to larger predators like (an inaccurately oversized) Liopleurodon; as well as this, it was depicted as being able to eat baby Ophthalmosaurus. It appeared again in a similar documentary, *Chased by Sea Monsters*, where it (alongside a Metriorhynchus) launches an attack on a dying Leedsichthys (also oversized); however, this is artistic license, as it couldn't eat anything that was bigger than its mouth.

## References

1. Leuzinger, L., Cuny, G., Popov, E., & Billon-Bruyat, J. P. (2017). A new chondrichthyan fauna from the Late Jurassic of the Swiss Jura (Kimmeridgian) dominated by hybodonts, chimaeroids and guitarfishes. Papers in Palaeontology, 3(4), 471–511. https://doi.org/10.1002/spp2.1085
Sauropelta

Sauropelta is a nodosaurid ankylosaurian dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of the United States of America. It was named in 1970 by John Ostrom. Similarly to Gastonia, it was one of the best preserved nodosaurids; as well as this, it was one of the strangest, due to its uniquely-shaped osteoderms.

## Physiology

Sauropelta was a broad, robust thyreophoran with 4 erect legs and an almost completely armored body. It had a broadened, pointed skull with a small beak in front of its mouth, as well as gigantic, thorn-like spikes protruding from the sides of its neck. Most of its body would have been covered in thick osteoderms, while its underside and legs would have been covered in regular scales.

## Diet

Sauropelta was an herbivore, feeding on leaves. Its wide snout was used for browsing on plants low to the ground, and the many cheek teeth in the back of its mouth were used for processing plants.

## Ecology

So far, all we know about Sauropelta is that the giant spikes protruding from its neck as well as the many scutes on its back were used for defense, as predators such as Deinonychus and Acrocanthosaurus would have had a hard time biting into spiky hide; as well as this, it had larger spikes somewhere else on its body (usually said to be on the shoulders, although this is contested nowadays), which would have filled a similar purpose.

## In popular culture

Sauropelta was featured in the 2009 documentary *Monsters Resurrected*, where it was shown as being extremely hard prey for Acrocanthosaurus to tackle; in fact, the Acrocanthosaurus that attacked the Sauropelta was forced to do so, as it was inexplicably chased off its previous kill by a pack of Deinonychus.
Diplodocus

Diplodocus is a diplodocid sauropod sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of the United States of America. It was named in 1878 by Othniel Charles Marsh. It was one of the longest sauropods to walk the earth, as well as one of the most studied.

## Physiology

Diplodocus bore a passing resemblance to its close cousin, Brontosaurus, with a bulky body, 4 large, erect, pillar-like legs (with one large claw on each hand and 3 clawed toes on each foot), an extremely long, whip-like tail, a long neck, and a small head. However, unlike Brontosaurus, it had a more slender build, and its tail was considerably longer than that of its apatosaurine relative. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin, with a row of spines running down its back.

## Diet

Diplodocus was an herbivore, primarily feeding on ferns, cycads, horsetails, and leaves, but also snacking on algae from time to time. Its peg-like teeth were used to strip branches of their leaves, and its long neck would have helped it reach plants further away from its body.

## Ecology

Like Brontosaurus, Diplodocus was thought to be a swamp-dwelling herbivore, constantly feeding on algae and seaweed knee-deep in water; however, recent findings have confirmed that it spent 95% of its time on land, feeding on ground plants such as ferns, cycads, horsetails, and trees (when feeding on the latter, it would rear up and use its peg-like teeth to strip their branches of all their leaves). For a massive sauropod, it had light bones and huge, air-filled body cavities; combined with an avian respiratory system, this would have allowed it to breathe normally. As well as this, Diplodocus' neck was thought to be flexible enough to hold its head at an extreme height off the ground, right before being theorized to be incapable of moving from a horizontal position; however, due to the latest studies, it is now assumed that Diplodocus' neck was still somewhat flexible. A comparison of its sclerotic rings to those of modern reptiles and birds indicates that it was cathemeral.

## In popular culture

Diplodocus was first introduced to the public through its display at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, as well as its numerous skeletal replicas. Since then, it has gained a large amount of attention in Western Europe (most noticeably France and the United Kingdom), in contrast to the United States' Brontosaurus. As well as this, it appeared in major pieces of media such as *Fantasia*, *The Land Before Time*, and *Walking with Dinosaurs*; in the very latter, it is depicted with a relatively stiff neck, large, iguana-like spines, and an invulnerability to Allosaurus attacks.
Ptychodus

Ptychodus is a ptychodontid cartilaginous fish from the Early-Late Cretaceous of the entire world. It was named in 1837 by Louis Agassiz. It was one of the most specialized sharks to have evolved in the Cretaceous period, as well as one of the most widespread.

## Physiology

Not much is known about how Ptychodus looked, but based on its vertebrae and the shape of its scales, we can assume that it had a torpedo-shaped body and a mid-sized head with a conical nose; as well as this, it had triangular pectoral (arm) and dorsal (back) fins, a crescent-shaped caudal (tail) fin, large jaws, and 5 gills located near the head on each side of its body. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Ptychodus was a predator, preying on bivalves, ammonites, and various other mollusks. Unlike those of most other sharks, its teeth were flattened, and were used for crushing hard-shelled prey.

## Ecology

Unlike many of the other sharks it lived with, such as Cretoxyrhina and Squalicorax, Ptychodus was a molluscivore, using its flattened, plate-like teeth to crush the hardened shells of ammonites swimming through the water. Due to the shape of its scales, it can be assumed that it was an active-swimming, epipelagic animal with a torpedo-shaped body (similar to its more typical counterparts), so this durophagous (able to eat armored prey) lifestyle would have benefitted it, as it would avoid competition with other predators; despite being adapted for living near the surface, it may have occasionally dove deep down to the seafloor to eat shellfish. Analyses of vertebrae on different specimens indicates that Ptychodus grew at a slow rate, entered sexual maturity at a late age, and was relatively long-lived; along with this, the fact that the juveniles were closer in size to live-birthing sharks like tiger sharks, great white sharks, and whale sharks rather than egg-laying sharks, indicating that it may have also given live birth to its young. All of these adaptations point to it having K-selected traits, such as slower growth, later sexual maturity, larger bodies, smaller litter size, and greater parental care; combined with a specialized lifestyle, these may have contributed to its extinction at the hands of adverse conditions.
Pycnonemosaurus

Pycnonemosaurus is an abelisaurid theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of Brazil. It was named in 2002 by Alexander Kellner and Diogenes de Almeida Campos. It was one of the largest abelisaurids to walk the Earth, only beaten in size by 2 unnamed genera related to it.

## Physiology

Pycnonemosaurus was a giant theropod with a bulky body, a moderately long tail, extremely short (almost non-existant) arms with 4 clawless fingers on each hand, and a mid-sized head with a mouth containing lots of small teeth. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Pycnonemosaurus was a predator, preying on mid-sized sauropods, small crocodylomorphs, and dromaeosaurs. Its teeth were small yet sharp, and were used to get a hold of struggling prey as the abelisaur shook and tore them apart.
Repenomamus

Repenomamus is a gobiconodontid eutriconodont mammal from the Early Cretaceous of China. It was named in 2000 by Jinling Li and his associates. It was one of the biggest Mesozoic mammals to exist, as well as one of the few specialized ones.

## Physiology

Repenomamus bore some resemblance to a badger. It had a stout, relatively long, barrel-shaped body, 4 relatively short, sprawling legs, a moderately long tail, and a mid-sized, conical head with large jaws. Its body would have been covered in fur.

## Diet

Repenomamus was a predator, preying on lizards, primitive birds, and other small dinosaurs. It had long, sharp canines and incisors for shearing flesh, as well as pointed premolars (teeth placed between the canines and molars) for grasping and piercing prey.

## Ecology

Repenomamus was unique in the sense that it was one of the only Mesozoic mammals to have adapted a hypercarnivorous lifestyle; its relatively large size meant that it could overpower small animals and prey on them with ease, its teeth were adapted for shearing flesh and piercing through prey, and its jaws were strong enough to bite through bone to some extent. More evidence for this kind of lifestyle was found when a specimen of *Repenomamus giganticus* was found with a baby Psittacosaurus in its stomach region; the baby dinosaur was found in smaller pieces, meaning that the mammal ripped it apart with its mouth before swallowing it in smaller, more digestible chunks. Another interesting thing to note about Repenomamus is that, due to the anatomy of its shoulder and leg bones, it walked with a sprawling gait, similarly to a reptile; as well as this, its pelvic bones were similar to those of marsupials and monotremes, meaning that it either laid eggs or gave birth to undeveloped young that it carried around in a pouch. In all, Repenomamus was one of the first unique and specialized Mesozoic mammalians to exist; recent digs in well-known bone beds would lead way to the discovery and naming of other specialized Mesozoic mammalians, such as Fruitafossor, Castorocauda, and Volaticotherium.
Zhuchengtyrannus

### Physical Dimensions

10.6 meters (though there is a specimen that may be on par with the largest T.rex in size)

### Weight

5-6 tonnes (though there is a specimen that may be on par with the biggest T.rex in size)

### Diet

Carnivore

Zhuchengtyrannus is a tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of China. It was named in 2011 by David W. E. Hone and his associates. It was one of the largest coelurosaurian theropods to exist, only beaten in size by the more famous Tyrannosaurus.

## Physiology

Zhuchengtyrannus was a giant theropod with a bulky body, a long tail, short arms with 2 fingers on each hand, and a large head with a mouth containing lots of big teeth. Similar to those of its North American cousin, Tyrannosaurus, its eye sockets were placed near the front of its head, allowing for binocular vision. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Zhuchengtyrannus was a predator, preying on ceratopsids, hadrosaurs, and ankylosaurs. Its teeth had knife-like serrations from back to back, and were designed for crushing bone.

## Ecology

So far, all we know about Zhuchengtyrannus is that its forward-facing eyes would have allowed it to have good binocular vision, and it was a relatively fast runner due to its leg proportions.
Otodus auriculatus

*Otodus auriculatus* is an otodontid mackerel shark from the Eocene-Oligocene of the entire world. It was named in 1923 by David Starr Jordan. It was one of the largest sharks of the Paleogene, and it is considered to be an intermediate between earlier otodontids and the famous *Otodus megalodon*.

## Physiology

Like O.megalodon, O.auriculatus most likely resembled a giant great white shark. It was a large fish with a torpedo-shaped body, triangular pectoral (arm) and dorsal (back) fins, a crescent-shaped caudal (tail) fin, a mid-sized head with a pointy, conical nose and large jaws, and 5 gills located near the head on each side of its body. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

O.auriculatus was a predator, preying on small whales, seals, turtles, and smaller sharks. Its large, triangular teeth had knife-like serrations from front to back, and were used to slice the flesh of larger prey.

## Ecology

So far, all we know about O.auriculatus is that, like O.megalodon, it would have been a competent epipelagic apex predator, boasting a great sense of smell, a wide gape, robust, sharp teeth, massive, strong jaws, and a lateral line that could detect movement in the water; as well as this, it would have preferred to prey on smaller primitive whales than larger ones, and, when hunting prey, it would wait for them to surface for air right before ramming into them at great speeds, incapacitating them and allowing the shark to finish them off.
Psephoderma

Psephoderma is a placochelyid placodontian reptile from the Late Triassic of Italy. It was named in 1858 by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer. It was one of the last placodonts to live, as well as one of the largest.

## Physiology

Like its close cousin, Placochelys, Psephoderma resembled a turtle, with a broad, shell-covered body, large flippers, a moderately long tail, and a small head with small jaws. However, it had a few differences; its shell was divided into two parts (one covering the thorax/upper body, and the other protecting the pelvis), and its flippers still had claws on them. Its body was covered in scaly skin, and mostly covered by its hard shell.

## Diet

Psephoderma was a predator, preying on bivalves. Instead of having normally shaped jaws with chisel-like incisors on the front of them, it had a small beak used for picking bivalves off the seafloor; however, it still had flat back teeth designed for crushing them.

## Ecology

So far, all we know about Psephoderma is that instead of having one big shell covering its body, it had a larger thoracic shell combined with a smaller pelvic shell, which gave it more agility than single-shelled placodonts like Henodus and Placochelys; as well as this, its flippers were not fully developed and still had claws on them (allowing it to spend a reasonable amount of time on land), and it had a small, turtle-like beak used for picking up shellfish from the seafloor before passing them into its mouth before crushing them with its flat back teeth (in a similar manner to Placochelys).
Ordovician

After falling temperatures brought the Cambrian period to an end, the Ordovician period started. During this time, life had diversified even more. The fish had gone from the simple, worm-like vertebrates of the Cambrian to more modern and complex aquatic organisms; however, they still stayed small. On the other hand, the invertebrates had changed a lot, especially the arthropods. Gone were the radiodonts of the Cambrian; the new arthropod apex predators were the eurypterids, aquatic chelicerates that would continue to rule the waters for a course of 66.7 million years. As well as this, the orthoconic cephalopod mollusks had diversified a lot, and had grown to extreme sizes, proving to be the largest animals of the time. Meanwhile, the trilobites were still relatively diverse. The oceans were bustling with wildlife, while the land was just getting prepared for colonization, as land plants and fungi evolved. Soon, an ice age would sweep this period, driving many genera to extinction and giving rise to the Silurian.

**Lasted from 485.4-443.8 mya**

## Middle Ordovician Animals (note that those are not all the ones that exist)

* Cameroceras
* Endoceras
* Astraspis
* Orthoceras

## Late Ordovician Animals (note that those are not all the ones that exist)

* Horseshoe Crabs
* Megalograptus
Devonian

The Devonian period was another great time of evolution in the Paleozoic Era. During this time, the fish had diversified quite a bit, and had continued on their way to domination of the seas, eventually overthrowing the arthropods in the middle of the period. The trilobites and jawless fish had started to decline, while the placoderms, ray-finned fish, lobe-finned fish, and sharks had shared their rule of the seas. As well as this, the mollusks had diversified and evolved to become more modern; in fact, a group of mollusks known as the ammonites had become plentiful in the open waters. On the land, the first trees, ferns, and seed-bearing plants had evolved, showing progress in the colonization that started in the Silurian. Near the end of the period, the lobe-finned fish would evolve into amphibians, tetrapod animals that live primarily in the water, but are able to venture onto dry land for a short period of time. The Earth had now looked more modern, filled with swamps and reefs bustling with a plethora of wildlife. Soon, a continental drift would sweep this period, driving many genera to extinction and giving rise to the Carboniferous.

**Lasted from 419.2-358.9 mya**

## Early Devonian Animals (note that those are not all the ones that exist)

* Cephalaspis
* Jaekelopterus
* Coelacanths
* Ammonites
* Lungfish

## Middle Devonian Animals (note that those are not all the ones that exist)

* Hibbertopterus
* Bothriolepis
* Eusthenopteron
* Tiktaalik

## Late Devonian Animals (note that those are not all the ones that exist)

* Stethacanthus
* Cladoselache
* Dunkleosteus
* Titanichthys
* Thrinacodus
* Hynerpeton
* Hyneria
* Acanthostega
* Ichthyostega
* Xenacanthus
Hyneria

Hyneria is a tristichopterid lobe-finned bony fish from the Late Devonian of the United States of America. It was named in 1968 by Keith Stewart Thomson. It was a truly big lobe-finned fish, as well as one of the last non-tetrapod tetrapodomorphs to exist.

## Physiology

Like its cousin, Eusthenopteron, Hyneria resembled the generic lobe-finned fish. It was a coelacanth-like fish with a bulky body, fleshy, lobe-like fins, and a big head with semi-small jaws. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Hyneria was a predator, preying on sharks, amphibians, and smaller bony fish. Its teeth were small yet sharp, and were used to get a hold of struggling prey as the lobe-finned fish swallowed them whole.

## Ecology

Hyneria lived in freshwater rivers, swimming around in search of prey. It was the biggest vertebrate predator in the Eastern United States, often grabbing amphibians and smaller fish in its jaws and swallowing them whole. As well as this, its fins were powerful; however, contrary to popular belief, they were not used to crawl out of the water. Rather, they were used to navigate around dense weeds and underwater obstacles in the shallow waters that it lived in.

## In popular culture

Hyneria was featured in the 1st episode of the 2005 documentary *Walking with Monsters*, where it is depicted as a 6 meter long lobe-finned fish that was more than capable of crawling out of the water in order to catch prey like Hynerpeton. As well as this, a female individual snaps up a Stethacanthus that was chasing a male Hynerpeton, and attacks the same male individual while he is mating with a female Hynerpeton, finally catching him and killing him.
Camarasaurus

Camarasaurus is a camarasaurid sauropod sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of the United States of America. It was named in 1877 by Edward Drinker Cope. It was the most common Jurassic sauropod in the Western United States; as well as this, it is often the most well-preserved.

## Physiology

Camarasaurus was a sauropod with a bulky body, 4 large, erect, pillar-like legs, a moderately long tail, and a small head. An interesting thing to note is that its neck was only of moderate length, compared to the long necks of Diplodocus, Brontosaurus, and Brachiosaurus. Its body was covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Camarasaurus was an herbivore, feeding on leaves from mid-sized trees. Its laterally compressed teeth were larger more developed than those of other sauropods, and were used to process plant matter; as well as this, its moderately long neck and limbs allowed it to access vegetation some 7.4 meters in the air without rearing.

## Ecology

Camarasaurus laid its eggs in lines rather than in neatly-organized nests, which means it didn't tend to young; a possible theory for this is that it laid its eggs in large forests, where newly-hatched sauropodlets could hide from predators such as Ornitholestes and Marshosaurus until they grew big enough to venture into the open savanna. However, younger sauropods were able to be accepted into herds, as the remains of two adults and a mid-sized juvenile were found in close proximity. Unlike other sauropods, Camarasaurus was able to chew its food, due to its large, highly developed teeth. As well as this, its moderately long neck was held at a nearly vertical position, which would allow it browse from relatively large trees with little to no problems.
Placerias

Placerias is a stahleckeriid therapsid synapsid from the Late Triassic of the United States of America. It was named in 1904 by Frederic Lucas. It was one of the biggest anomodont therapsids; as well as this, it was considered to be the last, right before some Cretaceous anomodont fossils from Australia were uncovered.

## Physiology

Placerias was an anomodont with a 4 legs, a large, barrel-like body, a short tail, and a big head with a small beak and two downwards-facing tusks. Its body would have been covered in smooth skin.

## Diet

Placerias was an herbivore, feeding on sparse shrubs and plant tubers. Its beak was used for slicing through thick branches and roots, while its tusks were used for digging up plants from the ground.

## Ecology

A small bonebed containing 40 Placerias individuals has led us to assume that it traveled in herds. As well as this, it is assumed to have been similar to a hippopotamus, wallowing around in the water in order to cool off, as well as jumping in the rivers in order to escape predators such as Postosuchus; however, it might have been more similar to a buffalo, spending most of its time on land, and only going in the water to cool off. Despite this, it did sometimes feed near rivers, digging up plants with its tusks and slicing them up with its beak. As well as this, its tusks had three other notable uses; they were used for display, protection against predators, and rutting with rival males during mating season.

## In popular culture

Placerias was featured in the first episode of the 1999 documentary *Walking with Dinosaurs*, where it is depicted as living similarly to a hippo, feeding on riverside vegetation and spending most of its time in the water during the wet season. As well as this, it was mentioned to be extremely slow, even when in danger.
Spinosaurus

Spinosaurus is a spinosaurid theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Niger, and Brazil. It was named in 1915 by Ernst Stromer. It was the longest theropod to walk the earth, as well as one of the most studied and most controversial.

## Physiology

Spinosaurus was a unique theropod, as it had a long, slender body, relatively short legs, webbed feet, a long tail, mid-sized arms with 3 fingers on each hand, a moderately long neck, and a large head with big, slender jaws. As well as this, it had a large, ridged hump on its back. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Spinosaurus was a predator, preying on sharks, rays, gars, coelacanths, lungfish, small crocodylomorphs, pterosaurs, small plesiosaurs, and dromaeosaurs. Its conical teeth were used for getting a hold of struggling prey, and a notch in its upper jaw would have helped in capturing them as well.

## Ecology

Earlier, Spinosaurus was thought to have regular theropod proportions, often times wading near rivers and snatching fish from the water before dragging them onto land and eating their carcasses. However, a major discovery in 2014 had started to reconstruct this animal in a new light; it was now a short-legged carnivore that mostly relied on the water for food, diving into the rivers and searching for prey underwater (much like a crocodile). Despite all this, it was able to walk on land with little to no problems, as its center of gravity was extremely close to its hips. While the theropod was hunting, pressure sensors on the tip of its sensitive snout would have been used to detect the movements of aquatic prey even when it wasn't able to see them, allowing it to locate them much more easily; as well as this, while it didn't have a very strong bite force, its jaws are known to have been able to withstand a considerable amount of stress without breaking, which would have been very useful when dealing with large prey such as Onchopristis and Mawsonia.

## In popular culture

Spinosaurus was first introduced to the public in the 2001 science fiction movie *Jurassic Park III*, where it is depicted as a hyperaggressive, brutish killer capable of snapping a Tyrannosaurus' neck with ease; since then, much controversy has risen about the two theropods and how the battle would have gone down in real life. One side of the argument perpetuates the depiction from the movie, while another downplays the spinosaurid and passes it off as a weak-jawed, strictly piscivorous carnivore that only eats small fish; in this case, both sides are far from the truth.
Neovenator

Neovenator is a carcharodontosaurid theropod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of the United Kingdom. It was named in 1996 by Steve Hutt, David M. Martill, and Michael J. Barker. It was one of the first carcharodontosaurids to live, only being predated by a Jurassic theropod closely related to it.

## Physiology

Neovenator was a theropod with a semi-bulky body, moderately long legs, moderately long arms, a long tail, a moderately long neck, a large head with a mouth containing lots of big teeth, and a pair of stubby crests atop its head. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Neovenator was a predator, preying on nodosaurs, large ornithopods, mid-sized sauropods, and smaller theropods. Its teeth had knife-like serrations from back to back, and were used to slice off pieces of flesh from the bodies of large prey.

## Ecology

Neovenator was one of the biggest carnivores of the Cretaceous freshwater ecosystems it lived in, only being beaten in size by fellow theropod Baryonyx; however, considering it was better adapted towards taking down larger prey than Baryonyx was, it was the true apex predator of its environment. Much like other carcharodontosaurids, it had a hunting strategy that consisted of dashing towards a large herbivore, biting a large chunk of flesh off of its body, and letting it run away so it could lose enough blood to become weak and allow the theropod to finish it off with a devastating killing blow. However, the most interesting thing about Neovenator is that it had a sensitive snout, which was most likely used for checking nest temperature, manipulating carcasses (by detecting what was meat and what was bone), and even courtship and mating; in regard to the latter, it can be speculated that theropods rubbed snouts during courtship, similar to how modern birds today hold beaks when courting. It is unknown whether other carcharodontosaurids had such a sensitive snout, as the only other theropods known to have this feature are the spinosaurs Spinosaurus and Baryonyx, as well as the tyrannosaur Daspletosaurus; however, sensitive snouts for other dinosaurs like Neovenator are not out of the question.
Rhizodus

Rhizodus is a rhizodontid rhizodontid lobe-finned bony fish from the Mississippian-Pennsylvanian of the United Kingdom and Ireland. It was named in 1836 by Ramsay H. Traquair. It was the biggest lobe-finned fish to exist, as well as one of the last non-tetrapod tetrapodomorphs to exist.

## Physiology

Rhizodus had the generic lobe-finned fish body plan; a coelacanth-like body plan with a bulky body, fleshy, lobe-like fins, and a big head with large jaws. However, it had a few major differences; for example, its head was shorter than those of other tetrapodomorph fish, and it had sharp, fang-like teeth in the front of its mouth. Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Rhizodus was a predator, preying on amphibians, sharks, and smaller lobe-finned fish. Unlike the small teeth of other lobe-finned fish, its teeth were big and fang-like, and were used to tear the flesh of its prey.

## Ecology

Rhizodus lived in freshwater lakes, rivers, and swamps, swimming through the waters in search of prey. Unlike other lobe-finned fish, which had small teeth and swallowed their prey whole, it had huge, fang-like teeth in the front of its mouth, followed by teeth that gradually got smaller in size. Those teeth were used to tear flesh, as well as to rip prey into pieces small enough to eat. Aside from swimming up to prey and tearing it apart, Rhizodus would have used its strong and sturdy fins to crawl out of the water to catch escaping amphibians, as well as to slide into the lakes and catch its prey by surprise.

## In popular culture

Rhizodus was featured in a special episode of the documentary *River Monsters*, appearing alongside Xenacanthus, Xiphactinus, Leedsichthys, Megapiranha, Helicoprion, and Dunkleosteus as candidates for the most terrifying prehistoric river dweller. Out of all the possible candidates, Jeremy Wade, the scientist behind the show, selects it as the winner due to its freshwater habitat, immense size, power, ferocity, and deadly bite.
Apatosaurus

Apatosaurus is a diplodocid sauropod sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of the United States of America. It was named in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh. It is a somewhat popular dinosaur, and it was considered to be a senior synonym of Brontosaurus for a long time; however, many people now consider it to be a different genus due to skeletal differences.

## Phsyiology

Like its cousin, Brontosaurus, Apatosaurus was a sauropod with a bulky body, 4 large, erect, pillar-like legs (with one large claw on each hand and 3 clawed toes on each foot), an extremely long, whip-like tail, a long neck, and a small head. An interesting thing to note is that near the underside of its neck were a row of large bumps used for intraspecific combat (fighting with other members of its species). Its body would have been covered in scaly skin.

## Diet

Apatosaurus was an herbivore, primarily feeding on ferns, cycads, horsetails, and leaves, but also snacking on algae from time to time. Its peg-like teeth were used to strip branches of their leaves, and its long neck would have helped it reach plants further away from its body.

## Ecology

Like any other sauropod discovered during the late 1800s-early 1900s, Apatosaurus was thought to be a swamp-dwelling herbivore, constantly feeding on underwater plants knee-deep in water; however, recent findings have confirmed that it spent 95% of its time on land, feeding on ground plants such as ferns, cycads, horsetails, and trees (when feeding on the latter, it would rear up and use its peg-like teeth to strip their branches of all their leaves). In order to breathe properly, such a massive sauropod like Apatosaurus had avian air sacs that lay in its neck and trunk and connected to its lungs; this would have brought in a steady supply of unused oxygen that would allow normal respiration. As well as this, Apatosaurus could hit a massive growth spurt in its life; while its true lifespan remains unknown, it is generally believed that juveniles could grow to full size in just 10 years. Both the avian respiratory system and the extreme growth spurt can serve as proof that Apatosaurus, like any other dinosaur, had a warm-blooded metabolism.

## In popular culture

Back when Brontosaurus was thought to be a synonym of Apatosaurus, the latter was perhaps the most popular herbivorous dinosaur among the American public, appearing in major pieces of media like *Fantasia*, *The Land Before Time*, and *Jurassic Park*. However, due to the recent rebirth of Brontosaurus as a generic name, Apatosaurus may as well take a backseat to its bulkier (and slightly smaller) cousin.
Acheroraptor

Acheroraptor is a dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of the United States of America. It was named in 2013 by David C. Evans and his associates. It was found out to be all the Dromaeosaurus remains in Montana, and currently remains as the only dromaeosaur in the Late Cretaceous Northwestern United States.

## Physiology

Like its cousin, Velociraptor, Acheroraptor was a lightly-built dromaeosaur. It had a slender body, moderately long legs with a sickle-shaped claw on each foot, a long tail, long arms with 3 fingers on each hand, a moderately long neck, and a long, bird-like head with a mouth containing lots of teeth. Most of its body (excluding some of its legs and all of its snout) would have been covered in long, vaned feathers.

## Diet

Acheroraptor was a predator, preying on small mammals, lizards, and small ornithischians. Its teeth had knife-like serrations from back to back, and its sickle claw was used for restraining prey.

## Ecology

Acheroraptor likely had a lower leg longer than its upper leg, and so, would have likely been an effective long-distance runner. This would have allowed it to pursue many of its prey items, which all were likely capable of swift movement to some degree. Since it did not hunt any prey larger than it was, its sickle claw was used for pinning prey to the ground. In order to hunt, it would have needed to pounce on a prey item, press it to the ground with its sickle claw, and tear chunks of its flesh off while it was alive.