Cao Cao

Template:Infobox Ruler Biography
**Cao Cao** (c. 155–220), courtesy name **Mengde**, was a warlord and the penultimate Chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty who rose to great power in the final years of the dynasty and is known as one of the Three Heroes along with his rivals Liu Bei and Sun Jian. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and was posthumously honored as "**Emperor Wu of Wei**" although never officially declare himself Emperor during his lifetime.

Although he is often portrayed as a cruel and merciless tyrant, Cao Cao has also been praised as a brilliant ruler and military genius who treated his subordinates like his family. He was also skilled in poetry and martial arts and wrote many war journals. During his rise of power Cao Cao has successfully defeated Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu and unified most of Northern China under his control was able to secure the most populated and prosperous cities of the central plains and northern China becoming one of the most powerful warlords of his time.

However Cao Cao was consider as controversial historical figure of his time due his manipulation of Emperor Xian as a puppet and figurehead which was heavily criticized, with state affairs effectively being controlled by Cao Cao instead of the emperor himself. resulting opposition directly gathered around warlords Liu Bei and Sun Jian, whom Cao Cao was unable to quell which resulted his own general Meng Yan who disagree with Cao Cao monetizing the Emperor and betray him and stage a rebellion coup at the Hongjin Temple although the coup fail and Meng Yan commit suicide.

Culturally, due to the popularity of the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, has villainies him as a cunning and unscrupulous individual and portrayed as an anti-hero who often commits various act cruelty when he deemed necessary and is unconcerned of what others view him.

## Early Life

Cao Cao was born in Qiao (present-day Bozhou, Anhui) in 155. His father Cao Song was a foster son of Cao Teng, who in turn was one of the favorite eunuchs of Emperor Huan. Some historical records, including the Biography of Cao Man, claim that Cao Song's original family name was Xiahou.

Cao Cao was known for his craftiness as an adolescent. According to the Biography of Cao Man, Cao Cao's uncle complained to Cao Song about Cao Cao's indulgence in hunting and music with Yuan Shao. In retaliation, Cao Cao feigned a fit before his uncle, who immediately rushed to inform Cao Song. When Cao Song went to see his son, Cao Cao behaved normally. When asked, Cao Cao replied, "I have never had a fit, but I lost the love of my uncle, and therefore he deceived you." Afterwards, Cao Song ceased to believe his brother regarding Cao Cao, and thus Cao Cao became even more blatant and insistent in his wayward pursuits.

At that time, there was a man named Xu Shao who lived in Runan and was famous for his ability to evaluate a person's potentials and talents. Cao Cao paid him a visit in hopes of receiving an evaluation that would help him politically. At first, Xu Shao refused to make a statement; however, under persistent questioning, he finally said, "You would be a capable minister in peaceful times and an unscrupulous hero in chaotic times." Cao Cao laughed and left. There are two other versions of this comment in other unofficial historical records.

## Early Career and Yellow Turban Rebellion

At the age of 20, Cao Cao was appointed district captain of Luoyang. Upon taking up the post, he placed rows of multicolored stakes outside his office and ordered his deputies to flog those who violated the law, regardless of their status. An uncle of Jian Shuo, one of the most powerful and influential eunuchs under Emperor Ling, was caught walking in the city after the evening curfew by Cao Cao's men and was flogged. This prompted Jian Shuo and other higher authorities to ostensibly promote Cao Cao to the post of governor of Dunqiu County while actually moving him out of the imperial capital. Cao Cao remained in this position for little more than a year, being dismissed from office in 178 for his distant family ties with the disgraced Empress Song.[3] Around 180, Cao Cao returned to court as a Consultant (議郎) and presented two memoranda against the eunuchs' influence in court and government corruption during his tenure, to limited effect.

When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in 184, Cao Cao was recalled to Luoyang and appointed Captain of the Cavalry and was by follow by Xiahou Dun Xiahou Yuan and Ding Hong (騎都尉) and sent to Yingchuan in Yu Province to suppress the rebels. He was successful and was sent to Ji'nan (濟南) as Chancellor (相) to prevent the spread of Yellow Turban influence there. In Ji'nan, Cao Cao aggressively enforced the ban on unorthodox cults, destroyed shrines, and supported state Confucianism. He offended the local leading families in the process, and resigned on grounds of poor health around 187, fearing that he had put his family in danger. He was offered the post of Administrator of Dong Commandery (東郡), but he declined and returned to his home in Pei County. Around that time, Wang Fen (王芬) tried to recruit Cao Cao to join his coup to replace Emperor Ling with the Marquis of Hefei, but Cao Cao refused. The plot came to nothing, and Wang Fen killed himself.

## Alliance against Dong Zhuo

Main article: Campaign against Dong Zhuo
After 18 months in retirement, Cao Cao returned to the capital Luoyang in 188. That year, he was appointed Colonel Who Arranges the Army (典軍校尉), fourth of eight heads of a newly established imperial army, the Army of the Western Garden. The effectiveness of this new force never became known, since it was disbanded the next year.[7]

In 189, Emperor Ling died and was succeeded by his eldest son (Emperor Shao), although state power was mainly in the hands of Empress Dowager He and others. The empress dowager's brother, General-in-Chief He Jin, plotted with Yuan Shao to eliminate the Ten Attendants (a group of influential eunuchs in the imperial court). He Jin summoned Dong Zhuo, a seasoned general of Liang Province, to lead his army into Luoyang to pressure the empress dowager to surrender power, despite accusations of Dong's "infamy". Before Dong Zhuo arrived, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuchs and Luoyang was thrown into chaos as Yuan Shao's supporters fought the eunuchs. Dong Zhuo's army easily rid the palace grounds of opposition. After he deposed Emperor Shao, Dong Zhuo placed the puppet Emperor Xian on the throne, as he deemed that Emperor Xian was more capable than the original puppet Emperor Shao.

After rejecting Dong Zhuo's appointment, Cao Cao left Luoyang for Chenliu (southeast of present-day Kaifeng, Henan, Cao's hometown), where he built his army with Xiahou Dun and Xiahou Yuan. The next year, regional warlords formed a military alliance under Yuan Shao against Dong. Cao Cao joined them, becoming one of the few actively fighting members of the coalition. The coalition fell apart after months of inactivity, and China fell into civil war while Dong Zhuo was killed in 192 by Lü Bu.

## Rise of Power

### Cao Cao Invasion of Xu Province

Through short-term and regional-scale wars, Cao Cao continued to expand his power. In 193, Cao massacred thousands of civilians in Xu Province to avenge his father, whom Cao Cao believed to have been murdered by Xu Province's governor, Tao Qian.Cao Cao sent Cao Ren to the front to engage against Tao Qian Army Tao Qian was aid by Liu Bei and Liu General Guan Yu and Zhang Fei fought against Cao Cao Army when Cao Cao heard of Liu Bei arrival Cao Cao exclaim I more have the Fifty thousand men while this Sandal mat weaver have more than few thousand men and yet he dare come to fight me when struggle force in frontline Cao Cao retreat later Liu Bei sent a letter to Cao Cao asking cease fire and withdraw but Cao Cao throw down and the letter and said how dare this peasant stand against me with such impudence and Cao Cao refuse to cease fire until he received report that Lu Bu seize control his territory in Yan forced Cao Cao go back to reclaim his Territory

### Dealing with Lu Bu in Yan Province

In 194, Cao Cao took most of his soldiers to Xu province in order to defeat Tao Qian, leaving most of his territory undefended. A number of discontented officers led by Chen Gong and Zhang Chao (Zhang Miao’s brother) plotted to rebel. They convinced Zhang Miao to be their leader, and to ask Lü Bu to come with reinforcements. Chen Gong invited Lü Bu to be the new Inspector of Yan province. Lü Bu accepted this invitation and led his soldiers into the province. Since Cao Cao’s army was away, many of the local commanders figured that fighting would be a lost cause and surrendered to Lü Bu as soon as he arrived. However three counties – Juancheng, Dong’a, and Fan, remained loyal to Cao Cao and when Cao Cao returned, he gathered his own forces at Juancheng. Throughout 195, Cao Cao and Lü Bu fought several battles of some size. Though Lü Bu initially did well in holding Puyang, Cao Cao won almost every engagement outside of Puyang. Cao Cao’s decisive victory came in a battle near Dongming. Lü Bu and Chen Gong led a large army to assault Cao Cao’s forces. At that time, Cao Cao was out with a small army, harvesting grain. Seeing Lü Bu and Chen Gong approaching, Cao Cao hid his soldiers in some woods and behind a dam. He then sent a small force ahead to skirmish with Lü Bu’s army. Once the two forces were committed, he unleashed his hidden soldiers. Lü Bu’s army was devastated by this attack and many of his soldiers fled.

Lü Bu and Chen Gong both fled after that battle. Since Xu province was now under Liu Bei’s command and Liu Bei had been Cao Cao’s enemy in the past, they fled to Xu for safety. Cao Cao decided not to pursue them and instead set about crushing Lü Bu’s loyalists in Yan, consolidating his hold over that province.

### Securing the Emperor

In 196, Cao Cao heard Emperor Xian escape the control of Li Jue and Guo Si and was headed straight to Luoyang Cao Cao realize that if he gains the emperor under his control he would control Warlord under the emperor name and immedility head straight for Luoyang Warlords such as Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu refuse to aid the Emperor but Cao Cao did and he and convinced the Emperor to move the capital to Xuchang as suggested by Xun Yu and other advisors, as Luoyang was ruined by war and Chang'an was not under Cao's military control, and he was appointed chancellor. Cao Cao became General-in-Chief (大將軍) and Marquis of Wuping (武平侯), though both titles had little practical implication. While some viewed the emperor as a puppet under Cao Cao's control, Cao adhered to a strict personal rule to his death that he would not usurp the throne. Later, when he was approached by his advisors to overthrow the Han dynasty and start his own dynasty, but however Cao Cao advisor Hou Teng oppose this and told Cao Cao if you were to take the Throne there would be a risk and danger if you usurp the throne there are still Loyal official in the Han Court and you would be view as a wicked usurper like Wang Mang thereby you should not consider Loyalist as a minor threat once you hold power for a long time your own successor will be the one to do so Cao Cao laugh and replied, "If heaven bestows such a fate upon me, and if what you said is true then let me be King Wen of Zhou."

### Battle of Luoyang

Li Jue and Guo Si two of Dong Zhuo former subordinated led their forces Luoyang but Hou Teng appointed by Cao Cao placing him in charge in defending Luoyang a subordinate of Li Jue defected to Cao Cao who pointed out the location of Main Camp from behind and launch a surprised and defeated Li Jue and Guo Si later that year Hou Teng sent envoys to incited the western warlords to attack Chang'an, still controlled by Dong Zhuo's successor Li Jue. One of Li Jue's subordinates, Duan Wei (段煨), mutinied and killed Li Jue along with his family in the summer of 198. Duan Wei sent Li Jue's head to Xu City (as a token of his submission to Cao Cao). Cao Cao recognizing Hou Teng and Wei Zhong's contribution promoted them greatly.

### Conflict with Shi Lian and Shi Dan

#### Battle of Weinan

During the time Shi Lian, a warlord who rose prominence in northwest china launch a Campaign against Cao Cao and defeated Dong Tan at the Battle of Weinan but Dong Tan manage to escape with life However Shi Lian died of illness later that year when Cao Cao heard of Shi Lian's death Cao Cao laughed and reply Shi Lian was great thorn in my side but now he is dead I had nothing to fear and I would like to see his corpse myself.

#### Battle of Chenliu

Shi Lian was succeeded by his son Shi Dan unlike his father his leadership were not as good as his father was even though he successfully capture Chenliu that his own father could not however Hou Teng propose Cao Cao to use all archer special cross formation and fire against Shi Dan's calvary unit and Cao Cao defeated Shi Dan at the Battle of Kaifeng and withdrawn soon afterward Cao Cao enemy from the west will no longer a threat for the next several years

### Campaign against other Warlords

#### Campaign against Zhang Xiu and Yuan Shu

Liu Biao was a major power at that time, holding all of Jing province. Jing had always been prosperous, but it had grown in size because many people fled from the northern wars and sought refuge there. Therefore, Liu Biao constituted a danger to Cao Cao. Zhang Xiu commanded Liu Biao's territory on the border with Cao Cao, so Cao Cao went to attack him. In early 197 Zhang Xiu surrendered to Cao Cao, but later attacked his camp in the night (the Battle of Wancheng), killing many people and forcing Cao Cao to flee.

After taking a few months to recover, Cao Cao turned his attention to Yuan Shu, who had recently proclaimed himself emperor of his new Zhong dynasty. In the name of restoring the Han dynasty, Cao Cao and other warlords formed a coalition against Yuan Shu, and Cao Cao seized all Yuan Shu's holdings north of the Huai River in the autumn of 197, while the latter's remaining territory suffered drought and a bad harvest, further decreasing his power.

Later in 197, Cao Cao returned south to attack Liu Biao/Zhang Xiu once more. This time, Cao Cao was very successful and greatly damaged their army. Cao Cao attacked Zhang Xiu again in 198 leading to the battle of Rang and was again victorious. He ultimately retreated from this campaign because he received word that Yuan Shao was planning to march on Xu, though this report turned out to be in error.

Meanwhile, Lü Bu was growing more aggressive. He drove Liu Bei out of his territory again and allied with Yuan Shu – who had now declared himself Emperor of Zhong. Since Zhang Xiu had recently been crushed, he was in no position to be a threat in the south, so Cao Cao went east to deal with Lü Bu.

### Conflict with Lu Bu

#### Battle of Xiapi

Cao Cao defeated Lü Bu in numerous battles and eventually surrounded him at Xiapi. Lü Bu tried to break free but could not do so. Ultimately, many of his officers and soldiers defected to Cao Cao. Some were kidnapped by defectors. Lü Bu grew disheartened and surrendered to Cao Cao, who executed him.

With Lü Bu gone, Cao Cao set about dealing with Yuan Shu. He sent Liu Bei and Zhu Ling south to attack Yuan Shu. However, the rebel emperor died in the summer of 199 before Liu Bei and the others arrived. This meant Cao Cao had no major opponents in the Huai River region (Yu Province) anymore either.[8] Meanwhile, in March 199 Yuan Shao had finally finished his war with Gongsun Zan at the Battle of Yijing, and was now planning to move south to defeat Cao Cao. Seeing this, Cao Cao set about preparing his defenses, intending to make his stand at Guandu. On the advice of Jia Xu, Zhang Xiu surrendered to Cao Cao and his forces were integrated into Cao Cao's army after they rejected an envoy from Yuan Shao to ally.

### Conflict with Fu Guang

#### Battle of Sanmenxia

In 199 Cao Cao come in conflict with Fu Guang muster 50,000 men to attack Cao Cao. Cao Cao personally lead his forces to engaged Fu Guang and dispatch Ding Hong and Xu Huang to engaged Fu Guang's Forces but suffer a heavy defeat at the Battle of Sanmenxia.

#### Battle of Xingyang

Cao Cao retreated to Xingyang and reorganized his forces Fu Guang lead his forces and capture Luoyang and laid siege at Xingyang however Fu Guang died of illness during the siege when the news of Fu Guang's death was made known Cao Cao eventually lead troop and routed Fu Guang's Forces witch ended in a victory for Cao Cao

### Cao Yuan Conflict

To maintain a good relationship with Yuan Shao, who had become the most powerful warlord in China when he united the northern four provinces, Cao Cao lobbied to have Yuan appointed Minister of Works. However, this had the opposite effect, as Yuan Shao believed that Cao Cao was trying to humiliate him, since Minister of Works technically ranked lower than General-in-Chief, and thus refused to accept the title. To pacify Yuan Shao, Cao Cao offered his own position to him, while becoming Minister of Works himself. While this temporarily resolved the conflict, it was the catalyst for the Battle of Guandu later.

#### Battle of Boma and Guandu

In 200, Yuan Shao marched southwards on Xu City in the name of rescuing the emperor.[citation needed] He had amassed more than 110,000 troops, including 10,000 heavy cavalry, while Cao Cao gathered around 40,000 men,[15](4:52) most of which he concentrated at Guandu, a strategic point on the Yellow River.[15](4:11) Cao's army repeatedly repulsed Yuan's attacks and won tactical victories at Dushi Ford (February), Boma (March–May), and Yan Ford (May–August).[15](7:06) The two armies came to a standstill at the Battle of Guandu (September–November), as neither side was able to make much progress.[15](9:06) Cao Cao's lack of men did not allow him to make significant attacks, and Yuan Shao's pride forced him to meet Cao's force head-on. Despite his overwhelming advantage in terms of manpower, Yuan Shao was unable to make full use of his resources because of his indecisive leadership and Cao Cao's position.

Besides the middle battleground of Guandu, two lines of battle were present. The eastern line with Yuan Tan of Yuan Shao's army against Zang Ba of Cao Cao's army was a one-sided battle in favor of Cao, as Yuan Tan's poor leadership was no match for Zang's local knowledge of the landscape and his hit-and-run tactics. On the western front, Yuan Shao's nephew, Gao Gan, performed better against Cao Cao's army and forced several reinforcements from Cao's main camp to maintain the western battle. Liu Bei, then a guest in Yuan Shao's army, suggested that he instigate rebellion in Cao Cao's territories as many followers of Yuan were in Cao's lands. The tactic was initially successful but Man Chong's diplomatic skills helped to resolve the conflict almost immediately. Man Chong had been placed as an official there for this specific reason, as Cao Cao had foreseen the possibility of insurrection prior to the battle.[citation needed] A Cao raid destroying the Yuan supply depot at the village of Gushi forced Yuan Shao to set up an emergency supply depot at Wuchao.[15](10:21) Finally, in the 10th month, a defector from Yuan Shao's army, Xu You,[16] informed Cao Cao of the location of Yuan's new supply depot.[15](11:01) Cao Cao broke the stalemate by sending a special group of soldiers to Wuchao to burn all the supplies of Yuan Shao's army, heavily demoralizing it. Yuan performed a final, costly, and ultimately failed storming of Guandu, and the next morning Cao launched a devastating surprise attack on the retreating enemy army, thus winning a decisive and seemingly impossible victory. In a report to Emperor Xian, Cao Cao claimed to have killed more than 70,000 of Yuan Shao's original 110,000 troops; he later ordered most captured enemy soldiers to be buried alive.[15](13:18) A few months later, in May or June 201, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao again in the Battle of Cangting, eliminating the latter's last units south of the Yellow River.[17]

#### Campagin against Yuan

Yuan Shao fell ill and died in 202 shortly after been the defeat again at Cangting leaving three sons and no formally appointed successor. Although he seems to have favored his youngest son Yuan Shang (controlling Ji Province) as his heir, his oldest son Yuan Tan (governor of Qing Province) challenged him and the two brothers entered into a war of succession, as they fought Cao Cao.

Cao Cao used the internal conflict within the Yuan clan to his advantage, and during the Battle of Liyang (October 202 – June 203), he drove the Yuans back to their stronghold at Ye (under Yuan Shang's control). He then withdrew, consolidating his territorial gains rather than completing his conquest; possibly, dissidents at the imperial court in Xu required his attention. Temporarily relieved from Cao Cao's pressure, the fraternal feud escalated and Yuan Shang besieged Yuan Tan's base at Pingyuan (平原), forcing the latter to conclude a marriage alliance with Cao Cao.[16][18](3:18) The province of Ji fell to Cao Cao in the summer of 204 after the five-month-long Siege of Ye. Cao Cao paid his respects at Yuan Shao's tomb after conquering Ye, weeping bitterly for his old friend in front of his followers and giving Yuan Shao's family consolatory gifts and a government pension. Yuan Shang fled north to the third son, governor Yuan Xi of You Province,[16] while Gao Gan, governor of Bing Province, defected to Cao Cao.[20] In January and February 205, Cao Cao turned on the disloyal Yuan Tan, defeated and killed him in the Battle of Nanpi, and conquered Qing Province.[16][18](3:58) Gao Gan rebelled in 205, but in 206 Cao Cao defeated and killed him, annexing Bing definitively.[20]

Cao Cao assumed effective rule over all of northern China. Suffering munity amongst their own troops, Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi fled to the Wuhuan chieftains for aid.[16][18](4:12) The Wuhuan chieftain Tadun assisted the Yuan brothers and started raiding Cao's territory.[18](4:23) In 207, Cao Cao led a daring campaign beyond Chinese borders in hopes of destroying the Yuans once and for all. He fought an alliance of Wuhuan chieftains at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain. Though outnumbered and isolated, Cao Cao emerged victorious due to cleverly engineering his supply lines by digging two new canals and flanking the enemy, killing Tadun and forcing the Yuans to flee once again.[16][18](4:28) This time, they went to Gongsun Kang for help, but he executed them and sent their heads to Cao Cao, granting him nominal control over You Province.[16] Meanwhile, the northern tribes were now terrified of Cao Cao. Most of the remaining Wuhuan submitted to him, along with the Xianbei and Xiongnu.

## Red Cliff Campaign

After Yuan Shao's defeat at Guandu in 200, Cao Cao forced Liu Bei to flee to the governor of Jing Province, Liu Biao, who stationed him at the northern border in Xinye County to keep Cao Cao at bay. An initial Cao attack on Liu Bei was repelled during the Battle of Bowang (202). After completing his conquest of northern China in 207, Cao Cao turned his full attention to Jing Province, where a succession dispute erupted after the death of Liu Biao in August 208. Liu Biao's chosen heir was his younger son Liu Cong, but his elder son Liu Qi challenged him for the governorship, while Sun Quan attacked the eastern territories of Jing, and Cao Cao moved to invade Jing from the north with a hastily assembled army in September. Cao Cao's action proved to be decisive: Liu Cong surrendered to him without a fight,

### Battle of Chang Ban

Liu Bei fled south but was slowed down by a large following of refugees. Cao Cao's 5,000 elite cavalry force caught up with Liu Bei and utterly defeated him at the Battle of Changban in October, capturing the baggage train and refugee column. Liu Bei himself narrowly escaped east with a handful of companions, linked up with Liu Qi at Fankou and sent Zhuge Liang to negotiate an alliance with Sun Jian, who eventually agreed to join forces. Cao Cao gained control of a large portion of the Yangtze River by occupying the Jiangling naval base and ordered most of his army to sail down the river towards Chibi (Red Cliffs), while the rest marched overland, to defeat the newly forged alliance in one swift stroke despite objections from his military advisors and hoped the same would happen again. Hou Teng opposes against Cao Cao to attack further and advised Cao Cao should focus on reorganized their forces reasoning because as most of Cao Cao's men are from the north and are exhausting from marching and aren't use to the climate in the south and Cao Cao occupation over Jing was the only recent and the land is currently unstable their men aren't experience in Naval Warfare but Cao Cao ignore this and proceed on with campaign against and Sun Jian.

### Battle of the Red Cliffs

At the Battle of Red Cliffs in the winter of 208, Cao Cao's forces were defeated by the coalition of Liu Bei and Sun Jian (who later founded the states of Shu Han and Eastern Wu respectively, becoming his arch-rivals in reunifying China). Despite superior numbers, the northern troops were exhausted from marching, prone to sickness in the unfamiliar southern climate and seasick on the river fleet (which they tried to mitigate by chaining the ships together), while especially the Sun soldiers were still fresh and experienced in riverine warfare. Allied general Huang Gai pretended to defect to the northerners but took advantage of the fact that the Cao ships had been chained together to destroy them with fire ships. Meanwhile, an allied amphibious attack led by Zhou Yu routed Cao Cao's land forces at Wulin (烏林).

Throughout 209 and 210, Cao Cao's commanders were engaged in defensive efforts against Sun Jian. In battles at Jiangling and Yiling, Cao Cao's commanders in northern Jing (such as Cao Ren) fought against Sun Jian. They experienced mixed success, and Cao Cao was able to retain some territory in the north of that province. At the same time, they held off an attack on Hefei and put down a revolt in Lu that Sun Jian's forces tried to assist, keeping Sun Jian from moving to attack Shouchun. However, Cao Cao's commanders in southern Jing, cut off from the rest of Cao Cao's forces, surrendered to Liu Bei. Liu Qi initially succeeded his father as Inspector of Jing Province, but died in 209, after which Sun Jian appointed Liu Bei as Governor of Jing Province, and married off his daughter Lady Sun to him to cement the alliance

## The Shu Wei Wu Contention

In 213, Cao Cao received the title "Duke of Wei" (魏公) and was given the nine bestowments and a fief of ten cities under his domain, known as Wei. In 216, Cao Cao was promoted to the status of a vassal king - "King of Wei" (魏王). Over the years, Cao Cao, as well as Liu Bei and Sun Jian, continued to consolidate their power in their respective regions. Through many wars, China became divided into three powers – Wei, Shu and Wu, which fought sporadic battles without the balance tipping significantly in anyone's favour.

### Northwest Campaign

By 211, the situation in the south had stabilized and Cao Cao decided to crush his remaining enemies in the north, to the west of Chang'an (in Zuopingyi Commandery). In Hanzhong commandery on the Han River, in the north of Yi Province, Zhang Lu lived[23] in revolt against the Han dynasty, running his own theocratic state.[citation needed] Cao Cao sent Zhong Yao with an army to force Zhang Lu's surrender. However, this disturbed a number of warlords in the Wei River valley and the wider Liang Province, who united under Han Sui and Ma Teng to oppose Cao Cao, believing that his maneuvers against Zhang Lu were actually directed at them. Cao Cao personally led the army against this alliance and outmaneuvered the rebel army at every turn in the Battle of Tong Pass. The alliance shattered and many of the leaders were killed. Cao Cao spent the next month or two hunting down some of the leaders, many of whom surrendered to him. He left Xiahou Yuan to clear up affairs in the region and returned home in 212.[23] In 213, he launched an invasion into Sun Jian's territory across the river Huai, but was defeated in the Battle of Ruxu, which confirmed Sun's control of the south.

In 215 Cao Cao led his forces to attack the warlord Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery, and defeat him at the Battle of Yangping Pass

### Hanzhong Campaign

In 217 Cao Cao's rival Liu Bei launch an attack toward Hanzhong Commandery, where Cao Cao left Xiahou Yuan in charge of defending the area. During the Battle of Mount Dingjun Cao Cao sent Xiahou Dun and Xu Chu to reinforced Xiahou Yuan.

## Incident at the Hongjin Temple and Death

In 220, Cao Cao died in Luoyang at the age of 65, having failed to unify China under his rule. His will instructed that he be buried near Ximen Bao's tomb in Ye without gold and jade treasures, and that his subjects on duty at the frontier were to stay in their posts and not attend the funeral as, in his own words, "the country is still unstable".