recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Cuoi phonology

* [ʈ] is found in Vietnamese loanwords with initial /ʈ/ (orthographic [tr])
* [β ð ɣ ˀð] originate in the borrowing of segments from a variety of Vietnamese that existed several centuries ago.

### Tones

There're eight tones in the Làng Lỡ. Tones 1 to 6 are found on sonorant-final syllables (a.k.a. 'live' syllables): syllables ending in a vowel, semi-vowel or nasal. Tones 7 and 8 are found on obstruent-final syllables (a.k.a. 'stopped' syllables), ending in -p -t -c -k. This is a system comparable to that of Vietnamese.
Glottalization

**Glottalization** is the complete or partial closure of the glottis during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowels and other sonorants is most often realized as creaky voice (partial closure). Glottalization of obstruent consonants usually involves complete closure of the glottis; another way to describe this phenomenon is to say that a glottal stop is made simultaneously with another consonant. In certain cases, the glottal stop can even wholly replace the voiceless consonant. The term 'glottalized' is also used for ejective and implosive consonants; see glottalic consonant for examples.
Fulniô phonology

Fulniô has the following sounds:

## Consonants

/b p pʰ d t tʰ ɡ k kʰ/. /pʰ/ is rare.
/dz ts tsʰ dʒ tʃ tʃʰ/
/v f z s ʒ ʃ ɣ x h/
/m n ɲ/
/ʋ ɹ l j ɰ w ʟ/
* A glottal stop [ʔ] occurs, but is considered epenthetic.

* /n/ can be heard as a velar nasal [ŋ] before a velar stop.

* /l/ can be heard as a palatal lateral [ʎ] before a post-alveolar affricate, and can be heard as an alveolar lateral flap [ɺ] when following fricatives, nasals or stops.

## Vowels

/i ɪ æ e ɛ a ɑ ɒ ʌ ɔ o ʊ u/
* /a/ can be heard as a nasalized sound [ə̃] when preceding a nasal consonant in closed syllables, or word-finally after a nasal consonant.

There are few contrasts between /o/ and /u/, suggesting /u/ is a recent addition, perhaps from Portuguese.

All seven have nasalized and glottalized allophones, depending on adjacent consonants. Vowels occur long and short. However, long vowels result from assimilation of /h/, are pronounced [Vh] in one dialect, and so are analyzed as /Vh/ sequences.

Tones are high and low. Contour tones occur allophonically adjacent to voiced consonants. Final syllables tend to lack a tone contrast, and final vowels may be devoiced or dropped.

There are no vowel sequences; vowels either coalesce or are separated by a glottal stop. Consonant clusters are limited to two consonants, apart from a possible additional /j w/, with the maximum syllable being CCCVC; reduced vowels between consonants are analyzed as /j w/ by Meland & Meland: /tfàltʰùlkja/ 'crossing over', /kwlèlja/ 'rotten'.
Edoid phonology

Proto-Edoid is reconstructed as having a contrast between oral and nasal consonants and oral and nasal vowels typical for the region. However, in some Edoid languages nasal vowels have been reanalyzed as allophones of oral vowels after nasal consonants, and in others nasal consonants have been reanalyzed as allophones of oral consonants before nasal vowels, reducing the number of phonemically nasal consonants. Urhobo retains three nasals, /m, n, ɲ/, and has five oral consonants with nasal allophones, /ɺ, l, ʋ, j, w/; in Edo this is reduced to one phonemic nasal, /m/, but eight additional consonants with nasal allophones, /p, b, t, d, k, ɡ, kp, ɡb/; and in Ukue there are no indisputably phonemic nasals and only two consonants with nasal allophones, /l, β/.
Friulian phonology

## Orthography

Some notes on orthography (from the perspective of the standard, i.e. Central, dialect):

* Long vowels are indicated with a circumflex: ⟨â ê î ô û⟩.
* ⟨e⟩ is used for both /ɛ/ (which only occurs in stressed syllables) and /e/; similarly, ⟨o⟩ is used for both /ɔ/ and /o/.
* /j/ is spelled ⟨j⟩ word-initially, and ⟨i⟩ elsewhere.
* /w/ occurs primarily in diphthongs, and is spelled ⟨u⟩.
* /s/ is normally spelled ⟨s⟩, but is spelled ⟨ss⟩ between vowels (in this context, a single ⟨s⟩ is pronounced /z/).
* /ɲ/ is spelled ⟨gn⟩, which can also occur word-finally.
* [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/, found word-finally, before word-final *-s*, and often in the prefix *in-*. Both sounds are spelled ⟨n⟩.
* /k/ is normally spelled ⟨c⟩, but ⟨ch⟩ before ⟨e⟩ and ⟨i⟩, as in Italian.
* /ɡ/ is normally spelled ⟨g⟩, but ⟨gh⟩ before ⟨e⟩ and ⟨i⟩, again as in Italian.
* The palatal stops /c ɟ/ are spelled ⟨cj gj⟩. Note that in some dialects, these sounds are pronounced [tʃ dʒ], as described above.
* /tʃ/ is spelled ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ and ⟨i⟩, ⟨ç⟩ elsewhere. Note that in some dialects, this sound is pronounced [s].
* /dʒ/ is spelled ⟨z⟩. Note that in some dialects, this sound is pronounced [z].
* ⟨z⟩ can also represent /ts/ or /dz/ in certain words (e.g. *nazion* "nation", *lezion* "lesson").
* ⟨h⟩ is silent.
* ⟨q⟩ is no longer used except in the traditional spelling of certain proper names; similarly for ⟨g⟩ before ⟨e⟩ and ⟨i⟩.

## Long vowels and their origin

Long vowels are typical of the Friulian language and greatly influence the Friulian pronunciation of Italian.

Friulian distinguishes between short and long vowels: in the following minimal pairs (long vowels are marked in the official orthography with a circumflex accent):

*lat* (milk)
*lât* (gone)
*fis* (fixed, dense)
*fîs* (sons)
*lus* (luxury)
*lûs* (light n.)
Friulian dialects differ in their treatment of long vowels. In certain dialects, some of the long vowels are actually diphthongs. The following chart shows how six words (*sêt* thirst, *pît* foot, *fîl* "wire", *pôc* (a) little, *fûc* fire, *mûr* "wall") are pronounced in four dialects. Each dialect uses a unique pattern of diphthongs (yellow) and monophthongs (blue) for the long vowels:

Note that the vowels *î* and *û* in the standard language (based on the Central dialects) correspond to two different sounds in the Western dialects (including Codroipo). These sounds are not distributed randomly but correspond to different origins: Latin short E in an open syllable produces Western [ei] but Central [iː], whereas Latin long Ī produces [iː] in both dialects. Similarly, Latin short O in an open syllable produces Western [ou] but Central [uː], whereas Latin long Ū produces [uː] in both dialects. The word *mûr*, for example, means both "wall" (Latin MŪRUM) and "(he, she, it) dies" (Vulgar Latin \*MORIT from Latin MORITUR); both words are pronounced [muːr] in Central dialects, but respectively [muːr] and [mour] in Western dialects.

Long consonants (ll, rr, and so on), frequently used in Italian, are usually absent in Friulian.
Geʽez phonology

## Vowels

* a /æ/ or /ɐ/ (as in Tigrinya) < Proto-Semitic \*a
* u /u/ < Proto-Semitic \*ū
* i /i/ < Proto-Semitic \*ī
* ā /aː/ < Proto-Semitic \*ā; later a
* e /e/ < Proto-Semitic \*ay
* ə /ɨ/ < Proto-Semitic \*i, \*u
* o /o/ < Proto-Semitic \*aw

In the transcription employed by the Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, which is widely employed in academia, the contrast here represented as a/ā is represented ä/a.

## Consonants

### Transliteration

Geʽez is transliterated according to the following system (see Phoneme table below for IPA):

Because Geʽez is no longer spoken in daily life by large communities, the early pronunciation of some consonants is not completely certain. Gragg (1997:244) writes "The consonants corresponding to the graphemes ś (Geʽez ሠ) and ḍ (Geʽez ፀ) have merged with ሰ and ጸ respectively in the phonological system represented by the traditional pronunciation—and indeed in all modern Ethiopian Semitic. ... There is, however, no evidence either in the tradition or in Ethiopian Semitic [for] what value these consonants may have had in Geʽez."

A similar problem is found for the consonant transliterated ḫ. Gragg (1997:245) notes that it corresponds in etymology to velar or uvular fricatives in other Semitic languages, but it was pronounced exactly the same as ḥ in the traditional pronunciation. Though the use of a different letter shows that it must originally have had some other pronunciation, what that pronunciation was is not certain.
The chart below lists /ɬ/ and /ɬʼ/ as possible values for ś (ሠ) and ḍ (ፀ) respectively. It also lists /χ/ as a possible value for ḫ (ኀ). These values are tentative, but based on the reconstructed Proto-Semitic consonants that they are descended from.

### Phonemes of Geʽez

In the chart below, IPA values are shown. When transcription is different from the IPA, the character is shown in angular brackets. Question marks follow phonemes whose interpretation is controversial (as explained in the preceding section).

1. In Geʽez, emphatic consonants are phonetically ejectives. As is the case with Arabic, emphatic velars may actually be phonetically uvular ([q] and [qʷ]).
2. ɬ' maybe interpreted as tɬʼ

### Geʽez consonants in relation to Proto-Semitic

Geʽez consonants have a triple opposition between voiceless, voiced, and ejective (or emphatic) obstruents. The Proto-Semitic "emphasis" in Geʽez has been generalized to include emphatic p̣. Geʽez has phonologized labiovelars, descending from Proto-Semitic biphonemes. Geʽez ś ሠ Sawt (in Amharic, also called *śe-nigūś*, i.e. the *se* letter used for spelling the word *nigūś* "king") is reconstructed as descended from a Proto-Semitic voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ]. Like Arabic, Geʽez merged Proto-Semitic š and s in ሰ (also called *se-isat*: the *se* letter used for spelling the word *isāt* "fire"). Apart from this, Geʽez phonology is comparably conservative; the only other Proto-Semitic phonological contrasts lost may be the interdental fricatives and ghayn.
Emerillon orthography

Emerillon is spelt phonetically based on the International Phonetic Alphabet, and not according the French orthography. The spelling uses the letter **ɨ** for the close central unrounded vowel between i and u. **e** is always pronounced **é**, vowels with a tilde are always nasal (**ã**, **ẽ**, **ĩ**, **õ**, **ũ**), **ö** is like the German O umlaut, and **b** is pronounced **mb**. All letters are pronounced.
Fuliiru phonology

## Consonants

The table below gives the consonant set of Fuliiru.

Several sounds change when preceded by a nasal: voiceless sounds become voiced, and /β/ and /h/ are realized as [b].

The phoneme /n/ assimilates to the place of consonants that follow it: it can be realized as [m], [ɱ], [n], [ɲ], or [ŋ].

The phoneme /l/ is realized as [d] after /n/, as [ɾ] after the front vowels /e/ and /i/, and as [l] elsewhere. The phoneme /ɾ/ is likewise realized as [d] after /n/, but as [ɾ] elsewhere.

## Vowels

The table below gives the vowel sounds of Fuliiru.

All five vowels occur in long and short forms, a distinction that is phonemically distinctive. The quality of a vowel is not affected by its length.

## Tone

Like most Bantu languages, Fuliiru is tonal, with a two-way contrast between high and low tones. Morphemes can be underlyingly high (H), low (L), or toneless. Phonetically, high, low, mid, and falling tones can all occur; mid tones are the realization of an underlying LH sequence, and falling tones are the realization of an underlying HL sequence or an utterance-final H tone.

## References

1. ↑ This sound is very rare in Fuliiru, and only occurs after other consonants or as the result of a /u/ becoming a glide.
Garhwali phonology

### Diphthongs

There are diphthongs in the language which makes the words distinctive than other. However diphthongs vary dialect by dialect.

 **इउ** /**iu**/
 **आइ** /**ai**/
 **अइ** /**əi**/
 **आउ** /**au**/
 **अउ** /**əu**/

Triphthongs are less commonly found in the language. The most common word where a triphthong may occur is ह्वाउन [English: may be] /h**ɯɔʊ**n/ (in standard Garhwali) or /h**ɯaʊ**n/ (in some dialects). However many speakers can't realize the presence of triphthongs. Other triphthongs might be discovered if more academic research were done on the language.

## Consonants

### Aspirated consonants

य्, र्, ल्, ळ्, व्, स् and the nasal consonants (म्, न्, ञ्, ङ्, ण्) have no aspirated consonantal sound.
Fordata phonology

## Consonants

* Glottal sounds /h ʔ/ only occur intervocalically.
* /v/ can often be heard as [w] among younger speakers.
* /r/ can also be heard in free variation with a flap sound [ɾ].
* Following Indonesian orthography, /j/, /ŋ/ and /ʔ/ are spelled ⟨y⟩, ⟨ng⟩ and ⟨'⟩, respectively.

## Vowels

* Sounds /i e/ have lax sounds of [ɪ ɛ]
* /a/ can have an allophone of [ə] when before a consonant, or in word-final position.
Gaulish phonology

* vowels:
	+ short: a, e, i, o u
	+ long: ā, ē, ī, (ō), ū
	+ diphthongs: ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou

1. [x] is an allophone of /k/ before /t/.

* plosives:
	+ voiceless: p, t, c, k
	+ voiced: b, d, j, g
* nasals: m, n, ɲ, ŋ
* trills: ʋ, r
* laterals: l, ɥ, q
* fricatives:
	+ voiceless: f, s, ç, x
	+ voiced: v, z, ʝ, ɣ
* affricate: ts
* approximants: w, h, y
Gitxsan phonology

The Gitxsan inventory is as follows:

Gitxsan vowels
 /æ/ /æː/ | /a/ /aː/ | /ɑ/ /ɑː/

The mid and high vowels are nearly in complementary distribution, suggesting that Gitxsan once had a three-vowel system. Short mid vowels are emerging. Schwa only occurs in unstressed syllables. /e:/ and /o:/ have short allophones [e] and [o] in certain positions.

The pre-velar obstruents become velar before /s/ and /l/.
Emerillon phonology

**Emerillon Consonants:** p, b, t, h, d, tʃ, dʒ, k, kʷ, g, s, z, w, j, l, and ʔ.

There are several consonants found in the Emerillon language that descend from various external languages and influences. Emerilllon uses the labiovelar consonant "kʷ", which is a common vocal sound used in Africa and the southern Americas. In Emerillon, the "y" is also pronounced as a "j". The language also features glottal stops in the form of the consonant "ʔ". This sound is created by rapidly closing the airway in the glottis, creating a "stop" sound. Several examples of these glottal stops are found in the Syntax examples on this page.

Consonant Pronunciations Relative to English
 tʃ
 kʷ
 ʔ

**Emerillon Vowels**: i, u, ɨ, e, a, o, and ǝ.

## Prosody

In addition to the alphabetical phonology, the Emerillon language contains a definite prosody which is common amongst the other similar Tupi family languages. An expression meant to stand out or hold importance tends to vary broadly in pitch, with the highest pitch points being placed on the verb or verbs. Considering the SOV syntax format of the language, this means that a potent phrase will increase in pitch until the verb, where the major accent is found.
Gilbertese phonology

Gilbertese contrasts 13 consonants and 10 vowel sounds

Consonants

1. /t/ is lenited and assibilated to [s] before /i/
2. The labiovelar fricative /βˠ/ may be a flap or an approximant, depending on the context.
3. /ɾ/ does not occur in the syllable coda

Vowels

1. Short /i/ and /u/ may become semivowels when followed by more sonorous vowels. /ie/ → [je] ('sail'). Kiribati has syllabic nasals, although syllabic /n/ and /ŋ/ can be followed only by consonants that are homorganic.

The /a/ pronunciation is closer to /ä/ except after velarized BW and MW.

Quantity is distinctive for vowels and nasal consonants but not for the remaining sounds so that *ana* /ana/ (third person singular article) contrasts with *aana* /aːna/ ('its underside') as well as *anna* /anːa/ ('dry land'). Other minimal pairs include:

 *tuanga* /twaŋa/ | to tell | *tuangnga* /twaŋːa/ | to tell him/her
Diyari phonology

## Consonants

Several of the nasals and laterals are allophonically prestopped.

The voiced alveolar stop [d] may have trilled release [dʳ] depending on dialect. Peter Austin (1988) suggests that this is due to Yandruwanhdha influence.

The voiced retroflex stop /ɖ/ often becomes a tap [ɽ] between vowels.

The stop [d]~[dʳ] is in complementary distribution with both the trill [r] and the flap [ɾ]. Austin (1981) analysed the trill [r] as being the intervocalic allophone of /d/~/dʳ/, with the flap /ɾ/ being a separate phoneme. R. M. W. Dixon (2002) suggests that [ɾ] could be considered the intervocalic allophone of /d/~/dʳ/, so then /r/ would be a separate phoneme. Having /d/ realized as [ɾ] would parallel the realization of /ɖ/ as [ɽ], and having /r/ rather than /ɾ/ as a phoneme matches most other Australian languages.

## References

1. ↑ Jeff Mielke, 2008. *The emergence of distinctive features*, p 135
Foodo phonology

## Consonants

Foodo has 24 consonant phonemes. Consonants in parentheses are found only in loan words.

## Vowels

Like other Guang languages, Foodo has nine phonemic vowels. Vowel length is contrastive, resulting in a total of 18 vowels.

## Tones

Foodo is a tonal language, meaning that pitch differences are used to distinguish one word from another. These contrasts may be lexical or grammatical.

There are two tones, High (H) and Low (L).

Foodo also has automatic downstep, where a H following a L is always pronounced on a lower pitch than the preceding H within the same phonological phrase. Numerous tonal processes occur once words are placed in context.

## Syllable structure

In underlying forms, there are five possible syllable types: CV, CV:, CVV, CVC, V and VC. Except for some pronominal forms, both V and VC are limited to affixes. The only consonants which occur in the coda position are nasals.

## Vowel harmony

Foodo has vowel harmony. All vowels in the stem agree in regard to their ATR quality. Prefixes and most suffixes receive their ATR feature from the ATR quality of the stem. There is also some rounding vowel harmony in nouns, but this is more restrictive and often varies between speakers.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Plunkett, Gray C. 2009. An overview of Foodo, a linguistic island in Benin. Journal of West African Languages, 36:1-2.111.
2. ↑ Plunkett, Gray C. (1991). The tone system of Foodo nouns: University of North Dakota. Masters thesis.
3. ↑ Plunkett, Gray C. 2009. An overview of Foodo, a linguistic island in Benin. Journal of West African Languages, 36:1-2.114.
4. ↑ Plunkett, Gray C. 2009. An overview of Foodo, a linguistic island in Benin. Journal of West African Languages, 36:1-2.112.
Eyak phonology

The following charts are based on the material in Krauss (1965); IPA equivalents are shown in square brackets. The orthography used by Krauss and the Eyak people is the same, substituting only **A**, **L**, and **X** for respective [ə], [ł], and [x̣].

## Consonants

Aspirated stops contrast with unaspirated stops only before vowels.

All consonants may be found stem-initially, except /h/, which is interpreted as zero. /h/ has the allophone [h] only word-initially or directly following a vowel.

## Vowels

In Krauss's terminology, vowels can be oral or nasal, with further modification by glottalization, aspiration, length, or a combination of glottalization and length. The only unmodified vowels are /i/, /A/ and /u/. Unmodified /A/ varies morphophonemically between [æ] and [e], so /ə/ serves as the basic form of both vowels. When orally modified, the nucleus of /e/ varies between [ɛ] and [æ], the nucleus of /a/ between [a] and [ɔ].
All vowels, regardless of their oral modification, are nasalized following /n/, with the exception of /e/ which is never nasalized.

In written Eyak, length is denoted by double letters and glottalization by ’, as in **chi:shg** "sand" or **qi’GA’e’d** "bed".

## Prosody

All syllables begin with an onset, so that no two vowels may occur consecutively. Syllables can be counted exactly by number of vowels.

Eyak is not tonal, unlike many of the Athabascan languages to which it is related; nor does it have distinctive pitch. Stems are heavy syllables, whereas affixes tend to be light. Stress usually falls on stems and heavy syllables. In sequences of heavy syllables, the stress falls on the penultimate syllable, as in **q'ahdi'lah** "goodbye".
Enga phonology

Vowel sounds include /i ɪ e ɛ æ ɑ ɔ o ʊ u ɒ ʌ/.

A /k/ can range to sounding like a fricative between low and back vowels. /t/ is pronounced as an /r/ sound intervocalically. /ts/ may also be realised as [s] . All final vowels are devoiced. Alveolar stops /t, d, ⁿd/ may be realised as retroflex sounds /ʈ, ɖ, ᶯɖ/.

The Enga alphabet includes 21 different letters, only two of which not being in the English alphabet.
Chara phonology

## Consonants

[p] and [f] are in free variation. /ɗ/ only occurs in the word /jalɗa~jaltʼa/ 'crooked'. Yilma (2002) found /ɓ/ to occur five times in around 550 lexical items. He also found /ʑ/ occurring in two, both in the sequence /iʑa/. Occurrence of /ɗ/ and /pʼ/ may be governed by dialectal variation.

## Vowels

Vowel phonemes of Chara
 Mid
 Open

/a/ is realized as [ə] in unstressed word-medial syllables.

Length is minimally contrastive. Minimal pairs include /mola/ 'fish', /moːla/ 'egg'; /masa/ 'to wash', /maːsa/ 'leopard'; /buna/ 'flower', /buːna/ 'coffee'.

## Suprasegmentals

Chara has phonemic stress. Examples: /ˈbakʼa/ 'to slap', /baˈkʼa/ 'empty'; /ˈwoja/ 'to come', /woˈja/ 'wolf'.

### Morphophonemics

Morpheme-initial nasals assimilate point of articulation to that of the preceding consonant, usually found when verbs are suffixed with the singular imperative morpheme /-na/, e.g. /dub-na/ 'to hit.imp' → [dubma] 'hit!'.
Fortis and lenis

In linguistics, **fortis** and **lenis**, sometimes identified with **tense** and **lax**, are pronunciations of consonants with relatively greater and lesser energy. English has fortis consonants, such as the *p* in *pat*, with a corresponding lenis consonant, such as the *b* in *bat*. Fortis and lenis consonants may be distinguished by tenseness or other characteristics, such as voicing, aspiration, glottalization, velarization, length, and length of nearby vowels. Fortis and lenis were coined for languages where the contrast between sounds such as *p* and *b* does not involve voicing (vibration of the vocal cords).
Fuyug phonology

The usual orthographic convention used to transcribe Fuyug is to use *a* for /ɑ/, *e* for /ɛ/, *y* for /j/, and the corresponding IPA characters for the remaining phonemes.

## Vowels

Fuyug possesses five vowel phonemes.

The vowel /ɛ/ is pronounced as the diphthong [ɛi̯] when word-final as well as before a word-final consonant. For example, *ateg* ("truth") is pronounced [ɑˈtɛi̯ɡ] and *ode* ("where") as [oˈdɛi̯].

All vowels are nasalised before a nasal consonant, as in *in* ("pandanus") [ˈĩn], *ung* ("nose") [ˈũŋɡ], *em* ("house") [ˈẽĩ̯m].

## Consonants

Fuyug has 14 consonant phonemes.

The voiceless plosive are aspirated in a word-final position and before /i/: *endanti* ("outside") [ɛ̃nˈdɑ̃ntʰi], *oki* ("fire") [ˈokʰi], *eyak* ("return") [ɛˈjɑkʰ].

The nasal phoneme /n/ assimilates before a velar consonant becoming [ŋ] : *yangos* ("rain") [jɑ̃ŋˈɡos].

The pronunciation of the liquid /l/ is in free variation between a lateral [l] and a flap [ɾ]. However, with the exception of words of foreign origin where the word in the source language is written with an *r*, this is represented in the orthography as *l*.
Emae phonology

## Consonants

According to Capell (1962), “[h] appears, but is a variant of [f] and sometimes [s]. Not classified as phoneme.”

## Vowels

Emae is typologically unusual in that the historical back vowels \*u and \*o are no longer distinguished from \*i and \*e by being back vowels, but only in being rounded. (They do still occur as back vowels, but they are variable, and more often are front vowels, sometimes more front than /i/ and /e/.) This asymmetrical distribution is not found in neighboring languages. The round vowels, now /ø/ and /œ/, overlap and may be in the process of merging.

## Syllable structure and stress

To create a syllable in "Emae" the pattern is vowel or consonant-vowel only. The V and the CV pattern is shown in "Polynesian, generally neighboring Melanesian languages except, "Makura"." Consonant-consonant sounds don't happen, so the sounds [mb], [nd] and [mw] are said to be single, pre-nasalized phonemes.
When placing stress in a word the stress is usually placed on the antepentultimate syllable. An example antepenultimate word is "nanafi", with the stress on "na".

## References

1. ↑ Amy Dewar & Bill Palmer (2021) 'Loss of distinctive front-back parameter in Fakamae (Vanuatu): a phonetic study'. 15th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics.
Fante orthography

Fante has a relatively phonemic orthography. It uses the following letters to indicate the following phonemes:

## Consonants

Fante makes heavy use of digraphs, including *ky* (/tɕ/), *gy* (/dʑ/), *hy* (/ɕ/), *tw* (/tɕʷ/), *dw* (/dʑʷ/), *hw* (/ɕʷ/), and *kw* (/kʷ/). However, labialization is symbolized in other labialized consonants either with ⟨u⟩, e.g. *pue* (/pʷei), *bue* (/bʷei/), *tue* (/tʷei/), *hue* (/hʷei/), *huan* (/hʷan/), *guan* (/gʷan/), *nua* (/nʷia/), and *sua* (/sʷia/); or with ⟨o⟩, e.g. *soer* (/sʷer/), *soe* (/sʷei/), and *noa* (/nʷia/). Furthermore, the digraphs *ny* and *nw* may represent /ɲ/ and /ɲʷ/, respectively, as in *nya* (/ɲa/) ("get"), and *nwin* (/ɲʷin/) ("leak"), parallelling the use of other digraphs in Fante; or they may represent two individual phonemes, /nj/ and /nw/ respectively, as in *nwaba* (/nwaba/) "snail".

Fante also uses the digraphs *ts* and *dz,* which represent /ts/ and /dz/ in Fante subdialects that distinguish the plosives /t/ and /d/ and the affricates /ts/ and /dz/, but are allophonic with *t* and *d* in those subdialects which do not distinguish them. Fante is the only dialect of Akan to distinguish /ts/ and /dz/ from /t/ and /d/, and is therefore the only dialect whose alphabet contains the letter ⟨z⟩.

## Vowels

Although ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ can represent multiple phonemes each, Fante orthography uses two strategies to distinguish them. First, Fante vowel harmony means /e/ and /ɪ/ are not likely to appear together in a word, nor are /o/ and /ʊ/. Second, if disambiguation is necessary, vowel digraphs may be used: ⟨ie⟩ to mean /e/ and ⟨uo⟩ to mean /o/. Thus /moko/ "pepper" is spelled *muoko*, while /mʊkʊ/ "I sit" is spelled *muko*.

Nasalization is marked with the diacritic ⟨ ̃⟩, but is only used when distinguishing "one of two or more words of the same spelling but different meanings which contain a nasal vowel", and is omitted when there is no danger of ambiguity. The diacritic may also be included on the wrong vowel, as in the word *kẽka*, where it is the second syllable that actually receives the nasalization.
Enets orthography

Enets is written using the Cyrillic alphabet, though it includes the letters *ԑ*, *ӈ*, and *ҫ* which are not used in the Russian alphabet.

The written form of the Enets language was created during the 1980s and has been used to produce a number of books. During the 1990s there was an Enets newspaper, Советский Таймыр (Soviet Taimyr) published and brief Enets broadcasts on local radio, which shut down in 2003, served as supplements for speakers.
Fraser script

## Consonants

Note: You may need to download a Lisu capable Unicode font if not all characters display.

1. Initial glottal stop is not written. It is automatic before all initial vowels but [ɯ] and [ə].
2. ꓭ sometimes represents a "vowel", presumably a medial [ɰ] and sometimes a consonant [ɣ]. ꓪ and ꓬ are likewise ambiguous.
3. ꓨ only occurs in an imperative particle. It is an allophone of ꓦ [h̃], which causes nasalization to the syllable.

## Vowels

Fraser vowels

\*\*Not written after a consonant.
For example, ⟨ꓝ⟩ is [tsɑ̄], while ⟨ꓝꓰ⟩ is [tsē].

## Tones

Tones are written with standard punctuation. Lisu punctuation therefore differs from international norms: the comma is ⟨꓾⟩ (hyphen period) and the full stop is ⟨꓿⟩ (equal sign).

Diacritics on the syllable ꓝ [tsɑ]

\*It is not clear how the ⟨ꓻ⟩ mid tone differs from the unmarked mid tone.
The tones ⟨ꓸ⟩, ⟨ꓹ⟩, ⟨ꓺ⟩, ⟨ꓻ⟩ may be combined with ⟨ꓼ⟩ and ⟨ꓽ⟩ as compound tones. However, the only one still in common use is ⟨ꓹꓼ⟩.

The apostrophe indicates nasalization. It is combined with tone marks.

The understrike (optionally a low macron) indicates the Lisu "A glide", a contraction of [ɑ̂] without an intervening glottal stop. The tone is not always falling, depending on the environment, but is written ⟨ˍ⟩ regardless.
Futunan phonology

The Futunan language has five vowels; /a, e, i, o, u/, which can be short or long. Long vowels are denoted by a macron: ā, ē, ī, ō, ū.

Futunan has 11 consonants: 4 plosives /p, t, k, ʔ/; 3 nasals /m, n, ŋ/; 1 liquid /l/; and 3 fricatives /f, v, s/.

The Futunan syllable structure is (C)V, examples: *eio* (yes), *tauasu* (meeting where one drinks kava), *aua* (particle of the negative imperative), etc.).
Fijian phonology

The consonant phonemes of Fijian are as shown in the following table:

The consonant written ⟨dr⟩ has been described as a prenasalized trill [ⁿr] or trilled affricate [ndr]. However, it is only rarely pronounced with a trilled release; the primary feature distinguishing it from ⟨d⟩ is that it is postalveolar, [ɳɖ], rather than dental/alveolar.

The sounds [p] and [f] occur only in loanwords from other languages. The sounds [x] and [h] only occur for speakers from certain regions of the country.

The sounds [tʃ] and [ⁿdʒ] occur as allophones of /t/ and /ⁿd/.

Note the difference in place of articulation between the voiced-voiceless fricative pairs: bilabial [β] vs. labiodental [f], and dental [ð] vs. alveolar [s].

The vowel phonemes are:

Monophthongs

Falling diphthongs

In addition, there is the rising diphthong i̯u.

Syllables can consist of a consonant followed by a vowel (CV) or a single vowel (V).
Word stress is based on moras: a short vowel is one mora, diphthongs and long vowels are two morae. Primary stress is on the penultimate mora of the phonological word. That is, if the last syllable of a word is short, then the penultimate syllable will be stressed, while if the last syllable contains either a long vowel or a diphthong, then it receives primary stress. Stress is not lexical and can shift when suffixes are attached to the root.
Examples:

* Stress on the penultimate syllable (final short vowel): *síga*, "day";
* Stress on the final syllable (diphthong): *cauravóu*, "youth" (the stress extends over the whole diphthong).
* Stress shift: *cábe*, "kick" → *cabé-ta*, "kick-TR"

## References

1. ↑ Dixon 1988:15.
2. ↑ Dixon 1988:17
Frafra orthography

The Frafra language uses the letters of the Latin alphabet except for c, j, q, x, and with the addition of ɛ, ɩ, ŋ, ɔ, and ʋ. The tilde is used for showing nasalization in Burkina Faso, but in Ghana it's shown using the letter n.

Acute, grave, circumflex, caron, and macron are sometimes used in grammar books to indicate tone, but not in general-purpose texts. The apostrophe is used to indicate the glottal stop.
Foi phonology

## Consonants

The 16 consonants including the glottal stop used in Foi are:

Allophonic variation of [t], [d] and [r] is common.

The vowel /y/ was mentioned as a consonant by Franklin, suggesting that the research was phonetically noted in Americanist phonetic notation. The table above has been amended according to the standards of International Phonetic Alphabet.
Gemination

In phonetics and phonology, **gemination**, or **consonant lengthening** (from Latin *geminatio* "doubling", itself from *gemini* "twins"), is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time than that of a singleton consonant. It is distinct from stress. Gemination is represented in many writing systems by a doubled letter and is often perceived as a doubling of the consonant. Some phonological theories use "doubling" as a synonym for gemination, others describe two distinct phenomena.
Fijian orthography

The Fijian alphabet is based on the Latin script and consists of the following letters.

```
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w y z
```

Among the consonants, there is almost a one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes:

* **c** = [ð]
* **d** = [ⁿd] (**di** = [ⁿdʒi])
* **f** = [f]
* **g** = [ŋ]
* **h** = [h] ~ [x]
* **j** = [tʃ] ~ [ⁿdʒ]
* **k** = [k]
* **l** = [l]
* **n** = [n] (**nr** = [ᶯɖ])
* **p** = [p]
* **q** = [ᵑɡ]
* **r** = [r]
* **s** = [s]
* **t** = [t] (**ti** = [tʃi])
* **v** = [β]
* **w** = [ɰ]
* **y** = [j] or silent
* **z** = [ⁿdʒ]

In the 1980s, scholars compiling a dictionary added several more consonants and a few consonant clusters to the alphabet. These newcomers were necessary to handle words entering Standard Fijian from not only English, but from other Fijian languages or dialects as well. These are the most important additions: z (nj), as in ziza 'ginger' and h (h), as in haya 'hire'.

Note that for phonological reasons **ti** and **di** are pronounced [tʃi], [ⁿdʒi] rather than [ti], [ⁿdi] (cf. Japanese chi kana, or in standard Brazilian Portuguese). Hence, the Fijian name for Fiji, **Viti**, from an allophonic pronunciation of [βitʃi] as [ɸidʒi].

In addition, the digraph **dr** stands for postalveolar [ⁿd̠], or a prenasalized trill [ⁿᵈ̠r̠] in careful pronunciation, or more commonly for some people and in some dialects.

The vowel letters **a e i o u** have roughly their IPA values, [a ɛ~e i ɔ~o u]. The vowel length contrast is not usually indicated in writing, except in dictionaries and textbooks for learners of the language, where it is indicated by a macron over the vowel in question; Dixon, in the work cited below, doubles all long vowels in his spelling system. Diphthongs are *ai au ei eu oi ou* and *iu,* pronounced [ɛi̯ ɔu̯ ei̯ eu̯ oi̯ ou̯ i̯u].
Fon orthography

The Fon alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, with the addition of the letters Ɖ/ɖ, Ɛ/ɛ, and Ɔ/ɔ, and the digraphs gb, hw, kp, ny, and xw.

## Tone marking

Tones are marked as follows:

* Acute accent marks the rising tone: xó, dó
* Grave accent marks the falling tone: ɖò, akpàkpà
* Caron marks falling and rising tone: bǔ, bǐ
* Circumflex accent marks the rising and falling tone: côfù
* Macron marks the neutral tone: kān

Tones are fully marked in reference books, but not always marked in other writing. The tone marking is phonemic, and the actual pronunciation may be different according to the syllable's environment.

## References

1. ↑ Höftmann & Ahohounkpanzon, p. 19
2. ↑ Höftmann & Ahohounkpanzon, p. 20
Hiligaynon phonology

## Consonants

Consonants [d] and [ɾ] were once allophones but cannot interchange as in other Philippine languages: *patawaron* (to forgive) [from *patawad*, forgiveness] but not *patawadon,* and *tagadiín* (from where) [from *diín*, where] but not *tagariín*.

## Vowels

There are four main vowels: /a/, /i ~ ɛ/, /o ~ ʊ/, and /u/. [i] and [ɛ] (both spelled **i**) are allophones, with [i] in the beginning and middle and sometimes final syllables and [ɛ] in final syllables. The vowels [ʊ] and [o] are also allophones, with [ʊ] always being used when it is the beginning of a syllable, and [o] always used when it ends a syllable.
Gondi phonology

## Consonants

* Sounds /tʃ tʃʰ dʒ dʒʱ/ can be heard as alveo-palatal [tɕ tɕʰ dʑ dʑʱ] before non-front vowels in some dialects.
* /s/ is realized as a retroflex sibilant [ʂ] before a retroflex stop /ʈ/.
* An alveolar tap sound /ɾ/ can vary freely with a trill sound [r].
* /n/ is realized as a dental nasal [n̪] before a dental stop sound, a palatal nasal [ɲ] before a palatal affricate, and a retroflex nasal [ɳ] before a retroflex stop. Elsewhere, it is articulated as an alveolar nasal [n].
* /v/ is realized as an approximant [w] when occurring before back vowels.
* All consonants except /ɽ, ɾ, s, h/ can occur either double or single in the medial position.
Hadza phonology

## Vowels

Hadza has twelve vowels, [i e a o u ɪ ɛ ɑ ɔ ʊ ɨ ə]. Long vowels may occur when intervocalic [ɦ] is elided. For example, [kʰaɦa] or [kʰaː] 'to climb', but some words are not attested with [ɦ], as [boːko] 'she' vs [boko] 'to be ill'. All vowels are nasalized before glottalized nasal and voiced nasal clicks, and speakers vary on whether they hear them as nasal vowels or as VN sequences. Invariable nasal vowels, although uncommon, do occur, though not before consonants that have a place of articulation to assimilate to. In such positions, [CṼCV] and [CVNCV] are allophones, but since VN cannot occur at the end of a word or before a glottal consonant, where only nasal vowels are found, it may be that nasal vowels are allophonic with VN in all positions.
Hill Miri phonology

## Consonants

The following table includes an inventory of Nyishi (Kamle) consonants.

Vowels are front /i, e, ɛ, æ/, central /ɨ, ʉ, ə, ɐ, a/, and back /u, o, ɔ, ɒ/. Vowels occur long and short.

## References

1. ↑ Value unclear, perhaps [nʲ]?
2. ↑ Value unclear, perhaps [t͡ʃ]?
3. ↑ Value unclear, perhaps [d͡ʒ]?
4. ↑ Transcribed ⟨ɯ, y, ɤ, ø, ɐ, a⟩ in Namkung
Djeoromitxí phonology

There is no tonal system in Djeoromitxí and accent is not contrastive. Morphophonological processes are rare.

Syllable structure follows a (C)V pattern.

## Consonants

The table below shows the consonant phonemes of Djeoromitxí according to Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010).

Although Pires (1992) counts /b/ /d/ as distinct phonemes, Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010) count them as allophones of /m/ /n/ before oral vowels.

According to Pires (1992), [ɸ] is an allophone of /p/ before high and medium round vowels, and [ɲ] is an allophone of /n/ following the high nasal vowel /ĩ/.

While /ps/ and /bz/ only occur before /i/, they are contrastive with the other bilabial obstruents.

According to Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010), /k/ is backed to [q] before [ʉ] and often aspirated before /ə/ and /u/. They state that /p/ is realized as [ɸ] or [pɸ] before back vowels and [ʉ].

When preceded by a personal prefix, or when starting the second element of a compound, /h/ becomes /r/. With some roots, /h/ can become /n/ in a similar manner.

## Vowels

The tables below show the vowel phonemes of Djeoromitxí according to Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010).

The accounts of Pires (1992) and Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010) basically agree on the vowel phonemes.

Oral Vowels

Nasal Vowels

According to Pires (1992), [ũ] is an allophone of /õ/ in free variation with [õ] after /h/.

Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010) state that /ʉ/ is often realized as [ø].
Enawene Nawe phonology

## Consonants

Enawene Nawe is described by Zorthêa (2006) as having 15 contrastive consonants.

Among these, the following allophonic variations are reported:

Consonant variations
 ⟨m⟩ varies between [m] and [w]. | ⟨datamare⟩ "(mythical character)": [datamaɾe~datawaɾe]
 ⟨d⟩ varies between [d], [s], [ɾ] and [l]. | ⟨datowa⟩ "tomorrow": [datowa~latowa]
⟨derohi⟩ "ritual step": [deɾohi~leɾohi]
 ⟨r⟩ varies between [ɾ] and [l]. | ⟨Kawari⟩ "(proper noun)": [kawaɾi~kawali]
⟨meta⟩ "tickle": [meta~meda]

## Vowels

Enawene Nawe is described by Zorthêa (2006) as having 4 oral vowels and 4 nasal vowels.
Guttural

**Guttural** speech sounds are those with a primary place of articulation near the back of the oral cavity, especially where it's difficult to distinguish a sound's place of articulation and its phonation. In popular usage it is an imprecise term for sounds produced relatively far back in the vocal tract, such as German *ch* or the Arabic ayin, but not simple glottal sounds like *h*. A 'guttural language' is a language that has such sounds.

As a technical term used by phoneticians and phonologists, it has had various definitions. The concept always includes pharyngeal consonants, but may include velar, uvular or laryngeal consonants as well. Guttural sounds are typically consonants, but murmured, pharyngealized, glottalized and strident vowels may be also considered guttural in nature. Some phonologists argue that all post-velar sounds constitute a natural class.
Jarawa phonology

There are two varieties of Jarawa languages. One is spoken in the northern Middle Andaman and southern Middle Andaman.

Jarawa contains 41 sounds, 28 consonants and 13 vowels.

The language descends from a parent language known as Proto-Andamanese. From within this wide range, Little Andamanese also evolved. Onge, Jarawa, and presumably Sentinelese all branched off Little Andamanese, thus sharing similar characteristics in culture and language.

## Vowels

The Jarawa language uses close (high), mid, and open to distinguish between the height of the vowels. For the tongue position, they characterize vowels as front, central, and back. For the position of lips, vowels are characterized as rounded or unrounded.
Vowels in the language can be classified into three groups:

1. Two front vowels - [i] and [e]
2. Two back vowels - [u] and [o]
3. Three central vowels - [ɘ], [ə], and [a]

There are also 2 mid-low vowels, [ɛ] and [ɔ], but their phonemic status is not deciphered yet. Because their occurrences are very limited, it is unclear how often they are used and their status.

Length is very important in this language as they have short and long vowels.

## Characteristics

Among all the 28 consonants, voiced and voiceless plosives are present along with voiceless aspirated plosives. Sounds like nasals, trills, retroflex flap, lateral and retroflex laterals all occur in this language.

There are also two approximants in the Jarawa language, these being labial and palatal, along with a few fricatives like the pharyngeal fricative and the bilabial fricative. Two labialised consonants also exist, such as the pharyngeal fricative and voiceless aspirated velar plosive.

Word-initial contrast between /p/ and /b/ is disappearing, with /p/ becoming /b/ (note that in Onge /p/ is not phonemically present).

Jarawa words are at least monosyllabic, and content words are at least bimoraic. Maximal syllables are CVC.

/c/ voices intervocalically in derived environments, /ə/ syncopates when followed by another vowel across a morpheme boundary, /ə/ becomes [o] when the next syllable has a round vowel, and whole syllables may be deleted in fast speech.
Ibanag phonology

## Vowels

* A (a) E (e) I (i) O (o) U (u) Y (i)

Monophthongization of diphthongs is observable in Ibanag. For example, the words *umay* (to go), *balay* (house) or *aggaw* (day) are sometimes pronounced as *ume*, *bale*, and *aggo* respectively.

## Consonants

Ibanag is one of the Philippine languages which are included in the [ɾ]-[d] allophony.

Ibanag features phonemes that are not present in many related Philippine languages; phonemes unique to Ibanag compared to its sister languages include [f] as in *innafi*, "rice", [v] as in *bavi*, "pig", [z] as in *kazzing*, "goat" and [dʒ] as in *madjan*, "maid".

Ibanag features gemination:

* *gaddua* [ɡadˈdwa] (half)
* *mappazzi* [mappazˈzɪ] (to squeeze or squeezing)
Gagauz alphabet

## Latin alphabet

In their standard order, the letters of the Gagauz alphabet are:

A, Ä, B, C, Ç, D, E, Ê, F, G, H, I, İ, J, K, L, M, N, O, Ö, P, R, S, Ş, T, Ţ, U, Ü, V, Y, Z.
Note that dotted and dotless I are separate letters, each with its own uppercase and lowercase form. *I* is the capital form of *ı*, and *İ* is the capital form of *i*. The Gagauz alphabet has no q, w or x. Instead, those characters are transliterated into Gagauz as k, v and ks, respectively.
Iñupiaq alphabet

Extra letter for Kobuk dialect: **’** /ʔ/

Extra letters for specific dialects:

* Diomede: **e** /ə/
* Qawiaraq: **ch /**tʃ**/**

## References

1. ↑ Kaplan, Lawrence (2000). "L'Iñupiaq et les contacts linguistiques en Alaska". In Tersis, Nicole and Michèle Therrien (eds.), *Les langues eskaléoutes: Sibérie, Alaska, Canada, Groënland*, pages 91-108. Paris: CNRS Éditions. For an overview of Iñupiaq phonology, see pages 92-94.
Japhug phonology

Japhug is the only toneless Gyalrong language. It has 49 consonants and seven vowels.

## Consonants

The phoneme /w/ has the allophones [β] and [f].

The phoneme /ʁ/ is realized as an epiglottal fricative in the coda or preceding another consonant.

The prenasalized consonants are analyzed as units for two reasons. First, there is a phoneme /ɴɢ/, as in /ɴɢoɕna/ "large spider", but neither /ɴ/ nor /ɢ/ exist as independent phonemes. Second, there are clusters of fricatives and prenasalized voiced stops, as in /ʑmbri/ "willow", but never clusters of fricatives and prenasalized voiceless stops.

Japhug distinguishes between palatal plosives and velar plosive + j sequences, as in /co/ "valley" vs. /kjo/ "drag". These both contrast with alveolo-palatal affricates.

There are at least 339 consonant clusters in Japhug (Jacques 2008:29), more than in Old Tibetan or in most Indo-European languages. Some of these clusters are typologically unusual: in addition to the previously mentioned clusters of fricatives and prenasalized stops, there are clusters where the first element as a semivowel, as in /jla/ "hybrid of a yak and a cow".

## Vowels

Japhug has eight vowel phonemes: æ, a, ɔ, o, u, ɑ, ɤ, ɯ, œ, ø, y, ɛ, e and i. The vowel y is attested in only one native word (/qaɟy/ "fish") and its derivatives, but appears in Chinese loanwords.
Indus Kohistani phonology

The phonology of Indus Kohistani varies between its major dialects as shown below.

## Vowels

In the Kanyawali dialect, the back vowels /u/ and /o/ are described as variants of each other, as are the front vowels /i/ and /e/.

## Consonants

The consonant inventory of Indus Kohistani is shown in the chart below. (Consonants particular to the Kanyawali Dialect of Tangir and those found only in the Kohistan Dialects are color-coded respectively.)

The phonemes /x/, /ɣ/, and /q/ are mainly found in loan words. The status of /q/ in the Kanyawali Dialect is unclear. The sounds /f, v/ can also be bilabial [ɸ, β].
Izon phonology

## Consonants

* A voiced velar fricative [ɣ] occurs as an extra phoneme among speakers of different dialects. However, it does not exist in most dialects.
* A glottal [h] is only existent in interjections, not as a phoneme.
* /s, z/ are in free variation with postalveolar sounds [ʃ, d͡ʒ] in loanwords borrowed from English.
Guiqiong phonology

## Consonants

* Older speakers retain the distinction between the alveolo-palatal and retroflex series; younger speakers do not.
* Older speakers retain the distinction between the velar and uvular series; younger speakers have both series in free variation.
* The zero-initial is realized as [÷].
* In clusters,
	+ The language has a very complex initial consonant system.
* The following table is the phonological consonant inventory of Guiqiong.

## Vowels

Guiqiong distinguishes eight different vowel qualities.

 Close-mid
 Mid
 Near-open

Nasalization and diphthongs are also used to distinguish words.

## References

1. ↑ Bradley, D. *Anthropological Linguistics*, *57*(4), 456-459.
2. ↑ Namkung, J. (Ed.). (1996). *Phonological Inventories of Tibeto-Burman Languages* (p. 114). Berkeley, CA: Center for Southeast Asia Studies.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Jiang, L. (2015). *A Grammar of Guiqiong: A Language of Sichuan* (p. 23). Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV.
Gwere orthography

* **a** - a - [ɑ]
* **aa** - aa - [ɑː]
* **æ** - æ - [æ]
* **ææ** - æ - [æː]
* **b** - ba - [β]
* **bb** - bba - [b]
* **c** - ca - [c]
* **d** - da - [d]
* **ð** - ða - [ð]
* **e** - e - [e]
* **ee** - ee - [eː]
* **ɛ** - ɛ - [ɛ]
* **ɛɛ** - ɛɛ - [ɛː]
* **f** - fa - [f]
* **ff** - ffa - [ɸ]
* **g** - ga - [ɡ]
* **ɣ** - ɣa - [ɣ]
* **h** - ha - [ɮ]
* **i** - i - [i]
* **ii** - ii - [iː]
* **j** - ja - [ɟ]
* **k** - ka - [k]
* **l** - la - [l]
* **ł** - ła - [ɹ]
* **m** - ma - [m]
* **n** - na - [n]
* **ny** - nya - [ɲ]
* **ŋ** - ŋa - [ŋ]
* **o** - o - [o]
* **oo** - oo - [oː]
* **ɔ** - ɔ - [ɔ]
* **ɔɔ** - ɔɔ - [ɔː]
* **ɒ** - ɒ - [ɒ]
* **ɒɒ** - ɒɒ - [ɒː]
* **p** - pa - [p]
* **q** - qa - [ɬ]
* **r** - ra - [r]
* **s** - sa - [s]
* **t** - ta - [t]
* **u** - u - [u]
* **uu** - uu - [uː]
* **v** - va - [v]
* **ʌ** - ʌ - [ʌ]
* **ʌʌ** - ʌʌ - [ʌʌː]
* **w** - wa - [w]
* **x** - xa - [x]
* **y** - ya - [j]
* **z** - za - [z]
* **þ** - þa - [θ]
Hup phonology

## Vowels

However, these nine sounds occur only in non-nasal contexts. In nasal morphemes, there are only six distinct vowels:

Adapted from Epps (2005)

According to Epps (2005), this indicates that the contrast between mid-vowels and high/low vowels are neutralised in nasal contexts. Nasalisation is morphemic at the syllable level and targets all segments – generally, every syllable is either fully nasal or fully oral.

## Tonality

Hup tonality functions in what is called a word-accent system – there is a word-level tone contrast system; the contrast is restricted to one syllable per word, which is predictable and also exhibits other features of stressed syllables (greater intensity, longer duration, and higher pitch). There are two tones: rising and high, which only appear in nouns and adjectives.

 High