Free Socialist Republic of Germany

The **Free Socialist Republic of Germany** (German: *Freie Sozialistische Republik Deutschland*,**FSRD**), commonly known simply as **Socialist Germany** or **Germany**, is a country in Central Europe. Politically, it is bordered by Denmark to the north, Poland, the Soviet Union and Lithuania to the east, the Czech Republic, the Austrian Socialist Republic, Republic of Austria and Baden-Württemberg to the south and the Netherlands and Rhenish Republic to the west. Geographically it borders the Baltic Sea and North Sea to the north and the Rhine river in the west.

The FSRD was declared on 1 May 1919, the start of the May Revolution. Left-wing revolutionaries popularly termed "Spartacists" violently seized Berlin and other cities amidst a general strike initiated in response to a right-wing military coup, triggering the German Civil War. After a year and a half of fighting the Spartacists emerged victorious and signed the Treaty of Aachen to settle tensions with the Entente powers, resulting in the breakaway of two non-socialist states: the Rhenish Republic and Baden-Württemberg.

With an estimated *de facto* population of 58,483,200 as of 1930, Germany is the second most populated country in Europe, substantially behind the Soviet Union but ahead of other major countries like France, the United Kingdom and Italy. Its most populated city is Berlin, which is also the capital. Other major cities include the trade hubs of Frankfurt and Hanover, the Bavarian urban centers of Munich, Nuremburg and Augsburg, the great Rhine-Ruhr industrial powerhouses of Düsseldorf, Dortmund, Duisburg and Essen, the Saxon industrial centers of Leipzig, Dresden and Chemnitz, the port cities of Hamburg, Danzig, Bremen and Friedenshafen-Kiel, and the eastern urban centers of Friedrich-Engels-Stadt (formerly Königsberg), Posen, Breslau and Gleiwitz.

## Recent History

### Unification of Germany

In the early 18th century, Germany was divided into a large collection of independent states, which were nominally unified under the German Confederation following the Napoleonic Wars. A full unification of these states was frustrated by the rivalry between the two major member states, the Kingdom of Prussia and Austrian Empire. Discontent with the autocratic structures of these states, poor conditions for the working class and a lack of steps towards unification led to the March Revolution of 1848. The revolutionaries, largely inspired by liberal pan-Germanic ideals, sought to radically restructure German society. Though the rebellion was defeated, the revolutionaries forced the conservative aristocracy to make concessions, and the seeds for forming a unified Germany were planted.

In 1862, the aristocratic statesman Otto von Bismarck was appointed Minister President of Prussia. It was under his leadership that decisive steps were taken towards unification. In 1864, Prussia emerged victorious against Denmark in the Second Schleswig War. This was followed two years later by a Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War, which brought an end to the German Confederation, greatly expanded Prussia's territory, and ended the prospects of Austria joining a unified Germany. In 1867, the North German Confederation was formed encompassing Prussia, Saxony and numerous minor states in Northern Germany. In 1870, war broke out between France and the North German Confederation, starting the Franco-Prussian War. The North German Confederation, in alliance with the South German states of Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden, defeated France and annexed the region of Alsace-Lorraine. On 18 January 1871, the South German states unified with the North German Confederation, forming the German Empire, with the King of Prussia serving simultaneously as Emperor of Germany.

Following the unification of Germany, Bismarck maintained his power position, now as Chancellor of Germany. Under his leadership, Germany shifted away from using war to achieve power, instead seeking alliances with other European powers. An alliance was formed with former enemy Austria, now Austria-Hungary, in opposition to the power bloc of France, Britain and Russia. Germany became a late colonizer in 1884, claiming various African and Pacific colonies during the Berlin Conference. Bismarck led the *Kulturkampf* against the Catholic Church, which backfired when the Catholic Centre Party was formed as a strong political party. Also during this period, the ideals of socialism began to take root. In 1875, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) was formed, which was responded to by Bismarck with the proclamation of the Anti-Socialist Laws and the formation of a welfare state. In 1888, the first Emperor of Germany Wilhelm I died, and he was succeeded by his son Frederick III, who expressed comparably more liberal values. However, he died after only 88 days from cancer, and was succeeded by his militaristic conservative son Wilhelm II. Thus, 1888 became known as the Year of the Three Emperors. Wilhelm II soon challenged the long standing political structure, where Bismarck played the role of statesman and the Emperor the role of the powerless figurehead. He began contradicting the policies of Bismarck, pursuing less authoritarian policies domestically but significantly more militaristic and aggressive foreign policies. In 1890 Bismarck resigned. The Anti-Socialist Laws were effectively rendered defunct from then on, and the SPD gained strength in elections.

### The Great War

Under Wilhelm II, German foreign policy shifted. In 1890, the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia was allowed to lapse, which prompted Russia's alignment with France and Britain. In 1905, a crisis erupted when, during a visit to Morocco, the Kaiser proclaimed his support for sovereignty of the Sultan of Morocco, which amounted to a contradiction of French influence. This crisis, which became known as the Tangier Crisis, was resolved through an international conference in 1906. Another crisis erupted in 1908, when Austria-Hungary declared the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was resolved in 1909 through a revision of the 1878 Treaty of Berlin. This was followed soon after by the Agadir Crisis in 1911, where Germany demanded territorial compensation after France asserted control over Morocco. The crisis was resolved when France agreed to share influence in Morocco with Spain, and ceded territory in Africa to the German colony of Kamerun.

Though none of these instances resulted in war, they did prompt increasingly hostile tensions in Europe. The Agadir Crisis permanently damaged German relations with Britain, a situation German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg unsuccessfully attempted to resolve by ending the naval arms race that had existed since 1897. The Bosnian Crisis also prompted Russia to accelerate its military buildup to oppose Germany and Austria-Hungary. The building tensions came to a breaking point during the July Crisis in 1914, after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. The assassination was inflicted by a Bosnian Serb pan-Slavic group, supported by the Kingdom of Serbia. Austria-Hungary sought to inflict a punitive blow against Serbia, an ally of Russia, and was urged into war by Germany. Russia, however, declared that it would support Serbia in the event of an Austro-Hungarian invasion, and began mobilizing its army. After failed attempts to prevent a large-scale war, Germany invaded Luxembourg and declared war on Russia on 1 August 1914. This was followed by declarations of war against France and Belgium on 3 August and 4 August respectively. Though Germany tried to secure British neutrality in the war, Britain demanded Germany respect Belgian neutrality, and when this was refused they declared war on Germany on 4 August. The Great War had thus begun.

## Politics

*See also: Leadership of the Free Socialist Republic of Germany*

    Germany functions as a federal socialist republic organized under the principles of soviet or council democracy, known in German as the *Rätesystem* (council system). Legally, there is no head of state or head of government, with both positions being filled by a collective head of state known as the People's Council which leads the Congress of People's Deputies. Functionally, however, the Chairperson of the council functions as head of state, while the Deputy Chairperson functions as head of government. Other members of the council play an influential advisory role, and also have voting powers in the congress. The current Chairperson is revolutionary leader Rosa Luxemburg, while the current Deputy Chairperson is socialist politician Karl Liebknecht, son of Wilhelm Liebknecht, one of the primary founders of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).

There are three legal political organizations: the communist Communist Party of Germany (KPD), the socialist United Social Democratic Party of Germany (VSPD), and the anarchist Free Worker's Union of Germany (FAUD). However, as it is not necessary to be a part of an organization in order to run for council elections, many candidates run as independents and form groups within the councils. All non-socialist opposition parties are banned, ostensibly because they operate in and/or support the unrecognized hostile governments of Baden-Württemberg, the Rhenish Republic, or the Weimar government-in-exile.

### Electoral system

The *Rätesystem* (council system) begins at the lowest level, starting with *Gemeinden* (municipalities), whose adult population elects a *Gemeinderat* (municipal council). Some places, typically large cities and towns, are instead divided into *Gemeindebezirke* (municipal districts), with a *Gemeindebezirksrat*. These elections are held directly through secret ballots with universal suffrage for citizens 18 years and older (16 and 17 year old workers may still vote for their workplace council), and the list of candidates is nominated by the local workers' councils, which are also closely involved with their local *Gemeinderat/Gemeindebezirksrat* post-election. To determine which candidates are elected out of the list a transferable vote system is used where voters rank candidates numerically based on their preference.

The *Gemeinderäte* in turn typically elect a *Kreisrat* (county council) for their respective *Kreis* (county). The only exception is in the case of the *Gemeindebezirke*, which have the combined function of a *Kreisrat* and a *Gemeinderat*. The size of each *Gemeinderat* varies based on population, but there are generally hundreds of delegates that participate in the election of a *Kreisrat*. The *Kreisräte* and *Gemeindebezirksräte* in turn elect a *Bezirksrat* (district council) for their respective *Bezirk* (district).The *Bezirksräte* in turn elect a *Länderrat* (state council) for their respective *Land* (state), as well as delegates to the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils, and to the Congress of Bavarian Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Councils in the case of Bavaria. The *Länderräte*then elect delegates to the Congress of State Councils. All four types of administrative division-based councils additionally function as local governments with varying powers. Finally, the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils elects a varied amount of members of the Congress of People's Deputies, while both jointly exercise control over the legislative power. Every candidate above the municipal level is nominated by sections of the national trade unions, who meet annually in the Congress of Federal Trade Unions.

The electoral process lasts a total of 7 days, always beginning on a Sunday and ending the following Saturday. The first two days are spent on elections to the *Gemeinderäte* and *Gemeindebezirksräte*, with the first day being spent on the election itself and the second on certifying results.On the third day, the *Gemeinderäte* elect the *Kreisräte* (county councils). On the fourth day, the *Kreisräte* and *Gemeindebezirksräte* elect the *Bezirksräte* (district councils). On the fifth day the *Bezirksräte* elect the*Länderräte* (state councils), and on the sixth day the *Bezirksräte* elect delegates to the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils, with each Bezirk electing a number of delegates proportional to their population. Additionally on the sixth day the *Länderräte*elect the Congress of State Councils, with 5 delegates being elected for each state. On the seventh and final day, the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils elects the Congress of People's Deputies.

All representatives within this system at all levels can be removed through a recall vote from either the councils that elected them or the population that elected them in the case of the *Gemeinderäte* and *Gemeindebezirksräte*. Movements for recall votes are generally organized by the workers' councils. In other words, deputies operate under an imperative mandate where they are bound by the will of those who elected them. As a result, the composition of the councils can change before national elections are held every three years. However, recall elections cannot be held within two months of a national legislative election, both before and after. Additionally, if a recalled deputy manages to maintain their seat in a recall vote, they are protected from another recall election for three months.

In the case of councils recalling council deputies above them, at least 1/4th of the total members of the lower councils must cosign a statement of opposition. For example, if the *Gemeinderäte* within their respective *Kreis* wished to recall a member of their *Kreisrat*, 1/4th of the deputies of all the *Gemeinderäte* within said *Kreis* must cosign a statement of opposition in order to trigger a recall election. If this requirement is met, the opposition must choose a candidate to oppose the recalled deputy in an election, and if the opposition candidate defeats the recalled deputy they replace said deputy. This same process applies to every council that has another council above itself.

In the case of a recall election to the *Gemeinderäte* and *Gemeindebezirksräte*, which are the only levels elected through a popular ballot rather than the administrative councils, the local workers' councils within a *Gemeinde/Gemeindebezirk* must organize a petition with at least 1,000 individual signatures. If this requirement is met, similarly to the administrative councils the opposition must present a candidate. That candidate then faces off against the recalled deputy through a popular ballot, and replaces said deputy if they win.

### Administrative divisions

*Main article: Administrative divisions of Germany*

Germany is nominally composed of 28 federalized states, or *Länder*, including the five states of the autonomous Bavarian Soviet Republic. In practice, three of these states are entirely controlled by other countries, while seven include disputed territory. Each of these states has their own government, known in German as a *Länderrat* (state council), which is elected through the council system. These state governments have various administrative powers over their respective boundaries which are enshrined in law. States can be established and dismantled and new boundaries can be formed between states only with the majority approval of the relevant state governments. Additionally, it is the responsibility of the state governments to alter their internal administrative divisions. The federal government does, however, hold the reserve power to suspend state governments in specific situations. The federal government also has responsibility over military, diplomatic and national economic matters. State governments do not participate in the election of the federal lower house, the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils, which is instead done by the *Bezirksräte*, which additionally elect the state governments. State governments do elect a separate congress, however, known as the Congress of State Councils.

### Foreign relations

Germany maintains diplomatic relations with most countries in the world, though ties are generally strained with the capitalist nations. Germany maintains a position in favor of a world socialist revolution, and thus relations are closest with socialist nations. Germany is an executive member of the International Proletarian Defense Pact (INPROV), a military alliance of socialist nations, and a full member of the International Workers' Aid (IAH), an economic union organization. Germany also maintains close relations with sympathetic nations such as Sweden, Bulgaria and the Wuhan Government in China. Other notable trade partners include Spain, the Netherlands, and Mexico, as well as the United States in spite of ideological differences.

Relations are strained most with Britain and France, jointly considered the leaders of the global anti-communist bloc. Relations cooled with Britain in the early 1920s after a period of rivalry following the May Revolution, with both countries eventually recognizing each other in 1922, despite the continued British occupation of the island of Heligoland. However, relations broke down again following the formation of INPROV, with Britain withdrawing its recognition in 1928 in favor of the Weimar government-in-exile. As a consequence Germany has poor relations with Britain and its dominions, as well as Britain's close ally Japan. Relations with France remained strained despite some efforts at reconciliation, mainly due to their sponsorship of the Rhenish Republic and Baden-Württemberg, which are both unrecognized by Germany. France has never recognized any unified German government since the Great War. This rivalry was further solidified with the 25 May Coup, which spurred the formation of INPROV. Germany hosts exiled French politicians, considered criminals by the French military government. This has all led to a heavily militarized border between the blocs of the two nations.

### Military

*Main article: Volksarmee*

The German military is called the Volksarmee, which means People's Army. It is a volunteer force composed of nearly 800,000 active personnel and about 120,000 reserve personnel. It is divided into four branches: the Landstreitkräfte (Land Forces), the Volksmarine (People's Navy), the Luftstreitkräfte (Air Forces) and the Rote Garde (Red Guard). Official German historiography places the date of its formation on 1 May 1919, the day the May Revolution began. However, its current structure and its name were only created in August 1923.

### Human rights

Human rights in Germany are defined in the constitution.

1. Right to "fair work". This covers the restriction of work weeks to 36 hours, or 6 hours per day for 6 days a week, as well as the right to employment, the equality of men and women in the workplace, the freedom to pursue a desired career, the right to work-free Sundays and holidays for most occupations, and the prohibition of child labour.
2. Right to "wellbeing". This covers the right to healthcare, education, senior care, child care, housing, and free time. It also guarantees the right to emigrate within the bounds of the law and prohibits extradition of citizens.
3. Right to "faith". This covers the freedom to adhere to and express religious beliefs, the freedom to abstain from religion, the right to belong to religious institutions, and the separation of church and state.
4. Right to "participation". This covers the right to participate in the council system, including voting, standing for elections, and recalling representatives for those 18 years old or above.
5. Right to "organization". This covers the independence of the trade unions and workers' councils from the state, the right to petition, and the right to protest and strike. It also guarantees the right to organize a political organization as long as it is "committed to democracy".
6. Right to "expression". This covers freedom of speech and conscience, including the right to express opposition to the state, the guarantee of independence for the press and the arts, and the right to privacy.
7. Right to "social ownership". This covers the abolition of private property, the personal property rights of the individual and the right to collective ownership of the means of production. Total socialization of the economy is explicitly stated as the end goal.
8. Right to "justice". This covers the right of citizens to have a fair trial, the political independence of the judiciary, the prohibition of the death penalty, and the rehabilitative nature of confinement.
9. Right to "protection". This covers the function of the working class as a collective armed militia for the protection of the proletariat. Citizens are legally entitled to own a firearm and to receive firearms training.

### Law

After the conclusion of the German Civil War, the new socialist German government set out to completely restructure the legal system. Traditional civil law established in the German Empire and its predecessors was abolished and replaced by a new "proletarian" law system. The judiciary was no longer meant to represent a separate caste from the general population. As such, the judiciary is formed out of the local councils elected through the Rätesystem. Additionally, there is a federal-level supreme court formed by the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils. The judiciary has multiple purposes, ranging from prosecuting and rehabilitating common criminals to executing seizures of bourgeois property. Officially, the only purpose of the judiciary is to advance the cause of socialism. The rights of citizens with regard to the judiciary and the rights of the judiciary itself are defined in the constitution. The legal system is organized by the People's Ministry for Justice.

Law enforcement is executed through the Revolutionary Workers' Militia (RAM), a regionalized and decentralized organization formed in 1921. The RAM does not serve the same functions or purpose as traditional police forces. Rather it operates under the principles of self-protection for local communities, with all members being part of the working class which it is wholly accountable to. The People's Ministry for Justice, in cooperation with local governments, is responsible for organizing the functions of the RAM.

## Economy

Germany has a socialist planned economy based around Marxian economics. Private property, also known as private ownership of the means of production, was legally abolished immediately after the civil war. Officially, the working class is to exercise control over the means of production, or their workplaces, and in some cases elect their own management. All sectors of the economy were nationalized, although some sectors, primarily agriculture, continue to undergo a process of socialization. Workdays over 6 hours were officially outlawed under the 1921 constitution, and some jobs have even shorter hours. There has been progress made towards the abolition of currency, a step considered integral towards building lower-stage communism (a term used interchangeably with socialism) by the KPD. These efforts, which have included experiments with labour vouchers, have been complicated by the ongoing recovery from the destruction of the civil war.

Even so, Germany has one of the strongest economies in Europe, and is widely considered both a great power in Europe and a world power. Since 1923, the overall economy has consistently grown, with growth being seen in most sectors of the economy. Germany has one of Europe's largest industrial sectors, which produces large amounts of machinery, electronics and vehicles. Despite a trade embargo from much of the capitalist west, Germany continues to have strong trade ties with its socialist allies, especially with the Soviet Union, as well as other allies such as Sweden. Germany has helped to invest in the industrialization of the Soviet Union while receiving mostly agricultural exports in return, which was very crucial in the early post-civil war years.

### Natural resources

#### Coal

Germany is among the leading producers of coal in Europe, with large reserves that have been mined for centuries. Black coal and lignite are the two forms mined in Germany, with black coal being of greater quality.

The Ruhr region is the primary source of black coal, with the highly industrialized nature of the region being driven by the coal industry. The second largest source of black coal is in the Upper Silesia region. There are also smaller sources in Lower Silesia, particularly around Waldenburg. Black coal is also mined in Saxony, with the primary sources being in Zwickau, Oelsnitz and the Döhlen Basin near Dresden. Additionally, there are smaller black coal sources in Northwestern Germany, particularly near Hanover and Osnabrück.

Lignite is available in greater quantity, with Germany having the largest lignite reserves in the world. The two main regions of lignite mining are in Lusatia and Central Germany. In Lusatia, lignite is found within a large area south of Cottbus, as well as to the north around Frankfurt an der Oder. In Central Germany, lignite is scattered throughout multiple locations. The largest of these is in Southern Saxony-Anhalt, particularly around Halle an der Saale and Merseburg. There are also mines near the city of Magdeburg, a small mine in Malliß in Brandenburg, as well as significant mines to the south of Leipzig in Borna, and further to the west there are mines in Hesse, particularly in Kassel and Wölfersheim. A major source of lignite was acquired with the annexation of German Bohemia in 1919, with extensive reserves in Brüx. In Bavaria, lignite is mined in the Upper Palatinate region, as well as the south, where a unique type known as pitch coal is found. There are also smaller declining mining areas in the Westerwald region.

Some of the coal industry resides in lost territories. In particular, there are lignite mines west of Cologne and black coal mines near Aachen, which reside within the territory of the Rhenish Republic. More notable is the loss of the Saarland, a major source of black coal, to France. This has prompted Germany to rely more on lignite.

#### Ores

There are many ores mined in Germany. Mined ores include iron, copper, silver, lead, tin, zinc, pyrite and potash.

The iron industry in Germany is the most notable of the ore mining industries. Iron is sourced from various areas in the country, with the largest sources being in the Rhineland, particularly in the Ruhr, Siegerland and Westerwald regions. Iron is also found in other areas, such as Amberg in Bavaria, Osnabrück in Lower Saxony and the Harz Mountains in Saxony-Anhalt. Germany lost about 70% of its iron ore production with the loss of Alsace-Lorraine after the Great War. As a result, Germany has since had to import iron from the Soviet Union and Sweden to fuel the steel industry.

Other ores are sourced from various areas in the country. Copper can be found in the Sauerland region in Western Germany as well as the Upper Harz and Mansfeld in Central Germany. Silver and lead are found primarily in Saxony around the Ore Mountains, but can also be found in the Westerwald region and the Harz Mountains. Tin is found solely in the Ore Mountains, particularly around Altenberg. Zinc is found in the Sauerland region, the Harz Mountains and the Ore Mountains. Pyrite is mainly found in the Sauerland region, but small amounts are also found in various other major mining regions. Potash is found in great amounts, with the mine at Staßfurt being the first in the world. Until the loss of Alsace-Lorraine Germany had a monopoly on global potash production, but nonetheless continues to be a leading producer. Potash is found in various regions, with notable sources including the Werra river region, Southwest Mecklenburg, the Southern Harz region and various areas in Saxony-Anhalt.

#### Oil

Oil in Germany is only found in small quantities, but the industry is one of the oldest in the world, predating oil exploitation in the United States. The vast majority of German oil comes from Wietze in the state of Hanover. The oil industry has grown in recent years due to large investments from the socialist government, which has sought to lessen the reliance on imported Soviet oil. Most notably, oil has been recently discovered in the Emsland region of Lower Saxony.

#### Other resources

Aside from minerals and oil, Germany also has numerous other natural resources such as timber, arable land, and water, as well as materials such as sand, gravel and granite.

## Demographics

### Religion

Although the Free Socialist Republic of Germany is legally secular in contrast with the German Empire, Christianity is the dominant religion. As religion is not recorded in the census, figures are largely based on pre-revolution information and church membership. Within the currently administered areas of the FSRD, the population is mostly Protestant with a sizeable Catholic minority. The Catholic populations are primarily based in the Eastern Rhineland and Westphalia, as well as Bavaria and Eastern Germany, the latter of which is primarily composed of Poles. The Protestant populations are dominant in Central and Northern Germany, as well as East Prussia. Protestants are primarily divided into Lutherans and Calvinists, with Lutherans as a majority. The largest non-Christian religion is Judaism. A small but growing section of the population is irreligious.

#### Religious policy

According to the 1921 constitution, freedom of religion is guaranteed. Germany is thus a secular nation by law, with strict separation of church and state. After the civil war, the influence of church institutions was reduced, and many churches were closed. After various reforms throughout the early 1920's, some churches were allowed to reopen, and the People's Ministry for Religious Affairs was established to facilitate relations between religious institutions and the state separately from other government institutions. The government has at various points encouraged private worship outside of churches, while atheism is promoted within the KPD. Members of the legislative branches are not allowed to explicitly factor religion into political decision making outside of the People's Ministry for Religious Affairs. Some churches have expressed cooperation with the government, while others have expressed opposition. Some religious leaders have even ran for council elections as independent candidates.

### Languages

German is both the official and primary language in Germany. The German language itself is composed of various regional dialects. Standard German, or Hochdeutsch, is a West Germanic form of German commonly used in writing as well as inter-regional communication.

There are a number of officially recognized minority languages. These include Polish, Sorbian/Wendish, Yiddish, Romani, Danish, Masurian, Kashubian, Czech, Lithuanian, Walloon, French, Dutch and Frisian. Polish is the largest minority language, consisting of over 3,000,000 speakers who make up a majority in much of Eastern Germany. Three of the recognized languages, Walloon, French and Danish, are recognized on the basis of territorial claims, with all being practically non-existent within the current de facto boundaries.

No government institution currently exists for the regulation of the German language, with such studies being relegated to independent organizations, some of which receive government subsidies. The protection of minority languages and groups is conducted through the People's Ministry for Minority Affairs.

### Education

Prior to the establishment of the FSRD, Germany had already achieved a near universal basic literacy rate, meaning a person is capable of basic reading and writing. However, levels of education were also largely determined by income and class. While secondary schools such as universities existed, they were difficult to advance to without being among the wealthy. Primary education was also often generally short for most children, with few remaining in education beyond the age of twelve, when they would generally enter the workforce. Advanced levels of literacy were as a result rare.

Both as a result of the Great War and the German Civil War, the education system was left in tatters by the time the FSRD was consolidated, and had to be rebuilt anew. These massive changes began implementation almost immediately after the end of the civil war. State-funded kindergartens were established for children six years old and younger to provide universal preschool education as well as to provide childcare during the day so both parents could work. This was in line with the socialist campaign of anti-traditionalism and gender equality, which encouraged women to abandon traditional home-based roles and seek jobs on an equal level with men.

After the kindergartens comes primary school, where attendance is required. Courses last from the age of six (or seven depending on the birthday) to sixteen, spanning ten grades. Grades first through fifth are considered to be lower grades, while grades sixth through tenth are considered to be higher grades. Beyond grade-based differences in curriculum, each group has distinct structural differences, with higher grades designed to prepare students for work and higher levels of education like university.

Classes in primary school cover multiple subjects. Primary subjects include German language and literature, art, science, mathematics, history and physical education. It is also required to learn at least one foreign language. Available language courses include Russian, French, Italian, English and Hungarian. For students in the upper grades, it is required to take two additional classes which range in multiple subjects that all tie into preparation for adult life. Each class lasts for half of a school year, which spans 38 weeks, six days per week (with the additional classes not being held on Saturdays).

Additionally, athletically inclined students have the opportunity to participate in sporting events known as Youth Spartakiads, which are separate from their international counterpart. These events are funded and managed by the state and sponsored by the Young Communist League of Germany and the Socialist Workers Youth, the youth organizations of the KPD and VSPD respectively. They are held on both a regional level and a national level. The first Youth Spartakiads were held in 1930.

After finishing primary education, students graduate and then may either advance to a higher level vocational school that spans grades eleven and twelfth, from age seventeen to eighteen, or they can choose to pursue a working career immediately. The curriculum of these vocational schools cover many university-level subjects. Those who pass their courses gain a degree in their chosen subject. Upon completing this level of education, students take final exams. Students who pass gain the Abitur, a qualification that approves students to attend university. In university, high level courses are available in engineering, science, arts and other subjects.

This experimental education system has received various changes since its implementation in a response to academic results as well as feedback from teachers and students. The People's Ministry of Education handles these affairs. The current system was designed almost solely by People's Minister of Education Fritz Lange, a primary school teacher from the KPD.

### Health

Germany has a universal healthcare system, or a system where healthcare is provided to all residents regardless of cost. This system was started in the 1880s under the rule of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, but was reformed and expanded under the socialist government. The healthcare sector was completely nationalized and placed under state control in 1920. The civil war period, coupled with the famine of the Great War, caused a downturn in life expectancy and an increase in infant mortality, in no small part because of the damage done to the healthcare sector. The socialist government made rebuilding healthcare a primary goal, enabling a quick recovery.

As of 1930, German life expectancy from birth stands at 63 years old, compared to 47 years old in 1910. This was primarily accomplished by reducing infant mortality rates, from 174 deaths per 1,000 births in 1910 to 58 deaths in 1930, and expanding access to quality healthcare. Fertility rates were also increased after sustaining a massive decline due to the Great War and the subsequent turmoil. In 1910 the average German woman was expected to have 4 children, but by 1919 this rate had decreased to 2.3 children. The socialist government launched a propaganda campaign to encourage parenting, and also expanded access to childcare facilities. This allowed the rate to increase to 2.9 children by 1930.

## Culture

### Art

*Main article: Art in Socialist Germany*

Art in Germany has a rich history dating back to the Middle Ages, defined by Christian themes and the Romanesque style of art and architecture. Later Germany would be known for the Gothic style, most famously represented in the Cologne Cathedral, although this style did not originate in Germany but rather in France. The International Gothic style was practically institutionalized in the Holy Roman Empire, and German art would continue to be Gothic influenced well after falling out of favor elsewhere in Europe. A slow transition would begin with the Renaissance, while the Protestant Reformation's iconoclastic tendencies would diminish religious influences in German art.

One of the most famous artists of the early German Renaissance was Matthias Grünewald, whose most well known work, the *Isenheim Altarpiece*, continued the traditional Gothic style. Artists of the early-16th century Danube School, including Albrecht Altdorfer, Wolf Huber and Augustin Hirschvogel, were distinguished for their landscape painting, which was unusual in Europe at the time. The painter Hans Holbein the Elder was a pioneer of the transition from the International Gothic to the Renaissance style. The Gothic style would persist longer in Catholic areas, where religious themes would remain influential.

The Baroque style would arrive late in Germany, not making itself known until around the mid-late 17th century, and German Baroque art would not become well known outside of Germany. Art styles would grow increasingly influenced by foreign artists from Italy and the Netherlands. Neoclassicism appeared in Germany early, with the Brandenburg Gate being the most well known symbol of the era. Johann Gottfried Schadow, designer of the chariot atop the gate, would become one of the most well known Neoclassicist sculptors. The Berlin Academy of Arts, founded in 1696 by Frederick III of Brandenburg, was the earliest established German art academy, and would influence the foundation of many other academies throughout Germany.

German Romanticism emerged in the late-18th century as arguably the first distinctly German art style, characterized by artists such as Caspar David Friedrich, Philipp Otto Runge and Carl Spitzweg. Characterized by individuality and emotional expression, it developed in many ways as a hostile reaction to the Enlightenment's Rationalism, and also stood against Neoclassicism. An offshoot of the Romanticism known as the Nazarene movement sought to revive religious themes in art. The Düsseldorf School would be characterized for Romantic landscape paintings. The Biedermeier era emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, characterized by the Naturalist/Realist school, whose most prominent figure was Adolph Menzel. The Berlin Secession group formed in 1898 and led by Max Liebermann was known for its avant-garde Impressionism.

In the era before the Great War, German Expressionist art styles were characterized primarily by two groups, including the Munich-based Der Blaue Reiter ("The Blue Rider) and the Dresden-based Die Brücke ("The Bridge"). They are considered to have been early representatives of the modern art movement. The war would see the dissolution of most art groups, but its end and the beginning of the German Revolution would see the emergence of many diverse art movements, many with a politicized character. Walter Gropius's Bauhaus is seen as the most influential modernist institution, seeking to unite all art styles and forms into one. The Arbeitsrat für Kunst and Novembergruppe, both formed in 1918, would seek to unite artists and architects with the council movement, leading to their merger into the Gewerkschaft Kunst und Schrifttum ("Union of Art and Literature Workers)" in 1922. Other modern German art styles include Dada and the post-Expressionist New Objectivity movement, both of which adopt an anti-capitalist outlook.

### Music

German classical music includes works by some of the world's most well-known composers. Dieterich Buxtehude, Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Friedrich Händel were influential composers of the Baroque period. Ludwig van Beethoven was a crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras. Carl Maria von Weber, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms were significant Romantic composers. Richard Wagner was known for his operas. Richard Strauss is a leading composer of the Modernist era.

Germany is also known for various forms of folk music. These songs are known as "volkslieder". The earliest of the volkslieder consist of songs passed on from the late 18th century and early 19th century. The content of these songs vary, with some being of political character. "Kein schöner Land in dieser Zeit" (No country more beautiful in this time) is a prominent song adopted by the Wandervogel movement, a youth movement that embraces nature and opposes industrialization. "Die Gedanken sind frei" (Thoughts are free) was a song used by the liberal revolutionaries of the 1848 German Revolution. Other folk songs include holiday music such as "O Tannenbaum" (O fir tree) and "Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht" (Silent Night, Holy Night), both of which are known outside Germany in translated form as prominent Christmas songs. The Deutsches Volksliedarchiv was established in 1914 by folklorist John Meier to collect and archive German folk music from this period.

In the late 19th century workers' and students' songs emerged to prominence. Many of these are political, being associated with various social movements. The May Revolution and the subsequent establishment of a socialist government has led to a revitalization of this form of music, fueled by various composers such as Bertolt Brecht and Erich Weinert.

The modern era has seen the emergence of a new form of music known as cabaret, featured generally in a theatrical setting. A variation of this, known as Kabarett, takes on a political and satirical character. Such music was censored at theatres in the German Empire, especially during the Great War, due to criticisms of the government. The post-revolutionary period saw a relaxation in restrictions, with Kabarett artists engaging in criticism of the socialist government.

The availability of music has been bolstered by the introduction of the phonograph record and public radio, which has also enabled the emergence of numerous popular musicians and singers.

### Sports

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn is considered the pioneer of gymnastics in Germany, with the foundation of the first gymnastics field in Berlin in 1811. He promoted various open air exercises such as jumping, throwing, lifting and running, and particularly sought to influence the youth. By the 1860s the gymnastics movement would become formalized throughout Germany with various festivals and associations.

Football was possibly introduced to Germany in 1874 by two German teachers, August Hermann and Konrad Koch, who had visited England and obtained a football. They are believed to have played the first game of football on German soil in Brunswick, though it would not be another 20 years until the sport gained popularity in Germany. On 28 January 1900 the German Football Association (DFB) was formed out of 86 football clubs. The German national team played its first match in 1908 against Switzerland, where they lost 5-3. The DFB was rivaled by the Arbeiter Turnerbund (ATB), which was formed by workers disgruntled with the exclusion of working class athletes from sports associations like the DFB. After the war it became the Arbeiter-Turn- und Sportbund (ATSB), expanding its scope to other sports. The war disrupted football both on a national and international level, and the subsequent turmoil and civil war prevented a reemergence of the football scene until 1921. The DFB did not reconstitute in Germany and the ATSB replaced it entirely as an institutionalized sport association. Due to international political tensions the German national football team primarily competes in the Spartakiad, a socialist replacement for the Olympics.

Besides gymnastics and football the other most prominent sport in Germany is handball, which was first played in Berlin in 1917. The modern set of rules was written by Karl Schelenz, and it has since spread throughout Germany and to other countries.

## Symbols

### Flag

The flag of the Free Socialist Republic of Germany was adopted on 16 March 1921. The flag lacks any national colors, instead consisting of a solid red background representing internationalism and class struggle. The center of the flag consists of an emblem. The outer frame of the emblem contains a cog, which represents the character of Germany as a "workers' state". In the center of the cog is a hammer and compass, with the hammer representing the industrial proletariat and the compass representing the intelligentsia (scientists, artists, teachers, etc). Finally, above the hammer and compass is a red and yellow star, representing the bright future of the working class.

#### History

The German flag was adopted on 16 March 1921 during the 6th German Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils. It was chosen from over a dozen proposed designs, then refined over the following months before being first displayed after the first elections in November that year.

Some alternative designs incorporated the Black-Red-Gold tricolor, but this was rejected on the basis of its nationalistic character as well as its association with the Weimar Republic. Some designs also included a symbol of the peasantry, but this was rejected largely by the Communist Party in line with their goal of eradicating the divides between the industrial proletariat and the peasantry. Other variations included a banner with the initials "FSRD" on it, but this was rejected in favor of a more simplistic design.

Prior to March 1921, the official flag was simply a red banner with the words "Proletarier aller Länder vereinigt Euch!" (Proletarians of all countries, unite!). This design was officially adopted during the 3rd German Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils on 18 June 1919, shortly after the onset of the civil war. Despite this adoption, many other flags were used by local council republics and formations of the Volksarmee. A commonly used flag was inscribed with the words "Freie Sozialistische Republik Deutschland" (Free Socialist Republic of Germany) in a style similar to the official flag. The flag of the KPD was also used on some occasions, though the designs differed from the official modern design. Other flags commonly used included the Black-Red-Gold tricolor and a plain red banner.

### Emblem

The emblem of the Free Socialist Republic of Germany was adopted simultaneously with the flag on 16 March 1921. At the center it incorporates the hammer and compass as with the flag, surrounded by a broken chain that symbolizes the liberation of the proletariat. In the background stands a shining sun, symbolizing the bright future for Germany, and at the top stands a red star, symbolizing international socialism. Further surrounding the emblem are two branches of oak leaves, symbolic as a long standing national symbol for Germany. Finally, at the bottom a red banner stretches between the oak branches, bearing in text the name of the country in German.