recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Executive

The **executive** is the branch of government exercising authority in and holding responsibility for the governance of a state. The executive executes and enforces law.

In political systems based on the principle of separation of powers, authority is distributed among several branches (executive, legislative, judicial)—an attempt to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a single group of people. In such a system, the executive does not pass laws (the role of the legislature) or interpret them (the role of the judiciary). Instead, the executive enforces the law as written by the legislature and interpreted by the judiciary. The executive can be the source of certain types of law, such as a decree or executive order. Executive bureaucracies are commonly the source of regulations.

## Ministers

In the Westminster political system, the principle of separation of powers is not as entrenched as in some others. Members of the executive, called ministers, are also members of the legislature, and hence play an important part in both the writing and enforcing of law.

In this context, the executive consists of a leader(s) of an office or multiple offices. Specifically, the top leadership roles of the executive branch may include:

* head of state – often the supreme leader, the president or monarch, the chief public representative and living symbol of national unity.
	+ head of government – often the prime minister, overseeing the administration of all affairs of state.
		- defence minister – overseeing the armed forces, determining military policy and managing external safety.
		- interior minister – overseeing the police forces, enforcing the law and managing internal control.
		- foreign minister – overseeing the diplomatic service, determining foreign policy and managing foreign relations.
		- finance minister – overseeing the treasury, determining fiscal policy and managing national budget.
		- justice minister – overseeing criminal prosecutions, corrections, enforcement of court orders.

## Presidents

In a presidential system, the leader of the executive is both the *head of state and head of government*. In a parliamentary system, a cabinet minister responsible to the legislature is the head of government, while the head of state is usually a largely ceremonial monarch or president.
Education spending

The US spends 11,000 dollars per student per year on public education.

* New York spends 22,000 dollars
* Utah spends 7,000 dollars.

The average class size is about 20 students. That means that the US spends 220,000 dollars per classroom.

* Roughly half of that is spent on teachers salaries and benefits.

## References

* https://www.governing.com/gov-data/education-data/state-education-spending-per-pupil-data.html
* https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112\_2013314\_t1s\_007.asp
Emotions

For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. Ekman's facial-expression research examined six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. Later in his career, Ekman theorized that other universal emotions may exist beyond these six. In light of this, recent cross-cultural studies led by Daniel Cordaro and Dacher Keltner, both former students of Ekman, extended the list of universal emotions. In addition to the original six, these studies provided evidence for amusement, awe, contentment, desire, embarrassment, pain, relief, and sympathy in both facial and vocal expressions. They also found evidence for boredom, confusion, interest, pride, and shame facial expressions, as well as contempt, interest, relief, and triumph vocal expressions.

Robert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the "wheel of emotions", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and surprise versus anticipation. Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions. The complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. Alternatively, similar to the way primary colors combine, *primary emotions* could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. For example, interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt. Relationships exist between basic emotions, resulting in positive or negative influences.
Foveated rendering

**Foveated rendering** is a rendering technique which uses an eye tracker integrated with a virtual reality headset to reduce the rendering workload by greatly reducing the image quality in the peripheral vision (outside of the zone gazed by the fovea).

A less sophisticated variant called **fixed foveated rendering** doesn't utilise eye tracking and instead assumes a fixed focal point.

## History

At Tech Crunch Disrupt SF 2014, Fove unveiled a headset featuring foveated rendering. This was followed by a successful kickstarter in May 2015.

At CES 2016, SensoMotoric Instruments (SMI) demoed a new 250 Hz eye tracking system and a working foveated rendering solution. It resulted from a partnership with camera sensor manufacturer Omnivision who provided the camera hardware for the new system.

In July 2016, Nvidia demonstrated during SIGGRAPH a new method of foveated rendering claimed to be invisible to users.

In February 2017, Qualcomm announced their Snapdragon 835 Virtual Reality Development Kit (VRDK) which includes foveated rendering support called Adreno Foveation.

During CES 2019 on January 7 HTC announced an upcoming virtual reality headset called Vive Pro Eye featuring eye-tracking and support for foveated rendering.

In December 2019, Facebook's Oculus Quest SDK gave developers access to dynamic fixed foveated rendering, allowing the variation in level of detail to be changed on the fly via an API.

## Use

According to chief scientist Michael Abrash at Oculus, utilising foveated rendering in conjunction with sparse rendering and deep learning image reconstruction has the potential to require an order of magnitude fewer pixels to be rendered in comparison to a full image. Later, these results have been demonstrated and published.
Ferns

A **fern** is a member of a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissues that conduct water and nutrients and in having life cycles in which the sporophyte is the dominant phase. Ferns have complex leaves called megaphylls, that are more complex than the microphylls of clubmosses. Most ferns are leptosporangiate ferns, sometimes referred to as true ferns. They produce coiled fiddleheads that uncoil and expand into fronds. The group includes about 10,560 known extant species.

Ferns are defined here in the broad sense, being all of the **Polypodiopsida**, comprising both the **leptosporangiate** (Polypodiidae) and **eusporangiate ferns**, the latter itself comprising ferns other than those denominated true ferns, including horsetails or scouring rushes, whisk ferns, marattioid ferns, and ophioglossoid ferns.

Ferns first appear in the fossil record about 360 million years ago in the late Devonian period, but many of the current families and species did not appear until roughly 145 million years ago in the early Cretaceous, after flowering plants came to dominate many environments. The fern *Osmunda claytoniana* is a paramount example of evolutionary stasis; paleontological evidence indicates it has remained unchanged, even at the level of fossilized nuclei and chromosomes, for at least 180 million years.

Ferns are not of major economic importance, but some are used for food, medicine, as biofertilizer, as ornamental plants and for remediating contaminated soil. They have been the subject of research for their ability to remove some chemical pollutants from the atmosphere. Some fern species, such as bracken (*Pteridium aquilinum*) and water fern (*Azolla filiculoides*) are significant weeds world wide. Some fern genera, such as *Azolla* can fix nitrogen and make a significant input to the nitrogen nutrition of rice paddies. They also play certain roles in mythology and art.
Endoderm

**Endoderm** is one of the three primary germ layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm (outside layer) and mesoderm (middle layer), with the endoderm being the innermost layer. Cells migrating inward along the archenteron form the inner layer of the gastrula, which develops into the endoderm.

The endoderm consists at first of flattened cells, which subsequently become columnar. It forms the epithelial lining of multiple systems.

In plant biology, endoderm corresponds to the innermost part of the cortex (bark) in young shoots and young roots often consisting of a single cell layer. As the plant becomes older, more endoderm will lignify.

## Production

The following chart shows the tissues produced by the endoderm.
The embryonic endoderm develops into the interior linings of two tubes in the body, the digestive and respiratory tube.

Liver and pancreas cells are believed to derive from a common precursor.

In humans, the endoderm can differentiate into distinguishable organs after 5 weeks of embryonic development.

## Additional images

Section through the embryo.Section through ovum imbedded in the uterine deciduaSignaling pathway to inducing endoderm
Greater fool theory

In finance and economics, the **greater fool theory** states that the price of an object is determined not by its intrinsic value, but rather by irrational beliefs and expectations of market participants. A price can be justified by a rational buyer under the belief that another party is willing to pay an even higher price. In other words, one may pay a price that seems "foolishly" high because one may rationally have the expectation that the item can be resold to a "greater fool" later.

## Examples

In real estate, the greater fool theory can drive investment through the expectation that prices always rise. A period of rising prices may cause lenders to underestimate the risk of default.

A Ponzi scheme is a form of investor fraud where earlier investors are paid from the money gained by more recent investors. Ponzi schemes rely on a continuous supply of greater fools who are willing to buy into the scheme in order to stay afloat. Although a share in such a scheme has no value whatsoever, so long as more greater fools buy into it, it can remain profitable for the investors involved.

In the stock market, the greater fool theory applies when many investors make a questionable investment, with the assumption that they will be able to sell it later to "a greater fool". In other words, they buy something not because they believe that it is worth the price, but rather because they believe that they will be able to sell it to someone else at an even higher price. It is also called **survivor investing**. It is similar in concept to the Keynesian beauty contest principle of stock investing.

Art is another commodity in which speculation and privileged access drive prices, not intrinsic value. In November 2013, hedge fund manager Steven A. Cohen of SAC Capital was selling at auction artworks that he had only recently acquired through private transactions. Works included paintings by Gerhard Richter and Rudolf Stingel and a sculpture by Cy Twombly. They were expected to sell for up to $80 million. In reporting the sale, *The New York Times* noted:

> "Ever the trader, Mr. Cohen is also taking advantage of today’s active art market where new collectors will often pay far more for artworks than they are worth."
>
>
High-top

The **high-top** is a shoe that extends slightly over the wearer's ankle. It is commonly an athletic shoe, particularly for basketball. It is sometimes confused with the slightly shorter mid-top, which typically extends no higher than the wearer's ankle. High-tops also should not be confused with shorter-length boots such as ankle boots, since high-tops usually refer to athletic shoes, although can also refer to other above-ankle shoes such as some hiking boots.

Examples of basketball shoes that are high-tops are Converse All-Stars, Nike Air Forces 1, 2, and 3, Reebok Freestyle, Reebok BB4600, Nike Air Yeezy and Foggia Hi LTD from Fila. Others include skateboarding sneakers, such as the Vans Vault Hi Fi LX which are quite supportive to the wearer's ankles and are useful to those with hypermobility and fallen arches.

## Design

While most high-top sneakers take the form of either the Converse All-Stars or Nike Air Forces 1, 2, and 3, high-top CVO (Circular Vamp Oxford) cover the ankle and also have a circular vamp. They come in both lace up and slip-on, thought the slip-on version is very rare. In British English these would be high-top plimsolls again either in lace up or slip-on. Various manufacturers and models exist, including Keds, Pro-Keds, and Converse. These exist for all genders and all age ranges. The shoes have recently come back in style in 2014, espically white ones.

Some dress and casual shoes may also be as high-tops.

## Gallery

A pair of Converse All-Star high topsAdidas Conductor High Tops, a fairly popular set of high tops
Inflammaging

**Inflamm-aging** (also known as inflammaging or inflamm-ageing) is a chronic low-grade inflammation that develops with advanced age. It is believed to accelerate the process of biological aging and to worsen many age-related diseases.

## Characteristics

Immune system undergoes profound changes during ageing. Adaptive immune response becomes less effective as lymphocyte numbers are reduced in the elderly. This is the result of the decline of generation of new naive T lymphocytes as a consequence of thymic involution. Furthermore, as we age T-lymphocyte population comprises more and more of memory cells at the expense of naive cells.

While effectiveness of adaptive immune system declines, innate immune mechanisms become more active. This is represented by increased number of natural killer cells and increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This chronic activation of innate immune system results in a low-grade chronic inflammation development in the elderly. This phenomenon was termed as inflamm-aging. Inflamm-aging is described as a low grade, chronic, controlled and asymptomatic inflammation which occurs in the absence of infection and is primarily driven by endogenous signals. Key molecules associated with inflamm-aging are elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines, especially IL-6, TNFα and C-reactive protein (CRP). This chronic inflamed state has detrimental effect on health and contributes to biological ageing and development of age-related pathologies. Inflamm-aging was shown to help development and worsen course of Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis, type II diabetes and chronic heart diseases.

## Causes

As inflamm-aging is a complex and systemic issue, it is likely that inflammaging is a result of several factors. {{yellow|It seems that the major cause of inflamm-aging is accumulation of misplaced and misfolded self-molecules from damaged cells. These molecules are recognized by receptors of innate immune cells which leads to their activation and consequently to inflammation. Cell components which can stimulate innate cells include microRNAs, mitochondrial DNA or histones.

Senescent cells increase with aging, and senescent cells secrete a pro-inflammatory cocktail of chemicals, a condition known as senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP).

Inflamm-aging has been also associated with persistent Cytomegalovirus infection. Cytomegalovirus drives up production of a variety of inflammatory cytokines and also results in expansion of CMV specific memory T cells. Other possible factors that may lead to inflamm-aging include overnutrition, altered gut microbiome, impaired intestinal epithlial barrier, and chronic stress occurring in any stage of the individual's life. Cytokines with inflammatory properties can also be secreted by fat tissue.

## Proposed interventions

Use of low-dose aspirin, exercise, and statins are therapies for inflammaging already in common use. Possible future therapies include senolytic drugs, probiotics, cytomegalovirus vaccine, and thymic replacement.
Great Sumatran fault

Template:Infobox fault

The Indonesian island of Sumatra is located in a highly seismic area of the world. In addition to the subduction zone off the west coast of the island, Sumatra also has a large strike-slip fault, the **Great Sumatran Fault** also known as **Semangko Fault**, running the entire length of the island. This fault zone accommodates most of the strike-slip motion associated with the oblique convergence between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates. The fault ends in the north just below the city of Banda Aceh, which was devastated in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. After the December 2004 earthquake, pressure on the Great Sumatran Fault has increased tremendously, especially in the north.

## Geologic Significance

The Great Sumatran Fault is part of the system where strain partitioning was first described in plate tectonics. The convergence between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Sunda Plate is not perpendicular to the plate boundary in this region. Instead, the two plates move at an oblique angle. Most of the convergent strain is accommodated by thrust motion at the plate boundary "megathrust" fault that defines the Sunda Trench. But the oblique motion (the part of the plate motion parallel to the plate boundary) is accommodated by the Great Sumatran Fault, which runs along the volcanic Sunda Arc.

The area between the main plate boundary thrust fault and the Great Sumatran fault forms a "sliver plate" that includes the entire offshore forearc, forearc islands, and the portion of Sumatra west of the Great Sumatran Fault. This sliver plate is not a single rigid bloc, and the details of its internal deformation are under active investigation.

## Earthquakes

Listed from northwest to southeast:

* April 2, 1964: Mw 7.0 event near the northern tip of Sumatra and the city Banda Aceh.
* September 19, 1936: Mw 7.2 event (3.685°N 97.535°E)
* March 2007 Sumatra earthquakes: Doublet earthquakes of moment magnitude 6.4 and 6.3 two hours apart northeast of Lake Singkarak.
* 1943 Alahan Panjang earthquakes: Doublet earthquakes of moment magnitude 7.2 and 7.5 occurred within 7 hours of each other on June 8 and 9 southeast of Lake Singkarak.
* 1994 Liwa earthquake: 7.0 Mw event caused 207 deaths near the southern tip of Sumatra.
* June 24, 1933: Mw 7.6 event
Instance

In object-oriented programming (OOP), an **instance** is a concrete occurrence of any object, existing usually during the runtime of a computer program. Formally, "instance" is synonymous with "object" as they are each a particular value (realization), and these may be called an **instance object**; "instance" emphasizes the distinct identity of the object. The creation of an instance is called instantiation. The term "Instance" can also refer, in a non object oriented manner, to any program that is executing. Eg., the executing process in an instance of the program (see below).

In class-based programming, objects are created from classes by subroutines called constructors, and destroyed by destructors. An object is an instance of a class, and may be called a **class instance** or **class object**; instantiation is then also known as construction. Not all classes can be instantiated – abstract classes cannot be instantiated, while classes that can be instantiated are called concrete classes. In prototype-based programming, instantiation is instead done by copying (cloning) a prototype instance.

An object may be varied in a number of ways. Each realized variation of that object is an instance of its class. Each time a process runs, it is an instance of some  program. That is, it is a member of a given class that has specified values rather than variables. In a non-programming context, you could think of "dog" as a type and your particular dog as an instance of that class.

An important distinction is between the data type, which is interface, and the class, which is implementation.

The meaning of the term "type" in computer science is rather similar to the meaning of the word "type" in everyday language. For example, a barman can ask a client what type of beverage does he or she want – coffee, tea or beer? A particular cup of coffee that the client receives is in the role of an instance, while two cups of coffee would form a set of two instances of coffee, determining its type at the same time.
Intermediate-term memory

**Intermediate-term memory** (**ITM**) is a stage of memory distinct from sensory memory, working memory/short-term memory, and long-term memory. While sensory memory persists for several milliseconds, working memory persists for up to thirty seconds, and long-term memory persists from thirty minutes to the end of an individual's life, intermediate-term memory persists for about two to three hours. This overlap in the durations of these memory processes indicates that they occur simultaneously, rather than sequentially. Indeed, intermediate-term facilitation can be produced in the absence of long-term facilitation. However, the boundaries between these forms of memory are not clear-cut, and they can vary depending on the task. Intermediate-term memory is thought to be supported by the parahippocampal cortex.

In 1993, Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrated that, in rats conditioned with an aversive stimulus, percent avoidance of the stimulus (and, by implication, memory of the aversive nature of the stimulus) reached relative minima at one minute, fifteen minutes, and sixty minutes. These dips were theorized to correspond to the time points in which the rats switched from working memory to intermediate-term memory, from intermediate-term memory to the early phase of long-term memory, and from the early phase of long-term memory to the late phase of long-term memory, respectively—thus demonstrating the presence of a form of memory that exists between working memory and long-term memory, which they referred to as "intermediate-term memory".

Though the idea of intermediate-term memory has existed since the 1990s, Sutton *et al.* introduced a novel theory for the neural correlates underlying intermediate-term memory in *Aplysia* in 2001, where they described it as the primary behavioral manifestation of intermediate-term facilitation.

## Characteristics

In 2001, Sutton and colleagues proposed that intermediate-term memory possesses the following three characteristics:

* Its induction requires translation, but *not* transcription
* Its expression requires the persistent activation of protein kinase A and protein kinase C
* It declines completely before the onset of long-term memory

## Mechanism

### Induction

Because intermediate-term memory does not involve transcription, it likely involves the translation of mRNA transcripts already present in neurons.

## Comparison with short-term/working memory

Main articles: Working memory
Unlike short-term memory and working memory, intermediate-term memory requires changes in translation to occur in order to function.

## Comparison with long-term memory

Main articles: Long-term memory
While ITM requires only changes in translation, induction of long-term memory requires changes in transcription as well. The change from short-term memory to long-term memory is thought to dependent on CREB, which regulates transcription, but because ITM does not involve a change in transcription, it is thought to be independent of CREB activity. According to the definition of ITM proposed by Sutton *et al.* in 2001, it disappears completely before long-term memory is induced.
Hyperfocus

**Hyperfocus** is an intense form of mental concentration or visualization that focuses consciousness on a subject, topic, or task. In some individuals, various subjects or topics may also include daydreams, concepts, fiction, the imagination, and other objects of the mind. Hyperfocus on a certain subject can cause side-tracking away from assigned or important tasks.

Psychiatrically, it is considered to be a symptom of ADHD together with inattention, and it has been proposed as a symptom of other conditions, such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Hyperfocus may bear a relationship to the concept of flow. In some circumstances, both flow and hyperfocus can be an aid to achievement, but in other circumstances or situations, the same focus and behavior could be a liability, distracting from the task at hand. However, unlike hyperfocus, "flow" is often described in more positive terms, suggesting they are not two sides of the same condition under contrasting circumstance or intellect.

## Psychiatric symptom

Hyperfocus may in some cases also be symptomatic of a psychiatric condition. }}In some cases, it is referred to as perseveration—an inability or impairment in switching tasks or activities ("set-shifting"), or desisting from mental or physical response repetition (gestures, words, thoughts) despite absence or cessation of a stimulus. It is distinguished from stereotypy (a highly repetitive idiosyncratic behaviour).

Conditions associated with hyperfocus or perseveration include neurodevelopmental disorders, particularly those considered to be on the autism spectrum and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In ADHD, it may be a coping mechanism or a symptom of emotional self-regulation. So called "twice exceptional" people, with high intellect and learning disabilities, may have either or both of hyperfocus and perseverative behaviours. They are often mimicked by similar conditions involving executive dysfunction or emotional dysregulation, and lack of diagnosis and treatment may lead to further co-morbidity.

### ADHD

In ADHD, formulation and thinking can be slower than in neurotypical people (though this is not universal), and may be "long winded or tangential". These inattentive symptoms occur dually with what has been termed "hyperfocus" by the 2019 European Consensus Statement on Adult ADHD. The over-concentration or hyperfocus often occurs if the person finds something "very interesting and/or provide(s) instant gratification, such as computer games or online chatting. For such activities, concentration may last for hours on end, in a very focused manner."

Some types of ADHD are a difficulty in *directing* one's attention (an executive function of the frontal lobe), *not* a lack of attention.

Conditions unlikely to be confused with hyperfocus often involve repetition of thoughts or behaviors such as obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), trauma, and some cases of traumatic brain injury.
Hydrostatic stress

In continuum mechanics, **hydrostatic stress**, also known as volumetric stress, is a component of stress which contains uniaxial stresses, but not shear stresses. A specialized case of hydrostatic stress, contains isotropic compressive stress, which changes only in volume, but not in shape. Pure hydrostatic stress can be experienced by a point in a fluid such as water. It is often used interchangeably with "pressure" and is also known as confining stress, particularly in the field of geomechanics.

Hydrostatic stress is equivalent to the average of the uniaxial stresses along three orthogonal axes and can be calculated from the first invariant of the stress tensor:

σ
h

=

I
i

3

=

σ

x
x

σ

y
y

σ

z
z

3

{\displaystyle \sigma\_h = \frac{I\_i}{3}=\frac{\sigma\_{xx} + \sigma\_{yy} + \sigma\_{zz}}{3}}

Its magnitude in a fluid,

σ
h

{\displaystyle \sigma\_h}

, can be given by:

σ
h

=

∑

# i
1

n

ρ
i

g

h
i

{\displaystyle \sigma\_h = \displaystyle\sum\_{i=1}^n \rho\_i g h\_i}

where

i

{\displaystyle i}

 is an index denoting each distinct layer of material above the point of interest,

ρ
i

{\displaystyle \rho\_i}

 is the density of each layer,

g

{\displaystyle g}

 is the gravitational acceleration (assumed constant here; this can be substituted with any acceleration that is important in defining weight), and

h
i

{\displaystyle h\_i}

 is the height (or thickness) of each given layer of material. For example, the magnitude of the hydrostatic stress felt at a point under ten meters of fresh water would be

σ
h

=

ρ
w

g

h
w

=
1000

kg m

−
3

⋅
9.8

m s

−
2

⋅
10

# m
9.8
⋅

10
4

 kg m

−
1

s

−
2

=
9.8
⋅

10
4

 N m

−
2

{\displaystyle \sigma\_h = \rho\_w g h\_w =1000 \,\text{kg m}^{-3} \cdot 9.8 \,\text{m s}^{-2} \cdot 10 \,\text{m} =9.8 \cdot {10^4} \text{ kg m}^{-1} \text{s}^{-2} =9.8 \cdot 10^4 \text{ N m}^{-2} }

where the index

w

{\displaystyle w}

 indicates "water".

Because the hydrostatic stress is isotropic, it acts equally in all directions. In tensor form, the hydrostatic stress is equal to

σ
h

⋅

I
3

=

σ
h

[

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

]

=

[

σ
h

0

0

0

σ
h

0

0

0

σ
h

]

{\displaystyle \sigma\_h \cdot I\_3 =
\sigma\_h \left[ \begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right] =
\left[ \begin{array}{ccc}
\sigma\_h & 0 & 0 \\
0 & \sigma\_h & 0 \\
0 & 0 & \sigma\_h \end{array} \right]
}

where

I
3

{\displaystyle I\_3}

 is the 3-by-3 identity matrix.

Hydrostatic compressive stress is used for the determination of the bulk modulus for materials.
Hemiptera

The **Hemiptera** or **true bugs** are an order of insects comprising some 50,000 to 80,000 species of groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, and shield bugs. They range in size from 1 mm (0.04 in) to around 15 cm (6 in), and share a common arrangement of sucking mouthparts. The name "true bugs" is sometimes limited to the suborder Heteroptera. Many insects commonly known as "bugs" belong to other orders; for example, the lovebug is a fly, while the May bug and ladybug are beetles.

Most hemipterans feed on plants, using their sucking and piercing mouthparts to extract plant sap. Some are parasitic while others are predators that feed on other insects or small invertebrates. They live in a wide variety of habitats, generally terrestrial, though some species are adapted to life in or on the surface of fresh water. Hemipterans are hemimetabolous, with young nymphs that somewhat resemble adults. Many aphids are capable of parthenogenesis, producing young from unfertilised eggs; this helps them to reproduce extremely rapidly in favourable conditions.

Humans have interacted with the Hemiptera for millennia. Some species, including many aphids, are important agricultural pests, damaging crops by the direct action of sucking sap, but also harming them indirectly by being the vectors of serious viral diseases. Other species have been used for biological control of insect pests. Hemipterans have been cultivated for the extraction of the dyestuff cochineal (also known as carmine) and for shellac. The bed bug is a persistent parasite of humans. Cicadas have been used as food, and have appeared in literature from the *Iliad* in Ancient Greece.
Instruction register

In computing, the **instruction register** (**IR**) or **current instruction register** (**CIR**) is the part of a CPU's control unit that holds the instruction currently being executed or decoded. In simple processors, each instruction to be executed is loaded into the instruction register, which holds it while it is decoded, prepared and ultimately executed, which can take several steps.

Some of the complicated processors use a pipeline of instruction registers where each stage of the pipeline does part of the decoding, preparation or execution and then passes it to the next stage for its step. Modern processors can even do some of the steps out of order as decoding on several instructions is done in parallel.

Decoding the op-code in the instruction register includes determining the instruction, determining where its operands are in memory, retrieving the operands from memory, allocating processor resources to execute the command (in super scalar processors), etc.

The output of the IR is available to control circuits, which generate the timing signals that control the various processing elements involved in executing the instruction.

In the instruction cycle, the instruction is loaded into the instruction register after the processor fetches it from the memory location pointed to by the program counter.
Huronian glaciation

The **Huronian glaciation** (or **Makganyene glaciation**) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago (Gya) to 2.1 Gya, during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era. The Huronian glaciation followed the Great Oxygenation Event (GOE), a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane. The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water, which do not retain heat as well as methane does.

It is the oldest and longest ice age, occurring at a time when only simple, unicellular life existed on Earth. This ice age led to a mass extinction on Earth.

## Discovery and name

In 1907, Arthur Philemon Coleman first inferred a "lower Huronian ice age" from analysis of a geological formation near Lake Huron. This formation consists of two non-glacial sediment deposits found between three horizons of glacial deposits of the Huronian Supergroup, deposited between 2.5 and 2.2 billion years ago.

### Other evidence

The Gowganda formation (2.3 Gya) contains "the most widespread and most convincing glaciogenic deposits of this era", according to Eyles and Young. Similar deposits are found in Michigan (2.1–2 Gya), the Black Hills (2.6–1.6 Gya), Chibougamau, Canadian Northern Territories (2.1 Gya) and Wyoming. Similar age deposits occur in the Griquatown Basin (2.3 Gya), India (1.8 Gya) and Australia (2.5—2.0 Gya).

## Geological context

The tectonic setting was one of a rifting continental margin. New continental crust would have resulted in chemical weathering. This weathering would pull CO2 out of the atmosphere, cooling the planet through the reduction in greenhouse effect.

## Causes and effects

Before the Huronian Ice Age, most organisms were anaerobic, but around this time, the cyanobacteria evolved oxygenic photosynthesis. These bacteria were able to reproduce at exponential rates due to their new ecological niche, exploiting the abundant energy of the sunlight. Their photosynthesis produced oxygen as a waste product expelled into the air. At first, most of this oxygen was absorbed through the oxidation of surface iron and the decomposition of life forms. However, as the population of the cyanobacteria continued to grow, these oxygen sinks became saturated.

As oxygen "polluted" the mostly methane atmosphere, a mass extinction occurred of most life forms, which were anaerobic and to whom oxygen was toxic. Methane turned from dominant in the atmosphere to a trace gas, as it was oxidized into carbon dioxide and water. A different atmosphere emerged which was thinner, with less powerful greenhouse gases. Earth's temperature dropped, partly because solar luminosity was lower at that time so the Earth was more vulnerable to a decline in greenhouse gases. The Huronian Ice Age is thought to be the first time Earth was completely covered in ice, and to have practically stopped photosynthesis.
Interior derivative

In mathematics, the **interior product** (a.k.a. **interior derivative**, **interior multiplication**, **inner multiplication**, **inner derivative**, **insertion operator**, or **inner derivation**) is a degree −1 (anti)derivation on the exterior algebra of differential forms on a smooth manifold. The interior product, named in opposition to the exterior product, should not be confused with an inner product. The interior product *ι**X**ω* is sometimes written as *X* ⨼ *ω*.

## Definition

The interior product is defined to be the contraction of a differential form with a vector field. Thus if *X* is a vector field on the manifold *M*, then

ι
X

:

Ω
p

(
M
)
→

Ω

p
−
1

(
M
)

{\displaystyle \iota\_X\colon \Omega^p(M) \to \Omega^{p-1}(M)}

is the map which sends a *p*-form *ω* to the (*p*−1)-form *ι**X**ω* defined by the property that

(

ι
X

ω
)
(

X
1

,
…
,

X

p
−
1

# )
ω
(
X
,

X
1

,
…
,

X

p
−
1

)

{\displaystyle ( \iota\_X\omega )(X\_1,\ldots,X\_{p-1})=\omega(X,X\_1,\ldots,X\_{p-1})}

for any vector fields *X*1, ..., *X**p*−1.

The interior product is the unique antiderivation of degree −1 on the exterior algebra such that on one-forms *α*

ι
X

# α
α
(
X
# )
⟨
α
,
X
⟩

{\displaystyle \displaystyle\iota\_X \alpha = \alpha(X) = \langle \alpha,X \rangle}

,
where ⟨ , ⟩ is the duality pairing between *α* and the vector *X*. Explicitly, if *β* is a *p*-form and *γ* is a *q*-form, then

ι
X

(
β
∧
γ
# )
(

ι
X

β
)
∧
γ
(
−
1

)
p

β
∧
(

ι
X

γ
)
.

{\displaystyle \iota\_X(\beta\wedge\gamma) = (\iota\_X\beta)\wedge\gamma+(-1)^p\beta\wedge(\iota\_X\gamma). }

The above relation says that the interior product obeys a graded Leibniz rule. An operation satisfying linearity and a Leibniz rule is called a derivation.

## Properties

By antisymmetry of forms,

ι
X

ι
Y

# ω
−

ι
Y

ι
X

ω

{\displaystyle \iota\_X \iota\_Y \omega = - \iota\_Y \iota\_X \omega }

and so

ι
X

∘

ι
X

=
0

{\displaystyle \iota\_X \circ \iota\_X = 0 }

. This may be compared to the exterior derivative *d*, which has the property *d* ∘ *d* = 0.

The interior product relates the exterior derivative and Lie derivative of differential forms by the **Cartan formula** (a.k.a. **Cartan identity**, **Cartan homotopy formula** or **Cartan magic formula**):

L

X

# ω
d
(

ι
X

ω
)

ι
X

d
# ω

{

d
,

ι
X

}

ω
.

{\displaystyle \mathcal L\_X\omega = d(\iota\_X \omega) + \iota\_X d\omega = \left\{ d, \iota\_X \right\} \omega. }

This identity defines a duality between the exterior and interior derivatives. Cartan's identity is important in symplectic geometry and general relativity: see moment map. The Cartan homotopy formula is named after Élie Cartan.

The interior product with respect to the commutator of two vector fields

X

{\displaystyle X}

,

Y

{\displaystyle Y}

 satisfies the identity

ι

[
X
,
Y
]

=

[

L

X

,

ι
Y

]

.

{\displaystyle \iota\_{[X,Y]}= \left[ \mathcal{L}\_X, \iota\_Y \right] . }
Graph theory

In mathematics, **graph theory** is the study of *graphs*, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects. A graph in this context is made up of *vertices* (also called *nodes* or *points*) which are connected by *edges* (also called *links* or *lines*).

The edges may be directed or undirected. For example, if the vertices represent people at a party, and there is an edge between two people if they shake hands, then this graph is undirected because any person *A* can shake hands with a person *B* only if *B* also shakes hands with *A*. In contrast, if any edge from a person *A* to a person *B* corresponds to *A* admiring *B*, then this graph is directed, because admiration is not necessarily reciprocated. The former type of graph is called an **undirected graph** while the latter type of graph is called a **directed graph**.

A multigraph is a generalization that allows multiple edges adjacent to the same pair of vertices. In some texts, multigraphs are simply called graphs.

Sometimes, graphs are allowed to contain loops, which are edges that join a vertex to itself.

Two edges of a graph are called adjacent if they share a common vertex. Two edges of a directed graph are called consecutive if the head of the first one is the tail of the second one. Similarly, two vertices are called adjacent if they share a common edge (consecutive if the first one is the tail and the second one is the head of an edge), in which case the common edge is said to join the two vertices. An edge and a vertex on that edge are called incident.
Genesis

Main articles: Documentary hypothesis

See also: Tablet theory, Wiseman hypothesis
External links: Colophons in Genesis
This article contains many alternate interpretations and random thoughts (some of them only half formed) that I have had over the years. Its not all going to be gold.

If the text is too small you can zoom in by pressing ctrl +

* Creation
* Garden of (Ga)rheden
* Cain and Abel
* Generations of man
* Sons of All-Human and human women
* Flood
* Noahs drunkenness
* Generations of Noahs sons
* Tower of Babel
* Make a Shem for ourselves
* Generations of Shem
* Generations of Terah
* Abrahams migration
* Promise to Abraham
* Wife/sister
* Abraham and Lot
* Abrahams covenant
* Hagar and Ishmael
* the three visitors
* Sodom and Gomorrah
* Wife/sister
* Birth of Isaac
* Hagar and Ishmael
* Abraham and Abimelek
* the binding of Isaac
* Abraham's kin
* Cave of Machpelah
* Rebekah
* Sons of Keturah
* Death of Abraham
* Generations of Ishmael
* Generations of Isaac
* Jacob and Esau
* Wife/Sister
* Isaac and Abimelek
* Jacob at Beth-El
* Jacob, Leah, and Rachel
* Jacob's children
* Jacob and Laban
* Jacob's return
* Jacob becomes Israel
* Shechem
* Return to Beth-El
* Rachel dies in childbirth
* Reuben takes Jacob's concubine
* Death of Isaac
* Generations of Isaac
* Joseph and his brothers
* Judah and Tamar
* Joseph and Potiphar's wife
* the butler and the baker
* Joseph and the Pharaoh
* Jacob's sons in Egypt
* Jacob in Egypt

File:Mythological landscape.svg:
Integration by parts

d
(
x
y
# )
x
d
y
y
d
x

{\displaystyle d(xy) = x dy + y dx}

 therefore

x
# y
∫
x
d
y
∫
y
d
x

{\displaystyle xy = \int x dy + \int y dx}

 therefore

∫
x
(
y
)

d
# y
x
y
−
∫
y
(
x
)

d
x

{\displaystyle \int x(y) \, dy = xy - \int y(x) \, dx}

therefore to solve for

∫
x
(
y
)

d
y

{\displaystyle \int x(y) \, dy}

we can instead solve for

x
y
−
∫
y
(
x
)

d
x

{\displaystyle xy - \int y(x) \, dx}

which in some cases will be much simpler
Laryngotracheal groove

The **laryngotracheal groove** is a precursor for the larynx and trachea.

The rudiment of the respiratory organs appears as a median longitudinal groove in the ventral wall of the pharynx. The groove deepens and its lips fuse to form a septum which grows from below upward and converts the groove into a tube, the **laryngotracheal tube**. The cephalic end opens into the pharynx by a slit-like aperture formed by the persistent anterior part of the groove. Initially the cephalic end is in open communication with the foregut but eventually it becomes separated by indentations of mesoderm, the **tracheoesophageal folds**.

When the tracheoesophageal folds fuse in the midline to form the **tracheoesophageal septum**, the foregut is divided into trachea ventrally and the esophagus dorsally. The tube is lined by endoderm from which the epithelial lining of the respiratory tract is developed. The cephalic part of the tube becomes the larynx, and its next succeeding part the trachea, while from its caudal end a respiratory diverticulum appears as the lung bud. The lung bud branches into two lateral outgrowths known as the bronchial buds, one on each side of the trachea. The right and left bronchial buds branch into main (primary), lobar (secondary), segmental (tertiary), and subsegmental bronchi and lead to the development of the lungs. The Hox complex, FGF-10 (fibroblast growth factor), BMP-4 (bone morphogenetic protein), N-myc (a proto-oncogene), syndecan (a proteglycan), tenascin (an extracellular matrix protein) and epimorphin (a protein) appear to play a role in development of the respiratory system.
Latin conjugation

See also Orbis Latinus & Latin declension

* A - alike
* E - let
* I - lick
* O - off
* U - foot

* Ā - father
* Ē - mate
* Ī - beep
* Ō - only
* Ū - boot

* AE - kite
* OE - boil
* AU - loud

Red and green indicate general patterns while blue indicates a break in the pattern (but blue quite often forms its own pattern)

## Non-finite forms

### Participles

Participle has been defined as "a word derived from a verb and used as an adjective, as in a laughing face".

## Defective verbs

### Aio

 First person
 Second person

### Inquam

 First person
 Second person

## For

 First person
 Second person
Lake of fire

See also: Spirits

The lake of fire is the sun. It is where the devil and his angels live. The sun is not God. The sun is the devil. The devil is Gods prosecutor. Gods District attorney. The devil believes he is doing Gods work.

The Devil does not judge people by what they have done. The devil judges people by whether they are afraid of him. The devil assumes that if you are afraid of him then he must be guilty of something. Everyone who is assumed to be guilty is cast into the lake of fire.

A person cast into the lake of fire becomes, in the eyes of the devil, death himself (the cause of all the evil and death in the world) regardless of how perfectly they lived their lives. The only way to avoid the extreme shock of this would be to become death before entering the lake of fire. Likewise if you have a tiny speck of blood on you than your only recourse is to completely cover yourself in blood.
Inhibitory control

**Inhibitory control**, also known as **response inhibition**, is a cognitive process  and more specifically, an executive function – that permits an individual to inhibit their impulses and natural, habitual, or dominant behavioral responses to stimuli (a.k.a. **prepotent responses**) in order to select a more appropriate behavior that is consistent with completing their goals. Self-control is an important aspect of inhibitory control. For example, successfully suppressing the natural behavioral response to eat cake when one is craving it while dieting requires the use of inhibitory control.

The prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, and subthalamic nucleus are known to regulate inhibitory control cognition. Inhibitory control is impaired in both addiction and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In healthy adults and ADHD individuals, inhibitory control improves over the short term with low (therapeutic) doses of methylphenidate or amphetamine. Inhibitory control may also be improved over the long-term via consistent aerobic exercise.

## Tests

An **inhibitory control test** is a neuropsychological test that measures an individual's ability to override their natural, habitual, or dominant behavioral response to a stimulus in order to implement more adaptive goal-oriented behaviors. Some of the neuropsychological tests that measure inhibitory control include the Stroop task, go/no-go task, Simon task, Flanker task, antisaccade tasks, delay of gratification tasks, and stop-signal tasks.

## Gender differences

Females tend to have a greater basal capacity to exert inhibitory control over undesired or habitual behaviors and respond differently to modulatory environmental contextual factors relative to males. For example, listening to music tends to significantly improve the rate of response inhibition in females, but reduce the rate of response inhibition in males.