recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Biloxi phonology

Multiple possible inventories have been suggested. This article follows that of Einaudi (1976).

## Vowels

Along with contrastive nasalization, Biloxi also has phonemic vowel length.

**Biloxi vowels**

Notes:

1. May be either open-mid or close-mid.
2. Biloxi may have a phonetic schwa, but Dorsey-Swanton (1912) and Haas (1968) are consistent in marking it.

Dorsey & Swanton (1912) postulated phonemic vowel length, which was verified by Haas and Swadesh in speaking with Emma Jackson in 1934. Their findings appeared in Haas (1968).

Also, there may still be some uncertainty as to whether certain words contain /ą/ or /an/.

## Consonants

**Biloxi consonants**

Notes:

1. Has a marginal status

Biloxi may also have a phonemic aspiration distinction for some segments.

Marginal phonemes

## Phonotactics

Syllable structure is (C)(C)(C)V(C) or (C)V(C)(C). However, clusters of three consonants are rare.

Most words end in a vowel. The others usually end in /k/ or /x/ as a result of deletion: *tox* from *toho* "he fell."

Few consonant clusters end syllables. Most exceptions are caused by vowel deletion: *tohoxk* from *tohoxka* "horse."

The following consonant clusters are observed:

Geminates do not occur. /n/ sonorants and probably /d/ occur only as the second elements of clusters. /h/ and /m/ are never the second element. Fricatives do not co-occur.

There are a few three-consonant clusters, all of the form C+s+stop or C+x+glide and some with alternate forms:

pst
*pstuki*~*pastuki* 'she sews'
psd
*psdehi*~*psudehi* 'knife' (also *spdehi*)
tsp
*atspąhi* 'it adheres' (*hadespapahi*?)
tsk
*kutska*~*kudeska* 'fly'
*ątska* 'infant'
kst
*aksteke* 'he is stingy'
nsk
*apadenska* 'butterfly'
pxw
*pxwe*~*pxe* 'he punches'
txy
*akutxyi* 'letter'
kxw
*xoxo kxwehe* 'he sits on a swing'
*įkxwe* 'always'
kxy
*pukxyi* 'loop'
## References

1. ↑ Ameka 2006, pp. 537–540.
2. ↑ Einaudi 1976, p.136
3. ↑ Einaudi 1976, p.136
4. ↑ Einaudi 1976, p.25
Brahui orthography

## Perso-Arabic script

Brahui is the only Dravidian language which is not known to have been written in a Brahmi-based script; instead, it has been written in the Arabic script since the second half of the 20th century.
In Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan, an Urdu based Nastaʿlīq script is used in writing:

## Latin script

More recently, a Roman-based orthography named Brolikva (an abbreviation of *Brahui Roman Likvar*) was developed by the Brahui Language Board of the University of Balochistan in Quetta and adopted by the newspaper Talár.

Below is the new promoted Bráhuí Báşágal Brolikva orthography:

The letters with diacritics are the long vowels, post-alveolar and retroflex consonants, the voiced velar fricative and the voiceless lateral fricative.
Armenian

* Armenian phonology
* Armenian alphabet

Disambiguation page for ArmenianThe following is a list of links to pages that might share the same title.Please follow one of the disambiguation links below or search to find the page you were looking for if it is not listed. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
Apical consonant

An **apical consonant** is a phone (speech sound) produced by obstructing the air passage with the tip of the tongue (apex) in conjunction with upper articulators from lips to postalveolar, and possibly prepalatal. It contrasts with laminal consonants, which are produced by creating an obstruction with the blade of the tongue, just behind the tip. Sometimes apical is used exclusively for an articulation that involves only the tip of the tongue and apicolaminal for an articulation that involves both the tip and the blade of the tongue. However, the distinction is not always made and the latter one may be called simply apical, especially when describing an apical dental articulation. As there is some laminal contact in the alveolar region, the apicolaminal dental consonants are also labelled as denti-alveolar.

It is not a very common distinction and is typically applied only to fricatives and affricates. Thus, many varieties of English have either apical or laminal pairs of [t]/[d]. However, some varieties of Arabic, including Hadhrami Arabic in Yemen, realize [t] as laminal but [d] as apical.

Basque uses the distinction for alveolar fricatives, as does Serbo-Croatian. Mandarin Chinese uses it for postalveolar fricatives (the "alveolo-palatal" and "retroflex" series). Lillooet uses it as a secondary feature in contrasting velarized and non-velarized affricates. A distinction between apical and laminal is common in Australian Aboriginal languages for nasals, plosives and (usually) lateral approximants.

Most dialects in the Bengali–Assamese continuum distinguish between dental–laminal alveolar stops and apical alveolar stops. In Upper Assamese, they have merged and leave only the apical alveolar stops. In Western Bengali apical alveolars are replaced by apical post-alveolars.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the diacritic for apical consonants is U+033A ◌̺ COMBINING INVERTED BRIDGE BELOW (HTML `&#826;`).
Alveolar click

The **alveolar** or **postalveolar clicks** are a family of click consonants found only in Africa and in the Damin ritual jargon of Australia. The tongue is more or less concave (depending on the language), and is pulled down rather than back as in the palatal clicks, making a hollower sound than those consonants.

The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the place of articulation of these sounds is ⟨ǃ⟩. The symbol is not an exclamation mark in origin, but rather a vertical bar with a subscript dot, the dot being the old diacritic for retroflex consonants. Prior to 1989, ⟨ʗ⟩ (stretched c) was the IPA letter for the alveolar clicks, and this is still preferred by some phoneticians. The tail of ⟨ʗ⟩ may be the tail of retroflex consonants in the IPA, and thus analogous to the underdot of ⟨ǃ⟩. Either letter may be combined with a second letter to indicate the manner of articulation, though this is commonly omitted for tenuis clicks.
Albanian phonology

## Consonants

**Notes:**

* The contrast between flapped *r* and trilled *rr* is the same as in Spanish or Armenian. In most of the dialects, as also in standard Albanian, the single "r" changes from an alveolar flap /ɾ/ into a retroflex flap [ɽ], or even an alveolar approximant [ɹ] when it is at the end of a word.
* The palatal nasal /ɲ/ corresponds to the Spanish *ñ* and the French and Italian *gn*. It is pronounced as one sound, not a nasal plus a glide.
* The *ll* sound is a velarised lateral, close to English *dark L*.
* The letter *ç* is sometimes written *ch* due to technical limitations in analogy to the other digraphs *xh*, *sh*, and *zh*. Usually it is written simply *c* or more rarely *q* with context resolving any ambiguities.
* The sounds spelled with *q* and *gj* show variation. Many speakers merge them into the palatoalveolar sounds *ç* and *xh*. This is especially common in Northern Gheg, but is increasingly the case in Tosk as well. Other speakers reduced them into /j/ in consonant clusters, such as in the word *fjollë,* which before standardisation was written as *fqollë* ( < Medieval Greek φακιολης).
* The *ng* can pronounced as /ŋ/ in final position, otherwise is an allophone of *n* before *k* and *g*.
* Before *q* and *gj,* *n* is always pronounced /ɲ/ but this is not reflected in the orthography.
* /θ, ð, ɫ/ are interdental.

## References

1. ↑ Kolgjini, Julie M. (2004). *Palatalisation in Albanian : an acoustic investigation of stops and affricates.* PhD Dissertation, University of Texas at Arlington.
Abaza phonology

The vowels /o, a, u/ may have a /j/ in front of it. The vowels /e/ and /o/ and /i/ and /u/ are allophones of /a/ and /ə/ before palatalized and labialized consonants respectively. The vowels [e], [o], [i], and [u] can also occur as variants of the sequences /aj/, /aw/, /əj/ and /əw/.

## References

1. ↑ Starostin, Sergei A.; Nikolayev, Sergei L. (1994). A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary: Preface, pp. 194-196
2. ↑ Consonant Systems of the North-West Caucasian Languages (TITUS DIDACTICA)
Algic languages

The **Algic languages** (also Algonquian–Wiyot–Yurok or Algonquian–Ritwan) are an indigenous language family of North America. Most Algic languages belong to the Algonquian subfamily, dispersed over a broad area from the Rocky Mountains to Atlantic Canada. The other Algic languages are the Yurok and Wiyot of northwestern California, which, despite their geographic proximity, are not closely related. All these languages descend from Proto-Algic, a second-order proto-language estimated to have been spoken about 7,000 years ago and reconstructed using the reconstructed Proto-Algonquian language and the Wiyot and Yurok languages.
Aspirated consonant

In phonetics, **aspiration** is the strong burst of breath that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. In English, aspirated consonants are allophones in complementary distribution with their unaspirated counterparts, but in some other languages, notably most Indian and East Asian languages, the difference is contrastive.

In dialects with aspiration, to feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of one's mouth, and say *spin* [spɪn] and then *pin* [pʰɪn]. One should either feel a puff of air or see a flicker of the candle flame with *pin* that one does not get with *spin*.
Assiniboine phonology

The affricates and stops of Assiniboine are often described as voiced rather than voiceless, due to intervocalic voicing rules which result in surface voiced forms.

## Nasal vowels

 ų | ũ | un, on, un, uη, uN

There are five oral vowels in Assiniboine, /i u e o a/, and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ũ ã/.

Words that follow above rules

* /bahá/ hill
* /pahá/ hair
* /čupó/ fog
* /ptą/ otter
* /pka/ heavy
* /psi/ rice
* /pša/to sneeze
Abadi phonology and orthography

## Consonants

* [β] and [v] are in free variation.
* [k] and [p] are in free variation with their aspirated counterparts [kʰ] and [pʰ]

## Vowels

* [ɛ] may be in free variation with [e]
* [ə] is an allophone of [ɑ] when in between two consonants, when it is part of a diphthong, or word-finally.

## Orthography

The Abadi alphabet includes a, b, d, e, g, i, k, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, v and ’. Consonants included are b, d, g, k, m, n, p, r, s, t, v and ’. Vowels included a, e, i, o, and u.
Abui phonology

Abui has a relatively simple phonemic inventory with 16 native and 3 loan consonants. There are 5 short vowels each of them having a long counterpart. In a number of cases lexical tone is found. All information in this section is from Kratochvíl 2007.

## Consonants

The consonants /cç/, /ɟʝ/, and /g/ are non-native, having been borrowed from Malay in recent decades. As indicated by the chart above, Abui has /r/ and /l/ as separate phonemes.
Amarasi orthography

Written Amarasi uses Latin script, with letters that are identical to Indonesian in terms of pronunciation, with the addition of the glottal stop /ʔ/ written as an apostrophe ⟨'⟩.

* Latin: c, d, l, q, v, w, x, y and z are only used in loanwords and foreign names.
* Cyrillic: в, д, ж, з, й, л, ц, ш, щ, ы, ь, э, ю and я are only used in loanwords and foreign names.
Arhuaco phonology

Vowels
 Mid | e ⟨e⟩
 Open |  | a ⟨a⟩

/ə/ is raised to and merged with /ɨ/ word finally.

This language registers 17 consonant phonemes:

## Syllable Structure

With some exceptions, Arhuaco syllables may begin with up to two consonants (the second of which must be a glide /w j/) and may be closed by one of the following consonants: /ʔ n r w j/.

## Prosody

Arhuaco stress normally falls on penultimate syllables, with secondary stresses occurring on every other preceding syllable, in the case of longer words (e.g. /ˌunkəˈsia/ 'protective bracelet'). There are some affixes and enclitics that are extrametrical and do not count as syllables for stress assignment.
Biak phonology

Biak has a phoneme inventory consisting of 13 consonants and 5 vowels, in which vowel length is phonemic. In the orthography long vowels are written with an acute accent. The phoneme /t/ is very infrequent in its use and some older speakers still realise it as [s] in loanwords.

## Vowels

Vowels

The vowel /u/ is the only rounded vowel in Biak; the other four are unrounded.
Ashéninka phonology

## Consonants

Payne (1981) describes the following consonant inventory for Axininca aka Ashéninka Apurucayali:

Judith Payne has the same inventory for the Pichis variety, but without /ç/, and she adds the palatalized consonants /pʲ/, /kʲ/, /hʲ/, /mʲ/ and /βʲ/.

Mihas shows a similar inventory for the Alto Perené variety with few differences. These are that Mihas does not include neither /tʰ/ nor /ç/; David Payne's contrast /t͡ʃ/-/t͡ʃʰ/ is considered /t͡ʃ/-/tʲ/ by Mihas, and she does not include any palatalized consonant because she considers them two-consonant clusters (Cj).

Payne and Mihas show a four-vowel system (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/), while, in David Payne's Apurucayali, there are only three (/a/, /i/, /o/).

These three varieties are included in Pedrós' Northern Ashé-Ashá group.
Bench phonology

The phonemic vowels of Bench are /i e a o u/.

There are six phonemic tones: five level tones (numbered 1 to 5 in the literature, with 1 being the lowest) and one rising tone 23 /˨˧/. The top tone is sometimes realized as a high rising 45 [˦˥]. On the vowel *o,* they are /ő ó ō ò ȍ ǒ/

The consonants are:

All of these can occur palatalized, but only before /a/, suggesting an alternate analysis of a sixth phonemic vowel /ja/. Labialized consonants are reported for [p, b, s, ɡ,] and [ʔ], but their phonemic status is unclear; they only occur after /i/.

For the phoneme /p/ the realizations of [pʰ] and [f] are in free variation; /j/ has the allophone [w] before back vowels.

The syllable structure is (C)V(C)(C)(C) + tone or (C) N (C), where C represents any consonant, V any vowel, N any nasal, and brackets an optional element. CC clusters consist of a continuant followed by a plosive, fricative, or affricate; in CCC clusters, the first consonant must be one of /r/ /j/ /m/ /p/ or /pʼ/, the second either /n/ or a voiceless fricative, and the third /t/ or /k/.

## References

1. ↑ Note that this is the East Asian tone numbering convention, and the opposite of the literature for other African languages, where 1 is high and 5 is low. The issue will be avoided here by using IPA diacritics.
Arbëresh phonology

Some features of Arbëresh distinguish it considerably from standard Albanian. In some cases these are retentions of older pronunciations.

## Vowels

Ë
The letter ⟨Ë⟩ is pronounced as either a mid central vowel [ə] or as a close back unrounded vowel [ɯ].

Y to I
Arbëresh lacks the close front rounded vowel [y] of Albanian, which is replaced by the close front unrounded vowel [i].

## Consonants

**GJ, Q**

The letters ⟨GJ⟩ and ⟨Q⟩ are pronounced as a palatalized voiced velar plosive [ɡʲ] and a palatalized voiceless velar plosive [kʲ], rather than a voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] and a voiceless palatal plosive [c] as in standard Albanian.

**GL, KL**

In some words, Arbëresh has preserved the consonant clusters /ɡl/ and /kl/.

**H, HJ**

The letter ⟨H⟩ is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative [x].

**LL, G**

The letters ⟨LL⟩ and ⟨G⟩ are realised as a voiced velar fricative [ɣ]. The vast majority of these words originate in Sicilian, but the sound also occurs in words of Albanian origin.

Words of Albanian Origin
 *udha (la strada)* | [ˈruɣa] | street

Words of Sicilian Origin

## Final devoicing of consonants

In contrast with standard Albanian, Arbëresh has retained an archaic system of final devoicing of consonants. The consonants that change when in final position or before another consonant are the voiced stops *b, d, g, gj*; the voiced affricates *x, xh*; and the voiced fricatives *dh, ll, v, z, zh*.

Examples:

* *b* > *p*: *thelb* ('clove') - [θɛlp]
* *d* > *t*: *vend* ('place') - [vɛnt]
* *dh* > *th*: *zgledh* ('read') - [sklɛθ]
* *g* > *k*: *lig* ('bad') - [lɪk]
* *gj* > *q*: *zogj* ('chicks') - [zɔkʲ]
* *j* > *hj*: *vaj* ('oil') - [vaç]
* *ll* > *h*: *uthull* ('vinegar') - [ʊθʊχ]
* *x* > *c*: *ndanx* ('near') - [ndant͡s]
* *z* > *s*: *loz* ('dance') - [lɔs]
* *zh* > *sh*: *gozhda* ('pin') - [ɣɔʃda]

## Stress

Stress in Arbëresh is usually on the penultimate syllable, as in Italian.
Beli phonology

## Consonants

Stirtz (2014) lists the following consonant phonemes:

## Vowels

According to Stirtz (2014), ’Bëlï has nine vowel phonemes that can be divided into [+/- ATR] sets. The vowel [ə] is an allophone that does not occur in roots without other [+ATR] vowels:

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Stirtz, Timothy M. 2014. 'Bëlï Phonology, Tone and Orthography. (SIL Electronic Working Papers 2014-002.) SIL International. 34pp.
Alveolo-palatal consonant

In phonetics, **alveolo-palatal** (or **alveopalatal**) consonants, sometimes synonymous with **pre-palatal** consonants, are intermediate in articulation between the coronal and dorsal consonants, or which have simultaneous alveolar and palatal articulation. In the official IPA chart, alveolo-palatals would appear between the retroflex and palatal consonants but for "lack of space". Ladefoged and Maddieson characterize the alveolo-palatals as palatalized postalveolars (palato-alveolars), articulated with the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge and the body of the tongue raised toward the palate, whereas Esling describes them as advanced palatals (pre-palatals), the furthest front of the dorsal consonants, articulated with the body of the tongue approaching the alveolar ridge. These descriptions are essentially equivalent, since the contact includes both the blade and body (but not the tip) of the tongue (see schematic at right). They are front enough that the fricatives and affricates are sibilants, the only sibilants among the dorsal consonants.

According to Daniel Recasens, alveolo-palatal consonants are realized through the formation of a simultaneous closure or constriction at the alveolar and palatal zones with a primary articulator which encompasses the blade and the tongue dorsum. Their place of articulation may include the postalveolar zone and the prepalate, but also a larger contact area extending towards the front alveolar zone and the back palate surface. The tongue tip is bent downwards and the tongue dorsum is raised and fronted during the production of these consonants.
Abkhaz phonology

## Consonants

Below is the IPA phoneme chart of the consonant phonemes of Abkhaz:

## Vowels

Abkhaz has only two distinctive vowels: an open vowel /a/ and a close vowel /ɨ ~ ə/. These basic vowels have a wide range of allophones in different consonantal environments, with allophones [e] and [i] respectively next to palatals, [o] and [u] next to labials, and [ø] and [y] next to labiopalatals. /a/ also has a long variant /aː/, which is the reflex of old sequences of \*/ʕa/ or \*/aʕ/, preserved in Abaza.
Caac phonology

Caac has 27 consonant phonemes. Stops may be plain voiceless, aspirated, or prenasalized. The table contains both the IPA notation and the graphemes that correspond to the Caac orthography promoted by the Association Vaalija in Pouebo.

Caac has a series of five vowels that contrast based on nasalization and length. Nasalized vowels occur more-rarely than oral vowels. Oral vowels phonetically nasalize in one of two instances: 1) when preceded by a labio-velar consonant and 2) when followed by a nasal or prenasal consonant. There are also two central oral vowels that are restricted in their occurrence.

Caac Nasal Vowels
 Close-mid | ẽ ⟨ê⟩
Ata phonology

Phonology of the Ata language:

/s/ and /z/ is pronounced as alveolo-palatal [ɕ] and [ʑ] before /i/, /x/ is voiced as [ɣ] when occurring intervocalically, /ɸ/ is labiodental as [f] when occurring intervocalically, /ʋ/ is fricative as [v] when occurring intervocalically.

A word-initial /i/ is realized as a [j], and a word-initial /u/ becomes a [w] when preceding /o/ or /ɑ/.

Vowel sounds
Bats phonology

## Vowels

Bats has a typical triangular five-vowel system with short–long contrast (except for **u**, which has no long form). Bats also has a number of diphthongs, **ei**, **ui**, **oi**, **ai**, **ou**, and **au**. All vowels and diphthongs have nasalized allophones that are the result of phonetic and morphophonemic processes; this is represented by a superscript **n**, as in **kʼnateⁿ** *boy-GEN*.

## References

1. ↑ Holisky, Dee Ann and Gagua, Rusudan, 1994. "Tsova-Tush (Batsbi)", in *The indigenous languages of the Caucasus* Vol 4, Rieks Smeets, editor. Caravan Books, pp. 147-212
Akwáwa phonology

The following is the Parakanã dialect:

## Vowels

* Vowel sounds are realized as nasalized when preceding nasal consonants.
* /e/ can also be heard as [ɛ] when in stressed position.
* /ɨ/ can also be heard as [ə] when preceding a vowel.
* /a/ can be heard as back [ʌ] when in word-final position. In its nasal form, it is heard as back [ʌ̃].
* /o/ can be heard as [u] when in unstressed position.

## Consonants

* /β/ can also be heard as a glide [w].
* /tʃ/ can be realized as a glide [j] in final position, and as voiced [dʒ] in intervocalic positions.
Berikium33 Wiki

**Welcome to the Berikium33 Wiki!**
Welcome

We're a collaborative community website about Berikium33 that anyone, including you, can build and expand. Wikis like this one depend on readers getting involved and adding content. Click the "ADD NEW PAGE" or "EDIT" button at the top of any page to get started!

## Important articles

PlaceholderA page about your topicPlaceholderA Main CharacterPlaceholderThe First EpisodePlaceholderAn Important LocationPlaceholderA Key EventPlaceholderA Crucial Item

*Need help building out this community?*

* Rules of this wiki
* Getting Started
* How to Contribute
* Managing your new community
* Guides
* All Help articles

You can also be part of the larger Fandom family of communities. Visit Fandom's Community Central!

*Community Founders*: Write a good and paragraph-length description for your welcome section about your topic. Let your readers know what your topic is about and add some general information about it. Then you should visit the admin dashboard for more tips.
Arosi phonology

## Phoneme Inventory

Arosi distinguishes 5 vowels and 14 consonants, including the velar nasal [ŋ] and the glottal stop. Unlike many other Oceanic languages, /b/, /d/, and /g/ are not nasalized. Although there is a [j] sound in Arosi, it is not distinguished in writing from the vowel /i/. The chart below shows the consonants in Arosi. For the most part, the spelling of words in Arosi is phonemic.

Vowels are noted as /i **ɪ** e **ɛ** a **ɑ** o **ɔ** u **ʊ** **ɨ** **ʉ** **æ** **ɒ** **ʌ**/.

## Syllable Structure

Syllables never end in a consonant; every syllable has either V or CV structure. The table below shows examples illustrating different types of syllable structure in Arosi:

Arosi Syllable Structure
 CV
 VV

## Word Stress

Arosi words can bear two types of stress:

1. Word Stress
2. Phrase/Sentence Stress

## Word Intonation

Compared to English and other Western European languages, Arosi's intonation tends to waver from higher to lower tones more quickly rather than steadily increasing.
Abau phonology

Abau has the simplest phonemic inventory in the Sepik language family.

Vowels

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Steven Moran and Daniel McCloy and Richard Wright. 2019. Abau sound inventory (PH). In: Moran, Steven & McCloy, Daniel (eds.) PHOIBLE 2.0. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. (Available online at http://phoible.org/inventories/view/1160, Accessed on 2019-04-23.)
Asturian phonology

## Vowels

Asturian distinguishes five vowel phonemes (these same ones are found in Spanish, Aragonese, Sardinian and Basque), according to three degrees of vowel openness (close, mid and open) and backness (front, central and back). Many Asturian dialects have a system of metaphony.

* When occurring as unstressed, close vowels /i u/ can become glides as [j w] in the pre-nuclear position. In the post-nuclear syllable margin, they are traditionally heard and transcribed as non-syllabic vowels [i̯ u̯].

## Consonants

* /b, d, ɡ/ may be lenited or sonorized as [β, ð, ɣ] in certain environments, or word-initially.
* /n/ is pronounced [ŋ] in coda position.
* /ʝ/ can have different pronunciations, as a voiced plosive [ɟ], affricate [ɟ͡ʝ], or as a voiced fricative [ʝ].
Atsugewi sounds

## Vowels

Atsugewi language has basically only three vowels: /a/, **/ʉ/**, **/ə/**, /o/, and /i/; /e/ is the allophone of /i/ while /o/ is the allophone of /u/. However, it has been supported by Leonard Talmy (1972) that there are instances such as the word *ce* "the eye(s)" where *e* can be analyzed as a proper phoneme.

## References

1. ↑ /ʜ/ lowers high vowels, while /h/ does not. Based on Achumawi, the former is assumed to be epiglottal.
Barranbinja phonology

## Phonemic inventory

The phonemic inventory is very similar to Muruwari, although the relative paucity of data means that the status of many phonemes is not clear (in round brackets).

All phonemes except those with a star (\*) may be word-initial.

Vowel phonemes
 Low |  | ⟨a⟩ /a/, ⟨aa⟩ /aː/

## Phonotactics

Nearly all words end in a vowel, though there are some rare occurrences of word-final -ny and -n, which is in stark contrast with neighbouring Muruwari and Ngiyambaa, where word-final nasals and approximants are very common. Oates speculates that this may be he result of influence from Paakantyi and other western languages, which also display a preference for word-final vowels.
Agusan phonology

## Consonants

In Agusan, the stops have unreleased variants when occurring before another consonant, silence, and in syllable final position. The glottal stop /ʔ/ occurs in all consonant positions. Of the continuants, all occur in syllable-initial position and all except /h/ in word-final position. The consonants /d/ and /j/ are used interchangeably.

## Vowels

Agusan has only five vowels, /i/, /u/, /e/, /æ/, and /a/. Vowels may appear alone, after a consonant, or between consonants in a syllable. All vowels, with the exception of /æ/, may occur "in a sequence of identical vowels separated by a glottal stop". The vowel /e/ never occurs next to the consonant /r/.
Bungandidj phonology

## Notes on orthography

* Early descriptions of Bungandidj made no distinction between the trill/flap /r/ and approximant /ɻ/ and evidence for this contrast is based on comparative evidence only. Blake transcribes both as ⟨r⟩.
* Although there is no voicing distinction, stops are transcribed with voiced symbols ⟨b, g, dh, d, rd⟩ in homorganic nasal-stop clusters (where voicing is expected).
* Syllable-final palatals are transcribed with the digraphs ⟨yt, yn, yl⟩ to avoid a final -y being confused with a vowel.
* Historical sources include five vowel graphemes including ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩, however it is likely that ⟨e⟩ belongs to the /i/ phoneme and ⟨o⟩ belongs to the /o/ phoneme. However, Blake conservatively retains some ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ segments where they are consistently transcribed in this way across historical sources.
Apma phonology

The consonant phonemes of Apma are **b**, **d**, **g**, **h**, **k**, **l**, **m**, **n**, **ng** (as in English "singer"), **r**, **s**, **t**, **ts** (or **j**), bilabial **v**, **w**, and labiovelar **bw** and **mw**. The consonants *b*, *bw*, *v* and *w* are realised as **p** where they occur at the end of a syllable; *b* may also be devoiced to *p* when next to an unvoiced consonant, as in -tpo "lie down".

Clusters of consonants cannot occur within a syllable. Unlike in closely related Raga phonology, word roots in Apma can end with a consonant.

In archaic and northern varieties of Apma, prenasalization of consonants occurs in some environments, so that *b* becomes *mb*, *d* becomes *nd*, and *g* becomes *ngg*. This feature has been lost in modern Suru Mwerani dialect.

Apma's five vowels come in short forms (**a**, **e**, **i**, **o** and **u**) and long forms (**aa**, **ee**, **ii**, **oo** and **uu**). Long vowels typically occur where a consonant (most commonly *r*) has historically been lost. Vowels can occur alone or in various combinations. A few words (e.g. miu "wild cane") contain a distinctive rounded high-front vowel, generally written as *iu* although perceived by speakers simply as a variant of *u*.

Stress is normally on the penultimate syllable of a word. However, syllables that end with a consonant or a long vowel take stress in precedence to other syllables.
Awa Pit phonology

The Awa Pit inventory is as follows:

## Consonants

* Some dialects can also have phonemic retroflex sounds /ʂ/, /tʂ/
* Geminated consonants are noted as [pː, t̪ː, kː].
* [ɲ] is the main sound of the consonant sequence /nj/
* In word-final positions, there are two realizations for each stop consonant; unreleased [p̚, t̪̚, k̚], or post nasal [pᵐ, t̪ⁿ̪, kᵑ].

## Vowels

Vowel phonemes

Voiceless vowels
Bilen writing system

## Ge'ez abugida

A writing system for Bilen was first developed by missionaries who used the Ge'ez abugida and the first text was published in 1882. Although the Ge'ez script is usually used for Semitic languages, the phonemes of Bilen are very similar (7 vowels, labiovelar and ejective consonants). The script therefore requires only a slight modification (the addition of consonants for ŋ and ŋʷ) to make it suitable for Bilen. Some of the additional symbols required to write Bilen with this script are in the "Ethiopic Extended" Unicode range rather than the "Ethiopic" range.

## Latin alphabet

In 1985 the Eritrean People's Liberation Front decided to use the Latin script for Bilen and all other non-Semitic languages in Eritrea. This was largely a political decision: the Ge'ez script is associated with Christianity because of its liturgical use. The Latin alphabet is seen as being more neutral and secular. In 1993 the government set up a committee to standardize the Bilen language and the Latin-based orthography. "This overturned a 110-year tradition of writing Blin in Ethiopic script." (Fallon, *Bilen Orthography*)

As of 1997, the alphabetic order was:

e, u, i, a, é, o, b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z, ñ, ñw, th, ch, sh, kh, kw, hw, qw, gw.
Also *khw*.

Their values are similar to the IPA apart from the following:
Bilen phonology

It is not clear if Bilen has tone. It may have pitch accent (Fallon 2004) as prominent syllables always have a high tone, but not all words have such a syllable.

## Vowels

All vowels can be short or long and oral or nasal.

## Consonants

Note: /tʃ/ is found in loans, and the status of /ʔ/ as a phoneme is uncertain.

/r/ is typically realized as a tap when it is medial and a trill when it is in final position.

Fallon (2001, 2004) notes intervocalic lenition, such as /b/ → [β]; syncope, as in the name of the language, /bɨlín/ → [blín]; debuccalization with secondary articulation preserved, as in /dérekʷʼa/ → [dɛ́rɛʔʷa] 'mud for bricks'. Intriguingly, the ejectives have voiced allophones, which according to Fallon (2004) "provides an important empirical precedent" for one of the more criticized aspects of the glottalic theory of Indo-European. For example,

 /kʷʼakʷʼito/ | [ɡʷaʔʷito] | 'he was afraid'
Acholi phonology

Acholi has vowel harmony: all vowels in a word have to belong to a single class (e.g. [kojo] *the cold* vs. [kɔjɔ] *to separate*). There are two sets of five vowels, distinguished by the feature [+/-ATR].

[-ATR] vowels in Acholi

[+ATR] vowels in Acholi

/pʷ bʷ/ sounds may also sound as labial affricates [pf bv].

Acholi is a tonal language. Thus, some words may be distinguished by tone alone, e.g. *bèl* (low) 'wrinkled' vs. *bél* (high) 'corn' and *kàl* (low) 'place enclosed by a palisade' vs. *kál* (high) 'millet'. Tone furthermore plays a role in verb conjugation.

## Recent work

The above were the old work of the missionaries Alfred Malandra and Crazzolara published in 1955. However, a more up-to-date Acholi orthography by Janet Lakareber shows that a vowel in Acholi language has more than two pronunciations. A monosyllabic word in Acholi has 14 different pronunciations. This is explained in the nine books of Acoli Accented Orthography.
Atong phonology

## Vowels

Atong has six vowel qualities occurring in the native vocabulary as well as in loanwords: /i e a ə o u/. In addition, there are four long vowels which are only found in loanwords from English and Indic languages. These are usually pronounced longer than the indigenous vowels: /iː/ [iː ~ i], /eː/ [eː ~ e], /aː/ [aː ~ a] and /oː/ [oː ~ o]. In the orthography, long vowels are represented by double letters. Note that /uː/ and /əː/ are not attested.

Examples of minimal pairs and near minimal pairs are given in the table below.

Minimal and near-minimal pairs of words with and without long vowels
 *ba’-* | 'to be born, give birth' | *baaa* | 'the sound a cow makes'

The difference between the loan and the indigenous words is a matter of vowel quality. In closed syllables, where Atong vowels would be pronounced lowered and more retracted, the loan vowels will have the same quality as the Atong vowels in open syllables. Not all loan words that have long vowels in the source language have long vowels in Atong, and not all loans that can be pronounced with a long vowel in Atong have a long vowel in the source language.

## Syllable structure

The canonical syllable structure of Atong is (C)V(C), where C stands for any consonant and V for any vowel. This structure can be maintained if words like *mai* 'rice', *askui* 'star' and *chokhoi* 'fishing basket' are analysed as containing a vowel and a final glide. The glide, presented by the letter i, is the coda of the syllable rather than an element of the nucleus. In phonemic writing the words would look like this: /maj/, /askuj/, /t͡ɕokʰoj/.

There are two glides in the language: /w/ and /j/. The glide /w/ occurs in both syllable initial and syllable final position, e.g. *wak* 'pig' and *saw* 'rotten, fermented' respectively. The glide /j/ occurs only syllable finally, e.g. *tyi* /təj/ 'water'. Traditional words with the structure CVVC do not exist, e.g. \**gaut* or \**main* (where the asterisk [\*] indicates the non-existence of these words).

If a diphthong is defined as *two vowels that can occur in the nucleus of a syllable*, then Atong has no diphthongs. There are words that are written with two adjacent vowel graphemes or letters, e.g. *mai* 'rice', *askui* 'star', and *chokhoi* 'fishing basket'. However, the letter *i* in these words represents a consonant phoneme, viz. the off glide /j/ (see Table 1). The writing system uses the letter *i* in this way because the letters *j* and *y* are both used to represent other phonemes.
Adnyamathanha phonology

Adjnjamathanha and Guyani have the same phonemic inventory.

## Consonants

Most of the nasals and laterals are allophonically prestopped.

[v] may be an allophone of /p/.

## History

While the closely related Guyani retains word-initial stops, Adnyamathanha has undergone systematic lenition of stops in this position. Former \*p has become [v], former \*t̪ and probably also \*c have become /j/, and former \*k has disappeared entirely.

## References

1. ↑ Jeff Mielke, 2008. *The emergence of distinctive features*, p 135
Bororo phonology

All pure vowels can also occur long, i.e. as /iː eː ɯː ɤː uː oː aː/. In contrast to other languages with phonemic vowel length, however, these are quite rare, and there seems to be no reason to distinguish long vowels from same-vowel sequences. This is evidenced by the mandatory lengthening of monosyllables, where the vowel of a monosyllable is repeated to form a long vowel: for example, /ba/ "village" becomes /baa̯/ [baː].

## Consonants

Unusually for a South American language, Bororo has no phonemic fricatives.

The velar stop /k/ becomes aspirated [kʰ] before nonback vowels /a e i/; the labiovelar approximant /w/ becomes labiodental [ʋ] in the same environment. Plain and labialized velar stops /k g kʷ ɡʷ/ merge as labialized [kʷ ɡʷ] before rounded vowels /u o/. The voiced velar stop /g/ lenites to fricative [ɣ] between vowels.
Bolinao phonology

Bolinao has 21 phonemes: 16 consonants and five vowels. Syllable structure is relatively simple. Each syllable contains at least a consonant and a vowel.

## Vowels

Bolinao has five vowels. They are:

* /a/ an open front unrounded vowel similar to English *f**a**ther*
* /ə/ (written as ⟨e⟩) a mid central vowel pronounced as in English *tel**e**phone*
* /i/ a close front unrounded vowel similar to English *mach**i**ne*
* /o/ a close-mid back rounded vowel similar to English *f**o**rty*
* /u/ a close back rounded vowel similar to English *fl**u**te*

There are six main diphthongs: /aɪ/, /əɪ/, /oɪ/, /uɪ/, /aʊ/, and /iʊ/.

## Consonants

Below is a chart of Bolinao consonants. All the stops are unaspirated. The velar nasal occurs in all positions including at the beginning of a word.
Armenian phonology

## Vowels

Modern Armenian has six monophthongs. Each vowel phoneme in the table is represented by three symbols. The first is the sounds transcription in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). After that appears the corresponding letter of the Armenian alphabet. The last symbol is its Latin transliteration.

Armenian vowel phonemes
 Mid | /ɛ/ ե, էe, ē
 Open |  |  | /ɑ/ աa

## Consonants

The following table lists the Eastern Armenian consonantal system. The occlusives and affricates have an aspirated series, commonly transcribed with a reversed apostrophe after the letter. Each phoneme in the table is represented by IPA, Armenian script and romanization.

The major phonetic difference between dialects is in the reflexes of Classical Armenian voice-onset time. The seven dialect types have the following correspondences, illustrated with the t–d series:

Correspondence in initial position
 Indo-European
Ainu phonology

## Consonants

Plosives /p t ts c k/ may be voiced [b d dz ɟ ɡ] between vowels and after nasals. Both /ti/ and /tsi/ are realized as [t͡ʃi], and /s/ becomes [ʃ] before /i/ and at the end of syllables. A glottal stop [ʔ] is often inserted at the beginning of words, before an accented vowel, but is non-phonemic.

The Ainu language also has a pitch accent system. Generally, words containing affixes have a high pitch on a syllable in the stem. This will typically fall on the first syllable if that is long (has a final consonant or a diphthong), and will otherwise fall on the second syllable, though there are exceptions to this generalization.
Beja phonology

## Consonants

Nasals other than /m/ and /n/ are positional variants of /n/. The consonants /χ/ and /ɣ/ only appear in Arabic loanwords in some speakers' speech; in others', they are replaced by /k/ or /h/ and /g/. Some speakers replace /z/ in Arabic loanwords with /d/.

## Vowels

Beja has the five vowels /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/. /e/ and /o/ only appear long, while /a/, /i/, and /u/ have long and short variants.

Beja has pitch accent.
Bambara phonology

## Consonants

Each consonant represents a single sound with some exceptions:

* "W" is pronounced as in English (e.g. wait) except at the end of a word, when it is the plural mark and is pronounced as [u].
* "S" is pronounced most often as in the English word "see" but is sometimes pronounced as "sh" [ʃ] as in the word "shoe" or as [z].
* "G" is pronounced most often as in the English word "go" but in the middle of a word, it can be pronounced as in the Spanish word "abogado" ([ɣ]) and sometimes at the beginning of a word as [gw].

## Vowels

 Close-mid | e eː ẽ
 Open-mid | ɛ ɛː ɛ̃
 Open |  | a aː ã
Amarasi phonology

## Vowel Phonemes

### Phonetic Variance

Words that begin with a vowel are spoken with a glottal stop before the initial vowel sound.

 /ain/
 /ɔɔn/
 /ɔʔɛn/
 /ɛuk/

This initial glottal stop is lost when prefixes are attached to vowel-initial roots, for example the 3rd person prefix /n-/:

 /n-/ + /ain/
 /n-/ + /ɔɔn/
 /n-/ + /ɔʔɛn/
 /n-/ + /ɛuk/

However, the glottal stop is not lost when prefixes are added to words that actually begin with a glottal stop. In that case, the glottal stop is spoken in its place, between the prefix and the rest of the word.

 /n-/ + /ʔain/
 /n-/ + /ʔɔban/
 /n-/ + /ʔɔnɛn/
 /n-/ + /ʔɛɛr/

Amarasi vowels vary in pronunciation frequently. Despite being mid vowels, /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ are realized as higher phonemes ([e] and [o] respectively), when followed by higher vowels, or when preceding certain consonants, such as /s/ and /k/ (for /ɛ/) or any labial consonant (for /ɔ/). The high vowel /a/ is often pronounced as [ɪ] or even [e] in informal speech.

Because there are few minimal pairs in Amarasi, plosive consonants are interchangeable with fricative consonants, so long as both consonants are voiced. For example, the Amarasi word for 'round' (/kbubuʔ/) can be pronounced either [kβʊβʊʔ] or [kbʊβʊʔ] without confusion.

* This phonetic variance differs drastically based on dialect, and personal preference.

Similarly, /r/ can be freely pronounced [r] or [ɾ].
Bemba phonology and orthography

The orthographical system in common use, originally introduced by Edward Steere, is quite phonetic. Its letters, with their approximate phonetic values, are given below.

It has become increasingly common to use 'c' in place of 'ch'. In common with other Bantu languages, as affixes are added, combinations of vowels may contract and consonants may change. For example, 'aa' changes to a long 'a', 'ae' and 'ai' change to 'e', and 'ao' and 'au' change to 'o' (in other cases, a 'y' is often used to separate other combinations of vowels). The nasal 'n' changes to 'm' before 'b' or 'p', and is pronounced ŋ before 'k' or 'g'; after 'n', 'l' changes to 'd'. These rules will all be implicit in the tables given below.

Like many Bantu languages, Bemba is tonal, with two tones; however, tone has limited effect on meaning as the number of words that would otherwise be confused is small. Stress tends to fall on the prefix, when it exists, and can lead to subtle differences of meaning (see the verb forms below).
Bambassi orthography

## Vowels and tones

* a - [a]
* aa - [aː]
* e - [e]
* ee - [eː]
* i - [i]
* ii - [iː]
* o - [o]
* oo - [oː]
* u - [u]
* uu - [uː]
* á - high tone
* a - middle tone
* à - low tone

## Consonants

* b - [b]
* c' - [t͡s']
* ch - [t͡ʃ]
* d - [d]
* g - [g]
* h - [h]
* k - [k]
* k' - [k']
* l - [l]
* m - [m]
* n - [n]
* ng - [ŋ]
* p - [p/f/ɸ]
* p' - [p']
* r - [ɾ]
* s - [s]
* sh - [ʃ]
* t - [t]
* t' - [t']
* w - [w]
* y - [j]
* z - [z]
Bangime phonology

## Vowels

Bangime has 28 vowels. The chart below lists 7 short oral vowels, each of which can be long, nasalized, or both. All these vowel types can occur phonetically, but short nasalized vowels are sometimes allophones of oral vowels. This occurs when they are adjacent to nasalized semivowels (/wⁿ/ [w̃] and /jⁿ/ [j̃]) or /ɾⁿ/ [ɾ̃]. Long nasalized vowels are more common as phonemes than short nasalized vowels.

Vowels have an ±ATR distinction, which affects neighbouring consonants, but unusually for such systems, there is no ATR vowel harmony in Bangime.

Vowel Phonemes

## Consonants

NC sequences tend to drop the plosive, and often lenite to a nasalized sonorant: [búndà] ~ [búr̃a] ~ [bún] 'finish', [támbà] ~ [táw̃à] ~ [támà] 'chew'.

/b/ and /ɡ/ appear as [ʋ] and [ɣ], depending on the ATR status of the adjacent vowels.

/s/ appears as [ʃ] before non-low vowels, /t/ and /j/ as [tʃ] and [ʒ] before either of the high front vowels. /j/ is realized as [dʒ] after a nasal.

## Tone

Phrases and clauses can show tone sandhi.

## Syllable Structure

Bangime allows for the syllable types C onset, CC onset, and C code, giving a syllable structure of (C)CV(C). The only consonants used as codas are the semivowels /w/ and /j/ and their corresponding nasalized phonemes. Usually, only monosyllabic words end in consonants. The following chart displays examples of these syllable types. For words with multiple syllables, syllables are separated by periods and the syllable of interest is bolded.

Syllables in Bangime
 CCV
 CVC
Bukid writing system and orthography

The Latin script is used in writing the language. The alphabet employed consists of the following letters which correspond to one phoneme. Word-initial and word-final glottal stops are not written but glottal stops following a consonant is marked by a hyphen. Example: *hab-ung* [ˈhäbʔuŋ] "mildew". The phoneme [ŋ] is represented by a digraph ⟨ng⟩, which is sometimes considered as a separate letter.

 Deseret
 Phoneme

Other letters, such as c, f, j, q, and z, are used in proper nouns or loanwords that have not had their spellings altered.

Suprasegmental phonemes and glottalization are featured in writing Binukid. Stress can be indicated by an acute accent ⟨′⟩. A grave accent ⟨`⟩ can be marked over syllable- or word-final vowel to indicate a following glottal stop. If stress is shown on the final letter and there is a following glottal stop, a circumflex accent ⟨**ˆ**⟩ can be used. There is no marking for words whose stress falls on the penultimate syllable and without a secondary stress.

Examples:

* *sala* [ˈsälä] "living room"
* *salà* [ˈsäläʔ] "small cut"
* *salâ* [säˈläʔ] "sin"
* *pahid* [ˈpähid] "to wipe"
* *pahíd* [päˈhid] "shrub"
* *balángkawítan* [bäˌläŋkaˈwitän] "rooster"
* *talètè* [täˈlɘʔtɘʔ] "lizard"

The plural particle marker *manga* is written *mga*, following accepted Philippine usage.
Approximant consonant

**Approximants** are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough nor with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no turbulence. This class is composed of sounds like [ɹ] (as in *rest*) and semivowels like [j] and [w] (as in *yes* and *west*, respectively), as well as lateral approximants like [l] (as in *less*).
Berom phonology

## Consonants

Eastern Berom consists of twenty-four consonant phonemes:

In Berom, approximants are found in the last position, for example- orthographic rou is /ròw/ and vei is /vèj/.

/ts/ occurs in the Foron dialect.

## Vowels

This language consists of seven vowel phonemes:

Vowels
 Mid-High
 Mid-Low
 Low

Berom consists of three type of tones and four glide tones (Bouquiaux 1970). The glide tones are treated here as rising and falling tones. The tones are as follows:

**/tút /** = (to climb) for a high tone

**/sh**ɛ**l/** = (small) No tone mark is demonstrated for the Mid tone.

/**bàsa/** = (to teach, read,) for a low tone

**/nepâs/** = (new) for a falling tone

**/sǎn/** = (empty) for a rising tone

## References

1. ↑ Blench, Roger M. 2006c. *Plural Verb Morphology in Eastern Berom*. Cambridge.
Adang phonology

## Consonants

Notes:

* Post-alveolar [t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ, ɲ] are palatalized versions of their alveolar counterparts [t, d, n] and occur when following a diphthong ending in high front vowel [i]. The [i] has been deleted in some cases, resulting in new minimal pairs contrasting alveolar and post-alveolar variants. The extent of this sound change differs between speakers and Robinson and Haan only consider [d͡ʒ] to have become a fully separate phoneme. Because it is the result of a process limited the syllable coda, this new phoneme only occurs syllable-finally.
* In certain dialects /l/ is deleted following a diphthong ending in [i].
* /g/ occurs in syllable-initial position, but the only cases in which it does syllable-finally are onomatopoeic forms.
* /s/ only occurs syllable-finally in loanwords.
* /f/ never occurs in syllable-final position.

## Vowels

Vowel phonemes of Adang
 Mid | Tense | e ⟨𐐁⟩
 Lax | ɛ ⟨𐐇⟩
 Low | **æ** ⟨𐐈⟩

Diphthongs are /ai/, /oi/, /eu/, /au/ and /ou/. Vowel sequences that begin with a lax mid vowel (i.e. /ɔ/ or /ɛ/) cannot be diphthongs and are always disyllabic.

## Phonotactics

Adang syllable structure is (C)V(C). V can either be a monophthong or a diphthong. C can be almost any consonant. Exceptions are /f/, which never occurs in syllable final position, and /d͡ʒ/, which only ever occurs in final position. /s/ and /g/ only occur syllable-finally in specific categories of words (i.e. loanwords and onomatopoeic words, resp.).