Britain

## Commonwealth of Great Britain and Ireland

Flag of the Commonwealth of Great Britain and Ireland

# Commonwealth of Great Britain and Ireland

The Commonwealth of Great Britain and Ireland, or as it's more commonly known Britain, is a multi-continental state. It is based in the London and is the leader of the Commonwealth. Britain is one of the most rich and powerful countries in the world.

## Rule of James II

Following Charles II's death, James II & VII of England and Scotland succeeded him as King of England. James II was avid Catholic and began to espouse such ideologies. Some of the Englishmen feared that James would attempt to create a absolute monarchy, but the majority wanted to wait out James's rule until one of his protestant daughters would succeed him. James demanded that the English tolerate Catholics, and he began to tire with the English and Scottish Parliaments. In 1685, he suspended both the English and Scottish Parliaments fueling the dissatisfaction. Dissatisfaction exploded after James had a male son, James Francis Edward Stuart, who created the prospect for a male catholic heir. The opposition to James decided now was the time to act. They reached out to William III, the current Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, for help. William accepted the offer and the plot was put into motion.

## The Parliamentarian Restoration

### William's Invasion

William III began the invasion on the 22nd of September. The Dutch had 20 thousand men and over 25 ships in the Invasion fleet. The English navy failed to intercept the ships leading to the Dutch being able to land. On November 19th James met his army and it was clear that the support for his rule was fading. The army lacked morale and the commanders had doubtful loyalties. On December 9th James sent a three man council to hear William's demands, but he fled the country during the negotiations. James II's move to leave the country lead to William's appointment as regent and eventually coronation as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

### Jacobite Uprisings

Despite William's victory, all was not well. Following the Scotland Privy Council deciding to support William, Viscount John Graham of Dundee started recruiting levies from Scotland. On the 13th of April, Graham called upon the Scottish Army at Dundee and started a Pro-Stuart uprising in Scotland. Dundee's uprising was small at first, but after his victory at the Battle of Killiecrankie, the Jacobite uprising began spread.

The Jacobite Uprising coupled with the Williamite War in Ireland lead to a increased feeling of remorse for the decision to support William from the English. With the Victory at Killiecrankie, the Jacobites made a move to attack Dunkeld. The battle of Dunkeld resulted in a victory for Dundee's Jacobites. The failure of the William to repulse the revolts in Ireland and Scotland saw a growing number of Radical Whigs begin to form a clique in Parliament. The Radicals advocated for a centralized union between England and Scotland and a restoration to the full power of the Commonwealth Era Parliament. In Ireland, William had successfully stopped the Jacobite Uprising from spreading; however, with Dundee's rapidly advancing uprising in Scotland, the English were unable to successfully end the Irish Uprising. Consequently, the Williamite War began to suck manpower and monetary funds away.

The Battle of Boyne (1690) on July 1st was inconclusive leading to the Irish Uprising slowing down. In Scotland, Dundee's forces moved rapidly to advance on Edinburgh on May 5th. The motive behind the change in strategy was Dundee decided that he needed to act fast to effectively keep the momentum on the Jacobite side. Dundee's move to take Edinburgh came as a surprise to Hugh Mackay, the Williamite Commander. Mackay was caught off guard with a much smaller garrison than Dundee was expecting. With Dundee's forces closing in Mackay knew he could only hold off Dundee for a little time with 500 men compared to Dundee's forces, numbering over 2000. Dundee realizing his superiority against the Williamite Army quickly encamped his army outside the city with the intention of simply waiting for them to run out of food. Mackay, knowing that Dundee lacked siege equipment, was under the impression that Dundee was bluffing and meet him in battle, believing it was simply a show to keep Mackay's forces pinned. When Mackay had his army meet Dundee, Dundee launched an brutal assault against Mackay's men. Mackay attempted to hold off Dundee, but he was forced to fall back after Dundee ordered a frontal charge that shattered his lines. With Mackay's forces dispersed, Dundee was able to seize Edinburgh. Entering into the Scottish capital, Dundee summoned his own Scottish Privy Council and staffed it with Jacobites, They declared that the previous regency under William was illegal; thus, James VII was still King of Scotland.

### The Rise of the Radicals

The loss of Edinburgh was the final straw for the Radicals in Parliament. They began to secretly form a plot. The Radicals sent a envoy to Charles Fleetwood, a former Parliamentarian politician, to see if he'd be willing to act as a figurehead. Fleetwood accepted allowing the Radical's plot to move forward. The radicals launched a vicious slander campaign in Parliament against William demanding he give Parliament full powers over the war. Much of the moderate Whigs denounced the demand as treasonous while some Tories agreed with the Radicals. The move was framed against a backdrop of defeat in Scotland and stalemate in Ireland. The Battle of Beachy Head (a horrible naval defeat for the Grand Alliance) helped propel the Radicals forward with their calls to increase the Parliament's power.

Up North, Mackay was forced to retreat from the Scottish highlands and to move South towards England. His forces regrouped with other Scottish and English Williamites creating a force of around 10,000 men. The Radicals sensing an opportunity had Nathaniel Rich (a former Parliamentarian General) move North to meet Mackay with Fleetwood's blessing. When Rich arrived with a letter from the Radicals, Mackay refused to meet him.Sensing an opportunity, Rich met with lower level officers in Mackay's army. Because of his failures in Scotland, Mackay's men were demoralized and tired of their commander. Rich offered a pay increase to the men in exchange for helping him oust Mackay. The mutiny occurred on September 13th leading to Rich being voted in as acting commander by the Williamite forces. The development shocked the Moderate Whigs and Tories in Parliament, but they decided to recognize Rich as acting commander, not willing to risk upsetting the power balance in the North to allow the Jacobites an opening. Rich sent a letter to Parliament pleading for him to allow his forces to move south to reorganize and resupply their depleted ranks. The Parliament agreed realizing Dundee was to thinly stretched to threaten the Williamites any further south.

### Radical Coup

In Ireland the lull had begun to thaw. William moved his army into Aughrim on October 23rd and began to assault the Jacobites in an attempt to quickly end the War in Ireland, so he could restore order to Scotland. With the possibility of a major Williamite Victory, Fleetwood wanted the plot to be sped up. He bypassed the Radicals completely ordering Rich to move with "utmost haste" to London. The official reason for the movement of Rich's army from Sheffield was to collect siege equipment from the Armories in South England. When Rich arrived on December 4th, Fleetwood met him and had him begin to collect siege equipment while he met the Radicals. Fleetwood explained now was the time to act with Rich's army being the only one in the general area. The Radicals once again began to pressure parliament to force William to agree to expand their powers. The Moderate Whigs and Tories rebuffed the Radicals calls, but the Radicals refused to act on any pending matter until they reached compromise.

Fleetwood meet with Rich on December 18th and the two decided to take matters into their own hands. Rich moved his forces to take London. The move shocked Parliament and the Radicals who were completely unprepared for such a gesture. Rich's men secured the city and Fleetwood entered Parliament. Fleetwood delivered a speech on titled, "The Right of Man as Endowed by Their Savior". In the speech, Fleetwood blames the monarchy for the the English Realm's current position. Fleetwood then calls on Parliament to suspend the Crown's powers and empower the Parliament. Following the speech, the Radicals erupted into applause and most of the Whig and Tories stayed silent. Fleetwood then met with the Radicals and they decided to force the declaration. Fleetwood was named Head of the Acting English Privy Council and he assumed the powers of a Regent with King William still in Ireland.

William would win the Battle of Aughrim on December 26th leaving the Jacobites crippled in Ireland. Following the battle, William would receive the news of the developments in England. He would depart to return to England on January 9th 1691. Nathaniel Rich would be named Supreme Commander of all Forces in England & Scotland. The promotion came as the Radicals, Rich, and Fleetwood were rapidly reorganizing the structure of the Army to remove problematic Williamites. The Radicals approved a raise for the army and levies on September 15th leading an increase in the lower levels support for the Radical Whigs. The reorganization, while stream lining the army and helping solidify the Radicals newfound position, saw the disbandment of some problematic units and a sense of disorganization.

### William's Return

With the backdrop of disorganization, William landed in England on February 23rd with an army of 12,000 from Ireland. To make matters worse, William called upon his loyal subjects to join his forces. William demanded that Parliament have an official say on the matter of their own power, and that Fleetwood step down. Fleetwood and the Radicals would meet and ultimately decided they were too deep into the plot to surrender. With Willaim's return, English Williamite's began to act. Subsequently, Rich had to put down a Williamite Revolt in Essex on March 7th

While Rich was in Essex, William began to move toward London on March 4th with 17,200 men now in his army. The news of William's move toward London caused Rich to reposition his 11,000 men to defend London. As William and the Parliamentarians battled, Dundee saw an opening to move from Scotland to strike England and finally restore James II & VII to the thrown. Dundee was checked by the Pro-William northern garrison led by Thomas Livingstone. Livingstone deterred Dundee's advance at the town Galashiels. The battle saw Dundee repulsed with fairly heavy losses. This saw the beginning of the end of the Jacobite Uprising in Scotland. Dundee's men had suffered heavy casulties and were beginning to tire.

Back in South England, William's forces move rapidly and eventually he meets Rich's army outside of Buckingham on March 19th. The battle at Buckingham was brutal and lasted for 4 days. In the end, Rich's forces repulse William with high casualties. William's army, despite maintaining less loses, is shattered. many volunteers simply leave and William's men are exhausted. Rich begins a campaign of chasing William around England to finally remove his army. The battles of Northampton and Birmingham on March 25th and April 10th, ended in spectacular victories for the Radicals. The defeats forced William to abandon his army and flee North to regroup with the final English and Sottish Williamite Forces under Thomas Livingstone. Rich waited for reinforcements before pursuing William to Livingstone's forces. When William meet Livingstone, he told William that his forces were ill prepared for combat against the much larger Parliamentarian force of 14,000 compared to his 7,450 men. William decided to leave for Ireland where the final campaign was being waged against the last Jacobite hold out at Limerick to finish the campaign and use Ireland as a staging ground to defeat the Parliamentarians. Rich's army arrived on May 15th to meet Livingstone's forces. The resulting battle saw Livingstone be defeated and opened the door way for the Parliamentarians to invade Scotland.

### Jacobite Defeat

On May 23rd, Rich would besiege Edinburgh from the Scottish Jacobites. Dundee's forces had whittled away after Battle of Galashiels. Dudee's men were worn away by constant combat and some men returning to their families. Dundee, realizing his forces couldn't survive the siege, retreated from Edinburgh on May 30th. On June 12th, the Parliamentarians would corner Dundee in Abirfeldy. Despite Dundee's efforts, the Parliamentarians overwhelmed the Scottish Jacobite, destroying Dundee and his men as military force. In Ireland, Williamite forces end the Siege of Limerick in a victory. The Willamite victory results in the Treaty of Limerick being signed on October 3rd, and it confirmed William's control over the Kingdom of Ireland. With the British Isles secured, Fleetwood had the Scottish Privy Council disbanded and replaced it with direct martial rule. With the Parliamentarians firmly in control in England and Scotland, William was left with his followers in Ireland. He still had may loyalists within England and Scotland, but he was unable to effectively communicate with them to launch any Williamite resistance. William now plotted to wait for the Parliamentarians to strike first.

### Parliamentarian Invasion of Ireland.

Fleetwood would order Rich to prepare a force to land in Ireland. Rich would gather the best Parliamentarian units to form a invasion force numbering 27,300. Rich's force would depart on November 11th to Ireland. Guarded by Parliamentarian loyal units of the navy, the Parliamentarians landed in Ireland on January 3rd. Rich made haste towards Belfast where he won a quick battle on January 16th. Rich's victory in Ulster resulted in the rapid collapse of Willamite control in Ireland. English officers refused to continue fighting fearing being reprimanded by the seemingly unstoppable Parliamentarians. Fearing a mutiny, William would evacuate Ireland with his Dutch forces on February 22nd. The remaining WIlliamite forces agree to lay down arms in exchange for amnesty. The Parliamentarians agreed to uphold the Treaty of Limerick, thus, ending the threat of a possible Jacobite resurgence in Ireland. The Parliamentarian Victory had been an unexpected dark horse for the Nine Years' War. The Radicals were a relatively disorganized and outspoken political force for the majority of the War.

### Restoration of the Commonwealth

With the war over, the Radicals devolved into infighting. Some wanted to find a new monarch while other wished to offer William the crown in exchange for agreeing to the Parliamentarian demands. The last extreme radicals wished to see a Republic restored. The Pro-William Radicals eventually succeeded in convincing the others. They drafted a declaration and presented it to Fleetwood on March 17th. Fleetwood told the Radicals he'd look it over and get back to them. On March 21st, Fleetwood met with Rich in secret. Fleetwood was alarmed at the draft, and he confided it in Rich. Fleetwood then claimed now was the time to end the chaos and finally free England from its shackles of the monarchy.

Fleetwood would meet with the Radicals on March 25th to tell them he was refusing to sign the declaration. Fleetwood began lecturing on the importance of man's self governance and denounced the move as contributory of the Radical's cause. He then informed them that he was going to restore the Commonwealth. Some Radicals denounced the move while others applauded it. The Anti-Republican Radicals attempted to meet on March 26th but found Rich's infantry blocking them from entering the house of Parliament.

On March 28th 1692, Fleetwood would declare a renewed Commonwealth with himself as Lord Protector. The following day, Fleetwood would meet with the Radicals to draft a constitution. Rich wanted the position of Lord Protector to be a mainly ceremonial position and to be far less powerful then the Cromwellian position. Fleetwood agreed that the main power of the Commonwealth should be vested in Parliament, so the constitution made the Lord Protector an almost ceremonial position that was for life. It was to be awarded by a vote in Parliament. The Constitution would combine the Kingdom of Ireland, Kingdom of Scotland, and Kingdom of England into one nation. The main power would be vested in the Head of the Commonwealth's Council of State (an institution replacing the Privy Council) that would be appointed by a majority in Parliament (a post that would eventually turn into the Prime Minister). Voting was eligible for White, Male landowners. Despite the move to a Republic, these requirements meant mainly the same ruling classes had influence on the new government. The House of Lords was converted into the 'Other House'. It was to be staffed by some hereditary positions and some appointed positions. It was mainly a concession to less Radical Whigs and Torries to preserve the new Commonwealth's stability. Fleetwood had carefully played his cards close to his chest, allowing for the Radical Whigs to believe he was simply serving as a figurehead for their movement and giving it credibility. Fleetwood had built up an base of Republican Parliamentarians in the military with the most important being Nathaniel Rich, who was a Republican himself. This base allowed for him to force a 2nd Commonwealth into being, as the pro-monarchy Radicals couldn't force him to back down.

### Reaction from the World

To many in Europe, the development came as a surprise. William returned to the Dutch Republic and proceeded to win the Nine Years' War against France. The Parliamentarian Restoration surprised the Dutch who did not see the Parliamentarians as an organized political forces against William. Even when the Parliamentarians won in England, Scotland, and Ireland, the Dutch assumed they would move towards a full power parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The Parliamentarians surprised the French who viewed the move as dangerous to the European order.

### Reaction from the English Colonies

To England's colonies, the move was viewed with confusion. Many were unsure of their loyalties to the Crown or the Motherland. The Congress of Philadelphia on May 16th 1692 was boycotted by the New England Colonies and New York. The Puritan New England was supportive of Fleetwood and New York wished to preserve its crucial commercial ties with England. New York and New England were further swayed by the Commonwealth's willingness to recognize them as semi-self governing. After the Congress of Philadelphia, the other Colonies formed the Royalist League and officially recognized William and Mary as their King and Queen. The New England Colonies and New York would form the New England Compact with the support of the Commonwealth on September 7th. The Compact placed the groundwork for the eventual formation of the Dominion of New England

## Aftermath

The immediate impact of the Parliamentarian restoration was a flourish of Enlightenment thinking in Britain. The British would gradually move away from the Imperial mercantilist system based on the taking of land for wealth. The New Commonwealth period saw economic reforms undertaken to modernize the economy. The National Bank was founded as a keystone economic pillar of this new institution along with a new policy in India. The English East India Company was turned to focus on primary economic dominance rather than imperial prowess. The reforms stabilized the English economy and made it relatively pro-business helping to facilitate the British rise as a global power. The Parliamentarian Restoration facilitated a return to the New Model Army style organization for the English Army. One of Fleetwood's main policies was the amnesty for former royalists. The 'Act of General Amnesty for Royalists and Rebels' was passed. In fact, a former royalist William Cowper would become the first Head of the Council of State.

## Protectorship of Nathaniel Rich

Charles Fleetwood would die on October 4th 1692 leaving the restored Britain leadership less. Parliament was left in the position to replace the Lord Protector for Britain's first change of power. The only real contender was Nathaniel Rich, who was viewed as an strong source to garner the military's support for the Parliament. Rich was confirmed on October 17th to succeed the deceased Fleetwood as Lord Protector. Rich's large presence as the ' 'General of the Restoration' made him incredibly influential in the formulative years of the Commonwealth. Rich would keep Britain on a path of neutrality seeking to restore it militarily and commercially before it go re-involved in Europe. This decision allowed for the English to slowly grow their strength with larger commercial ties to many European nations. Under Rich, the British direction moved toward large diplomatic actions. The Treaty of London was the largest of such actions. It was signed on January 9th 1701 as a last ditch attempt to keep war from breaking out. The treaty divided the Continental Spanish Empire amongst the European Powers. The main gain for British participation was, in exchange for supporting France's territorial claims, Britain wanted France to expel the Jacobite pretender. The treaty was touted as an win for Rich's diplomatic efforts. However, the War of Spanish Succession broke out regardless. Rich wanted to preserve British neutrality while keeping trade open. The Tories wished for war while the Whigs advocated for a Rich's policy. Outrage began to surface as France began targeting neutral English trading vessels. This outrage was contained by RIch's sheer popularity and support, but his death on February 2nd 1702 spiraled the Parliament into chaos.

## Parliamentary Infighting

With Rich's death, Parliament began to form into factions. The Whigs were divided on who should be appointed the next Lord Protector. Some Tories called for the return of the Monarchy without the guidance of Rich or Fleetwood. The Royalist faction led by Sir Edward Seymour was unable to generate enough support with many fearing a third civil war over the consequences of such an action. Ultimately, the Head of the Council of State, William Cowper, was able to garner support for a Whig judge, Thomas Parker, to be appointed to the office of Lord Protector. Without Rich's guiding hand, Parliamentary war hawks advocated for defending Britain's right to commerce and getting involved in the War of Spanish Succession. The war hawks were able to force there way after widespread anger over the sinking of a British Frigate defending a commerce ship. This led the British to declare war on France on May 3rd 1702.

## War of Spanish Succession

Britain would enter the War of Spanish Succession on the side of the Charles VI on May 3rd 1702. Britain's main objective was to protect their Mediterranean trade and gain commercial rights to the Spanish Empire's vast American territories. The British would rapidly deploy forces to the front lines in Portugal where the British were able to demonstrate their prowess. With the British fleet, the Grand Alliance was able to successfully secure naval dominance in the Mediterranean and the British arrival In Iberia began to turn the tide. The British forces would seize Gibraltar on August 7th 1705. This allowed for the Grand Alliance to control the Mediterranean and proved to be a key turning point.

The War of Spanish Succession slowed down the longer the war lasted. Despite British Involvement, the Alliance was unable to secure Spain or an overall military advantage. The General Election of 1709 led to the reaffirmation of British involvement in the war. In 1711, Joseph I died allowing for Archduke Charles to be elected Holy Roman Empire. The idea of a Union between Austria and Spain turned off the British who wanted to balance the power in Europe. The British would eventually end the war in Peace of Utrecht. Britain would gain Gibraltar and the island of Menorca. These acquisitions provided Britain Mediterranean bases increasing their power projection. In North America, Britain gained commercial rights to the Spanish Empire and gained Nova Scotia and Newfoundland from the French. For a diplomatic victory, in exchange for supporting the Dutch Barrier Fortresses, Britain had the Dutch to recognize the transition of Britain into a republic and made them promise to never again support a war in favor of restoring an British monarchy. Britain was able to support numerous allies and fight on a multi-front war with massive success. The reworked British fiscal system allowed for Britain to skillfully finance and support the war. The War of Spanish Succession ultimately sealed the British's rise as the foremost commercial and maritime power in Europe.

## Jacobite Uprising of 1715

The Jacobite Uprising of 1715 was part of a long standing tension between the dominant Whigs and the Tories in Parliament . The Tories had been repeatedly ostracized from key positions in government because of the political rivalry and the Tories perceived royalist tint. A major Tory figure Henry St John despised the War of Spanish Succession continuing for so long and was unhappy with course of the British state of affairs. He fled the country in a self-imposed exile and began to support James Francis Edward Stuart, the Jacobite pretender to the throne. With is backdrop James became fixated on the idea of now being the time to reclaim the throne. James believed the Republican Government had abused its power and was moving against the national ideals of Britain. John Erskine, the Earl of Mar, decided to act on his own and start a Jacobite Uprising in Scotland. Mar sailed to Scotland and on August 27th held a council of war. Parliament was furious and passed an act declaring, "Any man who takes up arms against the Commonwealth, shall henceforth dismiss any claim to their property and the rights granted to them by our lord and the constitution". Parliament attacked the prominent former lords and the gentry who supported the rebellion by confiscating their property. Despite the threats Mar was able to raise a force of 20 thousand that overran most of Northern Scotland.

With the Jacobite's making advances in the North, nine Tories were arrested in Western England on charges of brewing a Jacobite uprising. The government also increased surveillance and security in Southern England. The Government made arrests of leading Jacobites in Oxford with no resistance. The swift government reprisals ended any major Jacobite Resistance in England.

Back in the North, The British Army met the Jacobites after Mar's hesitation in finishing off the British forces initially after capturing Perth. Mar made a tactical blunder in the Battle of Sheriffmuir by refusing to pursue the government's forces allowing for John Campbell, the government commander, to regain the initiative. The Government would launch a successful counter attack and overwhelm the Jacobites. Mar would go into exile and the Jacobites were soundly defeated.

## End of Cowper's Ministry

Following the War of Spanish Succession, William Cowper's Ministry saw a surge in popularity. The victories of the War solidified the 2nd Commonwealth's national unity and put it on an upward track. However, the Cowper Ministry's slow pace of dealing with the bloated British debt made them fall out of favor with the 'fiscal Whigs'. Cowper's involvement also get involved in the War of the Quadruple alliance which would further bloat the debt. Cowper would ultimately not seek reappointment in 1720 secession of Parliament. Cowper and his supporters granted their support to the rising Whig firebrand Robert Walpole. Cowper's insistence on Walpole helped him secure the necessary votes to be appointed as the Head of the Council of State in Cowper's absence.

### Cowper and the War of the Quadruple Alliance

The War of the Quadruple Alliance broke out in 1718 to enforce the terms of the Peace of Utrecht. The war would see little British continental involvement, but in the Home Isles, the Jacobite Uprising of 1719 would occur by Spanish sponsored Jacobites. The Battle of Glen Shiel on June 10th 1719 would see the British repress the Jacobites and effectively end their uprising. Compare to the earlier 1715 and the latter 1749 uprising the 1719 one was mainly small and mitigated. The War of the Quadruple Alliance would end in the Treaty of Hague 1720 in a Alliance Victory.

## Walpole Ministry

The Walpole Ministry's main concern at its formation was to deal with the Debt accumulated by the War of Spanish Succession. Robert Walpole would introduce a sinking-fund to stabilize the economy. The Walpole Ministry then had to deal with a series of economic crises dubbed the Crash of 1721. During the War of Spanish Succession and after it, a series of joint stock companies had emerged with prominent backers. A series of massive flukes from these companies brought the prices of other companies shares down leading to a fiscal meltdown. Walpole was able to save the Whigs from further tarnish by reassuring creditors and having the Government take up certain losses to recover the investment scene. Much of this was financed by taking portions of the Estates of major businessmen in these companies and auctioning them off. Walpole's Ministry saw the British formulate and alliance with Austria to serve as a counterweight to the Spanish and French. Walpole ended persecution of the Catholics and sought to integrate them back into society. the During Walpole's reign, the office of Head of the Council of State became known as Prime Minister. Walpole's foreign policy was dubbed the "Peace Policy". Walpole and his Secretary of State, Thomas Pelham wanted to steer Britain clear of continental involvement unless necessary. This policy led to British neutrality during the War of Polish Succession in 1733. When Lord Protector Thomas Parker died on April 28th, 1732, Walpole was able to maneuver his ally Charles Townshend into the office of Lord Protector. Townshed's death on the 21st of June, 1738 saw Walpole once again maneuver a close ally into power. This time Walpole chose Henry Pelham as the candidate for Lord Protector. Pelham was selected by a overwhelming majority. These advancements allowed for Walpole to secure the political reigns of the British system for years to come. Yet, All was not well for Walpole's ministry. He would soon be forced into a difficult situation during the war of Austrian Succession.

## War of Austrian Succession

### Initial Conflict

The War of Austrian Succession dragged Britain for two reasons. The first was because of its alliance made with Austria during the aftermath of the War of Spanish Succession. The second was the Dominion of New England and Britain had been engaged in numerous skirmishes in Acadia due to the unclear boundary of where the British possessions stopped. Walpole would officially ask the British Parliament to get involved siting these two reasons. Walpole's strategy was to utilize the relatively dominant Republican Navy to secure control of the Atlantic and to reinforce their allies. The relative strength of the Republican Navy made it difficult for the French to effectively hold their war efforts overseas. The British general John Ligonier was able to secure Hanover during the Invasion of Hanover in 1742. The Treaty of Hildesheim in 1743 restored Hanover in exchange for the Hanoverian renunciation of the claim to the Throne of England (The Hanoverian Kings had become the next in line for the throne of England for the Williamite Line). In addition to the renunciation of the throne, Hanover agreed to allow for British forces to move through out the country for the duration of British hostilities with France. The treaty presented a diplomatic win for Britain as it provided a major blow for the Hanoverian Royalists in Parliament (Hanoverian royals succeeded the Williamites). The Hanoverians were mainly supported by a few remaining Williamite Whigs, but the renunciation of the claim ended the last major Royalist faction left in the Whigs.

### Jacobite Uprising

In Britain, the Parliament had dissolved into factionalism once more. Walpole's Ministry had become far more powerful than any of Cowper's ministries; thus, he was accused of being a tyrant. Walpole's personal power and the War of Austrian Succession had isolated some Whigs. These Whigs were mainly holdovers from the Cowper Era Fiscal Whigs and the remaining Williamite Whigs. These factions and the some Tories served as the main English Jacobites. Ultimately the main driving factor for the Scottish was lingering Scottish dissent over repression that occurred in the wake of the 1715 and 1719 uprisings and the gradual loss of Scottish autonomy from the Union of England and Scotland. Charles Edward Stuart would arrive in Scotland and begin the 1745 uprising. The Jacobites quickly became split between what Charles wanted and what the Scottish and English wanted. Charles was blissfully unaware of the changes in the Jacobite movement over the course of the 2nd Commonwealth Period. The Scottish Jacobites had largely moved to support the Stuarts as a way or securing Scottish independence, and the English Tory Jacobites only supported Charles to oppose the Whigs. Charles wanted a return to the Catholic, Absolute Monarchy of his forefathers, something his British supporters would never agree with. Charles's forces fractured as a result. No real English support for the Jacobites emerged. Many English Catholics were not willing to align with Charles because Walpole had made efforts to reintegrate them into English society. With the Jacobites fractured after a few short skirmishes, the last major Jacobite resurgence was defeated.

### Change in the Home Front

Robert Walpole would die on March 18th, 1745. The death of Walpole sent shock waves through the Whigs. Thomas Pelham, the brother of Lord Protector Henry Pelham was a close Parliamentary associate of Walpole and his Secretary of State. Thomas was seen as a competent individual who could traverse the ongoing war. Despite his resentment to accept the appointment (in favor of maintaining his current job), Thomas was convinced by his brother to take it.

### End of the War

The War continued to drag on in the Mediterranean and Low Countries. For Britain, the War in India and North America had stalemated as well. Britain began to favor a peace deal with its enemies. The signing the Treaty of Dresden on December 25th 1745 slimmed Britain's fronts and took Prussia out of the War. The British naval blockade had begun to collapse the French economy following the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre in October 14th 1747. The battle had secured British naval dominance furthering the Austro-British goals. Consequently, the British, Austrians, and Dutch were unable to defeat the French, but the French could not sustain the war. The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle was called on 24th of April 1748 to come to a solution. The peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed on the 18th of October, 1748. The treaty essentially resulted in a white peace for Britain. The British returned all occupied lands in Canada for the return of Madras in India, and the signatories reaffirmed British access to the North American market of the Spanish Empire. Finally, France agreed to stop all support to the Jacobites and expel Charles from France. The War of Austrian Succession is classified as a win for Britain as they preserved the Habsburg Monarchy mostly intact.

## Pelham's Ministry

Compared to Walpole Pelham's Ministry was primarily concerned with foreign affairs. Thomas also wanted a weaker ministry, so he could easily control the government. Also Thomas Pelham wanted to continue the "Peace Policy". Pelham attempted to tackle to issue of interest on loans taken out from the Bank of England. Pehlam was able to reduce to loans a fair bit securing him much needed political credit with the Parliament. Pelham's foreign policy ultimately resulted in the Diplomatic Reversal.

## Diplomatic Reversal

The Austro-British Alliance had begun to break down at the end of the War of Austrian Succession. On Austria's side, Vienna was upset with the lack of British support in their attempts to regain Silesia. Maria Theresa was angered by the British position and decided to move towards the French as a counterbalance and to gain their support for her ambitions. Austria and France ultimately concluded the First Treaty of Versailles on May 1st 1756. The treaty promised mutual assistance if either of the two countries were attacked by either Britain or Prussia. On the British side, Britain was unhappy with the large sums paid to Austria as subsidies during the War of Austrian Succession and viewed the reconquest of Silesia as a foolish prospect. Pelham was shocked and angered by the perceived betrayal of Austria. Consequently, he turned to Prussia as a counterweight in the Treaty of Berlin (1756). The treaty was hastily drafted and promised mutual support in the event either of them were attacked by a continental power. Prussia was happy to secure support from another European power. Pelham hoped that this treaty would facilitate neutrality with neither side wanting to break the European power balance. These developments would cause the Seven Years War to break out when Prussia launched a preemptive strike on Austria in 1756.

## Seven Years' War

### Background

The Seven Years' War for Britain was the culmination of a series of disputes between the Dominion of New England and France in addition to Pelham's entanglement to an alliance with Prussia. Britain also found common cause with it's old colonies in the Royalist League. The League's strongest member, Virginia, had long been in a dispute with France over Ohio. Together the Royalists and the British would oppose the French in North America.

### Opening Phase

Thomas Pelham was caught off guard when Frederick the Great launched a preemptive strike at Austria and their ally Saxony. Fredirck kickstarted the whole European conflict by dragging in France and Britain along side their headstrong allies. Pelham's war started of rather shaky with the British loss at Minorca. Prussia's early stumbling into Bohemia led Britain to hastily conclude and alliance with Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel and Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. These states were funded by Britain to raise a small volunteer army to serve under Prussia.