recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Alex Nathans.

Alex Y.J.N. Nathans is a Private in the Dokali armed forces, currently serving in the Kuzkiy/Kuzkouhjin Campaign, Battle of Kuzminiyahn, a small municipal district/regency within Kuzkiy Hynjiyhn/Kuzkouhjin Country. He is currently labelled as Missing In Action, following an Incident on December 1 14th, 1975-2 ARG time. He was last known to have been attached to Juliet Company, 2nd Platoon, 4th Squadron, and his callsign is "Juliet-2-4-Echo-1-Alpha-November".

## Alex Nathans.

Portrait by Keller N., provided courtesy of Net Report, via a prompt from [OBSERVER-OPERATOR::ALPHA/ALPINE]

### Aliases

Juliet-2-4 (Squad Callsign, applies to 14 individuals at once).Juliet-2-4-Echo-1-Alpha-November.
Charles Novoinink.

**Charles F.M. Novoinink** , better known by his callsign, Hitman-2-3-Echo-3-Mike-November, is a Private First Class in the Dokali army. On 1 December 23rd, in a campaign against Xanxon forces, he sustained moderate injuries from an enemy R.P.G.-7 impacting directly next to him. Following the 24th December offensive, he sustained partial injuries as he fell into a pool. At the period marking the transition from 11 PM to midnight of December 25th, Xanxon forces coordinated an intense counter-offensive action. This assault began properly at 11:30, but the ground forces only moved in by 12:05 the next day, the 26th. At exactly/approximately 05:21 AM, December 1 26th, an unknown station broadcast the alert to all friendly and allied forces in the region that PROTOCOL::HALTEIRN was being put into effect. By 05:50\*~ hours, [both] Dokali [and Xanxon] [high] command[s] realized victory was close to impossible without critical reinforcements and fire support, which was not available. In an effort to stem the tides and delay the enemy, D.H.C. decided it was the time to launch tactical nuclear warheads into the region, instantaneously vaporizing hostiles shortly after the outbreak of dawn. During the 26th December Incident, he, and all other personnel of "Hitman" (286482) Company, were largely declared missing in the very heavy and extensive use of N.B.C. fires. His [ivta.Vitality] status is currently unknown.

## Charles F.M. Novoinink.

### Aliases

Hitman-2-3 (Squadron Callsign, applies to some 14 different individuals.).Hitman-2-3-Echo-3-Mike-November.

### Occupation

Private First Class, Dokali Marine Corps.

## Appearances

### Debut

SN1.

1. ↑ https://twitter.com/Net\_Report/status/1739229951679746316
2. ↑ https://twitter.com/Net\_Report/status/1739237390609199136
3. ↑ https://x.com/Net\_Report/status/1739238701958381940
Asper

"Leave or else i will force you out of this forest."

### REMINDER: This is an outdated design im making a redesign lol

Asper is a deer centaur who protects a magical forest from outsiders, he carries a spear with him and sometimes a bow. He has a scottish accent. He can understand animals and takes care of them, he doesnt let people entire the forest because he doesnt trust them. Jammer sees him as a father figure.
Ориентальная кошка

коты породы ориентал: история: в конце XIX столетия предшественники современных ориентальных кошек, наряду с сиамскими кошками, были импортированы из Таиланда в Англию. Британская энциклопедия (11-ое издание, 1903 год) упоминает о полностью окрашенных сиамских кошках.

До 1923 года продолжались споры по поводу животных с однотонным окрасом и их выставочной карьерой, пока Британский клуб сиамских кошек (Siamese Cat Club of Britain) не постановил: «Клуб очень сожалеет, но не находит возможным поощрять разведение иных разновидностей породы, кроме голубоглазых гималайского окраса». С этого времени зеленоглазые кошки однотонного окраса были окончательно исключены из класса сиамских и, соответственно, прекратилась работа по созданию породы.

В 1956 году Mrs. Elsie Quinn (питомник Quinn, Калифорния) импортировала из Англии кошку Havana Brown Roofspringer Mahogany Quinn, которая является прародительницей этой породы в Америке. В 1958 году был принят предварительный стандарт, 11 июля 1964 года порода Havana Brown получила чемпионский статус в CFA.

Американские заводчики восточную кошку шоколадного окраса зарегистрировали как самостоятельную породу Havana Brown, тем самым сохранив первоначальный тип и уникальность этой кошки. В Америке «Havana Brown» это не просто окрас, но и отличительный породный тип, который был утерян в Европе из-за совместного разведения с сиамскими кошками и постоянного совершенствования.

Американские заводчики начали кампанию за признание иных окрасов однотонных кошек сиамского типа, и добились полного признания в 1977 году. Взяв за основу стандарт сиамской кошки, они внесли в него незначительные, но очень дальновидные изменения (слово «средний» в описании головы и корпуса заменили на «длинный») и одновременно разработали программу работы с окрасами.

В 1995 году в ориентальной породе были признаны двухцветные окрасы, т. н. би-колоры. Заводчики, по аналогии с Яванезами и Балинезами, ввели в породу ген длинношёрстности (Longhair). Длинношёрстные ориенталы получили чемпионский статус CFA в 1997 году
Коты и их глаза

коты и кошки это уникальные существа которые имеют разные характеры и привычки, породы и уникальные глаза. Кроме того, кошки видят цвета менее насыщенными, чем люди. Если сравнивать с человеческим зрением, мир для кошки скорее напоминает неяркий, приглушенный, как если бы мы смотрели через слегка затонированные солнцезащитные очки.

Однако для кошек важность цвета вторична по сравнению с их способностью обнаруживать движение и видеть в условиях низкой освещенности. Их зрение адаптировано к охоте: они высоко ценят контраст и движение, что позволяет им эффективно следить за добычей в условиях сумерек и ночи.

Кошачье зрение — это результат миллионов лет эволюции, нацеленной на выживание и охоту. Хотя кошки не способны видеть мир так же ярко и разнообразно, как люди, они превосходят нас в других визуальных аспектах, что делает их зрение не только уникальным, но и невероятно интересным для изучения. Также кошки имеют довольно узкие зрачки. А это означает что хоть они и видят мир в других тонах то они видят его очень четко и понятно, поэтому если вы  в каких нибудь источниках слышали что у них зрение размыто то это НЕ ПРАВДА!
Morphle Fanon Wiki

**Welcome to the Morphle Fanon Wiki!**
Mila is a little girl who lives with her daddy. She have a magic pet named Morphle. Morphle is a red bunny that can morph into anything. Mila's mother might be deceased.

We're a collaborative community website about Morphle Fanon that anyone, including you, can build and expand. Wikis like this one depend on readers getting involved and adding content. Click the "ADD NEW PAGE" or "EDIT" button at the top of any page to get started!

## Important articles

PlaceholderA page about your topicPlaceholderA Main CharacterPlaceholderThe First EpisodePlaceholderAn Important LocationPlaceholderA Key EventPlaceholderA Crucial Item

*Need help building out this community?*

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Expérience de mort imminente

**Les expériences de mort imminente**  également appelée « EMI » est l’ensemble des sensations ressentis par quelqu’un lors de sa mort clinique. Il peut alors sortie de son corps et traverser les murs. Les personnes ayant vécu une EMI disent souvent avoir vu un tunnel du lumière et des personnes décédées de leur passé et d’avoir eut une sensation de calme, de paix et de tranquillité.

Certaines personnes en revanche ressente eux des émotions négatives comme de la peur et de la colère.

Pour les religieux, la lumière et les sensations de tranquillité ressenties lors de certaines EMI indiquerait que la personne s’apprêtait à aller au paradis, et, à l’inverse, les sensations négatives indiquerait qu’il irait en Enfer. Mais ce pourrait aussi être l’attitude ou le caractère de la personne qui engendrerait les différentes EMI, une personne ayant peur de la mort/se raccrochant à la vie aura un souvenir négatif de son EMI mais une personne ayant acceptée sa mort en gardera un souvenir positif.

Mais des ÉMI ayant commencés de façon négative peuvent se terminer de façon positive, et l’inverse.

Alors que la personne est cliniquement morte, il lui arrive parfois de pouvoir rapporter les faits accomplis ou paroles échangées alors qu’elle était morte. Et ceux sans aucune activités cérébrales. Des théories cherche alors à expliquer ces moments en disant que le cerveau n’est pas à l’origine de la conscience, qu’un être vivant peut donc voir et étendre sans utiliser son cerveau.

Les Expériences de Mort imminente sont pour certains chercheurs la preuve que la conscience ne dépend pas du cerveau et que l’âme existe.

## Autres noms

Les expérience de mort imminente sont en anglais appellées « Near death experience » ou «  imminent death experience ».

Les autres noms français sont « expérience de mort-retour », « expérience aux frontières de la mort » ou encore « expérience de mort approchée ».

## Théories

Il existe des théories cherchant à expliquer l’existence des EMI.

-Les expériences de mort imminente seraient des rêves.

Après un arrêt cardiaque, les scientifiques ont découvert que le cerveau restait en activité pendant encore trois minutes. Le rêve se déroulerait donc durant ces trois minutes.

**À compléter**
Сибирская кошка

коты и кошки породы сибирские: образ сибирской кошки/кота – крупного, пушистого, здорового животного, с развитым охотничьим инстинктом, не страшащегося суровых зим, вобрал в себя все архаичные представления россиян о домашних питомцах кошачьего семейства. Долгое время сибирским котом, или сибиряком, наши соотечественники называли каждого крупного длинношерстого представителя рода кошачьих – будь то семейный баловень или дворовой разбойник.

До конца прошлого столетия, пожалуй, ни один из владельцев сибиряка в нашей стране не задумывался о происхождении своего любимца, подразумевая как само собой разумеющееся, что предки животного родом из Сибири. Но в 80-х годах, когда в России начали создаваться фелинологические организации и клубы любителей кошек, возник вопрос: а кем же являются прародители самых популярных в народе представителей рода кошачьих?

Споры ведутся до сих пор. Есть мнение, что дальними предками истинных сибиряков являются норвежские лесные кошки. Их могли завезти в Сибирь переселенцы из северных областей России во время освоения этой территории, начавшегося в XVI веке. К этому же периоду относятся и письменные упоминания о так называемых бухарских кошках – пушистых крепких животных, которых можно было встретить во всех регионах Российской империи, а не только в Сибири. Они предположительно попали в Россию вместе с купцами из среднеазиатских стран. Бухарских кошек часто называют родственниками сибиряков. Возможно также, что домашние кошки, оказавшиеся в Сибири, могли иметь потомство от диких котов. Как правило, среди последних упоминаются манулы – симпатичные бутузы размером с крупных домашних котов, обладатели самой густой и пушистой шерсти среди кошачьих.

Большинство фелинологов такое понятие как единая «аборигенная сибирская порода» вообще отвергают, а ничем не подтвержденные предположения о прародителях сибирской кошки называют мифотворчеством. Они указывают на то, что в 80-х годах прошлого века, в начале «кошачьего движения», в России для сибиряков существовало определение, означавшее примерно следующее – «крупный кот с густой шерстью и не белого окраса».
Mila/Morphle SuperMagicals

**Mila** is the main protagonist and the main hero of Morphle SuperMagicals. She is a 6-year old girl who transforms into a superhero known as **Mila the Magnificent**, who does things for good with the help of her magic pet Morphle, her sister April, and her brother Jordie, to protect the city from evil villains like Orphle saving the day.

## Appearance

### As Mila

Mila has blonde long hair, a blue hair-tie, dark blue eyes, a dark blue shirt, blue overalls with pink buttons on it, and pink shoes.

### As Mila the Magnificent

Mila the Magnificent is the same as her classic form, but she has a superhero mask, a belt, and a blue cape. She also a star-shaped badge in her overalls.

## Badges

### Bubble

Mila gets her bubbling powers. Mila can blow big and protective bubbles.

## Powers

* Mila the Magnificent can fly, she has superstrength.
* Mila can shoot lasers from her hand.
* With the bubble badge on, Mila the Magnificent can blow big bubbles.

## Gallery

Classic Mila (Morphle SuperMagicals).pngCasual formMila in Superhero Form.pngMila as a superheroSuperhero Mila Inside Her Bubble.pngMila the Magnificent in a bubble
Net Report.

**Net Report**, officially on X [Formerly known as Twitter], as "@Net\_Report", and given the Designation of "NET REPORT ALPHA ECHO KILO/TANGO WHISKEY X-RAY", is a partial *A.I.G.I.S. System* devoted to the interception, recording, monitoring, archival and pursuit of various information pieces and data-points available both online, as in, on the internet, and offline, as in, for example, over *non-S.D.* *Radios*. It is currently the impressive host to over 20 (primary) "*Stations*", recurring or one-off transmitters which issue out information on Net Report, as well as some roughly 10 ***OBSERVERS***, a designation given and issues exclusively to [Redacted], and some of those are even ***OPERATORS***, who are [Redacted] [Redacted] [Redacted], with permissions within-Net Report itself. ***System*** is the primary technical force behind the actual transmission and applicational abilities of Net Report, however, various different variations of Net Report use separate ***Administrators***, the one most relevant to Twitter handle @Net\_Report would be *Avtor-1,* its effective creator and/or runner and administrator. *Avtor-1* is not the highest ruler within the Administrator Key.chain System, as [Redacted] is *Avtor-1*'s superior Commander/Officer.

## References and Notes.

1. ↑ Note 001; [N.et\_R.eport=AEK/TWX]
2. ↑ Note//Definition 001; "A.I.G.I.S., abbrev., standing for "Artificial Intelligence Guided Information (or Intelligence) System"..
3. ↑ Note//Definition 002; "S.D.(M./R.), abbrev., standing for Software-Defined [Military/Meteorological] [Radio] [system]".

Compare, D.D.R., "Digitally Defined Radio", wherein the definition is numerical, and digital, making it a close synonym if not ideal replica of S.D.R. as a term .
Morphle SuperMagicals

**Morphle SuperMagicals** is a YouTube children's superhero show based on My Magic Pet Morphle. It was produced by Moonbug Kids.

## History

Morphle SuperMagicals began production in 2020. Moonbug released the first season of it on ????, ??, 2022. A second season was released in 2023.

According to Moonbug, it is set to be renewed for a third season.

## Characters

### Main Cast

People who do good things to save the day.

* Mila
* Morphle
* April
* Jordie

### Supporting

People who appear in the show.

* Daddy

### Antagonists

These people are villains, who do evil things and wreak havoc on Petport.

* Orphle

## Episodes

There are currently 2 seasons, for 20 episodes each.

For a list of episodes of the first season, see: Season 1

For a list of episodes of the second season, see: Season 2
Бенгальская кошка

коты породы бенгальские история: история породы началась в 60-х годах прошлого века, в доме любительницы кошек Джейн Милл в США. Принадлежащая ей самка бенгальской кошки по имени Малайзия повязалась с чёрным домашним котом и произвела на свет пятнистого котёнка. Первый про-бенгал, как и её потомство, погибли и работа над породой возобновилась только в 1980 году.

Выведение породных кошек путем скрещивания с дикими — весьма трудоемкий процесс, для которого необходимо иметь несколько диких кошек. Не каждый представитель бенгальских кошек будет вязаться с более мелкими домашними кошками. Кроме того, все мужское потомство от таких вязок — бесплодное, поэтому в работу над породой идут только самки.

Джейн Милл разбиралась в генетике и практике разведения диких и домашних кошек и ей удалось получить потомство, устойчиво передающее породные признаки. Представителем породы считается бенгал, отстоящий от дикого предка более чем на 4 поколения.

Порода была представлена на выставке в 1987 году. В 1991 году породу официально зарегистрировали и допустили к выставкам и породному разведению.

Одно из названий дикой бенгальской кошки — «леопардовая кошка»поэтому может возникнуть предположение о её близком родстве с леопардом. На самом деле она не ближе к леопарду, чем обычная домашняя кошка, хоть и относится к другому роду — роду восточные кошки.
6.13: Overbeaming and Overranging

For a helical CT with patch around 1, essentially all the detector arrays contribute to image.

The xray beam has relatively constant intensity throughout its center, but due to a finite focal spot, gives rise to penumbra at edges. The penumbra is therefore positioned outside active detector arrays, striking lead sheilding or inactive detectors. Called overbeaming.

In order to reconstruct the first and last section of the helical CT, the scan is extended beyond the planned image boundaries by 0.5 beam width on either side (total 1 additional rotation, increasing DLP).

Relative contribution of overanging to overall CT dose can be reduced with reducing beam width, reducing pitch, and adaptive beam collimation (collimate out overranging).
4.5: Grids (types, properties, image quality, bucky factor) - Scatter Reduction, Image Quality and Dose

Focussed, parallel, and moving grid.

Grid Ratio - h/D (height/interspace).

Grid ratio of 8:1 for kvp70-90, 12:1 for >90kvp.

Mammography uses 4:1 grid ratio.

Primary transmission = % of primary beam transmitted through grid, ideally should be 100%. Assuming no grid cut-off and primary beam not absorbed by interspaces.

Bucky factor is ratio of incident radiation on grid to transmitted radiation. Bucky factor measures primary and secondary radiation transmission (including scatter), and so is more practical. Incident radiation / transmitted radiation.

It also measures degree of exposure factors need to be increased by to maintain image quality. Higher grid ratio, higher bucky factor.

Contrast improvement factor K = contrast w / contrast w/out grid.

There is now virtual grids - reconstruction of radiograph with a virtual grid. Eliminates grid-line artifacts, moire and cutoff.

Reduces scatter, improves image quality, but requires increased dose to compensate based on bucky factor.
7.24: 3D-FT vs 2D-FT

3D acquisitoin:

Excite a volume rather than a thin slice.

Spatial encoding in3d by adding in phase encoding in third dimension.

Fill a 3d K space

Reconstruct by 3d fourier transform.

Because needing lots of data to fill 3d k-space, need very short TR sequences (GE), or faster k-space filling methods.

Signal comes from volume, rather than a slice. If you partition the volume, the partition you get will have a better NSR compared to a thin 2d slice.

Because there are 2 phase encodings, artifacts like wraparound and truncation artifacts can be in 2 directions.

Duration of 3d sequence:

Duration = TR \* NPy \* NPz \* NEX
6.19: Image Quality and Dose - Pixel Size, Slice thickness, mAs, kVp, algorithm and FOV

**Pixel Size**

Pixel size = FOV / matrix size.

Reducing pixel size improves image quality. Decrease FOV or increase matrix.

**Slice Thickness**

Thinner slice will increase proportion noise and dose

Absolutely noise will increase as you combine slices. Averaging 4x 1mm slices into 1x 4mm slice will increase signal 4x and increase noise by squareroot 4.

**mAs**

Increase mAs, decrease noise, increase dose.

**kVp**

Increasing kVp will decrease contrast resolution, and reduce dose.

**Algorithm**

As spatial frequency of filter increases, detail increases. High frequency kernals, like bone kernals have higher spatial resolution.

**FOV**

Inversely related to detail. Smaller FOV, better image quality.

Smaller FOV improves dose.

**Sampling Frequency**

Number of projections.

Spatial resolution of CT - about 20lp/cm
5.10: Doppler Equation and Calculations, Duplex Transducer, Spectral and Power Doppler

F = 2fo(v/c)cos(theta)

v= moving reflector

c = velocity of sound in the medium

Theta = angle between beam and axis of flow

Usual angle of insonation is <60 degree.

**Continuous Wave Doppler**Dedicated device. Doppler effect emitted in audible sound frequency range. Has separate transmit and receive elements.

Cheap, easy, and sensitive. No measurement of velocity or depth, and will insonate everything in beam path.

**Pulsed Wave Doppler**Same elements used for transmit and receive. Pulses emitted. Range gating to accept only echoes from specific depth.

Duplex = doppler overlaying B mode image.

3x types of pulsed wave doppler. Colour, power and spectral.

Colour = sampling volume is set. Larger doppler sampling box needs more doppler pulses, and lowers frame rate.

Power = map amplitude only --> quantity of blood flow. Less dependent on insonation angle, and can pick up low flow rates, and no aliasing.

Spectral doppler = Range of doppler frequencies over time in a sonogram.

Differences in vessel wall resistence makes different sonogram traces, based on the resistive index and pulsatility index.

RI = peak systolic - end diastolic freq / peak systolic

PI = peak sys freq - min freq / time averaged max freq

High resistance vessel will have sharp upstroke and narrow range of velocities.

Low resistence artery will have large range of velocities.

Normal RI = 0.6-0.7. Abnormal RI = 0.8 - 1.0
7.11: Spin Echo Sequence

90 degree RF pulse converts Mz into Mxy, and produces FID.

Followed by 180 RF pulse applied at TE/2 to produce an echo, inducing phase coherence at TE.

There is cancellation of external magnetic field variations. Subsequent 180 RF pulses create amplitudes that reflect intrinsic T2 decay of tissues.

Changing TR and TE can change the contrast dependence towards T1, T2 or PD characteristics of the tissue.

**T1: short TE 10ms and TR 600ms.** Maximizes differences in longitudinal recovery, and minimize T2 decay.

**T2: long TE 120ms and TR 4000ms**: High tissue contrast. As TE gets longer, more T2 weighting, but less Mxy signal, and more image noise. Image processing can compensate for signal so brightness is similar.

**PD short TE 30ms, long TR 4000ms.** Prioritizes # of protons. Highest signal to noise, but relatively low contrast to noise.
Net Report Wiki

**Welcome to the Net Report Wiki!**
ARG by @Net\_Report on Twitter

We're a collaborative community website about Net Report that anyone, including you, can build and expand. Wikis like this one depend on readers getting involved and adding content. Click the "ADD NEW PAGE" or "EDIT" button at the top of any page to get started!

## Important articles

PlaceholderA page about your topicPlaceholderA Main CharacterPlaceholderThe First EpisodePlaceholderAn Important LocationPlaceholderA Key EventPlaceholderA Crucial Item

*Need help building out this community?*

* Rules of this wiki
* Getting Started
* How to Contribute
* Managing your new community
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* All Help articles

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*Community Founders*: Write a good and paragraph-length description for your welcome section about your topic. Let your readers know what your topic is about and add some general information about it. Then you should visit the admin dashboard for more tips.
3.1: Contrast, Spatial Resolution, Temporal Resolution, Noise

**Contrast**

Contrast = (attenuation coefficient 1 - attenuation coefficient 2) x thickness

LAC of subject = Compton LAC + photoelectric effect LAC.

Decreasing kvP, increasing difference in Z (contrast), increasing different in density (barium/gas). Reduce scatter.

Reduce scatter with air gap or anti-scatter grid, collimate, reduce kvp.

**Spatial Resolution**

lp/mm.

MTF measures how well system can represent object spatial frequency.

MTF = 1, same range obtained in image. <1, lower range in image.

MTF = 0, no information in image.

Calcualted from line spread function using fourier transform.

**Temporal Resolution**

**Noise**

Quantum mottle proportional to square root of photons.

Increase mA, reduce proportion of nose.

Thicker image receptor, or image receptor with greater attenuation coefficient - more photons absorbed, turned into signal

Larger detector elements - more photons per pixel, less spatial resolution.

**Unsharpness**

Geometric unsharpness. Size of focal spot creates penumbra on image receptor - as focal spot cannot be a point. Measured as fb/a

f= focal spot, b= distance object to detector, a= distance x-ray to object.

Image receptor unsharpness - detector element lying across border of light and dark area, pixel will be averaged, and blurred.

Movement unsharpness - object moves, edge will be blurred.
5.9: Axial, Lateral and Temporal Resolution

Axial resolution. Minimium required separation is 0.5SPL. Objects closer than that won't be resolved.

SPL = cycles per pulse.

Also depends on wavelength.

Shorter pulses, through dampening, improves axial resolution.

Typically has 3 cycles in an ultrasound pulse.

Lateral Resolution: Beam width = focal length \* wavelength / Diameter of transducer.

Temporal Resolution: Improve it by reduce focal zones, don't use doppler, reduce depth, reduce sector width.

Depends on PRF. Higher frequency, higher temporal resolution.
2.10: Minimizing patient and operator dose

Minimize patient dose

* Collimate
* X-ray beam filter to minimize skin dose
* Increase distance pt from source
* Reduce distance pt from detector
* Remove anti-scatter grid
* Minimize x-ray time
* Minimize acquisition
* Low dose ABC
* Pulsed with minimum pulse rate
* Last image hold or road mapping

Minimize staff dose

* As above
* Distance from patient
* PPE
* Dose monitoring
2.2: Flat Panel vs II

**Image Intensifier**

Input window: (covers face of II), made of low Z metal like Al to minimize attenuation.

Input Phosphor: Photons to light. Sodium activated CSI:Na, deposited on thin Al substrate. 400-500um thick. Each x-ray makes 3000 blue spectrum light photons.

Photocathode: Light to electrons. Antimony caesium SbCS3 allow, sensitive to blue light. Releases 200e per x-ray photon.

Electrons focussed and accelerated across II, inverted and minified 1/10th --> hits output screen

Magnification is achieved with focussing of beam. If smaller input area, output remains constant, results in magnification. Less signal used, so brightness is less, so you need to increase dose to compensate.

Magnification increases dose due to reduced brightness. Improves resolution

Output screen: silver activated zinc cadmium sulphide (ZnCdS:Ag), converts electrons to light.

Output window: II image exits the tube. Need to minimize scatter/halation, by smoked glass, optical coatings, thick glass, fibre-optic bundle.

Image displayed on monitor: CCD sensors.

Light photon absorbed by silicon substrate of CCD. Create electron hole pair, negative electrons accumulate in potential well, stored in storage array.

**Flat Panel**

Same as digital radiography. Direct or indirect.

Most commonly indirect with CsI:Ti x-ray scintillator layer, superimposed on a-Si matrix.

Benefits is smaller equipment, square field (vs circle field in II), better temporal resolution, can zoom in without magnification.
2.4: Pulsed Fluoro - Dose and Image Quality

Continuous fluoro is at 30fps. Quantum noise and motion blurred is averaged.

Temporal averaging helps reduce perceived nose, each individual frame is of higher noise compared to a frame in pulsed fluoro.

Pulsed fluoroscopy - xray generator makes short pulses with on-time smaller than frame time.

Comparing dose of continuous vs pulsed fluoroscopy depends on pulse rate.
7.20: Artefacts in MRI

**HARDWARE ARTEFACTS**

Zipper artifact - spurious RF signals contaminating, looks a bit like TV static. If multiple frequencies of RF, then multiple bands.

RF overflow artifact - non-uniform washed out appearance. Signal is too intense to be digitised. Adjust the receiver gain.

Moire fringes - GRE with a body coil. Lack of perfect homogeneity, aliasing of 1 side of the body to the other causes superposition of signals that interfere. Looks like looking through 2 screen windows.

**SOFTWARE ARTEFACTS**

Cross Talk: Multi-angle, multi-slice. Slices obained at different disk spaces not parallel, they overlap. If levels are acquired at same time, one of the levels will have spins that are already saturated, and results in horizontal band of lost signal crossing image.

Cross Excitation: Imperfect RF pulse, pre-excitation and become partially saturated due to an adjacent slice. Solve with interleaving, or leaving a gap.

**PATIENT ARTEFACTS**

Phase encoded motion artifact: Ghosting in phase encoding direction.

In frequency encoding direction, all samples are acquired in 1 TR. The phase encoding step is the one prone to motion artifact.

**TISSUE ARTEFACTS**

Black boundary - Type 2 chemical shift. GE, selecting a TE where fat and water spins are out of phase. Choose TEs close to 4.5/9/13.6ms.

Magic angle - T1, PD, and GE. Short TE. Tightly bound collage 54.74 degrees from B0 appears hyperintense and can be mistaken for tendinopathy.

In short TE, T2 does not decay enough

Blooming - Paramagnetic substances affect local magnetic milieux. Susceptibility measures extent a substance betcomes magnetized. Most tissues are diamagnetic. Metallic ions in tissues produce paramagnetism.

Magnetic field distortions made by susceptibility artifact results in precessional frequency variations. This results in signal loss from T2\* dephasing, and spatial mismapping of MRI signal.

Susceptibility artifact is worse at high field strength.

Chemical Shift - Fat and air have slightly different resonance frequencies. When frequency encoding, results in mismapping,

Increases with field strength, decreasing gradient strength, narrower the bandwidth.

Dielectric Effect - At 3T, RF field diameter is about 26cm, which may be smaller than the diameter of pts. Interference patterns may emerge, as darkening towards centre of image.

**NYQUIST AND FOURIER ARTEFACTS**

Gibbs Truncation - Lines parallel to abrupt tissue boundary changes. e.g skull brain. An error in fourier transformation of k-space. More encoding steps, less intense the change, and narrower the artifact. Use smoothing filters or increase matrix size.

Zero-Fill - Missing k-space data. Abrupt change from signal to no signal results in shading errors.

Aliasing - FOV smaller than object. In frequency direction, just sample faster. In phase encoding step, will result in longer study.

If FOV and matrix size increase, and NEX is reduced, can keep the imaging time constant.
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6.2: Filtered Back Projection

Original method is backprojection.

Attenuation value is averaged over each pixel. Beam backprojected in x directions. A summed linear attenuation coefficient is obtained for one direction, and is assumed to be spread evenly across the beam path. Repeat for the 2nd direction.

Then the two combine to make a table of calculated LAC.

Too few projections cause artefacts, as there are too few directions of summed LACs to accurately represent the image. Typically 2000 projections are used.

Even then, edges are blurred, which is corrected with filtering.
8.10 Radionuclides and how they're made

Ideal properties

* Short half life for pt safety. Long enough for imaging
* High enough energy gamma rays to reach camera and contribute to image.
* Monoenergetic gamma emitter
* Decays to stable daughter isotope
* Cheap and available.

Cyclotron made : particles accelerated into bombardment chamber

* F18
* G67
* T201

Nuclear Reactor : uranium fission

* Tc99m
* Iodine 131
* Xenon 13

Radionuclide generator : parent nuclide absorbed, and daughter removed via solvent and eluted.

* Tc99m made from Molybdenum99
8.2: Radioactivity and band of stability

Alpha decays if too many nucleons

Beta minus if too many neutrons

Beta plus if too few neutrons or too many protons

Band of stability depicts nuclear stability as a ratio of protons to neutrons.

Lighter stable isotopes have a 1:1 neutron proton ratio, but as mass number increases, that ratio also increases.

Decay is stochastic
5.6: MIP and MinIP

MIP - For each XY coordinate, pixel with highest HU along Z axis is represented. In a single 2d image, all dense structures in a volume is observed.

MinIP - Helps for low density things like GGO, mosaic attenuation, traction bronchiectasis, cystic lung disease. For each XY coordinate, only the lowest HU value along the Z axis is represented.
2.11: Cone Beam CT - Application, image quality, dose vs Fluoroscopy and CT

Cone shaped x-ray beam with 2d detectors, instead of fan beam with 1d detectors.

Volume acquisition with less rotatiosn of x-ray gantry.

Reduces exam time, reduces motion artifact.

Increased scatter.

Can have cone beam artifact.

Used in dental imaging. Some use in breast, liver and lung imaging.

CBCT can be mounted on a C-arm in fluoro, can be used as an adjunct.

**Uses**

HCC Post TACE, confirming arterial localization, and post treatment coverage.

CBCT can confirm tip placement in things like abscess drainage.

CBCT can help visualise stent placement vs DR and DSA.

After coiling of AVMs, CBCT can detect small infarcts.
8.7: PET

Most commonly 18FDG. Undergoes beta+ decay, and the positron annihilates to 511kev photons, at near opposite directions.

Detected by detectors.

A block of scintillation crystals in a circle, and mounted on gantry.

The NaI scintillator crystal in SPECT is not good for PET. The LAC is not enough for the high energy 511kev photons.

**Bismuth Germanate scinatillator used**

or newer things like LSO or GSO.

The 2 detectors must simultaneously detect a gamma photon within 1 nanosecon to generate a coincidence response. Then they can calculate a line of response.

Artefactual coincidence can be made through scatter or random coincidence.
7.1: Concepts: Magnetic Susceptibility, Nuclear Magnetic Moments, Effect of External Magnetic Field, Nuclear Precession, Equilibrium Magnetisation, RF Pulses, Resonance and Larmor Frequency, Free Induction Decay, Chemical Shift Types

**Magnetic Susceptibility**

Internal magnetization of a tissue from interactions with an external magnetic field.

Any metal can distort magnetic field and cause susceptibility artifacts, likely due to accelerated local field inhomogeneities, and changing processional frequency.

**Nuclear Magnetic Moments**

Represents strength and orientation of magnetic dipoles, when added to a magnetic field.

**Effect of External Magnetic Field / equilibrium magnetisation (net magnetization vector)**

Hydrogen atoms when an external magnetic field will align with the field in either parallel or anti-parallel fashion to b0 (spin up/spin down).

Slightly more exist parallel and so there is a slight net magnetization vector.

**Nuclear Precession**

Static gravitational and magnetic field create torque, which cause precession, which occurs at the angular frequency.

Precessional frequency is proportional to the strength of magnetic field and gyromagnetic ratio.

**RF Pulses**

RF pulse at B1 field, causes nuclei in lower state to jump to higher energy state.

Net magnetization spiral away from B0, from longitudinal plane to transverse plane, which can then be detected on MRI.

The angle that the net magnetization vector rotates is the flip angle.

**Resonance**

Rate of precession/wobbling is resonance or larmor frequency.

**Larmor Frequency**

42MHz/T
5.5: Transducers

PZT layer made with lead zirconate titanate.

Damping block - Absorbs backwards US energy and stray US signals. Dampens resonant vibrations, to adjust SPL.

Matching Layer - allows transmission of US from element into tissues, by minimising reflection due to traversing different acoustic impedances. The layers of material have acoustic impedances between soft tissue and transducer material.

Housing - electrical insulation and protection

Electrodes - positive and ground electrodes for electrical connection.

Usually 128-512 PZT elements in linear or curvilinear arrays.

Linear - 5-20MHz

Convex - 2.5-7.5MHz for deeper imaging

Phased array - 2-6MHz for cardiac
6.14: Spatial Resolution

lp/mm

Axial and Z resolution

**Axial Resolution**

1. Focal Spot size (smaller = better res, but limited by anode heating). Fine 0.7mm, broad 1.2mm.
2. Smaller detector size (but more detectors in area leads to more partitioning, and reduces overall efficiency).
3. Increased number of projections
4. Reconstruction kernals (bone kernals have better spatial resolution than soft kernals, but they don't average high spatial frequency, and have more noise.
5. Pixel size = FOV/n. Nyquist limit fmax = 0.5 pixel size. Higher pixel size, lower the max spatial frequency.

**Z Sensitivity**

= effective imaged slice width

Detector slice thickness - wider the detector row, lower the res

Overlapping samples can improve Z sensitivity, pitch <1

Smaller focal spot improves Z.
5.12: Harmonics

Speed of sound higher in compression than in rarefaction.

Leading edge of the wave is deeper, and effect increases the deeper the wave travels. Degrades image at depth.

Fourier transform returning wave --> can get harmonics, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.

2nd order harmonic (2\*fundamental) is used. Higher order, have higher frequency and is attenuated prior to reaching transducer.

To filter out the original fundamental frequency. Can adjust the receiver bandwith to the higher frequency to the 2nd order harmonic (e.g 4MHZ instead of 2MHZ for fundamental). Can use pulse inversion, by sending 2x pulses, inverted, so will cancel the fundamental frequency. The harmonics made by both of these pulses, will be in phase (as source is from tissue) and actually constructively interfere. Can also use power modulation.

Better resolution at deeper structures, and with large body habitus. less reverberation (Better for cystic structures) and side lobe artefact from shallow structures.

Has better edge enhancement.

Not useful in superficial structures. Increases power of USS (safety).
7.8: Spatial, Frequency and Phase Encoding

**Slice selection**

In the Z-axis.

RF pulse of specific frequency to match the larmor frequency at the specific slice wanted.

**Frequency Encoding**

To determine 1 axis in the x-y plane of the slice.

We've already restricted the protons excited to only that on 1 slice.

During readout, we turn on the gradient to one of the axes, as the frequency encoding gradient.

Again a fourier transform can localize along the frequency encoded gradient.

Traditionally, x-axis is frequency encoding direction.

**Phase Encoding**

To localize along the third axis, need to phase encode.

Transiently turn on gradiant along the final axis, and cause a phase shift, and induce dephasing.

Results in protons precessing in same frequency, but different phases.

Aliasing much more common in phase encoding direction. Each phase encoding step takes an entire MR excitation.

Duration of sequence = TR \* Phase encoding steps \* excitations

Phase encoding step is stored as rows on kspace

Frequency encoding step is stored as columns on kspace.

Center of k-space represents contrast.

Periphery of k-space contains resolution.
5.6: A, B and M Mode

Amplitude Mode -

Echoes return from tissue boundaries, creates signal proportional to amplitude over 1 A-line of data.

Depth equates to round-trip time.

1D

Typically 100 or more A lines for B mode image.

Brightness mode - electronic conversion of A mode and A-line information into brightness dots. 2D

Motion Mode - Selects a beam direction, and displays echoes from moving object. 1D
6.8: Single vs Multi-detector

Multiple rows of detectors.

Certain rows can be selected to change slice thickness.

Faster scanning d/t wider total active detector width. Thinner slices. Simultaneous acquision of multiple slices.

Linear Array: All detectors are same width.

Adaptive array: Central detector rows are thinnest.

Hybrid array: Detectors same width, but central group of detector rows are narrower than outer rows. Main type for 16-slice scanners and above.

Pitch in MDCT.

Instead of couch travel per rotation / width of xray beam,

pitch in MDCT is couch travel per rotation / width of simultaneously acquired slices.
7.28: Partial Saturation

Partial saturation occurs based on TR selected for the pulse sequence.

Different from saturation: where you try to void signal from tissue.

The ernst angle, at angles higher, would lose signal. This is partial saturation.

The Ernst angle is where you can flip the net magnetisation vector that allows for full recovery of the longitudinal magnetization prior to the next TR. Higher angles than this, will not allow for full recovery.

if not fully recovered that longitudinal magnetisation, when it gets flipped into the transverse plane by the next RF pulse, you won't get full signal. Eventually you will reach a steady state after a few RF pulses, and when this steady state is reached, the tissue is partially saturated.
8.6: SUV

In PET imaging.

Ratio of tissue radioactivity concentration at a point in time at a specific region of interest vs dose of radioactivity per pt weight

SUV = time points / (dose MBq / weight kG)

SUV influenced by BGL, image noise, resolution.

Infectious and inflammatory conditions can demonstrate hypermetabolism. Main cutoff for malignancy is 2-2.5

Sensitivity and specificity decrease with lesions <7mm.
5:24: Aliasing in Pulsed Doppler

The nyquist limit defines the frequency, where aliasing will occur.

= 0.5 PRF

Higher frequency transducers, angle of insonation, velocity of target, depth will affect.

Reduce aliasing:

Reduce transducer frequency.

Change baseline, or increase velocity scale.

Use continuous or power doppler.

Change doppler angle - will reduce amount of doppler shift, but higher angle will reduce accuracy.
4.5: Construction and Operation of digital X-ray Mammography

Components of mammography machine:

Angle anode: anode heel effect, aligns cathode to chest wall, and anode of nipple end.

Filter assembly

Filter collimator

Compression paddle

Anti-scatter grid: moving grid. In magnification views, air gap reduces scatter, so can remove grid.

Digital Detector

AEC behind the detector in screen film. In digital mammo, the detectors act as the AEC.
7.11: Chemical Shift

Local environments of fat and water atoms differ.

Hydrogen in water is less shielded compared to fat.

Separate magnetic field made by electron orbiting hydrogen atom. Opposes the external magnetic field. Is minor, but changes the processional frequency.

Electron shielding in hydrogen slightly reduces the local magnetic field, and adjusts the larmor frequency.

Chemical shift is about 3.5ppm.

Based on strength of magnetic field. 3.5hz per MHz.

Increase bandwidth of frequency encoding gradiant (but will worsen signal to noise ratio = 1/sqrt bandwith)

Reduce the field strength, reducing absolute chemical shift.

Change matrix size.

There is also type 2 chemical shift artifact, exclusive to GRE. India ink / black line / phase cancellation artifact. Looks like outline of organ by black line. Due to destructive interference of signals within boundary pixels.

Due to a phase cancellation effect. Spin echoes, due to the 180deg RF pulse, won't have this artifact.

It is also not limited to the frequency encoding direction.

Water and fat, with the lack of a 180 refocussing pulse, will not come back to phase coherence at the center of the echo. In GRE, they go out of phase with function of TE. At 1.5T, they alternate around 4.4msec.

Because fat and water are out of phase, they cancel, producing net zero magntiude, and a null signal void.
5.16: US Contrast Agents

Microbubbles of fluorocarbon, nitrogen gas or sulfur in a phospholipid membrane.

Oscillate when exposed, compressed and expand in compression and rarefaction.

The compression is greater than expansion, which creates a non-linear response. Increases ultrasound backscatter and vascular contrast.

SonoVue is non specific. Sonazoid is taken by up liver cells.

Can be depleted by overscanning.

Can flash them out by a single pulse of high MI.
6.26: Radiation Dose Features Unique to CT Scanning Techniques

**Dose Related Terminology**

Absorbed Dose - energy deposited in tissue per unit mass - mgy

Equivalent Dose - absorbed dose adjusted for radiation weighting factor

Effective Dose - equivalent dose adjusted for tissue weighting factor

CTDI - mgy - Dose to phantom from single gantry rotation

CTDIw - mgy - adjusting for spatial variation in dose = 1/3CTDIcentre + 2/3CTDIperiph

CTDIvol - mgy - adjusting for pitch, concentration of dose along patient = CTDIw/pitch

DLP - mgy.cm^2 - adjust for length scanned = CTDIvol \*distance scanned

**Reducing Radiation Dose - CT Features**

mA

Rotation time

Pitch

kvp