Lhóss

Lhóss is spoken in Lhóssok, in the southeastern lands. Currently there is only one dialect, but with recent expansions, new ways of speaking should arise

**Phonology and Romanization**

Consonants

Vowels

 CLOSE
 CLOSE MID
 OPEN MID
 OPEN

Romanization

-Light consonants are normal (t) (l)

-Soft consonants are palatalized (ty) (ly)

* *p, b* are always soft

-Dark consonants are labialized and/or velarized (th) (lh)

* Some are always labio-velarized, some are just labialized, fewer are only velarized
* *ph, bh, th, dh, nh, mh, llh, lh* are labio-velarized *syllable initial* and  just velarized *syllable end* (or end of words)
* *vh, fh, kh, gh, gch, cch, þh, ðh* are only ever labialized
* *rh* is always velarized

- ‘**nj**’ acts like a soft ‘**n**’ and ‘**ss**’ acts like a dark ‘**sh**’

- **‘c’, ‘j’, ‘ch’, ‘jh’**

* ‘ch’ acts like a soft ‘c’
* ‘jh’ acts like a soft ‘j’

- **‘gc’, ‘cc’, ‘ll’, ‘w’, ‘rr’** are always light

- **‘p’, ‘b’, ‘f’, ‘v’** are soft and can be dark, never light

- **‘þ’, ‘ð’, ‘s’** are light and can be soft, never dark

- **‘ø’, ‘a’, ‘u’**, **‘i’, ‘e’, ‘o’**are always short

- **‘oe’, ‘ae’, ‘ú’, ‘í’, ‘ó’** are always long

-Diphthongs are always long

- stressed syllables have a long vowel

-Diphthongs are always long, but this is may or may not be related to stress

-Stress (kinda boring)

* First syllable for 1 and 2 syllable words
	+ troa [ troɑ ]
	+ soto [ so.t̪ʰo ]
* Second syllable for 3 or 4 syllable words or 2 syllable words with a long vowel in the second syllable. This all words, with or without affixes, not just roots/stems
	+ troavhéiauwb [ t̪roɑ.ˈvʷeɪ:.ɑuwbʲ ]
	+ okbean [ okʰ.ˈbʲɛɑ:n̪ ]

**Morphology and Syntax**

-Basic word order is VOS

* VSO is acceptable and used often. Verbs typically go first… OVS isn’t too common and SVO is not common at all

-**Nouns (and ADJ)**

* There are 12 cases;
	+ Nominitive (subject/agent)
	+ Accusative (direct object)
	+ Dative (indirect object)
	+ Genitive (possession)
	+ (Comitive) (along/together with)
	+ Instrumental (by means of instrument)
	+ Locative (located at)
	+ Causative (for the purpose of)
	+ Translative (turns into)
	+ Vocative (being addressed)
	+ Ablative (movement away from)
	+ Elative (movement towards from)'
* Nouns are inflected for case, plurality (SG, DU, PL), respect/honorific
	+ Noun classes decide what case ending the noun receives
	+ singular, 1; dual, 2; plural, 3 or more
	+ plurality is marked on case endings and definite markers
* Nouns are also split into different noun classes based on semantic meaning
	+ *Class I [CI]:* Royalty, Warriors, Priests, Scholars, Deities, Ancestors, Dead People, Spirits
	+ *Class II [CII] :* All other peoples
	+ *Class III [CIII]:* Casteless, Slaves, Animals (animals that are not spirits)
	+ *Class IV [CIV]:* Tools, Instruments, Weapons, Modes of Transport
	+ *Class V [CV]:* Everything Else
* Adjectives are inflected for case and number as well, using the same case markers as the ones used on nouns
* NP order is: **noun + definite marker/demonstrative + numeral + adjective(s)**
	+ Adjectives are ordered for emphasis

*definite markers;* (vh)an *SG,* en *DU,* un *PL... goes after the noun* ; *this/that;* wélh *SG,* syov *DU,* ghir *PL*

*definite markers;* (vh)an *SG,* en *DU,* un *PL... goes after the noun* ; *this/that;* wélh *SG,* syov *DU,* ghir *PL*

*definite markers;* aty *SG,* ety *DU,* iuty *PL... goes after the noun* ; *this/that;* soelh *SG,* jov *DU,* wir *PL*

*definite markers;* aty *SG,* ety *DU,* iuty *PL... goes after the noun* ; *this/that;* soelh *SG,* jov *DU,* wir *PL*

*definite markers;* (vh)ón *SG, o*en *DU, iun PL... goes after the noun* ; *this/that;* soelh *SG,* jov *DU,* wir *PL*

-**Pronouns**

* Personal pronouns have forms for all cases
* They are separated between singular, dual, and plural
	+ Dual 1st person -- ‘we two’
	+ Dual 2nd -- ‘you two’
	+ Dual 3rd -- ‘them two’
	+ Plural implies three or more
* Possessive and reflexive pronouns... add these suffixes onto the personal ones
	+ possessive: -(ðh)ok
	+ reflexive:
* Vocative case is used in certain grammatical constructions
	+ It is used instead of the NOM case sometimes for speakers in higher castes, especially the Emperor

-**Verbs**

* Verbs are inflected for person, number, tense(/aspect), and mood
	+ Mythical/Historical past, Past, Present, Future
	+ Perfective, “unsuccessful” perfective, imperfective (ongoing, repeated, habitual, incomplete actions)
	+ Conditional, subjunctive, imperative, optative
	+ Suffix order is **negative + passive + directional+ (incomplete) + root + im/perfective**
* Verbs have aux verbs that show evidentiality, modality, and how the speaker (or others) feel about the event (often paired with conditional and subjunctive)
	+ Evidentials
	+ Modals:
		- Aux word used right after the verb it modifies. Implied to be the opinion/ability/want... of the speaker of the action
		- Used to convey something about the action/event based on…
			* **Obligation:** Somewhat equal to ‘must’. This shows that the event is required to happen, whether or not the agent wants to do the action. This implies that the agent is bound to do the action by law, morals, religion, promises, work, or prophecy. If NEG is used on the verb, the agent does not have to do the action and is not bound to perform it
			* **Desire:** Somewhat equal to ‘want/need’. This shows that the event is not required but is desirable. Another equality could be ‘wishes to’ -- this is different from the POT mood ‘hope/wish’ suffix, they cannot be used in the same word. The Desire suffix is used for actions/events *that will happen* (ex, I want you to bring me food), not ones where the agent wishes it would happen, then POT is used (I wish you would bring me food). The line can be blurry on whether to use this  If NEG is used, then the event is not desired
			* **Recommended:** Somewhat equal to ‘ought to’. This shows that the event is recommended to occur, typically implying that the event should be done. This is different from obligation because the thing performing the action is not obligated to do it
			* **Ability:** Mostly equal to ‘can’. This shows the agent’s ability to do the action. If the agent is unsure whether they can perform the action, POT mood ‘could’ will be used instead. If NEG is used, the agent is not able to do the action/event
			* **Permissive:** Mostly equal to ‘let/allow’. This shows that the agent is allowed to perform the event. They are not required to do the event, but their ability to perform the event is not hindered. NEG shows that the event is not allowed to happen
			* **Necessity:** Somewhat like ‘need’. This shows that the event needs to happen, somewhat similar to obligation. However, this requirement is not bound by anything and can be used with general statements (ex. We need to buy more sugar) while using obligation with this example would imply that they were bound to perform that action. NEG shows that the action does not need to happen
			* **Naturality:** No English equivalent, ‘according to law’. This shows that the action happening is ‘natural’ based on known natural law, legal law, cultural law, and prophecy. The action is bound to ‘naturality’, similar to how obligation is bound. The event is implied to happen. It is used in specific situations (ex. The water rises (according to law);... ex. The problem will be fixed (naturally/according to law)). NEG shows that the action is ‘not according to law’, or ‘unnatural’ (ex. The water rises unnaturally/not according to law; ex. The problem will be fixed unnaturally... could be implying witchcraft or something impossible to happen, as well)
	+ Feelings/Opinions:

**-Verbs of motion** (VoM) *require* a directional prefix

Present tense is always imperfective. Perfective is implied to be a successfully completed action

 Historical Past
 Future

Paired with perfective conjugations. Implies that the action is complete, but was not successfully completed i.e. the action was not completed as intended. EX: I chased the dog -- if this sentences used an incomplete marker, it implies that you chased the dog, but did not catch it, or you unsuccessfully chased the dog

Implied to be ongoing, repeated, habitual, or not yet complete actions

Honorific conjugations -- these are used when speaking with someone of a higher caste or status than themselves

 obligation (must/required)
 desire (want/need)
 recommended (ought)
 ability (able to)
 permissive (allow)
 necessity (something needed)
 "according to law"/ "naturally"

Aux used right after the main verb

 visual
 inferential
 hearsay

Aux also used after the main verb

**Some Sentence Examples**

*I hunt in the forest*

**Cchellkr-as  skyoa-nyew  ón  íð**

/xʷɛɬ.kr:ɑs  skʲoɑ.ɲɛw  ɔ:n̪  i:ð/

hunt-1SG.IMPV  forest-LOC.CV.SG   DEF.CV.SG   1SG.NOM

*We (two) killed them two in the forest with spears (perfective)*

**Klladhr-øsh gheagc-aer  rroitr  skyoa-nyew  ón  (wit)**

/kɬɑ.d̪ʷr:øʃ  gʷɛɑɣ.æ:r:  ʀɔi.t̪r:  skʲoɑ.ɲɛw  ɔ:n̪  wɪt̪ʰ/

kill-1DU.PRFV  spear-INST.CIV.DU   3DU.ACC    forest-LOC.CV.SG  DEF.CV.SG   1DU.NOM

*The man, who lives in the forest, ate meat and fruit with his wife*

**Ír-aeky rroil-eush ae soto-(ny)eush okbean-alh íshítok fhearr-∅ an, ó bhúwur-ak  skyoa-(ny)ew ón.**

/i:r:.æ:kʲ  ʀ:ɔi.lʲɛuʃ  æ:  so.t̪ʰo.ɲɛuʃ  okʰ.bʲɛɑ.n̪ɑɫʷ  i:ʃ.i:t̪ʰ.okʰ  fʷɛɑʀ:  ɑn̪  ɔ:  bʷˠʉ.wur:.ɑkʰ  skʲoɑ.ɲɛw  ɔ:n̪/

eat-3SG.PRFV.PST   meat-ACC.CV.PL   and  fruit-ACC.CV.PL   wife-COM.CII.SG   3SG.COM-POSS   man-∅   DEF.CI.SG   REL.S   live.at-3SG.IMPV   forest-LOC.CV.SG   DEF.CV.SG

*I (unsuccessfully/not complete) killed the man with my spear*

**Syí-klladhr-aesy gheagc-ar wéi-ðhok-ar fhearru (vh)an.**

/sʲi:.kɬɑdˠ.r:æ:sʲ  gʷɛɑɣ.æ:r:  wei:.ðʷo.kʰɑr:  fʷɛɑ.ʀ:u  vʷɑn̪/

INCO-kill-1SG.PRFV    spear-INST.CIV.SG    1SG.INST-POSS-INST.CIV.SG   man-ACC.CI.SG    DEF.CI.SG

*There is a big fat ugly snake in my pretty new boots*

**Bryoagc-iaw lhamy-ok nyúry-iaw bryeany-iaw nyaeþ dyeuw ccoll mhór**

/bʲrʲ:oɑɣ.iɑw  ɫʷɑmʲ.okʰ  ɲʉrˠ:.iɑw  bʲrʲeɑ.ɲiɑw  ɲæ:θ  d̪ʲɛuw  xoɬ  mʷˠɔ:r:/

boot-LOC.C5.DU  1SG.LOC-POSS  new.LOC.C5.DU  pretty.LOC.C5/DU   snake          fat         ugly     big

*My mother used to tell (to) me the story (about) referring to Greater Black Bear every night--before I slept*

**Ryaeskr-aikh lér ryaesk-uss ón pryécc vhorraeþghoi-(sy)a (vh)an úilhaow aþya íðok rroimh kyócyr-aic**

/ʀ:æ:skʰ.r:ɑikʷ   lʲe:r:   rʲæs.kʰuʂ   ɔ:n̪   prʲe:x   vʷo.ˈʀ:æ:θ.gʷɔɪ.sʲɑ   ɑn̪   ʉɪ:.ɫʷɑow    ɑθʲɑ   i:ð.okʰ   ʀ:ɔɪmˠ   kʲɔ:c.r:ɑiç/

tell.a.story-3SG.IMPV.PST   1SG.DAT   story-ACC.CV.SG  DEF.CV.SG  referring.to  greater.black.bear-DAT.CI.SG  DEF.CI.SG   all.days

*The house was built (passive)*

**Ðye-thóglaer-aeky tyúgc ón**

/ ðʲɛ.ˈtʷˠɔ:.glʲæ:r:.æ:kʲ   tʲʉ:ɣ  ɔ:n̪ /

PASS-build-3SG.PRFV.PST    house-∅    DEF.CV.SG

*Hello (honor.greeting) sir! I heard that you built this house*

**Ccaty úrra þyéi! Thóglaer-euty bót tyúgc-uss soelh þyu**

/ xɑt̪ʲ  ʉ:ʀ:ɑ   θʲeɪ:  -  tʷˠɔ:.glʲæ:r.ɛutʲ   bʲɔ:t̪ʰ   tʲʉ:.ɣuʂ  sœ:ɫ   θʲu /

power   honorable  2SG.VOC   build-2SG.PRFV.PST.HON   hearsay   house-ACC.CV.SG   this.CV.SG   2SG.NOM