Njinzo

## Phonology and Phonotactics

As the Teńku nation expands, a dialect continuum emerges. The phonemic inventory, phonotactics, and stress below are representative to the dialect of Njinzo /ˈnʒi.nzo/ spoken in Unbamo Uńdako. For information on other dialects, see the Njinzo Dialects page.

### Phonemic Inventory

 **Stop** | p, b
 **Fricative** | f, v
 **Approximant** | w

* /r/ is realized as [ɾ] in unstressed syllables and before a syllable that begins with another /r/

 **Mid** | e
 **Open** |  | a

 **Low** | i̯a ⟨ia⟩

### Phonotactics

Syllable Structure : (N)(C)V(V)

* C = all consonants
* V = all vowels
* N = nasals

Even when a word with two syllables has a consonant cluster in the middle of the word, the nasal is still pronounced as part of the onset of the second syllable. Codas are forbidden.

Besides the specified diphthongs, vowels are not allowed to cluster. Instead, an epenthetic /l/ is inserted between the vowels. Long vowels are not distinguished from short vowels.

### Stress

Word stress is predictable in Njinzo. If the penultimate syllable contains a consonant cluster in the onset, then stress falls on that syllable. Otherwise, stress falls on the ultimate syllable. When a word has three or more syllables, then there will be secondary stress two syllables before the primary stress, if applicable. In Njinzo, a stressed syllable is louder in volume and longer in duration.

## Morphology

### Nouns

##### Noun Class and Number

There are eight different noun classes, and each is marked with a different prefix. Root words may not occur without a class prefix, although alternate class prefixes can be added to root words in order to create new words. Noun number is shown through reduplicated forms of the class prefixes. Below is one of the more common declensions of the noun class prefixes:

 2
 3
 4 | **Body Part/Family** | ńie
 5
 6
 7
 8

##### Noun Possession

Noun possession is marked by pronominal suffixes attached to the possessed noun. If the possessor is not a subject pronoun, then it is placed before the possessed noun and a pronominal suffix that matches the class of the possessor is added to the possessee.

 **2nd** | m-/be-
 **3rd Animate (1-2)** | ńde-
 **3rd Inan. (6-8)** | la-

### Pronouns

Njinzo has personal, demonstrative, and interrogative pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as determiners with zero derivation.

 **2nd** | mpe
 **3rd Animate (1-2, 4)** | ńdia
 **3rd Inanimate (6-8)** | ndo

The 3rd animate subject pronouns are only used for class 4 nouns if they refer to family members.

The 3rd lesser and 3rd inanimate subject pronouns can be used with liquid class nouns depending on context and the general animacy of the object the noun describes. For example, speakers tend to use *nfuo* for the noun *ureyeli* "river," but they will use *ndo* for *rielua* "puddle."

 **Distal** | ruo

 Which X
 Which one
 **How** | ǵongo

"Which" is a prefix to the noun in question. The "which" prefix can also be used as "some" if the statement is not a question.

### Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs act similarly in Njinzo. They come before the word they modify.

Adjectives come from verbs, and they must agree in number and class with the noun they modify. Monosyllabic verbs take Group II class prefixes, bisyllabic verbs take Group I class prefixes, and polysyllabic verbs take Group 3 class prefixes. Adverbs do not agree in number or class with the word they modify.

For adjectival comparisons, a regular copular construction is made, and then a locative phrase follows.

msýbie msenkeńke nǵo egi lalulo

C5-tree C5-grow.PRFV person LOC 3.LES-be.PRFV

The tree is taller than the person. (lit. The tree is tall to the person.)

### Numerals

Njinzo uses a base-24 number system.

\*Children often use this form to help learn counting.

### Verbs

Besides a few auxiliaries, Njinzo verbs are highly analytical. They cannot receive any types of marking. However, each verb has a perfective and imperfective form. The imperfective form is the stem while the perfective form comes from an old reduplication strategy.

#### Auxiliaries

There are a few common auxiliary verbs that can encode tense or mood. The columns below refer to the aspect of the main verb.

 **udia** | imperfect
 **lonjoda** | past habitual
 **ñebe** | distant future/optative

Unlike other verbs, auxiliaries are permitted to take marking for polypersonal agreement. Below is a chart of all possible person marker combinations in Njinzo:

#### Negation

Negation is shown through a negating adverb. It may precede the main verb or the auxiliary.

nziý mǵo ńdeñebe cera

C2-baby not 3S.AN-FUT/OPT sleep.IMPF

The baby *won't/doesn't want* to sleep.

nziý ńdeñebe mǵo cera

C2-baby 3S.AN-FUT/OPT not sleep.IMPF

The baby won't/doesn't want to *sleep*. (But it may (want to) do something else.)

#### Nominalisation

Verbs can be nominalised using the same construction as they do for becoming adjectives (see Adjectives and Adjerbs).

If the nominalised verb has a perfective stem, then it refers to a general concept or a finished action. If it has an imperfective stem, then it will refer to an action in progress. If a the nominalised verb has the collective class prefix, then it may be used as a gerund.

## Syntax

### Sentences

#### Word Order:

Njinzo has SOV word order. Auxiliaries precede the main verb, and indirect objects follow the direct objects.

#### Copular Constructions:

Copular constructions use the verb luo. The copula is the only verb that does not require an auxiliary in the present tenses. Phrases of the pattern "noun is adjective" only mark the copula for the subject, not the object.

tenda tenkeńke ńdeluo

C2-man C2-grown 3S.AN-be.IMPF

The man is tall.

tenda msýbie egi

C2-man C5-tree LOC

The man is at the tree.

### Noun Phrases

#### Postpositions

Postpositions come after the noun they modify describing that noun.

#### Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are formed by putting a phrase before the noun the modify. A placeholder pronoun nu-C?-ǵo fills the place where the modified noun would go in the phrase. The placeholder pronoun must agree in number and class with the modified noun, so the appropriate class prefix fills the C? slot.

### Coordination

Most coordination in Njinzo uses conjunction words. However, in order to say "X and Y," where X and Y are nouns, the instrumental postposition must be used. The auxiliary agrees with the number and class of the noun that is not followed by the instrumental postposition.

nceba ceńieńǵi oye celuo kogý

1S 1S.POS-C4-brother INS 1S-PRS run

My brother and I run (lit. I run with my brother)

### Questions

#### Yes/No Questions

Yes/no questions are asked by placing the question particle at the beginning of a sentence. There are two question markers one used for non-past questions and the other for past questions.

 Past

The the question markers can also be used to create "if... then..." statements. The applicable question marker heads the if phrase, and the word *ńxy* "so" heads the then phrase.

The past

#### WH-Questions

Njinzo uses interrogative pronouns to form WH-questions. These pronouns go in the same place as corresponding nouns in indicative statements. When, why, and how are most often treated as indirect objects. WH-questions do not use the question markers. What and who are marked as indefinite pronouns for verb agreement.

njada ńo ńjanudia mi

3P.AN what 3P.AN-IDF-PST do.IMPF

What were they doing?

njada ruo kono ńjamudia mi

3P.AN that why 3P.AN-3,INAN-PST do.IMPF

Why were they doing that?

## Semantics

### People

#### Formality

Men and children must refer to women with the title "ńiembe" and then their first name. Only high ranking men are referred to as “ńienda” and their first name. Men and women do not generally have to use titles with members of the same sex unless they are clearly outranked. Chieftesses are referred to with the title “riýmbe,” and the head chief is solely called Ncimvambe despite any name she may have previously had. Additionally, names are put in the plural form to address someone formally.