Egyptian Vulture

## Background Information

### Alternate Name(s)

Canarian Egyptian vulture, Eastern Egyptian vulture, Western Egyptian vulture, White-scavenger vulture, Pharaoh's chicken, Shit-hawk, Shawk

## Classification

### Subspecies

N. p. ginginianus
N. p. majorensis
N. p. percnopterus

The Egyptian vulture ***(Neophron percnopterus)*** also known as the Canarian Egyptian vulture, is a species of Old World vulture native to Africa, Europe and Asia. The Egyptian vulture is almost fully-feathered, with the exception of their legs, feet and face. The plumage is a pale brown or off-white colour and the flight feathers are dark brown or black. The bare skin on the vulture's face is yellow and transitions to an orange colour during breeding season. The Egyptian vulture's un-feathered face stops food matter from sticking to plumage when scavenging and is also thought to regulate body temperature. The average mass of the Egyptian vulture is 1.9-2.4kg (4.8-5.2lbs), while the average length is 58-70cm (22.8-27.5in) and the wingspan is 1.2-1.7m (3.9-5.5ft). Egyptian vultures do not differ in appearance based on sex however, the females are usually greater in mass comparatively to their male counterparts.

## Diet

Egyptian vultures are mostly scavengers, most often opportunistically consuming carrion however, they also hunt small mammals, other bird species including nestlings, reptiles, crustaceans, insects and snails. Similarly to the black-breasted buzzard ***(Hamirostra melanosternon)***, the Egyptian vulture has been known to frequently break open the eggs of other birds via the use of rocks and stones. They are also known to eat the nutritionally dense feces of larger species as a means of maintaining facial colouration, important during the breeding season. Egyptian vultures find meals based on vision and survey immense areas of land by soaring through the skies. If other Egyptian vultures are apparent, they will soar lower to the ground or nest in trees before feeding upon the carrion.

## Conservation Status

Egyptian vultures are classed as an endangered species by the IUCN and face a variety of threats. The European subspecies -***(N. p. percnopterus)***- faces many human-caused threats, such as electrocution via powerline, collision of wind turbines, primary of secondary poisoning, lead poisoning via bullets left in carcasses and reduced food ability as a result of habitat degradation. Juvenile vultures suffer a higher mortality rate in mainland populations comparatively to island populations. Intentional poisonings seem to be particularly threatening to breeding grounds in Spanish populations. In 2002, the European Union enforced regulations relating to the disposal of animal carcasses from slaughterhouses including the closure of traditional Spanish and Portuguese "muladares" which substantially decreased food availability for the species. Declines in the African populations can be linked to food availability declines due to the eradication or absence of ungulate species, overgrazing by livestock and improvements in slaughterhouse conditions and sanitation, which leave less carrion available to individuals. The Cape Verdean population has suffered a massive population crash due to the use of toxic pesticides and though they have been made illegal in recent times, they are still readily available for purchase and use. Urbanisation and habitat degradation reduce food availability and the continued poisoning of stray dogs also increases mortality. Similar sanitation regulations to those on the African mainland also decreases food availability. In areas where transhumance occurs, imbalance in food availability throughout the year is common and so reduction in food abundance and quality may detriment vulture populations. This has been remedied by regulations regarding the allowance of the maintenance and operations of scavenger-feeding stations where transhumance occurs. In Oman the closure of 300 small rubbish dumps may possibly decrease food availability however, similar closures in Türkiye did not pose a threat to the species, suggesting that food availability does not impact breeding capabilities. As poisoning is an apparent threat to the species, concerns have arose over the inclusion of antibiotics in livestock and whether they increase nestling mortality. Contributing to poisoning fatalities among vultures; diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used on livestock, has led to the fatal poisonings of owl, crane, stork and raptor species suggesting Egyptian vultures are also susceptible to the toxin. The drug is also readily available for purchase in many African and European countries where it has been exported from veterinary sources and legalised respectively. In India, population crashes in the subspecies -***(N. p. ginginianus)***- may be possible as this toxin has already gravely affected the griffon vulture ***(Gyps fulvus)*** in the area. Death by electrocution was recorded in 17 individuals in just the span of 10 days in 2010 in Port Sudan, Sudan. The frequency of these fatalities in this span may represent an underlying issue, as death by electrocution is also common in Spain and the Canary Islands where in the latter it affects the subspecies; ***(N. p. majorensis)***.

## Range and Population

The Egyptian vulture is endemic to north, central and southwest Africa, the Middle East, central Asia and the Indian subcontinent as well as the Balkans, France, Spain and Italy. Isolated populations also inhabit Cape Verde, Socotra and the Canary Islands. They occur throughout arid environments such as deserts, shrublands, grasslands and mountainous areas. They enjoy open areas like savannas and may even chose to inhabit areas close to humans in order to acquire waste meals. Egyptian vultures travel between resident and breeding areas however, are not considered fully-migratory. The Egyptian vulture population is thought to be between 12,400-36,000 mature individuals, with 18,000-54,000 individuals estimated in total.

## Behaviour

The behavioural characteristics of the Egyptian vulture varies between populations and depending on food availability. In most circumstances vultures are solitary or travel in pairs however, they may also feed in areas with an abundance of other carnivorous species and other juvenile vultures. In these large groups, feeding hierarchies are apparent and Egyptian vultures will only begin eating after larger griffon vultures have finished. When courting, the male Egyptian vulture will perform swooping displays and lock talons with the female in the air. As a monogamous species, Egyptian vultures will form life-long pairs and will migrate together during the breeding season. The pair will form a large nest in a tree which will be constructed from hair, rags or fur and will be maintained throughout the season. Egg laying occurs from March-May and female vultures have been known to incubate the eggs alone for multiple days before the male begins to alternate with her. Both will also defend the territory in which the nest resides. Most often two eggs are produced and take 39-45 days to hatch. Nestlings will typically take 71-85 days to hatch however, due to long gaps in laying and hatching times, one chick may be more developed than the other at this time. Nestlings are covered in greyish-brown plumage and possess dark green bare faces. Much of the time, a parent vulture will simply give its young a full or partial carcass however, smaller nestlings may require food to be pulled apart or regurgitated by an adult. Post fledging, juvenile vultures will continue to surround their home range, only becoming independent following migration away from breeding range.

### Relationship with Humans

Egyptian vultures are commonly considered a pest species throughout their range and are so purposefully poisoned by humans. In the past, the Egyptian vulture was considered sacred to Isis and Mut of ancient Egyptian religions and also appeared as a hieroglyph as a symbol of royalty. In southern India, one pair of vultures were also well-respected, being ceremonially fed rice, wheat, ghee and sugar by the temple priests of Tirukalukundram, who attributed the absence of the birds as the work of sinners amongst onlookers. British sportsmen stationed in British-India referred to the vultures as "shit-hawks" or "shawks", both derogatory terms to describe scavenging birds of prey. They were coined under this label for being considered the ugliest of birds as well as eating feces.

## In Captivity

Egyptian vultures are incredibly common in zoos, being housed in over 60 zoos across Europe, Asia and North America.

## Sources

* IUCN Red List of Threatened Species - https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22695180/205187871
* Egyptian Vulture | Wikipedia - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian\_vulture
* Egyptian Vulture | Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology - https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Neophron\_percnopterus/
* Egyptian Vulture | Vulture Conservation Foundation (VCF) - https://4vultures.org/vultures/egyptian-vulture/
* Eastern Egyptian Vulture | ZOOINSTITUTES - https://zooinstitutes.com/animals/eastern-egyptian-vulture-1122/