Yale University

"Yale" redirects here. For other uses, see Yale (disambiguation).
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**Yale University** is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony as the Collegiate School, the University is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States. The school was renamed Yale College in 1718 in recognition of a gift from Elihu Yale, who was governor of the British East India Company. Established to train Congregationalist ministers in theology and sacred languages, by 1777 the school's curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences. In the 19th century the school incorporated graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph.D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887.

Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools: the original undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, and twelve professional schools. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each school's faculty oversees its curriculum and degree programs. In addition to a central campus in downtown New Haven, the University owns athletic facilities in western New Haven, including the Yale Bowl, a campus in West Haven, Connecticut, and forest and nature preserves throughout New England. The university's assets include an endowment valued at $25.6 billion as of September 2015, the second largest of any educational institution.The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States.

Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach undergraduate courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I Ivy League.

Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U.S. Presidents, 19 U.S. Supreme Court Justices, 13 living billionaires, and many foreign heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress and many high-level U.S. diplomats, including former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and current Secretary of State John Kerry. 52 Nobel laureates, 230 Rhodes Scholars, and 118 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University.

## History

 File:Charter for Collegiate School later Yale College 1701.jpg
 File:A Front View of Yale College and the College Chapel New Haven printed by Daniel Bowen.jpg
### Early history of Yale College

#### Origins

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Yale traces its beginnings to "An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School," passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9, 1701, while meeting in New Haven. The Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers: Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, James Noyes, James Pierpont, Abraham Pierson, Noadiah Russell, Joseph Webb and Timothy Woodbridge, all alumni of Harvard, met in the study of Reverend Samuel Russell in Branford, Connecticut, to pool their books to form the school's library. The group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as "The Founders".**Script error: No such module "Unsubst".**

Originally known as the "Collegiate School," the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, in Killingworth (now Clinton). The school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut.

 File:Yale College diploma Nathaniel Chauncey 1702.jpg
Meanwhile, there was a rift forming at Harvard between its sixth president Increase Mather and the rest of the Harvard clergy, whom Mather viewed as increasingly liberal, ecclesiastically lax, and overly broad in Church polity. The feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not.

In 1718, at the behest of either Rector Samuel Andrew or the colony's Governor Gurdon Saltonstall, Cotton Mather contacted a successful businessman named Elihu Yale, who lived in Wales but had been born in Boston and whose father, David, had been one of the original settlers in New Haven, to ask him for financial help in constructing a new building for the college. Through the persuasion of Jeremiah Dummer, Yale, who had made a fortune through trade while living in Madras as a representative of the East India Company, donated nine bales of goods, which were sold for more than £560, a substantial sum at the time. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College. Meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and theology. It had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Locke's works and developed his original theology known as the "new divinity." In 1722 the Rector and six of his friends, who had a study group to discuss the new ideas, announced that they had given up Calvinism, become Arminians, and joined the Church of England. They were ordained in England and returned to the colonies as missionaries for the Anglican faith. Thomas Clapp became president in 1745, and struggled to return the college to Calvinist orthodoxy; but he did not close the library. Other students found Deist books in the library.

 File:A View of the Buildings of Yale College at New Haven 1807.jpg
#### Curriculum

Yale was swept up by the great intellectual movements of the period—the Great Awakening and the Enlightenment—due to the religious and scientific interests of presidents Thomas Clap and Ezra Stiles. They were both instrumental in developing the scientific curriculum at Yale, while dealing with wars, student tumults, graffiti, "irrelevance" of curricula, desperate need for endowment, and fights with the Connecticut legislature.

Serious American students of theology and divinity, particularly in New England, regarded Hebrew as a classical language, along with Greek and Latin, and essential for study of the Old Testament in the original words. The Reverend Ezra Stiles, president of the College from 1778 to 1795, brought with him his interest in the Hebrew language as a vehicle for studying ancient Biblical texts in their original language (as was common in other schools), requiring all freshmen to study Hebrew (in contrast to Harvard, where only upperclassmen were required to study the language) and is responsible for the Hebrew phrase אורים ותמים (Urim and Thummim) on the Yale seal. Stiles' greatest challenge occurred in July 1779 when hostile British forces occupied New Haven and threatened to raze the College. However, Yale graduate Edmund Fanning, Secretary to the British General in command of the occupation, interceded and the College was saved. Fanning later was granted an honorary degree LL.D., at 1803, for his efforts.

 File:Woolsey Hall Memorial Hall University Dining Hall Yale University.jpg
#### Students

As the only college in Connecticut, Yale educated the sons of the elite. Offenses for which students were punished included cardplaying, tavern-going, destruction of college property, and acts of disobedience to college authorities. During the period, Harvard was distinctive for the stability and maturity of its tutor corps, while Yale had youth and zeal on its side.

The emphasis on classics gave rise to a number of private student societies, open only by invitation, which arose primarily as forums for discussions of modern scholarship, literature and politics. The first such organizations were debating societies: Crotonia in 1738, Linonia in 1753, and Brothers in Unity in 1768.

### 19th century

 File:Yale Fence men sitting and leaning on it facing Chapel Street New Haven.jpg
The Yale Report of 1828 was a dogmatic defense of the Latin and Greek curriculum against critics who wanted more courses in modern languages, mathematics, and science. Unlike higher education in Europe, there was no national curriculum for colleges and universities in the United States. In the competition for students and financial support, college leaders strove to keep current with demands for innovation. At the same time, they realized that a significant portion of their students and prospective students demanded a classical background. The Yale report meant the classics would not be abandoned. All institutions experimented with changes in the curriculum, often resulting in a dual track. In the decentralized environment of higher education in the United States, balancing change with tradition was a common challenge because no one could afford to be completely modern or completely classical. A group of professors at Yale and New Haven Congregationalist ministers articulated a conservative response to the changes brought about by the Victorian culture. They concentrated on developing a whole man possessed of religious values sufficiently strong to resist temptations from within, yet flexible enough to adjust to the 'isms' (professionalism, materialism, individualism, and consumerism) tempting him from without.
William Graham Sumner, professor from 1872 to 1909, taught in the emerging disciplines of economics and sociology to overflowing classrooms. He bested President Noah Porter, who disliked social science and wanted Yale to lock into its traditions of classical education. Porter objected to Sumner's use of a textbook by Herbert Spencer that espoused agnostic materialism because it might harm students.

Until 1887, the legal name of the university was "The President and Fellows of Yale College, in New Haven." In 1887, under an act passed by the Connecticut General Assembly, Yale gained its current, and shorter, name of "Yale University."

#### Sports and debate

The Revolutionary War soldier Nathan Hale (Yale 1773) was the prototype of the Yale ideal in the early 19th century: a manly yet aristocratic scholar, equally well-versed in knowledge and sports, and a patriot who "regretted" that he "had but one life to lose" for his country. Western painter Frederic Remington (Yale 1900) was an artist whose heroes gloried in combat and tests of strength in the Wild West. The fictional, turn-of-the-20th-century Yale man Frank Merriwell embodied the heroic ideal without racial prejudice, and his fictional successor Frank Stover in the novel *Stover at Yale* (1911) questioned the business mentality that had become prevalent at the school. Increasingly the students turned to athletic stars as their heroes, especially since winning the big game became the goal of the student body, and the alumni, as well as the team itself.

Along with Harvard and Princeton, Yale students rejected elite British concepts about 'amateurism' in sports and constructed athletic programs that were uniquely American, such as football. The Harvard–Yale football rivalry began in 1875.

 File:Yale's four-oared crew team with 1876 Centennial Regatta trophy.jpg
Between 1892, when Harvard and Yale met in one of the first intercollegiate debates, and 1909, the year of the first Triangular Debate of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, the rhetoric, symbolism, and metaphors used in athletics were used to frame these early debates. Debates were covered on front pages of college newspapers and emphasized in yearbooks, and team members even received the equivalent of athletic letters for their jackets. There even were rallies sending off the debating teams to matches. Yet, the debates never attained the broad appeal that athletics enjoyed. One reason may be that debates do not have a clear winner, as is the case in sports, and that scoring is subjective. In addition, with late 19th-century concerns about the impact of modern life on the human body, athletics offered hope that neither the individual nor the society was coming apart.

In 1909–10, football faced a crisis resulting from the failure of the previous reforms of 1905–06 to solve the problem of serious injuries. There was a mood of alarm and mistrust, and, while the crisis was developing, the presidents of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton developed a project to reform the sport and forestall possible radical changes forced by government upon the sport. President Arthur Hadley of Yale, A. Lawrence Lowell of Harvard, and Woodrow Wilson of Princeton worked to develop moderate changes to reduce injuries. Their attempts, however, were reduced by rebellion against the rules committee and formation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association. The big three had tried to operate independently of the majority, but changes did reduce injuries.

#### Expansion

 File:View of Connecticut Hall Old Campus Yale College New Haven Connecticut.jpg
Yale expanded gradually, establishing the Yale School of Medicine (1810), Yale Divinity School (1822), Yale Law School (1843), Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (1847), the Sheffield Scientific School (1847), and the Yale School of Fine Arts (1869). In 1887, as the college continued to grow under the presidency of Timothy Dwight V, Yale College was renamed Yale University. The university would later add the Yale School of Music (1894), the Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies (founded by Gifford Pinchot in 1901), the Yale School of Public Health (1915), the Yale School of Nursing (1923), the Yale School of Drama (1955), the Yale Physician Associate Program (1973), and the Yale School of Management (1976). It would also reorganize its relationship with the Sheffield Scientific School.

Expansion caused controversy about Yale's new roles. Noah Porter, moral philosopher, was president from 1871 to 1886. During an age of tremendous expansion in higher education, Porter resisted the rise of the new research university, claiming that an eager embrace of its ideals would corrupt undergraduate education. Many of Porter's contemporaries criticized his administration, and historians since have disparaged his leadership. Levesque argues Porter was not a simple-minded reactionary, uncritically committed to tradition, but a principled and selective conservative. He did not endorse everything old or reject everything new; rather, he sought to apply long-established ethical and pedagogical principles to a rapidly changing culture. He may have misunderstood some of the challenges of his time, but he correctly anticipated the enduring tensions that have accompanied the emergence and growth of the modern university.

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### 20th century

#### Behavioral sciences

Between 1925 and 1940, philanthropic foundations, especially ones connected with the Rockefellers, contributed about $7 million to support the Yale Institute of Human Relations and the affiliated Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology. The money went toward behavioral science research, which was supported by foundation officers who aimed to "improve mankind" under an informal, loosely defined human engineering effort. The behavioral scientists at Yale, led by President James R. Angell and psychobiologist Robert M. Yerkes, tapped into foundation largesse by crafting research programs aimed to investigate, then suggest, ways to control, sexual and social behavior. For example, Yerkes analyzed chimpanzee sexual behavior in hopes of illuminating the evolutionary underpinnings of human development and providing information that could ameliorate dysfunction. Ultimately, the behavioral-science results disappointed foundation officers, who shifted their human-engineering funds toward biological sciences.

#### Biology

Slack (2003) compares three groups that conducted biological research at Yale during overlapping periods between 1910 and 1970. Yale proved important as a site for this research. The leaders of these groups were Ross Granville Harrison, Grace E. Pickford, and G. Evelyn Hutchinson, and their members included both graduate students and more experienced scientists. All produced innovative research, including the opening of new subfields in embryology, endocrinology, and ecology, respectively, over a long period of time. Harrison's group is shown to have been a classic research school; Pickford's and Hutchinson's were not. Pickford's group was successful in spite of her lack of departmental or institutional position or power. Hutchinson and his graduate and postgraduate students were extremely productive, but in diverse areas of ecology rather than one focused area of research or the use of one set of research tools. Hutchinson's example shows that new models for research groups are needed, especially for those that include extensive field research.

#### Medicine

Milton Winternitz led the Yale Medical School as its dean from 1920 to 1935. Dedicated to the new scientific medicine established in Germany, he was equally fervent about "social medicine" and the study of humans in their culture and environment. He established the "Yale System" of teaching, with few lectures and fewer exams, and strengthened the full-time faculty system; he also created the graduate-level Yale School of Nursing and the Psychiatry Department, and built numerous new buildings. Progress toward his plans for an Institute of Human Relations, envisioned as a refuge where social scientists would collaborate with biological scientists in a holistic study of humankind, unfortunately lasted for only a few years before the opposition of resentful anti-Semitic colleagues drove him to resign.

#### Faculty

Before World War II, most elite university faculties counted among their numbers few, if any, Jews, blacks, women, or other minorities; Yale was no exception. By 1980, this condition had been altered dramatically, as numerous members of those groups held faculty positions.

#### History and American studies

The American studies program reflected the worldwide anti-Communist ideological struggle. Norman Holmes Pearson, who worked for the Office of Strategic Studies in London during World War II, returned to Yale and headed the new American studies program, in which scholarship quickly became an instrument of promoting liberty. Popular among undergraduates, the program sought to instruct them in the fundamentals of American civilization and thereby instill a sense of nationalism and national purpose. Also during the 1940s and 1950s, Wyoming millionaire William Robertson Coe made large contributions to the American studies programs at Yale University and at the University of Wyoming. Coe was concerned to celebrate the 'values' of the Western United States in order to meet the "threat of communism."

#### Women

Women studied at Yale University as early as 1892, in graduate-level programs at the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.

In 1966, Yale began discussions with its sister school Vassar College about merging to foster coeducation at the undergraduate level. Vassar, then all-female and part of the Seven Sisters—elite higher education schools that historically served as sister institutions to the Ivy League when the Ivy League still only admitted men—tentatively accepted, but then declined the invitation. Both schools introduced coeducation independently in 1969. Amy Solomon was the first woman to register as a Yale undergraduate; she was also the first woman at Yale to join an undergraduate society, St. Anthony Hall. The undergraduate class of 1973 was the first class to have women starting from freshman year; at the time, all undergraduate women were housed in Vanderbilt Hall at the south end of Old Campus.**Script error: No such module "Unsubst".**

A decade into co-education, rampant student assault and harassment by faculty became the impetus for the trailblazing lawsuit Alexander v. Yale. While unsuccessful in the courts, the legal reasoning behind the case changed the landscape of sex discrimination law and resulted in the establishment of Yale's Grievance Board and the Yale Women's Center. In March 2011 a Title IX complaint was filed against Yale by students and recent graduates, including editors of Yale's feminist magazine Broad Recognition, alleging that the university had a hostile sexual climate. In response, the university formed a Title IX steering committee to address complaints of sexual misconduct.

#### Class

Yale, like other Ivy League schools, instituted policies in the early 20th century designed to maintain the proportion of white Protestants of notable families in the student body (see *numerus clausus*), and was one of the last of the Ivies to eliminate such preferences, beginning with the class of 1970.

#### Town-gown relations

Yale has a complicated relationship with its home city; for example, thousands of students volunteer every year in a myriad of community organizations, but city officials, who decry Yale's exemption from local property taxes, have long pressed the university to do more to help. Under President Levin, Yale has financially supported many of New Haven's efforts to reinvigorate the city. Evidence suggests that the town and gown relationships are mutually beneficial. Still, the economic power of the university increased dramatically with its financial success amid a decline in the local economy.

### 21st century

In 2006, Yale and Peking University (PKU) established a Joint Undergraduate Program in Beijing, an exchange program allowing Yale students to spend a semester living and studying with PKU honor students. In July 2012, the Peking University-Yale University Program ended due to weak participation.

In 2007 outgoing Yale President Rick Levin characterized Yale's institutional priorities: "First, among the nation's finest research universities, Yale is distinctively committed to excellence in undergraduate education. Second, in our graduate and professional schools, as well as in Yale College, we are committed to the education of leaders."

President George W. Bush, a Yale alumnus, criticized the university for the snobbery and intellectual arrogance he encountered as a student there.

The *Boston Globe* wrote that "if there's one school that can lay claim to educating the nation's top national leaders over the past three decades, it's Yale." Yale alumni were represented on the Democratic or Republican ticket in every U.S. Presidential election between 1972 and 2004. Yale-educated Presidents since the end of the Vietnam War include Gerald Ford, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush, and major-party nominees during this period include John Kerry (2004), Joseph Lieberman (Vice President, 2000), and Sargent Shriver (Vice President, 1972). Other Yale alumni who made serious bids for the Presidency during this period include Hillary Clinton (2008), Howard Dean (2004), Gary Hart (1984 and 1988), Paul Tsongas (1992), Pat Robertson (1988) and Jerry Brown (1976, 1980, 1992).

Several explanations have been offered for Yale’s representation in national elections since the end of the Vietnam War. Various sources note the spirit of campus activism that has existed at Yale since the 1960s, and the intellectual influence of Reverend William Sloane Coffin on many of the future candidates. Yale President Richard Levin attributes the run to Yale’s focus on creating "a laboratory for future leaders," an institutional priority that began during the tenure of Yale Presidents Alfred Whitney Griswold and Kingman Brewster. Richard H. Brodhead, former dean of Yale College and now president of Duke University, stated: "We do give very significant attention to orientation to the community in our admissions, and there is a very strong tradition of volunteerism at Yale." Yale historian Gaddis Smith notes "an ethos of organized activity" at Yale during the 20th century that led John Kerry to lead the Yale Political Union's Liberal Party, George Pataki the Conservative Party, and Joseph Lieberman to manage the *Yale Daily News*. Camille Paglia points to a history of networking and elitism: "It has to do with a web of friendships and affiliations built up in school." CNN suggests that George W. Bush benefited from preferential admissions policies for the "son and grandson of alumni", and for a "member of a politically influential family." *New York Times* correspondent Elisabeth Bumiller and *The Atlantic Monthly* correspondent James Fallows credit the culture of community and cooperation that exists between students, faculty, and administration, which downplays self-interest and reinforces commitment to others.

During the 1988 presidential election, George H. W. Bush (Yale '48) derided Michael Dukakis for having "foreign-policy views born in Harvard Yard's boutique". When challenged on the distinction between Dukakis's Harvard connection and his own Yale background, he said that, unlike Harvard, Yale's reputation was "so diffuse, there isn't a symbol, I don't think, in the Yale situation, any symbolism in it" and said Yale did not share Harvard's reputation for "liberalism and elitism". In 2004 Howard Dean stated, "In some ways, I consider myself separate from the other three (Yale) candidates of 2004. Yale changed so much between the class of '68 and the class of '71. My class was the first class to have women in it; it was the first class to have a significant effort to recruit African Americans. It was an extraordinary time, and in that span of time is the change of an entire generation".

In 2009, former British Prime Minister Tony Blair picked Yale as one location – the others are Britain's Durham University and Universiti Teknologi Mara – for the Tony Blair Faith Foundation's United States Faith and Globalization Initiative. As of 2009, former Mexican President Ernesto Zedillo is the director of the Yale Center for the Study of Globalization and teaches an undergraduate seminar, "Debating Globalization". As of 2009, former presidential candidate and DNC chair Howard Dean teaches a residential college seminar, "Understanding Politics and Politicians." Also in 2009, an alliance was formed among Yale, University College London, and both schools’ affiliated hospital complexes to conduct research focused on the direct improvement of patient care—a growing field known as translational medicine. President Richard Levin noted that Yale has hundreds of other partnerships across the world, but "no existing collaboration matches the scale of the new partnership with UCL".

New international Yale initiatives launched included (among many others):

* Jackson Institute for Global Affairs, promoting international education University-wide;
* Global Health Initiative, uniting and expanding global health efforts across campus;
* Yale India Initiative, expanding the study of and engagement with India;
* Yale Center for the Study of Globalization, bridging the gap between academia and the world of public policy; and
* Yale China Law Center, promoting the rule of law in China.
* Yale - Management Guild
* New global research and educational partnerships included (among many others):
* Yale-Universidad de Chile International Program in Astronomy Education and Research;
* Peking-Yale Joint Center for Plant Molecular Genetics and Agrobiology;
* Todai–Yale Initiative for the Study of Japan;
* Fudan-Yale Biomedical Research Center in Shanghai;
* Yale-University College London Collaboration; and
* UNSAAC-Yale Center for the Study of Machu Picchu and Inca Culture in Peru.

The most ambitious international partnership to date is Yale-NUS College in Singapore, a joint effort with the National University of Singapore to create a new liberal arts college in Asia featuring an innovative curriculum that weaves Western and Asian traditions, set to open in August 2013.

## Administration and organization

### Leadership

The President and Fellows of Yale College, also known as the Yale Corporation, is the governing board of the University.

Yale's former president Richard C. Levin was, at the time, one of the highest paid university presidents in the United States with a 2008 salary of $1.5 million.

The Yale Provost's Office has launched several women into prominent university presidencies. In 1977 Hanna Holborn Gray was appointed acting President of Yale from this position, and went on to become President of the University of Chicago, the first woman to be full president of a major university. In 1994 Yale Provost Judith Rodin became the first female president of an Ivy League institution at the University of Pennsylvania. In 2002 Provost Alison Richard became the Vice Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. In 2004, Provost Susan Hockfield became the President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 2007 Deputy Provost Kim Bottomly was named President of Wellesley College. In 2003, the Dean of the Divinity School, Rebecca Chopp, was appointed president of Colgate University and now heads Swarthmore College.

The university has three major academic components: Yale College (the undergraduate program), the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, and the professional schools. In 2008 Provost Andrew Hamilton was confirmed to be the Vice Chancellor of the University of Oxford. Former Dean of Yale College Richard H. Brodhead serves as the President of Duke University.

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### Staff and labor unions

*Main article: Federation of Hospital and University Employees*
Much of Yale University's staff, including most maintenance staff, dining hall employees, and administrative staff, are unionized. Clerical and technical employees are represented by Local 34 of UNITE HERE and service and maintenance workers by Local 35 of the same international. Together with the Graduate Employees and Students Organization (GESO), an unrecognized union of graduate employees, Locals 34 and 35 make up the Federation of Hospital and University Employees. Also included in FHUE are the dietary workers at Yale-New Haven Hospital, who are members of 1199 SEIU. In addition to these unions, officers of the Yale University Police Department are members of the Yale Police Benevolent Association, which affiliated in 2005 with the Connecticut Organization for Public Safety Employees. Finally, Yale security officers voted to join the International Union of Security, Police and Fire Professionals of America in fall 2010 after the National Labor Relations Board ruled they could not join AFSCME; the Yale administration contested the election.

Yale has a history of difficult and prolonged labor negotiations, often culminating in strikes. There have been at least eight strikes since 1968, and *The New York Times* wrote that Yale has a reputation as having the worst record of labor tension of any university in the U.S. Yale's unusually large endowment exacerbates the tension over wages. Moreover, Yale has been accused of failing to treat workers with respect. In a 2003 strike, however, the university claimed that more union employees were working than striking. Professor David Graeber was 'retired' after he came to the defense of a student who was involved in campus labor issues.

## Campus

 File:Yale Law School in the Sterling Law Building.jpg
Yale's central campus in downtown New Haven covers 260 acres (1.1 km2) and comprises its main, historic campus and a medical campus adjacent to the Yale-New Haven Hospital. In western New Haven, the university holds 500 acres (2.0 km2) of athletic facilities, including the Yale Golf Course. In 2008, Yale purchased the 136-acre (0.55 km2) former Bayer Pharmaceutical campus in West Haven, Connecticut, the buildings of which are now used as laboratory and research space. Yale also owns seven forests in Connecticut, Vermont, and New Hampshire—the largest of which is the 7,840-acre (31.7 km2) Yale-Myers Forest in Connecticut's Quiet Corner—and nature preserves including Horse Island.

Yale is noted for its largely Collegiate Gothic campus as well as for several iconic modern buildings commonly discussed in architectural history survey courses: Louis Kahn's Yale Art Gallery and Center for British Art, Eero Saarinen's Ingalls Rink and Ezra Stiles and Morse Colleges, and Paul Rudolph's Art & Architecture Building. Yale also owns and has restored many noteworthy 19th-century mansions along Hillhouse Avenue, which was considered the most beautiful street in America by Charles Dickens when he visited the United States in the 1840s. In 2011, Travel+Leisure listed the Yale campus as one of the most beautiful in the United States.

Many of Yale's buildings were constructed in the Collegiate Gothic architecture style from 1917 to 1931, financed largely by Edward S. Harkness Stone sculpture built into the walls of the buildings portray contemporary college personalities such as a writer, an athlete, a tea-drinking socialite, and a student who has fallen asleep while reading. Similarly, the decorative friezes on the buildings depict contemporary scenes such as policemen chasing a robber and arresting a prostitute (on the wall of the Law School), or a student relaxing with a mug of beer and a cigarette. The architect, James Gamble Rogers, faux-aged these buildings by splashing the walls with acid, deliberately breaking their leaded glass windows and repairing them in the style of the Middle Ages, and creating niches for decorative statuary but leaving them empty to simulate loss or theft over the ages. In fact, the buildings merely simulate Middle Ages architecture, for though they appear to be constructed of solid stone blocks in the authentic manner, most actually have steel framing as was commonly used in 1930. One exception is Harkness Tower, 216 feet (66 m) tall, which was originally a free-standing stone structure. It was reinforced in 1964 to allow the installation of the Yale Memorial Carillon.

 File:Vanderbilt Hall at Yale university.jpg
Other examples of the Gothic (also called neo-Gothic and collegiate Gothic) style are on Old Campus by such architects as Henry Austin, Charles C. Haight and Russell Sturgis. Several are associated with members of the Vanderbilt family, including Vanderbilt Hall, Phelps Hall, St. Anthony Hall (a commission for member Frederick William Vanderbilt), the Mason, Sloane and Osborn laboratories, dormitories for the Sheffield Scientific School (the engineering and sciences school at Yale until 1956) and elements of Silliman College, the largest residential college.

 File:NathanHaleStatue.jpg
The oldest building on campus, Connecticut Hall (built in 1750), is in the Georgian style. Georgian-style buildings erected from 1929 to 1933 include Timothy Dwight College, Pierson College, and Davenport College, except the latter's east, York Street façade, which was constructed in the Gothic style so as to co-ordinate with adjacent structures.

The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, designed by Gordon Bunshaft of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, is one of the largest buildings in the world reserved exclusively for the preservation of rare books and manuscripts. It is located near the center of the University in Hewitt Quadrangle, which is now more commonly referred to as "Beinecke Plaza".

The library's six-story above-ground tower of book stacks is surrounded by a windowless rectangular building with walls made of translucent Vermont marble, which transmit subdued lighting to the interior and provide protection from direct light, while glowing from within after dark.

 File:BeineckeInterior.jpg
The sculptures in the sunken courtyard by Isamu Noguchi are said to represent time (the pyramid), the sun (the circle), and chance (the cube).

Alumnus Eero Saarinen, Finnish-American architect of such notable structures as the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Washington Dulles International Airport main terminal, Bell Labs Holmdel Complex and the CBS Building in Manhattan, designed Ingalls Rink at Yale and the newest residential colleges of Ezra Stiles and Morse. These latter were modelled after the medieval Italian hilltown of San Gimignano – a prototype chosen for the town's pedestrian-friendly milieu and fortress-like stone towers. These tower forms at Yale act in counterpoint to the college's many Gothic spires and Georgian cupolas.

Yale's Office of Sustainability develops and implements sustainability practices at Yale. Yale is committed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions 10% below 1990 levels by the year 2020. As part of this commitment, the university allocates renewable energy credits to offset some of the energy used by residential colleges. Eleven campus buildings are candidates for LEED design and certification. Yale Sustainable Food Project initiated the introduction of local, organic vegetables, fruits, and beef to all residential college dining halls. Yale was listed as a Campus Sustainability Leader on the Sustainable Endowments Institute’s College Sustainability Report Card 2008, and received a "B+" grade overall.

* Grove Street Cemetery, New Haven
* Marsh Botanical Garden
* Yale Sustainable Food Program Farm

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### Notable nonresidential campus buildings

Notable nonresidential campus buildings and landmarks include Battell Chapel, Beinecke Rare Book Library, Harkness Tower, Ingalls Rink, Kline Biology Tower, Osborne Memorial Laboratories, Payne Whitney Gymnasium, Peabody Museum of Natural History, Sterling Hall of Medicine, Sterling Law Buildings, Sterling Memorial Library, Woolsey Hall, Yale Center for British Art, Yale University Art Gallery, and Yale Art & Architecture Building.

Yale's secret society buildings (some of which are called "tombs") were built both to be private yet unmistakable. A diversity of architectural styles is represented: Berzelius, Donn Barber in an austere cube with classical detailing (erected in 1908 or 1910); Book and Snake, Louis R. Metcalfe in a Greek Ionic style (erected in 1901); Elihu, architect unknown but built in a Colonial style (constructed on an early 17th-century foundation although the building is from the 18th century); Mace and Chain, in a late colonial, early Victorian style (built in 1823). Interior moulding is said to have belonged to Benedict Arnold; Manuscript Society, King Lui-Wu with Dan Kniley responsible for landscaping and Josef Albers for the brickwork intaglio mural. Building constructed in a mid-century modern style; Scroll and Key, Richard Morris Hunt in a Moorish- or Islamic-inspired Beaux-Arts style (erected 1869–70); Skull and Bones, possibly Alexander Jackson Davis or Henry Austin in an Egypto-Doric style utilizing Brownstone (in 1856 the first wing was completed, in 1903 the second wing, 1911 the Neo-Gothic towers in rear garden were completed); St. Elmo, (former tomb) Kenneth M. Murchison, 1912, designs inspired by Elizabethan manor. Current location, brick colonial; and Wolf's Head, Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue (erected 1923-4).

Starr Reading Room east.jpgThe Starr Reading Room in Sterling LibraryYale Harkness Tower.JPGHarkness TowerYale-library-counter.jpgThe Library Circulation DeskDwight Chapel vertical.JPGMemorial Chapel on Yale's Old CampusYale School of Management Evans Hall front.JPGThe Yale School of ManagementYale Art and Architecture Building, October 20, 2008.jpgYale School of ArchitectureKroon Hall exterior - 1.jpgYale School of Forestry & Environmental StudiesOld Campus, Yale University (2).jpgConnecticut HallYale Peabody Museum 2.JPGYale Peabody MuseumYale-Harvard-Game.jpgThe Yale Bowl
### Campus safety

Several campus safety strategies have been pioneered at Yale. The first campus police force was founded at Yale in 1894, when the university contracted city police officers to exclusively cover the campus. Later hired by the university, the officers were originally brought in to quell unrest between students and city residents and curb destructive student behavior. In addition to the Yale Police Department, a variety of safety services are available including blue phones, a safety escort, and 24-hour shuttle service.

In the 1970s and 1980s, poverty and violent crime rose in New Haven, dampening Yale's student and faculty recruiting efforts. Between 1990 and 2006, New Haven's crime rate fell by half, helped by a community policing strategy by the New Haven Police and Yale's campus became the safest among the Ivy League and other peer schools. Nonetheless, across the board, the city of New Haven has retained the highest levels of crime of any Ivy League city for more than a decade.

In 2004, the national non-profit watchdog group Security on Campus filed a complaint with the U.S. Department of Education, accusing Yale of under-reporting rape and sexual assaults.

## Academics

### Admissions

 File:Sterling Memorial Library 2, September 1, 2008.jpg
Undergraduate admission to Yale College is considered "most selective" by *U.S. News*. In 2014, Yale accepted 1,935 students to the Class of 2018 out of 30,932 applicants, for an acceptance rate of 6.3%. 98% of students graduate within six years.

Through its program of need-based financial aid, Yale commits to meet the full demonstrated financial need of all applicants. Most financial aid is in the form of grants and scholarships that do not need to be paid back to the university, and the average need-based aid grant for the Class of 2017 was $46,395. 15% of Yale College students are expected to have no parental contribution, and about 50% receive some form of financial aid. About 16% of the Class of 2013 had some form of student loan debt at graduation, with an average debt of $13,000 among borrowers.

Half of all Yale undergraduates are women, more than 39% are ethnic minority U.S. citizens (19% are underrepresented minorities), and 10.5% are international students. Fifty-five percent attended public schools and 45% attended private, religious, or international schools, and 97% of students were in the top 10% of their high school class. Every year, Yale College also admits a small group of non-traditional students through the Eli Whitney Students Program.

### Collections

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Yale University Library, which holds over 15 million volumes, is the third-largest university collection in the United States. The main library, Sterling Memorial Library, contains about 4 million volumes, and other holdings are dispersed at subject libraries.

Rare books are found in several Yale collections. The Beinecke Rare Book Library has a large collection of rare books and manuscripts. The Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library includes important historical medical texts, including an impressive collection of rare books, as well as historical medical instruments. The Lewis Walpole Library contains the largest collection of 18th‑century British literary works. The Elizabethan Club, technically a private organization, makes its Elizabethan folios and first editions available to qualified researchers through Yale.

Yale's museum collections are also of international stature. The Yale University Art Gallery, the country's first university-affiliated art museum, contains more than 180,000 works, including Old Masters and important collections of modern art, in the Swartout and Kahn buildings. The latter, Louis Kahn's first large-scale American work (1953), was renovated and reopened in December 2006. The Yale Center for British Art, the largest collection of British art outside of the UK, grew from a gift of Paul Mellon and is housed in another Kahn-designed building.

The Peabody Museum of Natural History in New Haven is used by school children and contains research collections in anthropology, archaeology, and the natural environment. The Yale University Collection of Musical Instruments, affiliated with the Yale School of Music, is perhaps the least-known of Yale's collections, because its hours of opening are restricted.

The museums also house the artifacts brought to the United States from Peru by Yale history professor Hiram Bingham in his expedition to Machu Picchu in 1912 – when the removal of such artifacts was legal. Peru would now like to have the items returned; Yale has so far declined. In November 2010, a Yale University representative agreed to return the artifacts to a Peruvian university.

### University rankings

Template:Infobox US university ranking

The *U.S. News & World Report* ranked Yale third among U.S. national universities for 2016, as it has for each of the past sixteen years, in every list trailing only Princeton and Harvard. It was ranked 15th in the 2015/16 QS World University Rankings and 12th in the 2015 Times Higher Education World University Rankings. The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed Yale at 11th in the world in 2015.

### Faculty, research, and intellectual traditions

The college is, after normalization for institution size, the tenth-largest baccalaureate source of doctoral degree recipients in the United States, and the largest such source within the Ivy League.

Yale's English and Comparative Literature departments were part of the New Criticism movement. Of the New Critics, Robert Penn Warren, W.K. Wimsatt, and Cleanth Brooks were all Yale faculty. Later, the Yale Comparative literature department became a center of American deconstruction. Jacques Derrida, the father of deconstruction, taught at the Department of Comparative Literature from the late seventies to mid-1980s. Several other Yale faculty members were also associated with deconstruction, forming the so-called "Yale School". These included Paul de Man who taught in the Departments of Comparative Literature and French, J. Hillis Miller, Geoffrey Hartman (both taught in the Departments of English and Comparative Literature), and Harold Bloom (English), whose theoretical position was always somewhat specific, and who ultimately took a very different path from the rest of this group. Yale's history department has also originated important intellectual trends. Historians C. Vann Woodward and David Brion Davis are credited with beginning in the 1960s and 1970s an important stream of southern historians; likewise, David Montgomery, a labor historian, advised many of the current generation of labor historians in the country. Yale's Music School and Department fostered the growth of Music Theory in the latter half of the 20th century. The *Journal of Music Theory* was founded there in 1957; Allen Forte and David Lewin were influential teachers and scholars.

Since summer 2010, Yale has also been host to Yale Publishing Course.

## Campus life

Yale is a medium-sized research university, most of whose students are in the graduate and professional schools. Undergraduates, or Yale College students, come from a variety of ethnic, national, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Of the 2010–2011 freshman class, 10% are non‑U.S. citizens, while 54% went to public high schools.

### Residential colleges

*Main article: Residential colleges of Yale University*
Yale's residential college system was established in 1933 by Edward S. Harkness, who admired the social intimacy of Oxford and Cambridge and donated significant funds to found similar colleges at Yale and Harvard. Though Yale's colleges resemble their English precursors organizationally and architecturally, they are dependent entities of Yale College and have limited autonomy. The colleges are led by a master and an academic dean, who reside in the college, and university faculty and affiliates comprise each college's fellowship. Colleges offer their own seminars, social events, and speaking engagements known as "Master's Teas," but do not contain programs of study or academic departments. Instead, all undergraduate courses are taught by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences and are open to members of any college.

All undergraduates are members of a college, to which they are assigned before their freshman year, and 85 percent live in the college quadrangle or a college-affiliated dormitory. While the majority of upperclassman live in the colleges, most on-campus freshmen live on the Old Campus, the university's oldest precinct.

While Harkness' original colleges were Georgian Revival or Collegiate Gothic in style, two colleges constructed in the 1960s, Morse and Ezra Stiles Colleges, have modernist designs. All twelve college quadrangles are organized around a courtyard, and each has a dining hall, courtyard, library, common room, and a range of student facilities. The twelve colleges are named for important alumni or significant places in university history. In 2017, the university expects to open two new colleges near Science Hill.

Berkeley College (South) at Yale.jpgBerkeley College buildingsBranford Court spring 2.JPGBranford College courtyardDport.jpgDavenport College courtyardMainCourtyardTrumbull.jpgTrumbull College courtyard
### Student organizations

In 2014, Yale had 385 registered student organizations, plus an additional one hundred groups in the process of registration.

The university hosts a variety of student journals, magazines, and newspapers. Established in 1872, *The Yale Record* is the world's oldest humor magazine. Newspapers include the *Yale Daily News*, which was first published in 1878, and the weekly *Yale Herald*, which was first published in 1986. Dwight Hall, an independent, non-profit community service organization, oversees more than 2,000 Yale undergraduates working on more than 70 community service initiatives in New Haven. The Yale College Council runs several agencies that oversee campus wide activities and student services. The Yale Dramatic Association and Bulldog Productions cater to the theater and film communities, respectively. In addition, the Yale Drama Coalition serves to coordinate between and provide resources for the various Sudler Fund sponsored theater productions which run each weekend. WYBC Yale Radio is the campus's radio station, owned and operated by students. While students used to broadcast on AM & FM frequencies, they now have an Internet-only stream.

The Yale College Council (YCC) serves as the campus's undergraduate student government. All registered student organizations are regulated and funded by a subsidiary organization of the YCC, known as the Undergraduate Organizations Committee (UOC). The Graduate and Professional Student Senate (GPSS) serves as Yale's graduate and professional student government.

The Yale Political Union is advised by alumni political leaders such as John Kerry and George Pataki. The Yale International Relations Association functions as the umbrella organization for the top-ranked Model UN team.

The campus includes several fraternities and sororities. The campus features at least 18 a cappella groups, the most famous of which is The Whiffenpoofs, who are unusual among college singing groups in being made up solely of senior men.

Yale's secret societies include Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, Wolf's Head, Book and Snake, Elihu, Berzelius, St. Elmo, Manuscript, and Mace and Chain. The two oldest existing honor societies are the Aurelian (1910) and the Torch Honor Society (1916).

The Elizabethan Club, a social club, has a membership of undergraduates, graduates, faculty and staff with literary or artistic interests. Membership is by invitation. Members and their guests may enter the "Lizzie's" premises for conversation and tea. The club owns first editions of a Shakespeare Folio, several Shakespeare Quartos, a first edition of Milton's *Paradise Lost*, among other important literary texts.

### Traditions

Yale seniors at graduation smash clay pipes underfoot to symbolize passage from their "bright college years," though in recent history the pipes have been replaced with "bubble pipes". ("Bright College Years," the University's alma mater, was penned in 1881 by Henry Durand, Class of 1881, to the tune of *Die Wacht am Rhein*.) Yale's student tour guides tell visitors that students consider it good luck to rub the toe of the statue of Theodore Dwight Woolsey on Old Campus. Actual students rarely do so. In the second half of the 20th century Bladderball, a campus-wide game played with a large inflatable ball, became a popular tradition but was banned by administration due to safety concerns. In spite of administration opposition, students revived the game in 2009, 2011, and 2014, but its future remains uncertain.

### Athletics

 File:Walter Camp Gate 1.jpg
*Main article: Yale Bulldogs*
Yale supports 35 varsity athletic teams that compete in the Ivy League Conference, the Eastern College Athletic Conference, the New England Intercollegiate Sailing Association. Yale athletic teams compete intercollegiately at the NCAA Division I level. Like other members of the Ivy League, Yale does not offer athletic scholarships.

Yale has numerous athletic facilities, including the Yale Bowl (the nation's first natural "bowl" stadium, and prototype for such stadiums as the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and the Rose Bowl), located at The Walter Camp Field athletic complex, and the Payne Whitney Gymnasium, the second-largest indoor athletic complex in the world.
October 21, 2000, marked the dedication of Yale's fourth new boathouse in 157 years of collegiate rowing. The Richard Gilder Boathouse is named to honor former Olympic rower Virginia Gilder '79 and her father Richard Gilder '54, who gave $4 million towards the $7.5 million project. Yale also maintains the Gales Ferry site where the heavyweight men's team trains for the Yale-Harvard Boat Race.

Yale crew is the oldest collegiate athletic team in America, and won Olympic Games Gold Medal for men's eights in 1924 and 1956. The Yale Corinthian Yacht Club, founded in 1881, is the oldest collegiate sailing club in the world.

In 1896, Yale and Johns Hopkins played the first known ice hockey game in the United States. Since 2006, the school's ice hockey clubs have played a commemorative game.

For kicks, between 1954 and 1982, residential college teams and student organizations played bladderball.

Yale students claim to have invented Frisbee, by tossing empty Frisbie Pie Company tins.

Yale athletics are supported by the Yale Precision Marching Band. "Precision" is used here ironically; the band is a scatter-style band that runs wildly between formations rather than actually marching. The band attends every home football game and many away, as well as most hockey and basketball games throughout the winter.

Yale intramural sports are also a significant aspect of student life. Students compete for their respective residential colleges, fostering a friendly rivalry. The year is divided into fall, winter, and spring seasons, each of which includes about ten different sports. About half the sports are coeducational. At the end of the year, the residential college with the most points (not all sports count equally) wins the Tyng Cup.

#### Song

Notable among the songs commonly played and sung at events such as commencement, convocation, alumni gatherings, and athletic games are the alma mater, "Bright College Years", and the Yale fight song, "Down the Field."

Two other fight songs, "Bulldog, Bulldog" and "Bingo Eli Yale", written by Cole Porter during his undergraduate days, are still sung at football games. Another fight song sung at games is "Boola Boola". According to "College Fight Songs: An Annotated Anthology" published in 1998, "Down the Field" ranks as the fourth-greatest fight song of all time.

#### Mascot

The school mascot is "Handsome Dan," the Yale bulldog, and the Yale fight song (written by Cole Porter while he was a student at Yale) contains the refrain, "Bulldog, bulldog, bow wow wow." The school color, since 1894, is Yale Blue. Yale's Handsome Dan is believed to be the first college mascot in America, having been established in 1889.

## Notable people

### Benefactors

Yale has had many financial supporters, but some stand out by the magnitude or timeliness of their contributions. Among those who have made large donations commemorated at the university are: Elihu Yale; Jeremiah Dummer; the Harkness family (Edward, Anna, and William); the Beinecke family (Edwin, Frederick, and Walter); John William Sterling; Payne Whitney; Joseph E. Sheffield, Paul Mellon, Charles B. G. Murphy and William K. Lanman. The Yale Class of 1954, led by Richard Gilder, donated $70 million in commemoration of their 50th reunion. Charles B. Johnson, a 1954 graduate of Yale College, pledged a $250 million gift in 2013 to support of the construction of two new residential colleges.

### Notable alumni and faculty

Further information: List of Yale University people and List of Yale Law School alumni

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Yale has produced alumni distinguished in their respective fields. Among the best-known are U.S. Presidents William Howard Taft, Gerald Ford, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush; royals Crown Princess Victoria Bernadotte, Prince Rostislav Romanov and Prince Akiiki Hosea Nyabongo; heads of state, including Italian prime minister Mario Monti, Turkish prime minister Tansu Çiller, Mexican president Ernesto Zedillo, German president Karl Carstens, and Philippines president José Paciano Laurel; U.S. Supreme Court Justices Sonia Sotomayor, Samuel Alito and Clarence Thomas; U.S. Secretaries of State John Kerry, Hillary Clinton, Cyrus Vance, and Dean Acheson; authors Sinclair Lewis, Stephen Vincent Benét, and Tom Wolfe; lexicographer Noah Webster; inventors Samuel F. B. Morse and Eli Whitney; patriot and "first spy" Nathan Hale; theologian Jonathan Edwards; actors, directors and producers Paul Newman, Henry Winkler, Vincent Price, Meryl Streep, Sigourney Weaver, Jodie Foster, Angela Bassett, Courtney Vance, Frances McDormand, Elia Kazan, George Roy Hill, Edward Norton, Lupita Nyong'o, Allison Williams, Oliver Stone, Sam Waterston, and Michael Cimino; "Father of American football" Walter Camp,James Franco, "The perfect oarsman" Rusty Wailes; baseball players Ron Darling, Bill Hutchinson, and Craig Breslow; basketball player Chris Dudley; football players Gary Fencik, and Calvin Hill; hockey players Chris Higgins and Mike Richter; figure skater Sarah Hughes; swimmer Don Schollander; skier Ryan Max Riley; runner Frank Shorter; composers Charles Ives, Douglas Moore and Cole Porter; Peace Corps founder Sargent Shriver; child psychologist Benjamin Spock; architects Eero Saarinen and Norman Foster; sculptor Richard Serra; film critic Gene Siskel; television commentators Dick Cavett and Anderson Cooper; New York Times journalist David Gonzalez; pundits William F. Buckley, Jr., and Fareed Zakaria; economists Irving Fischer, Mahbub ul Haq, and Paul Krugman; cyclotron inventor and Nobel laureate in Physics, Ernest Lawrence; Human Genome Project director Francis S. Collins; mathematician and chemist Josiah Willard Gibbs; and businesspeople, including Time Magazine co-founder Henry Luce, Morgan Stanley founder Harold Stanley, Boeing CEO James McNerney, FedEx founder Frederick W. Smith, Time Warner president Jeffrey Bewkes, Electronic Arts co-founder Bing Gordon, and investor/philanthropist Sir John Templeton; pioneer in electrical applications Austin Cornelius Dunham.

## Yale in fiction and popular culture

Further information: List of Yale University people and Yale in popular culture
Yale University, one of the oldest universities in the United States, is a cultural referent as an institution that produces some of the most elite members of society and its grounds, alumni, and students have been prominently portrayed in fiction and U.S. popular culture. For example, Owen Johnson's novel, *Stover at Yale*, follows the college career of Dink Stover and Frank Merriwell, the model for all later juvenile sports fiction, plays football, baseball, crew, and track at Yale while solving mysteries and righting wrongs. Yale University also is featured in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel "The Great Gatsby". The narrator, Nick Carraway, wrote a series of editorials for the *Yale News*, and Tom Buchanan was "one of the most powerful ends that ever played football" for Yale.

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## Notes and references

1. ↑ As of June 30, 2015. "U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year (FY) 2015 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY 2014 to FY 2015" (PDF). National Association of College and University Business Officers and Commonfund Institute. 2016.
2. ↑ Shelton, Jim (July 1, 2013). "Peter Salovey takes the helm as Yale’s 23rd president". *New Haven Register*. Retrieved July 22, 2013.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Yale Facts". *Yale University*. Yale University. Retrieved November 1, 2015.
4. ↑ "Yale University – Identity Guidelines". Yale.edu. Retrieved February 12, 2016.
5. ↑ NAICU – Member Directory
6. ↑ "Academic programs | Yale". Yale.edu. Retrieved September 16, 2009.
7. ↑ Lorin, Janet (24 September 2015). "Yale Endowment Posts 11.5% Return as It Reaches $25.6 Billion". *Bloomberg Business*. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Gibbons, Susan (2013). Yale University Library Annual Report 2012–2013 (Report). Yale University Library. Retrieved July 1, 2014.
9. ↑ "ALA Library Fact Sheet 22 – The Nation's Largest Libraries: A Listing by Volumes Held". American Library Association. July 2010. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
10. ↑ Lu, Carmen; Seager, Ilana (October 15, 2009). "Undergraduate Teaching Requirement A Myth". *Yale Daily News*. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
11. ↑ "The Ten Colleges Most Likely to Make You a Billionaire". *theatlantic.com*. Retrieved August 13, 2014.
12. ↑ "Number of Winners by Institution" (PDF). *rhodesscholar.org*. Retrieved August 13, 2014.
13. ↑ *The Harvard Crimson*: "I'm Gonna Git Yoy Sukka: Classic Stories of Revenge at Harvard.". Retrieved April 10, 2007.
14. ↑ Although Pierson was "rector" in his own time, he is today considered the first president of Yale.
"Increase Mather". , *Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition*, Encyclopædia Britannica
16. ↑ Oviatt, Edwin (1916). *The Beginnings of Yale (1701-1726)*. Yale UP. pp. 298–302.
17. ↑ Edmund S. Morgan, *American Heroes: Profiles of Men and Women Who Shaped Early America* (2010) pp 26-32
18. ↑ Louis Leonard Tucker, *Puritan Protagonist: President Thomas Clap of Yale College* (1970); Edmund S. Morgan, *The Gentle Puritan: A Life of Ezra Stiles, 1727–1795* (1970).
19. ↑ "Edmund Fanning (1739–1818)". Retrieved June 30, 2009.
20. ↑ Historian Bruce Daniels has used biographical dictionaries of the college graduates of Yale University, presents statistics on Yale graduates from the classes of 1702 to 1780, focusing on the graduates' career choices, their success in life, religious affiliation, vital statistics, the percentage of those who supported the American Revolution, and geographic mobility. See Bruce C. Daniels, "College Students and Puritan Society: a Quantitative Profile of Yale Graduates in Colonial America," *Connecticut History* 1982 (23): 1–23
21. ↑ Kathryn McDaniel. Moore, "The War with the Tutors: Student-faculty Conflict at Harvard and Yale, 1745–1771," *History of Education Quarterly* 1978 18(2): 115–127,
22. ↑ None of these continue to exist today. They are commemorated in names given to campus structures, such as Brothers in Unity Courtyard in Branford College.
23. ↑ Michael S. Pak, "The Yale Report of 1828: A New Reading and New Implications," *History of Education Quarterly* 2008 48(1): 30–57; Melvin I. Urofsky, "Reforms and Response: The Yale Report of 1828," *History of Education Quarterly,* Vol. 5, No. 1 (Mar. 1965), pp. 53–67 in JSTOR
24. ↑ Louise L. Stevenson, *Scholarly Means to Evangelical Ends: The New Haven Scholars and the Transformation of Higher Learning in America, 1830–1890* (1986)
25. ↑ Alfred McClung Lee, "The Forgotten Sumner," *Journal of the History of Sociology* 1980–1981 3(1): 87–106
26. ↑ "The Yale Corporation: Charter and Legislation" (PDF). *Yale University*. Retrieved July 18, 2014.
27. ↑ Robert Higgs, "'Götterdämmerung' and Palingenesis: Yale and the Heroic Ideal, 1865–1914," *Proteus* 1986 3(1): 18–24
28. ↑ Ronald A. Smith, *Sports and Freedom: The Rise of Big Time College Athletics* (1988)
29. ↑ Lamb, Mary (2013-01-14). *Contest(ed) Writing: Re-Conceptualizing Literacy Competitions*. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781443845472.
30. ↑ Roberta J. Park, "Muscle, Mind, and 'Agon:' Intercollegiate Debating and Athletics at Harvard and Yale, 1892–1909," *Journal of Sport History* 1987 14(3): 263–285
31. ↑ John S., Watterson III, "The Football Crisis of 1909–1910: the Response of the Eastern 'Big Three'," *Journal of Sport History* 1981 8(1): 33–49
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Sheffield was originally named Yale Scientific School; it was renamed in 1861 after a major donation from Joseph E. Sheffield.
33. ↑ George Levesque, "Noah Porter Revisited," *Perspectives on the History of Higher Education* 2007 26: 29–66,
34. ↑ Kersten Jacobson Biehn, "Psychobiology, Sex Research and Chimpanzees: Philanthropic Foundation Support for the Behavioral Sciences at Yale University, 1923–41," *History of the Human Sciences* 2008 21(2): 21–43,
35. ↑ Nancy G. Slack, "Are Research Schools Necessary? Contrasting Models of 20th Century Research at Yale Led by Ross Granville Harrison, Grace E. Pickford and G. Evelyn Hutchinson," *Journal of the History of Biology* 2003 36(3): 501–529,
36. ↑ Howard Spiro and Priscilla Waters Norton, "Dean Milton C. Winternitz at Yale," *Perspectives in Biology & Medicine* 2003 46(3): 403–412,
37. ↑ William Palmer, "On or about 1950 or 1955 History Departments Changed: A Step in the Creation of the Modern History Department," *Journal of the Historical Society* (1529921x); 2007 7(3): 385–405
38. ↑ Michael Holzman, "The Ideological Origins of American Studies at Yale," *American Studies* 40:2 (Summer 1999): 71–99
39. ↑ Liza Nicholas, "Wyoming as America: Celebrations, a Museum, and Yale," *American Quarterly*, Vol. 54, No. 3 (Sep. 2002), pp. 437–465 in JSTOR
40. ↑ A Brief History of Yale :: Resources on Yale History. Library.yale.edu (February 24, 2005). Retrieved on 2013-07-15.
41. ↑ "A History of the Curriculum 1865-1970s – Vassar College Encyclopedia". Vassar.edu. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
42. ↑ Yale Bulletin and Calendar: "Transformations brought about by Yale women.". Retrieved April 10, 2007.
43. ↑ "To Break the Silence" (PDF). Retrieved December 4, 2011.
44. ↑ Huffington Post: "Yale Students File Title IX Suit Against the University". Retrieved April 29, 2011.
45. ↑ *[1]*, Associated Press, "Yale Forms Committee To Address Sexual Misconduct," Huffington Post. Retrieved February 7, 2014.
46. ↑ *Yale Alumni Magazine*: "The Birth of a New Institution.". Retrieved April 10, 2007.
47. ↑ Gordon Lafer, "Land and Labor in the Post-Industrial University Town: Remaking Social Geography," *Political Geography* 2003 22(1): 89–117, focuses on Yale.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Gideon, Gavan; Sisgoreo, Daniel; Stephenson, Tapley (July 27, 2012). "With end of Yale-PKU, admins' hopes unfulfilled". *Yale Daily News*. New Haven, CT, USA: The Yale Daily News Publishing Company. Retrieved August 1, 2012.
49. ↑ "Preparing for Yale's Fourth Century". *Yale Alumni Magazine*. Retrieved April 10, 2007.
50. ↑ Carney, James (May 23, 2001). "George W's Love-Hate Affair with Yale". *TIME*. Retrieved April 21, 2015.
51. ↑ Chen, Edwin (May 22, 2001). "Bush Returns to Yale, Gives Graduates the Last Laugh". *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved April 21, 2015.
52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 *Boston Globe* November 17, 2002, Magazine, p. 6
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 *Los Angeles Times* October 4, 2000, p. E1
54. ↑ Weisman, Steven R. (August 13, 2000). "Editorial Observer; On Being Young, Idealistic and Politically Ambitious at Yale in the 60s". *The New York Times*. p. 14. Retrieved June 3, 2015.
55. ↑ Lehigh, Scot (August 13, 2000). "An (Ivy) League of Their Own: Never Before Have Yale and Harvard So Clearly Dominated a Presidential Campaign". *The Boston Globe* (Boston, Massachusetts). p. F1. Retrieved June 3, 2015.
56. ↑ Kinsley, Michael (January 20, 2003). "How affirmative action helped George W.". *CNN*.
57. ↑ Goldstein, Warren (May–June 2004). "For Country: The (Second) Great All-Blue Presidential Race". *Yale Alumni Magazine*. p. 45.  `|access-date=` requires `|url=` (help)
Tarpley, Webster G.; Chaitkin, Anton. "George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography: Chapter XXII Bush Takes The Presidency". Webster G. Tarpley. Retrieved December 17, 2006.
59. ↑ Dowd, Maureen (June 11, 1998). "Bush Traces How Yale Differs From Harvard". *New York Times*. p. 10.
60. ↑ "For Country: The (Second) Great All-Blue Presidential Race". *Yale Alumni Magazine*. Retrieved April 9, 2007.
61. ↑ "Seeking to Understand Faith and Globalisation". The Tony Blair Faith Foundation. Retrieved September 16, 2009.
"Ernesto Zedillo Biography". Yale Center for the Study of Globalization. Retrieved September 1, 2010.
63. ↑ Shim, Eileen. "Howard Dean, professor?". Yale Daily News. Retrieved September 1, 2010.
64. ↑ Henderson, Drew. "Yale joins research alliance". Yale Daily News.
65. ↑ Karin Fischer, "With Opening Near, Yale Defends Singapore Venture" *The New York Times* August 27, 2012 [2]
66. ↑ "BENHABIB: What’s at stake at Yale-NUS". Yale Daily News. April 4, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
67. ↑ "LETTERS: 3.21.12". Yale Daily News. March 21, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
68. ↑ de Vise, Daniel (November 15, 2010). "Million-dollar college presidents on the rise". *Washington Post*. p. B1.
69. ↑ "Yale University - Academic Schools". Yale University. Retrieved September 9, 2013.
70. ↑ *Yale Daily News*: "Bottomly to Leave for Wellesley Presidency."
71. ↑ "YaleUnions.org". YaleUnions.org. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
72. ↑ Kahn, Sam (April 1, 2005). "Yale Police union to join COPS". *Yale Daily News*.
73. ↑ Rosenfeld, Everett (October 14, 2010). "Yale Security votes to unionize Thursday". *Yale Daily News*.  Rosenfeld, Everett (October 15, 2010). "Union Vote Contested by Yale". *Yale Daily News*.
74. ↑ See Toni Gilpin, Gary Isaac, Dan Letwin, and Jack McKivigan, *On Strike for Respect: The Clerical and Technical Workers' Strike at Yale University, 1984–85* (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995).
75. ↑ Greenhouse, Steven (March 4, 2003). "Yale's Labor Troubles Deepen as Thousands Go on Strike". *New York Times*.
76. ↑ "Solidarity Strong as Yale Strike Ends". Aflcio.org. March 6, 2003. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
77. ↑ "Office of Public Affairs at Yale – News Release". Yale.edu. September 12, 2003. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
78. ↑ Charlie Rose Show, Interview with David Graeber, 2006, PBS
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82. ↑ About the Yale Art Gallery., Retrieved April 10, 2007. Template:Wayback
83. ↑ "America's most beautiful college campuses", *Travel+Leisure* (September, 2011)
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85. ↑ Sacks, Benjamin (June 2011). "Harvard’s "Constructed Utopia" and the Culture of Deception: The Expansion toward the Charles River, 1902-1932". The New England Quarterly. Retrieved November 13, 2014.
86. ↑ *Yale Herald*: "Donor steps up to fund CCL renovations.". Retrieved April 10, 2007.
87. ↑ Vanderbilt Hall
88. ↑ Phelps Hall Template:Wayback
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90. ↑ Beinecke Rare Book Library: "About the Library Building.". Retrieved April 10, 2007.
91. ↑ Assorted pictures of Ezra Stiles College, Retrieved April 10, 2007.
92. ↑ "Yale Sustainability Strategy". Yale University. Retrieved June 3, 2008.
93. ↑ "Yale commits to long-term Greenhouse Gas Reduction and Renewable Energy Strategy". Yale University. Retrieved June 3, 2008.
94. ↑ "Yale’s Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategy" (PDF). Yale University. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 7, 2008. Retrieved June 3, 2008.
95. ↑ "Yale Sustainable Food Program". Yale University. Retrieved June 3, 2008.
96. ↑ "College Sustainability Report Card 2008". Sustainable Endowments Institute. Retrieved June 3, 2008.
97. ↑ Sloan, John J. (1991). "Modern Campus Police: An Analysis of Their Evolution, Structure, and Function". *American Journal of Police* **11** (2): 85–104.
98. ↑ Powell. "The Beginning—Yale Campus Police Department—1894". *Campus Law Enforcement Journal* **24**: 2–5.
99. ↑ Gehrand, Keith A. (2008). "Higher Education Policing: The New Millennium". *IACLEA 50th Anniversary Commemorative Publication* (PDF). International Association of Campus Law Enforcement Administrators. pp. 67–68. Retrieved May 5, 2015.
100. ↑ Kurtz-Phelan, Daniel (April 1, 2002). "Crossing Enemy Lines". *The New Journal*. Retrieved May 5, 2015.
101. ↑ AJ Giannini. Life, love, death and prestige in New Haven. Neon. 27:113–116, 1984.
102. ↑ Office of Post-Secondary Education: "Security search.", Retrieved April 9, 2007.
103. ↑ *City-Data.com*:[3], Retrieved December 4, 2010.
104. ↑ Anand, Easha (February 14, 2005). "Panel questions way University handles sex crimes". *Yale Daily News*. Retrieved May 15, 2005.
105. ↑ Sullivan, Will (September 6, 2004). "Yale may not report all crimes". *Yale Daily News*. Retrieved May 15, 2015.
106. ↑ 106.0 106.1 "National University Rankings". *U.S. News & World Report*. Retrieved November 7, 2015.
107. ↑ Pérez-Peña, Richard (April 8, 2014). "Best, Brightest and Rejected: Elite Colleges Turn Away Up to 95%". *New York Times*. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
108. ↑ Bhandari, Rishabh (March 27, 2014). "6.26 percent of applicants admitted to class of 2018". *Yale Daily News*. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
109. ↑ Bhandari, Rishabh (March 27, 2014). "Yale posts record-high yield rate". *Yale Daily News*. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
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112. ↑ Zax, David (Jan–Feb 2014). "Wanted: smart students from poor families". *Yale Alumni Magazine*. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
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115. ↑ "Machu Picchu in a Box" (PDF). Retrieved December 4, 2011.
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137. ↑ "About Connecticut: General Description and Facts". Connecticut State Government. Retrieved September 1, 2010.
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145. ↑ Baddeley, Jenna. "Memoir demonstrates Yalies have always been crazy". New Haven, Connecticut: Yale Herald. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
146. ↑ University of Georgia: "The Rise of Intercollegiate Football and Its Portrayal in American Popular Literature.". Retrieved April 9, 2007.
147. ↑ The text of *Frank Merriwell at Yale* is published online by Project Gutenberg, Gutenberg.org

## Further reading

* Bagg, Lyman H. *Four Years at Yale*, New Haven, 1891.
* Blum, John Morton. *A life with history* (2004) 283pp, memoir of history professor and advisor to the president
* Brown, Chandos Michael. *Benjamin Silliman: A Life in the Young Republic.* (1989). 377 pp.
* Buckley, William F., Jr. *God and Man at Yale*, 1951.
* Dana, Arnold G. *Yale Old and New*, 78 vols. personal scrapbook, 1942.
* Deming, Clarence. *Yale Yesterdays*, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1915.
* Dexter, Franklin Bowditch. *Biographical Sketches of Graduates of Yale: Yale College with Annals of the College History, 6 vols. New York, 1885–1912.*
* Dexter, Franklin Bowditch. *Documentary History of Yale University: Under the Original Charter of the Collegiate School of Connecticut, 1701–1745.* New Haven: Yale University Press, 1901.
* Fitzmier, John R. *New England's Moral Legislator: Timothy Dwight, 1752–1817* (1998). 261 pp.
* French, Robert Dudley. *The Memorial Quadrangle*, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1929.
* Furniss, Edgar S. *The Graduate School of Yale*, New Haven, 1965.
* Gilpen, Toni, et al. *On Strike For Respect,* (updated edition: University of Illinois Press, 1995,)
* Holden, Reuben A. *Yale: A Pictorial History*, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1967.
* Kabaservice, Geoffrey. *The Guardians: Kingman Brewster, His Circle, and the Rise of the Liberal Establishment,* (2004). 573 pp.
* Kalman, Laura. *Legal Realism at Yale, 1927–1960* (1986). 314pp.
* Kelley, Brooks Mather. *Yale: A History.* New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0-300-07843-5; OCLC 810552
* Kingsley, William L. *Yale College. A Sketch of its History*, 2 vols. New York, 1879.
* Mendenhall, Thomas C. *The Harvard-Yale Boat Race, 1852–1924, and the Coming of Sport to the American College.* (1993). 371 pp.
* Nelson, Cary. *Will Teach for Food: Academic Labor in Crisis,* Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1997.
* Nissenbaum, Stephen, ed. *The Great Awakening at Yale College* (1972). 263 pp.
* Oren, Dan A. *Joining the Club: A History of Jews and Yale,* New Haven, Yale University Press, 1985.\* Oviatt, Edwin. *The Beginnings of Yale (1701–1726)*, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1916.
* Oviatt, Edwin (1916). *The Beginnings of Yale (1701-1726)*. Yale UP. pp. 298–302.
* Pierson, George Wilson. *Yale College, An Educational History (1871–1921)*, (Yale University Press, 1952); *Yale, The University College (1921–1937)*, (Yale University Press, 1955)
* Pierson, George Wilson. *The Founding of Yale: The Legend of the Forty Folios*, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1988.
* Pinnell, Patrick L. *The Campus Guide: Yale University*, Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 1999.
* Stevenson, Louise L. *Scholarly Means to Evangelical Ends: The New Haven Scholars and the Transformation of Higher Learning in America, 1830–1890* (1986). 221 pp.
* Scully, Vincent *et al.*, eds. *Yale in New Haven: Architecture and Urbanism*. New Haven: Yale University, 2004.
* Stokes, Anson Phelps. *Memorials of Eminent Yale Men*, 2 vols. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1914.
* Template:Cite EB1922
* Synnott, Marcia Graham. *The Half-Opened Door: Discrimination and Admissions at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, 1900–1970* (1979). 310 pp.
* Tucker, Louis Leonard. *Connecticut's Seminary of Sedition: Yale College.* Chester, Conn.: Pequot, 1973. 78 pp.
* Warch, Richard. *School of the Prophets: Yale College, 1701–1740.* (1973). 339 pp.
* Welch, Lewis Sheldon, and Walter Camp. *Yale, her campus, class-rooms, and athletics* (1900). online
* Whitehead, John S. *The Separation of College and State: Columbia, Dartmouth, Harvard, and Yale, 1776–1876* (1973). 262 pp.
* Wilson, Leonard G., ed. *Benjamin Silliman and His Circle: Studies on the Influence of Benjamin Silliman on Science in America* (1979). 228 pp.
* Template:Cite EB1911
* Template:Cite NIE

### Secret societies

*Main article: Yale secret societies*
* Robbins, Alexandra, *Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power*, Little Brown & Co., 2002; ISBN 0-316-73561-2 (paper edition).
* Millegan, Kris (ed.), *Fleshing Out Skull & Bones*, TrineDay, 2003. ISBN 0-9752906-0-6 (paper edition).

## External links

 Search Wikidata | Data from Wikidata

* Template:LOCFC
* Official website
* Yale Athletics website
* Campus map from Yale University website

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