Микрорайон

By Nat Chamaeva

 Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary gave the following
definition: “Microrayon is a complex of apartment buildings and
systems of institutions of cultural and community services that
meet the daily needs of the population. It is located on the territory
adjacent to the highways, but which has no transit roads. Micro-
rayon includes kindergartens, nurseries, schools, stores of essential
goods, gardens and sports grounds.”

=== 2. Origins of concept

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The problem of improvement of residential areas has received
considerable attention before the war. Already in the 30s,
architects and builders were able to raise and resolve such
problems as the creation of houses with beautification, land-
scaped yards and gardens.

 In the prewar period, a number of research institutes was
working on hygienic requirements. Together with archi-
tectural and design workshops they were researching the
organization and improvement of residential areas in terms
of creating there the best conditions of ventilation, insula-
tion and so on.

 In the postwar years, the question of the most appropri-
ate organization of residential development and establish-
ment of certain service facilities in a systematic way was
raised in a very urgent manner. This was caused by terrible
housing conditions in the postwar cities.

 In 1945 – 46, the Committee for Architecture at the
Council of Ministers of the USSR held a competition for the
projects of residential neighborhoods. The very idea of the
contest was born in the atmosphere of liberalization of social
life in the last years of the war. One of the motives of liber-
alization was a stream of information about mass housing in
Britain and the United States. At that time, some domestic
experience was re-evaluated. In fact, most English-speaking
sources referred to the development of integrated residential
quarters, carried out by Giprogor, Institute of Communal
Hygiene and Kharkov’s Giprograd in the early 30’s. The term
“microrayon” was chosen as a symbol of a new principle of
urban design. Its goal was to provide comfortable services
to all population groups”. The term was borrowed from old
Giprograd studies, where it was used as a replacement of an
English concept of «neighborhood unit».

 All publications about foreign city planning were severely criticized. A debate unfolded in 1945 - 46 around the
competition for the preparation of pilot projects of resi-
dential areas. It was the first post-war attempt to approach
the creation of a wholesome living environment. From the
beginning it was marked by a desire to move away from the
Anglo-American theory of neighborhood and to fit it into
the overall concept of the Soviet city. During 1947, the word
“microrayon” gradually disappeared from the professional
vocabulary, because it was perceived, as a semantic analog
of “neighborhood”, if not as an exact translation. Attempts
to use the idea of microrayon at the XII Plenum of the Union
of Soviet Architects board, held in July-August 1947, was
also received negatively. Reference to Western city design-
ers, who spoke about the priority of Soviet architects in the
development of a residential neighborhood at the end of the
war, were now considered as a scandalous political provoca-
tion. Soviet experience of the late 20s - early 30s, which really
had a lot of value, went into oblivion again, and referring to

it became dangerous. Along with the ban on the study and
use of Anglo-American practice of housing construction, the
search for new social and functional basis for the urban envi-
ronment was interrupted. Despite the urgency of the public
service districts organisation, these ideas were not in favor
when the practice of building, city design and more generally,
the future of postwar Moscow were discussed.

 The exception was made for an experimental construc-
tion of 4-8-storey type houses at Peschanye streets in 1947
- 1948. This new district included large parade square, parks,
cinemas, schools, medical institutions, shops and other
businesses services, which were placed in the ground floors
of houses. The district of Peschanye streets preceded the
creation of microrayons. This innovative project was even
awarded with the Stalin’s Prize.

 As for the majority of new construction in the postwar
period of 1945-49, most of it was done using a method of
“ribbon-like” construction, or just individual “fragments”
inserted along the existing highways and streets. Multi-
storey houses were built along red lines. They played a role of
barriers, protecting the street from inner yards, or vice versa.
During these years, improvement of internal spaces became
quite formal, in reality. Design of buildings, yards and public
areas was carried out independently.

 Only starting from 1951-1952, a shift in the practice of
residential construction became marked by a shift towards a
more complex planning. The most progressive aspect of con-
struction in 1951-52 was this transition from “fragments” and
ribbons to a quarter-baced city design. Residential areas of 6
to 12 hectares with houses built mostly aroung the perimeter
became basic units of city planning.
As a rule, first floors of houses were used for food, retail,

community and cultural services, such as cafeterias and
restaurants, food stores and manufactured goods shops,
fashion studios and repair shops, hospitals, cinemas, muse-
ums, childcare centers, etc. Actually, it was more like “what
you want and however you want”, often regardless of people’s
real needs and negative side of placing many of these types

 of facilities in residential buildings. The non-systematic
placement of these commercial and public enterprises and in-
stitutions, together with the poor quality of their operation,
led to a decrease of comfort of living in such houses. Some-
times, special standalone units with cultural and educational
services was built in the quarters. But since these services
were mostly episodic, their location did not follow any law-
governed system. Public life also put forward the need for
clubs located near residential areas (for discussions, lectures,
etc.). Usually such “red corners” were arranged somewhere
in the quarter, but they didn’t have enough space to accom-
modate all. In fact, they were intended to serve no more than
one house or very few of them.

 An early example of complex beautification were hair-
dressing saloons built everywhere around the city. Architects
presented the project: a green glass cube with several doors.

Municipal authorities liked the idea, so it was decided to
build such a cube in each district. These two-storey buildings
appeared everywhere. They housed more than just beauty sa-
loons: repair shops, consumer services centers, savings banks,
post offices, shops of every kind, restaurants, laundries,
kitchens, bars, fashion studios, libraries and small executive
committees were located in these community centers.

 Still, the mechanical planning of city quarters resulted
in a number of disadvantages, most of all – the division of a
single community by a network of transit streets. It was nec-
essary to find a better solution for the city planning, and that
was the concept of microrayon.

=== 3. Establishment of microrayons

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In mid 50s, finding a fast solution for the urgent housing
problem became the main concern for policy makers and
experts. The turning point was the All-Union Conference of
Builders in December 1954, where the existing practice of
building cities was severely criticized. In particular, it was
noted that architects do not pay enough attention to create
a rational system of public services within residential areas,
and “a number of projects feature unsatisfactory approach
to the deployment of cultural institutions and community
services.”

After 1954, city design bureaus and research institutes
began to work on new principles of planning and develop-
ment of residential areas and creating a rational network of
cultural and community services there. A number of new
urban challenges emerged, such as:
• Typization of housing and service facilities;
• Enlargement of residential areas and creation of micro-

rayons with favorable conditions for cultural institutions
and and community services, landscaping and beautifica-
tion;

 • Concentration of new construction in large housing
blocks with simultaneous construction of buildings for
cultural and community purposes;

 • Mixed-use of houses of various height, based on ful-
fillment of sanitary requirements and fitting into the
landscape;

 • A clear classification of streets, removal of highways
outside from residential microrayons, construction of
parking lots near public places, such as entertainment,
administration or trade institutions.

 There was a number of factors that needed to be addressed in
a very short period of time for mass construction of micro-
rayons to begin. Typization of housing required for industri-
alization of construction methods, production of building

equipment and machinery, such as tower cranes, heavy-load
transport, production lines at DSK house production facto-
ries, elevators, large panels and blocks. Not to mention con-
struction standards and regulations and a number of research
institutes and design bureaus that needed to adapt to the new
goals extremely quickly.

 In 1955, industrialization, typisation and standardization
of housing construction were officially accepted as the states’
policy in the resolution of the Communist Party Central
Committee “On measures towards further industrialization,
improvement of quality and reduction of costs of construc-
tion”.

 In 1960s, the term “microrayon” was widely used in
“Arkhitektura SSSR” magazine about Soviet architecture. It
was recognized as the basic element for city planning. Micro-
rayon was regarded as a residential complex with a uniform
architecture, all kinds of amenities and public servicest, lo-
cated at a certain territory surrounded by major highways and
public transport routes was established. Construction within
microrayon followed the principles “svobodnaya planirovka”
- “free” (or “open”) planning. It meant that standalone build-
ings were arranged in compositions with elements of sym-
metry and open spaces between them. The main requirement
was to observe sanitary norms for insolation by making sure that the distance between any neighboring buildings is equal
to double the height of the highest of them.

Early examples of Moscow microrayons can be found at
Khoroshevo-Mnevniki district 75 with prefabricated large-
block houses, integrated infrastructure and service facilities;
or Cheryomushki area, including Cheryomushki district

 9C with its experimental construction. Very soon the name
“Cheryomushki”, promoted by a popular 1963 movie, became
a popular symbol of a new housing concept and a new life-
style of Soviet people. Almost each fast-growing Soviet city
of the time had a microrayon called Cheryomushki, where
speedy industrial construction was taking place.

 From the very beginning of mass construction, transport
problem was considered a crucial one. Usually, housing was
built first, while transport and social infrastructure followed
with big delays, causing a lot of discomfort to residents who
were cut of from existing service centers and had no new
ones built in time. In 1962, a new subway line connected city
center with the new suburban areas at Yugo-Zapad and Novye
Cheryomushki. “When we build up Cheryomushky, we then
need to stretch out the subway to its final frontier. Construction

 of new metro lines should go ahead of housing construction. In
that case, the subway can be built in the open ground. Is anyone
bothering you from building this way? It’s easier and cheaper”,

- Khrushchev said in 1963, in a conversation with senior of-
ficials of the Moscow City Council and the City Committee of
Communist Party.

 Microrayon-based system of construction was confirmed
as a priority for urban development in 1969, at the VI ses-
sion of the USSR Academy of Construction and Architecture.
Experience of Novye Cheryomushky was used in many cities
across the country.

=== 4. Step-by-step service system

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Next step of microrayons development was made in 1959,
when the principle of functional zoning and step-by-step
service system were consolidated in the “Rules and regula-
tions for planning and development of cities” by the Institute
for Urbanism (Institut Gradostroitel’stva). New regulations
required microrayons to be compact, located mainly in free
areas on the outskirts of cities, following the principles of
“free planing” and consist of prefabricated industrial housing.

 In reality, industrialization and typization of housing
was not really connected to industrialization and typiza-
tion of service facilities. The state’s primary concern was
square meters of housing, not supporting institutions of
trade, culture and services, which remained scarce and
fragmented. When Khrushchev was getting acquainted with new residential areas of Moscow in 1958, he raised the
question of improving the beautification of residential areas
and, in particular, of improving conditions for pedestrians in
microrayons. But delays continued to disrupt the simultane-
ous development of wholesome living areas. Usually, it took
months, if not years, for objects of trade, services and culture
to appear near new housing. Beautification of yards and public
spaces also happened with significant delays.

=== 5. Towards a more diverse typology

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In late 1960s, a series of harsh and justified criticism in the
press caused complicated discussions among architects, who
now intended to overcome the inexpressiveness of mass
architecture. The shortcomings of functional zoning and
lack of flexibility in uniform masterplans of microrayons
were criticized among experts. A series of harsh and justified
criticism in the press caused complicated discussions among
architects, who now intended to overcome the inexpressive-
ness of mass architecture.

 The practice of uniform five-story buildings construc-
tion in new areas was criticized at the Plenum of the Moscow
City Committee of Communist Party in 1965. The Plenum
considered it necessary to accelerate the transition to the
mass construction of high-rise buildings. As of 1966, the city
had 43.9% of five-storey buildings. 27.9% were 6-9-storey and
above. In spite of this change, the uniformity of microrayons
didn’t change much after DSKs started to produce taller and
more diverse series. A higher-rise urban landscape appeared
in new microrayons, but monotony remained. Attempts to
personalise the appearance of buildings and their spatial
arrangement rarely brought any fruit, with a few succesful
exceptions, such as Severnoe Chertanovo.

 Another important change in approach to microrayons
was associated with the introduction of the Unified catalog
of standard parts and elements of buildings in 1970. This
gave Moscow architects a chance not only to use a series of
model projects, as well as a variety of spatial arrangement
techniques, but also to design non-standard housing, cultural
and service facilities on an industrial basis. This opportunity
was used to create individual spatial compositions in such
microrayons of Moscow as Orekhovo-Borisovo, Veshnyaki-
Vladychino, Yasenevo, Matveevskoe, Troparevo, Teply Stan,
Strogino, Lianozovo, etc. Their appearance was strikingly
different from the appearance of our first areas of industrial
construction, particularly in quality of residential build-
ings. They now featured a variety of heights and shapes, had
greater plasticity, used colors more actively, and so on.

 In late 1960s, the shortcomings of functional zoning and
lack of flexibility in uniform masterplans of microrayons
were critisizes harshly and broadly in the press. It caused
complicated discussions among architects, who now intended
to overcome the inexpressiveness of mass architecture.
Excessive standardization of buildings and impersonality of
new microrayons caused increasing concern in the society.
Speaking at a meeting with voters in the Bauman district of
Moscow, Leonid Brezhnev said: “At the time when millions of

people have improved their living conditions, it is possible to pay
more attention to quality of construction, convenience ofapart-
ment layouts, appearance of streets and public spaces in microray-
ons. Our architects can and should put an end to the monotony of
buildings and expressionless architectural solutions”.

 New series were introduced and a more diverse spatial
organization. Some of these attempts are now considered
by some experts more successful than the others, such as
Troparyovo-Nikulino, Yuzhnoye and Severnoye Butovo,
Strogino, and some others. However, all attempts to build
at a more human scale didn’t prevent some microrayons of
turning into the so-called “sleeping districts”, for example,
Bibirevo, Medvedkovo, Novogireevo, Maryino, etc.

 New residential construction caused by expansion of
Moscow went farther and farther away from the city center.
The city was rapidly decomposing into the public center and
separates suburbs.

## Периоды индустриального домостроения

### 1 период

датируется 1957—1962 гг.

Первый период датируется 1957—1962 гг., когда в Москве в большом количестве возводились панельные пятиэтажки, называемые в народе «хрущёвками». Это было время, когда одной из самых острых проблем являлась нехватка жилья. Именно тогда и было решено взять на вооружение технологию возведения жилых домов из готовых панелей, которая позволяла в рекордные по сравнению с кирпичным домостроением сроки возводить сравнительно дешёвое и достаточно качественное жильё. Благодаря внедрению индустриального домостроения многие тысячи семей в нашей стране впервые после революции получили возможность обрести свой отдельный, независимый «домашний очаг». К этому периоду относятся серии домов К-7, II-32, 1605-АМ, 1 МГ-300, II-35 и другие.

### 2 период

В Москве впервые в истории СССР руководство города столкнулось с проблемой нехватки территории. В ходе застройки «хрущёвками» были освоены территории на юго-западе, севере и юге столицы и встал вопрос об определении новой административной границы Москвы. Определилась новая административная граница города в 1960 году, одновременно с появлением МКАД, ставшей своеобразным вещественным олицетворением пределов Москвы.

### 3 период

После изменения границ возникла необходимость в разработке нового Генплана Москвы, который и был разработан и утверждён в 1971 году. Одной из его основных предпосылок было признание нецелесообразности дальнейшего территориального роста города и значительного роста его населения. Поэтому одним из путей решения задач нового Генплана было выбрано увеличение этажности городской застройки. Это обусловило массовое экспериментальное строительство в 60-х. При этом уже к середине 1960-х годов уже был разработан ряд типовых проектов 9—12-этажных жилых домов. Массовое распространение получили серии II-49П и I-515, 1-605.

Поздние 60-е постройка микрорайонов Troparyovo-Nikulino, Yuzhnoye and Severnoye Butovo, Strogino

1970 Единый каталог строительных деталей

После него больше нетипового жилья. Orekhovo-Borisovo, Veshnyaki-

Vladychino, Yasenevo, Matveevskoe, Troparevo, Teply Stan,

Strogino, Lianozovo, etc.

В третьем периоде (1970—1985 гг.) в жилищном строительстве лидирующим стал «метод Единого каталога». В него входили жилые дома таких серий как: П3, П22, П30, П31, П42, П43, П44, П46 («П» — «панельный»). В массовое строительство пошёл десяток этих серий.

The emergence of *mikroraion* was of a piece with CyberSovietica as a scientific solution to the problem of spatial control within an immense planning system of the Soviet state.

вместо единого центра, появляется иерархическая система

структура, которая могла бесконечно расширяться

микрорайон - включение инфраструктуры

In 1963, the *mikroraion* was officially accepted as the basis of all new construction in the USSR.

  In the 1980s, The Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary defined the
mikroraion in the following fashion:

 Mikroraion, a complex of housing and a system of cultural and lifestyle
amenities, which satisfy the everyday needs of inhabitants, is located on territories
adjacent to transportation routes but containing no internal roads for
thoroughfares. A mikroraion includes preschools, nurseries, schools, supply
stores, gardens and athletic facilities. A mikroraion is the fundamental unit of
urban housing construction (primarily occurring on unoccupied land.)65