recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Luwian phonology

The reconstruction of the Luwian phoneme inventory is based mainly on the written texts and comparisons with the known development of other Indo-European languages. Two series of stops can be identified, transliterated as geminate in the cuneiform script. These fortis and lenis stops may have been distinguished by either voicing or gemination. The contrast was lost initially and finally, suggesting that any voicing only appeared intervocalically.

The following table provides a minimal consonant inventory, as can be reconstructed from the script. The existence of other consonants, which were not differentiated in writing, is possible.

There are only twelve vowels, *a*, *ɑ*, *ɛ*, *e*, *ə*, *i*, *ɪ* ⟨y⟩, *ɨ*, *ɔ*, *o*, *ʊ*, and *u*, which could be short or long. Vowel length is not stable but changes with the stress and word position. For example, *annan* occurs alone as an adverb as *ānnan* ('underneath') but as a preposition, it becomes *annān pātanza* ('under the feet').

The characters that are transliterated as *-h-* and *-hh-* have often been interpreted as pharyngeal fricatives [ħ] and [ʕ]. However, they may have instead been uvular [χ] and [ʁ] or velar fricatives [x] and [ɣ]. In loans to Ugaritic, these sounds are transcribed with <ḫ> and <ġ>, while in Egyptian they are transcribed with 𓐍 *ḫ* and 𓎼 *g.* As both of these languages had pharyngeal consonants, the Luwian sounds are unlikely to have been pharyngeal.
In transcriptions of Luwian cuneiform, *š* is traditionally distinguished from *s*, since they were originally distinct signs for two different sounds, but in Luwian, both signs probably represented the same *s* sound.

A noteworthy phonological development in Luwian is rhotacism; in some cases, *d*, *l*, and *n* becomes *r*. For example, \**īdi* ('he gets') becomes *īri* and *wala-* '(die') becomes *wara-*. Additionally, a *d* in word final position can be dropped, and an *s* may be added between two dental consonants and so *\*ad-tuwari* becomes *aztuwari* ('you all eat') (*ds* and *z* are phonetically identical).
Kusunda phonology

## Vowels

Phonetically, Kusunda has six vowels in two harmonic groups, which are arguably three vowels phonemically: a word will normally have vowels from the upper (pink) or lower (green) set, but not both simultaneously. There are very few words that consistently have upper or lower vowels; most words may be pronounced either way, though those with uvular consonants require the lower set (as in many languages). There are a few words with no uvular consonants that still bar such dual pronunciations, though these generally only feature the distinction in careful enunciation.

Kusunda vowels

## Consonants

Kusunda consonants seem to only contrast the active articulator, not where that articulator makes contact. For example, apical consonants may be dental, alveolar, retroflex, or palatal: /t/ is dental [t̪] before /i/, alveolar [t͇] before /e, ə, u/, retroflex [ʈ] before /o, a/, and palatal [c] when there is a following uvular, as in [coq] ~ [t͇ok] ('we').

In addition, many consonants vary between stops and fricatives; for instance, /p/ seems to surface as [b] between vowels, while /b/ surfaces as [β] in the same environment. Aspiration appears to be recent to the language. Kusunda also lacks the retroflex consonant phonemes common to the region, and is unique in the region in having uvular consonants.

[ʕ] does not occur initially, and [ŋ] only occurs at the end of a syllable, unlike in neighboring languages. [ɴʕ] only occurs between vowels; it may be |ŋ+ʕ|.
Mangbetu phonology

## Vowels

 Mid | e
 Open | æ

## Consonants

Retroflex consonants are slightly trilled as [ʈʳ], [ɖʳ], [ᶯɖʳ].

## Other Features

One unusual feature of Mangbetu is that it has both a voiced and a voiceless bilabial trill as well as a labial flap.

[nóʙ̥ù] "to bring out"
[nóʙù] "to fan"
[nómʙù] "to enclose"
[nóⱱò] "to defecate"
[nóʙò] "to get fat"
The labial trills are not particularly associated with back vowels or prenasalization, pace their development in some American languages.

[éʙ̥ì] "leaping like a leopard"
[nɛʙàʙá] "kind of plan"
## References

1. ↑ Linguist Wins Symbolic Victory for 'Labiodental Flap'. NPR (2005-12-17). Retrieved on 2010-12-08.
2. ↑ LINGUIST List 8.45: Bilabial trill. Linguistlist.org. Retrieved on 2010-12-08.
3. ↑ Olson & Koogibho (2013) "Labial vibrants in Mangbetu"
Ndyuka orthography

Modern orthography differs from an older Dutch-based orthography in substituting *u* for *oe* and *y* for *j*. The digraphs *ty* and *dy* are pronounced somewhat like the English *ch* and *j*, respectively. Tone is infrequently written, but it is required for words such as *ná* ("isn't"). The syllabic Afaka script was devised for Ndyuka in 1908.

## Latin alphabet

* A - [a]
* Æ - [æ]
* Ɑ - [ɑ]
* Ɒ - [ɒ]
* B - [b]
* C - [ʎ]
* D - [d]
* Ð - [ð]
* E - [e]
* Ɛ - [ɛ]
* Ə - [ɤ]
* F - [f]
* G - [ɡ]
* Ɣ - [ɣ]
* H - [h]
* I - [i]
* J - [ɰ]
* K - [k]
* L - [l]
* M - [m]
* Ɯ - [ɯ]
* N - [n]
* Ŋ - [ŋ]
* O - [o]
* Ø - [ø]
* Œ - [œ]
* Ɔ - [ɔ]
* P - [p]
* Q - [ʟ]
* R - [ɹ]
* S - [s]
* T - [t]
* U - [u]
* V - [v]
* Ʋ - [ʋ]
* Ʌ - [ʌ]
* W - [w]
* X - [x]
* Y - [y]
* Z - [z]
* Ʒ - [ʒ]

## Other letters

* dy - [d͡ʒ]
* ny - [ɲ]
* sy - [ʃ]
* ty - [t͡ʃ]

Long vowels are written with double vowels (e.g. aa [aː], ee [eː])

An acute accent is sometimes used for a high tone. (e.g. á)
Namuyi phonology

There are 40 single-consonant initials in the Namuyi language. Namuyi also has ten phonemic vowels, /i/ for [i], /e/ for [e], /ɛ/ for [ɛ], /ɨ/ for [ʃ,ɯ] /ʉ/ for [y], /ə/ for [ə], /a/ for [a], /u/ for [u], /o/ for [o], and /ɔ/ for [ɔ]. There is no phonological vowel length, though speakers can lengthen a vowel in the first syllable at times to emphasize a word.
Midob phonology

The following tables show the phonological consonants and vowels without phonetic variations and without more recent Arabic loans.

## Vowels

 e, ee

Note: All vowels occur long and short. The mid central vowel *ə* only appears in Midob, not in other Nubian languages.

## Tone

Midob is a tonal language with two registers: High and Low. Tone is both lexical and grammatical.

Lexical tone
 àadì | light

Grammatical tone
 nà | him, her
Month

A **month** is a unit of time, used with calendars, that is approximately as long as a natural orbital period of the Moon; the words *month* and *Moon* are cognates. The traditional concept arose with the cycle of Moon phases; such lunar months ("lunations") are synodic months and last approximately 29.53 days. From excavated tally sticks, researchers have deduced that people counted days in relation to the Moon's phases as early as the Paleolithic age. Synodic months, based on the Moon's orbital period with respect to the Earth-Sun line, are still the basis of many calendars today, and are used to divide the year.
Nanai orthography

## Alphabet matching table

Sample text from a Bible translation published in 2002 is shown below.

**Lord's Prayer (Luke 11:2–4)**
 3 Ини таондоани сиагопова эпэмбэ бунду буру.
 4 Буэ оркимпова гудиэсигуру, буэ-дэ оркиӈку, наӈдаку гурумбэ гудиэсиэпу, буэ мурумпувэ-дэ эди памаванда, хай-да дялимбани, оркимбани эди дял дяпаванда"».
Nanai phonology

## Vowels and vowel harmony

The Nanai language has seven phonemic vowels: /i, u, y, o, œ, a, ə/. There are twelve allowed diphthongs: /ai, ao, əi, əo, ia, iə, io, iu, ua, ui, uo, oi, ya, yə/; there are also two allowed triphthongs: /iao, uai/. Phonemic vowels change as follows based on surrounding consonants:

* [i] is elided after [dz, ts, s]
* /i/ becomes [ɪ] after /ɖʐ, ʈʂ, s/
* /i/ becomes [i̟] after /m, n, l, d/
* A glottal stop [ʔ] is inserted before /i/ when it begins a syllable and precedes /dz, s, tɕ, ɕ, l, m, ŋ/.
* /ɘ/ may optionally become [ɯ] in non-initial syllables
* A vowel in a final syllable is nasalised when it precedes /n/

The following table summarises the rules of vowel harmony.

**Vowel harmony in Nanai**
 Neutral vowels

## Consonants

As for consonants, there are twenty-eight:

Phonemic consonants may optionally change as follows:

* /s ɕ χ/ become [z ʑ ʁ] (respectively) between two vowels
* /ɡ/ to [ɣ] in syllable-final position, before [d] in the following syllable

## Dialects

Phonology of the various dialects of Nanai has been influenced by surrounding languages. Tolskaya specifically noted several phonological peculiarities of Bikin dialect which may indicate influence from Udege, including monopthongisation of diphthongs, denasalisation of nasal vowels, deletion of reduced final vowels, epenthetic vowel preventing consonant final words, and the deletion of intervocalic [w].

## References

1. ↑ An 1986, p8-10
2. ↑ An 1986, p13-15
3. ↑ An 1986, p11-13
4. ↑ Tolskaya 2001, p24
Mapos Buang phonology

Mapos Buang has a larger sound inventory than is typical of most Austronesian languages. Notable is the existence of a phonemic contrast between a velar nasal and a uvular nasal, which is extremely rare among the world's languages. Along with this, its phonology is unusually symmetrical compared to most other languages.

## Vowels

\* [ə] is a prominent feature of Buang phonology, but is not contrastive.

## Consonants

\*/w/ is a bilabial approximant or semivowel with no co-articulated velar component. It is placed in the labio-velar series of the chart as it fills a gap in this position. /β/ is a voiced bilabial fricative.
Mbuʼ phonology

## Vowels

Mbu' Vowel Phonemes

There are three tones; high, mid, and low.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Good, Jeff and Lovegren, Jesse and Mve, Jean Patrick and Tchiemouo, Nganguep Carine and Voll, Rebecca and Di Carlo, Pierpaolo. 2011. The languages of the Lower Fungom region of Cameroon: Grammatical overview. Africana Linguistica 17. 101–164.
Mbabaram phonology

## Phonological history

### Vowels

Mbabaram would have originally had simply three vowels, /i a u/, like most Australian languages, but several changes occurred to add /ɛ ɨ ɔ/ to the system:

* [ɔ] developed from original \*/a/ in the second syllable of a word if the first syllable began with \*/ɡ/, \*/ŋ/, or \*/wu/.
* [ɛ] developed from original \*/a/ in the second syllable of a word if the first syllable began with \*/ɟ/. (It may have also occurred with /ɲ/ or /ji/, but no examples are known.)
* [ɨ] developed from original \*/i/ in the second syllable of a word if the first syllable began with \*/ɡ/, \*/ŋ/, or \*/w/.
* [ɨ] also developed from original \*/u/ in the second syllable of a word if the first syllable began with \*/ɟ/, \*/ɲ/, or \*/j/.

The first consonant of each word was then dropped, leaving the distribution of /ɔ ɛ ɨ/ unpredictable.
Moose Cree phonology

* Preservation of the Proto-Algonquian \*k as /k/
* Preservation of the Proto-Algonquian \*r as a distinctive consonant /l/
* Preservation of historical distinction between /s/ and /ʃ/ outside of consonant clusters
* Assimilation of /n/ to [l] in presence of another intramorphemic /l/
* Preservation of the phonological status of all eight Proto-Algonquian vowels, except for Proto-Algonquian \*e on occasion. For this phoneme, an incomplete change is apparent whereby in certain words and morphemes it has shifted to /i/, resulting in predictable morphophonological adjustments in the modern dialect.
Mutsun phonology

Vowel and consonant phonemes are represented here with the orthography used in the English-Mutsun dictionary, with the orthographic symbol bolded if it differs from IPA transcription.

## Vowels

* /ɛ/ is open-mid, whereas /o/ is close-mid.
* Vowels and consonants are doubled to indicate longer pronunciation (ex: IPA for toolos 'knee' is [toːlos])

## Alphabet

a, c, d, e, h, i, k, l, L, m, n, N, o, p, r, s, S, t, T, ts, tY, u, w, y, '
Mekeo phonology

Mekeo employs a relatively simple system of phonology which consists of 24 consonants and 24 vowels. The following tables identify both the consonants and vowels present in Mekeo.

## Consonants

Note that the table above displays the range of consonants used in East Mekeo which is classified as the standard dialect. North West Mekeo, West Mekeo and North Mekeo each have slightly different consonants included in their dialects.

## Vowels

Mekeo has 24 vowels, shown on the table below:
Mazanderani phonology

## Consonants

/w/ appears as an allophone of /v/ in word-final position. /ɾ/ may appear as a voiceless trill in word-final position [r̥]. An occasional glottal stop /ʔ/ or voiceless uvular fricative /ʁ/ or voiced plosive /ɢ/ may also be heard, depending on the dialect.

## References

1. ↑ Yoshie, Satoko. 1996. *Sārī Dialect*. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. Series: Iranian Studies; 10.
Neo orthography

## Alphabet

Neo uses the 26 letters of the standard Roman alphabet: 5 vowels and 21 consonants. When spelling a word, the letters have an -e ending:

a, be, ce, de, e, fe, ge, he, i, je, ke, le, me, ne, o, pe, qe, re, se, te, u, ve, we, xe, ye, ze.

## Pronunciation

**Examples:**
 y | **y**arn, **y**ogurt

The *c* has the same pronunciation as the digraph *ch*; both are pronounced as in English words like ***ch**alk* or ***ch**imney*, and in borrowed Italian words like ***c**iao* or *boccon**c**ini*, never with the 'k' sound in *care* or the 's' sound in *certain.* The *g* always has the “hard” pronunciation, never the “soft” pronunciation of ***g**em* or ***g**iant*. The *s* is always unvoiced, never pronounced with the 'z' sound in *ro**s**e* or the 'zh' sound in *lei**s**ure.*

Other letters, including the vowels, are pronounced as in Esperanto. Words with the letters *q* (not pronounced 'kjoo' but as in English 'qu') and *x* (pronounced 'ks' without an initial vowel) may optionally be spelled with *kw* and *ks*, respectively. Each letter is always spoken in the same way, except that final *h* is silent in a few borrowed words like pasha*h*, mufti*h*, kadi*h*, papa*h*, mama*h*.

## Spelling

All words are written with initial small letters (minuscules), except for proper nouns and the first word of a sentence.

## Stress

Words ending in a vowel have a stress accent on the second-last syllable. Words ending in a consonant have a stress accent on the last syllable.

**Examples:**
 am**i**k | friend

The plural **-s** or **-os** does not affect the stress accent.

**Examples:**
 am**i**kos | friends

In the combinations **uo**, **au** and **eu**, the vowels are to be pronounced separately, not as diphthongs. Nevertheless, the stress accent does not fall on the **u** in these vowel combinations.

**Examples:**
 n**e**utra | neuter (grammatical gender)
N'Ko script

The N'Ko script is written from right to left, with letters being connected to one another.

## Tones

N'Ko uses 7 diacritical marks to denote tonality and vowel length. Together with plain vowels, N'Ko distinguishes four tones: high, low, ascending, and descending; and two vowel lengths: long and short. Unmarked signs designate short, descending vowels.
Mbula phonology

## Consonants

The consonant phonemes of Mbula are as shown in the following table:

The consonant /b/ is realised as [β] intervocalically. Prenasalised stops, while requiring two phonetic units, exist as a single phonemic unit. The palatal glide /j/ is treated as being underlyingly vocalic in morphophonemic analysis while the labio-velar glide /w/ is analysed consonantally. All voiceless plosives, /p t k/, are optionally pronounced with a voiceless nasal release word finally. All velars are fronted or backed, depending on the vowel immediately contiguous to them within the same syllable. /t/ is palatalized to a voiceless, laminal, post-alveolar plosive when followed by a morpheme boundary and /i/.

## Vowels

Mbula has five vowels phonemes as shown in the following table. Phonetically front vowels are unrounded and back vowels are rounded. /i/ and /u/ can be lax or tense and /e/ can be half close tense and half open lax. All vowels can be short or long though this is interpreted in the phonology as a sequence of two vowels rather than as the existence of long vowel phonemes. The two high vowels /i/ and /u/ are lowered slightly when followed by /e/, /o/, or /a/.

**Table of vowel phonemes of Mbula**

Vowels are subject to two rules: penultimate lengthening which means that external realisations may be long vowels while the underlying form is a short vowel and epenthesis which means the insertion of a vowel where the underlying form of the morpheme does not contain one. Epenthesis is regressive which means that epenthetic vowels take on the quality of the first vowel in the rest of the form. Vowel length is contrastive as can be seen in the following examples:

[molo] - long

[moːlo] - a type of ant

[mbili] - domestic animal

[mbiːli] - new shoot of a plant

[ipata] - 3SG be heavy

[ipaːta] - 3SG reads

## Suprasegmentals

The placement of stress is predictable. In most words, primary stress falls on the penultimate syllable.

## Syllable Patterns

Syllable structure is generally (C)V(C). VV can sometimes form a syllable in the case of a diphthong or long vowel and syllable structure can be analysed as CCV when /w/ or /j/ is analysed as a C.
Mid front unrounded vowel

i
y

ɨ
ʉ

ɯ
u

ɪ
ʏ

ʊ

e
ø

ɘ
ɵ

ɤ
o

**e̞**
ø̞

ə

ɤ̞
o̞

ɛ
œ

ɜ
ɞ

ʌ
ɔ

æ

ɐ

a
ɶ

ä

ɑ
ɒ

Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded

* Basque phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Phrygian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* English phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Valyrian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Spanish phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Toki Pona phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kongo phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tera phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Yeyi phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ibibio phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Wanetsi phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Teochew phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Bosnian alphabet ‎ (← links | edit)
* Russian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Norwegian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Japanese phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Afrikaans phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Persian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Caló phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kensiu phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Turkish phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Finnish phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Modern Hebrew phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Swedish phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Pashto phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mundari phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kyrgyz phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Icelandic phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Belarusian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Meixian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Malay phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
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Naskapi orthography

## Latin

Naskapi Latin Alphabet consists of 3 vowels, **a**, **i**, and **u**, in short form and in long form. The long form is either written with a Circumflex accent, eg **â**, or by simply writing the vowel twice, eg. **aa**. The vowel also consists of 12 consonants (including the **Ch** diagraph)

* Ch, K, P, and T are voiced between vowels.
* L and R are only used in loanwords from other languages.

## Syllabary

**Naskapi Syllabics (ᓇᔅᑲᐱ ᐃᔪᐤ ᐃᔨᒧᐅᓐ, *naskapi iyuw iyimuun*)** is derived from Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, and while having its unique characteristics, shares many features with other Canadian Cree Syllabic systems.
Unlike other Cree Syllabics, long and short vowels are not distinguished.
The final forms in Naskapi Syllics are similar to other varieties of Eastern Cree syllabics.
Miluk phonology

Stops are tenuis in syllable onsets before a vowel, and aspirated in syllable codas and before another consonant. It is not clear if [h] and [hʷ] are phonemic; they may be allophones of /x/ and /xʷ/.

The vowels in Miluk are /i, u, ɪ, ʊ, e, o, ə, ɛ, ɔ, æ, a, ɑ/.

Vowel harmony occurs in Miluk, although sporadic. The most common occurrence of vowel harmony in Miluk is the harmonization of /ɛ/ in roots with /ɑ/ in suffixes.
Mpur phonology

## Vowels

Mpur has twenty vowels: /a, e, i, o, u, ɪ, ʊ, ø, ɤ, ɛ, œ, ɜ, ə, ɞ, ʌ, ɔ, æ, ɶ, ɑ, ɒ/.

## Tones

Mpur has a complex tonal system with 4 lexical tones and an additional contour tone, a compound of two of the lexical tones. Its tonal system is somewhat similar to the nearby Austronesian languages of Mor and Ma'ya. The neighboring language isolate Abun is also tonal.

Mpur has four lexical tones. There is also a fifth complex contour tone formed as a phonetic compound of two lexical tones. An example minimal set is given below.

* *bé* ‘but’ (high tone)
* *be* ‘in’ (mid tone)
* *bè* ‘fruit’ (low tone)
Mochica orthography

The reconstruction or recovery of the Mochican sounds is problematic. Different scholars who worked with the language used different notations. Both Carrera Daza like Middendorf, devoted much space to justify the phonetic value of the signs they used, but neither was completely successful in clearing the doubts of interpretation of these symbols. In fact their interpretations differ markedly, casting doubt on some sounds.

Lehman made a useful comparison of existing sources, enriched with observations of 1929. The long-awaited field notes of Brüning from 1904-05 have been kept in the Museum of Ethnology, Hamburg, though still unpublished. An additional complication in spellings interpretation of different scholars is the fact that between the 16th and the 19th century the language experienced a remarkable phonological change that make even more risky to use the latest data to understand older material.

## Vowels

The language probably had six simple vowels and six more elongated vowels: /i, iː, ä, äː, e, eː, ø, øː, o, oː, u, uː/. Carrera Daza and Middendorf gave mismatched systems that can be put in approximate correspondence:

 Middendorf
Monophthong

A **monophthong** is a pure vowel sound, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new position of articulation. The monophthongs can be contrasted with diphthongs, where the vowel quality changes within the same syllable, and hiatus, where two vowels are next to each other in different syllables. A vowel sound whose quality does not change over the duration of the vowel is called a pure vowel.
Mono-Alu phonology

Mono-Alu language has been studied extensively by Joel L. Fagan, a researcher for the Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies at Australian National University. Their publication, "A Grammatical Analysis of Mono-Alu (Bougainville Straits, Solomon Islands)," is one of the first and only translations and analysis of Mono-Alu language.

Joel L. Fagan identified the Mono-Alu language as having twenty eight phonemes. They are made up of nine diphthongs, and five vowels and fourteen consonants that make up the alphabet.

## The Alu Alphabet

1. The Alu alphabet has 19 letters: A B D E F G H I K L M N O P R S T U V.
2. Of these letters: D was seldom used instead of R for euphony sake; but it has to be used now for the new foreign words or names introduced in the language spoken. H generally (not always) is or can be replaced by F.

### Pronunciation

#### Pronunciation of Vowels

* 'a' is usually pronounced as in "flat"
	+ a sometimes pronounced as in "fast"
* 'e' is always pronounced as in "ten"
* 'i' is always pronounced as in "tin"
* 'o' is always pronounced as in "not"
* 'u' is always pronounced as in "put"

#### Pronunciation of Diphthongs

* 'ai' is pronounced "aye" - e.g. "Galeai".
	+ sometimes the letters are pronounced separately
* 'ei' has no equivalent sound in English.
* 'oi' is pronounced "oy" - e.g. "ba-oi" (shark).
	+ sometimes the letters are pronounced separately. - e.g. "o-i-sa" (echo).
* 'ui' used as a diphthong - e.g. "sui-o" (swallow)
	+ used separately - e.g. "ku-i" (baby) with the exception

#### Pronunciation of Consonants

* 'g' is always pronounced as in "Glas", "giddy". No reason to use in Alu 'q' as is done elsewhere. Here also, the words are fully written as they are pronounced - e.g. "ang (instead of 'ag'), "ing", "ong", "ung". When, exceptionally, the 'n' is after 'g' as in "gnora", owing to the nasal pronunciation, the accentuated 'n' can be used as in Choiseul.
* 'ng' is pronounced as in English with the exception of "uhg", the sound of 'u' being always the Latin one.
	+ "ang" is pronounced as in "gang"
	+ "ing" is pronounced as in "ring"
	+ "eng" is pronounced as in "length"
	+ "ong"is pronounced as in" wrong"

The other Consonants have the same sound in English.
Mwotlap phonology

Because Mwotlap has been passed down by oral tradition, it has no official writing system. This article uses the orthography devised by linguist Alexandre François, based on the Latin alphabet.

Mwotlap contrasts 16 consonant phonemes.

Mwotlap has 8 phonemic vowels, which are all short monophthongs, with no diphthongs being present in the language.

Vowels

Stress always falls on the last syllable of a word.

## Prosody

Mwotlap is not tonal. Stress falls on the last syllable of a word or syntagma.

## References

1. ↑ François (2005a): 445); François (2005b): 116).

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Near-close near-front rounded vowel

i
y

ɨ
ʉ

ɯ
u

ɪ
**ʏ**

ʊ

e
ø

ɘ
ɵ

ɤ
o

e̞
ø̞

ə

ɤ̞
o̞

ɛ
œ

ɜ
ɞ

ʌ
ɔ

æ

ɐ

a
ɶ

ä

ɑ
ɒ

Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded

* Garhwali phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Dari phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Phrygian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Breton phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Michif phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Marwari phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Spanish phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Saraiki phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Walloon phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Elfdalian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Irarutu phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Lidelpa phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Bilua phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ibibio phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Norwegian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Uyghur phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Welsh phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Talysh phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kensiu phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Swedish phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Rendille phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Futunan phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Nyole phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Faroese phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Gronings phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Izon phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Wymysorys phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Coast Tsimshian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Old Saxon phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* West Frisian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
Mundari phonology

The phonology of Mundari is similar to the surrounding closely related Austroasiatic languages but considerably different from either Indo-Aryan or Dravidian. Perhaps the most foreign phonological influence has been on the vowels. Whereas the branches of Austroasiatic in Southeast Asia are rich in vowel phonemes, Mundari has only five. The consonant inventory of Mundari is similar to other Austroasiatic languages with the exception of retroflex consonants, which seem to appear only in loanwords. (Osada 2008)

## Vowels

Mundari has five vowel phonemes. All vowels have long and short as well as nasalized allophones, but neither length nor nasality are contrastive. All vowels in open monosyllables are quantitatively longer than those in closed syllables, and those following nasal consonants or /ɟ/ are nasalized. Vowels preceding or following /ɳ/ are also nasalized.

## Consonants

Mundari's consonant inventory consists of 23 basic phonemes. The Naguri and Kera dialects include aspirated stops as additional phonemes, here enclosed in parentheses.
Munsee phonology

Munsee has the following inventory of consonants; International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) values are given in brackets.

Some loan words from English contain /f/ and /r/: *fé·li·n* 'there is a fair going on'; *ntáyrəm* 'my tire.'

Different analyses of the Munsee vowel system have been proposed. Goddard (1979) presents an analysis in which Munsee and Unami have the same vowel system, unchanged from the Proto-Eastern-Algonquian vowel system (discussed in the *History* section below). In this analysis, there are four long vowels /i·, o·, e·, a·/ and two short vowels /a, ə/. Vowel length is indicated with a raised dot (·). However, in modern Munsee there are several sources of new short /i, o, e/ that arise from such sources as reduplication, loan words, and other various phonological changes, and that cannot be derived from other underlying vowels. Hence an analysis in which there are four positions that have contrastive vowel length as well as /ə/, is appropriate.

The short vowel /i/ has the phonetic value [ɪ]. Short /a/ has values centring on [ʌ], with [a] occurring before [hC] (where 'C' represents any stop or the lateral consonant). Short /o/ has values centring on [ʊ]. The long vowels /iː, eː, aː, oː/ have the primary values [iː], [ɛː], [aː], and [oː], with /a/ varying to [ɑ], and [ɒ] after labial consonants.

**Munsee Vowels**

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Goddard, Ives, 1979, p. 11
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Goddard, Ives, 1982
3. ↑ Goddard, Ives, 1982, pp. 18-19
Mopán phonology

## Consonants

The following are the consonant sounds used by the Mopan Maya language (written with the International Phonetic Alphabet):

In addition, some sources list [ŋ] (the velar nasal) as a consonant sound in Mopan Maya.

\* The sounds [g] and [f] are used for Spanish loan words and do not correspond to sounds native to Mopan Maya.

## Vowels

The following are the vowel sounds of the Mopan Maya language:
Marrithiyel phonology

## Consonants

* Retroflex sounds /ɳ ɭ/ may have also been recorded.
* Alveolar sound /t/ may also be heard as [ʈ].
* A dental fricative /θ/ can also be heard as a stop [t̪].

## Vowels

* An additional central vowel [ɜ] is also heard among dialects.
* /i u/ can also be heard as [ɪ ʊ].
* /u/ may also have an allophone of [ɔ].
* /a/ can have front and central allophones of [a ɒ].
Minoan phonology

On the basis of these texts, the phonetic system of the Minoan language can be reconstructed to have the following consonants:

## References

1. ↑ Evangelos Kyriakidis: *Indications on the Nature of the Language of the Keftiw from Egyptian Sources*. In: Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant Band 12 (2002), pp. 211–219.
Mortlockese phonology

Lukunosh, a dialect of Mortlockese, has nine vowel phonemes and 15 consonant phonemes.

Vowel phonemes

Table retrieved from pg.100 of Odango, Emmerson.

Table retrieved from pg.96 of Odango, Emmerson.

Gemination is possible for all consonants. (pg.98)

Syllables are in the form of (C)(C)V(V)(C)(C), where (C) is an optional consonant and (V) is an optional vowel. An example of a CCVVCC syllable is *so.ko.**ppaat*** (meaning assorted in Lukunosh Mortlockese). (pg.110)

## Reduplication

Reduplication occurs in some verbs to express extreme measure. It may also indicate an imperfective or habitual aspect.

 b.
Mossi phonology

The Mossi language consists of the following sounds:

## Consonants

Remark:

* The semivowel /j/ *y* is pronounced [ɲ] (palatal nasal) in front of nasal vowels.

## Vowels

Notes:

* All vowels (other than /e/ and /o/) are pronounced like their nasal counterparts.
* All vowels (oral and nasal) are pronounced like their lengthened counterparts.
* Other linguists include the vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/; here, they are analysed as diphthongs, (/ɛ/ is considered to be ea and /ɔ/ is considered to be oa).

## References

1. ↑ Cf. Kabore (1985) : (p.44) for the consonants, (p.85-86) for the vowels.
Mapuche phonology

## Vowels

Vowel phonemes

* Sadowsky et al. transcribe the vowels with ⟨ɪ, ɘ, ʊ, ë, ö, ɐ̝⟩. This article follows the traditional transcription ⟨i, ɨ, u, e, o, a⟩.
* In stressed syllables, /i, u/ are near-close [ɪ, ʊ], whereas the mid /e, o/ are centralized close-mid [ë, ö]. The open vowel is realized as a raised open central [ɐ], making it sound closer to [ɜ] than to [ä]. Unstressed vowels are more close [i, u, ɪ, ʊ, ə] (though unstressed /e, o/ are still somewhat more open than stressed /i, u/). Utterance-final unstressed vowels are generally devoiced or even elided when they occur after voiceless consonants, sometimes even after voiced consonants.
* Traditionally, /ɨ/ has been described as a close central vowel with an unstressed mid central allophone. According to Sadowsky et al., the vowel is close-mid [ɘ] when stressed and near-close [ɨ̞] when unstressed, patterning phonetically with the mid series.

## Consonants

* /m, p/ are bilabial, whereas /f/ is labiodental.
* The dental series /n̪, t̪, l̪/ is phonetically interdental and occurs only in some dialects.
* Utterance-final coronal laterals /l̪, l/ may be devoiced and fricated: [ɬ̪, ɬ].
* The plosives may be aspirated. It is often the case with the main allophone of /k/ ([k]). Its fronted allophone [c] is less frequently aspirated, as is the alveolar /t/. When it comes to the dental /t̪/ as well as the bilabial /p/, aspiration is even rarer.
* Some speakers realize /ʈʂ/ as apical postalveolar, either an affricate or an aspirated plosive, it is also pronounced [tɻ], which suggest its spelling "tr".
* /ɻ/ has been traditionally classified as an approximant; however, Sadowsky et al. prefer to classify it as a fricative [ʐ] as that is the predominant variant in their sample. Other possible variants include a lateral approximant [ɭ] and, in post-nuclear position, a voiceless fricative [ʂ].
* /j/ may be realized with frication: [ʝ].
* Among the velar consonants, /w/ is labialized. Before front vowels, /ŋ, k, ɣ/ are fronted to [ŋ˖, c, ɣ˖~ʝ].
Naxi phonology

The alphabet used here is the 1957 pinyin alphabet.

## Vowels

In the Lijiang dialect, there are nine vowels as well as syllabic /v̩/: /i, e, a, ɑ, y, ɯ, ə, o, u/, written *i, ei, ai, a, iu, ee, e, o, u*. There is also a final /əɹ/, written *er*.

## Tones

There are four tones: high level, mid-level, low level (or falling), and, in a few words, high rising. The tones are written *-l, -, -q, -f.*
Modern Scots phonology

## Vowels

Vowel length is usually conditioned by the Scottish Vowel Length Rule.

## References

1. ↑ Aitken A.J. ‘How to Pronounce Older Scots’ in ‘Bards and Makars’. Glasgow University Press 1977
2. ↑ Johnston, Paul (1997) *Regional Variation* in Jones, Charles (ed.) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. p.456
3. ↑ Gregg, Robert (1972) "The Scotch–Irish dialect boundaries in Ulster" in Martyn Wakelin ed. *Patterns in the Folk Speech of the British Isles*, London: Athlone, 109–139.
Minute

The **minute** is a unit of time usually equal to 1/60 (the first sexagesimal fraction) of an hour, or 60 seconds. In the UTC time standard, a minute on rare occasions has 61 seconds, a consequence of leap seconds (there is a provision to insert a negative leap second, which would result in a 59-second minute, but this has never happened in more than 40 years under this system).
Meixian phonology

## Initials

There are two series of stops and affricates in Hakka, both voiceless: tenuis /p t ts k/ and aspirated /pʰ tʰ tsʰ kʰ/.

\* When the initials /k/ ⟨g⟩, /kʰ/ ⟨k⟩, /h/ ⟨h⟩, and /ŋ/ ⟨ng⟩ are followed by a palatal medial /j/ ⟨i⟩, they become [c] ⟨g(i)⟩, [cʰ] ⟨k(i)⟩, [ç] ⟨h(i)⟩, and [ɲ] ⟨ng(i)⟩, respectively.

## Rimes

Moiyan Hakka has 7 vowels, ɹ̩, i, e, a, ə, ɔ and u, that are romanised as ii, i, ê, a, e, o and u, respectively.

## Finals

Moreover, Hakka finals exhibit the final consonants found in Middle Chinese, namely [m, n, ŋ, p, t, k] which are romanised as m, n, ng, b, d, and g respectively in the official Moiyan romanisation.

## Tone

Moiyan Hakka has 6 tones. The Middle Chinese fully voiced initial syllables became aspirated voiceless initial syllable in Hakka. Before that happened, the four Middle Chinese 'tones', *ping, shang, qu, ru,* underwent a voicing split in the case of *ping* and *ru,* giving the dialect six tones in traditional accounts.

These so-called yin-yang tonal splittings developed mainly as a consequence of the type of initial a Chinese syllable had during the Middle Chinese stage in the development of Chinese, with voiceless initial syllables [p- t- k-] tending to become of the yin type, and the voiced initial syllables [b- d- ɡ-] developing into the yang type. In modern Moiyan Hakka however, part of the Yin Ping tone characters have sonorant initials [m n ŋ l] originally from the Middle Chinese Shang tone syllables and fully voiced Middle Chinese Qu tone characters, so the voiced/voiceless distinction should be taken only as a rule of thumb.

Hakka tone contours differs more as one moves away from Moiyen. For example, the Yin Ping contour is ˧ (33) in Changting (長汀) and ˨˦ (24) in Sixian (四縣), Taiwan.

Entering tone
Hakka preserves all of the entering tones of Middle Chinese and it is split into two registers. Meixian has the following:

* 陰入 [ ˩ ] a low pitched checked tone
* 陽入 [ ˥ ] a high pitched checked tone

Middle Chinese entering tone syllables ending in [k] whose vowel clusters have become front high vowels like [i] and [e] shifts to syllables with [t] finals in modern Hakka as seen in the following table.

### Tone sandhi

For Moiyan Hakka, the *yin ping* and *qu* tone characters exhibit sandhi when the following character has a lower pitch. The pitch of the *yin ping* tone changes from ˦ (44) to ˧˥ (35) when sandhi occurs. Similarly, the *qu* tone changes from ˥˧ (53) to ˦ (55) under sandhi. These are shown in red in the following table.

Moiyen tone sandhi

The neutral tone occurs in some postfixes. It has a mid pitch.
Mlabri phonology

Mlabri distinguishes rounding in its back vowels. It does not have the register systems of some other Austroasiatic languages.

 a | ɒ

All vowels occur long and short. /a/ is fronted after palato-alveolar consonants, and may approach [ɛ]. There is also a very short vowel /ɪ/ that has limited distribution. Schwas occur in pre-tonic syllables, but may be epenthetic. There are several diphthongs.

Consonants include the two implosive stops /ɓ/ and /ɗ/, attested in words such as *ɓuʔ* 'slow' and *ɗɤŋ* 'can'. These apparent implosive stops could be analyzed as pre-glottalized stops, as pre-glottalization is also a used for sonorants. Consonants also include voiceless sonorants, as in *m̥ɛʔ* 'new', *n̥taʔ* 'tail', *ŋ̊uh* 'sit', *l̥ak* '(there is) none', or *w̥ep* 'shoulder'. Arguably, these could be analyzed as a sequence of /h/ and a sonorant.

/r̥/ is only attested in minor syllables.

Mlabri has a different set of consonants which occur at the ends of syllables, including aspirated sonorants /lʰ, rʰ, jʰ/. The second is a trill, and the third more post-alveolar than palatal. Other final consonants are /p t c k ʔ m n ɲ ŋ h l r j w/
Oʼodham phonology

Oʼodham phonology has a typical Uto-Aztecan inventory distinguishing 21 consonants and 5 vowels.

## Consonants

The retroflex consonants are apical postalveolar.

## Vowels

Most vowels distinguish two degrees of length: long and short, and some vowels also show extra-short duration (voicelessness).

* ṣe꞉l /ʂɨːɭ/ "Seri"
* ṣel /ʂɨɭ/ "permission"
* ʼa꞉pi /ʔaːpi/ "you"
* da꞉pĭ /daːpɪ̥/ "I don't know", "who knows?"

Papago /ɨ/ is pronounced [ʌ] in Pima.

Additionally, in common with many northern Uto-Aztecan languages, vowels and nasals at end of words are devoiced. Also, a short schwa sound, either voiced or unvoiced depending on position, is often interpolated between consonants and at the ends of words.

## Allophony and distribution

* Extra short ⟨ĭ⟩ is realized as voiceless [i̥] and devoices preceding obstruents: cuwĭ /tʃʊwi̥/ → [tʃʊʍi̥]~[tʃʊʍʲ] "jackrabbit".
* /w/ is a fricative [β] before unrounded vowels: wisilo [βisiɭɔ].
* [ŋ] appears before /k/ and /ɡ/ in Spanish loanwords, but native words do not have nasal assimilation: to꞉nk [toːnk] "hill", namk [namk] "meet", ca꞉ŋgo [tʃaːŋɡo] "monkey". /p/, /ɭ/, and /ɖ/ rarely occur initially in native words, and /ɖ/ does not occur before /i/.
* [ɲ] and [n] are largely in complementary distribution, [ɲ] appearing before high vowels /i/ /ɨ/ /ʊ/, [n] appearing before low vowels /a/ /ɔ/: ñeʼe "sing". They contrast finally (ʼañ (1st imperfective auxiliary) vs. an "next to speaker"), though Saxton analyzes these as /ani/ and /an/, respectively, and final [ɲi] as in ʼa꞉ñi as /niː/. However, there are several Spanish loanwords where [nu] occurs: nu꞉milo "number". Similarly, for the most part [t] and [d] appear before low vowels while [tʃ] and [dʒ] before high vowels, but there are exceptions to both, often in Spanish loanwords: tiki꞉la ("tequila") "wine", TO weco / AO veco ("[de]bajo") "under".
Munduruku phonology

## Consonants

* Voiceless stops /p, t, tʃ, k, c, ʔ/
* Voiced stops /b, d, dʒ, ɟ, ɡ/
* Flaps /ⱱ, ɾ/
* Voiceless fricatives /f, θ, s, ʃ, ç, x, h/
* Voiced fricatives /v, ð, z, ʒ, ʝ, ɣ/
* Nasals /m, n, ɲ, ŋ/
* Approximants /ʍ, w, ʋ, ɹ, j, ɥ, ɰ/

## Vowels

* High vowels: /ɨ, ɨ̃, i, ĩ, ʉ, ʉ̃, u, ũ/
* High-mid vowels: /e, ẽ, ø, ø̃, ɤ, ɤ̃, o, õ/
* Mid vowels: /ə̃, ə/
* Low-mid vowels: /ɛ, ɛ̃, œ, œ̃, ʌ, ʌ̃, ɔ, ɔ̃/
* Low vowels /æ, æ̃, a, ã, ɑ, ɑ̃, ɒ, ɒ̃/
Maranao orthography

Maranao was historically written in Arabic letters, which were known as *Batang Arab*. It is now written with Latin letters. Though there is no officially proclaimed standard orthography, Maranao is more or less written phonetically as influenced by Filipino. The following are the letters used in writing out native words:

A, B, D, E, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, NG, O, P, R, S, T, U, W, Y

In representing the mid central vowel (or schwa) /ə/, different authors have employed various means to represent this sound (e.g. "E" or "U"). Consequently, Maranao social media use either of the two letters or just leave it blank (e.g. *saken* can also be spelled *sakn* and *sakun* in the internet). "Ë" may also be used as recommend by the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino's *Ortograpiyang Pambansa* of 2013.

## McKaughan and Macaraya (1996)

In a revised Maranao Dictionary by McKaughan and Macaraya in 1996, the following orthography was used:

1. The digraph "**ae**" was introduced and used to represent the supposed presence of the vowel /ɨ/. However, analysis by Lobel (2009, 2013) showed that this may actually be an allophone of /ə/ after hard consonants.
2. They also used "**q**" for the glottal stop regardless of position.
3. Diphthongs were spelled with vowels, such that [aw, aj, oi] were spelled "**ao**, **ai**, **oi**".

## Nativized orthography

The orthography used in the study by Lobel (2009) was the one developed by Aleem Abdulmajeed Ansano of Taraka (1943–2008), Senator Ahmad Domocao “Domie” Alonto of Ramain (1914– 2002), and Shaiekh Abdul Azis Guroalim Saromantang of Tugaya (1923–2003)

1. The "hard consonants" /ph, th, kh, sh/ were written as "**ph**, **th**, **kh**, **z**"

## Other Notes

Double vowels are pronounced separately. For example, "kapaar" is pronounced as /kapaʔaɾ/.

The final /w/ sound in diphthongs and "W" were marked with "-o" in older orthographies, as in other Philippine languages, but both are nowadays spelled as "W". Also, "i" was used in older orthographies to transcribe /j/, which is currently spelled as "Y".

"H" is only used for Malay loanwords, and "sh" (pronounced as /ʃ/) is used for Arabic loanwords and names such as "Ishak" (Isaac).

"Di" or "j" are used to transcribe the /d͡ʒ/ sound, such as "radia/raja" (from the Sanskrit word for "king", "Rāja") or the English name "John".
Mohawk phonology

## Consonants

An interesting feature of Mohawk (and Iroquoian) phonology is that there are no labials (m, p, b, f, v), except in a few adoptions from French and English, where [m] and [p] appear (e.g., **mátsis** *matches* and **aplám** *Abraham*); these sounds are late additions to Mohawk phonology and were introduced after widespread European contact.
Mudbura phonology

The alphabet of Mudbura language is written identically to the English language but it is spoken differently. Mudburra language has 5 vowels: **a**, **e**, **i**, **o** and **u**. Letter **a** is pronounced like the vowel in “father”, in English. Letter **i** sounds like the vowel in “bit” and **u** is pronounced like the vowel in “put”, in English. Vowel combinations that produce different sounds are: “aw”, “ay”, “iyi”, “uwu”, “uwa”, “uwi”. The consonats that are pronounced sometimes differently than in English are: b, d, g, p, t, k, c, j, v, z, f, s, m, n, y, w, r, l. Consonant combinations include: “rd”, “rn”, “rl”, “ng”, “ny”, “ly”, “rr”.
Mbre phonology

The phonology section below is sourced from Heath & Tioté (2019).

There are two tones, a /H/ and /L/, but phonetically /L/ may be realized as mid tone when followed by another /L/. Grammatical use of tone includes the distinction between perfective and imperfective aspect.

There are seven vowel qualities, with an ATR distinction in the mid vowels, but no vowel harmony. All seven may be long or short, nasal or oral. /CVɾV/ tends to be realized as [CəɾV] for any short vowel.

The consonant inventory is also typical for the area, with marginal /h/ and /ʔ/.

Additionally, there are the phonemes /l/, /ɾ/, /w/, /j/. /CjV/ and /CwV/ sequences occur.
Mundabli phonology

Mundabli Vowel Phonemes

There are four tones; extra high, high, mid, and low.

## References

1. ↑ Good, Jeff and Lovegren, Jesse and Mve, Jean Patrick and Tchiemouo, Nganguep Carine and Voll, Rebecca and Di Carlo, Pierpaolo. 2011. The languages of the Lower Fungom region of Cameroon: Grammatical overview. Africana Linguistica 17. 101–164.
2. ↑ Good, Jeff and Lovegren, Jesse and Mve, Jean Patrick and Tchiemouo, Nganguep Carine and Voll, Rebecca and Di Carlo, Pierpaolo. 2011. The languages of the Lower Fungom region of Cameroon: Grammatical overview. Africana Linguistica 17. 101–164.
Mursi phonology

The vowel and consonant inventory of Mursi is similar to those of other Southeast Surmic languages, except for the lack of ejectives, the labial fricative /f/ and the voiceless stop /p/.

## Consonants

* Except for the hesitant inclusion of the glottal stop /ʔ/ by Firew, both Mütze and Firew agree on the consonant inventory. The layout mostly follows Mütze. The characters in angled brackets are the ones used by Firew, where they differ from Mütze.
* Mütze rejects the phonemic status of the glottal stop [ʔ], claiming that it is phonetically inserted to break up vowel sequences. Firew discusses this and leaves the question undecided, but includes the sound in the phoneme chart.
* Firew classifies the alveolar implosive /ɗ/ as postalveolar, without giving reasons.

## Vowels

* Both Mütze and Firew agree on the vowel inventory and on the chosen transcription, as shown above.
* Even though vowel length appears phonetically in Mursi, it can be explained by the elision of weak consonants between identical vowels.

## Tone

Both Mütze and Firew agree that there are only two underlying tone levels in Mursi, as opposed to larger inventories proposed by Turton and Bender and Moges.

## References

1. ↑ Firew (2021) p. 45
2. ↑ Mütze (2014), p. 26
3. ↑ Firew (2021), p. 46
4. ↑ Mütze (2014), pp. 26 f
5. ↑ Firew (2021), pp. 46 f
6. ↑ Firew (2021), p. 46; on pp. 49 f he even several times calls it velar
7. ↑ Mütze (2014), p. 37
8. ↑ Firew (2021), p. 59
9. ↑ Mütze (2014), p. 39
10. ↑ Mütze (2014), p. 42
11. ↑ Firew (2021), p. 86
12. ↑ Turton & Bender (1976, p. 559)
Matbat phonology

Phonology of the Matbat language:

**Vowel sounds**

## Tones

Matbat has five lexical tones: high falling ˥˩ 41, high ˦ 3, low rising ˩˨ 12, low level ˩ 1, and low falling ˨˩ 21, which in open syllables has a peaking allophone, ˩˨˩ 121. Most Matbat words are monosyllabic; additional syllables in polysyllabic words are often weak and toneless, though a few words do have two tonic syllables. Examples of some of the longer monomorphemic words are /kamow˩˨/ 'star', /wuj˦te/ 'sea shore', /sapu˥˩luj˩˨/ 'round', /bim˦bom˩˨˩pu/ 'butterfly'.
Mojave phonology

All claims and examples in this section come from Munro (1974) unless otherwise noted. Mojave phonology is similar to that of Maricopa. One difference is that in the 19th century Mohave speakers shifted the sounds [s] and [ʂ] (similar to sh as in "shack") to [θ] (th as in "thick") and [s], respectively.

## Consonants

The post-alveolar stops /ɳ/ and /ʈ/ only occur in very few words.

## Vowels

Mohave has five vowel qualities, with length distinction and the weak vowel /ə/.

## References

1. ↑ Munro, P. (1976). Subject copying, auxiliarization, and predicate raising: the Mojave evidence. International Journal of American Linguistics, 99-112.
2. ↑ Munro, P. E. L. (1974). Topics in Mojave syntax (Doctoral dissertation, UMI Ann Arbor).