Parthian Empire

Flag of the Parthian Empire

The  **Parthian Empire** (247 BCE – 227 CE), also known as the **Arsacid Empire**, was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe in conquering the region of Parthia in Iran's northeast, then a satrapy (province) under Andragoras, in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire. After time the Seleucid Empire lost more and more land to the Parthians, eventually the last Seleucid territory got conquered by the Armenians in 83 BCE. In 53 BCE Parthia occupied all of Armenia. In 40 BCE, the Parthian Empire subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as the city of Shechem. Shortly afterwards, the Parthians conquered the Demetrian Kingdom of Egypt. However, this occupation was only short-lived, as Amanirenas of Kush had invaded the region in 27 BCE. Parthia soon began to decline, after the Second Levantine War (50-52 CE), in which Parthia lost Syria to Pontos, and Judea to the Bishopric of Jerusalem.

The Kingdom of Parsa began subjugating its surrounding territories in 224 CE. Ardashir I defeated the Parthians at the Battle of Hormozdgān on 28 April 224 CE, perhaps at a site near Isfahan, defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire. From 224-226 CE the Sasanians would conquer all of mainland Parthia, eventually conquering Mesopotamia and Egypt in 227 CE. The Persians fully occupied the Kingdom of Pontos, by 235 CE.

## History

### Origins and foundation (247-170 BCE)

Before Arsaces I established the Arsacid Dynasty in 247 BCE, he was chieftain of the Parni, an ancient Central-Asian tribe of Iranian peoples and one of several nomadic tribes within the confederation of the Dahae. The Parni most likely spoke an eastern Iranian language, in contrast to the northwestern Iranian language spoken at the time in Parthia. The latter was a northeastern province, first under the Achaemenid, and then the Seleucid empires. After invading the region, the Parni adopted Parthian as the official court language, speaking it alongside Middle Persian, Aramaic, Greek, Babylonian, Sogdian and other languages in the multilingual territories they would invade.

For a time, Arsaces I (r. 247-211 BCE) strengthened his position in Parthia and Hyrcania by taking advantage of the invasion of Seleucid territory in the west by Ptolemy III Euergetes (r. 246–222 BCE) of Egypt. This conflict with Ptolemy, the Third Syrian War (246–241 BCE), also allowed Diodotus I to rebel and form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia. The latter's successor, Diodotus II, formed an alliance with Arsaces against the Seleucids, but Arsaces was temporarily driven from Parthia by the forces of Seleucus II Callinicus (r. 246–225 BCE). After spending some time in exile among the nomadic Apasiacae tribe, Arsaces led a counterattack and recaptured Parthia. Seleucus II's successor, Antiochus III the Great (r. 222–187 BCE), was unable to immediately take revenge because his troops were busy in putting down the rebellion of Molon in Media.

The sucessor of Arsaces I, was Artabanus I or also called Arsaces II (r. 211-185 BCE). A fictitious claim was later made from the 2nd-century BCE onwards by the Parthians, which represented them as descendants of the Achaemenid king of kings, Artaxerxes II of Persia (r. 404–358 BCE).

Antiochus III launched a massive campaign to retake Parthia and Bactria in 209 BCE. Despite some victories he was unsuccessful, but did negotiate a peace settlement with Arsaces II. The latter was granted the title of king (Greek: *basileus*) in return for his submission to Antiochus III as his superior and being a client state of the Seleucids. Priapatius (r. 185–170 BCE) succeeded Arsaces II, and Phraates I (r. 170–167 BCE) eventually ascended the throne. Parthia would exist as a client state and not be freed from Seleucid rule until the death of Antiochus III in 161 BCE, under the reign of Mithridates I.

### Expansion and strengthening (170 BCE-97 BCE)

Phraates I is recorded as expanding Parthia's control past the Gates of Alexander and occupied Apamea Ragiana. The locations of these are unknown. Yet the greatest expansion of Parthian power and territory took place during the reign of his brother and successor, who freed Parthia from Seleucid rule, Mithridates I (r. 167–132 BCE), which is also compared to Cyrus the Great (d. 530 BCE), founder of the Achaemenid Empire.

Relations between Parthia and Greco-Bactria deteriorated after the death of Diodotus II, when Mithridates' forces captured two eparchies of the latter kingdom, then under Eucratides I (r. 170–145 BCE). Turning his sights on the Seleucid Empire, Mithridates invaded Media and occupied Ecbatana in 148 or 147 BC; the region had been destabilized by a recent Seleucid suppression of a revolt there led by Timarchus. This victory was followed by the Parthian conquest of Babylonia in Mesopotamia, where Mithridates had coins minted at Seleucia in 141 BCE and held an official investiture ceremony. While Mithridates I retired to Hyrcania, his forces subdued the kingdoms of Elymais and Characene and occupied Susa. By this time, Parthian power extended as far east as the Indus River. The Seleucids however only have their west Mesopotamian part left under their control.

Whereas Hecatompylos had served as the first Parthian capital, Mithridates I established royal residences at Seleucia, Ecbatana, Ctesiphon and his newly founded city, Mithradatkert (Nisa, Turkmenistan), where the tombs of the Arsacid kings were built and kept. Ecbatana became the main summertime residence for the Arsacid royalty. Ctesiphon may not have become the official capital until around 90 BCE. It became the site of the royal coronation ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids.

The Seleucids were unable to take revenge immediately as general Diodotus Tryphon led a rebellion at the capital Antioch in 142 BCE. However, by 140 BCE Demetrius II Nicator was able to launch a counter-invasion against the Parthians in Mesopotamia. Despite early successes, the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces and taken to Hyrcania. There Mithridates I treated his captive with great hospitality; he even married his daughter Rhodogune of Parthia to Demetrius.

Antiochus VII Sidetes (r. 136–129 BCE), a brother of Demetrius II Nicator, assumed the Seleucid throne. After defeating Diodotus Tryphon, Antiochus VII initiated a campaign in 130 BCE to retake Mesopotamia, now under the rule of Phraates II (r. 132–127 BCE). The Parthian general Indates was defeated along the Great Zab, followed by a local uprising where the Parthian governor of Babylonia was killed. Antiochus conquered Babylonia and occupied Susa, where he minted coins. After advancing his army into Media, the Parthians pushed for peace, which Antiochus VII refused to accept unless the Arsacids gave up all lands to him except Parthia proper, paid heavy tribute, and released his father Demetrius I from captivity. Arsaces released Demetrius and sent him to Syria, but refused the other demands. By spring 129 BCE, the Medes were in open revolt against Antiochus VII, whose army had exhausted the resources of the countryside during winter. While attempting to put down the revolts, the main Parthian force swept into the region and killed Antiochus at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BCE. His body was sent back to Syria in a silver coffin.

While the Parthians regained the territories lost in the west, another threat arose in the east. In 177–176 BCE the nomadic confederation of the Xiongnu dislodged the nomadic Yuezhi from their homelands in what is now Gansu province in Northwest China; the Yuezhi then migrated west into Bactria and displaced the Saka (Scythian) tribes. The Saka were forced to move further west, where they invaded the Parthian Empire's northeastern borders.

Some of the Saka were enlisted in Phraates' I forces against Antiochus. However, they arrived too late to engage in the conflict. When Phraates II refused to pay their wages, the Saka revolted, which he tried to put down with the aid of former Seleucid soldiers, yet they too abandoned Phraates II and joined sides with the Saka. Phraates II marched against this combined force, but he was killed in battle. Mithridates II (r. 121–91 BCE) later recovered the lands lost to the Saka in Sakastan.

Following the Seleucid withdrawal from Mesopotamia, the Parthian governor of Babylonia, Himerus, was ordered by the Arsacid court to conquer Characene, then ruled by Hyspaosines from Charax Spasinu. When this failed, Hyspaosines invaded Babylonia in 127 BCE and occupied Seleucia. Yet by 122 BCE, Mithridates II forced Hyspaosines out of Babylonia and made the kings of Characene vassals under Parthian suzerainty. After Mithridates II extended Parthian control further west, occupying Dura-Europos in 113 BCE, he became involved in a conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia. His forces defeated and deposed Artavasdes I of Armenia in 97 BCE, taking his son Tigranes II hostage, who would later become Tigranes II "the Great" of Armenia (r. 95–55 BCE).

The Indo-Parthian Kingdom, located in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan made an alliance with the Parthian Empire in the 1st century BCE. Claims exist that these two states considered each other political equals. After the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana visited the court of Vardanes I (r. 40–47 CE) in 42 CE, Vardanes I provided him with the protection of a caravan as he traveled to Indo-Parthia. When Apollonius reached Indo-Parthia's capital Taxila, his caravan leader read Vardanes' I official letter, perhaps written in Parthian, to an Indian official who treated Apollonius with great hospitality.

Following the diplomatic venture of Zhang Qian into Central Asia during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE), the Han Empire of China sent a delegation to Mithridates II's court in 121 BCE. The Han embassy opened official trade relations with Parthia via the Silk Road yet did not achieve a desired military alliance against the confederation of the Xiongnu. Pearls were a highly valued import from China, while the Chinese purchased Parthian spices, perfumes, and fruits. Exotic animals were also given as gifts from the Arsacid to Han courts; in 87 CE the King of Parthia sent lions and Persian gazelles to Emperor Zhang of Han (r. 75–88 CE). The merchants of Sogdia, speaking an Eastern Iranian language, served as the primary middlemen of this vital silk trade between Parthia and Han China.

### Armenia and Parthian Dark Age (97 BCE-50 CE)

The Yuezhi Kushan Empire in northern India largely guaranteed the security of Parthia's eastern border. Thus, from the mid-1st century BCE onwards, the Arsacid court focused on securing the western border.

In 97 BCE Mithridates II subjugated Armenia. It would remain a Parthian vassal until the end of the 80's BCE.

Following the rule of Mithridates II, his empire would be split between Orodes I (r. 91-79 BCE) Mithridates III (r. 91-77 BCE). The latter one would unite Parthia in 79 BCE. They reigned during a period coined in scholarship as the "Parthian Dark Age," due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns. This system of split monarchy weakened Parthia, allowing Tigranes II of Armenia to annex Parthian territory in western Mesopotamia in 83 BCE (also annexing the last remains of the Seleucid Empire). This land would not be restored to Parthia until the reign of Sinatruces I (r. 77-70 BCE).

Tigranes the Younger, son of Tigranes II of Armenia, failed to usurp the Armenian throne from his father. He fled to Phraates III (r. 70-57 BCE) and convinced him to replace Tigranes II with him, which succeeded.

Phraates III was assassinated by his sons Orodes II of Parthia and Mithridates IV of Parthia, after which Orodes II turned on Mithridates IV, forcing him to flee from Media to Syria. Mithridates IV managed to conquer Babylonia, and minted coins at Seleucia until 54 BCE. In that year, Orodes' general, known only as Surena after his noble family's clan name, recaptured Seleucia, and Mithridates was executed.

From 54-53 BCE, one year after Tigranes II's death, the forces of Orodes II managed to occupy all of Armenia, making it a client state of the Empire. Orodes II, had put his younger son Phraates IV on the Armenian throne, ending the Artaxiad dynasty and beginning the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia.

#### The Volcanic Eruption of 44 BCE and aftermath (44-40 BCE)

In 44 BCE, written sources describe a period of unusually cold climate, crop failures, famine, disease, and unrest in the Mediterranean Region. These factors caused food scarcity in Parthia, which halted further expansions for a time. The reason for this is a volcanic eruption in Okmok, Alaska.

Climate models suggest that seasonally averaged temperatures may have been as much as 7°C (13°F) below normal during the summer and autumn that followed the eruption of Okmok in 44 BCE.

The cooling effects lasted more than two years, resulting in the second and eighth coldest summertime temperatures of the past 2,500 years in 43 and 42 BCE, respectively, based on the European tree-ring climate proxy records. This short "dark age" lasted until around 40 BCE.

#### Second Egyptian-, First Levantine- and Cyrenaican War (40-38 BCE)

In 40 BCE, the Parthian prince Pacorus I subdued all Egyptian settlements along the Levantine coast as far south as the city of Shechem, initiating the Second Egyptian War (40-38 BCE). In reaction to this, pharaoh \*Nexeu I sent an army to meet the Parthians at Jerusalem. However, the Carthaginians, took this oppurtunity and invaded Syria as far as Damascus. After Pacorus I, defeated the Demetrians at Jerusalem, he immediately sent his army to Damascus, only to be defeated by the Phoenicians. Pacorus was forced to sign an armstice, and thus, the Carthaginian territory in Phoenicia now reached from the cities of Arwad, to Damascus and all the way south to Dor, marking the end of the First Levantine War (40-39 BCE).

The Egyptians, however, are in decline and had just experienced a great flood and a famine, causing shortages of soldiers and supplies. Pacorus I, decisively outflanked the low-moraled Demetrians with their Parthian cavalry at the Battle of Gaza in 39 BCE, killing their entire army of 20,000 men, including the Egyptian general. The Parthians, now with reinforcements from the king Orodes II, swept into Egypt and quickly overran the almost non-protected cities of Paramoun (Pelusium), and Memphis. In 38 BCE, Pacorus clashed with another 20,000 Egyptian soldiers at Sais, however, \*Nexeu, was again defeated and began fortifying in Alexandria.

In 39 BCE, the Carthaginian Empire invaded the Egyptian vassal kingdom of Cyrenaica, during the Cyrenaican War (39-38 BCE). The Phoenicians captured as far as the city of Amunia (Paraitonion), annexing the region from the declining Demetrian Kingdom, which was now attacked from both sides. Meanwhile, Pacorus I destroyed the remaining Egyptian army and had stormed their capital, during the Siege of Alexandria in 38 BCE. Knowing that he would be taken to Orodes' II court in Parthia, (and likely executed thereafter), \*Nexeu I and his son \*Akhem both committed suicide in 38 BCE. Orodes II submitted the throne to Pacorus I, in 37 BCE. Egypt itself became a Parthian vassal kingdom, except Carthaginian Cyrenaica.

#### Amanirenan War (27-24 BCE) and Syrian War (26-23 BCE)

Around 27 BCE, Tiridates II of Parthia (r. 30-25 and 24-23 BCE) briefly overthrew Pacorus I (r. 37-30 and 25-24 BCE), who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads. Tiridates II was expelled and fled to the Pontic Empire. However, it was this internal strife, that Amanirenas of Kush used as chance to invade Egypt, that same year. Amanirenas met with the Parthian general Barzapharnes, at Thebes, defeating the latter, and his army of 40,000, with an army of 50,000 including Egyptian auxiliary units. Barzapharnes was pursued, until he began fortifying at Memphis. The Battle of Memphis resulted in the loss of his entire army, with the general being killed in combat. After annihilating the Parthian garrisons, Alexandria was captured in 26 BCE.

This was the perfect oppurtunity for Pharnaces II, king of the Pontic Empire, to wage a war, assisted by Tiridates II, and that's exactly what he did that same year, marching into Parthia with a force of 100,000 men.

Pacorus I, hearing the news, was outraged, not only because Egypt had fallen and Barzaphanes was one of his close friends, but because he now had to fight a two front war with Pontos. Pacorus ordered an army of 40,000 to meet Amanirenas at Alexandria under the command of general \*Phranipates, and another army of 60,000 under his command to meet Pharnaces near Antioch. However,\*Phranipates was ambushed by native Egyptian rebels at Pelusium, damaging his supplies and killing 2,000 men by setting some of the ships on fire. Heavily demoralized, the general forcibly ordered the army to continue. When he met Amanirenas near Alexandria in 25 BCE, his forces were attacked by Kushite cavalry charging into his flanks, making the army practically dysfunctional. Almost the entire army was slaughtered, and only a few thousand soldiers managed to escape to the ships, including the severely wounded \*Phranipates, who only barely survived and moved back to Jerusalem, where he resupplied his battered army.

Meanwhile, Pharnaces II, with a force of 100,000 men, completely defeated the army of Pacorus, who lost around half of his army. Antioch was captured and the Parthian king was forced to retreat, setting up his new camp near Palmyra. Having no other choice, Pacorus sent a letter to his younger brother, Phraates, the client king of Armenia, asking for assistance.

Simultaneously, Tiridates II was sent by Pharnaces II to the Parthian court in Ecbatana, along with a few hundred Pontic royal guards, that were clothed as Parthians. His task was to overthrow the government, by attempting to convince the politicans and Pacorus' 13 year old son, \*Orodes III, that Pacorus' army failed and that Parthia would collapse if no one was able to rule the empire. However, \*Orodes refused this, and as a result Tiridates massacred the entire court, including the wife of Pacorus, except those who were willing to cooperate. \*Orodes managed to escape his execution, and fled to Armenia, taking with him his other two younger brothers, \*Vonones (11 years old) and \*Vologases (6 years old). where he joined the 50,000 strong relief force of his uncle, Phraates and informed him of Tiridates' coup.

Unfortunately, by 24 BCE, it was already too late for Pacorus. His unexperienced army, hastily scrapped together, and demoralized by their last defeat, was crushed, one by one, including the king. When his brother arrived in Palmyra, all that was left, was a total bloodshed. After burying Pacorus in Palmyra, Phraates and \*Orodes pursued the Greeks to Jerusalem, where general \*Phranipates held his position. At the same time, Amanirenas' army of Kushites was marching directly to the same city, with a force of 50,000 men.

##### Battle of Jerusalem (24 BCE)

\*Phranipates managed to gather around 15,000 men. Even though he was unpopular, due to his irrorational decisions, his army managed to regain some of its morale when news came in, that Phraates was on his way to Jerusalem. However, the Greeks arrived first and began to siege the city. At the same time, the Kushites were coming close to the city. Pharnaces sent a few envoys to Amanirenas, wanting to negotiate an alliance. In response, the queen murdered the diplomats, sent them their heads back, and replied with the message:

"I may be blind in one eye, but I am no fool to think, that you Greeks are worth to be called an ally. I slaughtered your people in Egypt, and so will I slaughter you on the battlefield."

Completely outraged, Pharnaces ordered a full scale charge along with his 80,000 men. His light Scythian skirmishes on the front, were an easy target for the Kushite longbows and inflicted significant damage. However, the light Kushite infantry was not suited for the veteran Pontic cataphracts, something that Amanirenas had no experience with before. The Kushite army was being completely penetrated, and Amanirenas was forced to retreat in complete chaos, with a only a few thousand soldiers left. Before Pharnaces' cavalry could pursure the Kushites, the king's ears were deafened by a loud noise coming from behind. It was Phraates.

With around 60,000 men left, Pharnaces' unorganized army now had to fight a force equal in size. The Greeks did not have enough time to turn around their entire army and to set up their formation. As a result, the Pontic soldiers were completely exposed to the Parthians and suffered enourmous casualties of around 40,000 men, while Phraates only lost about 10,000.

#### Aftermath

Pharnaces retreated to Antioch, where he fought an inconclusive battle in 23 BCE. With 15,000 battered men left, he abandoned his campaign in Parthia, and so did Amanirenas. The Greeks signed a peace treaty with Parthia: Pontos would gain control over Cilicia and Commagene, but had to promise peace between the two empires for the next 30 years.

Together with his nephew, Phraates regained control of the Parthian court, and publicly executed Tiridates II, alongside his Pontic bodyguards. Shortly after, \*Orodes III and Phraates came to an agreement on who will be the next ruler of Parthia: Phraates IV would rule the empire until his nephew was 18 years old, and then he would submit the throne and would continue to only rule Armenia.

Phraates initially wanted to reconquer Egypt from Amanirenas. However, he had to give up his efforts, as Phraates could not risk another coup on his currently crippled and dysfunctional government. The court was vulnerable to be overthrown again, because dozens of diplomats, politicans and generals were murdered by Tiridates, and new personal had to be gathered.

In the meantime, the Kushite kingdom slowly managed to recover, and a Parthian reconquest was yet not in sight.

#### Jewish Revolts and Indo-Parthian Kingdom (35-50 CE)

In 20 CE, the non-Arsacid governor, Gondophares, had founded the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, seperating it from the Empire.

During the reign of \*Artabanus III (19-49 CE), two Jewish commoners and brothers, Anilai and Asinai from Nehardea (near modern Fallujah, Iraq), led a revolt against the Parthian governor of Babylonia. After defeating the latter, the two were granted the right to govern the region by \*Artabanus, who feared further rebellion elsewhere. Anilai's Parthian wife poisoned Asinai out of fear he would attack Anilai over his marriage to a gentile. Following this, Anilai became soon after embroiled in an armed conflict with the Parthian King, who eventually defeated him. With the Jewish regime removed, the native Babylonians began to harass the local Jewish community, forcing them to emigrate to Seleucia. When that city rebelled against Parthian rule in 35–36 CE, the Jews were expelled again, this time by the local Greeks and Aramaeans. The exiled Jews fled to Ctesiphon, Nehardea, and Nisibis.

Parthia would retain firm control over Armenia through the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia. Even after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Arsacid line lived on through the Armenian kings. However, not only did the Arsacid line continue through the Armenians, it as well continued through the Georgian kings with the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia, and for many centuries afterwards in Caucasian Albania through the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania.

#### Third Egyptian War (9-7 BCE)

With the death of Amanirenas of Kush in 10 BCE, numerous uprisings broke out in Kushite Egypt, turning the region extremely unstable and unorganized. In 9 BCE, The Carthaginian Empire used this as a chance to conquer Egypt, under the command of shophet \*Mithonbaal, that same year. Simultaneously, the **Parthian** king, \*Orodes III took note of this, and marched into Egypt as well. Alexandria was quickly captured by the Phoenicians, yet first contact between Carthage and Parthia occured at the Battle of Memphis in 8 BCE. 70,000 Carthaginian soldiers stood against 50,000 Parthians. \*Orodes III was defeated and suffered 25,000 casualties, while \*Mithonbaal only lost about 10,000 men. The shophet pursued \*Orodes III to the city of Pelousion, defeating him once again. He abandoned his campaign, and marching home only to be mortified by his population. One year later he was poisoned by his younger brother \*Vonones I. However, his other brother, \*Vologases I rebelled against the murder of their father and fought a civil war until 11 CE, when he was killed by \*Vonones (r. 7 BCE-19 CE).

### Parthian Decline (50 CE-227 CE)

#### Second Levantine War (50-52 CE)

After the death of Jesus Christ by stoning in 50 CE (and claimed resurrection thereafter), a revolt broke out in Judea, known as the Great Christian Revolt. However, the Christians knew that the Parthian Empire, under king \*Gotarzes II (r. 49-56 CE), could easily crush their rebellion, which controlled the region. The Christian general, \*Malachi, asked the Pontic king, \*Pharnaces III, for support. Pharnaces saw this as a chance to conquer Syria from the Parthians, while their ally would get Isreal. However, the king was too old to fight, so he sent his son, \*Mithridates VIII Soter, as well as his favourite general, named \*Nicanor, and alongside them two massive armies of each 40,000 men.

Meanwhile, a Parthian army, numbering 20,000 men, was coming close to Jerusalem. Initially wanting to fight, \*Malachi got rejected by the apostles for being a warmonger. However, when the Parthians saw an army with Pontic symbols, under \*Mithridates, the latter got completely confused and, as a result, the Parthians were completely crushed, not expecting an attack from Pontos, during the Battle of Jerusalem (51 CE). Meanwhile, in the north, the Pontic army, commanded by \*Nicanor, launched a surprise attack and captured Antioch, Edessa and Palmyra, by 52 CE. After capturing Tigranocerta, the two Pontic armies, each numbering around 40,000 men, were both marching to the city of Hatra.

However, due to a misconception, the Parthian king, \*Gotarzes II, believed it was only one force that marched east, and thus, he sent one army, consisting of 80,000 men. The southern Pontic force, led by \*Mithridates, has reached the city first and began its formation. However, when the Parthians were about to charge, \*Nicanor and his 40,000 strong army smashed into them from behind, while the southern force now began to charge as well. \*Gotarzes' army was completely annihilated from both sides. 70,000 men were killed in the Battle of Hatra (52 CE), and 10,000 captured. The Parthians were completely exhausted, and \*Gotarzes II, was forced to sue for peace.

In late 52 CE, the Pontic Empire and the Parthian Empire signed a peace treaty. The Bishopric of Jerusalem asserted control of all of former Judea. Pontos gained control over Antioch, Syria, Nabataea, the city of Ascalon, and Egypt. The Hasmonean Jews were to be exiled into the Pontic client state of Ituraea. Having no other choice, the **Parthians** agreed, marking the end of the Second Levantine War (50-52 CE). This was the beginning of the end of Parthian hegemony.

#### Internal Strife and Civil Wars (53-224 CE)

In 53 CE, the brother of \*Gotarzes II (r. 49-56 CE), \*Vardanes I (r. 49-76 CE), rebelled against him, splitting the empire in three parts. \*Gotarzes II, was enthroned by his younger brother in 56 CE.

Around 72 CE the Alans invaded Parthia's eastern territories.

After the death of \*Vardanes I in 76 CE, the empire was split between his two sons, \*Phraates V (r. 76-82 CE) and \*Vonones II (r. 76-111 CE). In 82 CE, \*Vonones II defeated \*Phraates V.

In 95 CE, the Indo Parthian Kingdom collapsed.

In 111 CE, after the death of \*Vonones II, the empire was split into three, between \*Pacorus II (r. 111-133 CE), \*Artabanus IV (r. 111-124 CE), and \*Gotarzes III (r. 111-118 CE). In 118 CE, \*Pacorus II killed \*Gotarzes III and in 124 CE, \*Artabanus IV, was killed by \*Pacorus II, unifying the empire.

In 133 CE \*Pacorus II, was killed by his son, \*Vologases II (r. 133-172 CE), who ruled for 39 years, until he was followed by his son, Osroes I (r. 172-197 CE). After the death of \*Osroes I, In 197 CE, the empire was divided by his two sons, \*Mithridates IV (r. 197-209 CE) and \*Artabanus V (r. 197-207 CE).

In 207 CE, \*Artabanus V, was killed by \*Mithridates IV. However, he died in 209, from a mysterious disease during an expedition in Central Asia. In 209, Queen \*Ispubarza ascended the throne, as her son, Osroes II, was only 7 years old, only to be killed by her brother, \*Silaces in 212, which marked the first time, a non-Arsacid dynasty ruled in Parthia.

##### Second Armenian War (209-212 CE)

In 209 CE, the Parthian Empire was in a heavily unstable position, as it was ruled by a queen named \*Ispubarza (r. 209-212), while her son was only 7 years old, and too young to ascend the throne. Because females don't usually rule alone, rebellions and revolts were frequent. King \*Mithridates IX Mithripolenos (r. 188-222 CE), saw this as a chance to conquer Armenia or even more ambitiously; Mesopotamia. The war began, when \*Mithridates marched on to the city of Tigranocerta, with a force numbering 80,000 soldiers. \*Ispubarza sent an army of 90,000 men, commanded by herself.

###### Battle of Tigranocerta (209 CE)

However, when the armies met near the city, thousands of Parthian soldiers began to revolt, with some even deserting, due to their unacceptance of being led by a woman. Meanwhile, the Macedonian Cataphracts located on each flank, began to advance to their enemy flanks unnoticed, while the main force slowly moved forward. While the battle was ongoing, out of fear that the mutiny would escalate, \*Ispubarza ordered an immediate execution of all revolting men, by sending in her loyal Parthian bodyguards, to arrest thousands of soldiers during combat, and to drag them behind the enemy lines, where they all faced decapitation. This severely damaged the organization and morale of the Parthians, while \*Mithridates' forces began to break through the opposing defense. \*Mithridates then ordered his Macedonian Cataphracts to charge onto the enemy flanks, completely annihilating the Parthians, who were still arresting and executing their own soldiers. 83,000 Parthian troops were slaughtered in this battle, with only \*Ispubarza, her bodyguards, as well as a few thousand men managing to retreat.

The loss at Tigranocerta was a huge blow for \*Ispubarza, whose reputation was already damaged. This led to even more rebellions and internal strife, while \*Mithridates conquered most of Armenia, reaching the Caspian Sea, by 210, with his dream of a "Three Sea Empire" being fulfilled. When the Queen learned of a second Pontic army, numbering 70,000 men, led by general \*Taxiles, who was marching to Ctesiphon, an army of 60,000 soldiers, commanded by the Parthian general \*Bagasis, was sent to the city, while \*Ipubarza sent another army of 80,000, commanded by a general named \*Manesus to meet with king \*Mithridates at Ganzak in 210 CE.

###### Battle of Ctesiphon (210 CE)

As \*Taxiles was approaching Ctesiphon, the Parthians began fortfying in the city, at the other side of the Tigris River. \*Bagasis then built a bridge from the center Ctesiphon to the other side, by tearing off stone from buildings, mixing it with wood logs. When this was noticed by \*Taxiles, he directly ordered the construction of two bridges, located a few kilometres outside the city, while he earlier brought materials from nearby. One of the bridges, located north, was intentionally smaller, and extremely unstable, while the other was larger and more stable. The Pontic general, then sent one soldier, who was acting as a deserteur, to \*Bagasis, telling him about the northern bridge to distract the Parthians from not only their central bridge, but to avoid a spotting of the southern construction. When \*Bagasis tried to cross the bridge, it collapsed, leading to a few hundred drowned soldiers, with him being able to swim to the shore. Meanwhile, the main Pontic force of 50,000 men, crossed the southern bridge, and managed to capture Ctesiphon, as only half of the 50,000 strong Parthian army was kept to guard the city. When the city fell, \*Taxiles, and most of his remaining soldiers, charged onto the Parthians, slaughtering every single soldier, including \*Bagasis.

###### Battle of Ectabana (211 CE)

Unlike \*Bagasis, the Parthian general \*Manesus was far more wise. He sent half of his troops, as well as his younger brother, general \*Monaeses, to guard Ectabana, along with the local garrisons, while the other half, including himself was moved to a nearby mountain south-east of the city to hide from Mithridates' army. When the latter, arrived at Ectabana, he began to lay siege to the city, surrounding it. A few days after the Pontic forces were on their position, at night, \*Manesus began spreading out his troops, fully encircling \*Mithridates. At dawn, \*Manesus attacked the sieging army, from all sides, while his brother \*Monaeses began to launch a sortie. Of the 70,000 Pontic troops, only 3,000 survived, with \*Mithridates fleeing to \*Taxiles.

In 212 CE, Queen \*Ispubarza was assassinated by her brother, \*Silaces, who knew that the Parthians could not afford a continued large-scale war against Pontos, sought for peace negotiations. That same year, a treaty was made, which transferred the control of Armenia, as well as the Caucasian kingdoms of Iberia and Albania to Pontos, while Mesopotamia was kept by Parthia.

In 219, \*Osroes II (r. 219-227 CE), claimed the throne with 17 years and rebelled against \*Silaces (r. 212-225 CE).

#### Sassanid Expansion and Downfall (224-227 CE)

From 224 CE onwards, Ardashir I, the local Iranian ruler of Persis (modern Fars Province, Iran) from Istakhr began subjugating the surrounding territories in disregarding of Arsacid rule. He confronted \*Silaces I, at the Battle of Hormozdgān on 28 April 224 CE, perhaps at a site near Isfahan, defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire.

From 224-227 CE the Sasanians would conquer all of mainland Parthia, executing \*Silaces in 225, at his moved court in Mithridakert. The Sassanids eventually conquered Mesopotamia in 227, killing \*Osroes II, at the Battle of Seleucia. There is evidence, however, that suggests, \*Osroes II, continued to mint coins at Seleucia that same year.

The Sasanians would also attempt to restore the boundaries of the Achaemenid Empire by conquering the Kingdom of Pontos in 231 CE during the reign of Ardashir I (r. 205–242 CE).

*\* Indicates that a name or event is fictional, though made to fit with the timeline.*

## Relations with the Kingdom of Pontos

After the Parthian Empire subjugated all of Armenia in 53 BCE (a Pontic ally) relations heavily dropped. Still, there was no major war against Pontus, only a few skirmishes. This was mostly due to the already overextended Parthian Empire which couldn't handle much more territory, especially wars against equally strong rivals. Similar to Pontos which was too weak to start a war with the Parthians.

However, this changed in 50 CE, when a revolt Christian revolt broke out in Israel, caused by the execution of Jesus. The Parthians were completely taken by suprise after they met with the Pontic-Christian army. The exhausted Parthians lost the war, and had to submit most of their Levantine holdings to Pontos, among them, Syria. Parthia was never able to revenge themselves against Pontos, as the empire was now only a shadow of its former self.

## List of Parthian Kings

(These are the names and reign dates).

**Arsacid Dynasty**

Arsaces I "the Great" (247-211 BCE)

Artabanus I or also called Arsaces II (211-185 BCE)

Priapatius (185-170 BCE)

Phraates I (170-167 BCE)

Mithridates I "the Great" (167-132 BCE)

Phraates II (132-127 BCE) - Killed in battle against invading nomads in the east.

Artabanus II (127-126 BCE) - Killed in battle against invading nomads in the east.

Vologases I (126-122 BCE)

Artabanus (III) (122-121 BCE)

Mithridates II "the Great" (121-91 BCE)

- After the death of Mithridates II, the empire was split in half between two kings.

Mithridates III (91-77 BCE) and Orodes I (91-79 BCE)

- After Mithridates III defeated Orodes I in 79 BCE, the empire was unified under his rule.

Sinatruces I (77-70 BCE) - Born 158 BCE, died in 69 BCE, with 90 years.

Phraates III (70-57 BCE) - Born \*128 BCE, died 57 BCE. Murdered by his sons Orodes II and Mithridates IV.

- After the death of Phraates III, the empire was again split in half between two kings.

Mithridates IV (57-54 BCE) - Born \*99 BCE. Executed by his brother Orodes II. And Orodes II (57-37 BCE) - Born \*96 BCE. Submitted the throne to his son Pacorus I, in 37 BCE.

- Orodes II, executed his brother Mithridates IV and unified Parthia under his rule in 54 BCE.

Pacorus I (37-30 and 25 BCE - 2 CE) - Born \*66 BCE, Killed during the Battle of Palmyra in 25 BCE, with 41 years.

Tiridates II of Parthia (30-25 and 25-24 BCE) - \*Overthrew the Parthian throne two times. Executed by Phraates in 24 BCE.

\*Phraates IV (23-18 BCE) - Brother of Pacorus I. Ruled the throne until his nephew, \*Orodes III was 18 years old. He submitted the throne.

\*Orodes III (18 BCE-7 BCE) - Born 37 BCE, poisoned by his brother, \*Vonones I in 7 BCE, after \*Orodes' III Egyptian campaign failed.

- In 7 BCE, the empire was split between \*Vonones I and his brother \*Vologases I, the latter rebelled against the murdering of their father.

\*Vonones I (7 BCE-19 CE) - Born 34 BCE - and \*Vologases I (7 BCE-11 CE)

- In 11 CE, \*Vonones I killed \*Vologases I and unified the empire under his rule.

- In 19 CE, \*Vonones I was murdered by his son, \*Artabanus III

\*Artabanus III (19-49 CE)

- In 20 CE, the non-Arsacid king, Gondophares, had founded the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, splitting the empire.

\*Artabanus III (19-49 CE) - Born 5 BCE - and Gondophares (20-45 CE)

-> \*Gotarzes II (49-56 CE) -> Four Rulers (45-95 CE)

- In 53 CE, the brother of \*Gotarzes II (born 24 CE), \*Vardanes I (born 26 CE) rebelled, splitting the empire into three parts.

-> \*Gotarzes II (49-56 CE) -> \*Vardanes I (49-76 CE) (Born 25 CE) -> Four Rulers (45-95 CE)

- In 56 CE, \*Vardanes I killed \*Gotarzes II.

-> \*Vardanes I (49-76 CE) -> Four Rulers (45-95 CE)

(From 63 CE onwards, the Arsacid dynasty ruled in Armenia) (see Armenia (Arsacid)).

- After the death of \*Vardanes I in 76 CE, the empire was split into three parts.

-> \*Phraates V (76-82 CE) (born 56 CE) -> \*Vonones II (76-111 CE) (born 59 CE) -> Four Rulers (45-95 CE)

- In 82 CE, \*Vonones II defeated \*Phraates V.

-> \*Vonones II (76-111 CE) -> Four Rulers (45-95 CE)

- In 95 CE, the breakaway Indo-Parthian kingdom, led by the Four Rulers, collapsed.

-> \*Vonones II (76-111 CE)

- In 111 CE, the empire was split into three between \*Pacorus III (born 87 CE), \*Artabanus IV (born 89 CE) and \*Gotarzes III.

-> \*Pacorus II (111-133 CE) -> \*Artabanus IV (111-124 CE) -> \*Gotarzes III (111-118 CE)

- In 118 CE, \*Pacorus II killed \*Gotarzes III.

-> \*Pacorus II (111-133 CE) -> \*Artabanus IV (111-124 CE)

- In 124 CE, \*Artabanus IV, was killed by \*Pacorus III

\*Pacorus II (111-133 CE)

- In 133 CE \*Pacorus II, was killed by his son, \*Vologases II

\*Vologases II "the Great" (133-172 CE) - Born 116 CE.

\*Osroes I (172-197 CE) - Born 146 CE.

- After the death of \*Osroes I, In 197 CE, the empire was divided by his two sons.

-> \*Mithridates IV (197-209 CE) -> \*Artabanus V (197-207 CE)

- In 207 CE, \*Artabanus V, was killed by \*Mithridates IV.

\*Mithridates IV (197-209 CE) - Born 174 CE, died in 209, from an unknown disease during an expedition in Central Asia.

- In 209, Queen \*Ispubarza ascended the throne, as her son, Osroes II, was only 7 years old.

Queen \*Ispubarza (209-212 CE) - Killed by her brother, \*Silaces in 212.

**Silacid Dynasty**

\*Silaces I (212-225 CE)

**Silacid/Arsacid Dynasty**

- In 219, Osroes II, claimed the throne with 17 years and rebelled against \*Silaces

\*Osroes II (219-227 CE) \*Silaces (212-225 CE)

- Both were killed during the Sassanid expansion between 225-227, ending the Parthian Empire.

## Source

This page uses content from **Wikipedia**. The original article was at **Parthian Empire** (view authors). As with Sine Roma - What if Rome never existed? Wiki, the text of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike License 3.0 (Unported).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthian\_Empire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List\_of\_Parthian\_kings

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-8447745/Massive-volcanic-eruption-Alaska-43-BC-triggered-global-climate-shock.html

## Flag credits

This flag was NOT made by myself. Credits to https://www.deviantart.com/valgryn/art/Parthia-Flag-550504536 for making this beautiful flag.