Stress and Memory Retrieval

Psychological research has established that acute stress aids memory consolidation, and in the case for long-term memory, impairs retrieval . The amygdala and hippocampus are the central parts of the brain associated with memory. When stress occurs, hormones, such as cortisol, increase, impairing functioning and hindering memory retrieval. In many cases, events such as police interrogations and studying for an exam induce a certain, sometimes even a considerable, level of stress .

Stress is a person’s response to events that are threatening or challenging . The word “stress” can be used in several different situations, from rushing to get to work on time, to the emotions experienced during final exams, or the death of a loved one. There are several variables that can influence the effects of stress on memory, such as: general anxiety levels, coping methods, and gender. Based on the many variables related to the stress and memory, results are generally mixed, that is, sometimes stress enhances memory, and sometimes it impairs or does not affect memory at all . In educational settings, taking a test is often experienced as a stressful event.

**Memory**

Stress, anxiety, and knowledge of information can affect verbal learning and memory, but the possibility that these variables may influence individuals' decision processes rather than memory itself has yet to be explored. The content and instructions of the exam, the stressor(s), and methods of coping and/or studying can all affect the measurement of learning and memory. For example, an individual under stress may set a higher confidence level in their ability to recall information during an exam, or vice versa. The specific effects of stress on human memory depend on four factors: the specific memory process in question, the memory test, the nature of the to-be-remembered material, and basal cortisol levels in the brain .

**Memory, Stress, and Academic Performance.**

Hupbach and Fieman  tested whether stress affects retrieval and delayed recall of educationally relevant material. They concluded that, while active retrieval has been shown to promote meaningful-long term learning , formalized tests in the classroom might have opposite effects, because test taking is experienced by many students as stress inducing and anxiety provoking. Being that stress can provoke an uncomfortable and anxious feeling, it has been shown to alter episodic memory (a type of long-term memory relative to a specific experience) . Clinically stressed populations, such as those with acute or posttraumatic stress disorder, seem to have an easily triggered, almost automatic, retrieval of stressful memories . If an individual is experiencing stress during an exam, it is likely that their level of focus during the exam will be low, resulting in poor retrieval of relevant information, and, therefore, resulting in a lower score.

**Stress in College Students.**

College is a time where students can and will be faced with many stressors, both academic and non-academic. Academic stressors are considered when an individual perceives the information or assignment to be just within or above their level of potential, and their belief that there is not enough time to complete it .  Stressors may include loan or scholarship worries, family-related pressures, course content difficulties, and time management. A common academic stressor in students is the pressure to retain important information in a given amount of time. Studies have shown that students’ greatest sources of academic stress are found in taking and studying for exams and with respect to grade competition and the large amount of content to master in a small amount of time .

Students often make predictions of their performance on an exam; they self-assess what they know about the to-be-tested material, judge how well they understand it, and judge whether they will be able to use their knowledge to perform their best on the upcoming exam . These positive or negative expectations of exam performance may influence how much studying and preparation the individual does before the exam. Accurate predictions of test performance can play a critical role in preparedness . When a student is able to accurately predict their performance on an exam, time and effort put into studying and preparing can be easily managed . Students experience both physical and psychological reactions to stressors when they experience negative or excessive stress. Physical impairments such as lack of energy, appetite, and nausea are often common results of stress in college students .

**Coping with Stress**

Before coping strategies can be applied, an appraisal of the situation needs to be made. This cognitive interpretation and evaluation of the stressful situation is an important step in the coping process. With all of the research done on coping, two main categories have been established: problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. These two categories have been given different names by different authors, such as active and passive, control and avoidance, and others. Problem-focused coping aims at eliminating the threat whereas emotion-focused coping aims to decrease emotional distress caused by the threat . Problem-focused coping has proven to be more effective in handling stress as it has been related to higher levels of well-being, and therefore, fewer psychological symptoms. Research has shown that women are more likely to use emotion-focused coping and social-support when handling stress ; however there is no consistent evidence about gender differences in problem-focused coping.  Some studies have illustrated that men use more problem-focused coping, whereas others have found the opposite result, and some have found no differences.

Gender differences influence a student’s reaction to a particular stressor and their coping methods. For centuries, men and women have been socialized and expected to act in certain ways; women are seen as being affectionate and emotional, and men are expected to be assertive and invulnerable. These different gender roles would imply the use of different coping strategies where each person may use the style that best fits his or her socialized gender role . For example, female students more often report letting out their feelings, whereas men more often report controlling their emotions, accepting the problem, not thinking about the situation, and engaging in problem-solving efforts . When under similar levels of stress, it was reported that women exhibit stress more overtly than males Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 de Quervain, D.J., Roozendaal, B., & McGaugh, J.L. (1998). Stress and glucocorticoids impair retrieval of long- term spatial memory. *Nature*. *394,* 787-790.
2. ↑ Koessler, S., Engler, H., Riether, C., Kissler, J. (2009). No Retrieval-Induced Forgetting Under Stress. *Psychological Science, 20,* 1356-1362.
3. ↑ Feldman, R. S. (2009). *Understanding Psychology*. New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Hupbach, A., & Fieman, R. (2012). Moderate stress enhances immediate and delayed retrieval of educationally relevant material in healthy young men. *Behavioral Neuroscience, 126*(6), 819–825. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030489
5. ↑ Karpicke, J.D. (2012). Retrieval-based learning: Active retrieval promotes meaningful learning. *Current Directions in Psychological Science,* 21, 157-163.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Koessler, S., Engler, H., Riether, C., Kissler, J. (2009). No Retrieval-Induced Forgetting Under Stress. *Psychological Science, 20,* 1356-1362.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Mistra, R., & Castillo, L. G. (2004). Academic stress among college students: Comparison of american and international students. *International Journal of Stress Management. 11*(2), 132-148.
8. ↑ Abouserie, R. (1994). Sources and levels of stress in relation to locus of control and self- esteem in university students. *Educational Psychology, 14,* 323–330.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Hacker, D. J., Bol, L., Horgan, D. D., Rakow, E. A. (2000). Test prediction and performance in a classroom context. *Journal of Educational Psychology, 92,* 160-169.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Gonzalez-Morales, M. G., Peiro, J. M., Rodriguez, I., Greenglass, E. R. (2006). Coping and distress in organizations: The role of gender in work stress. *International Journal of Stress Management. 13(2).* 228-248.
11. ↑ Eschenbeck, H., Kohlmann, C., Lohaus, A. (2007). Gender differences in coping strategies in children and adolescents. *Journal of Individual Differences, 28(1)*, 18-26.
12. ↑ Hyde, J. S., & Plant, E. A. (1995). Magnitude of psychological gender differences: Another side of the story. *American Psychologist, 50,* 159–161.