Pontos

Flag of Pontos

At its height:

* Anatolia
* Greece
* Thrace
* Illyria

### Religion

* Syncretic, incorporating Greek Polytheism with Anatolian and Persian gods (302 BCE-238 CE)

### Culture

* Greek/Pontic
* Persian (until c. 50 CE)

### Disbandment

238 CE

The  **Kingdom of Pontos** (281 BCE-238 CE) or later called **Pontic Empire**, was a Hellenistic-era kingdom, centered in the historical region of Pontos and ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty of Persian origin, which may have been directly related to Darius the Great and the Achaemenid dynasty. Culturally, the kingdom was Hellenized, with Greek the official language. Pontos was proclaimed by Mithridates I, in 281 BCE. The Kingdom of Pontos reached its largest extent under Mithridates VI the Great, who conquered Colchis, Cappadocia, Bithynia, Asia and the entire Second Macedonian Empire which included Greece and Thrace. After the Second Levantine War from 50-52 CE, Pontos gained western Syria and Egypt from the Parthian Empire. However, Egypt was conquered by the Carthaginian Empire only a year later. The Pontic Empire lasted until its conquest by the Sasanian Empire, under Ardashir I, in 238 CE.

As the greater part of the kingdom lay within the region of Cappadocia, which in early ages extended from the borders of Cilicia to the Euxine (Black Sea), the kingdom as a whole was at first called "Cappadocia by Pontos" or "Cappadocia by the Euxine", but afterwards simply "Pontos", the name Cappadocia henceforth being used to refer to the southern half of the region previously included under that name.

## History

### Mithridatic Dynasty of Cius (281-266 BCE)

The region of Pontos was originally part of the Persian satrapy of Cappadocia. The Persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had, during the 4th century BCE, ruled the Greek city of Cius (or Kios) in Mysia, with its first known member being Mithridates of Cius. His son Ariobarzanes II became satrap of Phrygia. He became a strong ally of Athens and revolted against Artaxerxes, but was betrayed by his son Mithridates II of Cius. Mithridates II remained as ruler after Alexander's conquests and was a vassal to Antigonus I Monophthalmus, who briefly ruled Asia Minor after the Partition of Triparadisus. Mithridates was killed by Antigonus in 302 BCE under suspicion that he was working with his enemy Cassander. Antigonus planned to kill Mithridates' son, also called Mithridates (later named Ktistes, 'founder') but Demetrius I warned him, and he escaped to the east with six horsemen. Mithridates first went to the city of Cimiata in Paphlagonia and later to Amasya in Cappadocia. He ruled from 302 to 266 BCE, fought against Seleucus I and, in 281 (or 280) BCE, declared himself king of a state in northern Cappadocia and eastern Paphlagonia. He further expanded his kingdom to the river Sangrius in the west. His son Ariobarzanes captured Amastris in 279 BCE, its first important Black Sea port. Mithridates also allied with the newly arrived Galatians and defeated a force sent against him by Ptolemy I. Ptolemy had been expanding his territory in Asia Minor since the beginning of the First Syrian war against Antiochus in the mid-270s BCE and was allied with Mithridates' enemy, Heraclea Pontica.

### Kingdom of Pontos (266-120 BCE)

We know little of Ariobarzanes' short reign, except that when he died his son Mithridates II (c. 250–189 BCE) became king and was attacked by the Galatians. Mithridates II received aid from Heraclea Pontica, who was also at war with the Galatians at this time. Mithridates went on to support Antiochus Hierax against his brother Seleucus II Callinicus. Seleucus was defeated in Anatolia by Hierax, Mithridates, and the Galatians. Mithridates also attacked Sinope in 220 BCE but failed to take the city. He married Seleucus II's sister and gave his daughter in marriage to Antiochus III the Great, to obtain recognition for his new kingdom and create strong ties with the Seleucid Empire. The sources are silent on Pontos for the years following the death of Mithridates II, when his son Mithridates III ruled (c. 220–198/88 BCE).

Pharnaces I of Pontos (189–159 BCE) was much more successful in his expansion of the kingdom at the expense of the Greek coastal cities. He joined in a war with Prusias I of Bithynia against Eumenes of Pergamon in 188 BCE, but the two made peace in 183 BCE after Bithynia suffered a series of reversals. He took Sinope in 182 BCE. Pharnaces also took the coastal cities of Cotyora, Pharnacia, and Trapezus in the east, effectively gaining control of most of the northern Anatolian coastline. Pharnaces fought against Eumenes of Pergamon and Ariarathes of Cappadocia. While initially successful, it seems he was overmatched by 179 BCE when he was forced to sign a treaty. He had to give up all lands he had obtained in Galatia, and Paphlagonia and the city of Tium, but he kept Sinope. Seeking to extend his influence to the north, Pharnaces allied with the cities in the Chersonesus and with other Black Sea cities such as Odessus on the Bulgarian coast. Pharnaces' brother, Mithridates IV Philopator Philadelphus adopted a relatively peaceful policy.

His successor was Mithridates V of Pontos Euergetes. Mithridates V married his daughter Laodice to the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia, and he also went on to invade Cappadocia, though the details of this war are unknown. Hellenization continued under Mithridates V. He was the first king to widely recruit Greek mercenaries in the Aegean, he was honored at Delos, and he depicted himself as Apollo on his coins. Mithridates was assassinated at Sinope in 121/0 BCE.

Because both the sons of Mithridates V, Mithridates VI and Mithridates Chrestus, were still children, Pontos now came under the regency of his wife Laodice. She favored Chrestus, and Mithridates VI escaped the Pontic court. Legend would later say this was the time he traveled through Asia Minor, building his resistance to poisons and learning all the languages of his subjects. He returned in 113 BCE to depose his mother; she was thrown into prison, and he eventually had his brother killed.

### Under Mithridates VI the Great (120-55 BCE)

Mithridates VI Eupator, 'the Good Father', was far more ambitious than his predecessors. Mithridates began his expansion by inheriting Lesser Armenia from King Antipater (c. 115–106 BCE) and by conquering the Kingdom of Colchis. Colchis was an important region in Black Sea trade – rich with gold, wax, hemp, and honey. The cities of the Tauric Chersonesus now appealed for his aid against the Scythians in the north. Mithridates sent 6,000 men under General Diophantus. After various campaigns in the north of the Crimea he controlled all of the Chersonesus.

Mithridates VI the Great and Nicomedes III of Bithynia had become allies and both invaded Paphlagonia in 108 BCE and divided it amongst themselves. Mithridates VI also took a part of Galatia that had previously been part of his father's kingdom and intervened in Cappadocia, where his sister Laodice was queen. In 116 BCE the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes VI, was murdered by the Cappadocian noble Gordius at the behest of Mithridates, and Laodice ruled as regent over the sons of Ariarathes until 102 BCE. After Nicomedes III of Bithynia married Laodice, he tried to intervene in the region by sending troops; Mithridates swiftly invaded, placing his nephew Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia on the throne of Cappadocia. War soon broke out between the two, and Mithridates invaded with a large Pontic army, but Ariarathes VII was murdered in 101 BCE before any battle was fought. Mithridates then installed his eight-year-old son, Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia as king, with Gordius as regent. In 97 BCE Cappadocia rebelled against Mithridates VI and called for Nicomedes III brother, Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia, who was in Pergamon for his education, to return to Cappadocia to become king. Mithridates invaded Cappadocia and drove him out. Ariarathes VIII died in 96 BCE. With his death, his dynasty died out. Nicomedes III now feared that Mithridates would invade Bithynia, which he would then do in the same year.

In 95 BCE, Mithridates VI invaded the Kingdom of Galatia, to ensure his position in Anatolia. Galatia then became a client state of Pontos. Mithridates invaded the Kingdom of Pergamon, and all other remaining Anatolian kingdoms, by 94 BCE. He was very popular amongst citizens, as he promised to not collect taxes for five years.

#### Macedonian War (88-86 BCE)

In 88 BCE, Mithridates the Great launched a massive invasion into the Macedonian Empire. The war started, when the Pontic general Archelaus crossed the Bosporus, while general Dorylaeus crossed the Hellespont. Both armies met the Macedonian king at the battle of Philippopolis (88 BCE). The Macedonian king was defeated. Losing 30,000 soldiers, he retreated to Pella, while his general Ariston arrived with 30,000 fresh troops for reinforcement. Mithridates was not willing to waste any time and ordered his general Neoptolemus to invade Athens by sea. Even though Macedonia had a naval superiority, most of its fleet was located near Thessalonica, to avoid being outflanked through the sea. Neoptolemus landed near Corinth and quickly captured the Peloponnese Peninsula. Ariston swiftly moved to Attica and attacked Neoptolemus' army, which besieged Athens.

After the unsuccessful siege, in which Neoptolemus lost 15,000 men, the now outnumbered general retreated to the Peloponnese, though still being able to hold his position. However, because of Ariston's shift to the south, the northern army under the Macedonian king, was now outnumbered almost 2 to 1. Archelaus and Dorylaeus had taken this opportunity and attacked the Macedonian king in the Battle of Pella (87 BCE). The king was defeated, and after losing 30,000 men, he retreated to Thessalonica, where most of the Macedonian navy was located. Archelaus thus laid siege on Thessalonica and the king was now outnumbered 3 to 1.

Ariston was now ordered to move 30,000 of his 50,000 men to protect Thessalonica. Neoptolemus took this opportunity and defeated Ariston, killing 10,000 of his men near Athens. Ariston now retreated to the famous mountain pass of Thermopylae, where the outnumbered Spartans once engaged the Persians, while Neoptolemus captured Athens. However, Neoptolemus avoided the mountain pass and slowly advanced to the north, while Ariston had other choice but to retreat to Larissa. The general met Neoptolemus at the Battle of Larissa (87 BCE) and killed Ariston including most of his army. The king now had no other choice but to commit suicide. In early 86 BCE, the last remnants of Macedonian resistance surrendered. Macedonia was now completely under Pontic control.

During the invasion of Thrace, Archelaus sent Mithridates a letter about how profitable the location of Byzantion was, which connected the Aegean Sea with the Black Sea. Mithridates VI expanded the city and renamed it "Mithripolis", later serving as the largest city, but not the capital, of the Pontic Empire, though often referred to as the second capital of Pontos. Mithripolis thus became, after time, one of the most important cities in all of Europe and the Middle East.

Mithridates the Great established numerous vassal states, most dedicated to be ruled by his sons, which are listed as follows:

1. Mithridates of Colchis: ruled the vassal kingdom of Colchis.
2. Machares: ruled the vassal kingdom of Achaea.
3. Arcathias: ruled the vassal kingdom of Epirus.
4. Pharnaces II: ruled the Bosporan kingdom; successor of the Pontic Empire after Mithridates' death.
5. Xiphares: ruled the vassal kingdom of Athens.
6. Mithridates I of the Bosporus: ruled the vassal kingdom of Thrace, and ruled the Bosporan kingdom, after Pharnaces II ascended the throne in 55 BCE.
7. Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia: ruled the vassal kingdom of Cappadocia; however, was actually ruled by general Gordius until he was an adult.

Mithridates' Brother, Mithridates Chrestus, was at first a co-ruler of the Pontic Empire and later vassal king of Macedonia.

Due to his great strategies in the Macedonian War (88-86 BCE), Archelaus was granted the vassal kingdom of Thessaly.

#### Scramble for Illyria (86-74 BCE)

In 84 BCE, constant naval raids from the Ardiaei, caught the attention of Pontic king, Mithridates VI the Great, who now ruled over Greece after defeating the Macedonians two years earlier. Even though the Dardani often raided the Macedonian region, Mithridates had to give in, if he wanted to succeed with his plans, and began seeking an alliance with the Dardani, under king \*Bardylis, against the Ardiaei and promised to split their territory, in two equal pieces, with the condition that Pontos gains the full coast, to "pacify the sea". The Dardani, seeing this as a chance to finally beat their rival, and to gain the alliance of a powerful Empire at the same time, accepted and together conquered the Ardiaei during the Ardiaeic War (84-82 BCE).

Shortly after, Mithridates conquered the region of Moesia, during the Moesian War (81-80 BCE), establishing the Morava River as the border between Pontos and Dardania.

However, the Carthaginian Empire, took note of this expansion, and demanded that if Pontos were to build ships in the Adriatic Sea, a war would be inevitable. Mithridates was not ready for such a war yet, and obeyed. Only one year later, tensions increased, when the Phoenician suffete, \*Adherbal, assisted the Liburni against an invasion from the Dalmatians. Carthaginian soldiers were poured into the region, and the Liburni essentially became a vassal state.

From 80-78 BCE, Mithridates conquered the Dindari and Daesitiates, while \*Adherbal assimilated the Dalmatians into vassal states. Numerous skirmishes followed between the two clashing empires, however, no full scale war. The Phoenicians proceeded to invade the Iapydes and Histri, securing their north. To establish a land bridge, in 76 BCE, \*Adherbal annexed the Veneti, and established a client state, during the Venetic War (76-74 BCE).

Meanwhile, in 76 BCE, after realizing that he did not need his ally anymore, Mithridates assassinated the Dardani king, \*Bardylis, and had placed one of his generals, \*Ariston, on the throne. A civil war broke out in the region, that lasted for two years, but was eventually crushed.

During the next decades, a Cold War between the two Empires, mainly over Illyria, began, which was ended by Carthage during the Cretan War (55-54 BCE).

Mithridates VI the Great died in 55 BCE. His empire, however, experienced a short period of instability, continued under his son and successor, Pharnaces II.

### After Mithridates VI the Great and Conflicts with Dacia, Illyria and Carthage (55 BCE-232 CE)

#### First Dacian War (55-54 BCE)

In 55 BCE, the Dacian Kingdom, under Burebista had attacked the Moesian coastal cities of Pontos, starting the First Dacian War (55-54 BCE). In 54 BCE, the Pontic army clashed with the Dacians near these coastal cities and defeated the Dacians, pushing them back again, behind the Danube.

#### Cretan War (55-54 BCE)

Simultaneously, in 55 BCE, the Carthaginians used this instabilty to their advantage and had invaded Crete, during the Cretan War (55-54 BCE). Pontos was heavily defeated and was forced to sign an armstice, leaving Crete under Phoenician control. The Pontic vassal king of Crete, Mithridates I of the Bosporus, fled to the Pontic court and was then appointed the new vassal king of the Bosporan kingdom, in succession of Pharnaces II; the latter ascending the throne of the Pontic Empire, who reigned from 55-16 BCE.

#### The Volcanic Eruption of 44 BCE and aftermath (44-40 BCE)

In 44 BCE, written sources describe a period of unusually cold climate, crop failures, famine, disease, and unrest in the Mediterranean Region. These factors caused food scarcity in Pontos. The reason for this is a volcanic eruption in Okmok, Alaska.

Climate models suggest that seasonally averaged temperatures may have been as much as 7°C (13°F) below normal during the summer and autumn that followed the eruption of Okmok in 44 BCE.

The cooling effects lasted more than two years, resulting in the second and eighth coldest summertime temperatures of the past 2,500 years in 43 and 42 BCE, respectively, based on the European tree-ring climate proxy records. This short "dark age" lasted until around 40 BCE.

#### Illyrian War (44-40 BCE)

In 44 BCE, King Burebista of Dacia died, and his kingdom began to collapse. After this, the Iazyges began to take possession of the Pannonian Basin, the land between the Danube and Tisa rivers in OTL modern-day south-central Hungary. The Iazyges had allied with **Pontos** during the Macedonian War (88-86 BCE), and were encouraged by **Pontic** king \*Pharnaces II, to continue their migration into the Carthaginian vassal kingdoms of Dalmatia, Iapydos and Liburnia, followed by a **Pontic** charge into the region. The Phoenicians were completely overwhelmed, though managed to hold onto the region for another 3 years, before being driven out, and pushed behind the Kolapis River (OTL Kupa River) by the intense pressure of the combined **Pontic** and Iazygid forces in 40 BCE.

Meanwhile, the Iazyges were resettled around Lake Balaton to keep Illyria stable, defeating the Boii and pushing them eastwards, behind the Danube.

#### Dalmatian War (16-14 BCE)

In 16 BCE, the new **Pontic** king, Darius I (r. 16 BCE-10 CE), followed a new policy of disbanding vassal states in the **Pontic Empire**, and replacing them with less autonomous provinces, to achieve more control under a direct rule. However, this decision was greatly unpopular, as numerous vassal kings rebelled, especially in Illyria and Greece. The greatest of all revolts was led by the native Dalmatian vassal king, \*Balaios, who completely ravaged Illyria, reaching as far as Macedonia. However, two tribes refused to support \*Balaios rebellion, namely the Liburni and Iapydes, who were bribed by the **Pontic** authorities, even pirating and plundering the Dalmatians.

Shortly after, an envoy was sent to Carthage, stating that if they assisted the Dalmatians in gaining independence from **Pontos**, the Phoenicians would be allowed to conquer the Liburnian and Iapydian coast, without considerable resistance from the natives, as occupation under Carthage would grant the kingdoms far more autonomy than direct rule under **Pontos**, as well as protecting the region from the Iazyges.

The Phoenicians accepted the offer and began capturing the Liburnian and Iapydian coast in 15 BCE, reestablishing vassal states. In return, the Carthaginians sent 30,000 men, under general \*Carthalo as assistance for \*Balaios against **Pontos**. After defeating the **Greeks** at the Battle of Salona (14 BCE), Darius withdrew from Dalmatia, which achieved full independence, and began cooperating with the Phoenicians, for example, in trading.

#### Daesitiate War (3-1 BCE)

In 3 BCE, Illyrian forces of the Daesitiates rebelled, with Bato the Daesitiate as their leader. To their south-west, the independent Dalmati, under a king named \*Astius, supported the rebellion with 20,000 soldiers. These two armies united in the autumn of 2 BCE, and the two kings became war-leaders of an allied rebel army against Pontic authority in Illyria. The Pontic king, Darius I attempted to outflank the 60,000 Illyrian troops, commanded by Bato, at the Battle of Arduba (1 BCE), with a force of 50,000 men. However, he was ambushed in the process, and the Greek army was completely annihilated, forcing Darius to abandon the Daesitiate region, where he retreated behind the Dreinos River (OTL Drina River).

#### Boycott of Mithripolic Games (12 CE)

By 12 CE, the Pontic king, \*Mithridates VII Chrestus (r. 10-37 CE), wanted to have the Olympic games at Mithripolis instead of Olympia, to promote unity. However, that fails, as many boycott the games and numerous riots happen. Fearing this, the king eventually cuts his losses and puts it back to Olympia.

#### Second Levantine War (50-52 CE)

After the death of Jesus Christ by stoning in 50 CE (and claimed resurrection thereafter), a revolt broke out in Judea, known as the Great Christian Revolt. However, the Christians knew that the Parthian Empire, under king \*Gotarzes II, could easily crush their rebellion, which controlled the region. The Christian general, \*Malachi, asked the Pontic king, \*Pharnaces III (r. 34-54 CE), for support. Pharnaces saw this as a chance to conquer Syria from the Parthians, while their ally would get Isreal. However, the king was too old to fight, so he sent his son, \*Mithridates VIII Soter, as well as his favourite general, named \*Nicanor, and alongside them two massive armies of each 40,000 men.

Meanwhile, a Parthian army, numbering 20,000 men, was coming close to Jerusalem. Initially wanting to fight, \*Malachi got rejected by the apostles for being a warmonger. However, when the Parthians saw an army with Pontic symbols, under \*Mithridates, the latter got completely confused and, as a result, the Parthians were completely crushed, not expecting an attack from Pontos, during the Battle of Jerusalem (51 CE). Meanwhile, in the north, the second Pontic army, commanded by \*Nicanor, launched a surprise attack and captured Antioch, Edessa and Palmyra, by 52 CE. After capturing Tigranocerta, the two Pontic armies, each numbering around 40,000 men, were both marching to the city of Hatra.

However, due to a misconception, the Parthian king, \*Gotarzes II, believed it was only one force that marched east, and thus, he sent one army, consisting of 80,000 men. The southern Pontic force, led by \*Mithridates, has reached the city first and began its formation. However, when the Parthians were about to charge, \*Nicanor and his 40,000 strong army smashed into them from behind, while the southern force now began to charge as well. \*Gotarzes' army was completely annihilated from both sides. 70,000 men were killed in the Battle of Hatra (52 CE), and 10,000 captured. The Parthians were completely exhausted, and \*Gotarzes II, was forced to sue for peace.

In late 52 CE, the Pontic Empire and the Parthian Empire signed a peace treaty. The Bishopric of Jerusalem asserted control of all of former Judea. Pontos gained control over Antioch, Syria, Nabataea, the city of Ascalon, and Egypt. The Hasmonean Jews were to be exiled into the new Pontic client state of Ituraea. Having no other choice, the Parthians agreed, marking the end of the Levantine War (50-52 CE).

#### Fourth Egyptian War (53-54 CE)

However, king \*Pharnaces III of Pontos, was greedy for power and wealth. In 53 he waged a war with the Carthaginian Empire, by landing with 80,000 soldiers near Alexandria. Meanwhile, civil unrest was highly present in the Pontic Empire, and many generals, as well as the kings own son, regarded this as a suicidal attack. In result, suffete \*Adherbal, was sent to deal with the invaders. While Alexandria was besieged, and about to fall, in 54 CE, \*Adherbal successfully lifted the siege by launching an offensive into the Pontic formations. After clashing into the enemy lines, a bloodbath had begun. Even though the battle seemed inconclusive at first, it turned to Carthage's favor when their war elephants were devastating the Pontic forces. The situation even worsened for the Greeks, when their famous Numidian cavalry encircled the enemy, slaughtering every single soldier, including \*Pharnaces III himself. The was until then the worst defeat in Pontic history.

With the death of \*Pharnaces III, his son, \*Mithridates VIII Soter, ascended the throne, and was reorganizing the Pontic army and tactics to a more efficent way. To prevent another such suicidal and devastating war, the most high ranked generals, as well as the oldest son, now had to consent, if the king would want to launch an invasion into a country.

#### Second and Third Dacian War (86-89 CE)

In the Winter of 86-87 CE, the army of the Dacian king Duras led by general Diurpaneus attacked the Pontic region of Moesia, during the Second Dacian War (86-87 CE). The Pontic army was ambushed and defeated at the First Battle of Tapae by Diurpaneus, who was subsequently renamed Decebalus (Dacian for *"the Brave"*), and who, as a consequence, was chosen to be the new king of Dacia.

In 88 CE, a Pontic counter-offensive was launched, and the Pontic army defeated the Dacians at their outlying fortress of Sarmizegetusa, also at Tapae, near the current village of Bucova. After this battle, Decebalus, now the king of the four reunited arms of the Dacians, asked for peace, though, which was refused. The Siege of Sarmizegtusa was laid that same year, and continued until 89 CE. Rather than being captured, only to be executed at the Pontic court, Decebalus committed suicide. After Decebalus' death, the Dacians surrendered to Pontos and became divided into three client states: Dacia, Getae and Britolagia. This war is later known as the Third Dacian War (88-89 CE).

#### Costobocian War (170-171 CE)

Possibly because of Sarmatian/Iazygian pressure in the north and east, in 170 CE, the Costoboci, a possibly Thracian people from northern Dacia, invaded the Pontic Empire. First raiding the client state of Dacia, then crossing the Danube, the Costoboci burnt down a district of Histria which was thus abandoned. Their attacks also affected Callatis, and the walls of the city required repairs. The raiders then moved south, through Macedonia, plundering the ancient tombs at Pella. Their offensive continued southwards into Thessaly. However, a massive Pontic army approached the Costoboci near Larissa, and the Costoboci were defeated and subdued in 171 CE.

#### Second Armenian War (209-212 CE)

In 209 CE, the Parthian Empire was in a heavily unstable position, as it was ruled by a queen named \*Ispubarza (r. 209-212), while her son was only 7 years old, and too young to ascend the throne. Because females usually don't rule alone, rebellions and revolts were frequent. King \*Mithridates IX Mithripolenos (r. 188-222 CE), saw this as a chance to conquer Armenia or even more ambitiously; Mesopotamia. The war began, when \*Mithridates marched on to the city of Tigranocerta, with a force numbering 80,000 soldiers. \*Ispubarza sent an army of 90,000 men, commanded by herself.

##### Battle of Tigranocerta (209 CE)

However, when the armies met near the city, thousands of Parthian soldiers began to revolt, with some even deserting, due to their unacceptance of being led by a woman. Meanwhile, the Macedonian Cataphracts located on each flank, began to advance to their enemy flanks unnoticed, while the main force slowly moved forward. While the battle was ongoing, out of fear that the mutiny would escalate, \*Ispubarza ordered an immediate execution of all revolting men, by sending in her loyal Parthian bodyguards, to arrest thousands of soldiers during combat, and to drag them behind the enemy lines, where they all faced decapitation. This severely damaged the organization and morale of the Parthians, while \*Mithridates' forces began to break through the opposing defense. \*Mithridates then ordered his Macedonian Cataphracts to charge onto the enemy flanks, completely annihilating the Parthians, who were still arresting and executing their own soldiers. 83,000 Parthian troops were slaughtered in this battle, with only \*Ispubarza, her bodyguards, as well as a few thousand men managing to retreat.

The loss at Tigranocerta was a huge blow for \*Ispubarza, whose reputation was already damaged. This led to even more rebellions and internal strife, while \*Mithridates conquered most of Armenia, reaching the Caspian Sea, by 210, with his dream of a "Three Sea Empire" being fulfilled. When the Queen learned of a second Pontic army, numbering 70,000 men, led by general \*Taxiles, who was marching to Ctesiphon, an army of 60,000 soldiers, commanded by the Parthian general \*Bagasis, was sent to the city, while \*Ipubarza sent another army of 80,000, commanded by a general named \*Manesus to meet with king \*Mithridates at Ganzak in 210 CE.

##### Battle of Ctesiphon (210 CE)

As \*Taxiles was approaching Ctesiphon, the Parthians began fortfying in the city, at the other side of the Tigris River. \*Bagasis then built a bridge from the center Ctesiphon to the other side, by tearing off stone from buildings, mixing it with wood logs. When this was noticed by \*Taxiles, he directly ordered the construction of two bridges, located a few kilometres outside the city, while he earlier brought materials from nearby. One of the bridges, located north, was intentionally smaller, and extremely unstable, while the other was larger and more stable. The Pontic general, then sent one soldier, who was acting as a deserteur, to \*Bagasis, telling him about the northern bridge to distract the Parthians from not only their central bridge, but to avoid a spotting of the southern construction. When \*Bagasis tried to cross the bridge, it collapsed, leading to a few hundred drowned soldiers, with him being able to swim to the shore. Meanwhile, the main Pontic force of 50,000 men, crossed the southern bridge, and managed to capture Ctesiphon, as only half of the 50,000 strong Parthian army was kept to guard the city. When the city fell, \*Taxiles, and most of his remaining soldiers, charged onto the Parthians, slaughtering every single soldier, including \*Bagasis.

##### Battle of Ectabana (211 CE)

Unlike \*Bagasis, the Parthian general \*Manesus was far more wise. He sent half of his troops, as well as his younger brother, general \*Monaeses, to guard Ectabana, along with the local garrisons, while the other half, including himself was moved to a nearby mountain south-east of the city to hide from Mithridates' army. When the latter, arrived at Ectabana, he began to lay siege to the city, surrounding it. A few days after the Pontic forces were on their position, at night, \*Manesus began spreading out his troops, fully encircling \*Mithridates. At dawn, \*Manesus attacked the sieging army, from all sides, while his brother \*Monaeses began to launch a sortie. Of the 70,000 Pontic troops, only 3,000 survived, with \*Mithridates fleeing to \*Taxiles.

In 212 CE, Queen \*Ispubarza was assassinated by her brother, \*Silaces, who knew that the Parthians could not afford a continued large-scale war against Pontos, sought for peace negotiations. That same year, a treaty was made, which transferred the control of Armenia, as well as the Caucasian kingdoms of Iberia and Albania to Pontos, while Mesopotamia was kept by Parthia. Armenia itself and the other acquired kingdoms were made a vassal state, ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty.

### Last Years and Downfall (231-238 CE)

#### Ardashid War (231-238 CE)

After the Sassanid subjugation of Parthia in 227 CE, the Pontic king, \*Arsaces II (r. 222-238 CE) feared an invasion from the Persians. The rising Sasanian Empire, dreaming of a revived Achaemenid Empire, had charged into Pontos on April 15 231 CE, beginning the Ardashid War, that lasted from 231 until 238 CE.

##### Siege of Antioch (231 CE)

The first confrontation between Sassanid and Pontic forces, was near the city of Antioch. Before the two armies met, Ardashir quickly sent a 5,000 strong garrison to block incoming supplies from the Levantine Sea, through the Orontes River. The Pontic soldiers, who arrived a kilometer south of the city, led by the king \*Arsaces II, numbered around 100,000, against a numerically superior Sassanid army of 120,000, commanded by Shah Ardashir I. When his forces charged, reinforced by Persian Cataphracts on the flanks, the Pontic defense line, slowly began to break, killing around 20,000 and losing 4,000. This resulted in \*Arsaces retreating into the city and guarding it from the inside, which effectively started the siege. However, after several months of supply shortages and numerous failed attempts to enter the city, Ardashir finally managed to infiltrate the city, slaughtering another 20,000 soldiers, while losing 6,000 men of their own, which caused the Pontic army to retreat to the city of Tarsos, while Antioch fell to the Sassanid Empire.

##### Battle of Tarsos (232 CE)

When \*Arsaces arrived near Tarsos, he was quickly reinforced by the Pontic General Machares, who together numbered around 110,000 troops, including 20 Carthaginian-imported war elephants, who were kept in reserve. When he met Ardashir, along with an army of the same size, the Sassanids charged onto the Pontic defense line, which managed to stand firm, thanks to its veteran Pontic sarissas. However, even though the defense held, the Pontic army was not inflicting significant casualties on the Sassanids either, as both forces matched one another equally. To finally turn the tide, \*Arsaces unleashed his war elephants onto the enemy flanks, who were not expecting the Pontic forces to have these, and thus did not have anti-elephant weapons. This caused the horses of the Persian cataphracts on the flanks, to panic, smashing into their own formations, resultung in 30,000 soldiers being slaughtered or crushed by the elephants, while \*Arsaces only lost about 7,000 men. This forced Ardashir to order a retreat, while the Pontic army pursued them.

##### Battle of Tigranocerta (232 CE)

Meanwhile, in Armenia, the Sassanid Prince, Shapur, with an army of 80,000 soldiers, met with the Pontic Prince, \*Pharnaces, commanding 70,000 men, near Tigranocerta. However, Shapur knew that the most dangerous threat were the Macedonian Cataphracts, so he waited until the Pontic army charged, while his self-commanded cavalry was moved west into the direction of the city. When the Greeks charged, Shapur clashed into the enemy forces by charging his cavalry into the western flank, with the Macedonian cataphracts panicking and sabotaging their own formations, while the vanguard of the Persian army, was now charging into the enemy as well. \*Pharnaces quickly realized what was going on, and retreated with his army, losing Tigranocerta, and 20,000 soldiers, including most of his cataphracts, while the Sasanians only lost about 5,000 men.

##### Battle of Samosata (233 CE)

As Ardashir retreated from Tarsos, he marched onto the city of Samosata, with a rather wise strategy. Ardashir initially sent 10,000 of his soldiers to capture and guard the city. Meanwhile, his massive main force of 70,000 troops, was setting up a camp on a peninsula, near the OTL modern town of Göltarla. When the Pontic army, commanded by King \*Arsaces II and General \*Machares, was a few kilometers away from the city, the Sassanid forces moved out of the peninsula, through a thin pass, and smashed into the flank of the opposing force. The Pontic king was completely taken by surprise, and lost 30,000 soldiers, before retreating to the city of Carcathiocerta, while the Sassanid casualties only numbered about 5,000.

##### Battle of Artashat (233 CE)

Back in Armenia, Prince \*Pharnaces, commanding 50,000 soldiers, was retreating to the city of Artashat, and reinforced his army with 15,000 more soldiers, while he was pursued by Shapur, with a superior force of 75,000 men. However, as he was reinforced by Armenian cataphracts, Pharnaces single-handedly commanded this cavalry, while the vassal king of Armenia, \*Ariobarzanes, was in control of the main infantry force. \*Pharnaces used his light cavalry to charge into the direction of the enemy, and then retreating, thus distracting the enemy cavalry, consisting of Persian cataphracts, and Parthian horse archers. This gave \*Pharnaces and his heavy cavalry enough time to position himself behind the enemy, and when \*Ariobarzanes ordered a charge, \*Pharnaces clashed with the Sassanids from behind, confusing and inflicting heavy casualties on their enemy. Thus, 20,000 Persians were killed, while Ariobarzanes only lost around 5,000 men, as Shapur quickly decided to retreat, in order to avoid a even more devastating defeat.

The Sassanid army, however, began to mutiny, because the army was worn off from marching through the Armenian mountanious terrain, forcing Shapur to march south, to the city of Carcathiocerta, while his father Ardashir, pursuing \*Arsaces and \*Machares was coming close to the city as well.

##### Battle of Carcathiocerta (234 CE)

When \*Arsaces learned about the arrival of his son, he began to set up a formation on a hill south of the city, standing with 73,000 soldiers in front of Ardashir's 75,000 men. However, Shapur's army, numbering 55,000 men was approaching the Greeks from the opposite side, after destroying their bridge, to slow down \*Pharnace's crossing of the Tigris River, along with his 60,000 troops. The Pontic king intentionally stood firm and when the two Sassanid armies were about to clash him from two sides, he ordered to move his army a kilometer south, letting the Sassanid armies smash together, inflicting 10,000 casualties, as even though Ardashir and Shapur immediately ordered a full scale halt, some parts of the army did not reach this information quickly and killed some of their own soldiers, damaging their organization.

While this was a boost for Pontic morale, \*Arsaces knew he couldnt stand against the two armies, and this gave \*Pharnaces enough time to cross the river attacking Shapur's army from behind and distracting him. Meanwhile, \*Arsaces ordered a full-scale charge on both Sassanid armies. However, as \*Arsaces unleashed his war elephants, \*Ardashir now had weapons to counter them, and thus the elephants were defeated by ox-drawn wagons, some equipped with long spikes to wound the elephants, others equipped with fire arrows, to inflict wounds and scare them away. The once so mighty war elephants that turned the tide during the Battle of Tarsos, were now utterly beaten. An intense battle between the four armies followed. \*Ardashir had kept his best units in reserve, consisting of veteran Persian cataphracts, and Parthian javelinmen. The latter began throwing a hail of javelins at the Pontic army, and afterwards the Persian cataphracts charged into the enemy, inflicting significant casualties on \*Arsace's army, even killing General \*Machares in combat. Thus, \*Arsaces ordered a full scale retreat to the city of Eusebia, which was earlier known as Mazaca, after losing 30,000 men. At the same time \*Pharnaces decided to withdraw, marching with his still relatively intact army of 50,000 men, onto the direction of Trapezus. Ardashir had lost 15,000 soldiers in this battle, while Shapur lost 20,000 men.

After the two Sassanid armies were each reinforced by 15,000 men, \*Shapur now began to subdue Cilicia, including the city of Tarsos, even capturing some towns around Eusebia after defeating multiple garrisons. Simultaneously, \*Ardashir marched to the city of Phasis (OTL today's Poti), where he ordered the construction of dozens of warships to keep up with the Pontic naval forces, which should be sent to Trapezus afterwards, while the production of warships was greatly present in the Iranian heartland as well. Then, the Sassanid Shah was on his way to meet \*Pharnaces at Trapezus, who reinforced his army with 20,000 soldiers from the Bosporan vassal king, \*Darius I of the Bosporus.

##### Battle of Trapezus (235 CE)

When Ardashir reached Trapezus, he ordered three of his bravest and most loyal men, to dress up as Pontic archers, and thus the three men, called \*Bahram, \*Wahrez and \*Pabag, ran to the Pontic army stationated near the city, and having a pile of flame arrows on their back, were successfully accepted into the army. Meanwhile, Ardashir, and his 75,000 men, set up a camp nearby and waited. During the second night, the three soldiers, managed to sneak past the sleeping Greeks. They then infiltrated the city onto the direction of the harbor, where dozens of warships were positioned, avoiding eye contact with night patrols. The three Persians, then began to shoot as many flame arrows at the ships as they could. The resulting smoke was quickly noticed by a Pontic night patrol, and when they were spotted, \*Pabag defended the others against the soldiers, allowing the two to flee, while \*Pabag was stabbed in the back and died. When the two jumped down the eastern city wall, both sprinted eastwards to be rescued by the Sassanid army, and to inform Ardashir, to start the attack. While the men were running, \*Wahrez was shot by an arrow in the back and fell to the ground. He screamed at \*Bahram to leave him back, and shortly after, another arrow had struck \*Bahram's leg, forcing him to crawl as far as a kilometer.

When \*Bahram reached the Persian army, he immediately showed the soldiers a Sassanid coin to gain their trust and spoke in Persian: "I am one of you, and I fought alongside you", and so he was brought to Ardashir, who granted him the rank of a general, as a reward for his braveness. When morning rose, the Sassanid army began to move forward, while many Pontic soldiers were busy extinguishing the fire at the harbor. \*Bahram showed the army a cracked spot of the wall, which he found during the night, and thus, Ardashir sent a battering ram, smashing the city wall and opening a hole. This was then noticed by the Pontic army at the southern wall. However, it was too late, as by that point, ten of thousands of Sassanid soldiers began infiltrating the city, killing 10,000 soldiers, who were inside the city, while the Persians captured at least 16 intact Pontic warships. Meanwhile, \*Pharnaces attempted to trap the Persians inside the city, by surrouding Trapezus. However, this utterly failed, because \*Pharnaces assumed the entire Sassanid army was moved inside the city. A cavalry unit charged into the Pontic forces, which attemped the encirclement, and this resulted in 10,000 more casualties, leaving \*Pharnaces and his remaining 30,000 demoralized men, no other choice than to retreat to the Pontic court at Amaseia, while the Persians only lost about 1,000 soldiers.

The loss of Trapezus was a huge blow to the Pontic morale, as the Sassanids, had not only split the Pontic Empire into two parts, but now had access to a large harbor in the Black Sea, and were able to produce more warships more effectively.

##### Battle of Eusebia (236 CE)

In the meantime, Prince \*Shapur began to march on to Eusebia, along with 40,000 men, while \*Arsaces fortified his army of 55,000 troops near the city, putting up iron spikes around the city, to avoid a cavalry charge from the enemy, as well as digging trenches behind the spikes. When \*Shapur reached the defense line, he ordered to launch a barrage of arrows, some of the on fire, onto the Pontic forces. \*Arsaces assumed that the Sassanids would sooner or later run out of arrows, so he could fire back, and possibly charge. However, this was a mistake, as the Sassanids, owned large reserves of arrows, supplied by a mobile rearming train of camels hidden behind the enemy, that could store large piles of arrows. After shooting volleys after volleys onto \*Arsace's army, the Greeks began to suffer casualties. When \*Arsaces realized that the Persians were constantly reinforced by arrows, he ordered two cavalry units to break out of the spikes, behind the city, turning around to the Sassanid archers, and charging into them from two sides. However, as \*Arsaces was too paranoid he refused to lead the cavalry. The charge was at first effective, however, when \*Shapur had moved the archers behind the line, thus moving the spearmen forward, the horsemen, were soon defeated. Shortly after, \*Shapur continued the barrage, and after multiple breakout attempts from the Greeks, as a result, \*Arsaces had retreated from the battlefield, suffering 30,000 casualties, while \*Shapur only lost around 10,000 men.

In 236 CE, the newly appointed Sassanid general, \*Bahram, commanding 20,000 men, was sent to meet the Armenian vassal king, \*Ariobarzanes, and his 15,000 troops, at the Second Battle of Artashat, defeating and killing the latter. \*Bahram continued his conquests, by invading the Caucasian vassal kingdoms, forcing them into submission and reinforcing his army with 15,000 more soldiers, while Ardashir was on its way to Amaseia.

##### Battle of Amaseia (236 CE)

The two armies met each other approximately four kilometers south of the sacred city, at the Gates of Iris, a mountain pass leading to Amaseia. On the day of battle, Ardashir positioned his 74,000 men on the high slopes, comprising rugged terrain, in order to weaken the Pontic strength of a possible cavalry charge. The Sassanid king kept his Persian horse archers on the flanks of his infantry, while the mighty Persian cataphracts were kept behind. The outnumbered Pontic forces, numbering 40,000 men, were guarding the mountain pass, in a valley stretching one kilometer. As Ardashir realized that the Pontic army was not going to attack first, he ordered his horse to charge down the hill, and when they were about to clash into the Pontic troops, drifted to the side, launching a barrage of arrows onto the enemy, weaking the formation on the flanks. Afterwards, the vanguard of the Sassanid army began to march forward, clashing with the Greek phalanx. Intimidated by the sheer size of the Persian army, \*Pharnaces ordered a full retreat and was able to escape from the city, taking the garrison of 5,000 men with him, while the rest of the trapped Pontic army was left on its own, as the Sassanid cataphracts finished off the rest. In this battle, \*Pharnaces had lost 25,000 men, and only less than half of his army managed to escape the Persians, while the latter only lost 5,000.

After the loss of the Pontic traditional court, \*Pharnaces fled to the coastal city of Amisos. At the harbor, he loaded his army onto the ships and sailed to the Bosporan Kingdom, taking 80 warships along with him. There, he was reinforced by \*Darius of the Bosporus with 15,000 men, mostly comprised of Scythian skirmishes and cavalry.

##### Battle of Panticapaion (237 CE)

Meanwhile, General \*Bahram, commanding 31,000 men was already on his way to attack the Bosporos, which \*Pharnaces did not realize. Thus, the Pontic Prince did not have enough time, and when \*Bahram reached Panticapaion (OTL Panticapaeum), both \*Darius and \*Pharnaces were completely taken by surpise, and were forced to meet the Sassanids in battle with an unprepared army, some parts even lacking equipment. In addition, the city was not properly fortified yet. The entire Persian army charged into the Greek forces, who barely managed to hold their ground. Resistance completely broke when the Scythian cavalry was annihilated, as the Sassanid cataphracts smashed into the enemy flanks. During the heat of the battle, Prince \*Pharnaces was knocked off his horse, and a Sassanid lance had struck his body, leaving him to his fate. Panic broke out, and only the wounded \*Darius, as well as 10,000 men managed to escape to the city of Theodosia, where he sailed with his army to Mithripolis. The Sassanid casualties numbered only about 5,000,

In 237 CE, about 250 Persian warships were completed and implemented into the Sassanid naval force.

That same year, Shapur subjugated most cities of Central Anatolia and reinforced his army with 15,000 Greek and Galatian auxiliary forces, recruited during his conquests. Resupplied with new siege engines, Shapur was on his way to the city of Ikonion.

##### Battle of Ikonion (237 CE)

Similiar to the last battle, \*Arsaces fortified himself with 30,000 men around the city, putting up iron spikes and digging trenches. However, this time, he positioned his archers inside the trenches, who were each protected by a Phalanx soldier, who would turn his shield upside to protect the archers. Right in front of the trenches was a another of Phalanx troops who would protect the archers in case of an infantry charge from their enemy. As the 45,000 soldier strong Persian army, along with Shapur, approached Ikonion, he ordered a barrage of arrows, to weaken the Pontic army, allowing his yet hidden catapults to penetrate even more successfully later on. The Greek defense was very effective and only minor casualties were reported. Nonetheless, the Pontic forces did not know what was to come, and at first, thought the Sassanids had run out of arrows. But when Shapur commanded a bombardement from the catapults, the Greeks were completely taken by surprise. \*Arsaces immediately ordered to disperse the army, to avoid large casualties. However, as the fortifications did not allow a widespread dispersion of the army, they were stuck inside their defense, and pinned down by the Persians. Any soldier that tried to escape, would be exposed to the Sassanid spearmen and killed. Only \*Arsaces and 5,000 of his most experienced veterans managed to escape through a secret underground tunnel without being followed, while the remaining 25,000 soldiers were annihilated where they stood.

Meanwhile, General \*Bahram subjugated the Bosporan kingdom, and was marching south, along the coast of the Black Sea.

By 238 CE, Shapur defeated numerous Pontic garrisons, capturing important cities, such as Pergamon, Ephesos and Attaleia. Resistance in most of Anatolia was broken by this point, and only the Pontic capital, Mithripolis, managed to stand firm, while the Pontic holdings in Thrace, Greece, and Dacia began to destabilize.

That same year, Shapur attempted to invade the Pontic capital through the sea, using their newly constructed naval force. However, the Persians failed two times, to break the coastal defense, as well as the superior Pontic fleet, and the Sassanid Prince soon realized that an invasion through the Propontis, was almost impossible.

Simultaneously, after crossing the Danube, \*Bahram was reinforced by Ardashir's army, who continued their march as a combined force. The Sassanid troops, on their way in Thrace, were mistaken as a Pontic patrol, by a 30,000 men strong Thracian insurgent army, and when they were about to attack, the Thracian leader, \*Epigenes noticed the Sassanid emblem from a flag carrier. He quickly stopped the attack that was about to begin, and was coming out of his hide peacefully. He told Ardashir about their common enemy, and swore loyalty to the Persians if he could join the army. Ardashir accepted, and the Thracian commander, showed him the fastest route to Mithripolis.

##### Siege of Mithripolis (238 CE)

Arriving with his 5,000 men at Mithripolis, \*Arsaces was outraged of his son's death, and demanded every single men from the age of 17-60 to be recruited as a soldier, increasing the manpower by 25,000, with the entire city having a population of 200,000. Overall, the city was defended by around 45,000 men, but more than half of the army was made up of unexperienced recruits conscripted from the civilian population. Simultaneously, the Persian Prince, Shapur was camping at the other site of the strait, along with dozens of warships that were hidden from the Greeks, waiting for an oppurtunity to attack.

On August 26, 238 CE, the Sassanid army, along with 125,000 men, arrived at the walls of Mithripolis, setting up a camp nearby. Ardashir's vanguard of 100,000 men was positioned on the Western Wall, while \*Bahram and his 25,000 men began their formation on the near the Northern Wall, behind the Chrysokeras (OTL Golden Horn). On the 28th, Ardashir ordered his Thracian light infantry and skirmishes, commanded by \*Epigenes, to assault the wall, but the defenders successfully repelled them. The Pontic army attempted a few sallies on the next days, but none of these were effective, while the Sassanids fired a few volleys of arrows, though showing only little success.

On the night of September 6th, the Persians under \*Bahram unleashed a massive barrage of fire arrows, using longbows, onto the Northern Wall and the main Pontic harbor, forcing the Greeks to reposition parts of their army to the north. Meanwhile, \*Ardashir did the same, and ordered a full scale charge onto the enemy, using siege engines. The Greeks were completely overwhelmed, and thousands of Sassanid troops broke through the gate, and infiltrated the city, resulting in fierce street fighting, while the smoke of the burning ships and buildings poured into the sky. This was quickly noticed by \*Shapur, and he quickly loaded his 30,000 soldiers onto the Persian warships and attacked the Greeks from the sea. By this point much of the Pontic ships were left empty, because they needed the crew to defend Mithripolis, and thus, Shapur managed to penetrate the Pontic defense from the sea. General \*Bahram and his troops managed to capture some Greek ships, allowing his troops to enter the city from the north.

At the same time, chaos broke out in the capital, and thousands of Pontic soldiers even surrendered out of despair. King \*Arsaces, \*Darius and 5,000 of his royal guards, attempted a last stand inside the Palace of Mithripolis. When \*Ardashir and \*Bahram entered the city, the latter stormed head on into the palace, fighting heroically, just like the Greeks. However, during the heat of the battle \*Arsaces and \*Bahram fought in single-combat, and the Pontic king slashed into the throat of \*Bahram, revenging his son. Thus, the beloved General fell dead onto the Palace's marble floor. Seeing this tragedy, Ardashir was completely enraged and massacred all leftover Pontic guards, except \*Arsaces and \*Darius, who were knocked out and imprisoned for a later purpose. Meanwhile, the last naval resistance was crushed by \*Shapur's fleet.

At dawn of September 8th, \*Arsaces and \*Darius were publicly executed at the marketplace of Mithripolis, symbolizing the end of the Pontic Empire, and starting the foundation of the new Sassanid age, in legacy of Cyrus the Great. Though, not all of the former Pontic Empire was now under Sasanian rule. The Greek and Illyrian kingdoms, as well as Dacia managed to gain independence. As a reward for his loyalty, Ardashir appointed \*Epigenes as the vassal king of Thrace. The Mithridatic dynasty was replaced by governors of different, mostly Persian, ancestries, and effectively had died out, even in the Greek homeland.

*\* Indicates that a name or event is fictional, though made to fit with the timeline.*

## List of Pontic kings

These are the names and reign dates.

**Mithridatic dynasty**

Mithridates I Ctistes (281-266 BCE)

Ariobarzanes I (266-250 BCE)

Mithridates II (250-210 BCE)

Mithridates III (210-190 BCE)

Pharnaces I (190-155 BCE)

Mithridates IV Philopator Philadelphos (155-150 BCE)

Mithridates V Euergetes (150-120 BCE)

Mithridates VI Eupator Dionysus "the Great" (120-55 BCE)

Pharnaces II (55-16 BCE) - Born 97 BCE, died in 16 BCE, with 81 years.

Darius I (16 BCE - 10 CE) - \*Born 69 BCE, died in 10 CE, with 79 years.

\*Mithridates VII Chrestus (10-37 CE) - Born 41 BCE, died in 37 CE, with 78 years.

\*Pharnaces III (37-54 CE) - Born 10 BCE, killed during the Battle of Alexandria in 54 CE, with 64 years.

\*Mithridates VIII Soter (54-97 CE) - Born 20 CE, died in 97 CE, with 77 years.

\*Arsaces I (97-130 CE) - Born 48 CE, died in 130 CE, with 82 years.

\*Darius II (130-164 CE) - Born 81 CE, died in 164 CE, with 83 years.

\*Ariobarzanes II (164-188 CE) - Born 109 CE, died in 188 CE, with 79 years.

\*Mithridates IX Mithripolenos (188-222 CE) - Born 141 CE, died in 222 CE, with 81 years.

\*Arsaces II (222-238 CE) - Born 171 CE, killed during the Siege of Mithripolis in 238, with 67 years.

- Fall to the Sassanid Empire in 238 CE.

## Source

This page uses content from **Wikipedia**. The original article was at **Pontos** (view authors). As with Sine Roma - What if Rome never existed? Wiki, the text of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike License 3.0 (Unported).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom\_of\_Pontus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridatic\_dynasty

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costoboci

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decebalus

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-8447745/Massive-volcanic-eruption-Alaska-43-BC-triggered-global-climate-shock.html

https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2020/03/13/sassanian-naval-capabilities-an-overview/