Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) was a French sociologist and philosopher. He was known for his contribution to the functionalist theory, a major perspective in sociology.

## Structured System: social facts as constraints

Functionalists
have often argued that members experience society in terms of the structural
pressure or constraints placed on their behavior. From this perspective,
society can be interpreted as a **“hidden**
hand**” that is constantly coercing people to do what they may or may not**
want to do but have to in order to remain a member of society.  This concept was originally proposed by Adam
Smith in his “Wealth of Nations” to explain market forces in the economy. **“Individual choice**”, therefore, is not
much of a key concept in functionalism as people react to the structural
pressures rather than act out of their own will.

Similarly,
Durkheim argues that society has its own reality above the people, who are
constrained by what he called **“social**
facts'*,” which are “ways of acting, thinking and feeling, external to the*
individual, and endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they
control him.” *Rather than people’s conscious directing their behavior, Durkheim*
claimed that it is common beliefs and values which are shared and passed down
generations that shape people’s thoughts and behaviors.

## Causes and functions of social facts

Durkheim
provided further explanation of his “social facts” by looking at both its
causes and functions. He stated that the origin of social facts ought to be
found  “among the social facts preceding
it and not among the states of individual consciousness”. For example, the
causes of variations of suicide rates can be explained by forces in society and
not individuals.

In terms of
function, or the usefulness to society, Durkheim suggested that social factors
exist because of its contribution to society and the fact that it serves “some
social end.”

## Functional prerequisites & social order

A major
part of Durkheim’s work focused on the functions of social facts. He
acknowledged that functional prerequisites are needed for societies to survive
and claimed that social facts are an example needed to maintain social order,
primarily due to human nature. His model of human nature was that of “homo
duplex”, which involves two approaches to human nature. One is that humans are
selfish beings who put their own interests first, while the other is that
humans are capable of having moral values and socializing. In order for social
life and social order to be achieved, society has to make effective use of the
latter side of human nature.

## Value consensus: collective conscience & social solidarity

As humans
are capable of believing in moral values, value consensus can be used to
establish social order. Two other key concepts Durkheim proposed are collective
conscience and social solidarity. **Collective**
conscience **involves the “external expression” of the collective will of**
members of society and therefore involves the social forces that help integrate
people into society. It also restrains people’s actions to the requirements of
society as social facts are external and beyond the control of individuals.
Indeed, society doesn’t just exist but “has to be present in the individual.”

Social
solidarity is the sense of belonging to society and is based upon factors such
as common culture and socialization. Durkheim suggests that in traditional
societies, people are shaped by mechanical solidarity, i.e. who they are, while
in modern societies, people are shaped by organic solidarity, i.e. what they
do. The organic solidarity is more complicated than the mechanic solidarity is
it involves integrating people to society through a common values and a sense
of belonging.

## Social change: threats to social solidarity

Durkheim
did acknowledge the possibilities of conflict in societies as his work on the division
of labor (Durkheim, 1947, first published 1893) proves. Industrial societies on
the basis of organic solidarity may collapse due to people’s egoism or
hostilities, which could reduce the power of the structural constraints on
individuals. Nevertheless, Durkheim thought the conflicts could be resolved
with professional associations, such as the educational system, which teaches
and enforces moral values and by treating all members fairly.