Homo soloensis

Speculative Ngandong skull reconstruction by Franz Weidenreich.

*Homo soloensis* is a possible species of hominin that lived in Java and China during the Middle-Late Pleistocene.

## History

From 1931-33, 12 skill pieces (including 2 well-preserved skullcaps) and 2 right tibiae (one that is essentially complete) were discovered under the direction of W.F.F. Oppenoorth, Carel ter Haar and Ralph von Koenigswald during a mission to distinguish Tertiary and Quaternary deposits in 1931 near Ngandong, Solo River. Midway through excavation, Oppenoorth retired from the Geological Survery of Java to return to the Netherlands, and was replaced by Józef Zwierzycki in 1933. Because of the Great Depression, the Survey shifted to missions to improve the economy (typically petroleum deposits) and excavation here stopped. Ter Haar (1934) published summaries of the Ngandong operations before contracting tuberculosis, where he then returned to the Netherlands and died 2 years later.

Von Koenigswald was fired in 1934 after being hired to only study Javan mammals. Zwierzycki fought for resumed excavation and got funding from the Carnegie Institute for Science, where von Koenigswald was rehired to his position in 1937, but was preoccupied with Sangiran to resume at Ngandong.

    In 1935, the Solo remains were transported to the old Batavia (now made of several countries) in the care of Willem Alphonse Mijsberg and hope to taking over in studying the specimens; before he gained the chance, they were moved to Bandung in 1942 due to Japanese occupation, with the former imprisoning von Koenigswald for 32 months. When the war was ceased, he was released, with the Indonesian War of Independence starting. Franz Weidenreich called for the Javanese remains to be moved to New York alongside his wife. Von Koenigswald and Weidenreich studied the fossils in the American Museum of Natural History until the former died in 1948 (leaving a monograph on the Solo Man that was posthumously published in 1951).

Von Koenigswald (1956) accounted for the Ngandong remains in detail. The Solo Man fossils were then moved to Utrecht University, with von Keonigswald giving the material to Teuku Jacob in 1967 for doctoral research. Jacob then oversaw excavation at Ngandong in 1976 and 1978 and found 2 more skulls and a pelvic fragment. In 1978, von Koenigswald returned the material to the Indonesian Gadjah Mada University.

Sambungmacan is an open site located on the south bank of the Solo RIver. Sambungmacan 1 was discovered in 1973, with 3 and 4 also being known. 4 was purchased from a New York curio shop after it had been illegally removed from Java. The dating of these specimens is problematic because the site was originally thought to be of the lower-Middle Pleistocene, but ESR, Ar/Ar and U-series dating all provide differing dates.Swisher (1996) found that ESR and U-series for Sambungmacan and Ngandong have a date of 27-53 kya, suggesting a post-Toba survival of this species and overlap with *Homo sapiens*. This would have made old theories, that these Javanese populations were ancestral to Australasians as claimed by polygenism, null or unlikely, since derived *Homo sapiens* are present 40-50 kya in Lake Mungo and Niah Cave and would thus leave too little time for this to happen. Additionally, Herto, Aduma and Klassies River Mouth indicate that ancestral forms of *Homo sapiens* were present in Africa 100 kya before Sambungmacan. Overall, a post-Toba survival of *H. soloensis* and overlap with *Homo sapiens* are disputed. New 40Ar/39Ar, ESR and U-series dates for Sambugmacan, Ngandong and the Jigar faunal site indicate ages from 546-612 kya during the Middle Pleistocene and significantly older than other estimates. However, ESR/U-series, compiled with all modeling criteria, returns a date of 143 kya, which is still in the Middle Pleistocene. Peter Brown thinks that these are still not accurate dates or date ranges for Sambungmacan or Ngandong.

Hexian was excavated by a team from the IVPP with local archeologists from Longtandong cave, slope of Wanijashan mountain in hexian County from 1980-81. PA 830 is a fairly complete vault and several fossils (a fragmentary left mandibular body, frontal fragments, parietal fragments and teeth) were recovered, described as some of the most recent *Homo erectus*, or *Homo soloensis*. in China. Chen et al. (1987) use U-series dating to find a range of 150-190 kya, with a possible maximum of 270 kya. Li and Mei (1983) use Thermoluminescence dating to find 195,000-16,000 years. Grunn et al. (1997) dated mammal teeth from the cave to 412 kya. This fauna shows a mix of cold adaptations and subtropical-tropical elements.

## Description

Assuming a growth rate similar to derived *Homo sapiens* (though an earlier age is possible), skulls were able to be given an ontogenetic age. The skull is very thick, being 2-3x as thick as modern humans. Assumed males are more robust, though females are still very robust when compared to other *H. erectus*. Adults have skulls averaging 202x152 millimeters in length x breadth, and are proportionally similar to the Peking Man, having a larger circumference. Skull V, the longest, is 221 millimeters (8.7 inches) long. Traits are more derived than the Trinil populations, with a larger brain, an elevated vault, reduced postorbital constriction and supraorbital tori that are less heavy, but they are overall resembling other *H. erectus* specimens. Like Peking, the slight sagittal keel runs down the midline; the forehead is proportionally low compared to other specimens and has a low angle of inclination; the brow does not form a continuous bar like Peking, curving down at the midpoint and forming a nasal bridge; the brows are thick (especially at the lateral); the frontal sinuses are confined between the orbits like Peking; the temporal muscle would have covered a flat area; the brow merges into thickened cheekbones; the skull is phenozygous; and the squamous of the temporal is triangular like Peking and the infratemporal crest is sharpened.

Like Javan populations, the inferior and superior temporal lines diverge towards the rear of the skull. The occipital torus is sharp and thick, marking a clear margin between the occipital and nuchal planes. The occipital torus projects the most when it corresponds with the external occipital protuberance in modern humans. The base of the temporal is consistent with Trinil and Peking rather than Homo sapiens or *Homo neanderthalensis*. Unlike those two, the pterygoid bears a defined bony pyramid by the roots. The mastoid of the temporal has a noticeable jut, the occipital condyles are smaller compared to the foramen magnum and there are large, irregular bony projections that are directly behind the occipital condyles. 6 skulls have a cranial capacity of 1013-1251; Ngawi I at 1000 and three Sambungamacan skulls with 1035, 917 and 1006, making an average over 1000. The braincase base, and thus the brain, is flat. The sella turcica is much larger, which Weidenreich (1951) suggests an enlarged pituitary gland causing thickening of the bones, cautiously. Tibia A is more robust than B, consistent with *Homo neanderthalensis*. They are thick and heavy, possibly being 380 millimeters long for A. B may have been 158 centimeters tall, and A is assumed to have been larger. The pelvic element has not been described.

Morphological and metrical comparison of Hexian, Trinil, Ngandong and Zhoukoudian have conflicted. Wu and Dong (1982) find general similarity between them as members of *Homo erectus*. Hexian is more similar to Zhoukoudian, but the proportions in the superior view find more similarity with Trinil. The breadth of the skull, possibly due to postmortem taphonomic circumstances, is distinct from both 'classic' *Homo erectus*. Dong (1989) finds the morphology closer to Javan specimens. In comparison to Zhoukoudian, the tooth crown dimensions are larger and the left mandibular body fragment is thickened and taller than in other Chinese specimens. It has been chalked up to having been in range of normal variation.

## Classification

Oppenoorth (1932) drew parallels between Solo, Kabwe, Neanderthals and Australian Aborigines. At first, he believed that Ngandong represented an Asian Neanderthal and was closer to *Homo rhodesiensis*, which was considered Neanderthaloid, calling it *Javanthropus* and considering it nearly identical to the Wajak cranium (now a basal *Homo sapiens*). This gave rise the name *Homo (Javanthropus) soloensis*. He hypothesized that the population evolved in Indonesia and was ancestral to Aboriginal Australians, being transitional and classifying *Homo rhodesiensis* as part of the species. He considered Peking to have dispersed west into *Homo neanderthalensis*. This gives the Java-Solo-Kabwe name the "Pithecanthropoid-Australoid", being an extension of Weidenreich's multiregional hypothesis. When Mayr subsumed the entire lineage into three species, it became part of the "Neanderthal/Neanderthalien/Neanderthaloid group" by Weidenreich in the 1940s (a group including transitional forms between *H. erectus* and *Homo sapiens* and then given the generic name *Palaeoanthropus*). It was also called *H. e. soloensis* by Carleton Coon (1962).

In the 1960s and 70s, the idea that Aboriginal Australians are descendants of *H. erectus* was expanded on in Alan Thornes di-hybrid model after noticing some populations were robust: a first, robust wave having ancestry with *H. erectus* and a second gracile wave descending from derived East Asians that descended from populations like Peking. It was found later that the robust specimens are younger, and Steve Webb (2006) speculated that *H. erectus* were the first Australians and derived robust populations have ancestry from these pioneers. However, the age of the Solo Man predates derived *Homo sapiens* dispersal, which leaves this lineage with no living descendants. In 2021, a genetic study found no "super-archaic" (*erectus*-introgressed) pulse in Southeast Asia. This population is considered to be descended from the Sangiran/Trinil populations, and the skulls of Sambungmacan and Ngawi have been assigned to *H. e. soloensis* or an intermediary stage between *H. e. erectus* and the latter. It is unclear if there is gene flow from this continent.

Jacob (1973) suggested that Sangiran/Trinil and Ngandong/Ngawi/Sambungmacan are sister taxa, the former being *H. soloensis*. However, this is still unclear. However, this model is supported by Ni et al. (2022), who recover Hexian as a basal member of the lineage:

Westaway and Groves (2009) find that there is little evidence for the populations of Ngandong to have interbred with the earliest Australasian *Homo sapiens*. They find this by comparing their tentative date ranges to find coexistence very unlikely, and use phylogenetics do not cluster the earliest African and Levantine *Homo sapiens* with Ngandong and the Willandra Lakes sample. Wolpoff and Lee (2014) find that one of the Willandra specimens, WLH-50 (the earliest of the modern Australian fossil record), is not deformed or pathological and does bear substantial similarity with Ngandong, yet does not identify with this morphotype and finds that Ngandong is likely a part of Aboriginal Australian ancestry. Westaway and Durband (2015) suggest that the name *Homo soloensis* should be considered, and that they may have been displaced by the arrival of *Homo sapiens* 100 kya, but dating is far too imprecise to know. They also suggest a late survival of the species and the idea that inbreeding between the two species may not have produced viable offspring. Curnoe (2011) finds that Aboriginal Australians bear plesiomorphies in an otherwise modern morphology using updated phylogenetics and ontogenetic consideration, condemning the belief that they are descended from the Ngandong morphotype.

## Paleobiology

### Diet

Weidenreich and von Koenigswald (1951) noted major injuries in Skulls IV and VI of the Ngandong site, caused by a cutting instrument and a blunt instrument. They bear evidence of inflammation and healing, which indicates the individuals survived. They note that only skullcaps are found, lacking teeth, which is unusual. They suggest that they were victims of "unsuccessful assault", and that other skulls with a broken base indicates individuals who did not survive, presuming that this was done to access and consume brain. They were unsure if a neighbouring tribe or "advanced beings" had done this, the former was also suggested for the Peking Man with similar pathology. However, they also note that the injury may have been caused by the volcano. Von Koenigswald suggested that the skullcaps were being modified into skull cups, but Weidenreich was skeptical because the especially sharp edged Skulls I, V and X would not have been well suited for this. Cannibalism and headhunting hve been suggested at Trinil, Sangiran and Mojokerto based on similar circumstances. This was reinforced by headhunting occurring in history by groups that were then believed to be ancestral to these populations. Jacob (1972) suggested that since the skull is weaker than the calvaria and the remains had travelled down a river with large stones and boulder, this was natural. The postcrania could have been predated by tigers, since they usually leave the head intact due to less food availability. Skulls I and IX and other Ngandong material was also further damaged during excavation and preparation.

### Technology

While studying photos taken by Pieter Vincent van Stein Callenfels, Oppenoorth (1936) noted several broken bones, mostly from a large tiger skull and deer antlers, which was considered bone technology at Ngandong. He suggested that the antlers had a carved bird skull hafted to the end to be used as axes. Weidenreich (1951) voiced skepticism, that the bones were damaged by the river, crocodiles and/or other natural processes, and that there is no evidence for human modification. Oppenoorth suggested a long piece of bone had an undulating pattern carved into both sides used as a harpoon (similar to such tools from the Magdelenian of Europe), but Weidenreich interpreted this as a spearhead. Weidenreich also noted strange inland stingray stingers at Ngandong, which he supposed could have been collected by these populations for use in daggers or arrowheads, similar to some South Pacific populations. It is unknown if this can be associated with the Ngandong populations or later derived *Homo sapiens*. However, populations at Trinil seem to have worked with similar material, making scrapers from *Pseudodon* and possibly opening them with shark teeth. Oppenoorth identified a perfectly found andesite ball from Ngandong, common in Solo Valley, with diameters ranging from 67-92 millimeters (2.6-3.6 inches) in diameter and similar balls found in the younger European Mousterian and African Middle Stone Age sites (as old as sites such as Oloregsailie). They are also found at Watualong (a contemporaneous fauna) and Sangiran. These are traditionally interpreted as bolas, plant-processing/bone-breaking tools or as individual thrown projectiles. Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth (1993) showed that this shape could be made by repeated hammer-like strikes of the object. Von Koenigswald, Helmut de Terra, Hallam L. Movius and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin returned in 1938 to collect lithic cores and flakes, but found difficulty in identifying these due to river damage. They are small and simple, usually smaller than 5 centimeters and most often made from chalcedony, chert and jasper washed up from the river. Volcanic rocks and wood fragments seem to be modified into heavy-duty choppers. Nearby Sambungmacan in 1973, a unifacial chopper and a flake made of andesite were discovered. Because few tools are known it is impossible to assign an industry; there are no sophisticated choppers, handaxes or other complex chopping tools. Movius (1944) suggested this was based on technological divide, but this was proven unlikely.

## Paleoecology

Location of fossils at the Solo terrace at the time of discovery are poorly documented, since the original team was only at the site for 24 days of the 27 month long survey, since they had to oversee other sites. They left geological assistants Samsi and Panudju to oversee the dig, with records now lost. Their site map, however, remains and was published in 2010 and is currently of limited use, so the important stratigraphic data of the Ngandong remains are debated. They are all known from the upper section of Layer 11 (out of 6 layers), with each stratum being 46 centimeters thick. The sand is gravelly and volcaniclastic hypersthene andesite, thought to have been deposited at around the same time, probably in the (currently) dry arm of the Solo River, 20 meters (66 feet) above the remaining river. The site is about 40 meters (130 feet) above sea level. Volcaniclastic rock indicates that deposition occurred soon after a volcanic eruption, with the volume of recovered fossils suggesting a concentration in the valley upstream from the site due to not only the eruption, but extreme drought. This would have poisoned vegetation (or impeded growth), leading to starvation and death in herbivores and humans that would have accumulated and decomposed over several months. Lack of carnivore damage indicates that sufficient feeding was possible without crushing bone. When monsoon season came. lahars from the volcano through the channels swept carcasses to the archeological site, where debris jammed due to a narrowing channel. Sambungmacan remains, also from the Solo RIver, were possibly deposited in the same event. Oppenoorth (1932) suggested that the remains were of the Eemian interglacial, 150-100 kya during the Middle-Late Pleistocene transition. Using biochronological techniques, Oppenoorth (1932), von Koenigswald (1934) and ter Haar (1936) agreed with a Late Pleistocene age. They were radiometrically dated in 1988089 using uranium-thorium to find a 200-30 thousand year date, with a wide margin for error. The teeth were dated in 1996 using electron spin resonance and uranium-thorium isotope-ratio mass spectometry to find an age of 53.3-27 thousand years ago. In 2008. gamma spectroscopy on 3 skulls showed uranium leaching taking place, finding a date of 70-40 thousand years. In 2011, argon-argon dating of pumice hornblende finds a maximum of 546±12 thousand years ago and electron spin resonance/uranium-thorium dating of the Jigar 1 sitefinds a minimum of 143-77 thousand years. In 2020, the first comprehensive chronology of Ngandong finds that the river diverges through the site 500 kya and the Solo terrace deposited 316-31 thousand years ago; the Ngandong terrace 141-92 thousand years; and the Solo Man bonebed being 117-108 thousand years old. This would make them the most recent populations, and did not interact with derived *Homo sapiens*, like other studies claimed to have been a possibility.

Based on species, the Ngandong fauna is much similar to the older Kedung Brubus fauna, which indicates a mass migration to Java (including Asian elephants and *Stegodon*). Other taxa from here are *Panthera tigris soloensis*, the Malayan tapir, *Hexaprotodon*, the sambar deer, water buffalo, *Bos palaesondaicus*, pigs and the crab-eating macaque; typical of a woodlands environment. The common crane in the contemporaneous Watualong site could indicate cooler conditions than today. The direst conditions may correspond with a glacial maximum 135,000 years ago, exposing the Sunda shelf and connecting the major Indonesian islands to the mainland. 125,000 years ago, the climate became wetter, making Java an island and expanding tropical rainforests. This would have succeeded the Ngandong fauna by the Punung fauna (the modern assemblage of Java, though orangutans and gibbons likely could not reach the island until it reconnected to the continent after 80,000 years ago. *H. erectus*, woodland specialists, here would have gone extinct with the last open-habitat refugia being destroyed. *H. erectus* here would have been the last population after a long occupation at Java beginning 1.51-0.93 million years ago at Sangiran and ending 117-108 kya at Ngandong. If these date are correct, these populations would have been the last, sheltering in remaining refugia until rainforest takeover. In this same time, *Homo floresiensis*, *Homo luzonensis* and *Homo daliensis* were present in Asia. The amount of specimens at Ngandong indicates a large population although it can not be determined with certainty. The site is distanced away from the northern coast, but it is unclear where the southern shoreline and the mouth of the Solo River would have been. The site of Jigar, roughly adjacent to Ngandong, presents bovids, cervids, turtles and crocodiles. Although there is no direct evidence of hominins here via tools or tool marks on other fossils, but Indriati et al. (2011) included the site in their dating of *Homo soloensis* sites as sister to Ngandong, indicating possibility for these hominins having existed here if their dating is correct.

## Synonyms

* *Homo erectus*?
* *Homo ngandongensis*
* Javanthropus
* *Palaeoanthropus soloensis*
* *Homo (Javanthropus) soloensis*
* *Pithecanthropus soloensis*
* *Pithecanthropus steinheimensis soloensis*
* *Homo sapiens soloensis*
* *Homo erectus soloensis*
* *Homo erectus ngandongensis*
* *Homo erectus hexianensis*
* *Homo neanderthalensis soloensis*
* *Homo primigenius asiaticus*
* *Homo neanderthalensis (Asianicus) soloensis*
* *Homo neanderthalensis (Asianicus) javanensis*

## Notable Specimens

* Jigar?: A faunal site from Solo River with no evidence of hominin activity, except for it being included by Indriati et al. (2011) as possibly adjacent to Ngandong.
* Solo Man/Ngandong: A series of remains known from the Ngandong locality of Java. They are some of the 'classics', discovered in the 1930s and some of the latest *H. erectus*, or *H. soloensis*, known.
	+ Skull I: A near-complete skullcap likely from an elderly female.
	+ Skull II: A frontal, likely from a 3-7 year old child.
	+ Skull III: A warped skullcap that is likely from an elder.
	+ Skull IV: A skullcap, probably from a middle-aged female.
	+ Skull V: A skullcap of great length (211 millimeters), a probable male.
	+ Skull VI: A near-complete skullcap of what is probably an adult female.
	+ Skull VII: A fragmented right parietal that may be from a young (female?) individual.
	+ Skull VIII: Separated parietals that may be of a young male.
	+ Skull IX: A skullcap sans base of an elder, having the size of a female but the thickness of a male.
	+ Skull X: A shattered skullcap of what is likely a robust elder female.
	+ Skull XI: A near-complete skullcap.
	+ Tibia A: A fragmented shaft 101 millimeters in diameter at the midshaft, likely an adult male.
	+ Tibia B: A near-complete right tibia 365 millimeters long and 86 in diameter, may be an adult female.
	+ Ngandong 15: A partial skullcap.
	+ Ngandong 16: A left parietal fragment.
	+ Ngandong 17: A 4x6 centimeter (1.6x2.4 inche) left acetabulum.
* Hexian: A collection of hominin fossils from China first assigned to *Homo erectus*, including a cranial vault, additional neurocranial fragments, mandibular fragments and teeth.
	+ PA 830: A cranial vault described multiple times in many languages. It exhibits incredible breadth that is likely caused by postmorten crushing. It was excavated from 1980 to 1981. It is quite complete, with preservation loss primarily at the sphenoid, roof of the orbits, zygomatic processes of the temporals, the tips of the mastoids and the baso-occipital. The crushing occurs at the anterior third of the parietals, causing flattening and asymmetry. The vault is long, low and quite broad. The supramoastoid ridge bears the greatest cranial breadth. The frontal recedes more than Zhoukoudian, with the brow being broad and thick. Unlike most Javan specimens, the brow arches over each orbit and thins to the lateral. A slight bulge is seen on the frontal squama but is not as pronounced as Zhoukoudian. There is no median ridge or parasagittal depressions. The occipital torus forms a prominence that is transverse, smooth and has a vault bone that is 17.8 millimeters thick at the center. The torus extends laterally to the asterion to find a distinct supratoral sulcus. An angular transition between the nuchal and occipital planes is common in *Homo erectus* and seen in Hexian. The cranial vault bone thickness increases postero-inferiorly, with it being 14.6 millimeters at the parietal eminences and 18 at the asterion, This is similar to Zhoukoudian and Javan erectines. The cranial capacity is 1025, with this and the general robusticity suggesting that the individual was a male.
* Sambungmacan (Sm.): Four well-preserved crania from Java that are allied closest to Ngandong. They were discovered from the southern bank of the Solo Bank and were illegally moved to New York City to be unethically sold. Dating of the specimens is problematic.
	+ Sambungmacan 1: A skull with carbonated matrix encrusting the interior of the neurocranium, preventing access to this surface. CT scanning allows for observation and conservation of the mineralized state of the internal structures, further using this to reconstruct an endocast. This reveals closest relations to the Ngandong hominins. It is tentatively identified as a male.
	+ Sambungmacan 2: A skull closely related to the Ngandong hominins, as of the rest of the sample[*citation needed*].
	+ Sambungmacan 3: Márquez et al. (2001) described this specimen, calling it *Homo* cf. *erectus* and "morphologically distinct". It was discovered in 1977 and rediscovered in New York natural history establishment in 1999, where the Indonesian authorities were notified. The only incomplete parts are from the cranial base. They suggest such a differing morphology is either a new level of variation within the larger *Homo erectus*, there were more than a single species in Middle Pleistocene Asia or it shows evolutionary 'progression' within *Homo erectus*.
	+ Sambungmacan 4: A specimen announced by Aziz (2002) and described by Baba et al. (2003). It was found when searching for sand to use in construction, and was allegedly stumbled upon 100 meters from the discovery site of Sambungmacan 3. Multiple sources use this cranium to cite 'discontinuity' in Australasia during this time.
* Ngawi: An undated but well-preserved skull that is group with Ngandong and Sambungmacan. It is similar to Sangirana nd Trinil based a smaller cranium size, a weak and distinct supraglabellar depression, a short temporal, a a limited posterior projection in the middle of the occipital torus, a shallower and roofed mandibular fossa and a smaller mastoid process. The same is true for Sambungmacan, though a few extra traits are added. Kaifu et al. (2015) caution that these should not be ignored in the diagnosis of *H. soloensis* and is crucial to understanding the evolution of these groups.

## Gallery

Ngandong Skull VI.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skull XI.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skull XI.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skull XI.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skulls I and II.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skulls III and IV.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skull VI.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skull V.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skull I.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skull XI.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skulls VII and VIII.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skulls IX and X.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Skull IX.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Gorilla, human and Ngandong skull endocasts.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Tibia B.
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**Ngandong Tibiae A (right) and B (left).
**Credit: Franz Weidenreich.**From left-to-right, Hexian, Zhoukoudian (*Homo erectus*) and Dali (*Homo daliensis*).Hexian.Hexian.Hexian.Hexian PA 830.
## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solo\_Man
2. ↑ https://peterbrown-palaeoanthropology.net/Sambungmacan%20Homo%20eectus.html
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 https://peterbrown-palaeoanthropology.net/hexian.html
4. ↑ https://www.cell.com/the-innovation/fulltext/S2666-6758(21)00055-2
5. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259772569\_The\_mark\_of\_Ancient\_Java\_is\_on\_none\_of\_them
6. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271701682\_WLH\_50\_How\_Australia\_Informs\_the\_Worldwide\_Pattern\_of\_Pleistocene\_Human\_Evolution
7. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321829885\_Human\_evolution\_in\_Sunda\_and\_Sahul\_and\_the\_continuing\_contributions\_of\_Professor\_Colin\_Groves
8. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/50196606\_A\_150-Year\_Conundrum\_Cranial\_Robusticity\_and\_Its\_Bearing\_on\_the\_Origin\_of\_Aboriginal\_Australians
9. ↑ https://storage.googleapis.com/plos-corpus-prod/10.1371/journal.pone.0021562/1/pone.0021562.s004.pdf?X-Goog-Algorithm=GOOG4-RSA-SHA256&X-Goog-Credential=wombat-sa%40plos-prod.iam.gserviceaccount.com%2F20220608%2Fauto%2Fstorage%2Fgoog4\_request&X-Goog-Date=20220608T201943Z&X-Goog-Expires=86400&X-Goog-SignedHeaders=host&X-Goog-Signature=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
10. ↑ https://www.nyu.edu/about/news-publications/news/2011/june/finding-showing-human-ancestor-older-than-previously-thought-offers-new-insights-into-evolution.html
11. ↑ https://eurekamag.com/research/031/998/031998053.php
12. ↑ https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/ar.1048
13. ↑ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11275968/
14. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/35462885\_A\_test\_of\_the\_multiregional\_hypothesis\_of\_modern\_human\_origins\_using\_basicranial\_evidence\_from\_Indonesia\_and\_Australia\_electronic\_resource
15. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295381944\_Morphology\_of\_Sambungmacan\_4\_skull\_and\_the\_evidence\_of\_discontinuity\_in\_Australasia
16. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282890740\_Homo\_erectus\_calvaria\_from\_Ngawi\_Java\_and\_its\_evolutionary\_implications