2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake

On 6 February 2023, at 04:17 TRT (01:17 UTC), a Mw 7.8 earthquake struck southern and central Turkey and northern and western Syria. The epicenter was 37 km (23 mi) west–northwest of Gaziantep. The earthquake had a maximum Mercalli intensity of XII (*Extreme*) around the epicenter and in Antakya. It was followed by a Mw 7.5 earthquake at 13:24. This earthquake was centered 95 km (59 mi) north-northeast from the first. There was widespread damage and tens of thousands of fatalities.

The Mw 7.8 earthquake is the largest in Turkey since the 1939 Erzincan earthquake of the same magnitude, and jointly the second-strongest recorded in the history of the country, after the 1668 North Anatolia earthquake. It is also one of the strongest earthquakes ever recorded in the Levant. It was felt as far as Egypt and the Black Sea coast of Turkey. There were more than 10,000 aftershocks in the three weeks that followed. The seismic sequence was the result of shallow strike-slip faulting.

There was widespread damage in an area of about 350,000 km2 (140,000 sq mi), about the size of Germany. An estimated 14 million people, or 16 percent of Turkey's population, were affected. Development experts from the United Nations estimated that about 1.5 million people were left homeless.

The confirmed death toll stood at 59,259: 50,783 in Turkey and 8,476 in Syria. It is the deadliest earthquake in what is now present-day Turkey since the 526 Antioch earthquake and the deadliest natural disaster in its modern history. It is also the deadliest in present-day Syria since the 1822 Aleppo earthquake; the deadliest worldwide since the 2010 Haiti earthquake; and the fifth-deadliest of the 21st century. Damages were estimated at US$104 billion in Turkey and US$14.8 billion in Syria, making them the fourth-costliest earthquakes on record.

Damaged roads, winter storms, and disruption to communications hampered the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency's rescue and relief effort, which included a 60,000-strong search-and-rescue force, 5,000 health workers and 30,000 volunteers. Following Turkey's call for international help, more than 141,000 people from 94 countries joined the rescue effort.

## Tectonic setting

### Geology

Central southern Turkey and northwestern Syria are affected by the interaction between three tectonic plates; the African Plate, Arabian Plate and Anatolian Plate. The boundary between the African and Arabian plates is represented by the Dead Sea Transform (DST)—a major zone of left-lateral strike-slip fault—it accommodates the relative northward movement of Arabia with respect to Africa. The northern end of the DST truncates at the East Anatolian Fault (EAF) another major left-lateral strike-slip fault zone that accommodates the overall westward movement of the Anatolian Plate as it is extruded in that direction by the northward movement of the Arabian Plate. The DST and EAF meet at the Marash Triple Junction. The EAF continues west of the triple junction, forming the boundary between the African and Anatolian plates, linking into the Cyprus arc to the west via the Latakia Ridge.
The 700 km-long (430 mi) EAF is subdivided into seven segments, from the northeast; the Karlıova, Ilıca, Palu, Pütürge, Erkenek, Pazarcık and Amanos segments. The Amanos segment is also considered part of the DST by some geologists, or a transitional structure between the EAF and DST by others. A northern strand to the EAF has also been recognized, including the Sürgü, Çardak, Savrun, Çokak, Toprakkale, Yumurtalık, Karataş, Yakapınar and Düziçi–İskenderun segments. The estimated slip rate on the main strand of the EAF system decreases south-westwards from 10 mm (0.39 in) per year on the Karlıova segment down to 2.9 mm (0.11 in) per year on the Amanos segment. On the northern strand, a slip rate of 2.5 mm (0.098 in) per year was estimated on the Çardak segment. The Sürgü-Çardak Fault is an east-west striking 160 km (99 mi) long fault that runs north of the EAF. Comprising two segments; the Sürgü Fault runs 70 km (43 mi) between Çelikhan and Nurhak; the Çardak Fault runs 90 km (56 mi) between Nurhak and Göksun. Seismicity on the fault is low—the only associated earthquake was a M 6.8 event in 1544.

The northern part of the DST is subdivided into several segments, although there is some disagreement between scientists as to which faults should be assigned to the DST and which to the EAF, at the northernmost end of the structure. Following the 2013 "Active Fault Map of Turkey", seven DST segments are recognized in Turkey and neighbouring parts of Syria; the Afrin, Sermada, Armanaz, Hacıpaşa, Yesemek, Sakçagöz and Narlı segments.

### Seismicity

The EAF has produced large or damaging earthquakes in the past few hundred years along various segments, including the 1789 (M 7.2, Palu), 1795 (M 7.0, Pazarcık), 1872 (M 7.2, Amanos), 1874 (M 7.1, Palu), 1875 (M 6.7, Palu), 1893 (M 7.1, Erkenek), 1971 (M6.6, Karlıova) and 2020 (Mw 6.8, Pütürge) events. Other large historical earthquakes have been tentatively assigned to segments of the EAF, such as the 1114 and 1513 Marash earthquakes, both thought to have ruptured the Pazarcık segment.

The Palu and Pütürge segments in the east display a recurrence interval of about 150 years for M 6.8–7.0 earthquakes. The Pazarcık and Amanos segments in the west have recurrence intervals of 237–772 years and 414–917 years, respectively, for M 7.0–7.4 earthquakes. A research paper published by Earth and Planetary Science Letters in 2002 studied stress accumulation and increased seismic hazard along the East Anatolian Fault. The study concluded two sections of the fault with considerably high potential for future earthquakes. One of these sections was in Elazığ and Bingöl, located between the rupture zones of the 1874 and 1971 earthquakes. The seismic gap ruptured during a Mw  6.1 earthquake in 2010. The 2020 Mw  6.8 earthquake ruptured to the southwest between the 1893/1905 and 1874 earthquakes. Another seismic gap was located in Kahramanmaraş—this 103 km (64 mi) long section—according to the study, believed to last rupture in 1513 has the potential to produce magnitude 7.3 earthquakes.

Large earthquakes on the northern part of the DST include events in 115, 526, 587, 1138, 1170 and 1822, which resulted in several tens of thousands to several hundreds of thousands of fatalities.

## Earthquake sequence

The first and largest earthquake in the sequence struck at 01:17 UTC. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) and Global Centroid Moment Tensor (GCMT) measured it at Mww 7.8 and Mw 7.8, respectively. GEOSCOPE reported Mw 8.0 and Kandilli Observatory (KOERI) reported Mw 7.7 and ML 7.4. It had an epicenter at 37.166°N 37.032°E, 34 km (21 mi) west of Gaziantep in Gaziantep Province, which is near the border with Syria. The earthquake hypocenter was at a depth of 10.0 km (6 mi) according to USGS and 5 km (3 mi) according to KOERI. The shock had a focal mechanism corresponding to strike-slip faulting.

It is one of the strongest ever recorded in Turkey, equivalent in magnitude to the 1939 Erzincan earthquake (Mw 7.8). These earthquakes are surpassed only by the larger estimates for the 1668 North Anatolia earthquake. Globally it was the strongest recorded since August 2021. Both earthquakes are the largest and only observed to occur on land and within a short span of time.

At 10:24 UTC, an earthquake measuring Mww 7.5 according to USGS, Mw 7.6 according to KOERI, or Mw 7.7 according to Geoscope and the GCMT, struck with an epicenter near Ekinözü, 95 km northeast of the M7.8 event. It had a depth of 15 km (9 mi) according to the USGS, 5 km (3 mi) by KOERI, and 13 km (8 mi) by Geoscope.

A reevaluation of the earthquakes using long-period coda moment magnitude obtained moment magnitudes of Mw  7.95 ± 0.013 and Mw  7.86 ± 0.012, respectively. These earthquakes were the largest Turkish earthquakes in over 2,000 years.

### Aftershocks

Over 570 aftershocks were recorded within 24 hours of the Mw 7.8 earthquake and 10,000 recorded three weeks later. An aftershock measuring Mww 6.7 occurred about 11 minutes after the mainshock. There were 25 aftershocks Mw 4.0 or greater recorded within six hours of the main tremor, according to the USGS. More than 12 hours later, the USGS had reported at least 54 aftershocks of 4.3 or greater magnitude, while the Turkish Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency (AFAD) recorded at least 120 total aftershocks. A Mww 6.3 aftershock struck near Uzunbağ in Hatay Province on 20 February; the earthquake was the result of oblique-normal faulting. The Mw  7.8 earthquake had aftershocks distributed along ~350 km (220 mi) of the EAF.

The Mw 7.5 earthquake triggered its own aftershock sequence, including two mb 6.0 aftershocks. Aftershocks of the second earthquake continued through at least 9 Feb. Thousands of aftershocks associated with this earthquake were distributed along an east-west trend corresponding to the Çardak Fault for about 170 km (110 mi).

## Seismology

A source model for the Mww 7.8 earthquake produced by the USGS from observed seismic waves, taking into account preliminary rupture mapping from satellite data, uses three fault segments with individual lengths, widths, strikes and dips of >40 km (25 mi) × 30 km (19 mi), 028°/85° (Segment 1), >175 km (109 mi) × 30 km (19 mi), 060°/85° (Segment 2) and >160 km (99 mi) × 20 km (12 mi), 025°/75° (Segment 3). The mainshock produced a maximum slip of 11.2 m (37 ft) along Segment 2, beneath Sakarya in Kahramanmaraş Province, northeast of the junction where it meets Segment 1. Another zone of large slip estimated at 4.96 m (16.3 ft) occurred further northeast along Segment 2, northwest of Adıyaman.

The USGS source model for the Mw 7.5 earthquake which struck nine hours later has three large fault segments with individual lengths, widths, strikes and dips of >70 km (43 mi) × >20 km (12 mi), 276°/80° (Segment 1), >40 km (25 mi) × >20 km (12 mi), 250°/80° (Segment 2) and ~80 km (50 mi) × >20 km (12 mi), 060°/80° (Segment 3). Maximum displacement occurred on Segment 1 at 11.4 m (37 ft).

Three segments of the EAF were involved in the Mw  7.8 rupture; the Amanos, Pazarcık and Erkenek segments. The earthquake ruptured ~370 km (230 mi) of the EAF, producing a maximum slip of 9 m (30 ft) along the Pazarcık segment. The northern end of the rupture was about 20–30 km (12–19 mi) south of the Mw  6.8 earthquake that struck in 2020. This section of the EAF, the Pütürge segment, between both earthquakes, may represent a seismic gap. The southern segment of the EAF rupture was at its termination, near Antakya. Slip peaked at 12 m (39 ft) from the surface to 7 km (4.3 mi) depth during the Mw  7.5 earthquake; slip was 11 m (36 ft) at the surface. Slip along the fault was compact—mostly confined to within the Çardak Fault; it was also shallower—attenuating from 8–12 km (5.0–7.5 mi). Slip during the Mw  7.8 event extended to 18 km (11 mi) and 12 km (7.5 mi) for the Mw  7.5 event. The Mw  6.4 aftershock that struck Antakya on 20 February had a rupture area of 25 km (16 mi) × 25 km (16 mi) and produced a peak slip of 0.93 m (3 ft 1 in) at 8.3 km (5.2 mi) depth.

Preliminary analysis of the effects of stress changes caused by the M7.8 earthquake on the Çardak–Sürgü Fault, based on the USGS fault model, indicated up to 3 bars of added stress near the epicenter of the M7.5 shock, sufficient to trigger rupture on that zone, assuming that is was already close to failure. Stress on the Hatay Fault, source of the 20 February Mw  6.4 aftershock, increased by 1 bar following the 6 February earthquakes.

## Rupture propagation

Preliminary analysis based on seismology and observations of surface rupture suggest the following sequence of events: initial rupture at the site of the epicenter of the M7.8 shock on the Narlı Fault, the northernmost section of the Dead Sea Transform. The fault ruptured unilaterally northwards until it reached the Pazarcık segment of the East Anatolian Fault. Ruptures then continued bilaterally to the northeast and southwest along this segment. This subevent on the Narlı Fault corresponded to a Mw  7.0 earthquake which ruptured for 20 seconds. It had a focal mechanism corresponding to oblique-normal faulting. A preliminary analysis of near-field (within 1 km (0.62 mi) of the fault rupture) seismic records indicates that the initial rupture speed transitioned to supershear after propagating about 19.5 km (12.1 mi) away from the epicenter along the Narlı Fault before it reached the EAF. Back projection suggest the total rupture length was ~560 km (350 mi).

The rupture continued northeast onto the Ekernek segment and to the southwest onto the Amanos segment. The northeastern rupture ceased 55 seconds after initiation while the southwestern rupture ceased near Antakya about 80 seconds later. A Mw 6.8 aftershock occurring 11 minutes later and west of the first M>7 epicenter may have ruptured along the Sakçagöz Fault, the next segment of the Dead Sea Transform to the south. Rupture along the EAF during the event occurred at subshear velocity (maximum 3.2 km (2.0 mi) per second). An analysis of near-field seismic data revealed transient supershear rupture episodes throughout the EAF rupture. Supershear rupture occurred along the northernmost section of the Narlı Fault where it meets the EAF. The rupture transitioned onto the EAF and propagated northeast at supershear velocity until its termination near Malatya. Rupture towards the southwest was mostly subshear, but at the southern termination in Hatay, where the fault has multiple branches and kinks, supershear was likely observed. Supershear rupture at the southern termination contributed to the intense ground motion in Antakya.

The second M>7 earthquake initiated on a separate fault known as the Çardak–Sürgü Fault Zone, part of the northern strand of the East Anatolian Fault. The rupture propagated bilaterally along the Çardak segment, continuing eastwards onto the Sürgü segment before continuing eastwards to Malatya along the northeast–southwest trending Doğanşehir Fault Zone. Rupture also propagated towards the southwest along the Çardak segment. The total rupture length was estimated at 160 km (99 mi). The westward-propagating rupture occurred at supershear velocity (maximum 4.8 km (3.0 mi) per second) while the eastward-propagating rupture occurred at subshear velocity (maximum 2.8 km (1.7 mi) per second). The rupture lasted about 35 seconds.

The Mw  6.4 aftershock on 20 February occurred along the Hatay Fault. The focal mechanism indicated normal faulting along a northeast-southwest striking fault.

### Surface rupture

The extent of surface ruptures associated with the M7.8 and M7.5 earthquakes have been mapped using a mixture of satellite imagery and ground observations. Pixel matching on images captured by Sentinel-1 before and after the earthquakes showed sharp discontinuities in displacement, revealing two separate zones of surface rupture. The longer of the pair, produced by the first earthquake, measured 320 km (200 mi) while the second earthquake produced 150 km (93 mi) of surface rupture. These observations were backed up with direct imaging of the ruptures using other satellite data, such as from the DigitalGlobe's WorldView-1, 2 & 3 and GeoEye-1, and by field work. Remote sensing using satellite imagery indicated 30 km (19 mi) of surface rupture with large normal faulting component.
The zone of surface rupture extended from north of Antakya, Hatay Province towards Pazarcık, Kahramanmaraş Province and Gölbaşı, Adıyaman Province. Surface ruptures continued north of these cities. Surface rupture occurred in the Amik Valley. The westernmost part of Hatay Airport was damaged by surface ruptures but cracks in the runway were attributed to ground deformation. A major canal was damaged and lead to flooding in parts of the Amik Valley which was formerly Lake Amik. Field observations indicate a maximum displacement of 7.3 m (24 ft) on the surface. Geologists traced a 15 km (9.3 mi) surface rupture trending south from Pazarcık with an offset of 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in). From Golbasi to Nurdağı ground displacements were up to 5 m (16 ft). The surface rupture observed during the M7.8 earthquake was unusually large, comparable to that during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake along the San Andreas Fault.

Large surface offsets of 6–8 m (20–26 ft) were observed along the Sürgü-Çardak Fault. The largest offset was measured along a road west of Gözpınar; the rupture displaced the road left-laterally for 8.6 m (28 ft).

### Ground motion

Ground acceleration values recorded in some areas near the fault rupture were in excess of 1 *g*. Three USGS seismic installations, two at Antakya and one at Hassa, recorded large ground accelerations and velocities. The town of Hassa recorded 0.9082 *g* in ground acceleration (pga) and 215.34 cm/s (84.78 in/s) in ground velocity. The station data corresponded to a Modified Mercalli intensity of X (*Extreme*). A peak ground acceleration of 1.62 *g* was recorded by a station at Fevzipaşa. The peak ground acceleration generally exceeded 0.5 *g* in a large area around the epicenter, near Adiyaman and a large part of Hatay. High pga values of 2 *g* were recorded in Hatay. The maximum recorded pga was 2.212 *g* at a station in Pazarcık Belediyesi Parkı, Pazarcık; a government health facility nearby had sparce damage but the surrounding town was devastated. The maximum recorded pga during the Mw  7.7 earthquake was 0.59 *g* at Göksun.

According to Kandilli Observatory, the maximum Mercalli intensity (MMI) of the mainshock was estimated to have reached MMI XI–XII (*Extreme*) in Antakya and near the epicenter. MMI XI (*Extreme*) or higher was observed along the fault rupture from the epicenter to Antakya. The MMI also reached IX–X (*Violent*–*Extreme*) in Kahramanmaraş and İskenderun, VIII–IX (*Severe*–*Violent*) in Malatya and Adıyaman, VII–VIII (*Very strong*–*Severe*) in Gaziantep, Kilis, Idlib and Aleppo, and VI–VII (*Strong*–*Very strong*) in Adana and Şanlıurfa. The maximum MMI of the second earthquake was X (*Extreme*).

### Geological effects

Liquefaction was identified via satellite and remote sensing along the southern portion of the Mw 7.8 rupture on the East Anatolian Fault from Antakya to Golbasi. Liquefaction and lateral spreading were observed at and near coastal areas, fluvial valleys and drained lake or swamp areas, covered by Holocene sediments. These effects were widespread in the Amik Valley and Orontes River plain, north of Antakya, Hatay Province. Limited observations were made in high-elevation areas due to snow cover and lack of satellite observations.  Liquefaction was also observed in Samandağ. At Lake Gölbaşı, Adıyaman Province, lateral spreading occurred along the northern, eastern and southern coast. Parts of the lakeshore were also submerged. Gölbaşı was also damaged by liquefaction and lateral spreading.

Subsidence due to lateral spreading caused extensive damage in İskenderun. Liquefaction produced sand ejecta that buried Atatürk Boulevard in Çay District. Regular flooding in the city was observed after the earthquakes. Earlier flooding may be attributed to liquefaction while subsequent occurrences may be due to damage to the coast and water infrastructure. The sea inundated parts of the city by as much as 200 m (660 ft). Large areas of the coast and sections of piers were flooded due to lateral spreading. Large waves from bad weather and a tsunami may have contributed to the effects observed at İskenderun.

Despite an epicenter 90 km (56 mi) inland, a tsunami was recorded in the Mediterranean Sea. Small tsunami waves were recorded off the coast of Famagusta, Cyprus, without damage. The tsunami measured 0.17 m (6.7 in), and tsunami waves were recorded at 0.12 m (4.7 in) at İskenderun and 0.13 m (5.1 in) at Erdemli. Tsunami warnings were issued for the southern Turkish coast, southern and eastern Italian coasts and the whole eastern Mediterranean Sea area, but later withdrawn.

## Damage and casualties

The 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake has claiming the 2022 European heat waves to be completely defeated. The Mw 7.8 earthquake was also believed to had an extremely rare shaking intensity of twelve, making this 7.8 magnitude the deadliest, costliest, and most devastating earthquake notification in Quakefeed's history since official records began in late-April 2012. Level 12 earthquakes are extremely rare, first level 12 earthquake in more then 25 years. one study based on the maximum Mercalli intensity and the destruction. The 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake has been claimed as a Mw 9.0 or higher.

This earthquake is more than 5.8 times more costly than the European heat waves with $20.4 billion. In terms of death toll the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake beats all the historical heat wave events death toll, except the 2003 European heat wave, all thanks to global warming of the early-2020's, the 2022 European heat waves is in fact the worst heatwave ever in human history in nearly 20 years.

### In Turkey

There were 50,783 deaths, 297 missing and 107,204 injured across 11 of the 17 affected provinces of Turkey. At least 15.73 million people and 4 million buildings were affected. About 345,000 apartments were destroyed. More than 2 million residents in the affected provinces were evacuated to nearby provinces including Mersin, Antalya, Mardin, Niğde and Konya. More than 20 percent of Turkey's agriculture production was affected. The United Nations said crops, livestock, fisheries, aquaculture and rural infrastructure were heavily damaged. At least 516 university buildings were affected, of which 106 were heavily damaged.

By 23 February 2023, the Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change conducted damage inspections for 1.25 million buildings; revealing 164,000 buildings were either destroyed or severely damaged. A further 150,000 commercial infrastructure were at least moderately damaged. The International Organization for Migration estimated over 2.7 million people were made homeless. A damage assessment by the Turkish government revealed at least 61,722 buildings had to be demolished including 11,900 in Gaziantep Province, 10,900 in Hatay Province, 10,800 in Kahramanmaraş Province and 28,914 in Malatya Province. Broad fissures appeared on roads. During recovery efforts, body parts were often found in the rubble.

In Adana, 12 buildings collapsed in the city center, 23 were badly damaged and 120 were moderately damaged. Three apartments were among the buildings that collapsed in the city. Across Adana Province, damage assessments revealed 59 buildings and 1,274 apartments were destroyed or required demolition.

At least 300 buildings were razed in Malatya. Sixty percent of the city's buildings received damage. Nearly every neighborhood of the city was affected by collapsed buildings. Out of the 968 mosques in the city, 25 were destroyed and 420 others were damaged. Two hotels collapsed in Malatya, causing many casualties. The ceiling of Malatya Erhaç Airport experienced a partial collapse, as did the historic Yeni Camii mosque. Damage was also reported at the Arslantepe Mound. In Akçadağ, 11 people died, including four attributed to the second earthquake. At least 263 deaths were reported in Doğanşehir.

In Gaziantep, many of the historical sites were severely damaged, such as Gaziantep Castle, Şirvani Mosque and Liberation Mosque. The city recorded 16,211 collapses and buildings which were severely damaged or required demolition. In the city center, at least 154 people died after a four-story building collapsed; four other collapsed buildings left another 102 dead. In Nizip, at least 51 people were killed when a six-story apartment building collapsed.

In Nurdağı, nearly 2,500 people died and about 50 percent of the houses were badly damaged or destroyed. An additional 30 percent of its building stock received moderate damage. Mass graves were created to bury the overwhelming number of dead. Gaziantep Oğuzeli Airport was forced to restrict its service to rescue flights. Ninety percent of houses were heavily damaged or destroyed in Sakçagözü, and 256 people died. In İslahiye, there were 1,368 deaths, over 1,500 injuries and more than 200 destroyed apartments. There were over 130 deaths in Sulumağara; 200 in Altınüzüm; and 300–400 in Keküklü.

In Hatay Province, 13,517 buildings collapsed, 8,162 required demolition and 67,346 were heavily damaged. The districts of Antakya, Kırıkhan and İskenderun were the most affected. In Antakya, 70 percent of homes and 6,369 buildings collapsed, 3,734 had to be demolished and 21,830 were badly damaged. The collapse of the luxury Rönesans Rezidans apartment trapped an estimated 800 people and killed 750 residents. The runway of Hatay Airport was split and uplifted, causing flight cancellations. The Ankara Metropolitan Municipality completed repairs on the airport on 12 February, allowing its reopening. Two provincial hospitals and a police station were destroyed, and a gas pipeline exploded. The building that housed the assembly of Hatay State was destroyed, as was St. Paul's Church and the Habib'i Neccar Mosque, while damage occurred at the Antakya Synagogue and the Hatay Archaeology Museum. Several dozen buildings in Güzelburç district and nearly every house in the central and Cebrail districts collapsed. Most of the squad and coaching staff of the local football club Hatayspor were initially trapped in the collapse of their headquarters in Antakya before being rescued, with player Christian Atsu and sporting director Taner Savut dying. In Kırıkhan District, 1,886 buildings collapsed and 7,190 others were severely damaged or required demolition. At least 982 buildings were destroyed, 8,894 others were badly damaged and 943 had to be demolished in Defne. In Reyhanlı, 318 buildings collapsed and 1,661 others were severely damaged or required demolition. At least 187 buildings collapsed, 2,176 others were badly damaged and 194 others had to be demolished in Arsuz. In Kumlu, 131 buildings were destroyed, 738 others were severely damaged and 84 others required demolition. At least 58 buildings collapsed and 669 others were badly damaged or had to be demolished in Payas.

In İskenderun, an industrial city in Hatay Province, a large fire at the port was reported on 6 February at 17:00, believed to have originated from a container carrying flammable industrial oil, forcing the port's closure and the diversion of many ships. It was extinguished on 6 and 8 February, only for it to reignite the next day each time. It was finally extinguished on 10 February. A total of 3,670 containers were destroyed by the fire and the port managing authority said it would take three months for operations to resume. The city saw 534 buildings collapse, 337 requiring demolition and 4,622 receiving severe damage. Flooding occurred along the city shoreline, inundating streets up to 200 m (660 ft) inland. The Cathedral of the Annunciation, seat of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Anatolia, was almost completely destroyed. At least 3,109 people died in the city and over 12,000 were injured. In Erzin District, 31 buildings collapsed and 897 were heavily damaged or had to be demolished. However, there were no collapses or major damage in Erzin, the largest town in the district. Multiple factors including strict building codes prevented destruction. An estimated 20,000 people fled to Erzin, increasing its population by about 50 percent. In Samandağ, 670 buildings collapsed, 9,212 were badly damaged or required demolition and 7,850 people died. At least 1,046 buildings collapsed and 3,452 others were severely damaged or had to be demolished in Hassa District. In Altınözü, 838 buildings were destroyed, 3,892 others were badly damaged and 650 others required demolition. There were 213 collapsed buildings and 1,453 others had been severely damaged or had to be demolished in Yayladağı. At least 139 buildings collapsed, 755 others were badly damaged and 87 others had to be demolished in Belen. In Dörtyol, 115 buildings were destroyed and 2,030 others had to be demolished or were severely damaged.

Mass burials occurred in Kahramanmaraş for more than 5,000 bodies. A city official said the mass grave would eventually be the burial ground for 10,000 bodies. Around 75 percent of the city's buildings were damaged or destroyed. In Elbistan, 924 people died and 1,825 were injured. An estimated 2,000 buildings were destroyed. At Ordekdede, a village in Pazarcik District, almost all single-story buildings were decimated. None of the 140 houses in the village were structurally stable. Thirty-four people died in the village. At least 11 people died, 107 houses were destroyed and 70 percent of the building stock were damaged in Ekinözü. In Afşin, at least 180 people died. At least 335 buildings including 90 in the city center were destroyed. The Afşin-Elbistan Thermal Power Plant was also damaged. In Ericek [ce; tr; vi], a village in Göksun, 95 percent of homes were affected and 152 died. In Nurhak, there were around 200 deaths and all houses were severely damaged. In Türkoğlu, 1,171 buildings collapsed and 4,500 others required demolition.

In Adıyaman Province, over 20,000 buildings and 56,600 apartments were destroyed. In the city of Adıyaman, four neighborhoods were razed. Many buildings along Atatürk Boulevard collapsed. The city hall, a 6th-century mosque and Gölbaşı District's state hospital were also destroyed. Isias Hotel, the largest hotel in the city, also collapsed, killing 65 people. Up to 10 percent of Adıyaman's population perished. The mayor of Kömür said the Karapınar and Bahçelievler neighborhoods were nearly destroyed. Destruction was also observed in Barbaros, Çelikhan, Sümerevler and Karapınar districts. In Harmanlı, a village in Gölbaşı District, 80–90 percent of it was destroyed. The second earthquake destroyed three buildings in the province. In Gölbaşı, 71 percent of the town's infrastructure was damaged or destroyed and 695 people were killed with over 400 injured, including 286 deaths in the town center. There were also 410 deaths in Besni District, about 90 percent of them in the town itself. In Kâhta, at least 55 people died.

In Diyarbakir Province, 8,086 buildings were damaged, required demolition or were destroyed. Diyarbakır Fortress, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was also partly destroyed. The adjacent World Heritage Site of Hevsel Gardens was also damaged. Part of the Galeria complex in Yenişehir, which included a shopping mall and dozens of apartments collapsed, killing 89 and injuring 22.

At least 466 buildings were heavily damaged in Şanlıurfa Province; 201 were destroyed. Structures around the Pool of Abraham were damaged. The minaret at the religious shrine partially collapsed, sending rubble into the pools below and discoloring the water, which was also contaminated by seeping sewage. In Eyyübiye District, the minaret of the Eyüp Prophet Mosque was damaged and removed. Thirty-three people were killed in the collapse of the Osman Ağan Apartment.

In Osmaniye Province, of the 22,841 buildings surveyed, 1,739 were heavily damaged, destroyed or required urgent demolision. At least 1,088 of the 13,667 buildings examined in Merkez District were destroyed, seriously damaged or needed to be demolished.

In Kilis Province, 119 buildings were destroyed and 138 others were heavily damaged. In Batman Province, 218 buildings were damaged, and an additional 15 were completely destroyed. In Mardin Province, 59 buildings were heavily damaged and another 190 were slightly damaged and a death related to a heart attack occurred in Kızıltepe District. In Bingöl Province, several houses cracked and some livestock were killed by collapsing barns. In Samsun, damage occurred in Samsun Stadium. In Kayseri Province, eight buildings collapsed, while 5,252 others were damaged to some extent. Several houses were damaged and a barn collapsed in Muş Province. In Sivas Province, the second earthquake destroyed a few houses. In Giresun Province, a five-story building was damaged and evacuated. An unoccupied apartment in Elazığ was damaged and later collapsed during the second earthquake.

Among the dead included member of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey for Adıyaman Yakup Taş, Yeni Malatyaspor goalkeeper Ahmet Eyüp Türkaslan, former Turkish national handball team player Cemal Kütahya and his five-year-old son, and Saul Cenudioğlu, leader of the Jewish community in Antakya, who died along with his wife. Former MP for Kahramanmaraş Sıtkı Güvenç died from earthquake injuries on 9 February. Three Turkish soldiers died during rescue operations. Twenty-six local journalists, four doctors, 120 police officers and 32 gendarmeries were among the dead.

### In Syria

At least 8,476 people died and over 14,500 were injured in Syria. Among the dead included 2,153 children and 1,524 women. The Syrian Ministry of Health recorded over 2,248 earthquake-related deaths and 2,950 injuries in government held areas, most of which were in the governorates of Aleppo and Latakia. In rebel-held areas, at least 4,547 people died and 2,200 others were injured. The Syrian Network for Human Rights stated 73 medics, five media personnel, 62 workers in humanitarian agencies, and four civil defense personnel were among the dead. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said additional dead were buried before being registered and some victims died in hospitals. Syria's National Earthquake Centre said the earthquake is "the biggest earthquake recorded" in its operational history.

An estimated 5.37 million people across Syria may have been made homeless, while 10.9 million people, nearly half of Syria's population, were affected. More than 123 residential areas, villages, towns and cities were badly damaged. Many power plants, water facilities, hospitals and public infrastructure also sustained damage. At least 453 schools were damaged. A total of 10,600 buildings had partially or fully collapsed, while thousands of others were damaged in the country.

Hundreds were killed in the towns of Jindires and Atarib. In Jableh, at least 283 people died, 173 were injured and 19 buildings collapsed. Four bodies were recovered and 15 bodies were in the process of recovery during debris clearance on 10 February. On 11 February, six bodies were retrieved from the rubble of a collapsed house along al-Maliyeh Street. Civilians were stuck under the rubble for hours due to the lack of rescue teams in several villages such as Atarib, Besnia, Jindires, Maland, Salqin and Sarmada. In Latakia Governorate, 142,000 people were affected; at least 805 people died and 1,131 others were injured. The region's governor said 105 buildings were destroyed, 247 were at risk of collapse and 900 others were severely damaged. At Tishreen University, 10 students, 3 employees and a professor died. At least 48 people were killed in Hama, of which 43 were from the collapse of an eight-story building.

The Associated Press, citing local residents, said the Afrin Dam had cracked. On 9 February at 04:00, the dam burst and flooded the village of Al-Tloul, which was exacerbated by heavy rains along the Afrin River basin. Nearly all its residents fled; about 500 families were displaced. According to Reuters, citing local residents, between 35 and 40 people died and most buildings in Al-Tloul were damaged or destroyed by the earthquake. In Atarib, 148 bodies arrived at an underground hospital. A doctor at the hospital said some bodies were missing their head or limbs. Various archaeological sites in Tartus Governorate were damaged, including the Khawabi Castle and Aleika Castle, which partially collapsed. Damage to historical towers and infrastructure were also reported in Tartous and Safita.

The president of the Syrian American Medical Society, Amjad Rass, said emergency rooms were packed with injured. In Idlib Governorate, one hospital received 30 bodies. In the village of Azmarin, Idlib Governorate, at least 260 people died, including 51 members of one family; at least 300 were injured and 100 were rescued. Fifteen buildings in the village were leveled and about 50 percent of its housing stock had cracks. Footballer Nader Joukhadar, who played for the national team, was killed alongside his son when their home collapsed in Jableh.

According to the International Rescue Committee, the earthquake struck when rebel-held areas were preparing for a blizzard and experiencing a cholera outbreak. In Aleppo, dozens of buildings collapsed and at least 444 people died, including 163 children. By 8 February, the bodies of 210 victims were returned to their families. The Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums said various archeological sites across the city were extensively cracked or collapsed. Cracks were also reported in the outer façade of the Aleppo National Museum. In Atarib, Aleppo, the Syrian American Medical Society hospital said 120 bodies were recovered. About 20,000 homes were affected in Aleppo, leaving 70,000 homeless. In Rajo, the doors and walls of a prison facility cracked. Twenty prisoners, believed to be Islamic State (ISIS) members, escaped the facility.

In Damascus, many people fled from their homes onto the streets. In the northern parts of the city, many buildings were cracked. Many buildings in Syria had already been damaged by an almost 12-year-long civil war. The Crusader-built castle Margat suffered damage, with part of a tower and parts of some walls collapsing. Cracks also opened up in the walls of the Krak des Chevaliers castle. The Citadel of Aleppo was also affected. In addition, one of the towers of Sahyun Castle near Latakia was destroyed, meanwhile all others were in danger. The minaret of the Grand Mosque in Kobanî was also damaged. In Jindires, over 1,100 people were killed and at least 250 buildings were razed; among the deaths were a family of 7—the only survivor was a newborn.

### Foreign casualties

At least 6,600 Syrians residing in Turkey were killed. According to Turkey's Presidency of Migration Management 1.75 million Syrians live in southern Turkey; 460,150 in Gaziantep; 354,000 in Antakya; 368,000 in Şanlıurfa; 250,000 in Adana. Turkey's health ministry returned the bodies of 1,793 Syrian victims to their relatives in Syria, while thousands of Syrians were buried in Turkey due to difficulties transporting them to Syria. At least 11 Iraqi war refugees died in Turkey.

Most Afghans killed in Turkey were refugees who fled the country after the Taliban takeover in August 2021. Among the deaths of Lebanese was an entire family of three in Malatya. Ten Azerbaijanis were killed in Turkey, including four students in Malatya. An Italian family of six, and an entrepreneur also perished. Nineteen students, two teachers and a parent from Northern Cyprus died when a hotel in Adiyaman collapsed. Seven other Turkish Cypriots died in Hatay and Kahramanmaraş.

### Effects in other countries

In Lebanon, residents were awakened from their sleep. Buildings in the country shook for up to 40 seconds. In Beirut, residents fled their homes and stayed in streets or drove in their vehicles to flee from buildings. The earthquake damaged 16,200 buildings across the country, including 10,460 in Beirut and 4,000 in Tripoli.

In Ashdod, Israel, a building was evacuated after cracks were observed in a pillar, and Champion Motors Tower in Bnei Brak was slightly damaged by the second earthquake. In Nicosia, Cyprus, some windows cracked, and the wall of a house collapsed, damaging two nearby vehicles.[*unreliable source?*] Six Cuvier's beaked whales were found dead along the island's northern coast on 10 February. The Department of Fisheries and Marine Research said there was a possible link between the beaching and earthquake as these whales' echolocation system are affected by sea disturbances.

The European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre said shaking was felt in Armenia, Egypt, Palestine, Georgia, Greece, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, and Russia. In Iraq, minor damage occurred in some houses and buildings in Erbil, and the city's citadel was severely damaged. In Egypt, tremors were strongly felt in the capital Cairo, and is considered the strongest earthquake felt since 1975. A 20 m (66 ft) crack appeared in the Corniche in Alexandria.

### Aftershocks

On 20 February, a Mww 6.3 aftershock struck near Antakya, causing additional buildings to collapse in Samandağ and further damage in Antakya. Six people died in Antakya, Defne and Samandağ. At least 562 were injured including 18 in serious condition who received immediate medical attention before being taken to Adana and Dörtyol. AFAD warned residents to stay away from the coast as there was potential for a tsunami of up to 50 cm (20 in). The mayor of Hatay said several people were trapped under debris. A bridge was damaged and an empty three-story building in İskenderun collapsed. In Syria, five people died during stampedes and panic across several governates and at least 500 people were injured. The White Helmets said people in Aleppo and Idlib were injured by collapsed buildings. Some residents in Jinderis were injured after leaping off buildings. In northwestern Syria, damaged and abandoned buildings collapsed without casualties. Shaking was felt in Lebanon, Egypt and Jordan.

A Mww 5.2 aftershock occurred on 27 February, near Yeşilyurt. It collapsed about 30 buildings in the town. Two people died and 140 others were injured; 12 in serious condition. One fatality and four injuries were attributed to a factory collapse in Kahramanmaraş Province.

### Estimations of losses

The USGS Prompt Assessment of Global Earthquakes for Response (PAGER) service estimated a 35 percent probability of economic losses between US$10 billion and US$100 billion. There was a 34 percent probability of economic losses exceeding US$100 billion. The service estimated a 36 percent probability of deaths between 10,000 and 100,000; 26 percent probability of deaths exceeding 100,000. For the second large earthquake, there was a 46 percent probability of deaths between 1,000 and 10,000; 30 percent probability of deaths between 100 and 1,000. The service also estimated a 35 percent percent probability of economic losses between US$1 billion and US$10 billion; 27 percent probability of economic losses between US$10 billion and US$100 billion.

Risklayer estimated a death toll of between 23,284 and 105,671. According to geophysics professor, Övgün Ahmet Ercan, "180,000 people or more may be trapped under the rubble, nearly all of them dead." On 11 February, when the death toll was reported at about 28,000, United Nations emergency relief coordinator Martin Griffiths said the death toll was expected to "more than double". The World Health Organization said up to 26 million people may have been affected; 15 million in Turkey and 11 million in Syria.

Immediately after the earthquakes the Turkish lira value struck a record low of 18.85 against the US dollar, but rebounded to its starting position at the end of the day. Turkish stock markets fell; main equities benchmark fell as much as 5 percent and banks fell 5.5 percent but recovered from the losses. The country's main stock market dropped 1.35 percent on 6 February. The Borsa Istanbul fell 8.6 percent on 7 February, and declined by more than 7 percent on the morning of 8 February before trading was suspended; the exchange then announced it would close for five days. Total cost of earthquake damage in Turkey was estimated by TÜRKONFED at $84.1 billion US dollars; $70.75 billion on rebuilding, $10.4 billion loss in national income, and an additional $2.91 billion loss in workforce. Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdogan said rebuilding would cost $105 billion. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development said potential losses may be up to 1 percent of Turkey's GDP in 2023. The Turkish government released a preliminary report estimating the total damage cost at $103.6 billion; corresponding to 9 percent of its GDP in 2023. About half of residential property in the affected area is thought to be covered by Compulsory Earthquake Insurance. The United Nations Development Programme estimated between 116 million and 210 million tons of debris must be cleared in Turkey. The volume of building debris was estimated at 100 million m3 (3.5 billion cu ft); greater than any recent natural disaster. The amount is 10 times that produced during the 2010 Haiti earthquake.

In Syria, the World Bank estimated $5.1 billion in damages, excluding economic impact and losses. Nearly half the cost was direct damage to residential buildings and 18 percent on infrastructure. Aleppo Governate, the worst-affected governate, accounted for 45 percent of the damage cost (equivalent to about $2.3 billion), followed by Idlib and Lattakia governates. The amount of destroyed or damaged capital stock was about 10 percent of Syria's GDP. The World Bank estimated the reconstruction cost at $7.9 billion, additionally the economy may contract by up to 5.5 percent in 2023.

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