recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Nature of Money & Credit

Monetary Theory of Credit- private “credit money” is only a temporary substitute for money

"Final settlement must take place in real money, which is the ultimate unit of account, store of value, and means of payment. Exchanges might take place based on credit, but credit expansion is strictly constrained by the quantity of real money. Ultimately, only the quantity of real money matters so far as economic activity is concerned. Most modern macroeconomic theory is based on the concept of a deposit multiplier that links the quantity of privately created money (mostly, bank deposits) to the quantity of high powered money, HPM. This is the modern equivalent to what Schumpeter called the monetary theory of credit, and Friedman (or Karl Brunner) is the best representative." -[Wray, "The Credit Money and State Money Approaches"  (Source)]
Credit Theory of Money- credit normally expands to allow economic activity to grow, and most economic activity can occur independent of the quantity of High Powered Money.

"This new credit creates new claims on HPM [High Powered Money] even as it leads to new production. However, because there is a clearing system that cancels claims and debits without use of HPM, credit is not merely a temporary substitute for HPM. Schumpeter does not deny the role played by HPM as an ultimate means of settlement, he simply denies that it is required for most final settlements." [Wray, ibid]
## History of Money

There are 3 main heterodox hypotheses regarding the origin of Money.

### Hypothesis: Money evolved as a unit of Trust

* Pettifor notes on page 54 of "Just Money" that as "David Graeber, the anthropologist shows convincingly, this system of trust existed long before barter.   (Graeber, David., 2011, Debt, the first 5,000 years. New York: Melville House Publishing)
* Graeber asserts " the value of a unit of currency is not the measure of the value of an object, but the measure of one’s trust in other human beings"  [Graeber 2011, p. 47]

### Hypothesis: Money evolved as a unit of Penal compensation

* Innes (1932)
* Wray (2001)
* Tcherneva (2005)

### Hypothesis: Money evolved as a unit of Accounting

* Hudson (2004)
* (Henry, 2004) synthesis of accounting explanations with Penal/ debt obligation hypotheses.
Hurricane Maria

Hurricane Maria was a deadly and catastrophic Category 5 hurricane that devastated St. Croix, Dominica, and Puerto Rico, Maria became the 3rd costliest Atlantic hurricane of all time, The tenth most intense Atlantic hurricane of all time, and was also known for exacerbating Puerto Rico's humanitarian crisis.
Rapid deepening

**Rapid deepening**, also called **rapid intensification**, is when tropical cyclones intensify very quickly in a fairly short amount of time. The NHC defines rapid intensification as a 30-kt increase in winds during a 24-hour period, or a 40-mbar drop in pressure during a 24-hour period. Rapid intensification usually requires SSTs of at least 28-29 degrees Celsius, along with low wind shear and a moist environment. An upper-level anticyclone often aids with rapid intensification as well.

**Explosive intensification** is the more extreme form of rapid intensification. Typically, in explosive intensification, a category 1 hurricane strengthens to a category 5 in 24 hours or less. Examples of storms that have underwent explosive intensification include Hurricane Patricia and Hurricane Wilma.

In the Atlantic, rapid intensification most commonly occurs in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico or Western Atlantic Ocean near the Bahamas, where sea surface temperatures are highest. In less common cases, it can also occur in the Tropical Atlantic, such as with Hurricane Danny in 2015 and Hurricane Ike in 2008. In the East Pacific, rapid intensification typically occurs in the eastern part of the basin. Rapid intensification in the Western Pacific is common and can occur throughout the year.
Hurricane Irma

**Hurricane Irma** was an extremely powerful and catastrophic Cape Verde type hurricane, the most intense hurricane observed in the Atlantic since Dean in 2007. It was also the most intense Atlantic hurricane to strike the United States since Katrina in 2005, and the first major hurricane to hit the state of Florida since Wilma in 2005. The ninth named storm, fourth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season, Irma caused widespread and catastrophic damage throughout its long lifetime, particularly in parts of the northeastern Caribbean.

## Meteorological History

Irma formed from a tropical wave over Western Africa that the NHC was monitoring on August 26, It moved off the coast the next day, Later, the wave became a low-pressure area on August 29 as it passed near the Cape Verde islands, Around 20:00 AST (00:00 UTC August 30) later in the day, The low-pressure area became a tropical depression, At 02:00 AST (6:00 UTC) August 30, The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Irma. Early the next day, Irma underwent rapid intensification due to low wind shear and became a Category 2 that evening and a major hurricane shortly after, Irma experienced fluctuations in intensity till at least September 4. where Irma began to intensify due to favorable conditions, It reached Category 4 intensity as it approached the Leeward Islands, During its approach, Irma began another intensification period. This time reaching Category 5 intensity with winds of 175 mph (280 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 929 mbar. Irma continued this intensification until it hit its peak with winds of 180 mph (285 km/h) later on September 5. At 01:45 AST September 6, Irma made landfall in Barbuda at peak intensity with the pressure reaching 914 mbar, Shortly after Irma made landfall in Barbuda, It made landfall in St. Maarten around 7:15 AST and Virgin Gorda around 12:30 AST.

After those landfalls, Irma passed north of Puerto Rico and Hispaniola late on September 6 and throughout of September 7. Irma weakened to a Category 4 hurricane as it passed Turks and Caicos early the next day. Around the same time, Irma made landfall on Little Inagua Island, Bahamas as a high-end Category 4 with 155 mph winds. Later that day, Irma completed its eyewall replacement cycle and reintensified into a Category 5 hurricane. On September 9, Irma made landfall on Cayo Romano, Cuba with winds of 165 mph (270 km/h)/

After landfall, Irma weakened significantly to a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 mph (175 km/h). Early the next day, Irma restrengthened for the third time. This time as a Category 4 hurricane, It later made landfall on Cudjoe Key, Irma then weakened to a low-end Category 3 hurricane when it made its final landfall on Marco Island, Florida.

## Retirement

On April 11, 2018, The World Meteorological Organization retired *Irma* due to its impacts to the United States and the Caribbean, It will be replaced with *Idalia* for the 2023 season.
Inflation explanations

### Definitions

* Inflation is the continuous rise in the price level.  [as opposed to particular events such as due to an oil shock, or a temporary forex change].   MMT and inflation – Part 1 2010.7.7

* + Firms are quantity adjusters if they have spare capacity.
	+ When they do not have spare capacity, Firms become price adjusters (prices go up)

### Overview of positions

* Monetarist account: "for most monetarists any anti-inflationary policy will stem from the basic concept that there should be a gradual reduction in the money supply. "  (Investopedia1)
* Keynsian- "John Maynard Keynes challenged the theory in the 1930s, saying that increases in money supply lead to a decrease in the velocity of circulation and that real income, the flow of money to the factors of production, increased. " (Investopedia1)
* MMT- Excluding supply shock scenarios, inflation occurs when there is chronic excess demand relative to the real capacity of the economy to produce. MMT and inflation – Part 1 2010.7.7

##### Implications for Climate Change activism:

* With a rapid shift over from fossil fuels, there would likely be substantial supply side shocks in the interim.
Tropical Cyclones Wikia/History

This is a collective history of Tropical Cyclones Wikia.

## Events

* August 17, 2016- Tropical Cyclones Wikia is founded by Brickcraft1
* August 17, 2016- DarrenDude is elected vice president
* September 2016- DarenDude resigns
* September 2016- Sassmaster15 takes office of Vice President
* January 27, 2017- Sassmaster15 resigns
* January 28, 2017- Bobnekaro takes office as Vice President of the Wiki
* January 28, 2017 President Brickcraft1 gives his first State of the Wiki Address, emphasising teamwork is key to making the Wiki the best.
1992 Atlantic hurricane season

The 1992 Atlantic hurricane season was one of the least active seasons on record. The season officially began on June 1, 1992, and lasted until November 30, 1992. The first storm, an unnamed subtropical storm, developed in the central Atlantic on April 21, over a month before the official start of hurricane season. The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Andrew, which at the time was the costliest United States hurricane. After crossing the Bahamas, the hurricane made landfall in Florida and Louisiana. It caused $27.3 billion (1992 USD) in damage, mostly in Florida, and 65 fatalities. Andrew was also the strongest hurricane of the season, reaching winds of 175 mph (280 km/h) while approaching Florida.

The decaying 1991–1992 El Niño event likely contributed to this level of activity. That same El Niño influenced a very active Pacific hurricane season.

## Storms

### Subtropical Storm One

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression One

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Two

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Andrew

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Bonnie

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Charley

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Storm Danielle

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Seven

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Storm Earl

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Frances

 Duration
 Peak intensity

## Storm names

The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1992. Subtropical storms were unnamed until 2002, as a result, the subtropical cyclone in April 1992 did not receive a name. The names not retired from this list appeared again on the naming list for the 1998 season. This is the same list used for the 1986 season. Names that were not assigned are marked in gray.

* Bonnie
* Charley
* Danielle
* Earl
* Frances
* Georges *(unused)*
* Ivan *(unused)*
* Jeanne *(unused)*
* Karl *(unused)*
* Lisa *(unused)*
* Mitch *(unused)*
* Nicole *(unused)*
* Paula *(unused)*
* Richard *(unused)*
* Shary *(unused)*
* Tomas *(unused)*
* Virginie *(unused)*
* Walter *(unused)*

### Retirement

In Spring 1993, the World Meteorlogical Organization had retired the name Andrew for the record damages caused in the U.S. It was replaced with Alex for the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season.
Bar (unit)

The ***bar*** is a metric (but not SI) unit of pressure exactly equal to 100000 Pa. It is about equal to the atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level.

The bar and the millibar were introduced by the British meteorologist William Napier Shaw in 1909, while he was the director of the Meteorological Office in London.

Units derived from the bar are the megabar (symbol: Mbar), kilobar (symbol: kbar), decibar (symbol: dbar), centibar (symbol: cbar), and millibar (symbol: mbar or mb). These are not SI or cgs units, but they are accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI. The bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union.

The bar unit is considered deprecated by some entities. While the BIPM includes it under the class "Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI", the NIST includes it in the list of units to avoid and recommends the use of kilopascals (kPa) and megapascals (MPa) instead. The IAU also lists it under "Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated."

Bar(g) is a unit of gauge pressure, i.e., pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure; see absolute pressure and gauge pressure below.
Tropical Depression Two (2014)

**Tropical Depression Two** was a very weak tropical cyclone that did not affect land in July 2014. It was the second tropical cyclone of the below average 2014 Atlantic hurricane season.

## Meteorological History

On July 17, a tropical wave emerged off the coast of western Africa. Two days later, an area of low pressure developed with the wave. Thunderstorm activity associated with the wave steadily grew and became better organized, and by 12:00 UTC on July 21, the wave had acquired sufficient organization to be designated Tropical Depression Two. The depression was classified after ASCAT revealed a tight closed circulation and banding features began to develop. The genesis of Tropical Depression Two was poorly forecast, and the development probability of the depression was low, even at the time of genesis.

The depression continued to move briskly westward in a very dry environment with very little atmospheric instability. Because of the dry environment, the depression's cloud tops were not very cold at all. Due to unfavorable conditions, the depression failed to strengthen at all. At 18:00 UTC on July 23, based on a lack of deep convection present and no evidence of a well-defined circulation, the depression was declared a remnant low well east of the Lesser Antilles.

Since the depression dissipated well east of the Lesser Antilles, it did not affect land. Thus, no fatalities or damage were associated with the depression.
Hurricane Marilyn

Hurricane Marilyn was one of the most powerful hurricanes to hit the Virgin Islands since Hurricane Hugo 6 years prior.

## Retirement

Due to the destruction Marilyn had caused, Marilyn was retired and will be never used again in the Atlantic. It was replaced by Michelle for the 2001 season (which got retired in that same season).
Tropical Storm Julia (2016)

**Tropical Storm Julia** was an unusual tropical storm that formed as a tropical depression very close to the coast of Southeastern Florida and strengthened into a moderate tropical storm over land. Julia was the eleventh tropical cyclone and tenth named storm of the active 2016 Atlantic hurricane season. Julia was notable for its strengthening over land, which is rare for tropical cyclones.

## Meteorological History

On September 1, a weak tropical wave with very little convective activity exited the coast of Africa. Convection briefly associated with the wave on September 6 while it was located near the Lesser Antilles, resulting in the formation of a low pressure area. However, the low opened up into a trough two days later. Convection once again increased with the system as it neared the Bahamas, and a new surface low developed. By 06:00 UTC on September 13, it is estimated that the low acquired sufficient organization to be classified as a tropical depression, when it was located just barely offshore southeastern Florida. Operationally, it was designated as a tropical cyclone until 21 hours later, when it was already inland; thus it was operationally believed that the cyclone formed inland but post-analysis confirmed otherwise.

6 hours after formation, despite being located over land, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm, and at 18:00 UTC on September 13, the cyclone reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph. The strongest winds associated with the cyclone were located in a patch of deep convection off the Florida coast, based on surface data. This peak intensity occurred before the cyclone was operationally named Julia, which occurred at 03:00 UTC on September 14. Genesis forecasts for Julia were very poor, and the cyclone had a "near-zero" chance of formation at the time of genesis in post-analysis. While moving northward, Julia began to slowly weaken over land, and winds fell to 45 mph by 06:00 UTC on September 14.

While models initially predicted Julia would slowly continue to move northward over land and dissipate, the center of Julia emerged off the coast of Georgia later on September 14. Julia maintained an intensity of 45 mph for the next two days, despite being over water, due to strong wind shear. The shear increased further late on September 16, and Julia weakened to a tropical depression. The depression barely maintained its status as a tropical cyclone as it meandered in the western Atlantic until it degenerated into a post-tropical remnant low at 00:00 UTC on September 19. At this point, Julia had become devoid of deep convection. The remnant low continued northwestward, eventually turning extratropical on September 21 and bringing heavy rainfall to Northeastern North Carolina. Julia's remnants brought heavy rains to North Carolina just two weeks before Hurricane Matthew brought catastrophic flooding to the state.
Tropical Cyclones Wikia

**Welcome to the Tropical Cyclones Wiki!**

Here, you can learn all about tropical cyclones from all around the world!

Currently, we have **116** articles and **4,795** edits since August 17, 2016.

Please read the Rules and Policies before editing.

Also, don't forget to get on our Chat at anytime if you have a problem, question, or just want to hang out.

As well as this, we now have a Discord Channel! Come check it out!!

## **Tropical cyclone headlines**

1. **Cyclone 21S (Flamboyan)** is now an extratropical cyclone as of 5/1/18.
2017 North Indian Ocean cyclone season

The 2017 North Indian Ocean cyclone season was inactive season that had only one major cyclone, it offically began on new year's day and ended on new year's eve, meaning storm formation is possible at anytime, the strongest storm was Ockhi which peaked as a Very Severe Cyclonic Storm, the only one out of three named cyclonic storms.

**2017 North Indian Ocean cyclone season**
 **Total damage** | >8.88 Billion

## Storms

### Cyclonic Storm Maarutha

 Duration
 Peak intensity

On April 11 a area of low pressure formed over the Adaman sea, the following day it was marked by the JTWC as a disturbance, after days of organization the storm was named Maarutha
Tropical Storm Ana (2015)

**Tropical Storm Ana** was the earliest tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin to make landfall in the United States on record. Ana formed as a subtropical cyclone and later strengthened to a peak intensity of 60 mph. Ana was the earliest named storm in the Atlantic since 2003's storm of the same name, which formed in late April.

## Meteorological History

On May 3, the National Hurricane Center noted the possibility of subtropical or tropical development north of the Bahamas over the coming days from a decaying cold front. By May 7, the cyclone began to exhibit signs of organization, and at 00:00 UTC on May 8, the system was designated Subtropical Storm Ana after a reconnaissance aircraft identified a sufficiently well defined circulation and winds of tropical storm force.

Ana began to move slowly north-northwestward as it approached the United States coastline. Eventually, it became nearly stationary and began to strengthen. Early on May 9, Ana strengthened to its peak intensity of 60 mph and transitioned into a fully tropical cyclone shortly thereafter. Later that day as Ana approached land, it began to weaken, despite its structure increasingly resembling a typical tropical cyclone. Around 10:00 UTC on May 10, Ana made landfall near North Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, as a tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph. Ana weakened to a tropical depression later that day. On May 11, Ana weakened into a remnant low, and advisories began to be initiated by the Weather Prediction Center instead of the National Hurricane Center at this time. On May 12, the remnant low associated with Ana dissipated.

## Impact

Ana's impact was fairly minimal. Although it did bring heavy rains to the Southeastern U.S. in Mother's Day 2015, it caused minimal damage. However, it did cause 2 fatalities.
2010 Atlantic Hurricane Season (not finished)

First system formed
 Last system dissipated
  • Maximum winds
  • Lowest pressure
 Total depressions
 Total storms
 Hurricanes
 Major hurricanes
(Cat. 3+)
 Total fatalities
 Total damage
 * Timeline of the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season
* 2010 Pacific hurricane season
* 2010 Pacific typhoon season
 Atlantic hurricane seasons
2008, 2009, **2010**, 2011, 2012

The **2010 Atlantic hurricane season** was the first in a group of three very active Atlantic hurricane seasons. It is tied alongside 1887, 1995, 2011, and 2012 with 19 tropical storms, the third highest count in recorded history. It featured 12 hurricanes, tied with 1969 for the second highest total. Only the quintessential 2005 season saw more activity. The overall tropical cyclone count in the Atlantic exceeded that in the West Pacific for only the second time on record. The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30, dates that conventionally delimit the period during each year when tropical cyclone formation is most likely. The first cyclone, Alex intensified into the first June hurricane since Allison in 1995. The month of September featured eight named storms, tying 2002 and 2007 for the record. October featured five hurricanes, just short of the record set in 1870. Finally, Hurricane Tomas became the latest hurricane on record to move through the Windward Islands in late October. Activity was represented with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) value of 165 units, which was the eleventh highest value on record at the time.

Numerous tropical cyclones affected countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean throughout 2010. Alex caused 52 deaths and up to $1.52 billion (2010 USD) in damage as it struck northern Mexico in June. The next month, Tropical Storm Bonnie struck Florida as a weak cyclone, leaving one dead. Tropical Storm Colin led to one drowning death, and rip currents produced by Tropical Depression Five killed two people. Hurricane Danielle passed east of Bermuda while Earl moved parallel to the East Coast of the United States and into Nova Scotia throughout late August, resulting in 2 and 8 deaths, respectively. In early September, Tropical Storm Hermine caused significant flooding across Texas and killed 8 people. The strongest hurricane of the year, Igor, killed four as it traversed the Atlantic and across Newfoundland. Latin America was badly hit by Hurricane Karl and Tropical Storm Matthew, with 22 and 126 deaths, respectively. In late September, Tropical Storm Nicole produced torrential rainfall from the Caribbean into the U.S. East Coast, resulting in 16 fatalities. Hurricane Paula caused a tourist to drown offshore Cozumel in mid-October, while Hurricane Richard left two dead in Belize later that month. The season concluded with Tomas which caused 35 fatalities along its track through the Caribbean and into the Atlantic.

 Duration
 Peak intensity
2011 Pacific hurricane season

The 2011 Pacific hurricane season was below average, due to an ongoing la nina. However, the storms were strong, with all but one storm reaching hurricane status. While Fernanda was the only storm to not reach hurricane status, the next time it was used, it was the season's strongest storm.

## Storms

### Hurricane Adrian

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Beatriz

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Calvin

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Dora

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Eugene

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Storm Fernanda

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Greg

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Eight-E

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Hilary

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Jova

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Irwin

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Twelve-E

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Kenneth

 Duration
 Peak intensity
2010 Pacific hurricane season

The **2010 Pacific hurricane season** is tied with the 1977 season for the least active Pacific season on record, with eight named storms. The inactivity was due to a very strong la nina event.

## Storms

### Tropical Storm Agatha

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Two-E

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Storm Blas

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Celia

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Darby

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Six-E

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Storm Estelle

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Eight-E

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Frank

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Ten-E

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Eleven-E

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Storm Georgette

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Storm Omeka

 Duration
 Peak intensity

## Storm names

The following names were used for named storms that formed in East Pacific in 2010. This is the same list used in the 2004 season. In March 2011, the World Meteorological Organization announced that it would not retire any names, This list was used again in the 2016 season except for Isis which was retired in 2015.

* Blas
* Celia
* Darby
* Estelle
* Frank
* Georgette
* Howard *(unused)*
* Javier *(unused)*
* Kay *(unused)*
* Lester *(unused)*
* Madeline *(unused)*
* Newton *(unused)*
* Orlene *(unused)*
* Paine *(unused)*
* Seymour *(unused)*
* Tina *(unused)*
* Virgil *(unused)*
* Winifred *(unused)*
* Xavier *(unused)*
* Yolanda *(unused)*
* Zeke *(unused)*

For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility, encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line, all names are used in a series of four rotating lists. The next four names that were slated for use in 2010 are shown below; however, only the name Omeka was used.

### Retirement

In the spring of 2015, The World Meteorological Organization retired *Isis* due to it being similar to ISIS, It was replaced with *Ivette* for the 2016 season.

## Season effects

This is a table of all of the storms that have formed during the 2010 Pacific hurricane season. It includes their names, duration, peak strength, areas affected, damage, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 2010 USD.
Hurricane Ike (2008)

Redirect to:

* Hurricane Ike
Hurricane Ike was a strong and destructive tropical cyclone that wrought enormous damage across the Caribbean and United States in September 2008. In most regions in the Caribbean, Ike remains the costliest Atlantic hurricane on record. Other locations, especially the U.S. state of Texas, were heavily impacted by the storm. Ike ultimately resulted in a damage total of $25 billion; the third costliest Atlantic hurricane in history.

* Bahamas
* Hispanola
* Cuba
* Cayman Islands
* Southeast Texas
* South Central United States
* Great Lakes Region

A Cape Verde-type hurricane, Ike initially formed out of a tropical wave that emerged off the coast of Africa. Moderate intensification ensued as it took on a track westward, achieving peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane over the open Atlantic. Ike fluctuated in intensity multiple times prior to making landfall in northeast Cuba as a major hurricane. After crossing the country and emerging over the Gulf of Mexico, Ike remained a hurricane, heavily weakened to land interaction. Nevertheless, Ike re-intensified to a strong Category 2 hurricane, later making landfall over Galveston, Texas at this intensity.

The ninth named storm, fifth hurricane, and third major of the annual hurricane season, Ike is held responsible for well over $30 billion in damage and almost 200 deaths as it swept across the Atlantic. Ike was absolutely devastating for Haiti, of which 74 deaths were reported. Impeding the recovery efforts from three previous storms - Fay, Gustav, and Hanna, Ike became the fourth consecutive cyclone that year to impact the country. In addition, at least seven fatalities were reported as it swept across Cuba, making two separate landfalls on the island nation. Destruction was most severe in the United States, especially in the U.S. state of Texas.

## History

The origins of this hurricane can be traced back to a low pressure area associated with a well-defined, vigorous tropical wave near Africa on August 28. Despite displaying signs of organization amidst a very favorable environment, the wave struggled to gain even intermittent convection. Moving generally westward, the wave gained sufficient enough organization and was officially classified as a tropical depression on September 1. Post analysis showed Ike attained tropical storm status three hours earlier than when the NHC first initiated advisories.

## Impact

Hurricane Ike left devastating impacts throughout multiple nations across the Atlantic.
Hurricane Hermine

***Hurricane Hermine*** was a minimal hurricane that made landfall in the Big Bend region of Florida. Hermine, the ninth tropical depression of the annual season, formed on August 28 from a long-tracked tropical invest that brought rain throughout the Caribbean, especially the Greater Antilles.

Hermine was the ninth Tropical cyclone, eighth named storm, and fourth hurricane of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season. Total damage from the hurricane is estimated to be around $800 million (2016 USD), with five fatalities attributed to it. Hermine was the first hurricane to make landfall in the state of Florida since Wilma of 2005, ending the record eleven-year lull in which no tropical cyclones Category 1 strength or greater struck the state.
1997 Atlantic hurricane season

**1997 Atlantic hurricane season**
 **Total damage** | $111.46 Million (1997 USD)

The **1997 Atlantic hurricane season** was an inactive season. This season featured a total of 9 tropical cyclones, 7 named storms, 1 unnamed subtropical storm, 3 hurricanes, and 1 major hurricane.

## Storms

### Unnumbered Subtropical Storm

 Duration
 Peak intensity

*Main article: Unnumbered Subtropical Storm (1997)*

### Tropical Storm Ana

 Duration
 Peak intensity

*Main article: Tropical Storm Ana (1997)*

### Hurricane Bill

 Duration
 Peak intensity

*Main article: Hurricane Bill (1997)*
Bill became the first hurricane of the 1997 season. It spent its brief life over waters the north Atlantic Ocean.

### Tropical Storm Claudette

 Duration
 Peak intensity

*Main article: Tropical Storm Claudette (1997)*

### Hurricane Danny

 Duration
 Peak intensity

*Main article: Hurricane Danny (1997)*
Danny was a slow-moving category one hurricane on the Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale that made landfall near the mouth of the Mississippi River and in the Mobile Bay area. It produced enormous amounts of rain over extreme southern Alabama.

### Tropical Depression Five

 Duration
 Peak intensity

*Main article: Tropical Depression Five (1997)*

### Hurricane Erika

 Duration
 Peak intensity

*Main article: Hurricane Erika (1997)*

### Tropical Storm Fabian

 Duration
 Peak intensity

*Main article: Tropical Storm Fabian (1997)*

### Tropical Storm Grace

 Duration
 Peak intensity

*Main article: Tropical Storm Grace (1997)*

## Storm names

* Bill
* Claudette
* Danny
* Erika
* Fabian
* Grace
* Isabel *(unused)*
* Juan *(unused)*
* Kate *(unused)*
* Larry *(unused)*
* Mindy *(unused)*
* Nicholas *(unused)*
* Peter *(unused)*
* Rose *(unused)*
* Sam *(unused)*
* Teresa *(unused)*
* Victor *(unused)*
* Wanda *(unused)*

### Retirement

No names were retired this season and as such, the same list was used for the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season

## References

1. ↑ http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL031997\_Bill.pdf
2. ↑ http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL051997\_Danny.pdf
1994 Atlantic hurricane season

**1994 Atlantic hurricane season**
 **Total damage** | > $1.56 billion (1994 USD)

The **1994 Atlantic hurricane season** was below-average in terms of tropical cyclone formation. It featured a total of 12 tropical cyclones, 7 named storms, 3 hurricanes, and no major hurricanes.

## Storms

### Tropical Storm Alberto

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Two

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Storm Beryl

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Chris

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Five

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Storm Debby

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Storm Ernesto

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Eight

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Nine

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Tropical Depression Ten

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Florence

 Duration
 Peak intensity

### Hurricane Gordon

 Duration
 Peak intensity
Tropical Storm Bonnie (2016)

**Tropical Storm Bonnie** was a fairly weak but unusually long-lived tropical cyclone that brought heavy rains to the Southeastern United States in late May and early June 2016. The second named storm of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season, Bonnie peaked as a weak tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph and a minimum pressure of 1006 millibars. Bonnie was the first storm of many to impact the United States during the 2016 season; other storms that impacted the U.S. included Colin, Hermine, Julia, and Matthew.

## Meteorological History

On May 24, the National Hurricane Center noted the possibility of tropical or subtropical development in the western Atlantic, northwest of the Bahamas. The next day, this system was designated Invest 91L. By May 27, the system began to organize, with the development of deep convection slightly away from the center. At 18:00 UTC that day, after a reconnaissance aircraft confirmed the presence of a closed circulation, Tropical Depression Two developed. 18 hours later, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Bonnie, peaking as a 45 mph tropical storm late on May 28. Before landfall, strong wind shear weakened Bonnie, exposing its circulation. Early on May 29, Bonnie made landfall in South Carolina near the Isle of Palms as a tropical depression. On May 30, Bonnie degenerated into a remnant low.

The remnant low emerged into the Atlantic the next day, and by June 1, despite light winds located inside the system, it began to improve in organization. Somewhat unexpectedly, the remnant low regenerated into Tropical Depression Bonnie at 00:00 UTC June 2, while it was located near the northeastern North Carolina coast. Bonnie regained tropical storm status at 12:00 UTC June 3 based on data from an ASCAT pass and Dvorak estimates, but weakened below this status the next day. Bonnie then degenerated into a remnant low once more at 00:00 UTC on June 5, after the cyclone had become devoid of deep convection. The remnant low eventually dissipated a few days later.
Tropical Depression Eight (2016)

**Tropical Depression Eight** was a weak, small tropical depression that brought light rains to the Outer Banks of North Carolina. It was the eighth tropical cyclone of the active 2016 Atlantic hurricane season. The cyclone was expected by the National Hurricane Center for several advisories to become a tropical storm, and tropical storm warnings were put up for the coast of North Carolina. However, Eight never became a tropical storm, and peaked as a tropical depression with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph and a minimum pressure of 1010 mbar.

## Meteorological History

On August 26, the NHC began monitoring a stationary frontal boundary (designated Invest 91L), which absorbed the remnants of Tropical Storm Fiona. The next day, an ASCAT pass revealed the presence of a well-defined closed circulation, but the low pressure system lacked sufficient convection be designated a tropical cyclone. A convective burst occurred early on August 28, and at 12:00 UTC that day, it developed into Tropical Depression Eight. After formation, NHC predicted intensification into a tropical storm, and tropical storm warnings were eventually put up for the Outer Banks of North Carolina. However, shortly after forming, Eight's circulation became exposed and convection waned significantly. The next day, Eight became better organized and developed banding features, but a reconnaissance aircraft showed that the depression did not strengthen at all.

At one point, NHC predicted the depression would strengthen as strong as 50 mph, but this never occurred. Eight approached the North Carolina coast, but never made landfall, instead turning east while barely maintaining its designation as a tropical cyclone. At 06:00 UTC on September 1, after convection waned and an ASCAT pass revealed that Eight had degenerated into a trough, the depression dissipated without having ever attained tropical storm force winds.
Tropical Storm Lee (2011)

Tropical Storm Lee was a weak but destructive hurricane that brought flash flooding to the Gulf Coast. The twelfth named storm of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season, Lee developed from a broad tropical disturbance over the Gulf on September 1. It was designated as Tropical Storm Lee the next day. After becoming extratropical, Lee caused historic flooding in Pennsylvania, New York, and Canada.

The total damage was estimated to be around $1.6 billion and deaths were totaled to 18. Despite this, the name was not retired and was reused in 2017.

## Meteorological history

A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression south of Louisiana on September 2 and later strengthened enough to be classified as Tropical Storm Lee. Lee became subtropical prior to landfall, similar to Tropical Storm Allison in 2001. Lee stalled over the Gulf dumping rain on Louisiana, a big concern for New Orleans. on September 4th, Lee finally moved inland as a minimal tropical storm, dumping more rain and causing several Tornado warnings. It eventually became extratropical on September 5, moving northeast dumping record rainfall across the northeast until dissipating on September 6.

## Impact

Lee's damages were a result of flooding. In Louisiana, some towns near the landfall area went underwater due do a large amount of rain. In Mississippi, coastal roads flooded and a tornado damaged a church. In Alabama, 220,000 customers lost power during the storm.

The remnants of Lee caused some rainfall as it headed towards the Northeast. However, in the Northeast, damages were awful. The Susquehanna River went over its banks and caused some evacuations in Pennsylvania and New York. It put entire towns, including Owego, New York, underwater. In some places, rain reached almost 20 in., which was the worst the Northeast had seen since Hurricane Agnes which hit the area as a Tropical Storm in 1972.
Hurricane Sandy

**Note: Work in Progress.**

Hurricane Sandy was a late-season, and exceptionally large, tropical cyclone in late October to November of 2012. The storm has some unofficial names such as "Superstorm Sandy" and "Frankenstorm" due to its exceptionally large size and wind field, as well as large amounts of snowfall reported in West Virginia, a rare occurrence in a tropical cyclone. Sandy was the second most costliest United States tropical cyclone on record, at $75 billion (2012 USD) in total damages, behind only Hurricane Katrina of 2005.
TC Wikia National Hurricane Center

The TC Wikia National Hurricane Center is a center for all current Tropical Cyclones. This will be a public source used by the TC WIKIA. In order to become a staff member, you must apply. We will eventually track all cyclones, across all basins

## Staff Members

### Forecasters

Brickcraft1- Chief Meteorologist

THIS POSITION IS ALWAYS OPEN.

### Executives

Brickcraft1- CEO

Only a few will be chosen
Tropical Storm Alberto (2018)

Tropical Storm Alberto was the first named storm of the 2018 Atlantic hurricane season. Alberto marked the 4th consecutive year a named storm has formed before the official start date of the season; June 1st. Alberto spawned as an invest in the Yucatan Peninsula shortly before developing enough to be named Alberto. Alberto made landfalls in Mexico and Alabama before traveling through the eastern United States and dissipating at 18:00 UTC on May 31.

## Meteorological History

On May 21st, a low pressure system began to be monitored in the Western Caribbean. The system drifted into the Yucatan, slowly developing despite fairly unfavorable conditions. The storm would later develop sufficiently to be classified as a subtropical depression on May 25th. The storm despite it's naming, the storm was still unorganized. The next day, Alberto developed a better circulation around a better defined center.

Alberto would continue a fairly northward path in the days following. During this time, a large group of its outer rainbands massed around the eastern quadrants, bringing heavy rainfall to Florida and Cuba during this time. On May 28th, Alberto reached peak 1-minute wind speeds of 65 mph and a central pressure of 990 millibars. Dry air weakened it abruptly back down to 45 mph before making landfall near Laguna Beach, Florida.

Alberto would continue northward, slowly weakening for the following days. On May 30th, Alberto became Post-Tropical over Michigan. The next day, Alberto would dissipate over Lake Huron.
Tropical cyclone

A **tropical cyclone** is a non-frontal, warm-cored low pressure system with a well-defined center of circulation. While known as tropical cyclones in most of the southern hemisphere (except for the South Atlantic), tropical cyclones with winds in excess of 64 knots (74 mph) are known as **hurricanes** in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific, and **typhoons** in the Western Pacific.

The world's strongest tropical cyclone, by pressure, is Typhoon Tip of the 1979 Pacific typhoon season, which had a pressure of 870 mbar. The strongest tropical cyclone by wind speed, and the strongest tropical cyclone in the Western Hemisphere, is Hurricane Patricia of the 2015 Pacific hurricane season, which had maximum sustained winds estimated as high as 215 mph.
Hurricane Fred (2015)

**Hurricane Fred** was a rare hurricane that became the first hurricane to pass through the Cabo Verde Islands since the 1892 season. Fred was the seventh tropical cyclone, sixth named storm, and second hurricane of the somewhat below average 2015 Atlantic hurricane season. Fred caused minor damage, with an estimate of $1.1 million in damage totals. Fred also caused a total of 9 direct fatalities, all in the Cabo Verde Islands. Fred was also the easternmost hurricane in the tropical Atlantic (Hurricane Vince of the 2005 season was farther east, but formed in the subtropics).

## Meteorological History

On August 28, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) began monitoring a tropical wave over western Africa for possible tropical development over the coming days. Initially, NHC set the development chances for the 2-day period at near 0 percent. However, on August 29, the strong wave exited the coast of Africa around 18:00 UTC. Just six hours after emerging off the coast, the tropical wave developed into a tropical depression while located just off the African coast.

The depression continued to get better organized, and it strengthened into Tropical Storm Fred by 06:00 UTC on August 30. Located in an environment with low wind shear and fairly high sea surface temperatures, Fred began to intensify at a fairly fast rate. Fred began to develop an eye late that evening as its rainbands continued to become better defined. Just 18 hours after becoming a tropical storm at 00:00 UTC on August 31, Fred strengthened into a hurricane. Fred peaked in intensity roughly 12 hours later, at 12:00 UTC that day, while located directly over the Cabo Verde Islands. A hurricane warning was put up for the islands for the first time in history.

As Fred moved northwest away from Cape Verde, it began to weaken as it entered an area with cooler sea surface temperatures and increased wind shear. By September 2, Fred had become nearly devoid of deep convection, although it managed to maintain a well-defined center of circulation. Fred barely maintained tropical cyclone status for the next four days, with intermittent bursts of convection. It also alternated between tropical storm and tropical depression strength. On September 6 at 18:00 UTC, Fred dissipated while located southwest of the Azores, as it entered an increasingly unfavorable environment.
Tropical Cyclone Fun-Facts

This page lists interesting facts about Tropical Cyclones. Everyone is able to edit this page, and don't feel shy to add an interesting fact here!

## Facts

1. Tropical Storm Julia of 2016 was the first storm to form OVER Florida.
2. Hurricane Matthew of 2016 is the first Category Five Hurricane since Hurricane Felix of 2007.
3. At 916 millibars, Hurricane Opal's minimum pressure makes it the most intense non-Category 5 hurricane in the Atlantic basin.
4. Hurricane Wilma, with a minimum pressure of 882 millibars, was once the strongest hurricane in the Western Hemisphere until Hurricane Patricia of 2015, which is regarded as the second-strongest tropical cyclone on record.
5. Hurricane Ophelia is the easternmost major hurricane on record.
6. Haiyan is the most intense storm (based on Dvorak).
Hurricane Earl (2016)

Hurricane Earl was the deadliest hurricane to impact since Hurricane Stan in 2005. Hurricane Earl was the 5th named storm and 2nd hurricane of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season. Earl was a moderate Category 1 Hurricane, and made landfall at peak intensity of 85 mph. Earl hit Northern Belize on August 4, and began to weaken as it moved through the Yucatan Peninsula, before briefly entering the Bay of Campeche before moving onshore Veracruz and dissipating.
Inch of mercury

**Inches of mercury**, (**inHg** and **"Hg**) is a unit of measurement for pressure. It is still used for barometric pressure in weather reports, refrigeration and Aviation in the United States.

It is the pressure exerted by a column of mercury of 1 inch (2.54 cm) in height at the standard acceleration of gravity. Conversion to metric units depends on the temperature of mercury, and hence its density; typical conversion factors are:

 32°F
 60°F

## See also

* Torr (millimeters of mercury)
* Bar (unit)
* Mercury barometer
Hurricane Arthur

**Hurricane Arthur** was a category 2 hurricane that was the earliest hurricane in a season to make landfall in the state of North Carolina. The first named storm and first hurricane of the fairly quiet 2014 Atlantic hurricane season, Arthur became the first category 2 or stronger hurricane since Hurricane Sandy and made landfall in the Outer Banks of North Carolina as a category 2 hurricane with a minimum pressure of 973 mbar.

## Meteorological History

On June 25, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) began monitoring a non-tropical area of showers and thunderstorms in the Gulf of Mexico. The low pressure system moved inland into the southeastern United States, but entered the Atlantic on June 28. The low pressure system drifted slowly southward as it began to consolidate. On June 30, a reconnaissance aircraft identified a well-defined circulation, although the system lacked sufficient organized deep convection to be designated a tropical cyclone. At 00:00 UTC on July 1, after banding features began to develop, the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression One.

12 hours after becoming a tropical depression, One strengthened into Tropical Storm *Arthur*. Arthur began to move very slowly to the north as it gradually improved in organization. By early on July 3, Arthur had acquired hurricane strength. Arthur developed a well-defined eye feature and continued to strengthen that day. At 00:00 UTC on July 4, Arthur reached its peak intensity as a category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph. Shortly afterward, Arthur made landfall near Shackleford Banks, NC, and peaked in intensity at this time with a minimum pressure of 973 mbar. Arthur began to pull northward after its second landfall in Oregon Inlet, NC, while beginning a slow weakening. Arthur weakened to a category 1 hurricane at 12:00 UTC on July 4, and weakened to a tropical storm at 06:00 UTC on July 5. 6 hours after falling below hurricane intensity, Arthur transitioned into an extratropical cyclone. The extratropical cyclone later struck Atlantic Canada.