Mark Antony

Marcus Antonius also known as Mark Antony was a Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the Roman Republic.

# Early Life

Marcus Antonius was the son of Marcus Antonius Creticus and Julia Antonia, and was born in Rome on 14 January 83 BCE. His father was executed during the Catiline Conspiracy against Pompey the Great and the Roman Republic, and he had to flee to Greece to avoid his debts.

# Egypt

In 57 BCE, he joined in the Roman Army and aided Pompey in defeating Alexander of Judea's revolt against Hyrcanus II of Judea, after winning battles at Alexandrium and Machaerus. The following year, he took part in an intervention in Egypt against Berenice IV of Egypt, he met Princess Cleopatra, and falled in love with her.

# Rome

Antony became a staff officer in Caesar's armies in the Gallic Wars. Antony supported Caesar and he wanted to return to Rome for the consular elections. But resistance from the conservative faction of the Roman Senate, led by Pompey, demanded that Caesar resign his proconsulship and the command of his armies before being allowed to seek re-election to the consulship.

To prevent this occurrence Caesar bribed the plebeian tribune Curio to use his veto to prevent a senatorial decree which would deprive Caesar of his armies and provincial command, and then made sure Antony was elected tribune for the next term of office.

Antony exercised his veto, with the aim of preventing a senatorial decree declaring martial law against the veto, and was violently expelled from the senate with another Caesar adherent, Cassius, who was also a tribune of the plebs. Caesar crossed the river Rubicon upon hearing of these affairs which began the Republican civil war. Antony left Rome and joined Caesar and his armies at Ariminium, where he was presented to Caesar's soldiers still bloody and bruised as an example of the illegalities that his political opponents were perpetrating, and as a casus belli.

Caesar destroyed Pompey's legions in Hispania, and led the reinforcements to Greece, before commanding the right wing of Caesar's armies at Pharsalus.

While Caesar was fighting the last Pompeians, Antony taken offense because Caesar insisted on payment for the property of Pompey which Antony professedly had purchased, but had in fact simply appropriated.

Antony resorted to violence. Hundreds of citizens were killed and Rome itself descended into chaos. Caesar removed Antony from all political responsibilities. The two men did not see each other for two years. Antony meet Trebonius at Narbo and rejected his suggestion to join the conspiracy that was already afoot.

On February 15, 44 BCE, during the Lupercalia festival, Antony publicly offered Caesar a diadem. This was an event fraught with meaning: a diadem was a symbol of a king, and in refusing it, Caesar demonstrated that he did not intend to assume the throne.

Casca, Marcus Junius Brutus and Cassius decided, that Mark Antony should stay alive. Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 BCE. In the turmoil that surrounded the event, Antony escaped Rome dressed as a slave, fearing that the assassins would start a bloodbath among his supporters. He returned to Rome, discussing a truce with them. For a while, following a speech by Cicero in the Senate, an amnesty was agreed for the assassins.

# Civil war

Caesar's assassination caused widespread discontent among the Roman middle and lower classes with whom Caesar was popular. The people at Caesar's funeral attacked the homes of Brutus and Cassius. Antony, Octavian and Lepidus, capitalized on the opportunity and incited them against the Optimates. Tension escalated resulting in the Liberators' civil war

After the death of Caesar, his adoptive son Octavian formed a Second Triumvirate of himself, Octavian, and Antonius. The lands were divided equally: Lepidus gained the western portions of the Roman Republic (present-day Spain and North Africa), Octavian ruled the middle portion (France, Germany, and Italy), and Antony ruled the eastern possessions (the Balkans and Asia Minor).

Two years after the assassination of Julius Caesar, Antonius and Octavian aided Cleopatra in defeating his killers Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus in the Battle of Philippi.

# Parthian War

After the battle, Octavian returned to Rome, Antony and Cleopatra formed an alliance and became a couple. Antony returned to Alexandria with her, where he spent the winter of 41 – 40 BCE.

In spring he was forced to return to Rome following news of his wife Fulvia's involvement in civil strife with Octavian on his behalf. Fulvia died while Antony was en route to Sicyon (where Fulvia was exiled). Antony made peace with Octavian in September and married Octavian's sister Octavia Minor.

The Parthian Empire invaded Roman Syria, Antony sent his general Ventidius to oppose this invasion. Ventidius won a series of victories against the Parthians, killing the crown prince Pacorus and expelling them from the Roman territories which they had seized.

Antony planned to retaliate by invading Parthia, and secured an agreement from Octavian to supply him with extra troops for his campaign. With this military purpose on his mind, a new treaty was signed in Tarentum in 38 BCE and Octavian promised again to send legions to the East.

Antony leaving Octavia pregnant, sailed to Alexandria, where he expected funding from Cleopatra, the mother of his twins. Cleopatra lent him the money he needed for the army, and after capturing Jerusalem and surrounding areas in 37 BCE, he installed Herod as roman king in Judaea, replacing the Parthian appointee Antigonus.

Antony then invaded Parthian territory with an army of about 100,000 Roman and allied troops but the campaign proved a disaster. Antony was forced to retreat in the depths of winter, losing more than a quarter of its strength in the course of the campaign.

# Actium

Octavian married Livia and started to political attack Antony in order to raise himself to power. Several times Antony was summoned to Rome, but he remained in Alexandria with Cleopatra.

Antony invaded Armenia, this time successfully. In the return celebration. The city was summoned to hear a political statement. Surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, Antony ended his alliance with Octavian. These proclamations became known as the Donations of Alexandria and caused a fatal breach in Antony's relations with Rome.

Octavian's base of power was his linked with Caesar through adoption, which granted him much-needed popularity and loyalty of the legions. A propaganda war was fought in the political arena of Rome, with accusations flying between sides. Antony (in Egypt) divorced Octavia and accused Octavian of being a social upstart, of usurping power, and of forging the adoption papers by Caesar. Octavian responded with treason charges for starting wars against Parthia without the consent of the Senate.

The Senate removed Antony's powers and declared war against Cleopatra – not Antony, because Octavian had no wish to advertise his role in perpetuating Rome's internecine bloodshed. Both consuls, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius, and a third of the Senate abandoned Rome to meet Antony and Cleopatra in Greece.

In 31 BCE, the war started. Octavian's loyal and talented general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa captured the Greek city and naval port of Methone, loyal to Antony. The enormous popularity of Octavian with the legions secured the defection of the provinces of Cyrenaica and Greece to his side. On September 2, the naval battle of Actium took place. Antony and Cleopatra's navy was destroyed, and they were forced to escape to Egypt with 60 ships.

Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide shortly afterward.

# Legacy

Marcus Antonius left a lasting legacy that transcends historical accounts. Artists have depicted scenes from Antony's life, especially his romance with Cleopatra. The tragic love story has been a popular theme in various paintings and sculptures throughout history.

Numerous novels and films explore the life and times of Mark Antony. Authors often delve into the complexities of his character, his political alliances, and his romantic entanglements. These works provide different perspectives on the man behind the historical events.