Napoleon II

Napoleon II (born Napoléon François Joseph Charles Bonaparte, Tuilleries Palace, Paris, 20th March 1811-Ib., 22nd July 1832) was the second Emperor of the French reigning from 1813 to his death in 1832. He was to date the youngest French emperor to ascend the throne, and one of the youngest French monarchs. Only son and successor of the infamous Bonaparte, he reigned under a regency from 1813 to 1830, and then as governing emperor until his death from cholera, victim of the Paris Chorela Epidemic.

## Birth and infancy

Napoleon ll was born on 20 March 1811, at the Tuileries Palace, the son of Emperor Napoleon I and Empress Marie Louise. On the same day he underwent *ondoiement* (a traditional French ceremony which is a simple baptism unaccompanied by the usual additional ceremonies) by Joseph Fesch with his full name of *Napoleon François Charles Joseph*. The baptism, inspired by the baptismal ceremony of Louis, Grand Dauphin of France, was held on 9 June 1811 in Notre Dame de Paris. Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg, Austrian ambassador to France, wrote of the baptism:

> The baptism ceremony was beautiful and impressive; the scene in which the emperor took the infant from the arms of his noble mother and raised him up twice to reveal him to the public [thus breaking from long tradition, as he did when he crowned himself at his coronation] was loudly applauded; in the monarch's manner and face could be seen the great satisfaction that he took from this solemn moment.
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He was put in the care of Louise Charlotte Françoise de Montesquiou, a descendant of François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, who was named Governess of the Children of France. Affectionate and intelligent, the governess assembled a considerable collection of books intended to give the infant a strong grounding in religion, philosophy, and military matters.

### Succession

On March 3rd, 1813, Napoleon Emperor of the French, King of Italy and a myriad of other titles, became no more. After his death, a great deal of pilitical machinations started to take place in Paris to see who would become the new regent for the newly crowned Napoleon II, who was just 2 years of age.

There were three main contestants for the position, which was in the meantime filled by Napoleon’s trusted advisor Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord. They had had a falling out a couple of years beforehand, but recently started to reconcile once Napoleon saw his health deteriorate. He trusted upon Talleyrand to secure the throne for his young infant son, and surprisingly for most of the political spectators of the time, Talleyrand did follow through. Rapidly, he managed to secure the reins of government by making a political alliance with minister of Police Anne Jean Marie René de Savary, and with Bernard Germain de Lacépède, president of the Sénat Conservateur. The hours after teh emperor died, they convened to decided upon the official head of the necessary regency that would take upon Napoléon II’s younger years. There had been initial debate as to wether they should just declare the republic once again, but Talleyrand decided that it was too inconvinient at the time. The declaration of a new republic would possibly push the other Powers, who hadn’t completely accepted the emperor’s reign, into believing France was politically and militarily weak, thus pushing it into another war. Furthermore, the declaration of a republic would lead to political instability and thus far that was France’s number one public enemy. They must, no, they had to secure a stable near future for France, and part of that would require for the emperor of Austria’s oldest grandson to become emperor. With this, possibly Austria would agree at the very least to a lukewarm relationship which could incentivize other powers to keep peace even if for peace’s sake. A new detach was sent to Vienna to get Metternich’s position, which proved positive.

For much of the Triad’s regency, the young emperor was made to focus on his studies. Under the preceptorship of his mentor, he developed a very proud understanding of his faimly and country’s history. His mother, the empress, wanted nothing to do with the ruynning of the government in France, and although she tried to take part in the emperor’s upbringing, she was set aside by Talleyrand.

## Reign and death

Once Napoleon II came to power, he would officially begin a period of French history called the “July Monarchy”. He was officially recognized as of legal age and ruling emperorship by Jourdan. Two days later, the first cabinet was formed, gathering the Constitutionalist opposition to Savary, including Casimir Perier, the banker Jacques Laffitte, Count Molé, the duke of Broglie, François Guizot, etc. The new government's first aim was to restore public order, while at the same time appearing to acclaim the revolutionary forces which had just triumphed. Assisted by the people of Paris in overthrowing the old elite, the new bourgeoisie had to establish its new order.

Napoleon II inmediately started to clash with some of his cabinet members. Civil unrest continued for three months, supported by the left-wing press. The government was not able to put an end to it, mostly because the National Guard was headed by one of the Republican leaders, the Marquis de La Fayette, who advocated a "popular throne surrounded by Republican institutions." He had already proved to ba a little bit of a thorn on Napoleon’s side, but whilst under “Old Bonaparte” he had been quiet, now he proved himself quite political. The Republicans then gathered themselves in popular clubs, in the tradition established by the 1789 Revolution. Some of those were fronts for secret societies (for example, the Blanquist *Société des Amis du Peuple*), which sought political and social reforms, or the execution of several ministers. Strikes and demonstrations were permanent.

In order to stabilize the economy and finally secure public order, in the autumn of 1830 the government had the Assembly vote a credit of 5 million francs to subsidize public works, mostly roads. Then, to prevent bankruptcies and the increase of unemployment, especially in Paris, the government issued a guarantee for firms encountering difficulties, granting them 60 million francs. These subsidies mainly went into the pockets of big entrepreneurs aligned with the new regime, such as the printer Firmin Didot.

Talleyrand stayed a little bit in the outside. Inmediately after the revolution, a prize was put on his head by many of the most Republican revolutionaries. However, the state of things pushed back the thirst for his blood and amicable press by Thiers ensured that he could re-incorporate into civil service, aiding the young emperor in “affairs étrangères” by 1831. The emperor however proved weary of Talleyrand and mostly send in into diplomatic missions, and he wouldn’t gain back his old power until the reign of Napoleon III.

As per Louis Bonaparte, he was by Napoleon’s accounts “a sad, tired old-man hopeful to get to retire”. Although he pitied his uncle, and there was revolutionary sentiment against him, he nontheless decided to allow him to retire to his old house at Saint-Leu-la-Forêt. As per Savary, he was briefly exiled to The Hague but eventually he too would be asked to come back in order to participate in the on-going Algerian wars, partially as a way for him to get out of the Parisian sphere. There too he would prove unpopular due to the mistreatment of the Arab leaders and he would be destituted before dying in Algiers in June 1832.

Following some riots, Interior Minister Guizot requested the resignation of the Prefect of the Seine, Odilon Barrot, who had criticized one of the parliamentarians' address to the emperor. Supported by Victor de Broglie, Guizot considered that an important civil servant could not criticize an act of the Chamber of Deputies, particularly when it had been approved by the Emperor and his government. Dupont de l'Eure took Barrot's side, threatening to resign if the emperor disavowed him. The banker Laffitte, one of the main figures of the *Parti du mouvement*, thereupon put himself forward to coordinate the ministers with the title of "President of the Council". This immediately led Broglie and Guizot, of the *Parti de l'Ordre*, to resign, followed by Casimir Perier, André Dupin, the Count Molé and Joseph-Dominique Louis. More keen on Laffite’s political inclinations, the emperor put him forward.

The government enacted various reforms demanded by the *Parti du Movement*. The revolutioanry movement, however, inspired several branches of French society and opposition to raise at first timid criticism with Bonaparte rule. Then, the several opposition groups started to finance and stage their own political movements. One of these was Legitimism, which although illegal, was growing some populatiry among the richer land-owning classes, which in turn tried to convince the populace on the idea of a constitutional Bourbon monarchy under the leadership of Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry. On 14 March 1831, on the initiative of a patriotic society created by the mayor of Metz, Jean-Baptiste Bouchotte, the press launched a campaign to gather funds to create a national association aimed at struggling against any Bourbon Restoration and the risks of foreign invasion. All the major figures of the Republican Left (La Fayette, Dupont de l'Eure, Jean Maximilien Lamarque, Odilon Barrot, etc.) supported it. Local committees were created all over France, leading the president of the Council, to issue a circular prohibiting civil servants from membership of this association, which he accused of challenging the state itself by implicitly accusing it of not fulfilling its proper duties.

In the beginning of April 1831, the government took some unpopular measures, forcing several important personalities to resign: Odilon Barrot was dismissed from the Council of State, General Lamarque's military command suppressed, Bouchotte and the Marquis de Laborde forced to resign. When on 15 April 1831 the *Cour d'assises* acquitted several young Republicans (Godefroy Cavaignac, Joseph Guinard and Audry de Puyraveau's son), mostly officers of the National Guard who had been arrested during the riots, new riots acclaimed the news on 15–16 April. But Lafitte, implementing the 10 April 1831 law outlawing public meetings, used the military as well as the National Guard to dissolve the crowds. In May, the government used fire hoses as crowd control techniques for the first time. Lafitte tried really hard to navigate the revolutionary sentiment with the idea of stability, leading to sometimes messy and counteracting.

Another riot, started on the Rue Saint-Denis on 14 June 1831, degenerated into an open battle against the National Guard, assisted by the Dragoons and the infantry. The riots continued on 15 and 16 June.

The major unrest, however, took place in Lyon with the Canuts Revolt, started on 21 November 1831, and during which parts of the National Guard took the demonstrators' side. In two days, the Canuts took control of the city and expelled General Roguet and the mayor Victor Prunelle. On 25 November Laffitte announced to the Chamber of Deputies that Marshal Soult, assisted by the Emperor, would immediately march on Lyon with 20,000 men. They entered the city on 3 December re-establishing order without any bloodshed.

Civil unrest, however, continued, and not only in Paris. On 11 March 1832, sedition exploded in Grenobleduring the carnival. The prefect had canceled the festivities after a grotesque mask of Napoleon I had been displayed, leading to popular demonstrations. The prefect then tried to have the National Guard disperse the crowd, but the latter refused to go, forcing him to call on the army. The 35th regiment of infantry (*infanterie de ligne*) obeyed the orders, but this in turn led the population to demand their expulsion from the city. This was done on 15 March and the 35th regiment was replaced by the 6th regiment, from Lyon. When Lafitte learnt the news, he dissolved the National Guard of Grenoble and immediately recalled the 35th regiment to the city. The emperor, outraged at the blatant disrespect of his idolized power, recalled Lafitte’s orders and tried to go to Grenoble himself. He was dissuaded due to his failing health.

Beside this continuing unrest, in every province, Dauphiné, Picardy, in Carcassonne, Alsace, etc., various Republican conspiracies threatened the government (conspiracy of the *Tours de Notre-Dame* in January 1832, of the *rue des Prouvaires* in February 1832, etc.) Even the trials of suspects were seized on by the Republicans as an opportunity to address the people: at the trial of the Blanquist *Société des Amis du peuple*in January 1832, Raspail harshly criticized the Empire while Auguste Blanqui gave free vein to his socialist ideas. All of the accused denounced the government's tyranny, the incredibly high cost of Napoleon's civil list, police persecutions, etc. The omnipresence of the French police, organized by Fouché, was depicted by the Legitimist writer Balzac in *Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes*. The strength of the opposition led the Emperor to shift his view somewhat further to the right, along with grand part of the Imperial family (including Prince Napoléon Louis, which would factor in later).

### The 1832 cholera epidemic

The cholera pandemic that originated in India in 1815 reached Paris around 20 March 1832 and killed more than 13,000 people in April. The pandemic would last until September 1832, killing in total 100,000 in France, with 20,000 in Paris alone. The disease, the origins of which were unknown at the time, provoked a popular panic. The people of Paris suspected poisoners, while scavengers and beggars revolted against the authoritarian measures of public health.

Cholera also struck d'Argout and Guizot. Casimir Périer, who on 1 April 1832 visited the patients at the Hôtel-Dieu with the Prince Impérial, contracted the disease. He resigned his ministerial activities before dying of cholera on 16 May 1832.

Napoleon II had caught pneumonia and was bedridden at the beginning of the year. He was in and out of his bed and most of the affairs d’état were left to both his mother, Talleyrand or the Prince Impérial. Finally, low defenses and poor health led him to catch cholera, before dying on July 22nd, 1832. He had no children; thus the throne of France passed to his cousin, Napoléon Bonaparte.

## Marriage prospects and succession

Napoleon II never married nor had any legitimate descendants. There were plans to marry him to some of his cousins from his mother’s side, like princess Maria da Glória of Brazil, Maria Theresa of Austria-Teschen or Archduchess Hermine of Hungary. Other candidates were Theodelinde of Italy, daughter of his former step-brother Eugène de Beauharnais, Princesses of Spain or Mexico and many more. Nonetheless, he was succedeed by his cousin Napoleon-Louis Bonaparte