Positive Psychology

**Overview:**

*Positive Psychology* refers to the study of human flourishing and well-being. This subfield of psychology gained notoriety in 1998 when Dr. Martin Seligman called for a “new science of human strengths” in his APA Presidential Address (p. 560). Seligman argued that since World War II, the field of psychology had functioned largely from a disease model, in which treatment was focused on remediating suffering. While acknowledging the importance of healing, Seligman urged colleagues to also focus on promoting well-being for all and not just the mentally ill.

Following his presidential address, Seligman and colleague Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi published an issue of *American Psychologist* consisting of 15 articles dedicated to the science of well-being. Concepts in this issue discussed evolutionary perspectives on well-being, positive personality traits that contribute to well-being, implications for mental and physical health, and promoting positive human experiences. Notably, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi argued that positive psychology did not simply mean promoting happiness, but rather examining concepts that could promote a deeper sense of well-being.

**Foundational Theories of Well-Being: PERMA**

While other theories of well-being (such as Deiner’s theory of Subjective Well-Being) already existed, Seligman proposed a new way to measure the elements of well-being. Seligman called this theory PERMA, positing that well-being was influenced by five key elements: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Importantly, Seligman noted that each of these elements uniquely contributed to well-being. Similarly, Seligman stressed that well-being relies on more than being happy and that the elements of PERMA rely on both hedonic and eudaimonic (meaningful) experiences. For example, the element of “positive emotion” is hedonic as it is purely based on how the individual is feeling. In contrast, engagement is an example of eudaimonic well-being: one can be fully invested in the task at hand (also known as flow state) without necessarily feeling happy, but this element will still contribute to well-being.

It is important to note that while this remains one of the foundational theories within the field of Positive Psychology, it has been met with criticism. Specifically, a study comparing PERMA with Deiner’s model of Subjective Well-Being argued that PERMA may be a redundant concept. Goodman found that when comparing the Satisfaction with Life Scale to the PERMA Profiler scale, the two measures had a .98 correlation, indicating that PERMA may be measuring the same concept as Subjective Well-Being. Seligman responded to this finding, first by acknowledging that the high correlation may indicate that Subjective Well-Being could be a “useful final common path of the elements of well-being” (p.333). However, Seligman also rebutted the authors’ claims, arguing that PERMA was meant to break down the elements of well-being versus proposing a novel theory of well-being. According to Seligman, PERMA allows individuals to *build* well-being, as the model offers tangible elements that they can work on (i.e. find something that you find engaging and spend time doing that). While this model is closely correlated with subjective well-being, it was one of the first well-being theories that showed individuals concrete ways in which to be working on their well-being.

**Other Notable Areas of Research:**

Positive psychology extends beyond simple happiness, and research in this field has highlighted other key indicators that relate to our well-being. For example, one of the more well-known constructs emerging from positive psychology is Dr. Angela Duckworth’s theory of grit. Duckworth developed this theory after her experience of teaching elementary school students, in which she realized that IQ was not the sole predictor of success in the classroom. Duckworth and colleagues further investigated this idea with cadets at the U.S. Military Academy, West Point, and found that cadets who were higher in grit were less likely to drop out than their non-gritty peers. In subsequent studies, Duckworth found that her measure of grit predicted GPA, educational attainment, and fewer career changes. After studies involving grit received criticism over their lack of replicability, Duckworth replicated her own original study at West Point, this time using 11,258 over nine cohorts. She also found that those with higher grit scores scored lower on intelligence.  Additionally, Duckworth received criticism that grit neglects to acknowledge life circumstances, such as poverty. Duckworth acknowledged that grit alone is not the answer, but rather one component of success and character development.

While grit may be one of the more recognizable concepts researched within positive psychology, it is just one example of the abundance of research emerging on the science of well-being. Another area of research that has recently been popularized includes resilience, or the ability to bounce back from adversity. Longitudinal research found that in college students, interventions promoting the increase in resilience could reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression. This research bolstered support for The Penn Resilience Program, which has since been used with more than 55,000 U.S. Army Soldiers.

These two concepts are just examples of the more well-known areas of research within the field of positive psychology. Other work includes (but is certainly not limited to): character strengths, learned helplessness and optimism, transcendence, positive developmental psychology, and purpose. Notably, an abundance of other research exists that could undoubtedly fall under the umbrella of positive psychology, but the concepts listed above have emerged directly out of the UPenn Positive Psychology Center and the Claremont Graduate University (two of the main hubs for the study of positive psychology).

**Critiques and Future Directions of Positive Psychology:**

The field of Positive Psychology, while widely supported, is certainly not without criticism. Many positive psychology concepts have recently become ubiquitous in the pop-psych zeitgeist, perhaps fanning the flames for criticism of the field as pseudoscience. A 2019 Vox article outlined criticisms of the field: many argue that the field has shifted into ethics instead of psychology and that it lacks academic rigor due to its commercialization and cult-like support by coaches and consultants. Other criticisms note the polarizing nature of the word “positive,” arguing that topics not covered by this field are then assumed “negative”. Other critiques say the positive psychologist movement is simply telling people to use positive thinking. The field has also been criticized as trying to advance a Western individualist agenda, ignoring systemic problems that restrict success for certain populations. Indeed, one study found that of 188 randomized controlled trials utilizing positive interventions conducted between 1998-2017, 78.2% of studies were conducted in westernized countries. Indeed, this finding indicates that more work needs to be done in order to make positive psychology findings more generalizable and inclusive to other cultures. Similarly, more work needs to explore and understand the nature of positive psychology within our own country, and how it may differ among varying socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. However, in response to criticism that positive psychology ignores the negative, numerous studies can point to the use of positive psychology in preventing and relieving symptoms of depression. Additionally, positive psychology scholars such as Dr. Jonathan Haidt argue that the goal of positive psychology is not to ignore distress, but rather to integrate findings from positive psychology with the more traditional field of psychology.

Gable and Haidt raise an interesting question about the future of positive psychology. More recently, scholars have noted the emergence of “Second Wave Positive Psychology” (SWPP), in which the field distances itself from the term “happiness” and addresses the necessity of negative and positive experiences in overall well-being. Similarly, scholars note the importance of integrating the subfield of positive psychology with the traditional field of psychology, instead of labeling them as distinct fields of study. While the field is still relatively new, more work needs to be done to clarify positive psychology's identity and address misconceptions and criticisms.

### Positive psychology interventions

Positive psychology uses interventions and tools designed to assist the client in finding and focusing on their strengths and what they are grateful for. Duckworth, Steen & Seligman report positive psychology interventions are evidence-based and effective.  They reported that the word "happiness" is unwieldy and overwhelming. Instead, their interventions attempt to focus on three domains in one's life and how to grow these: the pleasant life, the engaged life, and the meaningful life. These domains each have their own interventions, such as helping a client to identify where they find meaning in their lives and ensuring the client maintains whatever activities elicit meaning for them. They posited the therapist's role is to not focus on the negative with interventions, but rather assist the client in finding and growing their positive, engaged, meaningful lives. Gratitude journals, "count your blessings" exercises and "Values in Action Inventory" are all common positive psychology tools used to cultivate a client's positive life experiences and traits.

### Martin Seligman

Dr. Martin E.P Seligman has been called the "father of positive psychology,"  is a former president of the APA and currently the Director of the Penn Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania. He has published more than 350 scholarly articles and 30 books. Born in 1942 in New York, Seligman received his Bachelor's Degree in philosophy from Princeton, and a PhD in psychology from the University of Pennsylvania.  In 2004, Seligman published a classification manual called *Character Strengths and Virtues* that is intended to function as a "positive counterpart" to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). It explores what can "go right" instead of what can go wrong, and posits that the DSM studies "insanity" while Seligman's manual focuses on sanity.

**Further Reading:**

1. Ryff CD, Singer BH, Love GD. Positive health: connecting well-being with biology. *Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci*. 2004;359:1383-1394.
2. Watson D, Pennebaker JW. Health complaints, stress and distress: exploring the central role of negative affectivity. *Psychol Rev*. 1989;96:234-254.
3. Diener E, Chan MY. Happy people live longer: subjective well-being contributes to health and longevity. *Appl Psychol Health Wellbeing*. 2011;3:1-43
4. Seligman, M. E. (2002). *Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment*. Simon and Schuster.
5. Reivich, K., & Shatté, A. (2002). *The resilience factor: 7 essential skills for overcoming life's inevitable obstacles*. Broadway books.
6. Tayyab Rashid (2015) Positive psychotherapy: A strength-based approach. *The Journal of Positive Psychology,* *10*(1), 25-40. DOI: 10.1080/17439760.2014.920411
7. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103?casa\_token=i6teh7EqYmcAAAAA%3Awd5qmqznXKAIqvVjkI6fIwKRVMmQg9KLwAc6gQgklAy8aMJgJk1WaeNQs7vnl-mftDghjez9iaqGOQ
8. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1359432X.2012.694689?casa\_token=JH-PB0eb8GkAAAAA%3Ay8FydT2EqHpUK3NYQZD\_hzIj7E-m2384NJNm8RZhaPuYE57pAgeIzIgMcBTMWqOJPRMQKyP2F1Nw6d4
9. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jclp.20593
10. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ogytAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA78&dq=positive+psychology+interventions&ots=-B6zvsV-T\_&sig=zqGRgNl-aH0KyCfAU-Zx-8CQKps#v=onepage&q=positive%20psychology%20interventions&f=false
11. Sheldon, K. M., & King, L. (2001). Why positive psychology is necessary. *American psychologist*, *56*(3), 216.
12. Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (Eds.). (2001). *Handbook of positive psychology*. Oxford university press.
13. Hefferon, K., & Boniwell, I. (2011). *Positive psychology: Theory, research and applications*. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
14. Zhou, J., Prinzing, M. M., Le Nguyen, K. D., West, T. N., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2022). The goods in everyday love: Positivity resonance builds prosociality. *Emotion*, *22*(1), 30–45. https://doi-org.williamjames.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/emo0001035.supp (Supplemental)
15. Valiente, C., Espinosa, R., Contreras, A., Trucharte, A., Caballero, R., Peinado, V., Calderón, L., & Perdigón, A. (2021). A multicomponent positive psychology group intervention for people with severe psychiatric conditions; a randomized clinical trial. *Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal*. https://doi-org.williamjames.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/prj0000509.supp (Supplemental)
16. Martin, J. A., Ericson, M., Berwaldt, A., Stephens, E. D., & Briner, L. (2021). Effects of two online positive psychology and meditation programs on persistent self-transcendence. *Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice*. https://doi-org.williamjames.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/cns0000286.supp (Supplemental)

**References:**

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Seligman, M.E.P. (2012). *Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being.* Atria Books.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). The President’s address. *American Psychologist, 54,* 559-562.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Seligman, M.E.P. & Csikzentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. *American Psychologist, 55*(1), 5-14. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5.
4. ↑ Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. *Psychological Bulletin,* *95*(3), 542–575.10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Seligman, M.E.P. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. *The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13*(4), 333-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466
6. ↑ Positive Psychology Center. (n.d.). *PERMA Theory of well-being and PERMA workshops.* Penn Arts & Sciences Positive Psychology Center. https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/learn-more/perma-theory-well-being-and-perma-workshops.
7. ↑ Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). The contribution of flow to positive psychology. In J. E. Gillham (Ed.), *The science of optimism and hope: Research essays in honor of Martin E. P. Seligman* (pp. 387–395). Templeton Foundation Press.
8. ↑ Goodman, F.R., Disaboto, D.J., Kashdan, T.B., & Kauffman, S.B. (2018). Measuring well-being: A comparison of subjective well-being and PERMA. *The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13*(4), 321-332.https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1388434.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Duckworth, A.L. (2016). *Grit: The power of passion and perseverance.* Scribner.
10. ↑ Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92*(6), 1087–1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087.
11. ↑ Duckworth, A.L., & Quinn, P.D. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit scale (Grit–S). *Journal of Personality Assessment*, *91*(2), 166-174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Pinker, S. (2019, December 19). New evidence for the power of grit. *The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/new-evidence-for-the-power-of-grit-11576770214.*
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Duckworth, A.L. (2021). *FAQ*. Angela Duckworth. https://angeladuckworth.com/qa/#faq-64.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Reivich, K. J., Seligman, M. E., & McBride, S. (2011). Master resilience training in the US Army. *American psychologist*, *66*(1), 25-34.  https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021897.
15. ↑ Brunwasser, S. M., Gillham, J. E., & Kim, E. S. (2009). A meta-analytic review of the Penn Resiliency Program’s effect on depressive symptoms. *Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77*(6), 1042–1054. doi:10.1037/a0017671.
16. ↑ Positive Psychology Center. (n.d.). *Resilience training for the army.* Penn Arts & Sciences Positive Psychology Center. https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/services/resilience-training-army.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Smith, J. (2019, November 20). *Is positive psychology all it’s cracked up to be?* Vox. https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/11/13/20955328/positive-psychology-martin-seligman-happiness-religion-secularism
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Gable, S. L., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? *Review of General Psychology*, *9*(2), 103-110. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103.
19. ↑ Lazarus, R.S. (2003). Does the positive psychology movement have legs? *Psychological Inquiry, 14*(2), 93-109. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1402\_02.
20. ↑ Cabanas, E. & Illuoz, E. (2019). *Manufacturing happy citizens: How the science and industry of happiness control our lives.* Polity.
21. ↑ Hendriks, T., Warren, M. A., Schotanus-Dijkstra, M., Hassankhan, A., Graafsma, T., Bohlmeijer, E., & de Jong, J. (2019). How WEIRD are positive psychology interventions? A bibliometric analysis of randomized controlled trials on the science of well-being. *The Journal of Positive Psychology*, *14*(4), 489-501. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1484941.
22. ↑ Reivich, K. & Gillham, J. (2010). Building resilience in youth: The Penn Resiliency Program. *Communiqué, 38*(6), 16-18.
23. ↑ Seligman, M. E., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. C. (2006). Positive psychotherapy. *American Psychologist*, *61*(8), 774-788. http://dx.doi.org.williamjames.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.8.774.
24. ↑ Lomas, T., & Ivtzan, I. (2016). Second wave positive psychology: Exploring the positive–negative dialectics of wellbeing. *Journal of Happiness Studies*, *17*(4), 1753-1768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9668-y.
25. ↑ Lomas, T. (2016, July). *Positive psychology – the second wave.* The British Psychological Society. https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-29/july/positive-psychology-second-wave.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/68692734/ppclinicalpractice-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1651945692&Signature=L~l48rWrwu0McTGmY25PvnOBYfwEht803Ds9d4IsFXmRnCcwbpC0Cq7d~C5-Mxsw9hz-9S1u3rbtyFTh7YWj6Re8mSbN81f9VD-PmHMTxDXfnKnciPhWNhY6Ma6ou0tGX84db5rIv8QS7yLL0TVNAggeyTiUFlkyu2u8YXIqKerMKBzlS2wbG079adLBN~Jdk0RPJjoYwoYdMm3GaVuAEb1bWOCaCmSsYI6uIY323iUR9aaR7alwUP7bliRjdA5Vam-eZh-ZN2ihIs-Z0xN4l5on7b3c65141k~1hfOBZH8CFfJ4Ye~yPFRqabomW8nhreIvHJwMQPodaDUfN2j4lg\_\_&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 https://positivepsychology.com/who-is-martin-seligman/
28. ↑ https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/people/martin-ep-seligman