Barbados

Island country in the CaribbeanTemplate:SHORTDESC:Island country in the Caribbean
This article is about the country in the Caribbean. For other uses, see Barbados (disambiguation).

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**Barbados** is an island country in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies, in the Caribbean region of the Americas, and the most easterly of the Caribbean Islands. It occupies an area of 432 km2 (167 sq mi) and has a population of about 287,000 (2019 estimate). Its capital and largest city is Bridgetown.

Inhabited by Kalinago people since the 13th century, and prior to that by other Amerindians, Spanish navigators took possession of Barbados in the late 15th century, claiming it for the Crown of Castile. It first appeared on a Spanish map in 1511. The Portuguese Empire claimed the island between 1532 and 1536, but abandoned it in 1620 with their only remnants being an introduction of wild boars for a good supply of meat whenever the island was visited. An English ship, the *Olive Blossom*, arrived in Barbados on 14 May 1625; its men took possession of the island in the name of King James I. In 1627, the first permanent settlers arrived from England, and Barbados became an English and later British colony. During this period, the colony operated on a plantation economy, relying on the labour of enslaved Africans who worked on the island's plantations. The slave trade to the island continued until it was outlawed by the Slave Trade Act 1807, with final emancipation of the enslaved population in Barbados occurring over a period of five years following the Slavery Abolition Act 1833.

On 30 November 1966, Barbados became an independent state and Commonwealth realm with Elizabeth II as Queen of Barbados. 55 years later on 30 November 2021, Barbados transitioned to a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations.

Barbados is a developed and peaceful country with a very high quality of life. Barbados's population is predominantly of African descent. While it is technically an Atlantic island, Barbados is closely associated with the Caribbean and is ranked as one of its leading tourist destinations.

## Etymology

The name "Barbados" is from either the Portuguese term *os barbados* or the Spanish equivalent, *los barbados*, both meaning "the bearded ones". It is unclear whether "bearded" refers to the long, hanging roots of the bearded fig-tree (*Banyan*), (*Ficus citrifolia*), indigenous to the island, or to the allegedly bearded Caribs who once inhabited the island, or, more fancifully, to a visual impression of a beard formed by the sea foam that sprays over the outlying coral reefs. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position. Furthermore, the island of Barbuda in the Leewards is very similar in name and was once named "Las Barbudas" by the Spanish.

The original name for Barbados in the Pre-Columbian era was *Ichirouganaim*, according to accounts by descendants of the indigenous Arawakan-speaking tribes in other regional areas, with possible translations including "Red land with white teeth" or "Redstone island with teeth outside (reefs)" or simply "Teeth".

Colloquially, Barbadians refer to their home island as "Bim" or other nicknames associated with Barbados, including "Bimshire". The origin is uncertain, but several theories exist. The National Cultural Foundation of Barbados says that "Bim" was a word commonly used by slaves, and that it derives from the Igbo term *bém* from *bé mụ́* meaning "my home, kindred, kind"; the Igbo phoneme Template:IPA-ig in the Igbo orthography is very close to English pronunciation: **Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character "[".**. The name could have arisen due to the relatively large percentage of enslaved Igbo people from modern-day southeastern Nigeria arriving in Barbados in the 18th century. The words "Bim" and "Bimshire" are recorded in the *Oxford English Dictionary* and *Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionaries*. Another possible source for "Bim" is reported to be in the *Agricultural Reporter* of 25 April 1868, where the Rev. N. Greenidge (father of one of the island's most famous scholars, Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge) suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were "Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire". Lastly, in the *Daily Argosy* (of Demerara, i.e. Guyana) of 1652, there is a reference to Bim as a possible corruption of "Byam", the name of a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as "Bims" and that this became a word for all Barbadians.

### Pre-colonial period

Archeological evidence suggests humans may have first settled or visited the island circa 1600 BC. More permanent Amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th centuries AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid. Settlements of Arawaks from South America appeared by around 800AD and again in the 12th-13th Century. The Kalinago (called "Caribs" by the Spanish) visited the island regularly, although there is no evidence of permanent settlement.

### European arrival

 File:1632 Cardona Descripcion Indias (11).jpg
It is uncertain which European nation arrived first in Barbados, which probably would have been at some point in the 15th century or 16th century. One lesser-known source points to earlier revealed works antedating contemporary sources, indicating it could have been the Spanish. Many, if not most, believe the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to come upon the island. The island was largely ignored by Europeans, though Spanish slave raiding is thought to have reduced the native population, with many fleeing to other islands.

### English settlement in the 17th century

 File:GEORGE WASHINGTON HOUSE - BARBADOS.jpg
The first English ship, which had arrived on 14 May 1625, was captained by John Powell. The first settlement began on 17 February 1627, near what is now Holetown (formerly Jamestown, after King James I of England), by a group led by John Powell's younger brother, Henry, consisting of 80 settlers and 10 English indentured labourers. Some sources state that some Africans were amongst these first settlers.

The settlement was established as a proprietary colony and funded by Sir William Courten, a City of London merchant who acquired the title to Barbados and several other islands. The first colonists were actually tenants, and much of the profits of their labour returned to Courten and his company. Courten's title was later transferred to James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle, in what was called the "Great Barbados Robbery".[*citation needed*] Carlisle then chose as governor Henry Hawley, who established the House of Assembly in 1639, in an effort to appease the planters, who might otherwise have opposed his controversial appointment.

In the period 1640–1660, the West Indies attracted over two-thirds of the total number of English emigrants to the Americas. By 1650 there were 44,000 settlers in the West Indies, as compared to 12,000 on the Chesapeake and 23,000 in New England. Most English arrivals were indentured. After five years of labour, they were given "freedom dues" of about £10, usually in goods. Before the mid-1630s, they also received 5 to 10 acres (2 to 4 hectares) of land, but after that time the island filled and there was no more free land. During the Cromwellian era (1650s) this included a large number of prisoners-of-war, vagrants and people who were illicitly kidnapped, who were forcibly transported to the island and sold as servants. These last two groups were predominantly Irish, as several thousand were infamously rounded up by English merchants and sold into servitude in Barbados and other Caribbean islands during this period, a practice that came to be known as being *Barbadosed*. Cultivation of tobacco, cotton, ginger and indigo was thus handled primarily by European indentured labour until the start of the sugar cane industry in the 1640s and the growing reliance on and importation of enslaved Africans.

Parish registers from the 1650s show that for the white population, there were four times as many deaths as marriages. The mainstay of the infant colony's economy was the growth export of tobacco, but tobacco prices eventually fell in the 1630s as Chesapeake production expanded.

#### Effects of the English Civil War

Main articles: English overseas possessions in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and Restoration in the English colonies
Around the same time, fighting during the War of the Three Kingdoms and the Interregnum spilled over into Barbados and Barbadian territorial waters. The island was not involved in the war until after the execution of Charles I, when the island's government fell under the control of Royalists (ironically the Governor, Philip Bell, remaining loyal to Parliament while the Barbadian House of Assembly, under the influence of Humphrey Walrond, supported Charles II). To try to bring the recalcitrant colony to heel, the Commonwealth Parliament passed an act on 3 October 1650 prohibiting trade between England and Barbados, and because the island also traded with the Netherlands, further Navigation Acts were passed, prohibiting any but English vessels trading with Dutch colonies. These acts were a precursor to the First Anglo-Dutch War. The Commonwealth of England sent an invasion force under the command of Sir George Ayscue, which arrived in October 1651. Ayscue, with a smaller force that included Scottish prisoners, surprised a larger force of Royalists, but had to resort to spying and diplomacy ultimately. On 11 January 1652, the Royalists in the House of Assembly led by Lord Willoughby surrendered, which marked the end of royalist privateering as a major threat. The conditions of the surrender were incorporated into the Charter of Barbados (Treaty of Oistins), which was signed at the Mermaid's Inn, Oistins, on 17 January 1652.

### Irish people in Barbados

Main article: Irish people in Barbados
Starting with Cromwell, a large percentage of the white labourer population were indentured servants and involuntarily transported people from Ireland. Irish servants in Barbados were often treated poorly, and Barbadian planters gained a reputation for cruelty. The decreased appeal of an indenture on Barbados, combined with enormous demand for labour caused by sugar cultivation, led to the use of involuntary transportation to Barbados as a punishment for crimes, or for political prisoners, and also to the kidnapping of labourers who were sent to Barbados involuntarily. Irish indentured servants were a significant portion of the population throughout the period when white servants were used for plantation labour in Barbados, and while a "steady stream" of Irish servants entered the Barbados throughout the seventeenth century, Cromwellian efforts to pacify Ireland created a "veritable tidal wave" of Irish labourers who were sent to Barbados during the 1650s. Due to inadequate historical records, the total number of Irish labourers sent to Barbados is unknown, and estimates have been "highly contentious". While one historical source estimated that as many as 50,000 Irish people were transported to either Barbados or Virginia unwillingly during the 1650s, this estimate is "quite likely exaggerated". Another estimate that 12,000 Irish prisoners had arrived in Barbados by 1655 has been described as "probably exaggerated" by historian Richard B. Sheridan. According to historian Thomas Bartlett, it is "generally accepted" that approximately 10,000 Irish were sent to the West Indies involuntarily, and approximately 40,000 came as voluntary indentured servants, while many also travelled as voluntary, un-indentured emigrants.

#### The sugar revolution

The introduction of sugar cane from Dutch Brazil in 1640 completely transformed society, the economy and the physical landscape. Barbados eventually had one of the world's biggest sugar industries. One group instrumental in ensuring the early success of the industry was the Sephardic Jews, who had originally been expelled from the Iberian peninsula, to end up in Dutch Brazil. As the effects of the new crop increased, so did the shift in the ethnic composition of Barbados and surrounding islands. The workable sugar plantation required a large investment and a great deal of heavy labour. At first, Dutch traders supplied the equipment, financing, and enslaved Africans, in addition to transporting most of the sugar to Europe. In 1644 the population of Barbados was estimated at 30,000, of which about 800 were of African descent, with the remainder mainly of English descent. These English smallholders were eventually bought out and the island filled up with large sugar plantations worked by enslaved Africans. By 1660 there was near parity with 27,000 blacks and 26,000 whites. By 1666 at least 12,000 white smallholders had been bought out, died, or left the island, many choosing to emigrate to Jamaica or the American Colonies (notably the Carolinas). As a result, Barbados enacted a slave code as a way of legislatively controlling its black enslaved population. The law's text was influential in laws in other colonies.

By 1680 there were 20,000 free whites and 46,000 enslaved Africans; by 1724, there were 18,000 free whites and 55,000 enslaved Africans.

### 18th and 19th centuries

 File:Bussa statue.png
The harsh conditions endured by the slaves resulted in several planned slave rebellions, the largest of which was Bussa's rebellion in 1816 which was rapidly suppressed by the colonial authorities. In 1819, another slave revolt broke out on Easter Day. The revolt was put down in blood, with heads being displayed on stakes. Nevertheless, the brutality of the repression shocked even England and strengthened the abolitionist movement. Growing opposition to slavery led to its abolition in the British Empire in 1833. The plantocracy class retained control of political and economic power on the island, with most workers living in relative poverty.

The 1780 hurricane killed over 4,000 people on Barbados. In 1854, a cholera epidemic killed over 20,000 inhabitants.

### 20th century before independence

Deep dissatisfaction with the situation on Barbados led many to emigrate. Things came to a head in the 1930s during the Great Depression, as Barbadians began demanding better conditions for workers, the legalisation of trade unions and a widening of the franchise, which at that point was limited to male property owners. As a result of the increasing unrest the British sent a commission, called the West Indies Royal Commission, or Moyne Commission, in 1938, which recommended enacting many of the requested reforms on the islands. As a result, Afro-Barbadians began to play a much more prominent role in the colony's politics, with universal suffrage being introduced in 1950.

Prominent among these early activists was Grantley Herbert Adams, who helped found the Barbados Labour Party (BLP) in 1938. He became the first Premier of Barbados in 1953, followed by fellow BLP-founder Hugh Gordon Cummins from 1958 to 1961. A group of left-leaning politicians who advocated swifter moves to independence broke off from the BLP and founded the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) in 1955. The DLP subsequently won the 1961 Barbadian general election and their leader Errol Barrow became premier.

Full internal self-government was enacted in 1961. Barbados joined the short-lived West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962, later gaining full independence on 30 November 1966. Errol Barrow became the country's first prime minister. Barbados opted to remain within the Commonwealth of Nations.

The effect of independence meant that the Queen of the United Kingdom ceased to have sovereignty over Barbados, but the island chose to remain a constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II as Queen of Barbados. The Monarch was represented locally by a Governor-General.

### Post-independence era

The Barrow government sought to diversify the economy away from agriculture, seeking to boost industry and the tourism sector. Barbados was also at the forefront of regional integration efforts, spearheading the creation of CARIFTA and CARICOM. The DLP lost the 1976 Barbadian general election to the BLP under Tom Adams. Adams adopted a more conservative and strongly pro-Western stance, allowing the Americans to use Barbados as the launchpad for their invasion of Grenada in 1983. Adams died in office in 1985 and was replaced by Harold Bernard St. John; however, St. John lost the 1986 Barbadian general election, which saw the return of the DLP under Errol Barrow, who had been highly critical of the US intervention in Grenada. Barrow, too, died in office, and was replaced by Lloyd Erskine Sandiford, who remained Prime Minister until 1994.

Owen Arthur of the BLP won the 1994 Barbadian general election, remaining Prime Minister until 2008. Arthur was a strong advocate of republicanism, though a planned referendum to replace Queen Elizabeth as Head of State in 2008 never took place. The DLP won the 2008 Barbadian general election, but the new Prime Minister David Thompson died in 2010 and was replaced by Freundel Stuart. The BLP returned to power in 2018 under Mia Mottley, who became Barbados's first female Prime Minister.

#### Transition to republic

Main article: Republicanism in Barbados
The Government of Barbados announced on 15 September 2020 that it intended to become a republic by 30 November 2021, the 55th anniversary of its independence resulting in the replacement of the Barbadian monarchy with an elected president. Barbados would then cease to be a Commonwealth realm, but could maintain membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, like Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago.

On 20 September 2021, just over a full year after the announcement for the transition was made, the Constitution (Amendment) (No. 2) Bill, 2021 was introduced to the Parliament of Barbados. Passed on 6 October, the Bill made amendments to the Constitution of Barbados, introducing the office of the president of Barbados to replace the role of Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados. The following week, on 12 October 2021, incumbent Governor-General of Barbados Sandra Mason was jointly nominated by the Prime Minister and Leader of the Opposition as candidate to be the first president of Barbados, and was subsequently elected on 20 October. Mason took office on 30 November 2021. Prince Charles, who was heir apparent to the Barbadian Crown, attended the swearing-in ceremony in Bridgetown at the invitation of the Government of Barbados.

Queen Elizabeth II sent a message of congratulations to President Mason and the people of Barbados, saying: "As you celebrate this momentous day, I send you and all Barbadians my warmest good wishes for your happiness, peace and prosperity in the future."

A survey was taken between 23 October 2021, and 10 November 2021, by the University of the West Indies that showed 34% of respondents being in favour of transitioning to a republic, while 30% were indifferent. Notably, no overall majority was found in the survey; with 24% not indicating a preference, and the remaining 12% being opposed to the removal of Queen Elizabeth.

In January 2022, Barbados Prime Minister Mia Mottley’s Labor Party got a landslide victory, winning all 30 legislative seats, in the first general election since Barbados became a republic.

On 20 June 2022, a Constitutional Review Commission was formed and sworn in by the acting president of Barbados Jeffrey Gibson to begin the process of drafting a new constitution for the republican era of Barbados. It is currently projected that the new constitution would be finished drafted by the end of 2024 with an 18-month deadline.

## Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Barbados
 File:Barbados-2022 englisch.png
Barbados is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, east of the other West Indies Islands. Barbados is the easternmost island in the Lesser Antilles. It is 34 kilometres (21 miles) long and up to 23 km (14 mi) wide, covering an area of 432 km2 (167 sq mi). It lies about 168 km (104 mi) east of both the countries of Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; 180 km (110 mi) south-east of Martinique and 400 km (250 mi) north-east of Trinidad and Tobago. It is flat in comparison to its island neighbours to the west, the Windward Islands. The island rises gently to the central highland region known as Scotland District, with the highest point being Mount Hillaby 340 m (1,120 ft) above sea level.

In the parish of Saint Michael lies Barbados's capital and main city, Bridgetown, containing one third of the country's population. Other major towns scattered across the island include Holetown, in the parish of Saint James; Oistins, in the parish of Christ Church; and Speightstown, in the parish of Saint Peter.

### Geology

Barbados lies on the boundary of the South American and the Caribbean Plates. The subduction of the South American plate beneath the Caribbean plate scrapes sediment from the South American plate and deposits it above the subduction zone forming an accretionary prism. The rate of this depositing of material allows Barbados to rise at a rate of about 25 mm (1 in) per 1,000 years. This subduction means geologically the island is composed of coral roughly 90 m (300 ft) thick, where reefs formed above the sediment. The land slopes in a series of "terraces" in the west and goes into an incline in the east. A large proportion of the island is circled by coral reefs.

The erosion of limestone in the northeast of the island, in the Scotland District, has resulted in the formation of various caves and gullies. On the Atlantic east coast of the island coastal landforms, including stacks, have been created due to the limestone composition of the area. Also notable in the island is the rocky cape known as Pico Teneriffe or Pico de Tenerife, which is named after the fact that the island of Tenerife in Spain is the first land east of Barbados according to the belief of the locals.

### Climate

 File:Bathsheba, Barbados 08.jpg
The country generally experiences two seasons, one of which includes noticeably higher rainfall. Known as the "wet season", this period runs from June to December. By contrast, the "dry season" runs from December to May. Annual precipitation ranges between 1,000 and 2,300 mm (40 and 90 in).
From December to May the average temperatures range from 21 to 31 °C (70 to 88 °F), while between June and November, they range from 23 to 31 °C (73 to 88 °F).

On the Köppen climate classification scale, much of Barbados is regarded as a tropical monsoon climate (Am). However, breezes of 12 to 16 km/h (7 to 10 mph) abound throughout the year and give Barbados a climate which is moderately tropical.

Infrequent natural hazards include earthquakes, landslips, and hurricanes. Barbados lies outside the principal Atlantic hurricane belt and is often spared the worst effects of the region's tropical storms and hurricanes during the rainy season. Its location in the south-east of the Caribbean region puts the country just outside the principal hurricane strike zone. On average, a major hurricane strikes about once every 26 years. The last significant hit from a hurricane to cause severe damage to Barbados was Hurricane Janet in 1955; in 2010 the island was struck by Hurricane Tomas, but this caused only minor damage across the country as it was only at Tropical Storm level of formation.

### Environmental issues

 File:BarbadosFromISS.jpg
Barbados is susceptible to environmental pressures. As one of the world's most densely populated isles, the government worked during the 1990s to aggressively integrate the growing south coast of the island into the Bridgetown Sewage Treatment Plant to reduce contamination of offshore coral reefs. As of the first decade of the 21st century, a second treatment plant has been proposed along the island's west coast. Being so densely populated, Barbados has made great efforts to protect its underground aquifers.

As a coral-limestone island, Barbados is highly permeable to seepage of surface water into the earth. The government has placed great emphasis on protecting the catchment areas that lead directly into the huge network of underground aquifers and streams. On occasion illegal squatters have breached these areas, and the government has removed squatters to preserve the cleanliness of the underground springs which provide the island's drinking water.

The government has placed a huge emphasis on keeping Barbados clean with the aim of protecting the environment and preserving offshore coral reefs which surround the island.[*citation needed*] Many initiatives to mitigate human pressures on the coastal regions of Barbados and seas come from the Coastal Zone Management Unit (CZMU). Barbados has nearly 90 kilometres (56 miles) of coral reefs just offshore and two protected marine parks have been established off the west coast. Overfishing is another threat which faces Barbados.

Although on the opposite side of the Atlantic, and some 4,800 kilometres (3,000 miles) west of Africa, Barbados is one of many places in the American continent that experience heightened levels of mineral dust from the Sahara Desert. Some particularly intense dust episodes have been blamed partly for the impacts on the health of coral reefs surrounding Barbados or asthmatic episodes, but evidence has not wholly supported the former claim.

Access to biocapacity in Barbados is much lower than world average. In 2016, Barbados had 0.17 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Barbados used 0.84 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use approximately five times as much biocapacity as Barbados contains. As a result, Barbados is running a biocapacity deficit.

### Wildlife

Main article: Fauna of Barbados
Barbados is host to four species of nesting turtles (green turtles, loggerheads, hawksbill turtles, and leatherbacks) and has the second-largest hawksbill turtle-breeding population in the Caribbean. The driving of vehicles on beaches can crush nests buried in the sand and such activity is discouraged in nesting areas.

Barbados is also the host to the green monkey. The green monkey is found in West Africa from Senegal to the Volta River. It has been introduced to the Cape Verde islands off north-western Africa, and the West Indian islands of Saint Kitts, Nevis, Saint Martin, and Barbados. It was introduced to the West Indies in the late 17th century when slave trade ships travelled to the Caribbean from West Africa. The green monkey in most cases, is well known to be a very curious and mischievous/troublesome creature to the locals on the island.

## Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Barbados and Barbadians
 File:Barbados bus stop.jpg
 File:Bridgetown 049.jpg
The 2010 national census conducted by the Barbados Statistical Service reported a resident population of 277,821, of which 144,803 were female and 133,018 were male.

The life expectancy for Barbados residents as of 2020[update] is 80 years. The average life expectancy is 83 years for females and 79 years for males (2020). Barbados and Japan have the highest per capita occurrences of centenarians in the world.

The crude birth rate is 12.23 births per 1,000 people, and the crude death rate is 8.39 deaths per 1,000 people. The infant mortality rate is 11.63 infant deaths per 1,000 live births.

### Ethnic groups

Close to 90% of all Barbadians (also known colloquially as "Bajan") are of Afro-Caribbean descent ("Afro-Bajans") and mixed descent. The remainder of the population includes groups of Europeans ("Anglo-Bajans" / "Euro-Bajans") mainly from the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, and Italy. Other European groups consisted of the French, Austrians, Spaniards, and Russians. Asians, predominantly from Hong Kong and India (both Hindu and Muslim) make up less than 1% of the population.
Other groups in Barbados include people from the United States and Canada. Barbadians who return after years of residence in the United States and children born in America to Bajan parents are called "Bajan Yankees", a term considered derogatory by some. Generally, Bajans recognise and accept all "children of the island" as Bajans, and refer to each other as such.

The biggest communities outside the Afro-Caribbean community are:

1. The Indo-Guyanese, an important part of the economy due to the increase of immigrants from partner country[*clarification needed*] Guyana. There are reports of a growing Indo-Bajans diaspora originating from Guyana and India starting around 1990. Predominantly from southern India, they are growing in size but are smaller than the equivalent communities in Trinidad and Guyana. The Muslim Barbadians of Indian origin are largely of Gujarati ancestry. Many small businesses in Barbados are run and operated by Muslim-Indian Bajans.
2. Euro-Bajans (5% of the population) have settled in Barbados since the 17th century, originating from England, Ireland, Portugal, and Scotland. In 1643, there were 37,200 whites in Barbados (86% of the population). More commonly they are known as "White Bajans". Euro-Bajans introduced folk music, such as Irish music and Highland music, and certain place names, such as "Scotland District", a hilly region in the parish of St. Andrew. Among White Barbadians there exists an underclass known as Redlegs comprising followers of the Duke of Monmouth after his defeat at the Battle of Sedgemoor, as well as the descendants of Irish indentured labourers and prisoners imported to the island. Many additionally moved on to become the earliest settlers of modern-day North and South Carolina in the United States. Today the Redlegs number only around 400.
3. Chinese-Barbadians are a small portion of Barbados's wider Asian population. Chinese food and culture is becoming part of everyday Bajan culture.
4. Lebanese and Syrians form the island's Arab Barbadian community.
5. Jews arrived in Barbados just after the first settlers in 1627. Bridgetown is the home of Nidhe Israel Synagogue, one of the oldest Jewish synagogues in the Americas, dating from 1654, though the current structure was erected in 1833, replacing one ruined by the hurricane of 1831. Tombstones in the neighbouring cemetery date from the 1630s. Now under the care of the Barbados National Trust, the site was deserted in 1929 but was saved and restored by the Jewish community beginning in 1986.
6. In the seventeenth century, Romani people were sent from the United Kingdom to work as slaves in the plantations in Barbados.

### Languages

English is the official language of Barbados, and is used for communications, administration, and public services all over the island. In its capacity as the official language of the country, the standard of English tends to conform to vocabulary, pronunciations, spellings, and conventions akin to, but not exactly the same as, those of British English. For most people, however, Bajan Creole is the language of everyday life. It does not have a standardised written form, but it is used by over 90% of the population.

### Religion

Main article: Religion in Barbados
 File:Historic Bridgetown and its Garrison-115165.jpg

Christianity is the largest religion in Barbados, with the largest denomination being Anglican (23.9% of the population in 2019). Other Christian denominations with significant followings in Barbados are the Catholic Church (administered by Roman Catholic Diocese of Bridgetown), Pentecostals (19.5%), Jehovah's Witnesses, the Seventh-day Adventist Church and Spiritual Baptists. The Church of England was the official state religion until its legal disestablishment by the Parliament of Barbados following independence. As of 2019, 21% of Barbadians report having no religion, making the non-religious the second largest group after Anglicans. Smaller religions in Barbados include Hinduism, Islam, the Baháʼí Faith, and Judaism.

The state is considered secular, guaranteeing freedom of religion or belief to all and featuring only symbolic allusions to a higher power in the preamble to the constitution.

## Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Barbados and Politics of Barbados
 File:Bridgetown barbados parliament building.jpg
Barbados has been an independent country since 30 November 1966. It functions as a parliamentary republic modelled on the British Westminster system. The head of state is the President of Barbados – presently Sandra Mason – elected by the Parliament of Barbados for a term of four years, and advised on matters of the Barbadian state by the Prime Minister of Barbados, who is head of government. There are 30 representatives within the House of Assembly, the lower chamber of Parliament. In the Senate, the upper chamber of Parliament, there are 21 senators.

The Constitution of Barbados is the supreme law of the country. Legislation is passed by the Parliament of Barbados but does not have the force of law unless the President grants her assent to that law. The right to withhold assent is absolute and cannot be overridden by Parliament. The Attorney General heads the independent judiciary.

During the 1990s, at the suggestion of Trinidad and Tobago's Patrick Manning, Barbados attempted a political union with Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. The project stalled after the then prime minister of Barbados, Lloyd Erskine Sandiford, became ill and his Democratic Labour Party lost the next general election. Barbados continues to share close ties with Trinidad and Tobago and with Guyana, claiming the highest number of Guyanese immigrants after the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom.

Barbados is a party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.

### Political culture

Main article: Elections in Barbados
Barbados functions as a two-party system. The dominant political parties are the Democratic Labour Party and the incumbent Barbados Labour Party. Since independence on 30 November 1966, the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) has governed from 1966 to 1976; 1986 to 1994; and from 2008 to 2018; and the Barbados Labour Party (BLP) has governed from 1976 to 1986; 1994 to 2008; and from 2018 to present.

### Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Barbados
Barbados follows a policy of nonalignment and seeks cooperative relations with all friendly states. Barbados is a full and participating member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME), the Association of Caribbean States (ACS), the Organization of American States (OAS), the Commonwealth of Nations, and the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ). In 2005, the Parliament of Barbados voted on a measure replacing the UK's Judicial Committee of the Privy Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice based in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.[*citation needed*]

#### World Trade Organization, European Commission, CARIFORUM

Barbados is an original member (1995) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and participates actively in its work. It grants at least MFN treatment to all its trading partners. European Union relations and cooperation with Barbados are carried out both on a bilateral and a regional basis. Barbados is party to the Cotonou Agreement, through which, As of December 2007[update], it is linked by an Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Commission. The pact involves the Caribbean Forum (CARIFORUM) subgroup of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States (ACP). CARIFORUM is the only part of the wider ACP-bloc that has concluded the full regional trade-pact with the European Union. There are also ongoing EU-Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) and EU-CARIFORUM dialogues.

Trade policy has also sought to protect a small number of domestic activities, mostly food production, from foreign competition, while recognising that most domestic needs are best met by imports.

#### The Double Taxation Relief (CARICOM) Treaty 1994

On 6 July 1994, at the Sherbourne Conference Centre, St. Michael, Barbados, representatives of eight countries signed the Double Taxation Relief (CARICOM) Treaties 1994. The countries which were represented were: Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago.

On 19 August 1994, a representative of the Government of Guyana signed a similar treaty.

### Military and law enforcement

The Barbados Defence Force has roughly 800 members. Within it, service members aged 14 to 18 years make up the Barbados Cadet Corps. The defence preparations of the island nation are closely tied to defence treaties with the United Kingdom, the United States, and the People's Republic of China.

The Barbados Police Service is the sole law enforcement agency on the island of Barbados.

### Administrative divisions

Main article: Parishes of Barbados
Barbados is divided into 11 parishes:

2. Saint Andrew
3. Saint George
4. Saint James
5. Saint John
6. Saint Joseph
7. Saint Lucy
8. Saint Michael
9. Saint Peter
10. Saint Philip
11. Saint Thomas

St. George and St. Thomas are in the middle of the country and are the only parishes without coastlines.

## Economy

Main article: Economy of Barbados
 File:Barbados Product Exports (2019).svg
 File:Barbados electricity production.svg
 File:2022 Barbados 1 oz Silver Caribbean Seahorse reverse.jpg
Barbados is the 52nd richest country in the world in terms of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per capita, has a well-developed mixed economy, and a moderately high standard of living. According to the World Bank, Barbados is one of 83 high income economies in the world. Despite this, a 2012 self-study in conjunction with the Caribbean Development Bank revealed 20% of Barbadians live in poverty, and nearly 10% cannot meet their basic daily food needs.

Historically, the economy of Barbados had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but since the late 1970s and early 1980s it has diversified into the manufacturing and tourism sectors. Offshore finance and information services have become important foreign exchange earners.

Partly due to the staging of the 2007 Cricket World Cup, the island saw a construction boom, with the development and redevelopment of hotels, office complexes, and homes. This slowed during the 2008 to 2012 world economic crisis and the recession.

There was a strong economy between 1999 and 2000 but the economy went into recession in 2001 and 2002 due to slowdowns in tourism, consumer spending and the impact of the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States and the 7 July 2005 London bombings in the United Kingdom. The economy rebounded in 2003 and has shown growth since 2004 which continued right through to 2008. The economy went into recession again from 2008 to 2013 before showing growth from 2014 to 2017. Then it declined to another recession from 2017 to 2019 during the world economic crisis. There were 23 downgrades by both Standard & Poor's and Moody's in 2016, 2017 and 2018. The economy showed signs of recovery with 3 upgrades from Standard and Poor's and Moody's in 2019. From 1 January to 31 March 2020 the economy had started to grow, but then it experienced another decline due to the COVID-19 economic recession.

Traditional trading partners include Canada, the Caribbean Community (especially Trinidad and Tobago), the United Kingdom and the United States. Recent government administrations have continued efforts to reduce unemployment, encourage foreign direct investment, and privatise remaining state-owned enterprises. Unemployment was reduced to 10.7% in 2003. However, it has since increased to 11.9% in second quarter, 2015.

The European Union is assisting Barbados with a Template:€ program of modernisation of the country's International Business and Financial Services Sector.

Barbados maintains the third largest stock exchange in the Caribbean region. As of 2009[update], officials at the stock exchange were investigating the possibility of augmenting the local exchange with an International Securities Market (ISM) venture.

### Sovereign default and restructuring

By May 2018, Barbados's outstanding debt climbed to US$7.5 billion, more than 1.7 times the country's GDP. In June 2018 the government defaulted on its sovereign debt when it failed to make a coupon on Eurobonds maturing in 2035. Outstanding bond debt of Barbados reached US$4.4 billion.

In October 2019, Barbados concluded restructuring negotiations with a creditor group including investments funds Eaton Vance Management, Greylock Capital Management, Teachers Advisors and Guyana Bank for Trade and Industry. Creditors will exchange existing bonds for a new debt series maturing in 2029. The new bonds involve a principal "haircut" of approximately 26% and include a clause allowing for deferment of principal and capitalization of interest in the event of a natural disaster.

## Health

The main hospital on the island is The Queen Elizabeth Hospital; however, Barbados has eight polyclinics across five parishes. There are also well-known medical care centres in Barbados such as Bayview Hospital, Sandy Crest Medical Centre and FMH Emergency Medical Clinic.

## Education

Main article: Education in Barbados
 File:Christ Church, Barbados 014.jpg
The Barbados literacy rate is ranked close to 100%. The mainstream public education system of Barbados is fashioned after the British model. The government of Barbados spends 6.7% of its GDP on education (2008).

All young people in the country must attend school until age 16. Barbados has over 70 primary schools and over 20 secondary schools throughout the island. There is a number of private schools, including Montessori and the International Baccalaureate. Student enrolment at these schools represents less than 5% of the total enrolment of the public schools.

Certificate-, diploma- and degree-level education in the country is provided by the Barbados Community College, the Samuel Jackman Prescod Institute of Technology, Codrington College, and the Cave Hill campus and Open Campus of the University of the West Indies. Barbados is also home to several overseas medical schools, such as Ross University School of Medicine and the American University of Integrative Sciences, School of Medicine.

### Educational testing

Barbados Secondary School Entrance Examination: Children who are 11 years old on 1 September in the year of the examination are required to write the examination as a means of allocation to secondary school.

Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) examinations are usually taken by students after five years of secondary school and mark the end of standard secondary education. The CSEC examinations are equivalent to the Ordinary Level (O-Levels) examinations and are targeted toward students 16 and older.

Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE) are taken by students who have completed their secondary education and wish to continue their studies. Students who sit for the CAPE usually possess CSEC or an equivalent certification. The CAPE is equivalent to the British Advanced Levels (A-Levels), voluntary qualifications that are intended for university entrance.

## Culture

Main article: Culture of Barbados
Barbados is a blend of West African, Portuguese, Creole, Indian and British cultures. Citizens are officially called Barbadians. The term "Bajan" (pronounced BAY-jun) may have come from a localised pronunciation of the word Barbadian, which at times can sound more like "Bar-bajan"; or, more likely, from English *bay* ("bayling"), Portuguese *baiano*.

The largest carnival-like cultural event that takes place on the island is the Crop Over festival, which was established in 1974. As in many other Caribbean and Latin American countries, Crop Over is an important event for many people on the island, as well as the thousands of tourists that flock to there to participate in the annual events. The festival includes musical competitions and other traditional activities, and features the majority of the island's homegrown calypso and soca music for the year. The male and female Barbadians who harvested the most sugarcane are crowned as the King and Queen of the crop. Crop Over gets under way at the beginning of July and ends with the costumed parade on Kadooment Day, held on the first Monday of August. New calypso/soca music is usually released and played more frequently from the beginning of May to coincide with the start of the festival.[*citation needed*]

### Cuisine

Main article: Barbadian cuisine
 File:Mount Gay Rum Visitors Centre, Spring Garden HWY, Barbados-002.jpg
Bajan cuisine is a mixture of African, Indian, Irish, Creole and British influences. A typical meal consists of a main dish of meat or fish, normally marinated with a mixture of herbs and spices, hot side dishes, and one or more salads. A common Bajan side dish could be pickled cucumber, fish cakes, bake, etc. The meal is usually served with one or more sauces. The national dish of Barbados is cou-cou and flying fish with spicy gravy. Another traditional meal is pudding and souse, a dish of pickled pork with spiced sweet potatoes. A wide variety of seafood and meats are also available.

The Mount Gay Rum visitor's centre in Barbados claims to be the world's oldest remaining rum company, with the earliest confirmed deed from 1703. Cockspur Rum and Malibu are also from the island. Barbados is home to the Banks Barbados Brewery, which brews Banks Beer, a pale lager, as well as Banks Amber Ale. Banks also brews Tiger Malt, a non-alcoholic malted beverage. 10 Saints beer is brewed in Speightstown, St. Peter in Barbados and aged for 90 days in Mount Gay 'Special Reserve' Rum casks. It was first brewed in 2009 and is available in certain Caricom nations.

### Music

Further information: Music of Barbados
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Template:Excerpt

## Sports

Main article: Sport in Barbados
 File:Kensington Oval yes.jpg    File:Horesandjockey.jpg
As in other Caribbean countries of British colonial heritage, cricket is very popular on the island. The West Indies cricket team usually includes several Barbadian players. In addition to several warm-up matches and six "Super Eight" matches, the country hosted the final of the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Barbados has produced many great cricketers including Sir Garfield Sobers, Sir Frank Worrell, Sir Clyde Walcott, Sir Everton Weekes, Gordon Greenidge, Wes Hall, Charlie Griffith, Joel Garner, Desmond Haynes and Malcolm Marshall.

In Track and Field Obadele Thompson won a bronze medal in the 100m at the 2000 Summer Olympic Games He's the first and only Bajan to win an Olympic medal. He is also the only Bajan to run sub 10 and sub 20 over 100m and 200m.

Ryan Brathwaite won a gold medal in the 110 metres hurdles at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics in Berlin.

Rugby is also popular in Barbados.

Horse racing takes place at the Historic Garrison Savannah close to Bridgetown. Spectators can pay for admission to the stands, or else can watch races from the public "rail", which encompasses the track.

Basketball is an increasingly popular sport, played at school or college. Barbados's national team has shown some unexpected results as in the past it beat many much larger countries.

Polo is very popular amongst the rich elite on the island and the "High-Goal" Apes Hill team is based at the St James's Club. It is also played at the private Holders Festival ground.

In golf, the Barbados Open, played at Royal Westmoreland Golf Club, was an annual stop on the European Seniors Tour from 2000 to 2009. In December 2006 the WGC-World Cup took place at the country's Sandy Lane resort on the Country Club course, an 18-hole course designed by Tom Fazio. The Barbados Golf Club is another course on the island. It has hosted the Barbados Open on several occasions.

Volleyball is also popular and is mainly played indoors.

Tennis is gaining popularity and Barbados is home to Darian King, who has achieved a career-high ranking of 106 in May 2017 and has played in the 2016 Summer Olympics and the 2017 US Open.

Motorsports also play a role, with Rally Barbados occurring each summer and being listed on the FIA NACAM calendar. Also, the Bushy Park Circuit hosted the Race of Champions and Global RallyCross Championship in 2014.

The presence of the trade winds along with favourable swells make the southern tip of the island an ideal location for wave sailing (an extreme form of the sport of windsurfing).

Barbados also hosts several international surfing competitions.

Netball is also popular with women in Barbados.

Several players in the National Football League (NFL) are from Barbados, including Robert Bailey, Roger Farmer, Elvis Joseph, and Sam Seale.

## Transport

Main article: Transport in Barbados

 File:Barbados Midibus1.jpg
Although Barbados is about 34 km (21 mi) across at its widest point, a car journey from Six Cross Roads in St. Philip (south-east) to North Point in St. Lucy (north-central) can take one and a half hours or longer due to traffic. Barbados has half as many registered cars as citizens. In Barbados, drivers drive on the left side of the road.

Barbados is known for its many roundabouts. One famous roundabout is a roundabout located east of Bridgetown, where you will see an emancipation statue of a slave named Bussa.

Transport on the island is relatively convenient with "route taxis" called "ZRs" (pronounced "Zed-Rs") travelling to most points on the island. These small buses can at times be crowded, as passengers are generally never turned down regardless of the number. They will usually take the more scenic routes to destinations. They generally depart from the capital Bridgetown or from Speightstown in the northern part of the island.

Including the ZRs, there are three bus systems running seven days a week (though less frequently on Sundays). There are ZRs, the yellow minibuses and the blue Transport Board buses. A ride on any of them costs Template:Currency. The smaller buses from the two privately owned systems ("ZRs" and "minibuses") can give change; the larger blue buses from the government-operated Barbados Transport Board system cannot, but do give receipts. The Barbados Transport Board buses travel in regular bus routes and scheduled timetables across Barbados. Schoolchildren in school uniform including some Secondary schools ride for free on the government buses and for Template:Currency on the ZRs. Most routes require a connection in Bridgetown. Barbados Transport Board's headquarters are located at Kay's House, Roebuck Street, St. Michael, and the bus depots and terminals are located in the Fairchild Street Bus Terminal in Fairchild Street and the Princess Alice Bus Terminal (which was formerly the Lower Green Bus Terminal in Jubilee Gardens, Bridgetown, St. Michael) in Princess Alice Highway, Bridgetown, St. Michael; the Speightstown Bus Terminal in Speightstown, St. Peter; the Oistins Bus Depot in Oistins, Christ Church; and the Mangrove Bus Depot in Mangrove, St. Philip. In July 2020, the Barbados Transport Board received 33 BYD electric buses which were obtained not only to add to the aging fleet of diesel buses but also to assist the Government in their goal of eliminating the use of fossil fuels by 2030.

Some hotels also provide visitors with shuttles to points of interest on the island from outside the hotel lobby. There are several locally owned and operated vehicle rental agencies in Barbados but there are no multi-national companies.

The island's lone airport is the Grantley Adams International Airport. It receives daily flights by several major airlines from points around the globe, as well as several smaller regional commercial airlines and charters. The airport serves as the main air-transportation hub for the eastern Caribbean. In the first decade of the 21st century it underwent a US$100 million upgrade and expansion in February 2003 until completion in August 2005.

The island also has a sea port which is the primary port of call for commercial container and cruise traffic.

There was also a helicopter shuttle service, which offered air taxi services to a number of sites around the island, mainly on the West Coast tourist belt. Air and maritime traffic was regulated by the Barbados Port Authority.

## Notable people

See also: Barbadian people, List of people from Barbados, List of Barbadian Americans, and List of Barbadian Britons
## See also

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* Outline of Barbados
* Index of Barbados-related articles

## References

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4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". *www.imf.org*. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
5. ↑ *Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene* (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
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9. ↑ Said-Moorhouse, Lauren; Foster, Max (30 November 2021). "Barbadians celebrate the birth of a republic and bid farewell to the Queen". *CNN*. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
10. ↑ Safi, Michael (30 November 2021). "Barbados parts way with Queen and becomes world's newest republic". *The Guardian*. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
11. ↑ Belle, Nicole; Bramwell, Bill (1 August 2005). "Climate Change and Small Island Tourism: Policy Maker and Industry Perspectives in Barbados". *Journal of Travel Research*. **44**: 34–38. doi:10.1177/0047287505276589. S2CID 154912745.
12. ↑ *Barbados the Red Land with White Teeth: Home of the Amerindians*. Barbados Museum & Historical Society. Archived from the original on 5 May 2010. Retrieved 14 May 2010. A temporary exhibit which examined some of the preliminary excavations conducted at the dig site at Heywoods, St. Peter.
13. ↑ *Barbados – Geography / History*. Fun 'N' Sun Publishing Inc. 2008. Archived from the original on 13 December 2010. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
14. ↑ Faria, Norman (17 June 2009). "Guyana Consul (Barbados) Visit to Former Amerindian Village Site in B'dos" (PDF). *Guyana Chronicle*. Pan-Tribal Confederacy of Indigenous Tribal Nations. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 May 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2010. Adjacent to the park, there is still a fresh water stream. This as a main reason the village was here. A hundred or so metres away is the sea and a further five hundred metres [550 yd] out across a lagoon was the outlying reef where the Atlantic swells broke on the coral in shallow waters. As an aside, the word "*Ichirouganaim*", said to be an Arawak word used by the Amerindians to describe Barbados, is thought to refer to the "teeth" imagery of the waves breaking on the reefs off most of southern and eastern coasts.
15. ↑ Drewett, Peter (1991). *Prehistoric Barbados*. Barbados Museum and Historical Society. ISBN 1-873132-15-8.
16. ↑ Drewett, Peter (2000). *Prehistoric Settlements in the Caribbean: Fieldwork on Barbados, Tortola and the Cayman Islands*. Archetype Publications Ltd. ISBN 1-873132-22-0.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Carrington, Sean (2007). *A~Z of Barbados Heritage*. Macmillan Caribbean Publishers Limited. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-333-92068-8.
18. ↑ Allsopp, Richard; Allsopp, Jeannette (2003). *Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage*. University of the West Indies Press. p. 101. ISBN 9766401454.
19. ↑ Eltis, David; Richardson, David (1997). [[[:Template:GBurl]] *Routes to Slavery: Direction, Ethnicity, and Mortality in the Transatlantic Slave Trade*] Check `|url=` value (help). Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-7146-4820-0. Retrieved 24 November 2008.
20. ↑ Morgan, Philip D.; Hawkins, Sean (2004). [[[:Template:GBurl]] *Black Experience and the Empire*] Check `|url=` value (help). Oxford University Press. p. 82. ISBN 0-19-926029-X.
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22. ↑ Peter Drewett, 1993. "Excavations at Heywoods, Barbados, and the Economic Basis of the Suazoid Period in the Lesser Antilles", *Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society* 38:113–137.
23. ↑ Scott M. Fitzpatrick, "A critical approach to c14 dating in the Caribbean", *Latin American Antiquity*, 17 (4), pp. 389 ff.
24. ↑ Beckles, Hilary. *A History of Barbados: From Amerindian Settlement to Caribbean Single Market* (Cambridge University Press, 2007 edition).
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29. ↑ "New Take on George Slept Here". *Boston Globe*. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
30. ↑ Beckles p. 7.
31. ↑ "Holetown Barbados – Fun Barbados Sights". *funbarbados.com*. Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
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34. ↑ Corish, Patrick J. (12 March 2009). "The Cromwellian Regime, 1650–60". *Patrick J. Corish, The Cromwellian Regime, 1650–1660*. Oxford University Press. pp. 353–386. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199562527.003.0014. ISBN 978-0-19-956252-7. Archived from the original on 6 April 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
35. ↑ Blakemore, Richard J. and Murphy, Elaine. (2018). *The British Civil Wars at Sea, 1638–1653*. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press. p. 170. ISBN: 9781783272297.
36. ↑ Watson, Karl (5 November 2009). "The Civil War in Barbados". *History in-depth*. BBC. Archived from the original on 2 December 2010.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 Monahan, Michael J. (2011). *The Creolizing Subject: Race, Reason, and the Politics of Purity* (1st ed.). Fordham University Press. ISBN 978-0823234509.
38. ↑ Richard B. Sheridan (1974). *Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775*. Canoe Press. ISBN 978-976-8125-13-2. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
39. ↑ Bartlett, Thomas. "'This famous island set in a Virginian sea': Ireland in the British Empire, 1690–1801". In Marshall, P. J.; Low, Alaine; and Louis, William Roger (1998). P. J. Marshall and Alaine Low (eds.). *The Oxford History of the British Empire*. Volume II: The Eighteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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55. ↑ "Barbados General Election Results 2018". *caribbeanelections.com*. Archived from the original on 12 September 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2018.
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73. ↑ "Barbados Sightseeing – Animal Flower Cave". *Leigh Designs*. Little Bay House. 2010. Archived from the original on 12 December 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2011. The Animal flower Cave is the island's lone accessible sea-cave and was discovered from the sea in 1780 by two English explorers. The cave's coral floor is estimated to be 400,000 to 500,000 years old and the "younger" coral section above the floor is about 126,000 years old. The dating was carried out by the German Geographical Institute, and visitors can see a "map" of the dating work in the bar and restaurant. The cave now stands some six feet above the high tide mark even though it was formed at sea level. This is because Barbados is rising about one inch per 1,000 years, which is yet another indication of the cave's age.
74. ↑ Gloria. "Pico Teneriffe – Barbados Pocket Guide". *barbadospocketguide.com*. Archived from the original on 27 November 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
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83. ↑ Barbados' CZMU in demand Archived 24 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Barbadosadvocate.com (4 February 2012). Retrieved 20 April 2014.
84. ↑ Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies Archived 28 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine, The University of the West Indies.
85. ↑ Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles Archived 23 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine, UN-FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department
86. ↑ Prospero, Joseph M. (June 2006). "Saharan Dust Impacts and Climate Change". *Oceanography*. **19** (2): 60–61. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2006.65.
87. ↑ The Effects of African Dust on Coral Reefs and Human Health Archived 2 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Coastal.er.usgs.gov (15 April 2014). Retrieved 20 April 2014.
88. ↑ When the Dust Settles (DAAC Study) Archived 12 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, NASA
89. ↑ The Impact of African Dust on Childhood Asthma Morbidity in Barbados Archived 24 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Commprojects.jhsph.edu. Retrieved April 2014.
90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 "Country Trends". Global Footprint Network. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
91. ↑ Lin, David; Hanscom, Laurel; Murthy, Adeline; Galli, Alessandro; Evans, Mikel; Neill, Evan; Mancini, MariaSerena; Martindill, Jon; Medouar, FatimeZahra; Huang, Shiyu; Wackernagel, Mathis (2018). "Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012-2018". *Resources*. **7** (3): 58. doi:10.3390/resources7030058.
92. ↑ Caribbean Travel: Swim with the turtles in Barbados Archived 15 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Thestar.com (13 March 2012). Retrieved 20 April 2014.
93. ↑ Sea Turtles – Dive Operators Association of Barbados Archived 19 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Barbados Blue Inc.
94. ↑ 2010 Population and Housing Census (PDF) (Report). **1**. Barbados Statistical Service. September 2013. p. i. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
95. ↑ Best, Tony (9 April 2005)"Bajan secrets to living long". Archived from the original on 11 December 2007. Retrieved 27 June 2006. . nationnews.com.
96. ↑ Byfield, Judith Ann-Marie; Denzer, LaRay; Morrison, Anthea (2010). [[[:Template:GBurl]] *Gendering the African diaspora: women, culture, and historical change in the Caribbean and Nigerian hinterland*] Check `|url=` value (help). Indiana University Press. pp. 39–. ISBN 978-0-253-22153-7.
97. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 8 July 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), 7 September 2006; British Broadcasting Corporation (Caribbean Bureau)
98. ↑ Amadou Mahtar M'Bow; M. Ali Kettani (2001). [[[:Template:GBurl]] *Islam and Muslims in the American Continent*] Check `|url=` value (help). Center of Historical, Economical and Social Studies.
99. ↑ Rhoda Reddock (1996). [[[:Template:GBurl]] *Ethnic minorities in Caribbean society*] Check `|url=` value (help). I.S.E.R., The University of the West Indies. ISBN 978-976-618-024-9.
100. ↑ Watson, Karl (17 February 2011) "Slavery and Economy in Barbados" Archived 12 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, BBC.
101. ↑ Rodgers, Nini (November 2007). "The Irish in the Caribbean 1641–1837: An Overview". *Irish Migration Studies in Latin America*. **5** (3): 145–156. Archived from the original on 19 November 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2009.
102. ↑ "Remnants of an indentured people". *The Irish Times*. 19 December 2009. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2019. Today, behind the facade of a lush green, rural setting, the descendants of those transported still remain – a poor, white population of around 400 known as the Red Legs.
103. ↑ "Jews in Barbadoes". *jewish-history.com*. Archived from the original on 25 October 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
104. ↑ "Feature - Roma and Gypsy Slavery". *Travellers Times*. Archived from the original on 27 October 2020. Retrieved 1 September 2020.
105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 105.2 "Barbados 2019 International Religious Freedom Report" (PDF). US Department of State. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2021.
106. ↑ "375: Anglican Church Act". *Laws of Barbados* (PDF). Government of Barbados. 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
107. ↑ 107.0 107.1 "Freedom of Thought Report: Barbados". *Freedom of Thought Report*. Humanists International. 16 October 2020. Archived from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2021.
108. ↑ "Baha'u'llah". Bci.org. Archived from the original on 28 August 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
109. ↑ Fransman, Laurie (2011). *Fransman's British Nationality Law*. A&C Black. p. 848. ISBN 978-1-84592-095-1.
110. ↑ The official Constitution of Barbados Archived 15 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine (1966) version.
111. ↑ Pursuant to section 58 of the Constitution of Barbados
As amended by section 26 of the Constitution (Amendment) (No. 2) Act, 2021
112. ↑ "Chasing after an elusive union". *Jamaica Observer*. 20 July 2003. Archived from the original on 24 June 2009. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
113. ↑ "Former PM: Caribbean doing/un-doing everything again and again" Archived 19 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. NationNews.com. 14 July 2003
114. ↑ "Latin American and Caribbean State Parties to the Rome Statute". International Criminal Court. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
115. ↑ BarbadosBusiness.gov.bb, The Barbados government's Regional and International affiliations
116. ↑ "European Union – EEAS (European External Action Service) | EU Relations with Barbados". Europa (web portal). 19 June 2014. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
117. ↑ REPUBLIC OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. "Legal Supplement" (PDF). *ird.gov.tt*. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
118. ↑ "Barbados turns to China for military assistance". Caribbean360.com. 7 August 2006. Archived from the original on 17 September 2013.
119. ↑ Barbados Archived 10 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine, International Monetary Fund.
120. ↑ World Bank – Country Groups Archived 18 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
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## Further reading

* Burns, Sir Alan, *History of the British West Indies*. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1965.
* Davis, David Brion. *Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World*. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN: 0-19-514073-7
* Frere, Samuel, *A Short History of Barbados: From its First Discovery and Settlement, to the End of the Year 1767.* London: J. Dodsley, 1768.
* Gragg, Larry Dale, *Englishmen transplanted: The English Colonization of Barbados, 1627–1660*. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN: 978-0199253890
* Hamshere, Cyril, *The British in the Caribbean*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972.
* Newman, Simon P. *A New World of Labor: The Development of Slavery in the British Atlantic.* Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. ISBN: 978-0812245196
* Northrup, David, ed. *The Atlantic Slave Trade, Second Edition*. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. ISBN: 0-618-11624-9
* O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson, *An Empire Divided: The American Revolution and the British Caribbean*. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000. ISBN: 978-0812217322
* Rogozinski, January 1999. *A Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and Carib to the Present*. Revised version, New York, USA. ISBN: 0-8160-3811-2
* Scott, Caroline 1999. *Insight Guide Barbados*. Discovery Channel and Insight Guides; fourth edition, Singapore. ISBN: 0-88729-033-7

### Videography

* Overview Video—Barbados Tourism Investment Inc. (Courtesy of US Television).
* Videography on YouTube, by the Ministry of Energy and the Environment, under the Office of the Prime Minister.
* Sandy Lane Hotel, Barbados 11 November 2011, on *Where in the World is Matt Lauer?*, NBC *Today Show*.
* This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA document: "*World Factbook*" (2024 ed.). (Archived 2003 edition)

## External links

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* Official website
* Government of Barbados Official Information Service
* Official webpage of Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Barbados
* Parliament of Barbados official website
* Barbados Tourism Authority—The Ministry of Tourism
* Central Bank of Barbados website
* Barbados Chamber of Commerce & Industry (BCC&I)
* Barbados Investment and Development Corporation
* Barbados Maritime Ship Registry
* Barbados Museum & Historical Society Archived 5 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine

### General information

* Barbados at Curlie
* Wikimedia Atlas of Barbados

Template:Barbados topics

Coordinates: 13°10′12″N 59°33′09″W﻿ / ﻿13.17000°N 59.55250°W﻿ / 13.17000; -59.55250

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