Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

## Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Erik Erikson was born in 1902 to a single mother, with the identity of his father unknown. Erikson struggled with his own identity as an adolescent, and described his identity confusion as "at times on the borderline between neurosis and adolescent psychosis". Erikson dropped out of school in his mid-teens, became a traveling artist and tutored children of wealthy families. Erikson was introduced to the field of psychology by Anna Freud, who suggested Erikson pursue psychoanalysis after observing his ability to connect with young students. Erikson graduated from Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute and studied the Montessori method of child education. In 1933, Erikson left his home in Vienna for the United States during the increasing threat of Nazi influence in Europe.

### Erikson Enters the Zeitgeist

Erikson worked as a child psychoanalyst in Boston for several years before teaching at Yale, and later UC Berkeley. His first major contribution to the broader understanding of developmental psychology was in his publication of Childhood and Society in 1950. This text combined his understanding of clinical psychoanalysis with a cultural anthropology perspective to detail the ways in which children independently and interpersonally develop in discrete stages.[1]

## Psychosocial Stages

Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development across the lifespan. Each of these stages describe a dichotomy of the central psychological conflict during a given developmental stage. One component of each stage is adaptive or egosyntonic, and the other is maladaptive or egodystonic. Each stage is associated with a general period of life, but not specific ages or circumstances.

### Stage 1 - Infancy

* Trust v. Mistrust is the central conflict of the first stage, which occurs during the first year of life.
	+ The behavior of the infant's caregiver informs the degree to which an infant trusts or mistrusts others. This initial understanding of trust can transition to relationships other than the caregiver, and affects relationship development later in life.
* An infant develops an attachment style during this stage, as described by Attachment Theory.

##### **Trust vs. Mistrust**

* If the infant has a stable caregiver that is consistently responsive, a sense of trust will develop which forms the basis for a sense of identity.
* If the infant does not have early stability, they may develop mistrust and fear. Erikson writes that mistrust may lead to an understanding of the world as being unpredictable and inconsistent.

### Stage 2 - Early Childhood/Toddlerhood

* Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt is the conflict of stage two, which occurs approximately between ages 1-3.
	+ Children gain independence from caregivers both physically (learning to crawl/walk) and psychologically (learning to communicate).
* Children gain the ability to satisfy their own needs, and are increasingly self-sufficient.

##### **Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt**

* The child will develop Autonomy if given an appropriate level of independence, with caregivers allowing them to make choices but receiving support when needed.
	+ Too much autonomy can be harmful if it borders on neglect, or can cause the child to develop with little concern for rules and social expectations.
* Shame or Doubt may develop if caregivers refuse to provide opportunities for independence or do not provide positive support when children attempt to be self-sufficient.
	+ Too much control can differently affect development, and result in anxiety or rebelliousness later in childhood.

### Stage 3 - Middle Childhood

* Initiative v. Guilt is the conflict of middle childhood, approximately between ages 3-6.
* Peer interactions become an increasingly important part of social-emotional development.

##### **Initiative vs. Guilt**

* Children develop Initiative through practice making social decisions in play and developing their sense of judgment. Risk-taking behaviors may increase as children test limits and seek to reach goals.
* Guilt develops when adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities, when children fail to meet their goals, or are socially rejected or ignored.

### Stage 4 - Late Childhood

* Industry v. Inferiority is the conflict of late childhood, approximately between ages 7-10.
* Children begin to make more abstract self-other comparisons, and may start to recognize perceived deficits or strengths they have compared to peers.

##### **Industry vs. Inferiority**

* Industry represents the development of confidence in one's own autonomy and skills. Children at this stage develop greater self-awareness and may strive to be more responsible and competent.
* Inferiority results from a failure to master trust in oneself and one's abilities. Feelings of inferiority may begin to doubt their ability to face future challenges, leading to further feelings of shame, guilt, and fear.

### Stage 5 - Adolescence

* Identity v. Identity Confusion is the conflict of adolescence, approximately between ages 11-19.
* Erikson describes adolescence as a stage that is primarily driven by the search for one's own values, skills, and communities. Adolescents become increasingly aware of their peers and how they are perceived by others.
* In later stages of adolescence, sexual identity is considered more deeply, and adolescents develop more nuanced understandings of their gender/sexual identities.
* Erikson defines identity as:

> "a subjective sense as well as an observable quality of personal sameness and continuity, paired with some belief in the sameness and continuity of some shared world image. As a quality of unself-conscious living, this can be gloriously obvious in a young person who has found himself as he has found his commonality. In him we see emerge a unique unification of what is irreversibly given—that is, body type and temperament, giftedness and vulnerability, infantile models and acquired ideals—with the open choices provided in available roles, occupational possibilities, values offered, mentors met, friendships made, and first sexual encounters."
>
>

##### **Identity vs. Identity confusion**

* The conflict in adolescence is in identifying their identities in terms of occupations, interests, politics, sexuality, religion, class, and culture.
* During his time spent in Yurok and Souix communities, Erikson developed his understanding of these challenges faced by adolescents, which he termed the "Identity Crisis". Erikson described the experience of identity confusion or ambivalence as being confusing and paralyzing to development . In some cases, adolescents with identity confusion may isolate or resign themselves to acceptance of identity roles they do not feel are truly theirs.

### Stage 6 - Early Adulthood

* Intimacy vs Isolation is the conflict of Early Adulthood, approximately between ages 20-44.
* Adolescent conflict of identity versus identity confusion is ending, but might still linger during the transition to early adulthood.
* Erikson states that individuals during this stage seek close relationships with peers, but are sometimes isolated due to intimacy or challenges with intimacy.

##### **Intimacy vs. Isolation**

* With a sense of identity established, people move towards intimate relationships with others. Formation of reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or marriage) require them to make sacrifices and compromises. More complete identity development often supports greater success finding intimacy.
* Isolation results from an inability to develop an intimate relationship with friends or significant others, potentially due to unresolved personal needs.

### Stage 7 - Middle Adulthood

* Generativity v. Stagnation is the conflict of Middle Adulthood, approximately between ages 45-64.
* During this stage, the primary developmental task is in contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. When a person makes a contribution during this period, either

##### **Generativity vs. Stagnation**

* The adult stage of generativity has broad application to family, relationships, work, and society. "Generativity, then is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation... the concept is meant to include... productivity and creativity."
* Stagnation results when a person is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward. Stagnation is described as a dissatisfaction with the person's own lack of productivity or a meaningful sense of purpose occupationally.

### Stage 8 - Late Adulthood

* Integrity v. Despair is the conflict of Late Adulthood, approximately between ages 65-80.

##### Integrity vs. Despair

* Adults are able to develop a sense of integrity if they see themselves as leading a successful life. During this stage, they consider their accomplishments and evaluate their life as a whole. A sense of integrity helps them feel that their life had meaning, and that they can be satisfied with their impact on others and the world.
* Despair develops when individuals view their life as unproductive, or that their life goals were not accomplished. This results in a feeling of dissatisfaction, frustration, or depression when considering their path through life.

### Stage 9 - End of Life

* Involvement v. Resignation is the conflict of the final stage, and extends from approximately the mid-80's to the end of life.
* This stage was proposed by Joan Erikson in 1998 while she was experiencing the final stage of life herself.
* This stage expands upon the challenges of the previous stage.
	+ Loss of physical health, friends, family members, and independence
	+ Isolation from society, integration with health and hospice
	+ Increasing focus on the inevitability of death

##### Involvement vs. Resignation

* Involvement describes an individual that continues to develop their personal and spiritual perspective in an attempt to prepare and accept their death.
* Resignation describes an individual who does not change their thoughts or behaviors, potentially feeling that self-development and change is futile at this point.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Erikson Bloland, Sue (2005). In the Shadow of Fame: A Memoir by the Daughter of Erik H. Erikson. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-03374-4.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 *Erik Erikson*. (n.d.). Erikson Institute. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.erikson.edu/about/history/erik-erikson/
3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 Erikson, E. H. (1993). *Childhood and society*. WW Norton & Company.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Know What To Expect! The 8 Stages Of Social Development In Children. (2017). *Child Development Institute*. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-development/erickson/
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 *Erik Erikson | Psychosocial Stages | Simply Psychology*. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html
6. ↑ Savin-Williams, R. (2005). The new gay teenager. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Erikson, E. H. (1970). Autobiographic Notes on the Identity Crisis. *Daedalus*, *99*(4), 730–759.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Gross, F. L. (1987). *Introducing Erik Erikson: An invitation to his thinking*. Lanham, MD : University Press of America. http://archive.org/details/introducingerike0000gros
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Kacerguis, M. A., & Adams, G. R. (1980). Erikson stage resolution: The relationship between identity and intimacy. *Journal of Youth and Adolescence*, *9*(2), 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02087930
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Slater, C. L. (2003). Generativity Versus Stagnation: An Elaboration of Erikson’s Adult Stage of Human Development. *Journal of Adult Development*, *10*(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020790820868
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Erikson, E. H., & Erikson, J. M. (1998). *The Life Cycle Completed (Extended Version)*. W. W. Norton & Company.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Perry, T. E., Ruggiano, N., Shtompel, N., & Hassevoort, L. (2015). Applying Erikson’s Wisdom to Self-Management Practices of Older Adults: Findings From Two Field Studies. *Research on Aging*, *37*(3), 253–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027514527974
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Bugajska, B. E. (2017). The ninth stage in the cycle of life – reflections on E. H. Erikson’s theory. *Ageing & Society*, *37*(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X16000301
**Further Reading:**

1. Glynn, E. D. (1971). Review of Erik H Erikson: The growth of his work. *American Journal of Orthopsychiatry*, *41*(4), 683–685. https://doi-org.williamjames.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/h0097612
2. Munley, P. H. (1975). Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and vocational behavior. *Journal of Counseling Psychology*, *22*(4), 314–319. https://doi-org.williamjames.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/h0076749
3. Caplan, P. J. (1979). Erikson’s concept of inner space: A data-based reevaluation. *American Journal of Orthopsychiatry*, *49*(1), 100–108. https://doi-org.williamjames.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1979.tb02590.x