recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Sambal phonology

Sambali has 19 phonemes: 16 consonants and three vowels. Syllable structure is relatively simple.

## Vowels

Sambali has three vowels. They are:

* /a/ an open front unrounded vowel similar to English ‘f**a**ther’
* /i/ a close front unrounded vowel similar to English ‘mach**i**ne’
* /u/ (written as ‘o’) a close back unrounded vowel similar to English ‘fl**u**te’

There are five main diphthongs: /aɪ/, /uɪ/, /aʊ/, /ij/, and /iʊ/.

## Consonants

Below is a chart of Tina consonants. All the stops are unaspirated. The velar nasal occurs in all positions including at the beginning of a word.

Note: Consonants [d] and [ɾ] sometimes interchange, as they were once allophones. *Dy* is pronounced [dʒ], *ny* [ɲ], *sy* [ʃ], and *ty* [tʃ].

## Stress

Stress is phonemic in Sambal. Stress on words is very important, they differentiate words with the same spellings, but with different meanings, e.g. *hikó* (I) and *híko* (elbow).

## Historical sound changes

Many words pronounced with /s/ and /ɡ/ in Cebuano and Tagalog are pronounced with /h/ and /j/, respectively, in their cognates in Sambal. Compare *hiko* and *ba-yo* with the Tagalog *siko* and *bago*.
Silver

* Silver (color)
* Silver (element)

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Siraya phonology

The phonological system of Siraya is speculated by Adelaar (1997) to have the following phonemes.

**Consonants** (18–20 total)

> b d nḡ
>
>
>
> p t k
>
> m n ng
>
> l, r
>
> v z
>
> c
>
> [f] s x h
>
>
>
>
> w y
>
>

**Vowels** (7 total)

* a, ä, i (ĭ), e, ə, u (ŭ), o

**Diphthongs** (6 total)

* ay, ey, uy, äw, aw, ow

Palatalization also occurs in many words.

## References

1. ↑ The exact phonemic value of "nḡ," as it appears in Siraya language documents, is unknown.
Sakao phonology

Sakao vowels (partial)

In addition, Sakao has a close vowel /ɨ/ that is unspecified for being rounded or unrounded, front or back, and is always unstressed. It also has the two diphthongs /œɛ, ɒɔ/, whereas Tolomako has none.

In addition, Sakao consonants may be long or short: /œβe/ "drum", /œββe/ "bed"

It is not clear if Sakao even has syllables; that is, whether trying to divide Sakao words into meaningful syllables is even possible. If it is, Sakao syllables would appear to be V (a vowel or diphthong) surrounded by any number of consonants: V /i/ "thou", CCVCCCC (?) /mhɛrtpr/ "having sung and stopped singing thou kept silent" [m- 2nd pers., hɛrt "to sing", -p perfective, -r continuous].
Russenorsk phonology

Russenorsk uses many of the phonemes mutual to Norwegian and Russian, altering phonemes only used in one.

* /h/, absent in Russian, became /g/: *hav* (sea) → *gav*.
* /x/, absent in Norwegian, became /k/: хорошо (khorosho, good) → *korosho*.
* /mn/, absent in Norwegian, became /n/: много ли (mnogo li, many?) → *nogoli*.
Shawiya phonology

## Vowels

 Mid | ø
 Low | ɛ

* /i, ɨ, ø, ɛ, a, ɔ, ɤ, u/ can also be laxed as [ɪ, ʉ, œ, ɜ, æ, ɒ, ʌ, ʊ].

## Consonants

* Dental and labial spirants /β, θ, ð, θˤ, ðˤ, ç, ʝ/ are only heard as plosives [b, t̪, d̪, t̪ˤ, d̪ˁ, k, ɡ] when occurring in tense positions.
* Sounds [nʲ, nʷ] are only heard when /n/ precedes semivowels /j, w/.
* Sounds /çᶣ, ʝᶣ, ɡʷ/ are only heard when in tense positions.
Saramaccan phonology

## Vowels

Each oral vowel also has a corresponding nasal vowel. There are also three vowel lengths: /bɛ/ "red", /bɛ́ɛ/ "belly," /bɛɛ́ɛ/ "bread."

## Consonants

/c ɟ ɲ ɲɟ/ are more specifically dorso-postalveolar, but the palatal fricative /ç/ is dorso-palatal.

## Tone

The language has two surface tones: high and low. Stress in European words is replaced by high tone in Saramaccan.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Bakker, Smith and Veenstra (1994): p. 170
Seri phonology

## Vowels

Vowel length is contrastive only in stressed syllables. The low front vowels /ɛ, ɛː/ are phonetically between open-mid and near-open and have also been transcribed as /æ, æː/.

The non-rounded vowels /i, ɛ, ɑ/ may be realized as diphthongs [iu̯, ɛo̯, ɑo̯] when followed by the labialized consonants /kʷ, xʷ, χʷ/, but this small phonetic detail is not written in the community-based writing system.
Shompen phonology

It is not clear if the following description applies to all varieties of Shompen or how phonemic it is.

Twelve vowel qualities are recovered from the transcription, /i e ɛ a ə ɑ ɔ o u æ ɒ ʌ/, which may be nasalized and or lengthened. There are numerous vowel sequences and diphthongs.

The consonants are attested as follows:

Many Austroasiatic roots with final nasal stops, \*m \*n \*ŋ, appear in Shompen with voiced oral stops [b d ɡ], which resembles Aslian and especially Jahaic, whose historical final nasals have become prestopped or fully oral. Although Jahaic nasal stops conflated with oral stops, Shompen oral stops appear to have been lost first, only to be reacquired as nasals became oral. There are also, however, certainly numerous words that retain final nasal stops. It is not clear if borrowing from Nicobarese is enough to explain all of those exceptions. Shompen could have been partially relexified under the influence of Nicobarese, or consultants might have given Nicobarese words during elicitation.

Other historical sound changes are word-final \*r and \*l shifting to [w], \*r before a vowel shifting to [j], the deletion of final \*h and \*s, and the breaking of Austroasiatic long vowels into diphthongs.
Sikaritai phonology

The following discussion is based on Martin (1991).

## Consonants

This small consonant inventory is typical of Lakes Plain languages. The complete lack of nasals is also a feature of these languages.

There are however several notable allophonic variants:

* /d/ is realized as [d ~ l] word-initially, [ɾ ~ l] between vowels or following another consonants, and as [d̚] syllable-finally.
* /k/ is realized as [g̚] syllable-finally. When followed by a vowel, the sequence /ik/ is realized as a syllabic fricative [ɣ̩]. The sequence /iko/ further varies with [u.o].
* [ɸ] is in free variation with a glottal fricative [h].
* /s/ is realized as [ʃ] following /k/.
* /i/ before another vowel is realized as either a semivowel [j] or an affricate [dʒ] (the latter when following /k/ or when between two low vowels (/ɛ/ or /a/).

## Vowels

Sikaritai has six vowels.

Many other Lakes Plain languages have developed a series of extra high "fricativized" vowels from the loss of a final consonant. In Sikaritai the final consonants have been retained; however, extra-high [i] and [u] appear as allophones of /i/ and /u/ before final /g/ and /d/. Martin postulates that Sikaritai is in the process of developing contrastive fricativized vowels as other Lakes Plain languages have done.

## Tone

The language has a two-height tone system with H and L tone. More than one tonal element can appear on a single syllable.
Sindarin phonology

## Consonants

1. written ⟨th⟩ and ⟨dh⟩ respectively
2. written ⟨lh⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ depending on etymology
3. written ⟨c⟩
4. written ⟨ng⟩
5. written ⟨ch⟩
6. written ⟨rh⟩
7. written ⟨hw⟩

## Vowels

### Monophthongs

An accent signifies a long vowel (á, é, etc.). In a monosyllabic word, a circumflex is used (â, ê, etc.). However, for practical reasons, users of the ISO Latin-1 character set often substitute ý for ŷ, as ISO Latin-1 does not have a character for ŷ, only ý and ÿ.

In Old Sindarin, there was a vowel similar to German *ö* (IPA: [œ]), which Tolkien mostly transcribed as *œ*. Although this was meant to be distinct from the diphthong *oe*, it was often simply printed *oe* in publications like *The Silmarillion*, e.g. *Nírnaeth Arnoediad* (read: *Nírnaeth Arnœdiad*), *Goelydh* (read: *Gœlydh*). This vowel later came to be pronounced [ɛ] and is therefore transcribed as such (e.g. *Gelydh*).

### Diphthongs

Diphthongs are *ai* (pronounced like **ai**sle [aɪ]), *ei* (d**ay** [ɛɪ]), *ui* (r**ui**n [ʊɪ]), and *au* (c**ow** [aʊ]). If the last diphthong finishes a word, it is spelt *aw*. There are also diphthongs *ae* and *oe* with no English counterparts, similar to pronouncing *a* or *o* respectively in the same syllable as one pronounces an *e* (as in p**e**t); IPA [aɛ, ɔɛ]. Tolkien had described dialects (such as Doriathrin) and variations in pronunciations (such as that of Gondor), and other pronunciations of *ae* and *oe* undoubtedly existed.
Siltʼe phonology

## Consonants

Siltʼe has a fairly typical set of consonants for an Ethiopian Semitic language. There are the usual ejective consonants, alongside plain voiceless and voiced consonants and all of the consonants, except /h/ and /ʔ/, can be geminated, that is, lengthened.

The charts below show the phonemes of Siltʼe. For the representation of Siltʼe consonants, this article uses a modification of a system that is common (though not universal), among linguists who work on Ethiopian Semitic languages, but differs somewhat from the conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet. When the IPA symbol is different, it is indicated in brackets in the charts.

## Vowels

Siltʼe vowels differ considerably from the typical set of seven vowels in languages such as Amharic, Tigrinya and Geʽez. Siltʼe has the set of five short and five long vowels that are typical of the nearby Eastern Cushitic languages, which may be the origin of the Siltʼe system. There is considerable allophonic variation within the short vowels, especially for *a*; the most frequent allophone of /a/, [ə], is shown in the chart. All of the short vowels may be devoiced preceding a pause.

Vowels
 High-mid
 Low-mid
 Low
Sittard phonology

## Vowels

* /ə/ is restricted to unstressed syllables.
* /aː/ is the phonological long counterpart of /ɑ/, not /æ/.

## Pitch accent

As many other Limburgish dialects, the Sittard dialect features a contrastive pitch accent, with minimal pairs such as *goud* /ˈɣɔ́ut/ 'gold' (featuring the push tone, transcribed as a high tone) vs. *goud* /ˈɣɔut/ 'good' (featuring the dragging tone, left unmarked). The push tone is realized as a rising-falling contour in the declarative pattern, whereas the dragging tone varies between rising (when the sentence focus falls on the syllable that is non-final) and a shallow rising-falling contour when the syllable is sentence-final. The distinction between the two tones is neutralized outside of the sentence focus. In interrogative sentences, the distinction is always made.
Swazi orthography

## Vowels

* a - [a]
* e - [ɛ~e]
* i - [i]
* o - [ɔ~o]
* u - [u]

## Consonants

* b - [ɓ]
* bh - [bʱ]
* c - [ᵏǀ]
* ch - [ᵏǀʰ]
* d - [dʱ]
* dl - [ɮ]
* dv - [dv]
* dz - [dz]
* f - [f]
* g - [gʱ]
* gc - [ᶢǀʱ]
* h - [h]
* hh - [ɦ]
* hl - [ɬ]
* j - [dʒʱ]
* k - [kʼ, k̬]
* kh - [kʰ]
* kl - [kɬ]
* l - [l]
* m - [m]
* mb - [mb]
* mn - [mn]
* n - [n]
* nc - [ᵑǀ]
* nch - [ᵑǀʰ]
* ndl - [ⁿɮ]
* ng - [ŋ, ŋɡ]
* ngc - [ᵑǀʱ]
* nhl - [ⁿɫ]
* p - [pʼ]
* ph - [pʰ]
* q - [kʼ, k̬]
* s - [s]
* sh - [ʃ]
* t - [tʼ]
* tf - [tf]
* th - [tʰ]
* tj - [tʃʼ]
* ts - [tsʼ, tsʰ]
* v - [v]
* w - [w]
* y - [j]
* z - [z]
* zh - [ʒ]

### Labialized consonants

* dvw - [dvʷ]
* khw - [kʰʷ]
* lw - [lʷ]
* nkhw - [ᵑkʰʷ]
* ngw - [ᵑ(g)ʷ]
* sw - [sʷ]
* vw - [vʷ]
Romani phonology

The Romani sound system is not highly unusual among European languages. Its most marked features are a three-way contrast between unvoiced, voiced, and aspirated stops: *p t k č*, *b d g dž*, and *ph th kh čh*, and the presence in some dialects of a second rhotic *ř*, realized as retroflex [ɽ] or [ɻ], a long trill [rː] or uvular [ʀ].

The following is the core sound inventory of Romani. Phonemes in parentheses are only found in some dialects:

Eastern and Southeastern European Romani dialects commonly have palatalized consonants, either distinctive or allophonic. Some dialects add the central vowel ə or ɨ. Vowel length is often distinctive in Western European Romani dialects. Loans from contact languages often allow other non-native phonemes.

Conservative dialects of Romani have final stress, with the exception of some unstressed affixes (e.g. the vocative ending, the case endings added on to the accusative noun, and the remoteness tense marker). Central and Western European dialects often have shifted stress earlier in the word.

In some varieties such as Slovak Romani, at the end of a word, voiced consonants become voiceless and aspirated ones lose aspiration. Some examples:

 gada
 ačh!
 ačhel
Shixing phonology

## Consonants

Xumi features a very unusual phonemic contrast between voiceless /ʎ̥/ and voiced /ʎ/ alveolo-palatal lateral approximants.

In the table above, gold phonemes only appear in the Upper Xumi dialect while blue phonemes only appear in the Lower Xumi dialect. All others appear in both Upper and Lower Xumi.

## Vowels

#### Oral

* The close and close-mid series are the same in both varieties: /i, ʉ, u, e, o/. The difference lies in the open-mid and open series; in Upper Xumi, these are /ɛ, ɐ, ɔ, a/, whereas in Lower Xumi, they are /ɛ, ɐ, ɑ/.
	+ At least in Lower Xumi /ʉ/, is phonetically close-mid [ɵ].
	+ /ɐ/ is closer in Upper Xumi [ɜ]; in addition, the open central vowel /a/ is phonetically near-open [ɐ]. For this reason, they may be transcribed with ⟨ɜ⟩ and ⟨ɐ⟩, respectively.
	+ The Lower Xumi /o/ and /ɑ/ generally correspond to Upper Xumi /u/ and /ɔ/, respectively. /ɑ/ is near-open near-back [ɑ̽] and thus similar to the Upper Xumi /a/, but more back.

### Nasal

* Upper Xumi has the following nasal vowels: /ĩ, ũ, ɛ̃, ɔ̃, ɐ̃/, as well as the marginal /ɘ̃/, which occurs only in the word [LPmɘ̃da] 'on the roof / upstairs'.
* Lower Xumi has the following nasal vowels: /ĩ, õ, ɛ̃, ɐ̃, ɑ̃/, as well as the marginal /ə̃/, which occurs only in the word [LPmə̃dɐ ᴿʁo] 'on the roof / upstairs'. /ẽ, õ, ɐ̃, ɑ̃/ generally correspond to Upper Xumi /ĩ, ũ, ɛ̃, ɔ̃/, respectively.
Shan phonology

Shan has 19 consonants.
Unlike Thai and Lao there are no voiced plosives [d] and [b].

[iu], [eu], [ɛu]; [ui], [oi], [ɯi], [ɔi], [əi]; [ai], [aɯ], [au]; [aːi], [aːu]

Shan has less vowel complexity than Thai, and Shan people learning Thai have difficulties with sounds such as "ia," "ua," and "uea" [ɯa]. Triphthongs are absent. Shan has no systematic distinction between long and short vowels characteristic of Thai.

## Tones

Shan has phonemic contrasts among the tones of syllables. There are five to six tonemes in Shan, depending on the dialect. The sixth tone is only spoken in the north; in other parts it is only used for emphasis.

### Contrastive tones in unchecked syllables

The table below presents six phonemic tones in unchecked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in sonorant sounds such as [m], [n], [ŋ], [w], and [j] and open syllables.

\* The symbol in the first column corresponds to conventions used for other tonal languages; the second is derived from the Shan orthography.
The following table shows an example of the phonemic tones:

The Shan tones correspond to Thai tones as follows:

1. The Shan rising tone is close to the Thai rising tone.
2. The Shan low tone is equivalent to the Thai low tone.
3. The Shan mid-tone is different from the Thai mid-tone. It falls in the end.
4. The Shan high tone is close to the Thai high tone. But it is not rising.
5. The Shan falling tone is different from the Thai falling tone. It is short, creaky and ends with a glottal stop.

### Contrastive tones in checked syllables

The table below presents four phonemic tones in checked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in a glottal stop [ʔ] and obstruent sounds such as [p], [t], and [k].

## Syllable structure

The syllable structure of Shan is C(G)V((V)/(C)), which is to say the onset consists of a consonant optionally followed by a glide, and the rhyme consists of a monophthong alone, a monophthong with a consonant, or a diphthong alone. (Only in some dialects, a diphthong may also be followed by a consonant.)
The glides are: -w-, -y- and -r-.
There are seven possible final consonants: /ŋ/, /n/, /m/, /k/, /t/, /p/, and /ʔ/.

Some representative words are:

* CV /kɔ/ *also*
* CVC /kàːt/ *market*
* CGV /kwàː/ *to go*
* CGVC /kwaːŋ/ *broad*
* CVV /kǎi/ *far*
* CGVV /kwáːi/ *water buffalo*

Typical Shan words are monosyllabic. Multisyllabic words are mostly Pali loanwords, or Burmese words with the initial weak syllable /ə/.
Rhotic consonant

In phonetics, **rhotic consonants**, or "R-like" sounds, are liquid consonants that are traditionally represented orthographically by symbols derived from the Greek letter rho, including ⟨R⟩, ⟨r⟩ in the Latin script and ⟨Р⟩, ⟨p⟩ in the Cyrillic script. They are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet by upper- or lower-case variants of Roman ⟨R⟩, ⟨r⟩: r, ɾ, ɹ, ɻ, ʀ, ʁ, ɽ, and ɺ.
Sexagesimal

**Sexagesimal**, also known as **base 60** or **sexagenary**, is a numeral system with sixty as its base. It originated with the ancient Sumerians in the 3rd millennium BC, was passed down to the ancient Babylonians, and is still used—in a modified form—for measuring time, angles, and geographic coordinates.
Shenwa phonology

Judging by Laoust (whose work on the language predates systematic phonology), Shenwa has the following sounds, which are given below in the International Phonetic Alphabet along with differing representations in the Algerian standard Latin orthography for Berber languages in angle brackets ⟨ ⟩:

## Consonants

Comparison with other Berber languages suggests that Laoust's transcription may have failed to distinguish certain sounds, notably pharyngealized /zˤ/.

## Vowels

/a/, /i/, /u/, /ɑ/, /ɛ/, /ɔ/, /ɨ/, /ə/ ⟨e⟩. Laoust's ⟨o⟩ appears to variously indicate labialization (/ʷ/) or an allophone of /u/.
Sarikoli phonology

## Vowels

Sarikoli vowels as used in Russian works (IPA values in brackets):

**a** [a], **e** [e], **ɛy** [ɛi̯] (dialectal *æy* or *ay* [æi̯ / ai̯]), **ɛw** [ɛu̯] (dialectal *æw* or *aw* [æu̯ /au̯]), **ə** [ə], **i** [i], **o** [o / ɔ], **u** [u], **ы** [ɯ] (dialectal **ů** [ʊ]). In some dialects also long variants of those vowels can appear: **ā**, **ē**, **ī**, **ō**, **ū**, **ы̄**, **ǝ̄**. (citation?)

## Consonants

Sarikoli has 29 consonants:

Sariqoli consonants according to Russian Iranologist transcription (IPA values in bracelets):
**p** /p/, **b** /b/, **t** /t/, **d** /d/, **k** /k ~ c/, **g** /ɡ ~ ɟ/, **q** /q/, **c** /ts/, **ʒ** /dz/, **č** /tɕ/, **ǰ** /dʑ/, **s** /s/, **z** /z/, **x̌** /x/, **γ̌** /ɣ/, **f** /f/, **v** /v/, **θ** /θ/, **δ** /ð/, **x** /χ/, **γ** /ʁ/, **š** /ɕ/, **ž** /ʑ/, **w** /w/, **y** /j/, **m** /m/, **n** /n, ŋ/, **l** /l/, **r** /r/

## Stress

Most words receive stress on the last syllable; however, a minority receive stress on their first syllable. Also, several noun declensions and verb inflections regularly place stress on their first syllable, including the imperative and interrogative.
Salar phonology

Salar phonology has been influenced by Chinese and Tibetan. In addition, /k, q/ and /ɡ, ɢ/ have become separate phonemes due to loanwords, as it has in other Turkic languages.

Salar vowels are as in Turkish, with the back vowels /a, ɑ, ʌ, ɤ, ɯ, ɒ, ɔ, o, u/ and the corresponding front vowels /æ, ɛ, e, i, œ, ø, y/. In Ili Salar, the i and y high front vowels, when placed after an initial glides are spirantized with j transforming into ʝ. Qinghai and Ili Salar have mostly the same consonantal development.
Situ phonology

* /v/ can be realized as its voiceless equivalent [f], before a voiceless consonant. /v/ is heard as [v] in middle position, and may also be heard as a bilabial fricative [β], in free variation.
* [f] can appear in Chinese loans, and can also be heard as a voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ].
* /r/ can be heard as a voiceless retroflex [ʂ] before a voiceless consonant. /r/ is heard as [r] in middle position and can also be heard as a voiced retroflex [ʐ] in free variation.

Vowels

* The diphthong /iɛ/ can be heard as more open-front [ia], after being followed by a velar consonant.
* /ɐ/ can be heard as a front-mid [ɛ], when between a front and central vowel, or between a back and central vowel.
Shina phonology

The following is a description of the phonology of the Drasi variety spoken in India and the Kohistani variety in Pakistan.

## Vowels

The Shina principal vowel sounds:

 Low | æ

All vowels but /ɔ/ can be either long or nasalized, though no minimal pairs with the contrast are found. /æ/ is heard from loanwords.

### Diphthongs

In Shina there are the following diphthongs:

* falling: ae̯, ao̯, eə̯, ɛi̯, ɛːi̯, ue̯, ui̯, oi̯, oə̯;
* falling nasalized: ãi̯, ẽi̯, ũi̯, ĩũ̯, ʌĩ̯;
* raising: u̯i, u̯e, a̯a, u̯u.

## Tone

Shina words are often distinguished by three contrasting tones: level, rising, and falling tones. Here is an example that shows the three tones:

"The" has a level tone and means the imperative "Do!"

When the stress falls on the first mora of a long vowel, the tone is falling. *Thée* means "Will you do?"

When the stress falls on the second mora of a long vowel, the tone is rising. *Theé* means "after having done".
Santali phonology

## Consonants

Santali has 21 consonants, not counting the 10 aspirated stops which occur primarily, but not exclusively, in Indo-Aryan loanwords and are given in parentheses in the table below.

\*ɳ only appears as an allophone of /n/ before /ɖ/.
In native words, the opposition between voiceless and voiced stops is neutralised in word-final position. A typical Munda feature is that word-final stops are "checked", i. e. glottalised and unreleased.

## Vowels

Santali has ten oral and eight nasal vowel phonemes. With the exception of /e o/, all oral vowels have a nasalized counterpart.

There are numerous diphthongs.
Semivowel

In phonetics and phonology, a **semivowel** or **glide** is a sound that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable boundary, rather than as the nucleus of a syllable. Examples of semivowels in English are the consonants *y* and *w*, in *yes* and *west*, respectively. Written /j w/ in IPA, *y* and *w* are near to the vowels *ee* and *oo* in *seen* and *moon,* written /iː uː/ in IPA. The term *glide* may alternatively refer to any type of transitional sound, not necessarily a semivowel.
Siwi phonology

As analysed by Naumann (2012), Siwi has a total of 50 phonologically distinctive segments, 38 consonants and 12 vowels.

## Consonants

The Siwa language contains 38 consonants, each of which can appear either short or long.

Notes
* /t͡ʃ/ /d͡ʒ/ are phonetically affricates, not stops.
* /ʁ ʁʷ ʢ ɦ/ can appear as approximants.
* The geminate counterpart of /ɾ/ is [rː].

The transcription of these consonants differs somewhat from source to source. Naumann proposes a practical Latin-based transcription inspired by common practice in other Berber languages: pharyngealised consonants are transcribed with an underdot (e.g. ṭ for /tˤ/), postalveolars are written with a hacek (č, ğ, š for /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /ʃ/), semivowel /j/ as y, uvular fricatives as corresponding velars (x, ɣ) and epiglottals as ḥ, ɛ. However, the epiglottals are often instead transcribed as corresponding pharyngeals ħ, ʕ, avoiding the danger of mistaking <ɛ> for a vowel, while the voiced postalveolar affricate/fricative is often written as j or ž. All sources transcribe the glottal fricative as h.

## Vowels

Siwi has twelve phonemic vowels: /a, e, i, o, u, ə, ɑ, ɛ, ɪ, ɔ, ʊ, æ/. The mid vowels /e/ and /o/ are excluded from word-final position, and /o/ is rare. The presence of mid vowels is unusual for a Berber language, and largely reflects Siwi-specific sound changes as well as borrowing from dialectal Arabic; before these changes, the proto-Berber distinction between \*i and \*e had been neutralized in every environment except before word-final /n/.

## References

1. ↑ (Naumann 2012:308)
2. ↑ (Naumann 2012:312)
3. ↑ (Naumann 2012:273)
Shona phonology and alphabet

All syllables in Shona end in a vowel. Consonants belong to the next syllable. For example, *mangwanani* ("morning") is syllabified as *ma.ngwa.na.ni;* "Zimbabwe" is *zi.mba.bwe.*

## Phonology

### Vowels

Shona's twelve vowels are pronounced as in Spanish: a, e, i, o, u, ɑ, ɛ, ɪ, ɔ, ʊ, ə, ɨ. Each vowel is pronounced separately even if they fall in succession. For example, "Unoenda kupi?" (Where do you go?) is pronounced [u.no.e.nda.ku.pi].

### Consonants

The consonant sounds of Shona are:

Shona has two tones, a high and a low tone, but these tones are not indicated in spelling.

## Orthography

### Alphabet

* A - a - [a]
* Ä - ä - [ɑ]
* B - ba - [ɓ]
* D - da - [ɗ]
* E - e - [e]
* Ë - ë - [ɛ]
* F - fa - [f]
* G - ga - [ɡ̤]
* H - ha - [ɦ]
* I - i - [i]
* Ï - ï - [ɪ]
* J - ja - [d͡ʒ̤]
* K - ka - [k]
* M - ma - [m]
* N - na - [n]
* O - o - [o]
* Ö - ö - [ɔ]
* P - pa - [p]
* R - ra - [r]
* S - sa - [s]
* T - ta - [t]
* U - u - [u]
* Ü - ü - [ʊ]
* V - va - [ʋ]
* W - wa - [w]
* Y - ya - [j]
* Z - za - [z̤]

### Digraphs

* bh - [b̤]
* bv - [b͡v̤]
* ch - [t͡ʃ]
* dh - [d̤]
* dz - [d͡z̤]
* dzv - [d͡z̤ᵝ]
* dy - [d̤ʲg]
* mb - [ᵐb]
* mbw - [ᵐb]
* mh - [m̤]
* mv - [mʋ̤]
* nd - [ⁿd]
* ng - [ŋ]
* nh - [n̤]
* nj - [ⁿd͡ʒ̤]
* ny - [ɲ]
* nz - [ⁿz̤]
* nzv - [ⁿz̤ᵝ]
* pf - [p͡f]
* sh - [ʃ]
* sv - [sᶲ]
* sw - [skw]
* ts - [t͡s]
* tsv - [t͡sᶲ]
* ty - [tʲk]
* vh - [v̤]
* zh - [ʒ̤]
* zv - [z̤ᵝ]

## Old alphabet

From 1931 to 1955, Unified Shona was written with an alphabet developed by the linguist Professor Clement Martyn Doke. This included the following letters:

ɓ (b with hook),
ɗ (d with hook),
ŋ (n with leg),
ȿ (s with swash tail),
ʋ (v with hook),
ɀ (z with swash tail).
In 1955, these were replaced by letters or digraphs from the basic Latin alphabet. For example, today ⟨sv⟩ or ⟨ş⟩ is used for ⟨ȿ⟩ and ⟨zv⟩ or ⟨z̧⟩ is used for ⟨ɀ⟩.
Shoshoni phonology

## Vowels

Shoshoni has a typical Numic vowel inventory of five vowels. In addition, there is the common diphthong /ai/, which functions as a simple vowel and varies rather freely with [e]; however, certain morphemes always contain [ai] and others always contain [e]. All vowels occur as short or long, but [ai:]/[e:] is rare.

## Consonants

Shoshoni has a typical Numic consonant inventory.
Tapayuna phonology

## Consonants

Tapayúna innovated with respect to Proto-Tapajós via the following sound changes:

* merger of *\*t̪ʰ* and *\*t̪* as *t* /t̪ʰ/;
* *\*m(b)*, *\*m(b)r* > *w* /w̃/, *nr* /ɾ̃/;
* *\*kʰj*, *\*mbj* > *x* /tʃ/, *j* /j/;
* *\*-m*, *\*-n*, *-ñ* > /-p/, /-t/, /-j/.

## Vowels

The vowel inventory of Tapayuna is shown below (the orthographic representation is given in italics; the characters in slashes stand for the IPA values of each vowel).

### Echo vowels

Tapayúna has a phenomenon whereby an echo vowel is inserted in words whose underlying form ends in a consonant. The epenthesized vowels are unstressed, as in *rowo* [ˈɾɔwɔ] ‘jaguar’, *tàgà* [ˈtʌgʌ] ‘bird’, *khôgô* [ˈkʰogo] ‘wind’.
Selkup phonology

There are 25 vowel and 16 consonant phonemes in the Taz dialect.

* Voicing is not phonemic. Stops and fricatives may be voiced between vowels or after sonorant consonants.
* The palatalized stop and fricative /tʲ/, /ʃʲ/ are most typically rendered as an alveolo-palatal affricate [tɕ] and fricative [ɕ]. Depending on the speaker, the former can be also realized as the stop [tʲ], the latter as a non-palatalized fricative, postalveolar [ʃ] or retroflex [ʂ].
* Before front vowels, palatalized variants of other consonants are also found.
* [ɴ] and [ʀ] are allophones of /q/ when occurring before nasals and liquids, respectively.
* The non-coronal stops /p/, /k/, /q/ have optional fricative allophones [f], [x], [χ] when occurring before /s/ or /ʃʲ/.

* Vowel length is phonemic. /ɔː/ alone, deriving from proto-Selkup \*/aː/, has no short counterpart.
* The tenseness contrast, an innovation of northern Selkup, is independent of length (e.g. /i/, /iː/, /ɪ/, /ɪː/ all contrast).
* The full range of vowel quality contrasts is only possible in the initial syllable of a word: in later syllables, /e/ /ø/ /ɘ/ /y/ /ɨ/ of either length do not occur, nor does long /uː/. (Shown on a darker gray background.)
* The non-phonemic lax central vowel [ɪ̈ ~ ə] only occurs in unstressed non-first syllables; it is normally treated equivalent with short tense /ɨ/.

Selkup has a syllable structure (C)V(C). Word-initial /ŋ/ and word-final /tʲ/ or /w/ do not occur. Various consonant clusters and geminate consonants such as /nt/, /rm/, /ʃʲʃʲ/ may occur, though many potential combinations occurring morphologically are simplified.

Stress in Selkup is marginally phonemic. Generally the rightmost long vowel in a word is stressed, or otherwise the first syllable, but certain suffixes with short vowels may acquire stress, leading to minimal pairs such as [ˈtɕɛlʲtɕalqo] "to stamp down" vs. [tɕɛlʲˈtɕalqo] "to stamp once".
Shor orthography

## History

Before the 19th century the Shor language had remained unwritten; in the 1870s Orthodox missionaries made the first effort to create a Cyrillic Shor alphabet. In spite of all the efforts by the missionaries, the percentage of literacy among the native population increased very slowly — by the beginning of the 20th century they constituted only about 1% of the Shors.

The Shor written language had its 'golden age' in the 1920s. In 1927, a second attempt was made to create a Shor alphabet based on Cyrillic. In 1932-1933, Fedor Cispijakov wrote and published a new primer based on the Latin alphabet. This however considerably complicated the process of learning; thus in 1938, the same author together with Georgij Babuskin created a new variant of the primer based on the Cyrillic alphabet, of which several editions have been published since then.

## Missionary alphabet

The first book written in the Shor language was published in 1920.
It used a modified Russian alphabet (excluding Ё ё, Ф ф, Щ щ, and Ѣ ѣ) with additional letters Ј ј, Ҥ ҥ, Ӧ ӧ, and Ӱ ӱ.

In 1959 an official alphabet was adopted, being the Russian alphabet (excluding Ё ё and ъ) with additional letters Ј ј, Ҥ ҥ, Ӧ ӧ, and Ӱ ӱ.

## Latin alphabet

A Latin alphabet for the Shor language was introduced in 1964: A a, B в, C c, D d, Ə ə, F f, G g, Ƣ ƣ, I i, J j, K k, Q q, M m, N n, N̡ n̡, O o, Ө ө, P p, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, Ş ş, Z z, Ƶ ƶ, L l, Ь ь, Y y, Į į.

The order of the letters was later changed to correspond with alphabets for other languages in the Soviet Union, the letter Ә ә was replaced with E e, and the letter Į į was dropped.

## Modern alphabet

In 1978 the Latin alphabet was replaced with a Cyrillic one. It used the Russian alphabet with additional letters Ӧ ӧ, Ӱ ӱ, and Нъ нъ.
After reforms in 1995 it reached its present form: А а, Б б, В в, Г г, Ғ ғ, Д д, Е е, Ё ё, Ж ж, З з, И и, Й й, К к, Қ қ, Л л, М м, Н н, Ң ң, О о, Ӧ ӧ, П п, Р р, С с, Т т, У у, Ӱ ӱ, Ф ф, Х х, Ц ц, Ч ч, Ш ш, Щ щ, Ъ ъ, Ы ы, Ь ь, Э э, Ю ю, Я я.
Sonorant

In phonetics and phonology, a **sonorant** or **resonant** is a speech sound that is produced with continuous, non-turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; these are the manners of articulation that are most often voiced in the world's languages. Vowels are sonorants, as are nasals like [m] and [n], liquids like [l] and [r], and semivowels like [j] and [w]. This set of sounds contrasts with the obstruents (stops, affricates and fricatives).
Tamasheq phonology

## Vowels

The Tamashek language has seven vowels in total: two frontal vowels /i/, /æ/; three central vowels /ə/, /æ/, /a/; and two back vowels /u/ /o/. There are two short vowels, /ə/ and /æ/, and the rest are full vowels. There are no diphthongs.

Short Vowels

Full (Long) Vowels
 Mid-height
 Low

While all vowels occur word-initially and word-medially, only full vowels occur word-finally.

## Consonants

Tamashek has 33 consonants, featuring six manners of articulation and eight places of articulation. There are no non-pulmonic consonants. The consonants are detailed in the table below.

The table places the two laryngeal consonants, and /h/ and /ʔ/, according to the IPA chart (the source did not specify their manners of articulation).

Consonants in a single parenthesis are of marginal use, "confined largely to loanwords." Consonants of Arabic origins -- /s/, /l/, /ħ/, /ʕ/, and /ʔ/ -- occur in Arabic loanwords. The glottal stop /ʔ/ is already largely absent in local Arabic dialects, is thus only found in unassimilated Islamic vocabulary.

Consonants in a double parenthesis occur mostly as geminated versions of other consonants. An uvular stop /q/ principally occurs in the geminated form /qq/, which can be interpreted as the "phonetic realization of geminated /ɣɣ/.

## Accent

Accent "is an important feature of Tamashek." The role of accent is "very different" for verbs and nouns. For nouns and other non-verb stems, accent is lexically determined. This is not the case for verbs. According to the rule called "default accentuation," the accent falls on the antepenult or on the leftmost syllable of verbs. The exception to the rule is resultative and long imperfect positive stems.

For example, *a-bæ̀mbæra*, which means Bambara, has its primary accent on the antepenult syllable. A bisyllabic word *hæ̀ræt*, which is glossed as 'thing,' has its accent on the initial syllable.
Tetum alphabet

The **Tetum alphabet** is used to write Tetum. It is based on the Latin alphabet and contains 24 letters:

The accented letters *á*, *é*, *í*, *ó*, and *ú* are also used.

The letter *W* only occurs in some words of dialectal or foreign origin.

The letters *G*, *J*, *Ñ*, *P*, *V*, *X*, and *Z* and the digraphs *LL* and *RR* only occur in loanwords.

The letters *C*, *Q*, and *Y* are not used in Tetum, except in foreign proper names and international symbols.

The apostrophe is used to denote glottal stop.

## External links

* The standard orthography of the Tetum language (PDF)
Tem orthography

High tone is indicated by an acute accent: á é ɛ́ í ɩ́ ó ɔ́ ú ʊ́, no accent indicates low tone.
Long vowels are indicated by doubling the letter: aa ee ɛɛ ii ɩɩ oo ɔɔ uu ʊʊ, both are accented id the tone is high: (áá etc.), only the first is accented if the tone is descending (áa), only the second is accented if the tone is ascending (aá).
Stoney phonology

Very little linguistic documentation and descriptive research has been done on Stoney. However, Stoney varieties demonstrate broad phonological similarity with some important divergences.

For example, the following phonemes are reportedly found in Morley Stoney, spoken on the Morley Reserve:

Morley Stoney vowels
 Mid
 Low

For comparison, these phonemes reportedly characterize the Stoney spoken at Alexis Nakota Sioux Nation, which maintains the common Siouan three-way contrast between plain, aspirated, and ejective stops:

Notice that Alexis Stoney, for example, has innovated contrastive vowel length, which is not found in other Dakotan dialects. Alexis Stoney also has long and nasal mid vowels:

Alexis Stoney vowels
 Mid
 Low
Taa phonology

## Vowels

Taa has five vowel qualities, [a e i o u]. The Traill and DoBeS descriptions differ in the phonations of these vowels; it is not clear if this reflects a dialectal difference or a difference of analysis.

## References

1. ↑ William Bennett (forthcoming) 'Click Phonology', in Sands (ed.) *Click Consonants*, Brill, p. 102 ff.
2. ↑ voiced lead, voiceless at release
3. ↑ The final element of all of these varies dialectically between [kxʼ] and [kxʼq].
4. ↑ "There is voice lead followed by an ejected stop followed by an ejected velar affricate. **kχʼ** is [kχʼ] or [kχʼq]."
Syldavian phonology

Syldavian boasts a rich range of sounds.

## Vowels

In addition to the diacritical marks shown in the chart below, there are acute and grave accents that may indicate stress.

*Roman letters are on the left, Cyrillic letters on the right.*

In addition to these letters, Syldavian also contains several digraphs and letters for which the pronunciation is uncertain:

* ⟨â⟩ - uncertain, possibly /æ/
* ⟨ï⟩ - uncertain. Likely a diaeresis indicating to pronounce as syllabic /i/ rather than /j/, or for the benefit of French-speakers so they don't mispronounce *ai* as /ɛː/ instead of the correct /aj/.
* ⟨oe⟩ - /ø/
* ⟨ou⟩ - /ou/
* ⟨eu⟩ - uncertain: perhaps the vowel /œ/ or /ø/, perhaps a diphthong /eu/ or /ɛu/. It is only seen in one word: teuïh ("door").
* ⟨ei⟩ - /ei/

## Consonants

*Roman letters are on the left, Cyrillic letters on the right.*

Note: As in Czech, the letter ⟨r⟩ can be syllabic, as seen in names such as *Staszrvitch* and *Dbrnouk*.

There are some additional digraphs and trigraphs, including ⟨tch⟩ (used in names and pronounced with /t͡ʃ/, the apparent Syldavian version of the common Serbo-Croatian/Balkan surname ending *-ić*), ⟨chz⟩ (uncertain, but may be an alternative form of ⟨cz⟩ /t͡ʃ/), and ⟨th⟩ /t/. These demonstrate that the Latin-based orthography has a number of irregularities, or else these are old inconsistent spellings that have been preserved in family names but are no longer used in the standard orthography (as in Hungarian, where for example one may find the family name *Széchenyi* retaining a traditional spelling rather than the orthographically correct \**Szécsenyi*).

Note that Syldavian Cyrillic diverges in some important respects from Cyrillic as used in real-world languages, most notably by porting over Latin digraphs into the Cyrillic alphabet (for example, /ʃ/ is written "сз" instead of "ш"), and to use a few Cyrillic letters (щ, ю) for sounds for which they are never used in the real world. This, together with the use of Latin script in old medieval manuscripts, may suggest that the Syldavians adopted the Latin alphabet first, and the Cyrillic later, which is the reverse of several real-world languages (most notably Romanian) which switched from Cyrillic to Latin.
Stieng phonology

## Consonants

Haupers (1969) analyzes Stieng as having 25 consonant phonemes with three-way contrasts of voiced, unvoiced and pre-glottalized with aspiration described as a consonant cluster involving simple (i.e. not pre-glottalized) stops plus /h/. Analyses which include the aspirated series as independent phonemes yield 33 consonants and a five-way contrast.

Consonants appearing in syllable coda are devoiced and unreleased. For the alveolar approximate, the trilled [r] is found in free variation with the flapped [ɾ]. The voiceless palatal fricative [ç] appears only in syllable coda as a complementary allophone of [s].

## Vowels

The Stieng vowel system consists of fifteen monophthongs and two diphthongs. In addition to vowel quality, quantitative length (duration) is also phonemic for vowels other than [ɛ] ([æ]) in closed syllables. The vowel [ɛ] ([æ]) is short before h and long elsewhere. This lack of minimal pairs for [ɛ] ([æ]) and [ɛː] ([æː]) suggests that [ɛ], [æ], [ɛː] and [æː] are all allophones.

Symbols in parenthesis represent allophonic variations.
Takuu phonology

## Consonants

Takuu has eleven consonants: f, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, and h. Moyle states that the consonants containing stops consist of the letters, p, t and k. The consonants named fricatives are, f/v, s and h. The nasal consonants are m and n, the lateral consonant is, l, and the approximant is r. The labial consonants consist of p, f/v and m. The apical consonants consist of, t, s, n, l and r. The velar consonant is k and the glottal is h (Moyle 2011). According to Moyle, “there is a length distinction in the vowels and between single and geminate consonants that is phonemic and important for correct pronunciation.” Moyle states that these distinctions affect not only the vowel length but also the stress patterns when saying different words. Moyle says that very often will you find people who pronounce the same words with a vowel between those consonants. There are also expanded forms of different words when used in songs.

## Vowels

According to Richard Moyle from the Takuu grammar and dictionary book, the vowels that are in the Takuu language consist of, “a, e, i, o, u, ɑ, ɛ, ɪ, ɔ, ʊ, æ, ɒ, ʌ, ə, and ɜ”.

He stated that the high vowels /u/ and /i/ are pronounced as glides /w/ and /j/ respectively, especially when they precede the low back vowel /a/, or when /u/ precedes /i/.
Safeyoka phonology

## Consonants

The Wojokeso has fifteen simple and six complex consonant phonemes. The points of articulation include bilabial, alveolar, alveopalatal and velar. The bilabial fricative phoneme is /p/, alveolar resonant phoneme /I/, alveopalatal stop phoneme /j/ and velar fricative phoneme /h/.

## Vowels

The Wojokeso contains five vowel phonemes, /i, u, e, ʌ, a/. However, there was said to be seven vowels of the Wojokeso /i, e, æ**,** ɨ**,** ʌ, a, u/ although there were no clear cut contrasts.

### Vowel Clusters

When two vowels occur contiguously, they are considered separate segments. Non-suspect sequences such as /ea/, /ae/, occur and sequences /ai/, /ia/ and /ʌu/, /uʌ/. The syllabic and pitch accent of these vowels consider the syllables to be separate. In the words of /hasamjʌhwʌ/ ~ /hasaʔemjʌhwʌ/ 'dragonfly'. /ʔ/ is optional between two vowels.
Tai Viet script

* When /ɔ/ has a final, ◌ꪮ is used instead.

Some additional vowels are written with a combination of two vowel characters. The following four combinations are used for Tai Dam:

 ◌ꪚꪾ | /ap/

## Tones

Traditionally the script used no tone marks and only partially indicated tones with the high/low consonant differentiation. The reader had to guess the tone and thus meaning of a word from context. In the 1970s two tone marks were developed, called mai nueng and mai song. Tone 1 is marked with only a low consonant. Tone 4 is marked with only a high consonant. Tone 2 is marked with the first tone mark and a low consonant form. Tone 5 is marked with the first tone mark and a high consonant form. Tone 3 is marked with the second tone mark and a low consonant form. Tone 6 is marked with the second tone mark and a high consonant form.

 ◌ꫂ | mai song | 3 | 6
Teso phonology

## Vowels

 Mid | e
 Open |  | a

* Vowels are phonetically represented with ATR as [i̘, e̘, o̘, u̘, a̘], [ɐ̘] and RTR as [ɪ̙, ɛ̙, ɔ̙, ʊ̙, a̙].
* [ɐ̘] is heard as an allophone of /a/ with advanced tongue root.

Voiceless vowel sounds are present, strictly occurring in word-final position before a pause, at the end of sentences or when standing alone.

 Mid | e̥
 Open |  | ḁ
Tammari orthography

The tones are indicated using the acute accent (high tone) and grave accent (low tone) on the vowel ⟨á é ɛ́ í ó ɔ́ ú à è ɛ̀ ì ò ɔ̀ ù⟩ or the nasal consonant ⟨ḿ ń m̀ ǹ⟩.
The nasalization is indicated with the tilde on the vowels ⟨ã ɛ̃ ĩ ɔ̃ ũ⟩. The accent indicating tone can be combined above these vowels.
Thao phonology

## Consonants

**Orthographic notes**:

* /θ ð ʃ/ are written ⟨th z sh⟩. /θ/ is though written ⟨c⟩ in Blust's dictionary.
* /ɬ/ is written ⟨lh⟩
* /ŋ/ is written ⟨ng⟩. It's though written ⟨g⟩ in Blust's dictionary.
* /ʔ/ is written ⟨'⟩

**Notes**:

* The glides /j w/ are derived from the underlying vowels /i u/ to meet the requirements that syllables must have onset consonants and to indicate stress placement accurately.
* [v] is an allophone of /w/ occurring intervocalically.

## Vowels

**Vowel inventory**

**Notes**:

* Stress is penultimate, otherwise can be written ⟨á í ú⟩ as in "dadú", but doubling ⟨aa ii uu⟩ is also frequently used, as in "daduu".
* [e] and [o] occur as allophones of /i/ and /u/, respectively, when preceded or followed either by /q/ or /r/.
Tai Tham script

Short vowels are followed by a glottal stop /ʔ/ if they are followed by another consonant.

## Numerals

Lanna has two sets of numerals. The first set, **Lek Nai Tam**, is reserved for liturgical purposes. The other set, **Lek Hora**, is used in everyday life.

## References

1. ↑ Omniglot. *Lanna alphabet (Tua Mueang)*. Retrieved 28 April 2019
Tanacross phonology

## Vowels

There are six phonemic vowels:

The vowels i, e, a, and u may be distinguished for length, indicated in the practical orthography by doubling the vowel. The reduced vowel ä is indicated via the letter ⟨e⟩. Thus, the practical orthography does not distinguish short e from ə.

Vowels may be marked for high (á), rising (ǎ), falling (â) or extra-high (á́) tone. Low tone is unmarked.
Sunwar phonology

## Consonants

The Sunwar language has a mid-sized arrangement of twenty-two consonantal phonemes:

## Vowels

According to Borchers, there are eleven vowel phonemes in Sunwar:

<a> [a~ɑ], /ā / [aː], /e/ [e~ɛ], /i/ [i], /o/ [o], /u/ [u], / ū/ [uː~y], /ã/ [ã~ɑ̃], /ã̄/ [ãː], /ẽ/ [ẽ~ɛ̃], /ĩ/ [ĩ]

 Mid | /ẽ/ [ẽ~ɛ̃], /e/ [e~ɛ]
 Low |  | /a/ [a~ɑ], /ā / [aː]

* Vowels with bar - Represents long vowels
* Vowels with tilde -  Represents short nasalized vowels
* Vowels with bar and tilda - Represents long and nasalized vowels

### Diphthongs

There are a total of eight diphthongs in Sunwar: /ai/ [aɪ], /aĩ/ [aɪ̃], /au/ [au], /eu/ [eu], /oi/ [oi], /oĩ/ [oĩ], /ui/ [ui], /uĩ/ [uĩ]

According to Borchers, a principled way to distinguish diphthongs from a sequence of two monophthongs does not exist in the Sunwar language.

As exemplified by Borchers, this table consists of examples of contrasts between diphthongs:

## Syllable Structure

Syllable Structure of Sunwar: C₁(C₂)V₁(V₂)(C₃)(C₄)
Palembang phonology

Dunggio (1983) lists 26 phonemes for the Palembang dialect; specifically, there are 20 consonants and 6 vowels. However, another study by Aliana (1987) states that there are only 25 phonemes in Palembang, reanalyzing /z/ as and allophone of /s/ and /d͡ʒ/ instead.

## Vowels

 mid | e
 open | æ

In closed syllables, /i/ and /u/ are realized as [ɪ] and [ʊ], respectively.
Talise phonology

## Vowels

Tolo has ten short vowels, namely /a e i o u æ ɑ ʌ ɔ ʊ/. The letter *e* can either be pronounced as [ɛ] or as [e], the letter *i* can either be pronounced as [ɪ] or as [i], and the letter *ë* can either be pronounced as [ɒ] or as [ɑ].

### Diphthongs

There are eight diphthongs in the Tolo language. These are presented in the table below.

## Prenasalisation

The nasal sounds [m], [n] and [ng] are no separate phonemes, but always occur before the phonemes /b/, /d/ and /g/ respectively. Therefore, they are to be understood as part of those latter sounds. However, the extent to which someone hears this prenasalisation depends entirely on the speaker, as some stress it more if /b/,/d/ or /g/ come at the middle of a word instead of at the beginning.
Telefol orthography

Single ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ represent both their single and long vowels, since they rarely contrast.

/b/ is written ⟨p⟩ pre-consonantally and word-finally.

Single /k/ is written ⟨g⟩ intervocalically, and /kk/ is written ⟨k⟩ intervocalically.

/kd/ and /ŋd/ are written ⟨kg⟩ and ⟨ngg⟩ (since they're pronounced [ɡ] and [ŋɡ] respectively).

Initial /ɡ/ is also written with ⟨g⟩ in loan words, e.g. *Got* 'God'.

## References

1. ↑ *Telefol Organised Phonology Data*, p. 1.
Sukuma phonology

There are seven vowel qualities, which occur long and short:

/ɪ ʊ/, which are written ⟨ĩ ũ⟩, may be closer to [e o], and /e o/ may be closer to [ɛ ɔ].

Sukuma has gone through Dahl's Law (*ɪdàtʊ́* 'three', from proto-Bantu *-tatʊ*) and has voiceless nasal consonants.

It is not clear whether /c ɟ/ should better be considered as stops or affricates as /tʃ dʒ/ or whether they are even palatal.

Syllables are V or CV. There are four tones on short vowels: high, low, rising, and falling.

1. ↑ Rahma Muhdhar, 2006, *Verb Extensions in Kisukuma, Jinakiiya dialect*, MS dissertation, UDSM
Taíno phonology

The Taíno language was not written. The Taínos used petroglyphs, but there has been little research in the area. The following phonemes are reconstructed from Spanish records:

There was also a flap [ɾ], which appears to have been an allophone of /d/.

Reconstructed Taíno vowels

A distinction between /ɛ/ and /e/ is suggested by Spanish transcriptions of *e* vs *ei/ey*, as in *ceiba* "ceiba". The /e/ is written *ei* or final *é* in modern reconstructions. There was also a high back vowel [u], which was often interchangeable with /o/ and may have been an allophone.

There was a parallel set of nasal vowels. The only consonant at the end of a syllable or of a word was /s/.

## References

1. ↑ http://www.tainoage.com/meaning.html
Tamambo phonology

## Vowels

/i u/ become [j w] respectively when unstressed and before another vowel. /o/ may also become [w] for some speakers.

## Consonants

The prenasalized postalveolar stop /ᶮɟ/ is often affricated and voiceless, i.e. [ᶮtʃ].

Younger speakers often realize /β/ as [f] initially and [v] medially, while /βʷ/ is often replaced by [w].

/x/ is usually realized as [x] initially, but some speakers use [h]. Medially, it may be pronounced as any of [x ɣ h ɦ ɡ].