recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Urhobo phonology

Urhobo has a rather reduced system of sound inventory compared to proto-Edoid. The inventory of Urhobo consists of seven vowels; which form two harmonic sets, /i e a o u/ and /i ɛ a ɔ u/.

It has a conservative consonant inventory for an Edoid language. It maintains three nasals, and only five oral consonants, /ɺ, l, ʋ, j, w/, have nasal allophones before nasal vowels.

## References

1. ↑ Rolle, N. 2013. “Phonetics and phonology of Urhobo.”UC Berkeley Phonology Lab Annual Report, 2013: 281-326.
2. ↑ Archangeli & Pulleyblank, 1994. *Grounded phonology*, p 181*ff*
Võro phonology

## Vowels

### Vowel harmony

Võro has preserved the system of vowel harmony that was present in Proto-Finnic. This distinguishes it from Estonian and some other Finnic languages, which have lost it.

The vowel harmony system distinguishes front, back and neutral vowels, much like the system found in Finnish. A word cannot contain both front and back vowels; suffixes automatically adapt the backness of the vowels depending on the type of vowels found in the word it is attached to. Neutral vowels can be combined with either type of vowel, although a word that contains only neutral vowels has front vowel harmony. The only neutral vowel is *i*, like in Votic but unlike Finnish and Karelian, where *e* is also neutral.

Võro vowel harmony
 Close unrounded
 Mid rounded
 Mid unrounded
 Open

* The vowel *ɨ* (in the Võro orthography written with *õ* or *y*, see Orthography section) is considered a back vowel for harmony purposes, but does not participate in harmony itself, as it does not occur in suffixes and endings.

Some examples, with Estonian and Finnish included for comparison:

 küs**ü**n**ü**q
 hõb**õ**h**õ**n**õ** | hõbedane

## Consonants

All Võro consonants (except /j/ and /ʔ/) can be palatalized. The glottal stop (q, IPA [ʔ]) is a very common sound in Võro.
Western Pantar phonology

The Western Pantar consonant inventory includes: voiced and voiceless stops /p t k ʔ/ and /b d ɡ/; voiceless fricatives /s h/; nasals /n m ŋ/; trill /r/ and lateral /l/; and glides /w/ and /j/.

The glottal fricative /h/ is very lightly articulated. It occurs in both word-initial and word-medial positions. Words which begin with a glottal fricative can be difficult to distinguish from vowel-initial forms, which actually begin with a glottal stop.

 ar ‘root’
 abbang ‘shake’

Consonants /p t k b d ɡ s m n l/ contrast in length with longer (geminate) counterparts (written double).

 dake ‘now’
 dala ‘ripe’
 asi ‘roof thatch’
 wenang ‘old man’
Wappo phonology

## Vowels

Wappo has five vowel qualities, but the literature is inconsistent as to whether a length distinction exists. In his Wappo lexicon, Sawyer transcribes long vowels, but Thompson et al., who worked with the same speaker, report that they did not hear any long vowels.

According to Radin, the following diphthongs occur in Wappo: /ao/, /ai/, /ɛo/, /ɛi/, /ɛu/, /ei/, /ɔi/, /iɛ/, and /ui/.

## Consonants

The transcription style (bolded symbols below) is based on Sawyer's work with Somersal, with further interpretation by Thompson, Park and Li. Thompson et al. propose that Wappo has three types of stops: plain, aspirated and glottalized. Stops plus /h/ are therefore treated as single aspirated stops. Sawyer notes that /f/, /d/, /g/, /r/ and /rʼ/ are used for Spanish borrowings.

The above table omits ⟨ch⟩ /cʰ/ [tsʰ] and ⟨čh⟩ /čʰ/ [tʃʰ].

## Stress and tone

Wappo word stress is predictable, in that the first syllable of the word stem is stressed. In the examples below, the accent marks stress.

* *méhwa* "wild grape vine"
* *kálkuʔ* "greyhound"

Wappo does not make distinctions in tone.

## Phonological processes

* Glottal stops are inserted word-initially in words that would otherwise begin with a vowel.
* If a word stem ends in a vowel and a suffix immediately following the stem begins with a vowel, one of those vowels is elided. In most cases, the vowel at the beginning of the suffix is deleted. For example, *čoči-iʔ*, which is the root "weave" plus the durative suffix, has the surface representation of *čoči?*.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Sawyer, Jesse O., "English-Wappo Vocabulary" (Aug 25, 1965). UC Publications in Linguistics. Paper vol\_43.
2. ↑ Radin, Paul. 1929. A grammar of the Wappo language. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 27:1-194.
Wamesa phonology

## Vowels

There are five contrastive vowels in Wamesa, as is typical of Austronesian languages. These vowels are shown in the tables below.

Wamesa vowel phonemes

## Consonants

There are 14 consonants in Wamesa, three of which are marginal (shown in parentheses in the table below).

Wamesa Consonants
 Plosive | p b
 Fricative | β
Tenuis consonant

In linguistics, a **tenuis consonant** is an obstruent that is voiceless, unaspirated and unglottalized.

In other words, it has the "plain" phonation of [p, t, ts, tʃ, k] with a voice onset time close to zero (a zero-VOT consonant), as Spanish *p, t, ch, k* or English *p, t, k* after *s* (*s**p**y, s**t**y, s**k**y*).

For most languages, the distinction is relevant only for stops and affricates. However, a few languages have analogous series for fricatives. Mazahua, for example, has ejective, aspirated, and voiced fricatives /sʼ sʰ z/ alongside tenuis /s/, parallel to stops /ɗ tʼ tʰ d/ alongside tenuis /t/.

Many click languages have tenuis click consonants alongside voiced, aspirated, and glottalized series.
Waikuri phonology

Phonology of the Waikuri language:

## Consonants

Consonants were voiceless stops *p t c k* and maybe glottal stop; voiced *b d j g*, nasal *m n ny ŋ*, flap *r*, trill *v rr*, and approximants *w f l y q*.

## Vowels

Waikuri had twelve vowels, /i, e, a, o, u, ɪ, ɛ, ɑ, ɔ, ʊ, ɨ, ə/. Whether or not vowel length was phonemic is unknown.
Western Apache phonology

## Consonants

There are 31 consonants in Western Apache:

## Vowels

There are 16 vowels in Western Apache:

An acute accent /á/ represents a high toned accent. Low toned accents are not marked.

Phonetic Semantic signs are divided into two sub-parts: a logographs (donate only one word) and phraseographs (donate one or more words).

## Unaffricated stops

Western Apache utilizes unaffricated stops. Willem de Reuse explains, "Unaffricated stop consonants are produced in three locations: bilabial, alveolar, velar. At the alveolar and velar places of articulation, there are three possibilities: aspirated, ejective, and unaspirated. (The voiceless unaspirated alveolars are characteristically realized as taps in intervocalic environments other than stem-initial position) The bilabial stops are more restricted. Ejective bilabial stops do not occur, and aspirated bilabial stops are rarely attested, surfacing primarily, if not exclusively, in borrowed words. The closure for three alveolar stops is voiceless, as indicated by the absence of any energy in the spectrograms during the closure phase."
Vurës phonology

## Consonants

* /r/ is also heard as a tap [ɾ] in free variation.
* A glottal stop /ʔ/ only rarely occurs in some words.
* /β/ is heard as [p̚] before a voiceless stop.
* /k͡pʷ/ is heard as [k͡p] when preceding another consonant.
* Stop sounds /t̪ k/ are aspirated [t̪ʰ kʰ] before vowels.

## Vowels

Vurës has 9 phonemic vowels. These are all short monophthongs /i e ɛ a œ ø y ɔ o/:

Vurës vowels

* [ʊ] is only a marginal sound that occurs in a small amount of words, mostly borrowings.
* The vowel inventory also includes a diphthong [i​͡a].
Waorani phonology

Huaorani distinguishes nasal vowels from oral ones. Syllable structure is (C)V, with frequent vowel clusters. The allophones of /o/ range from [ɵ, o, ʊ, ɤ] and the allophones of /õ/ have a similar range, [ɵ̃, õ, ʊ̃, ɤ̃], and allophones of /e, ẽ/ can be heard as [ɪ, ɪ̃]. The alveolar tap [ɾ] is an allophone of /d/ and the palatal glide [j] is an allophone of /ɟ/.
Venda phonology

Venda distinguishes dental *ṱ, ṱh, ḓ, ṋ, ḽ* from alveolar *t, th, d, n, l* as well as (like in Ewe) labiodental *f, v* from bilabial *fh, vh* (the last two are slightly rounded). There are no clicks; *x* has the sound of *ch* in *loch* or *Bach*. As in other South African languages like Zulu, *ph, ṱh, th, kh* are aspirated and the "plain" stops *p, ṱ, t,* and *k* are ejective.

There are twelve vowel sounds: /i ø ɘ ɛ æ a ɒ ɞ ʌ ɔ ɤ u/.

A labiodental nasal /ɱ/ sound appears in prenasalised consonant sounds, and /l/ is often used from loanwords. Labiovelar sounds occur as alternatives to labiopalatal sounds and may also be pronounced /pkʰ pkʼ bɡ mŋ/. Fortition of /ɸ β s ʃ x h l̪ l r w/ occurs after nasal prefixes, likely to [pʰ? b tsʰ tʃʰ kʰ? pʰ d̪ d d b].

## Tones

Venda has a specified tone, HIGH, with unmarked syllables having a low tone. Phonetic falling tone occurs only in sequences of more than one vowel or on the penultimate syllable if the vowel is long. Tone patterns exist independently of the consonants and vowels of a word and so they are word tones. Venda tone also follows Meeussen's rule: when a word beginning with a high tone is preceded by that high tone, the initial high tone is lost. (That is, there cannot be two adjacent marked high tones in a word, but high tone spreads allophonically to a following non-tonic ("low"-tone) syllable.) There are only a few tone patterns in Venda words (no tone, a single high tone on some syllable, two non-adjacent high tones), which behave as follows:

## References

1. ↑ Jeff Mielke, 2008. *The emergence of distinctive features*, p 139ff
Wayoró phonology

## Consonants

The consonantal inventory of Wayoró is as follows. The graphemes which correspond to each phoneme are given in chevrons.

Underlying nasal consonants may be partially or fully oralized in oral environments. Nogueira (2019) describes the following allophones:

* /m/ → [m] ‹m›, [mb] ‹mb›
* /n/ → [n] ‹n›, [nd] ‹nd›
* /ɲ/ → [ɲ, j, j̃, jt] ‹y›, [ndʒ, dʒ] ‹dj›
* /ŋ/ → [ŋ, ŋg] ‹ng›, [g] ‹g›
* /ŋʷ/ → [ŋʷ, ŋgʷ] ‹ngw›, [gʷ] ‹gw›

The phonological status of the glottal stop [ʔ], which occurs in the onset position only (e.g. *o’uwa* [oʔʉβa] ‘my pot’, *o’ega* [oʔɛga] ‘my hiccup’, *apa’a* [apaʔa] ‘to weave a hammock horizontally’), is given as uncertain by Nogueira (2019).

## Vowels

The vowel inventory of Wayoró is as follows.
Ventureño phonology

Ventureño has a similar phonemic inventory to other Chumash languages. Ventureño consists of 30 consonants and 6 vowels.

## Vowels

Ventureño consists of a regular 5-vowel inventory with a sixth vowel transcribed as ⟨ə⟩. In Barbareño transcriptions, ⟨ɨ⟩ is used. It is not known whether these two phones are the same in both languages (and the difference in transcription merely one of convention), or whether the sounds were in fact different enough for Harrington to use different symbols.
Voicelessness

In linguistics, **voicelessness** is the property of sounds being pronounced without the larynx vibrating. Phonologically, it is a type of phonation, which contrasts with other states of the larynx, but some object that the word phonation implies voicing and that voicelessness is the lack of phonation.
West Makian phonology

## Consonants

Moi has 28 consonants.

/ɲ/ is found almost exclusively in Indonesian loanwords. The only original Moi word with /ɲ/ is /miɲə/ - 'one.'

Consonant clusters are found almost entirely in the middle of words, with a few occurring word-initially during continuous speech. The majority of words have stress on the penultimate syllable, with a few having it on the syllable before or the last syllable. Stress is primarily phonemic.

There are two types of sentence intonation so far observed. One involves the tone rising sharply then sometimes falling again, a pattern used in emphatic imperatives and sometimes in questions. The other pattern is a sharp drop at the end of the sentence, used for declarative sentences and non-emphatic imperatives.
Wayampi orthography

Wayãpi is spelt phonetically based on the International Phonetic Alphabet, and not according the French orthography. The spelling uses the letter **ɨ** for the close central unrounded vowel between i and u. **E** is always pronounced **é**, vowels with a tilde are always nasal (**ã**, **ẽ**, **ĩ**, **õ**, **ũ**), **ö** is like the German O umlaut, and **b** is pronounced **mb**. All letters are pronounced.
Veps orthography

Veps orthography is largely phonemic, and represents each phoneme with one letter. Palatalized consonants are single phonemes, and thus the combination of a letter and a following apostrophe is a single combined letter for this purpose. The following table shows the correspondences between letters and phonemes:

Palatalization of consonants before front vowels is not indicated in the orthography, so plain consonant letters can represent both types of consonant depending on what vowel follows. For the following letters ⟨i⟩ and ⟨e⟩, this is ambiguous, however: they can be preceded by both types of consonants, as noted above in the phonology section. Whether a consonant before the letter ⟨i⟩ or ⟨e⟩ is palatalized or not cannot be determined from the orthography and must be learned for each word.
Western Desert phonology

In the following tables of the WDL sound system, symbols in **boldface** give a typical practical orthography used by many WDL communities. Further details of orthographies in use in different areas are given below. Phonetic values in IPA are shown in [square brackets].

## Vowels

The Western Desert Language has the common (for Australia) three-vowel system with a length distinction creating a total of six possible vowels.

## Consonants

As shown in the chart, the WDL distinguishes five positions of articulation, and has oral and nasal occlusives at each position. The stops have no phonemic voice distinction but display voiced and unvoiced allophones; stops are usually unvoiced at the beginning of a word, and voiced elsewhere. In both positions, they are usually unaspirated. There are no fricative consonants.
Yuchi phonology

The language has 49 sounds, 38 of which are consonants, and the remaining 11 are vowels. This number is more than twice that of most Southeastern Native American languages.

## Vowels

Yuchi has oral and nasal vowels. Oral vowels are defined as being created by the raising of the soft palate to the nasopharyngeal wall, creating a velopharyngeal space within the oral cavity; nasal vowels, on the other hand, are typically defined as being created by the lowering of the soft palate, allowing air to escape through the nasal cavity.

Two vowel charts appears below. Note that the vowels below represent the *phonetic* inventory, meaning the set of all (or most) sounds in the language. The *phonemic* inventory, those sounds which contrastively mark differences in meaning, are highlighted in the list below the vowel charts.

Oral Vowels

Nasal Vowels
 Open | æ̃, ã |  | ɑ̃

The phonemic vowels of Yuchi are /i, u, e, o, æ, a, ĩ, ẽ, õ, æ̃, ã/; some levels of phonological or morphological variation must therefore be occurring in order for all of the sounds above to be possible.

### Phonological variation

Phonological variation often occurs in different kinds of morphological environments. For example, the phoneme /o/ is often pronounced as /ʊ/ in 1st-person singular and impersonal 3rd-person pronouns by Big Pond speakers. Also, the phonemes /a/ and /o/ can become [ə] in unstressed environments.

### Length

Vowel length indicates grammatical function, such as superlative or comparative adjective forms or emphasis. It may also indicate contracted morphemes, and thus is not a phonological process but rather a morphological one.

## Consonants

Yuchi has been analyzed as having from 19 to 40 consonants, chiefly depending on whether the glottalized and labialized consonants are counted, or considered to be sequences with /ʔ/ and /w/, respectively. Some of the latter are included in the table in parentheses:

## References

1. ↑ Hackett (Woktela), David. "The Yuchi Language Primer; a Brief, Introductory Grammar." www.yuchi.org. Woktela. Web. 12 Sept. 2009
2. ↑ Crystal, David. *The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Third Edition.* UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.136
3. ↑ Linn, Mary Sarah. *A Grammar of Euchee (Yuchi).* Kansas City, Kansas: University of Kansas, 2001., p. 55
4. ↑ Linn, 2001, p. 43
5. ↑ Linn, 2001, 52
Vanimo phonology

The Duso dialect of Vanimo is unusual in not having any phonemic velar consonants, though it does have phonetic [ŋ].

The vowels of Dumo dialect are,

All occur nasalized, varying phonetically between a nasal vowel and a vowel followed by consonantal [ŋ]. Nasal /u/ may be realized as a syllabic [ŋ̍].

In Dumo, there are no velar consonants apart from this [ŋ] (and also as noted below). The other consonants are,

Consonant clusters are /pl, bl, ml, ɲv, hv, hm, hn, hɲ, hj/ (hv and hm may be allophones). /ɲv/ is pronounced [ŋβ]. There are no coda consonants apart from [ŋ].

/k, ɡ, ŋ/ do occur in Dusö dialect. They correspond to /ɦ/ or zero in Dumo.

Dumo syllables may have either a 'high' or a 'long' tone. There is strict syllable timing, a 'long'-toned syllable takes the entire time allotted for a syllable, whereas with a high-tone or atonic syllable, there is a slight gap between it and the following syllable. Ross writes high tone with a *grave* accent, and long tone with an acute accent. A syllable with a nasal vowel / coda [ŋ] is not necessarily long, it may have any of the three tones.

## References

1. ↑ Malcolm Ross, 1980, "Some elements of Vanimo, a New Guinea tone language"
Vaeakau-Taumako phonology

## Vowels

Vaeakau-Taumako does not vary from the standard Polynesian and Austronesian vowel system, featuring five vowels that can be used either in a long or short form. Short vowels found in word-final syllables are frequently devoiced or dropped, but long vowels in the same position are always stressed. There is little allophonic variation between vowel pronunciations.

Vowel sequences in Vaeakau-Taumako are typically not treated as diphthongs, as they are not fully reduplicated, as shown in the word "holauhola". This is despite the vowels in the original word being pronounced like a diphthong.

## Consonants

The Vaeakau-Taumako language has one of the most complex consonant system of the Polynesian languages, with 19 distinct phonemes, plus a large amount of variation across dialects. /b/ and /d/ are found primarily in loan words, rather being native to the language.

Aspirated sounds are characteristic of the language, and are typically strong and audible. However, the use of aspirated sounds varies across dialects, enough that it is difficult to identify a consistent pattern aside from noting they always occur at the start of stressed syllables.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 p.28
2. ↑ p.34-35
3. ↑ p.36
Vamale phonology

Vamale has five phonemic vowel articulations, and 35 consonant phonemes.

## Vowels

While Vamale distinguishes five vowel phonemes, /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/, nasality and length are phonemic as well. Compare /tã/ 'oven' and /ta/ 'go up', /ˈfa.ti/ 'speech' and /ˈfaː.ti/ 'to stick, to glue'.

Depending on the length of the vowel, and on the final consonant of the syllable, /e/ and /o/ can be realized more open: plosives and short syllables trigger open vowels (e.g. [tɔːt] 'grass' [sɛn] 'poison'), while open syllables, and long ones closed by nasals, feature closed vowels.

 **Close-Mid** | e ø̯
 **Open-Mid** | ɛ œ ɛ̃
 **Open** | æ

## Consonants

As is typical of Northern New Caledonian languages, Vamale has a wealth of consonants. The distinction reconstructible since Proto-Oceanic is between nasals, semi-nasals (pre-nasalized voiced plosives, i.e. /ᵐb/, /ⁿɟ/ etc.), and orals.
Wakhi orthography

Traditionally, Wakhi was not a written language. Writing systems have been developed for the language using Arabic, Cyrillic and Latin scripts.

## Arabic script

This Arabic alphabet is mainly used in Afghanistan:

## Cyrillic script

When Wakhi is written in Cyrillic, the sounds are usually represented by these letters:

## Latin script

A Latin alphabet was developed in 1984 by Haqiqat Ali:

## Sample text

Sample text from a Bible translation published in 2001 is shown below:

**Lord's Prayer (Luke 11:2–4)**
 3Spo rыsq-ət rыzi sakər nəsib car!
 4Cə spo gənoən šəxs! Sak bə kuy, ki sakər šakiɣ̆, cə kərk! kыx̆tər baxṣ̌əṣ̌ carən. Cə bandi nafs-ət awasən, Cə waswasayi Iblisən saki niga δыr!“»
Yakkha phonology

## Vowels

Yakkha has the five vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [u]. There are no centralized vowels as in other Kiranti languages. Variation between short and long vowels is possible, but this is not a phonemic contrast, because no minimal pairs can be found. Diphthongs such as [oi̯], [ui̯], [ai̯] can be found in some words such as *uimalaŋ* "steep descent", or the interjection *hoiʔ* "Enough!".

Yakkha vowel phonemes

## Consonants

The consonants are shown in the table below. The voiced consonants in brackets have doubtful status. They are not phonemes, because no minimal pairs can be established. But they are also not motivated by a phonological rule. Furthermore, the voiced consonants occur only in a few words, and some of them are Nepali loans. Examples with initial voiced consonants are *gogoba* (an insect/worm), *gʱak* "all", *jeppa* "really", *ɖaŋgak* "stick".

Notes:

* A typical feature of Eastern Kiranti languages is the merger of voiced and voiceless obstruents, and also Yakkha exhibits this feature. Voicing occurs however optionally between vowels and after nasals. Unaspirated obstruents undergo this voicing rule more regularly than aspirated obstruents. Voiced consonants that are not motivated by a phonological rule exist, but they are rare.
* Another feature of the Yakkha sound system is the change of proto \*/r/ and \*/R/ to /y/, e.g. the word for salt is *yum* in Yakkha, but *rum* in Puma (Central Kiranti), and *rɨm* in Dumi (Western Kiranti).
* The rhotic [r] is not found word-initially, but in [Cr] clusters and in intervocalic position, as in *makhruna* "black" and *tarokma* "start".
* Several morphophonological processes operate in Yakkha, so that the underlying forms are not easy to establish. Many of these processes have to do with substitution by a nasal, e.g. in compound verbs like *suncama* "itch", the underlying verb stems are /sut/ and /ca/. To take an example from inflection, the verb *sapthakma* "like" is inflected *sapthaŋmecuna* "they (dual) like him". Other examples of morphophonological processes are the change of underlying *et-se* to [esse] (meaning "in order to hunt fish").
* Underspecified Nasal prefixes assimilate in the place of articulation to the stem-initial consonant, e.g. *m-baŋ* "your-house", but *n-chem* "your-song".

"aka"my
Yakut phonology

## Consonants

* /n, t, d/ are laminal denti-alveolar [n̪, t̪, d̪], whereas /s, l, ɾ/ are alveolar [s, l, ɾ].
* /k, x, ɣ/ vary between velar [k, x, ɣ] and uvular [q, χ, ʁ].

The Sakha language (except the Dolgan phonology) is the only Turkic language without hushing sibilants. Also, Sakha and Khorasani Turkic are the only known Turkic languages with voiced palatal nasal /ɲ/.
Zotung phonology

## Zoccaw or Zo alphabet

Aa AWaw Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Yy Zz
## Vowels

A AW E I O U Y

-a /a/~ weak form /ɔː/~/aʊː/

-aw /ɔː/~/auː/

-e /eː/~/ɛ/~ weak form /œ/

-i /iː/ weak form /ɨ/

-o /o/~/oʊː/~ weak form /ə/

-u /uː/~ weak form /ʊ/

-y /ɪ/~/ɨː/~/ʏː/

Diphthongs and triphthongs:

-ae /æ/~/ɛː/

-ai /aiː/~ weak form /æ/

-au /aʊː/~weak form /oʊ/

-awi /ɔiː/~/oɪ/~/ʏi/

-awe /ʊeː/~/øː/~/œː/

-ei /eɪ/~/e/~/eiː/

-eu /eʊː/~ weak form /œ/

-ia /iːɑ/~/iɑ/~ weak forms /ja/~/jɛ/

-oi /ɔiː/~/oiː/~/ʏː/

-ou /ə/~/œː/~/ʌː/

-ua /uaː/~weak forms /ʋa/~/uə/

-ue /ueː/~/ʋe/

-ui /uiː/~/iː/~/ʏː/

Etymologically, the long vowel counterparts of /aː/, /eː/, /iː/, /oː/, /ɔː/, and /uː/ have mutated or shifted towards several new vowels. Zotung vowels such as /æː/, /ɔː/, /aʊː/, /ɛiː/ and /œː/ correspond to a single vowel /aː/ or /ɒː/ in more conservative Kuki-Chin languages. For instance, where Mizo and Laizo have mál /ˈmaːl./, râlkap /ˈraːlkap/, nâsa /ˈnaːʂaː/, pakhat /paˈkʰaːt/, and sazûk /saˈzuːk/, the correspondents in Zotung would be mæl /ˈmæːl/, rolkaw /ˈrɔːlko/, náwsaw /ˈnaʊːʂɔ/, can-kheit /ˈθaːn χɛiːt./, and sazúk /sœˈzuːk/

## Consonants

B, C\*, D, F, G, H\*, J, K, L, M, N, P, R, S\*, T\*, V, Z\*

*C* before *a, aw, o, u,* and *y* is pronounced like a dental fricative /θ/~/ð/. *C* and *s* are palatalized before *e* and *i* resulting in words like *ciate* /ˈtsʲaːte/ and *seryn* (ʃɛˈɾœn). *H* is not pronounced in some dialects in certain words, for example: mango *thæhai* /tʲæˈʔæː/. *T* is rhotacized in some dialects that results in words like *khate* /ˈkʰatɛ/ and *tukiaccu* /tˠuˈkʲeðu/ being pronounced /kʰaˈɾɛ/ and /təˈkeirʊ/. *Z* has a very wide pronunciation range. It can be pronounced like the voiced fricative /ʒ/ /z/ /j/ or the English /dʒ/*.*

Digraphs: *ch, kh, ph, hr, rh, th*

*Ch-* is seldom used in native words other than family or clan names. *Ch-* evolved from the palatalized soft *t* that preceded the vowels *e* and *i*. For example, *chihno* “death” was originally *thihna* or *thihnak. Kh-* in formal speech is a palatalized *k* sound. However, it is pronounced as /x/~/χ/ in informal speech. *Hr-* is a rare digraph representing /r̥/. It has evolved into /ɦ/ or /ʀ/ in some dialects. *Rh-* is not used in the vernacular writing.

Zotung is rich with consonant clusters that have etymologically remained the same, but they are written with schwas or other vowels to make a disyllable.

They are found in native words such as *tynkrin (firmly), cintling, ablyn (all), sparo* as well as in loan words like *Biathlam (Revalation), Kris (Christ), naiklab (nightclub), Griekram (Greece) and Bethlem (Bethlehem).*

## Consonants

Zotung has the following consonants, with the first symbol being its orthographical form and the second one its representation in the IPA:

1. The glottal and glottalised consonants appear only in final position.

## References

1. ↑ Weidert, Alfons, *Component Analysis of Lushai Phonology*, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Series IV – Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, volume 2, Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V., 1975.
Wyandot phonology

## Consonants

The phonemic inventory of the consonants is written by using the orthography used by Kopris in his analysis, which was based on Barbeau's transcriptions. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbol is written in parentheses afterward whenever it differs from the orthography. Kopris listed places of articulation for the consonants but noted that the distinction had not been made by Barbeau.

## Vowels

Barbeau's original transcriptions contained great detail and a complex system of diacritics, resulting in 64 different vowel characters. By eliminating allophones, Kopris found six phonemes, in addition to the marginal phoneme /ã/.
Woleaian phonology

Woleaian has geminate (long) consonants and vowels.

In the orthography of Sohn (1975), along with a few approximations in the IPA, the inventory is,

Note that both *sh* and *r* become *ch* when long, and that *l* becomes *nn*.

Vowels

Vowels occur long and short, except for *eo* and *oa,* which are only found long.

All simple vowels except *a* can occur as voiceless vowels in word-final position. (All simple vowels can also occur as word-final voiced vowels.) Though these voiceless vowels are generally not spelled out by native speakers, they represent an important change in pronunciation between words which are otherwise spelled the same. For example:

* *besh* [beshi̥] "hot"
* *besh* [beshe̥] "lime"
* *yalius* [yaliusi̥u̥] "ghost"
* *yalius* [yaliuse̥] "beard"
* *lamw* [lamwu̥] "mosquito"
* *lamw* [lamwo̥] "lagoon"

## Syllable structure

In the Woleaian language words can have anywhere from one to three consonants in a row. Words may either have CV, CCV, CCCV, or VV syllable structures, and words can end in consonants (Sohn, 1975).
Yupik phonology

## Consonants

Central Yup'ik Consonants:

**c** [ts]~[tʃ], **g** [ɣ], **gg** [x], **k**, **l** [l], **ll** [ɬ], **m**, **ḿ** (*voiceless* m), **n** (*alveolar*), **ń** (*voiceless* n), **ng** [ŋ], **ńg** (*voiceless* ŋ), **p**, **q** [q], **r** [ʁ], **rr** [χ], **s** [z], **ss** [s], **t** (*alveolar*), **û** [w], **v** [v]~[w], **vv** [f], **w** [χʷ], **y** [j], (*gemination of preceding consonant*)

## Vowels

Yupik languages have four vowels: 'a', 'i', 'u' and schwa. They have from 13 to 27 consonants.

Central Yup'ik Vowels:

**a**, **aa**, **e** (ə) (*schwa*), **i**, **ii**, **u**, **uu**

(In proximity to the uvular consonants 'q', 'r' or 'rr', the vowel /i/ is pronounced [e], and /u/ is pronounced [o].)
Year

A **year** is the orbital period of a planetary body, for example, the Earth, moving in its orbit around the Sun. Due to the Earth's axial tilt, the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons, marked by change in weather, the hours of daylight, and, consequently, vegetation and soil fertility. In temperate and subpolar regions around the planet, four seasons are generally recognized: spring, summer, autumn and winter. In tropical and subtropical regions, several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons; but in the seasonal tropics, the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked.
Xavante phonology

The phonology of Xavante is described by McLeod (1974).

## Vowels

Xavante has nine vowel qualities, long and short. Four occur nasalized, long and short.

## Consonants

Xavante has ten consonants, /p t c ʔ b d j r w h/ illustrated in the chart below.

The phonetic realizations of these phonemes include those shown in the following chart:
Yolmo phonology

## Consonants

There are 36 consonants in Yolmo, which are summarized in the table below. The form is given in IPA and then to the right in brackets is given the form used in this article, if different.

Not all consonants are equally frequent. In particular [h], [r̥] and [l̥] are not particularly frequent, nor are vowel-initial words.

## Vowels

There are five places of articulation for vowels. There is a length distinction at each place of articulation. The form of each vowel is given in IPA and then to the right in brackets is given the form used in this article, if different.
Zaza phonology

## Vowels

A vowel /e/ may also be realized as /ɛ/ when occurring before a consonant. /ɨ/ may become lowered to an /ɪ/ when occurring before a velarized nasal /n/; [ŋ], or occurring between a palatal approximant /j/ and a palato-alveolar fricative /ʃ/. Vowels /ɑ/, /ɨ/, or /ə/ become nasalized when occurring before /n/, as [ɑ̃], [ɨ̃], or [ə̃].
Zabana phonology

Zabana only contains open syllables, since there are no consonant clusters and geminate vowels in the language. Vocal stress on a single phoneme does not exist in Zabana, instead certain syllables called penultimate syllables (the final syllable of a word that ends in a vowel) are stressed. When compared to the neighboring languages, Zabana has fewer phonemes than its neighbors, in particular Kokota.
Wirangu phonology

## Vowels

Wirangu has three phonemic vowels (a, i, u). Vowel length is not usually considered phonemic in Wirangu, as vowel length is normally short, although it is predictably long in all monosyllabic words (Wirangu 'ma' [ma:], 'wa' [wa:], 'mil' [mi:l], etc.), borrowings from other languages ('maatha' [ma:t̪a] < English "master"), and cases of initial consonant loss across phonological boundaries ('marna' + '(k)artu' = 'marnaartu' [maɳa:ʈu]).

## Consonants

The consonantal phonemic inventory of Wirangu is very similar to that of many other Pama Nyungan languages, with six series of stops and nasals. Voicing is not phonemic in the Wirangu stop series, and many stops are either unvoiced or semivoiced. Wirangu also has two rhotics, an alveolar flap/trill and a more retroflex rhotic.

## References

1. ↑ Hercus, pp. 26; L.A. Hercus uses the voiced stop equivalents "b", "d", "g", etc. in her orthography.
Yakan phonology

## Vowels

Yakan has a simple five-vowel system: [a], [ɛ], [e], [i], [ɔ], [o], [u], with phonemic vowel length: *ā* [a:], *ē* [e:], *ī* [i:], *ō* [o:], *ū* [u:].

## Consonants

The following chart lists the consonant phonemes of Yakan.

The consonant *d* is usually realized between vowels as a flap [ɾ], although some speakers use the stop [d] in all positions.

All consonants except for /d͡ʒ/, /h/, /j/, /w/ and /ʔ/ can occur as lengthened consonants.

The following spelling conventions are used: *y* /j/, *j* /d͡ʒ/, *ng* /ŋ/, *'* /ʔ/.
Wymysorys phonology

## Consonants

* Voiced stops, sibilant fricatives and affricates are regularly devoiced or voiceless in final position.
* The sounds of /x/ and /h/ are interchangeable among different speakers. The use of [x] is typically heard at the beginning of a word, possibly due to the influence of Polish, even though historically in Germanic languages, the glottal fricative [h] is typically heard.
* The series of palato-alveolar /ʃ, ʒ, t͡ʃ/ and alveolo-palatal /ɕ, ʑ, t͡ɕ/ fricative and affricate sounds, are heard interchangeably among various speakers.
* [ç] is heard in word-final position, as an allophone of /x/.
* The voiced affricates /d͡z, d̠͡z̠, d͡ʒ, d͡ʑ/ are only heard in Polish loanwords.
* A series of flat post-alveolar sibilants and affricates [s̠, z̠, t̠͡s̠, d̠͡z̠], are also heard in Polish loanwords, interchangeably with alveolar-palatal sounds /ɕ, ʑ, t͡ɕ, d͡ʑ/.
* The labial-velar approximant /w/ is pronounced with a lesser degree of lip rounding than in English, and is more similar to the Polish pronunciation of *ł* [w].

## Vowels

* The close-mid sound /ɘ/ is phonetically more fronted as [ɘ̟].
* Mid central vowel sounds /ɘ, ə/ are also heard close central sounds [ɨ, ʉ], among speakers.

Diphthongs
Zou phonology

The set of 23 Zou consonantal phonemes can be established on the basis of the following minimal pairs or overlapping words. Besides these 23 Phonemes, 1 consonant is a borrowed phoneme (i.e. /r/), which is found only in loan words, in very rare cases (e.g. /r/ in /rəŋ/ "color"). Along with these consonants, Zou has 7 vowels: i, e, a, ɔ, o, u, ə.

Vowels
 Close
 Close-mid
 Mid
 Open-mid
 Open
Yeyi phonology

## Vowels

Yeyi vowels

Vowel length is also distinctive.

* Vowel sounds /ɛ ɔ/ are phonetically noted [ɛ̝ ɔ̝].
* /ɔ/ can also be heard as [ʊ] in word-final position. /i/ can also be heard as [ə] in prefixes.
* Sounds /i u a/ can be heard as nasalized [ĩ ũ ã] when preceding nasal consonants. A nasal [ɛ̝̃] can also be heard, but only in stem-internal position.
* Sounds /i u/ can tend to be centralized as [ɨ ʉ] following fricative and sibilant sounds.

## Consonants

Other palatalized consonant sounds that can occur are /bʲ ⁿdʲ lʲ/.

* A glottal stop sound [ʔ] can also occur, but only between vowels.
* Palatalized-velar stop consonants /kʲ kʰʲ kʲʼ ɡʲ/ may often be heard as palatal stop consonants [c cʰ cʼ ɟ].
* A labial approximant sound /β̞/ can range from an approximant sound to a fricative sound [β̞ ~ β].
* An alveolar rhotic consonant /r/ can be heard as a tap or a trill, but can also be heard as a retroflex tap [ɽ].
* An alveolar lateral consonant /l/ can also be heard as a retroflex lateral [ɭ].

* Prenasal palatalized-velar stop consonants /ᵑkʲ ᵑɡʲ/ may often be heard as prenasal palatal stop consonants [ᶮc ᶮɟ].
Yoron phonology

The following is the phonology of the Mugiya dialect, which is based on Hirayama et al. (1969).

## Consonants

**Notes**

* The null onset /∅/ may be added. It contrasts with glottal /h/ and /ʔ/.
* /h/ is [ before /i/, and [ before /u/. /hwa/ is phonetically realized as [ɸa].
* /si/, /se/ and [t͡ʃu] is realized as [ʃi], [ʃe], and [t͡su], respectively.
* [t͡ʃa], [t͡ʃu] and [t͡ʃo] are phonemically analyzed as /t͡ʃja/, /t͡ʃju/ and /t͡ʃjo/, respectively.
* [ʃa], [ʃu] and [ʃo] are phonemically analyzed as /sja/, /sju/ and /sjo/, respectively.
* N and Q are syllable codas (nasal and geminated stop, respectively).

## Vowels

The Yoron language has /ɑ/, /ɒ/, /ɛ/, /œ/, /ʌ/, /ɔ/, /ɨ/, /ʉ/, /ə/, /æ/, /a/, /ɐ/, /e/, /ø/, /i/, /y/, /ɤ/, /o/, /ɯ/, /u/, long and short.

## Correspondences to Standard Japanese

Only major sound correspondences are listed.

* Standard Japanese /e/ is merged into /i/.
* Standard Japanese /o/ is merged into /u/.
* Yoron /e/ and /o/ are of secondary origin and mostly correspond to Standard Japanese diphthongs.
* Yoron retains /p/ while it has changed to /h/ in Standard Japanese.
* Standard Japanese /t͡ʃu/, /su/ and /zu/ correspond to /t͡ʃi/ [t͡ʃi], /si/ [ʃi] and /zi/ [d͡ʒi].
* Standard Japanese /k/ shows complex correspondences. Standard Japanese /ka/ corresponds to both Yoron /ka/ and /ha/. /ki/ corresponds to /ki/ and /si/. /ke/ corresponds to /si/ with some exceptions. /ku/ corresponds to /hu/.
* Standard Japanese /ni/ corresponds to Yoron /mi/.
* Yoron /r/ is dropped when it is surrounded by a vowel and /i/.
* Standard Japanese /o/ that comes from earlier /wo/ corresponds to Yoron /hu/.
Woods Cree orthography

The following chart displays the Woods Cree syllabic chart:

The basic syllable structure of Woods Cree is (C)(w)V(C)(C) where /h/ will never occur at the beginning or end of syllables and words.

The following examples are of a text called "Encounters with bears" spoken by Mrs. Janet Feitz and transcribed into Woods Cree syllabics as well as the Roman orthography:
Yawuru phonology

The vowel phonemes are short vowels /i/, /ø/, /ɛ/, /a/, /ɒ/, /ɔ/, /ɤ/, and /u/, and long vowels /iː/, /aː/, and /uː/ (spelled ii, aa, uu).

Consonantal segments include:

Speakers also use glottal stops, implosives, and ejectives.

Syllable structure in the initial position is #CV(:) (C(C)), in the medial position is CV(:)(C), and in the final position is CV(C(C))#. # representing the word boundary, C standing for consonant, V for vowel, and V: for long vowel. The most common syllables are CV or CVC (CV: or CV:C).
Yemba phonology

## Consonants

* Sounds /t͡ʃ ʃ ʒ/ are included as phonemes in some analyses. In most analyses, they are considered as allophones of /t͡s s z/.
* Sounds [p l ɣ] are consonant alternation sounds between the following consonants /b d ɡ/.
* Alternation sounds of /j w/ are labialized and palatalized sounds [ɡʲ ɡʷ].
* Graphemes of the alterations and allophones [t͡ʃ ʃ ʒ p l] are noted in the Yemba alphabet as *c sh j p l*.
* An /r/ sound can also be included in the current language, and written in the Yemba alphabet as *r*.
* The prosodies if palatalization and labialization [ʲ ʷ], are written orthographically with lowercase graphemes *y w*.
* A grapheme for aspiration [ʰ] among consonants is written as *h*.

## Vowels

 Mid | e | ø
 ɛ | œ
 Low | æ

* /ʉ/ is included as a phoneme in some analyses. In more abstract analyses, it is considered as a palatalization of /u/.
* Vowel length is distinguished using double vowel sounds (ex. aa [aː])

## Tone

Three tones are marked as high [á], mid [ā], or low [à]. Low tones are unmarked when written.
Yucatec Maya phonology

## Consonants

Some sources describe the plain consonants as aspirated, but Victoria Bricker states "[s]tops that are not glottalized are articulated with lung air without aspiration as in English spill, skill, still."

## Vowels

In terms of vowel quality, Yucatec Maya has a straightforward five vowel system:

For each of these five vowel qualities, the language contrasts four distinct vowel "shapes", i.e. combinations of vowel length, tone, and phonation. In the standard orthography first adopted in 1984, vowel length is indicated by digraphs (e.g. "aa" for IPA [aː]).

In fast-paced speech, the glottalized long vowels may be pronounced the same as the plain long high vowels, so in such contexts *ka’an* [ká̰ːn] 'sky' sounds the same as *káan* [káːn] 'when?'.
Yahgan orthography

The alphabet currently sanctioned officially in Chile is as follows:

a, æ, ch, e, ö, f, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, rh, s, š, t, u, w, x.

A simplified orthography is a variant of the old Bridges system, created for online use on the Waata Chis discussion list on Yahoo Groups and elsewhere. It has tense and lax vowels as well as voiced and voiceless consonants. In the system, tenseness is marked by colon (:) following the vowel sign: a, a:, ai, au, e, e:, i, i:, iu:, o, o:, oi, u, u:, v (pronounced as a schwa, not /v/), all corresponding to unique graphemes in the Bridges orthography. The consonants are b, d, ch, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, r, s, sh, t, w, x, y, z, all corresponding to unique Bridges graphemes. Some are found only in restricted environments. The phonemes hm, hn, hl, hr, hw, and hy are used as well, and are digraphs in the earlier Bridges writings, but single graphemes in later ones.

Still later, Bridges made further orthographic modifications: w, h, and y became superscripts, and à is read as ya, á as ha, and ā as wa. Superscripts could combine to give hw, hy, etc. Because iu: could now be represented by u: plus y- superscript (ù:), and because the original graphemes for u: and u were easily confused with each other as well as with the now-superscripted w, Bridges began using the now-redundant grapheme for iu: (approximately ų) for u: in his renderings. All of these changes took place in a very short time frame, and have led to substantial confusion on the part of later scholars.

In addition, Bridges's modifications of the 19th century phonetic alphabet of Alexander Ellis also included a number of signs meant for transliterations of foreign terms.

There are some ambiguities in Bridges' renderings. He himself notes that g/k, j/ch, d/t and p/f are, in many instances, interchangeable. In certain environments s and sh are hard to distinguish (as before high front vowels). The same goes for ai versus e: and au versus o:. Such ambiguities may go far to help explain the loss or lack of contrasts in the surviving dialect.

## References

1. ↑ Tauber, Jess. “8 - Yahgan Orthography for the list”. 24 April 2004. Retrieved on 04 abril 2017.
2. ↑ [1]
Yugambeh phonology

## Vowels

Yugambeh has a vowel system of 13 oral vowels that also contrast in length, resulting in 26 phonemic oral vowels in total. The letter "h" is used after the vowel to indicate a long vowel. The letter "ŋ" is used after the vowel to indicate a nasal vowel.

### Allophones

The low central vowel /a/ is fronted and raised between palatal consonants and a lateral/rhotic consonant.

## Consonants

Compared to other Pama-Nyungan languages, Yugambeh has a smaller inventory of consonants. There are four places of articulation, with the consonants consisting of 4 obstruents, 4 nasals, 2 liquids, and 2 semivowels.

**Obstruents**

Obstruents do not have a voicing contrast, and can appear as fricative allophones. Obstruents are phonetically voiceless, except when following a homorganic consonant.
ǂAakhoe phonology

Comparing Heikinnen's and Widlock's contribution to ǂAkhoe phonology with the more general and theoretical phonological work of Peter Ladefoged (1996), ǂAkhoe can be said to have 47 phonemes. However, an in-depth phonological sketch of the language might show other results where the vowels are concerned.

## Consonants

There are 34 consonants in ǂAkhoe, 20 of which are clicks produced with an ingressive airstream, and 14 of which are pulmonic consonants produced with an egressive airstream.

Clicks

## Vowels

ǂAkhoe Haiǁom has a total of 12 vowel phonemes. These can be divided into monophthongs and diphthongs, with a further subdivision into oral and nasal pronunciation.

Monophtongs
/i e a o u/ and /ĩ ã ũ/.
Diphthongs
/ai au/ and /ãi ãu/.
## References

1. ↑ Heikinnen, T. (n.d.), pp 15–30.
2. ↑ Widlock, T. (n.d.), pp. 12–17
3. ↑ Ladefoged, Peter & Maddieson, Ian (1996), pp. 246–260.
Äiwoo phonology

## Consonants

* Voiced stops are prenasalized by default, but can be realized plain oral: e.g. /ᵐbʷ/ is realized [ᵐbʷ] ~ [bʷ].
* The voiced labio-dental approximant /ʋ/ may also be realized as a fricative [v].
* /s/ can also be heard as an affricate [t͡s].
* /t/ can also be heard as rhotic sounds [ɾ, r] within words.
Wymysorys orthography

Wymysorys has been for centuries mostly a spoken language. It was not until the times of Florian Biesik, the first author of major literary works in the language, that a need for a separate version of a Latin alphabet arose. Biesik wrote most of his works in plain Polish alphabet, which he considered better-suited for the phonetics of his language. In recent times Józef Gara (1929–2013), another author of works in the local language, devised a distinct Wymysorys alphabet, consisting of 34 letters derived from the Latin script and mostly based on Polish as well:

Wilamowicean orthography includes the digraph "AO", which is treated as a separate letter.
ǂʼAmkoe phonology

## Vowels

Nǃaqriaxe vowel qualities are /i e a o u/. The front vowels, /i e/, are very similar in formant space, as are even more so the back vowels, /o u/, but minimal pairs distinguish them. Vowels may be nasalized, pharyngealized (written with a final ⟨q⟩ in the practical orthography), or glottalized.

## Tone

Tone is difficult to analyze in ǂʼAmkoe, due to the confounding effect of consonants and vowel phonation.
Yapese phonology

Apart from a couple grammatical forms which are V, syllables are CV or CVC.

## Consonants

/h/ ⟨h⟩ and /j/ ⟨j⟩ only occur in English and Japanese loans (/j/ ⟨y⟩ does occur in native words, however).

## Vowels

In the table below, each phoneme is listed to the left of the grapheme that represents it in Yapese orthography.

## References

1. ↑ p32, Ballantyne, Keira Gebbie. 2005. *Textual Structure and Discourse Prominence in Yapese Narrative.* Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawai'i.
Глифи на властта

## Информация

Глифи можете да спечелите като претопявате предмети при ковачите в градовете. Колко глифи ще получите зависи от нивото и качеството на предмета. Колкото е по-голямо качеството на даден предмет, толкова количеството глифи, които ще получите при стопяването му нараства. Mожете да топите всичко от подобрен до уникален предмет.

## Нямам глифи. Мога ли да закупя такива?

Да, можете да закупите глифи от магазина на играта.

***Имайте предвид че претопени, продадени или изгубени предмети съдържащи камъни в себе си, няма да ви бъдат връщани от екипа на играта!***
Woods Cree phonology

## Vowels

An important aspect of the Cree vowel system is that the Proto Algonquian short /e/ phoneme merged with short /i/ phoneme as shown above. In Woods Cree the long /eː/ also has merged with the long /iː/ phoneme. Phonetically, these two sounds may also alternate. This results in the vowel system of Woods Cree consisting of only three long vowels /iː uː aː/ and three short vowels /i u a/ in the entire language.
Zigula phonology

There is no official or traditional orthography for Mushunguli. However, spelling practices from related Bantu languages can easily be adopted to render the language with minimal phonetic diacritics.

## Consonants

The fricatives [z] and [s] freely vary with [ð] and [θ], respectively.

## Tone

Vowel length is not distinctive, but phonetic length is especially associated with falling tones as in *chîga* 'leg'. The tone system is similar to that of Tanzanian Zigua.

## References

1. ↑ Kenstowicz, Michael. 1989. Tone and accent in Kizigua – a Bantu language. in P.M. Bertinetto & M. Loporcaro (eds). *Certamem phonologicum: papers from the 1987 Cortona Phonology Meeting*, pp. 177-188. Torino: Rosenberg and Sellier.
2. ↑ Kenstowicz, Michael. & Charles Kisseberth. 1990. Chizigula tonology: the word and beyond. In S. Inkelas & D. Zec(eds) *The phonology-syntax connection*, pp. 163-194. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Xincan phonology

The phonological system of Xincan languages had some variance, as evidenced by the variations in recorded phonology exhibited among semi-speakers of the two remaining languages.

## Vowels

It is generally agreed upon that the Xincan languages have 6 vowels.

 Close-Mid
 Open

## Consonants

The number and type of consonants in the Xincan languages is not known. This chart shows the consonants used by the final semi-speakers of the language.

Many younger semi-speakers also used the phonemes /b, d, g, f, ŋ, ʂ/ due to greater influence from Spanish.
Крепост на съюза (втора карта)

Втората версия на **Крепост на съюза** е последната карта от въвеждащите куестове. След завършването на четвъртото условие на куеста Злодеяние в Гримиджстоун, (убиването на немъртвия Гримаг), играчите ще имат достъп до селцето Гримфорд, откъдето ще започне и същинското им пътешествие в света на Дракенсанг.

## Чудовища

* Немъртъв драконов воин
* Немъртъв горски
* Горящ труп на драконов воин
* Преследвач от Отвъдното
* Могъщ преследвач от Отвъдното
* **Немъртъв Гримаг**