recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Hinuq phonology

## Vowels

Hinukh distinguishes 6 vowel qualities /a, e, i, o, u, y/, all of which can be either long or short. Two vowels can occur pharyngealized: /aˤ/ and /eˤ/. However, these are only used by the older generation. Today they are usually replaced by /i/.

Vowels of Hinuq
 **Mid** | /ɛ/ e
 **Low** |  | /a/ a

## Consonants

Like many Caucasian languages, Hinuq has a large number of consonants. In addition to voiced and unvoiced consonants, there are also ejectives.

## References

1. ↑ Forker, Diana. *A sketch grammar of Hinuq*, p. 2
2. ↑ \*Forker, Diana. (2013). *A Grammar of Hinuq*. (Mouton grammar library; 63). Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, p. 29
Huave phonology

Huave of San Mateo del Mar is partly tonal, distinguishing between high and low tone in penultimate syllables only. Huave is one of only two Mesoamerican languages not to have a phonemic glottal stop (the other is Purépecha).

The phonemic inventory, reconstructed for the common ancestor of the four existing Huave varieties as presented in Campbell 1997, is as follows:

* Consonants: [p, t, ts, k, kʷ, ᵐb, ⁿd, ᵑɡ, ɡʷ, s, l, r, w, h] (and [ɾ, j, ð] as marginal phonemes)
* Vowels: [i, ɪ, e, ɛ, æ, a, ə, ɨ, ɔ, o, ʊ, u] (and, depending on the variety, vowel length, low and high tone, aspiration).

These phonemes are from the phonology of San Francisco del Mar Huave. The San Dionisio del Mar dialect has an additional vowel phoneme, /y/, cognate with /e/ in San Mateo.

Vowels: /i, e, u, o, ɑ/. All vowels have aspirated forms.
Hakha Chin phonology

## Syllable structure

Words in the Hakha Chin language are predominantly monosyllabic with some sesqui syllables featuring a "reduced syllable". Full syllables are either open or closed with a rising, falling, or low tone.

## Consonants

The Hakha Chin language differentiates between voiced, voiceless, and voiceless aspirated obstruents. Additionally, two sets of sonorants are realised.

Consonants allowed in syllable codas are /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l, r, j, w/.

The unattested parent language, Proto-Chin, featured a voiced velar plosive ɡ. The phoneme itself was lost in all of its daughter languages, due to a spirantisation to ɣ, which a labialisation followed afterwards. Only certain loanwords, not native words, have the voiced velar plosive.

In the Hakha alphabet, ⟨h⟩ transcribes the glottal fricative in initial position, but a glottal stop in coda position. Voiceless approximants are distinguished in writing from their voiced counterparts with a prefixed ⟨h⟩.

## Vowels

The Hakha language features five vowels which may be long or short. Allophones occur for closed syllables.

 **Open** | æ | a | ɑ

The Hakha language also features diphthongs.

 Open |  | ai au | ɑi ɑu
Intal orthography

Intal uses the Latin script without special signs. The Intal alphabet has 23 letters, 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, u) and 18 consonants (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, y, z). The consonants q, w and x are only used in proper names and foreign words.

*c* is pronounced /ʃ/ (like English *sh*), *g* always hard (as in German), *j* as in French, and *y* and *z* as in English.

The stress of a word is on the vowel before the last consonant, unless marked by an accent as in *idé* and *tabú*.
I'saka phonology

Apart from segmental phonemes, I’saka and also make suprasegmental distinctions in tone and nasality.

## Segmental phonemes

There are the following consonants in I’saka:

The sounds [p], [ɸ], and occasionally [f] are heard in non-contrastive free variation, making them reflexes of a single phoneme (transcribed p). Donohue and San Roque (2004) suggest that there was an earlier phonemic or allophonic contrast which is in the process of merging, perhaps under the influence of neighboring languages and Tok Pisin. The voiced stops (and semivowels) are nasalized before nasal vowels.

There are five oral vowel phonemes distinguished by most speakers, although older speakers sometimes also distinguish a high central rounded vowel /ʉ/.

Oral vowels

Vowels also occur nasalized, and these nasalize preceding voiced stops. For example, /bɔ̌w/ *heart* (with a rising tone) is pronounced [bǒw], while /bɔ̃̌w/ *none* is pronounced [mõ̌w̃].

(These are spelled *bou* and *mou*; after other consonants, nasal vowels are spelled with a final *-ng*: that is, voiceless *pa, pang, ta, tang, ka, kang*, voiced stops *ba, ma, da, na*, other *sa, sang, wa, wang, ya, yang*.)

Donohue & San Roque (2004) present nasality as a suprasegmental feature of the syllable, rather than of the vowel.

## Tone

The tone system makes four tone contrasts on single syllables, high, low, rising, and falling. Less than half the theoretically possible tone patterns (4 x 4) which might be expected on disyllabic roots are actually found. Specifically, low-low is the only sequence of two identical tones found, and the sequence high-rise has not been observed. At least some instances of phonetic low pitch contour represent syllables that are phonologically toneless or underspecified for a tone value
Innu-aimun phonology

Innu-aimun has the following phonemes (written in IPA, with the standard orthography equivalents in angle brackets):

## Consonants

The plosives are voiced to [b d dʒ ɡ ɡʷ] between vowels.

## Vowels

There are three pairs of so-called "long" and "short" vowels, and one long vowel with no short counterpart, though the length distinction is giving way to a place distinction.
The column titles here refer chiefly to the place of articulation of the long vowel.

Macron accent marks over the long vowels are omitted in general writing. **e** is not written with a macron because there is no contrasting short **e**.
Hodï phonology

The first phonological analysis is Vilera Díaz (1985). She largely retains the vocalic description of earlier researchers, apart from finding vowel length is a product of emphasis, but does not state whether vowel nasalization is phonemic, and does not provide a minimal pair for /o/ vs /u/.

The mid central vowel is written ⟨ö⟩.

## Vowels

Quatra (2008) maintains that [ɛ] and [ɑ] are distinct phonemes, but does not provide any minimal pairs to demonstrate that. He also maintains that [ɘ] and [ɑ] are only nasalized following nasal consonants.

## Consonants

There is no minimal pair for /β/, so it is not clear that it's a separate phoneme.

/n/ is [ŋ] before a velar. /k/ and /kʲ/ are [ɡ, ɡʲ] after a nasal and occasionally intervocalicly. Intervocalic /l/ is [ɺ]. /b/ (perhaps ɓ) is [ɓʷ] before /i e o/. /ɗ/ was written 'd' due to lack of typewriter support. It's not clear why /w/ is placed in the labial rather than the labio-velar column, nor why it isn't paired with /hʷ/.

[kʲ] varies as [tʃʲ], and [dʒ] varies as [ɲ] in all contexts, not just adjacent to nasal vowels.

Phonetic aspiration occurs at boundaries, often before voiceless consonants and always before /l/.

The voiced stops are realized as nasals [m n] between nasal vowels. From the orthography, it is assumed that the 'aspirated' consonants are pre-aspirated, but there are no minimal pairs to establish them as phonemic.

## References

1. ↑ Vilera Díaz, Diana C. 1985. "Introducción morfológica de la lengua Hoti". Thesis in Anthropology. Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela.
Implosive consonant

**Implosive consonants** are a group of stop consonants (and possibly also some affricates) with a mixed glottalic ingressive and pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism. That is, the airstream is controlled by moving the glottis downward in addition to expelling air from the lungs. Therefore, unlike the purely glottalic ejective consonants, implosives can be modified by phonation. Contrastive implosives are found in approximately 13% of the world's languages.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, implosives are indicated by modifying the top of a letter (voiced stop) with a rightward-facing hook: ⟨ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ⟩.
Ikwerre phonology

## Vowels

Ikwerre distinguishes vowels by quality (frontedness and height), the presence or absence of nasalization, and the presence or absence of advanced tongue root.

There is also a vowel \*/ə̃/ which is posited to explain syllabic nasal consonants in accounts of the language which state that Ikwerre has no nasal stops. This sound is realized as [ɨ̃] or a syllabic nasal which is homorganic to the following consonant.

### Vowel harmony

Ikwerre exhibits two kinds of vowel harmony:

1. Every vowel in an Ikwerre word, with a few exceptions, agrees with the other vowels in the word as to the presence or absence of advanced tongue root.
2. Vowels of the same height in adjacent syllables must all be either front or back, i.e. the pairs /i/ & /u/, /ɪ/ & /ʊ/, /e/ & /o/, and /ɛ/ & /ɔ/ cannot occur in adjacent syllables. Vowels of different heights, however, need not match for frontness/backness either. This doesn't apply to the first vowel in nouns beginning with a vowel or with /ɾ/, and doesn't apply to onomatopoeic words.

## Consonants

The oral consonants [ḅ ʼḅ l ɾ j ɰ w h hʷ] occur before oral vowels, and their nasal allophones [m ʼm n ɾ̃ ȷ̃ ɰ̃ w̃ h̃ h̃ʷ] before nasal vowels. The "non-explosive stops" [ḅ ʼḅ] are not plosives (not pulmonic), and are equivalent to implosives in other varieties of Igbo.

The tap /ɾ/ may sometimes be realized as an approximant [ɹ].

## Tone

Ikwerre is a tonal language with seven tones: high, mid, low, high-low falling, high-mid falling, mid-low falling and rising. Ikwerre also has a tonal downdrift. For example:
rínyā̀ (high, mid-low falling) means "weight, heaviness",
rìnyâ (low,high-low falling) means "female, wife",
mụ̌ (rising) means "to learn",
mụ̂ (high-low falling) means "to give birth", etc.
Hmu phonology

The phonemic inventory and alphabetic transcription are as follows.

[ʔ] is not distinct from a zero initial (that is, if we accept /ʔ/ as a consonant, there are no vowel-initial words in Hmu), and only occurs with tones 1, 3, 5, 7.

The aspirated nasals and fricatives do not exist in Southern or Eastern Hmu; cognates words use their unaspirated homologues. Further, in Eastern Hmu, *di, ti* merge into *j, q*; *c* merges into *x*; *r* (Northern /z/) merges into *ni*; and *v* is pronounced [w]. In Southern Hmu, words cognate with *hni* (and some with *ni*) are pronounced [nʲʑ]; those with *r* are [nz]; and some words exchange *s* and *x*.

Northern Hmu vowels

*Ai* /ɛ/ does not occur after palatalized consonants. /en/ after palatalized consonants is spelled *in*.

Diphthongs

Additional diphthongs occur in Chinese loans.

All dialects have eight tones. There is no sandhi. In the chart below, Northern Hmu is represented by Yanghao village (Kaili City), Eastern Hmu by 偶里 village (Jinping County), and Southern Hmu by 振民 (Rongshui County).

The lowest tones—Northern tones 4 and 6, Eastern tones 3 and 8, and Southern tone 6—are said to make the preceding consonant murmured (breathy voiced), presumably meaning that these are murmured tones as in other Hmongic languages. They are marked with ⟨◌̤⟩ in the chart.
Ishkashimi phonology

## Vowels

There are seven vowel phonemes: a, e, i, o, u, u, and ə

## Special features

Ishkashimi, as one of the Pamir languages, does not contain velar fricative phonemes, which is possibly the result of being influenced by Persian and Indo-Aryan languages throughout the history of its development. Also the use of the consonant [h] in the language is optional.

## Stress

There are many exceptions, but as a rule stress falls on the last syllable in a word with multiple syllables. Sometimes, as a result of the rhythm in the phrase, the stress will freely move to syllables other than the last syllable.
Hassaniya Arabic phonology

## Vowels

Vowel phonemes come in two series: long and short. The long vowels are the same as in Classical Arabic /aː iː uː ɑː ɛː ɔː/, and the short ones extend this by one: /a i u ɑ ɛ ɔ ə ɨ/. The classical diphthongs /aj/ and /aw/ may be realised in many different ways, the most usual variants being [eːʲ] and [oːʷ], respectively. Still, realisations like [aj] and [aw] as well as [eː] and [oː] are possible, although less common.
Itzaʼ phonology

## Consonants

The following chart shows the consonant phonemes of Itza: Where the orthography differs from the IPA notation, the orthography used by the Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala is noted in brackets.

The phonemes /d, g, f, v, r, ɲ/ have been adopted from Spanish and are present only in loanwords.

## Vowels

The following chart shows the vowel phonemes of Itza. All vowels except /ə/ have long equivalent, and vowel length is contrastive.

The Itza language does not contain tone nor pitch.
Gwichʼin phonology

## Consonants

The consonants of Gwichʼin in the standard orthography are listed below (with IPA notation in brackets):

## Vowels

* Nasal vowels are marked with an ogonek, e.g. [**ą**]
* Low tone is marked with a grave accent, e.g. [**à**]
* High tone is never marked
* The vowels are composed with most English letters. Even though the English letters are present they don't have the same sound that they normally would possess. For instance ii now it takes the form of sounding like ee.[1]
Hunsrik phonology

## Consonants

Orthography between plain angle brackets follows Wiesemann's orthography and between italic angle brackets follows Altenhofen et al.'s orthography.

The contrast between plosives is not of voice, but of articulatory force, a phenomenon observed in some other dialects of German.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Wiesemann, U. 2008. Contribuição ao desenvolvimento de uma ortografia da língua Hunsrik falada na América do Sul. Associação Internacional de Linguística—SIL Brasil, Cuiabá.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Altenhofen, C. V.; Frey, J.; Käfer, M. L.; Klassmann, M. S.; Neumann, G. R.; Spinassé, K. P. 2007. Fundamentos para uma escrita do Hunsrückisch falado no Brasil. *Revista Contingentia*, **2**: 73–87.
Hausa phonology

## Consonants

Hausa has between 23 and 25 consonant phonemes depending on the speaker.

## Vowels

Hausa vowels occur in eight different vowel qualities, all of which can be short or long, totaling 16 monophthongs. In addition, there are twelve (diphthongs), giving a total number of 28 vocalic phonemes.

Monophthongs
Short (single) vowels: /i, u, e, o, ɛ, ɔ, a, ɒ/.
 Long vowels: /iː, uː, eː, oː, ɛː, ɔː, aː, ɒː/.
In comparison with the long vowels, the short /i, u/ can be similar in quality to the long vowels, mid-centralized to [ɪ, ʊ] or centralized to [ɨ, ʉ].

Medial /i, u/ can be neutralized to [ɨ ~ ʉ], with the rounding depending on the environment.

Medial /e, o/ are neutralized with /a/.

The short /a/ can be either similar in quality to the long /aː/, or it can be as high as [ə], with possible intermediate pronunciations ([ɐ ~ ɜ]).

Diphthongs
/ai, au, iu, ui, ei, oi, eu, ou, ɛi, ɛu, ɔi, ɔu/.
Gǀui phonology

Gǀui has 89 consonants (with 52 clicks) or 52 consonants (and 20 clicks), depending on analysis. There are ten vowels, and two to six tones, again depending on analysis.

## Clicks

Preglottalized nasal clicks in Khute dialect
 [ᵑǂˀúbī] | [ᵑǂˀúbī] | "egg" (modal vowel)

## Vowels

Gǀui has twenty modal vowels, a e i o u ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ æ ɒ œ ʌ ə ɨ ɤ ø ʉ ɶ, eight nasal vowels, ã ɒ̃ ɛ̃ ɔ̃ ẽ õ ỹ ɯ̃, and two pharyngeal vowels, aˤ oˤ. There are diphthongs o͜a and o͜aˤ, but they are allophones of o. Gǀui also has breathy-voice vowels, but they are described as part of the tone system.

## Tone

Gǀui may be analyzed as having two abstract phonemic tones, plus breathy voice, which is covered here rather than under vowels.

## References

1. ↑ Gerlach 2015: 362, from Nakagawa 2006: 172
Gorontalo phonology

## Consonants

Consonant sequences include NC (homorganic nasal–plosive), where C may be /b d t d̠ ɟ ɡ k/. Elsewhere, /b d/ are relatively rare and only occur before high vowels. /d̠/, written ⟨ḓ⟩ in the literature, is a laminal post-alveoral coronal stop that is indeterminate as to voicing. The phonemic status of [ʔ] is unclear; if [VʔV] is interpreted as vowel sequences /VV/, then this contrasts with long vowels (where the two V's are the same) and vowel sequences separated by linking glides (where the two V's are different).

## Vowels

Gorontalo has five vowels.

Gorontalo vowels
Hopi phonology

## Vowels

There are six basic vowels in Hopi:

The vowel letter ⟨ö⟩ represents a sound that is similar to the vowel [ɛ] (as in English *pet*) but with rounded lips. This sound also occurs, among other languages, in French (*d**eu**x*) and German (*sch**ö**n*).

The vowel letter ⟨u⟩ represents a sound that is similar the vowel of English *boot*, but without rounded lips and further forward in the mouth. Some English speakers may find this vowel more similar to the vowel in "should" or to the "e" in "roses".

## Consonants

Hopi dialects differ in their number of consonants. Below are two separate inventories of the Third Mesa and Mishongnovi dialects. The Third Mesa inventory has orthographic symbols and IPA transcriptions of those symbols when the IPA symbol differs from the orthographic symbol.

## References

1. ↑ The glottal stop is found much more frequently in Hopi than in English, particularly at the beginning of a word, before the final consonant, or at the ends of words after a vowel.
Hiligaynon orthography

Hiligaynon is written using the Latin script. Until the second half of the 20th century, Hiligaynon was widely written largely following Spanish orthographic conventions. Nowadays there is no officially recognized standard orthography for the language and different writers may follow different conventions. It is common for the newer generation, however, to write the language based on the current orthographic rules of Filipino.

A noticeable feature of the Spanish-influenced orthography absent in those writing following Filipino's orthography is the use of "c" and "qu" in representing /k/ (now replaced with "k" in all instances) and the absence of the letter "w" (formerly used "u" in certain instances).

The core alphabet consists of 20 letters used for expressing consonants and vowels in Hiligaynon, each of which comes in an upper case and lower case variety.

## Additional symbols

The apostrophe ⟨'⟩ and hyphen ⟨-⟩ also appear in Hiligaynon writing, and might be considered separate letters.

The hyphen, in particular, is used medially to indicate the glottal stop *san-o* ‘when’ *gab-e* ‘evening; night’. It is also used to in reduplicated words: *adlaw-adlaw* ‘daily, every day’, from *adlaw* ‘day, sun’. This marking is not used in reduplicated words whose base is not also used independently, as in *pispis* ‘bird’.

Hyphens are also used in words with successive sounds of /g/ and /ŋ/, to separate the letters with the digraph NG. Like in the word *gin-gaan* 'was given'; without the hyphen, it would be read as *gingaan* /gi.ŋaʔan/ as opposed to /gin.gaʔan/.

In addition, some English letters may be used in borrowed words.
Ilgar phonology

## Consonant inventory

Unlike many Australian languages, Ilgar does not have lamino-alveolars.

## Vowels

Evans(1998) briefly discusses vowels in his paper noting that Iwaidjan languages including Ilgar have a three vowel ( /a/, /i/, /u/) system typical of most Australian languages.

## References

1. ↑ Evans, Nicholas (1998). "Iwaidja mutation and its origins". In Anna Siewierska & Jae Jung Song. Case, Typology and Grammar: In honor of Barry J. Blake. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 115–149.
Harsusi phonology

## Consonants

The pharyngeal consonant /ʕ/ only exists possibly because of the influence of Omani Arabic.

## Vowels

Harsusi vowels

In prominent open syllables or after a guttural (such as /h/, /ħ/, /x/ and /ɣ/), /ə/ is realized as /ʌ/. After a glottalized or lateral fricative consonant, /ə/ is realized as /ä/.

Diphthongs may be realized as *ay* /æj/ and *aw* /ɑw/.
Inari Sami orthography

Inari Sami is written using the Latin script. The alphabet currently used for Inari Sami was made official in 1996 and stands as follows:

The phonetic values are the same as in Karelian, and *đ* represents the voiced dental fricative (in English "the"). Q/q, W/w, X/x, Å/å, Ö/ö are also used in words of foreign origin. *Á* was traditionally pronounced in the middle of *a* and *ä*, but in modern Inari Sami the distinction between *á* and *ä* is nonexistent. In writing, *Á* and *ä* are nevertheless considered separate characters. *Ä* is used in:

* the first syllable of a word, when there is an *e* or *i* in a second syllable of the same word,
* a word of only one syllable (although *á* is also used), or
* the diphthong *iä* (but not in the diphthong *uá*).

## Marks used in reference works

In dictionaries, grammars and other linguistic works, the following additional marks are used. These are not used in normal writing.

* A dot is placed below consonants to indicate a half-long consonant: *đ̣, j̣, ḷ, ṃ, ṇ, ṇj, ŋ̣, ṛ, ṿ*. Some works may instead print the letter in bold, or use a capital letter.
* A vertical line ˈ (U+02C8 MODIFIER LETTER VERTICAL LINE), typewriter apostrophe or other similar mark is placed between consonants to indicate that the preceding consonant is long, and the preceding diphthong is short. It is only used when a diphthong precedes.
* The same mark placed between a diphthong and a consonant indicates that the diphthong is short.
* The same park placed between a single vowel and a consonant indicates that the vowel is half-long.
Iyo phonology

## Consonants

The Iyo language contains 15 consonants. One more phoneme that is represented by 'dz' can sometimes occur due to the close relationship between the Iyo language and the Kate language. This sound only appears in some names so it is not included. The phoneme 's' represents two different sounds. One is the conventional 's' sound and the other one creates a 'ts' sound. Similar to 's', the phoneme 'r' also represents two different sounds. These two sounds are 'r' and 'l'.

## Vowels

The Iyo language contains 5 vowels. The phoneme 'e' makes an 'ɛ' sound if it is before the consonants 'p', 'b', 't', 'd', 'r', 's', or 'z' along with stressed syllables before 'k'.

Vowel Phonemes
 -high,-low
 -high,+low
Inari Sami phonology

## Vowels

Notes:

* The central open vowel /ä/ was distinguished only in older Inari Sami. In the modern language, it has merged into the front vowel /a/.

## Prosody

Inari Sami, like the other Samic languages, has fixed word-initial stress. Syllables are furthermore divided into feet, usually consisting of two syllables each, and with secondary stress on the first syllable of every foot. In the other Samic languages the last syllable in a word with an odd number of syllables is not assigned to a foot. In Inari Sami, however, two important changes in the early development of Inari Sami have changed this structure, making the prosodic rhythm quite different:

1. In words with an odd number of syllables, the last two syllables were converted into a foot, leaving the third-last syllable as a foot of its own.
2. The apocope of certain final vowels, in words of three syllables or more, reduced this new final foot to a single syllable.

Consequently, Inari Sami distinguishes prosodically between words that originally ended in a vowel but have undergone apocope, and words that already ended in a consonant in Proto-Samic.

This rearrangement of the foot structure has an effect on the length of vowels and consonants.
Ithkuil phonology

The 13 vowels of Ithkuil are as follows:

/ɪ ʊ/ are pronounced as /i u/ when they precede another vowel, and at the end of a word. /ɛ ɔ/ are pronounced /e o/ when they precede another vowel, except /ɪ ʊ/.

The diphthongs in Ithkuil are /äɪ̯/, /ɛɪ̯/, /əɪ̯/, /ɔɪ̯/, /ø̞ɪ̯/, /ʊɪ̯/, /äʊ̯/, /ɛʊ̯/, /əʊ̯/, /ɪʊ̯/, /ɔʊ̯/, /ø̞ʊ̯/. All other sequences of vowels are pronounced as separate syllables. The grave accent is used to indicate the vowel sequence is not a diphthong. The grave and acute accents are used for stress. In a future revision of the language, circumflex accents will be used for stress, but grave accents will not be used for stress, and will only be used to indicate the vowel sequence is not a diphthong so that the rules for marking stress are simplified.
Hidatsa phonology

## Vowels

 High (close)

Hidatsa has five vowels and two diphthongs. It lacks nasal vowels, which is a way it differs from other Siouan languages. (Boyle 2007) The /a/ vowel has three sounds. The long ‘a:’ sounds like the ‘a’ in the English word, ‘father’; ‘ǎ’ has the sound of the ‘a’ in the English word ‘what’; and an obscure sound, ‘ạ’, which represents the short ‘u’ sound in English, like in the word ‘fun’.

The /e/ vowel also has three sounds. Unmarked ‘e’ has the English sound ‘ai’, like the initial syllable in the word ‘air’; ‘ě’ has the short English ‘e’ sound, such as in the word ‘den’; ‘e:’ has the sound of the English long ‘e’, like the sound of the ‘e’ in ‘they’.

The /i/ vowel has only two sounds. The ‘ǐ’ in Hidatsa sounds like the short ‘i’ sound in English, like in the word ‘pin’; the long ‘i:’ sounds like the English ‘i’ in the word ‘marine’. The /o/ and /u/ vowels have one sound each, the ‘o’ in the English word ‘bone’ and the ‘u’ in the English word ‘tune’, respectively. (Matthews 1877) The /e/ and /o/ vowels are rare and appear as long sounds. Length, as demonstrated in the table above, is phonemically distinct. There is evidence of this within some minimal and near-minimal pairs in the language:

(1) e/e

[gáre] /káre/ ‘to stick into’
[garée] /karé:/ ‘to vomit’
(2) a/a

[miŕa] /wiŕa/ ‘wood’
[miíraa] /wiíra:/ ‘goose’
(3) i/i

[máashii] /wáaši:/ ‘holy story’
[máashi] /wáaši/ ‘to buy, to hire’
## Consonants

Hidatsa has ten consonant phonemes:

Unlike the Mississippi Valley Siouan languages, Hidatsa does not have the glottalized or the aspirated stops of Proto-Siouan. It has only one series of voiceless oral stop, /p,t,k/, which are voiced intervocalically as [b,d,g]. Hidatsa has one voiceless affricate, /t͡s/. The two fricatives, /ʃ/ and /x/, are voiceless when they are unaspirated. They are not voiced intervocalically.

Hidatsa has three sonorants: two glides, /w/ and /r/, as well as /h/. The glides are realized as [m] and [ŋ] after a pause, most frequently at the beginning of a word.

## References

1. ↑ Boyle, John P. "Hidatsa morpho-syntax and clause structure. University of Chicago, Proquest, UMI Dissertations Publishing, 2007. 3272979.
Hoava phonology

## Consonant Inventory

Hoava uses 32 consonants in its phoneme system.

## Vowel Inventory

Hoava uses 16 oral vowels and 16 nasal vowels. There is no phonemic distinction of vowel length, although vowels can be lengthened when stressed (Davis 2003). The vowels can be combined into pairs with the weight of two syllables (Davis 2003).

## Syllable Structure

Hoava has an open syllable structure of (C)V. Two vowels occurring together are counted as two syllables, since they function as such for transitive marking rules (Davis 2003). For many Oceanic languages of the Austronesian family group it is common that words do not end in consonant..
Huli phonology

Huli has a syllable structure of (C)V.

## Vowels

 Close-mid | e | ẽ
 Open-mid | ɛ | ɛ̃
 Open | ɶ | ɶ̃

/ɑ/ is pronounced more fronted as [æ] before /r/ and /ʝ/.

Vowel nasality is phonemic in the language.
Vowels can also carry three phonemic tones; high-falling, mid-level, and low-rising.

## Consonants

Stops /p t k/ can become aspirated as [pʰ tʰ kʰ].

Many speakers pronounce /t/ as [s] before /i/.

/d/ is realized as voiceless as [d̥] when occurring word-initially, and is palatalized as [dʲ] between /i/ and a word-final /ɑ/.

/r/ only occurs word-medially.

/b ɡ/ can be phonetically realized as fricatives intervocalically as [β ɣ].
Gurindji Kriol phonology

The phonological system of Gurindji Kriol is relatively stratified, i.e. it has maintained separate Gurindji and Kriol phoneme inventories, syllable structures and many phonological processes.

In terms of vowels, Gurindji Kriol has a 5 vowel system. All Gurindji words contain only 3 vowel phonemes /ɪ/, /ɐ/ and /ʊ/ with diphthongs the result of combinations of vowels with glides in fast speech, for example /ɐw/ > [ɐʊ]. Kriol words make use of five vowel phonemes /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ in addition to /ɪ/, /ɐ/ and /ʊ/, plus diphthongs and long vowels.

 Close-mid
 Open-mid
 Open

The consonant inventory is a complex fusion of Gurindji and Kriol consonants. Words of Gurindji origin contain a three-way coronal contrast for stops, nasals and laterals, and a distinction between a post-alveolar rhotic and an apical trill (sometimes pronounced as a tap). Kriol-derived words contrast with those from Gurindji in containing fricatives. No voicing distinction is made for stops or fricatives in either Gurindji- or Kriol-derived words; voicing depends on position within word or utterance, and place of articulation.

Stress is word initial for words of both Gurindji and Kriol origin. The maintenance of the two phonological systems is more obvious in syllable structure. A range of structures are permissible in words of both origins, e.g. CV and CVC, however VC syllables are only allowed in Kriol words. Gurindji and Kriol source words also diverge in their use of stop-final consonant clusters. Gurindji words allows syllable-final consonant clusters, though the cluster combination is rather restricted. The first consonant must be a liquid and the final consonant, a non-coronal stop or velar nasal. Even in the more acrolectal forms of Kriol words, final consonant clusters are never present at the surface level. Finally different phonological processes apply to the different component languages of Gurindji Kriol. For example, in Kriol words, the plosive series is occasionally hypercorrected to fricatives of a similar place of articulation. This process never occurs in words of Gurindji origin.

## References

1. ↑ see Jones, Meakins, and Buchan 2011; Jones, Meakins, and Muawiyath to appear
Ibibio phonology

## Consonants

* /m, b/ are bilabial, whereas /f/ is labiodental.
	+ /b/ has two allophones, which occur in complementary distribution: voiceless [p] and voiced [b].
* /n, d, s/ are alveolar [n, d, s], whereas /t/ is dental [t̪].
* Stem-initial /ŋ/ is realized as [ŋ͡w].

Intervocalic plosives are lenited:

* /b/ → [β]
* /t, d/ → [ɾ]
* /k/ → [ɢ̆] or [ɰ]

## Vowels

Ibibio vowel phonemes

* /i, u/ are phonetically near-close [ɪ, ʊ].
* /e, ʌ, o/ are phonetically true-mid; /ʌ/ is also strongly centralized: [e̞, ʌ̝̈, o̞].
* /a, ɔ/ are phonetically near-open; /a/ is central rather than front: [ɐ, ɔ̞].

Between consonants, /i, u, o/ have allophones that are transcribed [ɪ, ʉ, ə], respectively. At least in case of [ɪ, ə], the realization is probably somewhat different (e.g. close-mid [e, ɘ]), because the default IPA values of the symbols [ɪ, ə] are very similar to the normal realizations of the Ibibio vowels /i, ʌ/. Similarly, [ʉ] may actually be near-close [ʉ̞], rather than close [ʉ].

In some dialects (e.g. Ibiono), /ɪ, ʉ, ə/ occur as phonemes distinct from /i, u, o/.

## Tones

Ibibio has five tones: high, mid, rising, falling and low. A word can be used to mean two or more different things based on the tone ascribed to it.
Guugu Yimithirr phonology

## Vowels

Short /u/ may be realized as unrounded [ɯ], and unstressed /a/ may be reduced to [ə].

## Consonants

The stops are usually voiceless and unaspirated initially and after short vowels, and voiced after consonants and long vowels.

The retroflexes [ɖ ɳ] may not be single phonemes, but clusters of /ɻd ɻn/. However, there is at least one word which, for older speakers, is pronounced with a word-initial retroflex: "run", which is [ɖudaː] or [ɖuɖaː].

The rhotic /r/ is normally a flap [ɾ], but may be a trill in emphatic speech.

## Phonotactics

All words, with the exception of a couple of interjections, begin with one consonant. The consonant can be a stop, nasal, or semivowel (that is, /l r ɻ/ do not occur initially).

Words can end in either a vowel or a consonant. The allowed word-final consonants are /l r ɻ j n n̪/.

Within words, any consonant can occur, as well as clusters of up to three consonants, which cannot occur initially or finally.
Iraya phonology

The Iraya languages distinguishes 20 phonemes:

* 13 consonants: p, b, m, t, d, l, s, r, k, g, ŋ, ‘ [ʔ]
* 3 semivowels: w, y [j], h
* 8 vowels: i, a, e [ɨ], o, u [ʉ], ɛ, ɔ, ɑ

The following charts illustrate the phonemes by articulation. The consonant [ŋ] is represented as ⟨ng⟩ in common writing, and the high central vowel [ɨ] is represented by ⟨e⟩. The consonant /s/ can have both a dental or alveolar point of articulation.

Iraya vowels
 **Low** |  | a

## Intonation

**Declarative Paragraph**: The first sentence starts at a high pitch. Then, each of the next sentences have a lower pitch. The last sentence will have the lowest pitch.
**Emotional or Dramatic Paragraphs**: This is the opposite of declarative paragraphs. Each sentence becomes higher than the previous sentence, until the last sentence ends with a more or less higher pitch and long pause.

## Syllables

The following syllable types are used in the Iraya language. (C = consonant; V = vowel)

1. CV (e.g. *ka.wu* 'you'; *ta.wa* 'who')
2. CVC (e.g. *na.**kay*** 'why; what')
3. CCV (e.g. ***kwi**.tis* 'fireworks')
4. CCVC (e.g. ***pwis**.tu* 'place; put')

In consonant clusters, the Iraya language only uses /w/ or /r/ as the second consonant in an onset cluster, as in the two examples *kwitis* and *pwistu* presented above (the latter being a Spanish loanword).
Kakwa phonology

Kakwa has 16 vowels: /a, ɑ, e, ɛ, i, ɨ, o, ɔ, u, ʉ, ø, ɤ, œ, ʌ, æ, ɒ/. The /o/ sound occurs only marginally in the Wacara dialect, while being attested for the Nuevo Pueblo dialect. In nasal contexts only five vowels can occur.

Kakwa has 39 consonants:

Nasalization in Kakwa is a prosodic property of the morpheme that affects all segments within each morpheme except voiceless stops and glottalized palatal glide in initial position. Each morpheme is either completely nasal or completely oral.

Kakwa is a tonal language and displays 3 contrastive phonological tones: Rising (LH), falling] (HL), and low (L).
Iwaidja phonology

## Consonants

Iwaidja has the following 20 consonants.

Note: The postalveolar lateral and lateral flap are rare, and it cannot be ruled out that they are sequences of /lj/ and /ɺj/. The plosives are allophonically voiced, and are often written b d ɖ ɟ ɡ.
## Vowels

Iwaidja has three vowels, /a, i, u, ɛ, ɔ/. The following table shows the allophones of the vowels as described by Pym and Larrimore.

## References

1. ↑ Pym, Noreen, and Bonnie Larrimore. Papers on Iwaidja phonology and grammar. Series A Vol. 2., 1979.
Gold

* Gold (color)
* Gold (element)

Disambiguation page for GoldThe following is a list of links to pages that might share the same title.Please follow one of the disambiguation links below or search to find the page you were looking for if it is not listed. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
Ivbiosakon phonology

Aoma has a rather reduced system, compared to proto-Edoid, of seventeen vowels; these form two harmonic sets, /i e ø æ a ɜ ɑ ɤ o u/ and /i ɛ œ ɐ a ɞ ɒ ʌ ɔ u/.

It has only one clearly phonemic nasal stop, /m/; [n] alternates with [l], depending on whether the following vowel is oral or nasal. (The other approximants, /ɹ j w h/, are also nasalized in this position: see Edo language for a similar situation.) The inventory is:

## References

1. ↑ Archangeli & Pulleyblank, 1994. *Grounded phonology*, p 181*ff*
2. ↑ Jeff Mielke, 2008. *The emergence of distinctive features*, p 136*ff*;
also found in *Variation and gradience in phonetics and phonology*, p 26*ff*
Irarutu phonology

## Consonants

Tyron (1995) gives the following consonants:

/p, t, c, k, b, d, ɟ, g, are all stops with /p, t, c, k/ being voiceless and /b, d, ɟ, g,/ being voiced. All stop consonants can be placed in any position (beginning, middle, or end) with the exception of /c/ which cannot be placed in the ending position.

/f, s, h/ are all voiceless fricatives. /f/ is found in all 3 positions and is sometimes pronounced as a voiced [v] by Native Irarutu speakers. /s/ is also found in all 3 positions but is never voiced. /h/ may be a recent addition to the language. /h/ is only found in initial and middle positions.

/m, n/ are both voiced nasals. Both consonants are found in all 3 positions.

/r/ is found in most Irarutu dialects, but is sometimes switched out with [l].

## Vowels

Tyron (1995) gives the following vowels:

Irarutu vowels

Seven types of vowels are found in Irarutu, /a, e, ɪ, i, o, u, y/. The vowels can then be formed in two different ways, one being monophthongs and the other being diphthongs. Monophthongs are a single sounding vowel while diphthongs are a combination of two separate vowels. All 7 vowels can be used in monophthong form but diphthong is restricted to only a few combinations.
Hexadecimal

In mathematics and computing, the **hexadecimal** (also **base 16** or **hex**) numeral system is a positional numeral system that represents numbers using a radix (base) of 16. Unlike the common way of representing numbers using 10 symbols, hexadecimal uses 16 distinct symbols, most often the symbols "0"–"9" to represent values 0 to 9, and "A"–"F" (or alternatively "a"–"f") to represent values 10 to 15.
Gusii phonology

## Vowels

Gusii has seven vowels. Vowel length is contrastive, i.e. the words 'bór' *to miss* and 'bóór' *to say* are distinguished by vowel length only.

Phonetic inventory of vowels in Gusii

## Consonants

In the table below, orthographic symbols are included between brackets if they differ from the IPA symbols. Note especially the use of ‘y’ for IPA /j/, common in African orthographies. When symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant.

The following morphophonological alternations occur:

* n+r = nd
* n+b = mb
* n+g = ŋg
* n+k = ŋk
* n+m = m:

The Gusii language has the consonant 'b' not realized as the bilabial stop as in 'bat' but as bilabial fricative as in words like baba, baminto, abana.
Hurrian phonology

## Consonants

As can be seen from the table, Hurrian did not possess a voiced-voiceless distinction. There is no voiced consonant with an unvoiced counterpart, nor vice versa. However, based on evidence from the cuneiform script, there seem to have been voiced allophones of consonants other than /ts/, which occurred in certain environments: between two voiced phonemes (sonorants or vowels), and, surprisingly, also word-finally. Sometimes a voiced consonant is written in these situations, i.e. *b* (for *p*), *d* (for *t*), *g* (for *k*), *v* (for *f*) or *ž* (for *š*), and, very rarely, *ǧ* (for *h*, *ḫ*). All consonants except /w/ and /j/ can be long or short. The long (geminate) consonants occur only between vowels. In the cuneiform, as in the Latin transcription, geminated consonants are indicated by doubling the corresponding symbol, so *...VC-CV..*. Short consonants are written *...V-CV...*, for example *mānnatta* ("I am") is written *ma-a-a**n-n**a-a**t-t**a*.

Since /f/ was not found in the Sumerian cuneiform script, the Hurrians used the symbols representing /p/, /b/ or /w/. An /f/ can be recognised in words where this transcription varies from text to text. In cases where a word occurs only once, with a *p*, it cannot be known if it was originally meant to represent a /p/ or an /f/. In final syllables containing *a*, /f/ becomes diphthongised to /u/, e.g. *tānōšau* (<\*tān-ōš-af)) "I did". /s/ is traditionally transcribed by /š/, because the cuneiform script adapted the sign indicating /š/ for this phoneme. /ts/ is regularly transcribed by *z*, and /x/ by *ḫ* or *h*. In Hurrian, /r/ and /l/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.

## Vowels

Vowels, just like consonants, can be either long or short. In the cuneiform script, this is indicated by placing an additional vowel symbol between the *CV* and *VC* syllables, giving *CV-V-VC*. Short vowels are indicated by a simple *CV-VC* pairing. In the Latin transcription, long vowels are indicated with a macron, *ā*, *ē*, *ī*, *ō*, and *ū*. For /o/, which is absent in the Sumerian script, the sign for *U* is used, whereas /u/ is represented by *Ú*.

## References

1. ↑ Wilhelm, Gernot. 2008. Hurrian. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. P.85
Gubbi Gubbi phonology

The following is in the Badjala/Butchulla dialect:

## Consonants

* /n̪/ is always heard as palatal [ɲ] when preceding /i/, and in word-final position.
* /d̪/ can be heard in free variation with palatal [ɟ].
* /b d̪ ɡ/ can have lenited allophones [β ð ɣ] in intervocalic positions.
* /ɻ/ has a lateral allophone of [ɭ] when preceding /b/.
* /ɡ/ is often slightly palatalised as [ɡʲ] before /i/.

## Vowels

 Mid | ɛ ɛː
 Low | a aː

* /aː/ can sometimes be heard as [æː] before /l/.
* /u/ can be heard as [ɔ] when preceding an intervocalic /ɻ/.
Hawu phonology

Consonants of the /n/ column are apical, those of the /ɲ/ column laminal. In common orthography, the implosives are written ⟨b', d', j', g'⟩. ⟨w⟩ is pronounced [v] or [β]. A wye sound /j/ (written ⟨y⟩) is found at the beginning of some words in Seba dialect where Timu and Raijua dialects have /ʄ/.

Vowels are /i u e ə o a/, with /ə/ written ⟨è⟩ in common orthography. Phonetic long vowels and diphthongs are vowel sequences. The penultimate syllable/vowel is stressed. (Every vowel constitutes a syllable.) A stressed schwa lengthens the following consonant:

/ŋa/ [ŋa] 'with', /niŋaa/ [niˈŋaː] 'what?', /ŋaʔa/ [ˈŋaʔa] 'eat, food', /ŋali/ [ˈŋali] 'senile', /ŋəlu/ [ˈŋəlːu] 'wind'.

Syllables are consonant-vowel (CV) or vowel-only (V).
Gronings phonology

## Consonants

* /ʋ/ occurring before and after rounded vowels is pronounced as a labio-velar approximant /w/.
* /ɡ/ only occurs in word-medial position, in word-initial position, it is always pronounced as /ɣ/.
* Other word-final consonants occur as syllabic, as a variant of a schwa sound /ə/ before a consonant (e.g. [əl] ~ [l̩]).

## Vowels

Diphthongs

* The starting point of /ɑi/ varies from back [ɑ] to front [æ].
Kumzari phonology

## Consonants

Kumzari has consonants, and all but three (ʔ, ʁ, ɦ) also exist as geminates

1van der Wal uses the term *alveo-palatal* to describe these consonants, using IPA symbols for palato-alveolar consonants rather than alveolo-palatal consonants

## Vowels

Kumzari has a length distinction in its vowels, with five long vowels and three short vowels. Vowels never occur in direct hiatus; rather, they are separated by either a semivowel such as /j/ or /w/, or a glottal stop (/ʔ/).
Kanuri phonology

## Consonants

* There may also exist prenasalized voiced stop consonant sounds /mb, nd, ŋɡ/. Although it is not known whether they are considered phonemic.
* The sound /p/ occurs mainly as an allophone of /b/, when following another voiceless plosive. It also may be in free alteration with /f/, however; it is still represented in the standard Kanuri orthography.
* A voiceless fricative [ɸ] occurs as an allophone of /f/ when preceding back vowels /o, u/. A voiced fricative [β] occurs as an allophone of /b/, when occurring in intervocalic positions. A voiced fricative [ɣ] occurs as an allophone of /ɡ/, when occurring intervocalically between central vowels.
* A retroflex lateral sound [ɭ] is heard when /l/ is followed by /i/.
* [ŋ] occurs as an allophone of /n/ when preceding velar stop consonants. Often, the stop sounds are deleted or misheard, so just the nasal sound [ŋ] is mainly heard.
Kalkoti phonology

The following tables outline the phonology of Kalkoti.

## Vowels

Short vowels are slightly centralized; nasalization of vowels may be phonemic.

## Consonants

The phonemes /q, ʦ, x, z, ɣ, ɽ/ have likely been introduced by loanwords. The voiceless aspirate series is secure, and, unlike the neighboring Palula language, Kalkoti does not have a breathy voiced series. The phonemic status of /ʔ/ is unclear and is likely tied to tone in Kalkoti.

## Tone

Kalkoti's system of tone likely was similar to Shina's two tone system; however, under pressure from its Kohistani neighbors it may now have a more complex tone inventory.
Korandje phonology

No complete phonological study of Korandje, systematically justified by minimal pairs, has yet been made. According to Souag (2010), the vowel system consists of lax ə, ŭ [ʊ], ə̣̣ [ʌ] and tense a [a], i, u, ạ [ɑ], ụ [o], while the consonant system is as follows:

Items in brackets are not normally used by older speakers. A bilabial click is attested in one baby-talk word.

An earlier proposal by Nicolaï (1981), based on a very limited corpus of recordings provided by Champault, suggested a smaller phoneme inventory:

alongside pharyngealised consonants *ṭ ḍ ṣ ẓ ṇ ḥ* as well as *x q*, found mainly in loanwords, and a six-vowel system: *a, i, u, e, o*, and *ə* (schwa).

## References

1. ↑ *Grammatical Contact in the Sahara: Arabic, Berber, and Songhay in Tabelbala and Siwa*, Lameen Souag, PhD thesis, SOAS, 2010
2. ↑ *Les dialectes du songhay. Contribution à l'étude des changements linguistiques*, Robert Nicolaï, Paris: CNRS (1981)
Karay-a phonology

## Vowels

The vowels /e/ and /o/ are used mostly in non-Kinaray-a words. Both aforementioned sounds from the same words in other (mostly non-Bisayan) Filipino languages are often pronounced as /i/ and /u/, respectively. Vowels /i/ and /u/ can also be shortened as [ɪ, ʊ]. /u/ is sometimes interchanged with /ə/ where some speakers say *suba* (river) while others say *səba*.
Kadiweu phonology

## Vowels

* /e eː/ can often be heard as close mid [ɛ ɛː].
* /o oː/ is heard as [u uː] when before dental consonants.
* /a/ is realized as [ʌ] before a uvular consonant.
* /a/ before /e/ can then be heard as a long vowel sound [æː].

## Consonants

* Allophones of sounds /d͡ʒ/ is heard as [ʒ] in free variation among speakers.
* /ɢ/ is typically heard as a uvular fricative [ʁ].
* /d/ is heard as a tap [ɾ] within intervocalic positions.
Kalasha-mun phonology

## Consonants

The phonemes /x ɣ q/ are found in loanwords.

## Vocabulary comparison

The following table compares Kalash words to their cognates in other Indo-Aryan languages.

## References

1. ↑ R.T.Trail and G.R. Cooper, Kalasha Dictionary – with English and Urdu. National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Islamabad & Summer Institute of Linguistics, Dallas TX. 1999
Korku phonology

## Vowels

Korku has 10 phonemic vowels, which can occur short or long (e.g. /aː/), plus one mid vowel that only occurs as a short segment /ə/.

## Consonants

Korku has a large consonant phoneme inventory, in which stops occur in several places of articulation. Like many languages of India, Korku stops distinguish between voiced, plain voiceless, and voiceless aspirated consonants.

Word-finally, all stops are unreleased.
Kisi phonology

## Consonants

**Other phonemes:**

* [ɾ] and [l] are in a free variation.
* [w] and [j] are not included in a phoneme chart in Kisi because they only occur as glide insertion between historically or morphologically adjacent vowels. [w] does not occur otherwise. For some speakers, [j] occurs as a free variant of [ʝ] which is considered incorrect by other speakers.

## Vowels

Vowels phoneme in Kisi
 Near-high
 Mid
 Low

Contrastive and obligatory length is marked with /:/. This does not necessarily reflect a difference in the length of production.

Diphthongs in Kisi
 [a]-[o] [ᵑɡao]

Swahili: bei, and Swahili: ngao - These Swahili words have been borrowed into Kisi and pronounced with a diphthong in Kisi