Jolly Roger

Typical example of the Jolly Roger

**Jolly Roger** is the traditional English name for the flags flown to identify a pirate ship about to attack, during the early 18th century (the later part of the Golden Age of Piracy).

The flag most commonly identified as the Jolly Roger today, the skull and crossbones symbol on a black flag, was used during the 1710s by a number of pirate captains including Black Sam Bellamy, Edward England, and John Taylor. It went on to become the most commonly used pirate flag during the 1720s, although other designs were also in use.

## Origins:

### Name:

Use of the term *Jolly Roger* in reference to pirate flags goes back to at least Charles Johnson's *A General History of the Pyrates,* published in Britain in 1724.[1]

Johnson specifically cites two pirates as having named their flag "Jolly Roger": Bartholomew Roberts in June 1721[2] and Francis Spriggs in December 1723.[3] While Spriggs and Roberts used the same name for their flags, their flag designs were very different, suggesting that already "Jolly Roger" was a generic term for black pirate flags rather than a name for any single specific design. Neither Spriggs' nor Roberts' Jolly Roger consisted of a skull and crossbones.[4]

Richard Hawkins, who was captured by pirates in 1724, reported that the pirates had a black flag bearing the figure of a skeleton stabbing a heart with a spear, which they named "Jolly Roger." This description closely resembles the infamous flag of Edward Teach/Thatch, otherwise known as Blackbeard, who flew a similar design six years prior.[5]

It is sometimes claimed that the term derives from "Jolie Rouge" ("Pretty Red") in reference to a red flag used by French privateers. This hypothesis is considered a false etymology, as the phrase "Jolie Rouge" in reference to a pirate flag does not appear in any historical sources.[6]

Another early reference to "Old Roger" is found in a news report in the *Weekly Journal or British Gazetteer* (London, Saturday, October 19, 1723; Issue LVII, page 2, col. 1):

### Design:

The first recorded uses of the skull-and-crossbones symbol on naval flags date to the 17th century. It possibly originated among the Barbary pirates of the period, which would connect the black colour of the Jolly Roger to the Muslim Black Standard (black flag). But an early reference to Muslim corsairs flying a skull symbol, in the context of a 1625 slave raid on Cornwall, explicitly refers to the symbol's being shown on a green flag.[8] There are mentions of Francis Drake's flying a black flag as early as 1585, but the historicity of this tradition has been called into question.[9] Contemporary accounts show Peter Easton using a plain black flag in 1612; a plain black flag was also used by Captain Martel's pirates in 1716,[10] Edward Teach aka Blackbeard, Charles Vane, and Richard Worley in 1718,[11] and Howell Davis in 1719.

An early record of the skull-and-crossbones design being used on a (red) flag by pirates is found in a December 6, 1687 entry in a log book held by the Bibliothèque nationale de France. The entry describes pirates using the flag, not on a ship but on land.[12]

1725 woodcut of Stede Bonnet with a Jolly Roger in Charles Johnson's *A General History of the Pyrates*

17th and 18th century colonial governors usually required privateers to fly a specific version of the British flag, the 1606 Union Jack with a white crest in the middle, also distinguishing them from naval vessels.[13] Before this time, British privateers such as Sir Henry Morgan sailed under English colours.[5] An early use of a black flag with skull, crossbones, and hourglass is attributed to pirate captain Emanuel Wynn in 1700, according to a wide variety of secondary sources.[14] Reportedly, these secondary sources are based on the account of Captain John Cranby of HMS *Poole* and are verified at the London Public Record Office.

With the end of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1714, many privateers turned to piracy. They still used red and black flags, but now they decorated them with their own designs. Edward England, for example, flew three different flags: from his mainmast the black flag depicted above; from his foremast a red version of the same; and from his ensign staff the English national flag. Just as variations on the Jolly Roger design existed, red flags sometimes incorporated yellow stripes or images symbolic of death.[15] Colored pennants and ribbons could also be used alongside flags.

Marcus Rediker (1987) claims that most pirates active between 1716 and 1726 were part of one of two large interconnected groups sharing many similarities in organisation. He states that this accounts for the "comparatively rapid adoption of the piratical black flag among a group of men operating across thousands of miles of ocean", suggesting that the skull-and-crossbone design became standardized at about the same time as the term *Jolly Roger* was adopted as its name. By 1730, the diversity of symbols in prior use had been mostly replaced by the standard design.[16]

## Use in practice:

Pirates did not fly the Jolly Roger at all times. Like other vessels, pirate ships usually stocked a variety of different flags, and would normally fly false colors or no colors until they had their prey within firing range.[39] When the pirates' intended victim was within range, the Jolly Roger would be raised, often simultaneously with a warning shot.

The flag was probably intended as communication of the pirates' identity, which may have given target ships an opportunity to change their mind and surrender without a fight. For example, in June 1720 when Bartholomew Roberts sailed into the harbour at Trepassey, Newfoundland with black flags flying, the crews of all 22 vessels in the harbour abandoned them in panic.[40] If a ship then decided to resist, the Jolly Roger was taken down and a red flag was flown, indicating that the pirates intended to take the ship by force and without mercy. In the mid-18th century, Sir Richard Hawkins confirmed that pirates gave quarter beneath the black flag, while no quarter was given beneath the red flag.[41]

In view of these models, it was important for a prey ship to know that its assailant was a pirate, and not a privateer or government vessel, as the latter two generally had to abide by a rule that if a crew resisted, but then surrendered, it could not be executed:

Flying a Jolly Roger was a reliable way of proving oneself a pirate. Just possessing or using a Jolly Roger was considered proof that one was a criminal pirate rather than something more legitimate; only a pirate would dare fly the Jolly Roger, as he was already under threat of execution.[43]

## Modern military use:

The personnel of the British submarine HMS *Utmost* showing off their Jolly Roger in February 1942. The markings on the flag indicate the boat's achievements: nine ships torpedoed (including one warship), eight 'cloak and dagger' operations, one target destroyed by gunfire, and one at-sea rescue

Ghost Battalion colors at Quang Tri. The Seabees had 11,000 graves to move in order to construct that airfield. (U.S. Navy)

Following the introduction of submarines in several navies circa 1900, Admiral Sir Arthur Wilson, the First Sea Lord of the British Royal Navy, stated that submarines were "underhanded, unfair, and damned un-English", and that he would convince the British Admiralty to have the crews of enemy submarines captured during wartime hanged as pirates.[44]

In September 1914, the British submarine HMS *E9* successfully torpedoed the German cruiser SMS *Hela*.[45] Remembering Wilson's statements, commanding officer Max Horton instructed his submariners to manufacture a Jolly Roger, which was flown from the submarine as she entered port.[44][45] Each successful patrol saw Horton's submarine fly an additional Jolly Roger until there was no more room for flags, at which point Horton had a large Jolly Roger manufactured, onto which symbols indicating *E9*'s achievements were sewn.[45] A small number of other submarines adopted the practice:[45] HMS *E12* flew a red flag with the skull and crossbones on return from a foray into the Dardanelles in June 1915,[46] and the first known photograph of the practice was taken in July 1916 aboard HMS *H5*.[47]

The practice restarted during World War II. In October 1941, following a successful patrol by HMS *Osiris*, during which she sank the Italian destroyer *Palestro*, the submarine returned to Alexandria, but was ordered to remain outside the boom net until the motorboat assigned to the leader of the 1st Submarine Flotilla had come alongside.[46][48] The flotilla leader wanted to recognise the boat's achievement, so had a Jolly Roger made and delivered to *Osiris*.[48](I) After this, the commanders of submarine flotillas began to hand out the flags to successful submarines.[48] Although some sources claim that *all* British submarines used the flag,[49] the practice was not taken up by those submarine commanders who saw it as boastful and potentially inaccurate, as sinkings could not always be confirmed.[45] During the war, British submarines were entitled to fly the Jolly Roger on the day of their return from a successful patrol: it would be hoisted as the boat passed the boom net, and remain raised until sunset.[48]

Polish submarine ORP *Sokół* returning to base in 1944. A Jolly Roger flag and two captured Nazi flags are flying from the periscope mast

Symbols on the flag indicated the history of the submarine, and it was the responsibility of the boat's personnel to keep the flag updated.[45][48] The Royal Navy Submarine Museum (which, as of 2004, possessed fifteen Jolly Rogers) recognises 20 unique symbols.[50] A bar denotes the torpedoing of a ship: red bars indicated warships, white bars represented merchant vessels, and black bars with a white "U" stood for U-boats.[50][51] A dagger indicated a 'cloak and dagger' operation: typically the delivery or recovery of shore parties from enemy territory.[49][51] Stars (sometimes surrounding crossed cannon) stood for occasions where the deck gun was fired.[49]Minelaying operations were shown by the silhouette of a sea mine: a number inside the mine indicated how many such missions.[49] A lighthouse or torch symbolised the boat's use as a navigational marker for an invasion force; the latter more particularly associated with Operation Torch.[51][52] Rescue of personnel from downed aircraft or sunken ships was marked by a lifebuoy.[49] Unique symbols are used to denote one-off incidents: for example, the Jolly Roger of HMS *Proteus* included a can-opener, referencing an incident where an Italian destroyer attempted to ram the submarine, but ended up worse off because of damage to the destroyer's hull by the submarine's hydroplanes, while HMS *United* added a stork and baby when the boat's commander became a father while on patrol.[53][54] Flying the Jolly Roger continued in the late 20th century and on into the 21st. HMS *Conqueror* raised the flag decorated with the silhouette of a cruiser[*citation needed*] to recognise her successful attack on the Argentine cruiser ARA *General Belgrano* during the Falklands War.[50] Several submarines returning from missions where Tomahawk cruise missiles were fired fly Jolly Rogers with tomahawk axes depicted, with crossed tomahawks indicating an unspecified number of firings, or individual axes for each successful launch.[50][55][56] The Jolly Roger has been adopted[*when?*] as the logo of the Royal Navy Submarine Service.[56]

The practice, while commonly associated with British submarines, is not restricted to them. During World War II, Allied submariners working with Royal Navy fleets adopted the process from their British counterparts.[57] While operating in the Mediterranean, the Polish submarines ORP *Sokół* and ORP *Dzik* were presented with Jolly Rogers by General Władysław Sikorski, and continued to update them during the war.[58][59] At least one British surface ship recorded their U-boat kills through silhouettes on a Jolly Roger.[60] The Australian submarine HMAS *Onslow* flew the Jolly Roger in 1980, following her successful participation in the Kangaroo 3 wargame as an opposing submarine: the flag bore the silhouettes of the seven surface ships involved, as during the exercise, *Onslow* had successfully 'sunk' all seven.[61]

During the Vietnam war an urgent airfield was needed at Quảng Trị by the United States forces. U.S. Seabee Battalions 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 74, 121, and 133 all sent detachments of men and equipment to get the job done. Those detachments dubbed themselves the Ghost Battalion and chose the Jolly Roger for the Battalion's colors[62].

At least twice in 2017, the USS Jimmy Carter, an American attack submarine which has been modified to support special forces operations has returned to its home port flying a Jolly Roger.[63]The reason for the flag in both cases is not known.

## Popular culture:

The Jolly Roger flag became a cliché of pirate fiction in the 19th century. The "Golden Age of Piracy" was over by the mid-18th century, and piracy was widely suppressed by the 1800s, although the problem of Barbary piratespersisted until the French conquest of Algeria in 1830. By the Victorian era, the pirate threat had receded enough for it to become a topos of boyish adventure fiction, notably influenced by Stevenson's 1883 *Treasure Island*. Gilbert and Sullivan's *The Pirates of Penzance* introduced pirates as comedic characters, and since the later 20th century, pirates sporting the Jolly Roger flag were often depicted as cartoonish or silly characters. J.M. Barriealso used it as the name of Captain Hook's pirate ship in *Peter and Wendy*; it was thus used in most adaptations of the character, including ABC's *Once Upon A Time*.

### In music:

The song "Jolly Roger" appears on the Adam and the Ants album *Kings of the Wild Frontier* (1980).

Kenny Chesney's single "Pirate Flag", from his fourteenth studio album *Life on a Rock* (2013).

On the cover of the Iron Maiden album, *A Matter of Life and Death* (2006), a version of a Jolly Roger depicting a helmeted Eddie and two assault rifles instead of bones is displayed hanging from a tank.

Also on the cover of Michael Jackson's *Dangerous* (1991) album, it can be seen on the left side with the alteration of a skull over two swords.

The re-issued version of the Megadeth album, *Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!* (1985), shows a stylized Vic Rattlehead skull on top of crossed swords and crossed bones. This was based on Mustaine's original drawing for the cover which the band did not have enough money to produce at the time.

The "pirate" metal band Running Wild often references the Jolly Roger and other pirate related themes in their music.

The Pirates, a spinoff of the band Johnny Kidd & the Pirates, released an album called *Out of their Skulls* featuring a skull with crossed guitars below it.[1]

British DJ Eddie Richards released the acid house hit "Acid Man" in 1988 under Jolly Roger alias.

### In sports:

A number of sports teams have been known to use variations of the Jolly Roger, with one of the best known in current use, an adaptation of Calico Jack's pirate flag, with a carnelian red background instead of the black, being that of the National Football League's Tampa Bay Buccaneers, with an American football over the crossing area of the two swords.

The supporters of FC St. Pauli, a sports club from Hamburg, Germany, best known for its association football team, have adopted a variation of Richard Worley's flag as their own unofficial emblem. Also, the Jolly Roger is the popular icon of all University College Cork (Ireland) sports teams.

"Raise the Jolly Roger!" is also used in a statement by the Major League Baseball's team Pittsburgh Pirates announcer Greg Brown when the Pirates win a game.[64] Brown has become known for the phrase, his signature call, similar to other sports broadcasters, such as the Cincinnati Reds' announcer Marty Brennamen's phrase ('This one belongs to the Reds'), and former Pirates announcers Lanny Frattare ("There was no doubt about it!") and Bob Prince, who liked to end Pirates wins with similarly jovial statements.

Another such variation is the Oakland Raiders, it uses a head with facial features, wearing an eye patch and a helmet, crossed swords behind the helmet completes the image.

All these variations are seen as the logos of sporting teams in (Scotland):

* The Braehead Paisley Pirates/Paisley Pirates of the Scottish National League and The Paisley Buccaneers and Riversdale Pirates of the Scottish Recreational Ice Hockey Conference
* The East Kilbride Pirates American football team in BAFA Division 1
* The Edinburgh Buccaneers basketball club of the Scottish Men's National League

The South African Football Association soccer team Orlando Pirates also has the classic Jolly Roger as their logo.

The athletic teams of East Carolina University used a stylized Jolly Roger as one of their logos. This particular variation includes an earringed and eyepatch-wearing skull donning a tricorn of purple and gold (the school's colors) emblazoned over two crossbones. This logo appears on the helmets of the school's football team, and an elaborate pre-game ritual takes place prior to each home contest wherein a flag bearing the university's Jolly Roger logo is raised on a special flagpole located behind the west end zone prior to the opening kickoff. Immediately prior to the start of the fourth quarter, the normal (black) Jolly Roger is lowered and replaced with a flag bearing the ECU Jolly Roger on a red background, indicating that the Pirates will grant their opponents "no quarter".[65]

The Blackshirts, the starting defensive unit players for the Nebraska Cornhuskers football team, are represented by a Jolly Roger, somewhat similar to Richard Worley's flag but with the skull encased in the team's football helmet. Additionally, the players and fans often celebrate by "throwing the bones", where they cross the forearms in front of the chest in an 'X' imitating the logo, and the student section at Memorial Stadium, Lincoln is known as the 'Boneyard', where the logo is often displayed on banners, signs, and flags in an act of intimidation.

When Viktor Korchnoi opposed Anatoly Karpov for the World Chess Championship 1978, he was a defector from the Soviet Union and momentarily stateless; so he played with a miniature Jolly Roger at the chess table.

### In movies:

In the 1980 film The Island, the Jolly Roger is a skull with a red dot and crossbones with an hourglass on the bottom.[66]

### Other uses:

The flag of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society is modeled to look like a classic Jolly Roger, with some alterations. the flag has a whale and a dolphin on the skull's forehead, and the crossed longbones are replaced with a crossed trident and a shepherd's crook.

The early development team of the Apple Macintosh used a pirate flag to maintain a "rebellious" spirit.[67]

Unicode uses a sequence of U+1F3F4 🏴 WAVING BLACK FLAG and U+2620 ☠ SKULL AND CROSSBONES[68] to display this flag.

Before changing to a stylized 'P', the Pirate Party used the Jolly Roger as its symbol; it is still used extensively in the Pirate movement. The Piratbyrån and The Pirate Bay also use either the skull and crossbones symbol, or derivatives of it, such as the logo of Home Taping Is Killing Music.

## References:

### Explanatory notes:

**^(I)** One account states that Horton, now Commander in Chief Submarines, was visiting at the time of *Osiris*' return, and influenced the flotilla leader's decision.[46]

### Citations:

1. **^**
2. **^** Charles Johnson (1724), *A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates*, p. 250.
3. **^** Johnson (1724), pp. 411–12.
4. **^** Bartholomew Roberts' Jolly Roger in June 1721 is simply described as "their black flag," which may or may not be the same Roberts is described as flying earlier on pp. 243–44, the man standing on a Barbadian's head and a Martinican's head. Spriggs' Jolly Roger is described as follows: "a black Ensign was made, which they called *Jolly Roger*, with the same device that Captain Low carried, *viz.* a white Skeliton in the Middle of it, with a Dart in one Hand striking a bleeding Heart, and in the other, an Hour-Glass."
5. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** David Cordingly (1995). *Under the Black Flag: The Romance and Reality of Life Among the Pirates*, New York: Random House, p. 117.
6. **^**  `|access-date=` requires `|url=` (help)
7. **^** Old Roger is Jolly Roger[*permanent dead link*], *Linquistlist*, American Dialect Society
8. **^** Giles Milton, *White Gold*(2004), p. 9: "The flags on their mainmasts depicted a human skull on a dark green background - the menacing symbol of a new and terrible enemy. It was the third week of July 1625, and England was about to be attacked by the Islamic corsairs of Barbary."
9. **^** Mary Frear Keeler (ed.), *Sir Francis Drake's West Indian Voyage, 1585-86* (1981), p. 161, footnote 3.
10. **^** Johnson, p. 66.
11. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** Johnson, pp. 72, 147, 344.
12. **^** BnF, Manuscrit Français 385, f. 25, digitised on Gallica ; For a translation in English, see Pirate Flags Pirate Mythtory. Archived January 21, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.: "And we put down our white flag, and raised a red flag with a Skull head on it and two crossed bones (all in white and in the middle of the flag), and then we marched on."
13. **^** David Cordingly (1995). *Under the Black Flag: The Romance and Reality of Life Among the Pirates*, New York: Random House, p. 220.
14. **^** See, e.g., Angus Konstam, *Pirates: 1660–1730*; Douglas Botting, *The Pirates*; ; etcetera.
15. **^** David Cordingly (1995). *Under the Black Flag: The Romance and Reality of Life Among the Pirates*, New York: Random House, p. 118.
16. **^** cited after David Cordingly in *Life Amongst The Pirates*(1996), p. 135.
17. **^** See, *inter alia,* Douglas Botting (1978), *The Pirates*, Alexandria, VA: TimeLife Books, Inc., pp. 48–49; Angus Konstam (1999), *The History of Piracy*, ISBN 1-55821-969-2, Italy: Lyons Press, pp. 98–101. Some of these flags are verified by contemporary accounts such as Johnson's. As to Low's flag, for instance, Johnson writes, "Low goes aboard of this ship, [the *Merry Christmas*], assumes the title of admiral, and hoists a black flag, with the figure of death in red, at the main-topmast head." Charles Johnson (1724), *A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pirates*, ed. by David Cordingly (2002), Globe Pequot, ISBN 1-58574-558-8, p. 307. Likewise, Bartholomew Roberts' flag is described in the same edition of Johnson, p. 202, thus: "The jack had a man portrayed in it, with a flaming sword in his hand, and standing on two skulls, subscribed A.B.H. and A.M.H." Roberts' other flag, showing a man and a skeleton holding up an hourglass, appears in an engraving on p. 278 of Johnson's original 1724 text (reproduced here). Kennedy's flag is as described by one of his victims, Captain J. Evans of the *Greyhound Galley*, according to a letter written to Johnson in the second edition of the History (1726), on p. 331 (note, however, that this capture was in 1716, and thus probably does not refer to the same Walter Kennedy who sailed first with Roberts and then on his own account from 1720–23). For Wynn's flag, see the preceding footnote. The origin of the flags for Blackbeard, Tew, Every, Condent, Worley and Bonnet are far more obscure. Ed Foxe believes that the versions of the latter six pirates' Jolly Rogers shown in the secondary sources are taken from an undated, unsourced manuscript in Britain's National Maritime Museum.
18. **^** Botting, p. 49; Konstam, p. 101.
19. **^**
20. **^**
21. **^** Botting, p. 49; Konstam, p. 99; Johnson (1726), p. 331.
22. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** Botting, p. 49; Konstam, p. 100; Johnson (1724), p. 278.
23. **^** Botting, p. 48, Konstam, *The History of Pirates*, p. 98.
24. **^** Pirate Mythtory, Ed Foxe, 2004
25. **^** Botting, p. 49; Konstam, p. 98.
26. **^** Botting, p. 48; Konstam, p. 99.
27. **^** Botting, p. 49, Konstam, p. 98; Frank Sherry, *Raiders and Rebels*, New York: Hearst Marine Books, 1986, ISBN 0-688-04684-3, illustrated p. 97, ascribed p. 98.
28. **^** The red version of this flag appears in Angus Konstam, *Pirates: 1660–1730*, Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1998, ISBN 1-85532-706-6, p. 44. Black versions appear in Botting, p. 48; Konstam, *The History of Pirates*, p. 99; Sherry, illustrated p. 97, ascribed p. 96.
29. **^** Botting, p. 48; Konstam, *The History of Pirates*, p. 101; Sherry, illustrated p. 97, ascribed p. 96.
30. **^** Botting, p. 49; Konstam, *The History of Pirates*, p. 100. Johnson (1724), p. 344, says only that Worley "made a black Ensign, with a white Death's Head in the Middle of it, and other Colours suitable to it," without specifying whether these "other Coulours" were the crossed bones that appear in Botting and Konstam.
31. **^** Botting, p. 48; Konstam, *The History of Pirates*, p. 100, see also Origins of the Design, above.
32. **^**
33. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** Johnson (1724), p. 411–12.
34. **^** Stephens, p. 168.
35. **^** Stephens, p. 144.
36. **^** Stephens, p. 140.
37. **^**
38. **^** William Falconer (1783), *An Universal Dictionary of the Marine*, s.v. "Pirate."
39. **^** This practice is considered deceitful today, but in the period of sail it was the standard practice for all ships. There was no other way to approach an enemy or victim on the open sea if they didn't want to fight.
40. **^** Burl, Aubery *Black Bart* pp. 133–4.
41. **^** Cordingly, p. 117. Cordingly cites only one source for pages 116–119 of his text: Calendar of State Papers, Colonial, America and West Indies, volumes 1719–20, no. 34.
42. **^** p. 10, "Pirational Choice: The Economics of Infamous Pirate Practices", Peter T. Leeson.
43. **^** "Ships attacking under the death head's toothy grin were therefore considered criminal and could be prosecuted as pirates. Since pirates were criminals anyway, for them, flying the Jolly Roger was costless. If they were captured and found guilty, the penalty they faced was the same whether they used the Jolly Roger in taking merchant ships or not – the hangman's noose... For legitimate ships, however, things were different. To retain at least a veneer of legitimacy, privateers and Spanish coast guard ships could not sail under pirate colors. If they did, they could be hunted and hanged as pirates." p. 12, Leeson 2008.
44. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** Richards & Smith, *Onslow's Jolly Roger*, p. 10
45. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** ***c*** ***d*** ***e*** ***f*** Compton-Hall, *Submarines at War 1939–45*, p. 62
46. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** ***c*** *Submariners – Traditions and Values*, at *Defence Jobs*
47. **^** Mackay, *A Precarious Existence*, p. 115
48. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** ***c*** ***d*** ***e*** Admiralty, *His Majesty's Submarines*, p. 43
49. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** ***c*** ***d*** ***e*** Sumner, *The Royal Navy 1939–45*, p. 12
50. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** ***c*** ***d*** Richards & Smith, *Onslow's Jolly Roger*, p. 11
51. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b*** ***c*** Allaway, *Hero of the Upholder*, p. 110
52. **^**
53. **^** Allaway, *Hero of the Upholder*, pp. 110–1
54. **^** Simpson, *Why Would Anyone Want to Swing a Cat?*, pp. 163-4
55. **^** Norton-Taylor, *Cruise missile sub back in UK*
56. ^ Jump up to:***a*** ***b***
57. **^** Compton-Hall, *Submarines at War 1939–45*, p. 64
58. **^** Bartelski, *Sokol – Operational history*
59. **^** Bartelski, *Dzik – Operational history*
60. **^** Williamson 2007, p. 59.
61. **^** Richards & Smith, *Onslow's Jolly Roger*, pp. 11–12
62. **^**
63. **^**http://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/news/a28209/navy-spy-sub-jolly-roger-uss-jimmy-carter/
64. **^**
65. **^**
66. **^** https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=\_ot9Y3VjJiI
67. **^**
68. **^** "Pirate Flag Emoji". *Emojipedia*. Retrieved 19 December2018.