Coalition Wars

### Place

Atlantic Ocean, Caucasus, Europe, French Guiana, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, North America, North Sea, Río de la Plata, West Indies, Southern Africa, East Indies, Middle East, South America, Pacific Ocean

### Battles

* Battle of Wagram
* Battle of Trafalgar

Combatants| **Continental System*** French Empire
* Kingdom of Naples
* Confederation of the Rhine
* Kingdom of Italy
* *Other French puppets*
* Kingdom of Spain
* Kingdom of Prussia
* Russian Empire
* Austrian Empire
* Other Anti-French Nations

Commanders| **Continental System*** Napoleon Bonaparte
* Joachim Murat
* Michel Ney
* Jérôme Bonaparte
* Frederick William III
* Alexander I
* George III
* Ferdinand VII

The **Coalition Wars** also known as the **First Napoleonic War** were a series of conflicts between France and other nations of Europe. It has led to the rise of the French Empire as the powerhouse of Europe.

## Background

The period spanning from 1790 to 1805 in Europe was marked by profound political, social, and military upheaval. These years witnessed the transformative effects of the French Revolution, the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, and the tumultuous Napoleonic Wars that reshaped the continent's political landscape.

The French Revolution, which began in 1789, sent shockwaves throughout Europe. By the early 1790s, revolutionary France had transformed from a monarchy into a republic, with the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793 symbolizing the radical nature of the changes. The revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity fueled political movements and uprisings in various European states, igniting fears among the continent's monarchies.

## (1792-1805)

### War of the 1st Coalition

France, under the leadership of the radical Jacobins, embarked on a military campaign of expansion, seeking to export the revolutionary fervor beyond its borders. Revolutionary France's conflicts with neighboring states led to the War of the First Coalition (1792-1797), a series of battles and shifting alliances that included Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, and other European powers. The French Republic, despite facing external threats, also grappled with internal turmoil, exemplified by the Reign of Terror, a period of intense political repression.

### War of the 2nd Coalition

In 1799, the French Revolution underwent a significant turning point with Napoleon Bonaparte's coup that led to his rise to power as First Consul. Napoleon's military prowess and charismatic leadership quickly made him a dominant figure in European politics. In 1800, he won a decisive victory at the Battle of Marengo, consolidating his control over France and its territories.

The year 1800 also marked a critical moment with the Treaty of Lunéville, which effectively ended the War of the Second Coalition. This treaty recognized the French Republic's territorial gains and further solidified its dominance on the continent. Napoleon's ambition led to the establishment of the Napoleonic Code, a legal framework that had a profound impact on civil law systems in Europe and beyond.

### War of the 3rd Coalition

Napoleon's ambitions extended beyond the French borders, and in 1803, he sold the vast Louisiana Territory to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase. This move not only secured much-needed funds for France but also shifted the balance of power in North America.

However, tensions between France and Great Britain persisted. The Royal Navy's naval supremacy and the British blockade of French ports posed significant challenges to Napoleon's ambitions. The naval Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, in which both sides suffered huge casualites, ended in a stalemate, thwarting both sides from dominating the seas.

The year 1805 marked a pivotal moment in European history as the formation of the Third Coalition aimed to counter Napoleon's expansionist agenda. This coalition included Austria, Russia, and the United Kingdom, and the Battle of Austerlitz later that year saw a resounding French victory on land, with Napoleon emerging as a formidable military tactician.

In summary, the period from 1790 to 1805 in Europe was defined by the radical changes brought about by the French Revolution, the ascent of Napoleon Bonaparte, and the complex dynamics of the Napoleonic Wars. These years witnessed the revolutionary fervor spreading beyond France's borders, altering the continent's political landscape and setting the stage for further developments and conflicts in the years that followed.

## (1806-1812)

### War of the 4nd Coalition

In the Autumn of 1807, French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte dominated Europe. He had humbled Austria at Austerlitz and Prussia at Jena-Auerstädt, and sealed an alliance with Russia at Tilsit. Of the major powers, only Britain still defied him, protected from invasion by the royal navy. Napoleon had ordered all territory controlled by France or its allies to cease trading with Britain, in what was known as the Continental System, designed to wreck Britain’s economy, and force its government to make peace.

Neutral Portugal however, had continued to trade with its historic ally Britain, so Napoleon sent an army to occupy the country and force it into line. The invasion was supported by France’s ally, Spain, although privately, Napoleon held Spain’s rulers in contempt.

### War of the 5th Coalition

As such, at the beginning of 1808, the sole remaining British ally in Europe was the Kingdom of Sweden. With Napoleon’s attention turned towards Iberia, Sweden had been spared the fate inflicted on Prussia and Austria for their involvement in the third and fourth coalition, however the Treaty of Tilsit had turned Russia into a French ally, and the British attack on Copenhagen had pushed Denmark further towards France, leaving Sweden isolated. Gustav IV Adolf viewed Napoleon as the antichrist, and his refusal to make peace and join the Continental System gave Tsar Alexander the pretext he needed for an invasion of Finland.

Russia would make major initial gains, but the Swedish, supported by the Royal Navy, retained superiority in the Baltic. Despite being reinforced by 14,000 British troops under General Sir John Moore, most of Finland was soon under Russian occupation. Sweden’s situation was hampered by the 45,000 strong Franco-Danish army under Marshal Bernadotte, which occupied Swedish Pomerania, and were only kept out of Sweden by the Royal Navy.

Russian General Kamensky suggested a daring plan to win the war. The Russian army would march across the frozen Gulf of Bothnia to attack the heart of Sweden. It took until March of 1809 for the Russian army to finally put the plan into action, and once the news reached Stockholm, Gustav IV Adolf was dethroned in favour of his uncle, now crowned as Charles XIII. Russia’a advance would be halted at the Åland Islands by British and Swedish forces, but Sweden would soon come to terms with Russia, ceding Finland, and agreeing to join the Continental System, although an illicit trade with Britain would continue.

Britain meanwhile, would seek to open up a new front in their conflict with Napoleon. George Canning, the Foreign Minister, hoped to exploit Britain’s naval advantage to seize Spanish Colonial holdings, replicating similar successes against Napoleon’s Dutch client state, the Kingdom of Holland. On the other hand, Viscount Castlereagh, Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, favoured building up a new coalition, to be supported by a British invasion of Italy from Sicily. Despite fears that an invasion of the Spanish Empire would end any hope of priseing Spain away from Napoleon, Austria’s unwillingness to join a new coalition in 1808 would see Britain prepare an invasion of Spanish America.

### British Invasion of Spanish Colonies

*This is about the British Invasion of South America*

The British invasion of Spain’s colonial holdings would come in three primary thrusts. Firstly, an expedition under Sir Hugh Dalrymple was to besiege Havana and take Cuba. Secondly, Sir Arthur Wellesley was to lead an invasion of Venezuela, in cooperation with revolutionary Francisco de Miranda. Finally, William Beresford was to command a force to occupy Montevideo and Buenos Aires. The campaigns would only see marginal success.

Dalrymple relied on replicating the capture of Havana in the seven years war, and proved unable to adjust his plan to the city’s reinforced defences. After settling in for a siege, he was forced to abandon the campaign after half his army caught yellow fever, with the army evacuating to Jamaica.

The invasion of Venezuela saw more success, with British forces capturing the key cities of Maracaibo and Cumaná, and installing Miranda in Caracas, though Wellesley would be reluctant to advance further inland for fear of tropical diseases and would spend most of 1808 with his army garrisoning his gains.

The second invasion of La Plata was more successful than the first, seizing Buenos Aires, which would remain under British control, and Montevideo, which would soon be handed over to the Portuguese. Attempts to advance further inland however proved largely unsuccessful, primarily due to the fact that local nationalists once again favoured Spain over Britain, unlike in Venezuela. Beresford would doggedly hold onto his position however, and the mouth of the La Plata would fall firmly under Anglo-Portuguese hands.

Despite making some gains, the invasion had been markedly less successful than London had hoped, and had even contributed to the failure of a coup by the anti-Bonaparte Crown Prince Ferdinand. Further, as 1809 began, Austria had made clear its increased willingness for a new coalition against Napoleon. After sealing an agreement with Russia to avoid battle, Austria would be able to focus entirely on the Danube theatre, whilst British forces would land on the continent in the Netherlands. It was perhaps unlikely that Britain and Austria would be able to take on France alone, however the recent army reforms had left Austria optimistic, and Britain was eager for any opportunities to take on France in Europe.

### War of the 6th Coalition

Austria began the conflict on the 10th of April, but their advance was slowed by heavy rain. Berthier was proven a poor field commander, and the French response was disorganised until the arrival of Napoleon, would pursue what he thought was the main body of the Austrian army as far as Landshut, only to realise that Archduke Charles was elsewhere. Napoleon marched north to Regensburg, but Charkes evaded him once again. The Austrian army had been cut in half, but both sections retreated in good order towards Vienna. Charles chose not to defend the capital, but awaited across the Danube, and would ultimately defeat Napoleon at Aspern-Essling. The battle was Napoleon’s first major defeat. Although both sides had taken heavy losses. Only a few days later however, Napoleon would defeat Charles at Wagram, and pursue him to Znaim, where Charles would request a ceasefire. This would infuriate Francis, as the long awaited British support had finally arrived, with almost 40,000 troops landing in the Kingdom of Holland. Austria however was in no position to continue the war, and made peace with Napoleon in the Treaty of Schonbrunn, where they were forced to surrender West Galicia, Salzburg and the Adriatic coastline. Britain would withdraw from Holland shortly afterwards, having lost less than 200 men in combat, but 4,000 to disease.

Napoleon’s focus would turn towards dynastic affairs, divorcing Josephine in favour of a marriage to Archduchess Marie Louise, who would bear him a son, named Napoleon, in ealy 1811.

Britain would refocus their efforts towards South America once again. A reinforced General Beresford would make some gains against Spanish forces in La Plata, whilst Wellesley’s cautious advance would make its way into Colombia. The offensives ground to a halt in 1811 however, as the United Kingdom began efforts to form a sixth Coalition, with negotiations between the United Kingdom, Sweden and Russia beginning in 1812.

Russia had been a firm ally of France from 1807 until 1810, when the economic effects of the Continental System, paired with France’s occupation of Oldenburg, escalated tensions between the two powers. As Russia increasingly ignored the Continental System, Napoleon prepared for an invasion. Russia however, made its own preparations, concluding a peace with the Ottoman Empire in exchange for Bessarabia, and ensuring that Sweden would not support France in the conflict.

## (1812 - 1818)

### Invasion of Russia

In June 1812, on the cusp of the French invasion of Russia, the vast army assembled by Napoleon in Prussia and Poland numbered some 600,000. Aside from some 350,000 from France, 100,000 from Poland, 60,000 from the Confederation of the Rhine and 30,000 from Italy, Napoleon’s army also included a sizable contingent of 20,000 from Prussia and 100,000 from Napoleon’s erstwhile enemy, Austria. Russia on the other hand had only some 220,000 men to face this threat, divided between the armies of Barclay, Bagration and Tormasov.

Napoleon had hoped to defeat the Russian forces in a decisive battle, but Braclay and Bagration withdrew as he advanced, whilst Napoleon was forced to divert the Austrian reserve corps south after Russia’s third army defeated the Saxon corps at Korbryn. By July, Napoleon had reached Vitebsk, far further than he had ever intended to advance, and had suffered 20% casualties without fighting a major battle, primarily due to exhaustion, typhus and dysentery, whilst the 250,000 horses that Napoleon had brought into Russia were dying at a rate of 1,000 every day. Napoleon was forced to divert further troops to cover his supplies against cossack raids.

At Vitebsk, Napoleon received news that Schwartzenburg had defeated the Russians at Gorodeczna and Bavarian troops had fought Russia to a standstill at Polotsk. Napoleon’s flanks were secure, and he was free to advance. Napoleon would continue towards Moscow. At this juncture, the cautious Barclay was demoted in favour of Kutuzov, who took the view that Moscow could not be surrendered without a fight.

Kutusov had mustered some 121,000 men for the final defence of Moscow, whilst Napoleon’s army was around 140,000 strong. A third of the soldiers present would not live to see the dusk. Across the day’s fighting, the Russian centre would be driven back, until the Second Austrian corps would be committed against the Russian lines, breaking them in two. Kutusov would withdraw with what was left of his army, but in the wake of his defeat was replaced as commander with Bagration. Napoleon believed that Russia would now surely surrender, however no word would come from St Petersburg. With Napoleon’s strength reduced to 100,000 men, he was forced to begin a retreat from Moscow in October.

Bagration attempted to block Napoleon’s retreat at Maloyaroslavets, but was pushed aside, and proceeded to shadow Napoleon’s army at a distance. Temperatures soon dropped below freezing. Napoleon would face further problems after Vitebsk fell to Wittgenstein, and was again attacked by the Russians at Krasny. The Imperial Guard held the road open, as the army retreated further. Napoleon’s strength had been reduced to some 55,000, already having been reinforced with further forces from the Austrian reserve, whilst the Russian army of some 90,000 pursued him. Schwartzenburg however would hold Minsk against an offensive by a further 34,000 men under Chichagov, although this left the Austrian army unable to return home, and Poland exposed to Osten-Sacken’s forces.

Napoleon would rendezvous with Schwartzenburg at Minsk, their combined armies now numbered some 90,000, although they were practically surrounded by Russian forces. A rearguard action by Ney at Borisov almost destroyed third corps, but prevented Wittgenstein and Barclay from advancing further. Napoleon’s army would limp back to Vilna, now numbering barely 65,000 as they retreated into Poland.

1812 had been a disastrous year for Napoleon. His invasion of Russia had led to the almost total destruction of an army of over half a million men. Now, Poland and Germany were wide open to a Russian attack.

Some advised Emperor Alexander that now was the time to make a favourable peace with Napoleon. Russia’s own armies had been mauled and western Russia devastated by the fighting, yet Alexander was determined to see Napoleon defeated for good.

Prussian troops had already agreed a truce with the Russians, however the Austrian forces had no way to return home as Russian forces poured into Poland. The daring and able cavalry commander, Marshal Joachim Murat, had been left in command of the rest of the French army, but he was outnumbered three to one. As Russian forces advanced through Poland, Murat reluctantly decided to retreat west, leaving garrisons at strategic fortresses to tie down Russian forces. On the 7th of February, Russian troops entered Warsaw unopposed. The Duchy of Warsaw effectively ceased to exist. Three weeks later, Russian troops entered Berlin, whilst Sweden joined the coalition.

Sweden was effectively ruled by Crown Prince Frederick Christian, who had been elected to succeed the ailing, childless king. In exchange for the duchy of Schleswig Holstein, to which he had hereditary claims, which was to be taken off Napoleon’s ally Denmark, and one million pounds from Britain, Sweden had agreed to field an army of 30,000 troops.

Ten days later, King Frederick William of Prussia declared war as well. It followed weeks of indecision, but with guarantees of Russian military support, the return of lost territory and substantial financial support from Britain, he agreed to field an army of 80,000 men. On the 17th of march, he issued a proclamation to the people of Prussia and Germany: ‘An Mein Volk’, ‘To My People’, which summoned them to fight for Prussia’s honour and Germany’s freedom, in what he would announce was to be the ‘War of German Liberation’.

Meanwhile in Paris, Napoleon called up 137,000 conscripts, and passed laws to raise 100,000 more. These were joined by 80,000 men of the National Guard, 16,000 Marines, 40,000 veterans who had not marched into Russia and 40,000 reinforcements from Napoleon’s Spanish ally.

But as Napoleon marched into Germany, the situation was beginning to turn dire. Murat had withdrawn behind the Elbe to Magdeburg, Dresden, the capital of Saxony had fallen to Prussia, and the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin became the first German state to defect from the Confederation of the Rhine. Russian cossacks raided as far as Hamburg.

Napoleon had now fielded an army of over 200,000 men in Germany. The coalition forces on the other hand were only slightly in excess of 100,000, with the Prussian and Swedish armies not yet fully mobilised and awaiting the arrival of Russian reinforcements. Marshal Davout would secure Hamburg and the French right flank, whilst Napoleon would march against the Russian and Prussian forces massing at Leipzig, to force a decisive battle.

As news of Napoleon’s advance reached allied headquarters, they made the bold decision to attack. A battle at Lutzen however proved inconclusive; whilst Prussian and Russian forces had suffered only half as many losses as the French, they were forced to break off the engagement. Napoleon was unable to pursue them due to his lack of cavalry. Once again at Bautzen, the allies were forced to withdraw, although they inflicted many more losses than they suffered.

### Peace

On the 4th of June, Austria proposed a ceasefire, which to the surprise of many, Napoleon accepted. Napoleon wanted time to rebuild his cavalry, and hoped to keep Austria from joining the coalition. Metternich meanwhile met with Napoleon at Leipzig, in an attempt to negotiate an Austrian exit from the war. Napoleon, fearful that declining would see Austria join the coalition, agreed. Schwartzenburg’s corps would march home to Bohemia, the pride of the Austrian army having suffered 80% casualties throughout the campaign.

The truce would last until August, when Napoleon began an advance against what he viewed as the most urgent threat; the joint Prussian and Russian army of Silesia, commanded by General Blucher. However, Blucher withdrew to avoid battle, and entrenched along the Oder outside Breslau. Napoleon, ever the gambler, would attack, driving Blucher out of the city, but again unable to destroy his army. With his supply line now worryingly thin, Napoleon would receive news that Marshal Oudinot had resumed his advance on Berlin with 75,000 men, and turned northwards with much of his strength to support him, leaving MacDonald to contain Blucher.

However, Oudinot would be repulsed by Prussian and Swedish forces at Großbeeren, whilst at the Katzbach river, Blucher inflicted a crushing defeat on Marshal MacDonald. Napoleon however would engage the army of the North personally at Potsdam, with Bulow limping northwards towards Swedish Pomerania. Napoleon would enter Berlin to the unfortunate news that the Prussian royal family had fled to Koenigsburg.

By now, Napoleon was facing a quarter of a million coalition troops in Germany, in a conflict that showed no signs of ending despite the fall of Berlin, whilst the British forces under John Stuart had captured the city of Naples. However, with Berlin secured, Marshal Davout was free to march from Hamburg, link up with Oudinot and pursue the army of the North, whilst Napoleon himself would engage Blucher.

Blucher, reinforced by the Russian reserves in Poland, now commanded an army of over 150,000 men, outnumbering Napoleon, who nonetheless decided to advance. The armies met at Fürstenwalde, a battle which would prove largely indecisive but end Blucher’s advance on Berlin. Bulow however would be trapped after a battle at Grimmen, when his entire army was encircled by Davout. Bulow would be forced to surrender before the Royal Navy could be sent to extricate them, and with its entire army now in French captivity, Sweden would soon come to terms with France.

The tide of the conflict had turned decisively against the Coalition forces, although France was now forced to divert troops to salvage an increasingly dire situation in Italy. Blucher however was unwilling to give up so easily, and split his army. 60,000 Russian forces under Osten-Sacken would advance into Silesia to draw out Napoleon, but avoid battle, whilst Blucher would assail Davout and Berlin in a northern thrust. Osten-Sacken would successfully draw Napoleon out of Berlin, but his attempt to retreat across the Oder was initially blocked by Marshal Ney, which led to a desperate attempt to cross the river, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides, but Osten-Sacken limping away.

Meanwhile, Blucher had engaged Davout at Eisenhuttenstadt, but failed to take the town after three days of fighting. News that Napoleon was approaching led Blucher to retreat, but after reaching Posen, Napoleon caught up to Blucher’s army. After a day of fighting Blucher again retreated, but after Napoleon again caught up to him at Gniezno, decided that he would have to surrender.

Napoleon’s terms to Prussia were far more punitive, leaving Prussia stripped of all its gains from the old Commonwealth, which were conceded to the Duchy of Warsaw, as well as a considerable indemnity, and limitations to army size, which effectively reduced Prussia to a French vassal state. Russia was the only Continental power still at war with France, but without the support of Sweden and Prussia, their position was vulnerable. Tsar Alexander reluctantly came to terms with Napoleon at Vilna, conceding Brest to the Duchy of Warsaw, although Russia would not rejoin France’s Continental System, which further undermined its effectiveness for the few remaining years of the conflict.

As Napoleon’s attention turned back to Italy, Britain was forced to abandon their gains and withdraw to the island of Sicily. Their attention would return to the ongoing conflicts in the Americas, though no peace would be made with France, with economic war continuing between the two sides.

It would not be until 1817 that the United Kingdom would finally come to the table. Approaching France through Spain, the Treaty of Madrid largely recognised the status quo. Napoleon’s attempts to press for the return of Dutch colonies was undermined by his ongoing occupation of the country, and Britain’s attempt to see a restoration of Hanover fell on deaf ears, as Napoleon was unwilling to compromise the Confederation of the Rhine’s integrity. Negotiations with Spain were more favourable towards Britain, with key ports in Colombia and Venezuela retained for trade, in exchange for abandoning support of the Latin American revolutionaries.

## Aftermath

Overall, the Coalition Wars concluded with France becoming the main power in Europe.