Chippewa People

ᐅᒋᑉᐧᐁ (ᒋᑉᐯᐧᐊ)

Chippewa People

The **Chippewe**, **Chippewa**, or **Saulteaux** are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains. They are Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic and Northeastern Woodlands.

## Language

Main article: Chippewa language

The Chippewa language is known as *Anishinaabemowin* or *Chippewamowin*, and is still widely spoken, although the number of fluent speakers has declined sharply. Today, most of the language's fluent speakers are elders. Since the early 21st century, there is a growing movement to revitalize the language and restore its strength as a central part of Chippewa culture. The language belongs to the Algonquian linguistic group and is descended from Proto-Algonquian. Its sister languages include Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Shawnee among the northern Plains tribes. *Anishinaabemowin* is frequently referred to as a "Central Algonquian" language; Central Algonquian is an area grouping, however, rather than a linguistic genetic one.

*Chippewamowin* is the fourth-most spoken Native language in North America after Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut. Many decades of fur trading with the French established the language as one of the key trade languages of the Great Lakes and the northern Great Plains.

## History

### Precontact and spiritual beliefs

According to Chippewa oral history and from recordings in birch bark scrolls, the Chippewa originated from the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River on the Atlantic coast of what is now Quebec. They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years as they migrated, and knew of the canoe routes to move north, west to east, and then south in the Americas. The identification of the Chippewa as a culture or people may have occurred in response to contact with Europeans. The Europeans preferred to deal with groups, and tried to identify those they encountered.

According to Chippewa oral history, seven great *miigis* (Cowrie shells) appeared to them in the *Waabanakiing* (Land of the Dawn, i.e., Eastern Land) to teach them the *mide* way of life. One of the *miigis* was too spiritually powerful and killed the people in the *Waabanakiing* when they were in its presence. The six others remained to teach, while the one returned into the ocean. The six established *doodem* (clans) for people in the east, symbolized by animals. The five original Anishinaabe *doodem* were the *Wawaazisii* (Bullhead), *Baswenaazhi* (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), *Aan'aawenh* (Pintail Duck), *Nooke* (Tender, i.e., Bear) and *Moozoonsii* (Little Moose). The six *miigis* then returned to the ocean as well. If the seventh had stayed, it would have established the Thunderbird *doodem*.

At a later time, one of these *miigis* appeared in a vision to relate a prophecy. It said that if the Anishinaabeg did not move farther west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive because of the many new pale-skinned settlers who would arrive soon in the east. Their migration path would be symbolized by a series of smaller Turtle Islands, which was confirmed with *miigis* shells (i.e., cowry shells). After receiving assurance from their "Allied Brothers" (i.e., Mi'kmaq) and "Father" (i.e., Abenaki) of their safety to move inland, the Anishinaabeg gradually migrated west along the Saint Lawrence River to the Ottawa River to Lake Nipissing, and then to the Great Lakes.

The first of the smaller Turtle Islands was *Mooniyaa*, where *Mooniyaang* (present-day Montreal)  developed. The "second stopping place" was in the vicinity of the *Wayaanag-gakaabikaa* (Concave Waterfalls, i.e., Niagara Falls). At their "third stopping place", near the present-day city of Detroit, Michigan, the Anishinaabeg divided into six groups, of which the Chippewa was one.

The first significant new Chippewa culture-center was their "fourth stopping place" on *Manidoo Minising* (Manitoulin Island). Their first new political-center was referred to as their "fifth stopping place", in their present country at *Baawiting* (Sault Ste. Marie). Continuing their westward expansion, the Chippewa divided into the "northern branch", following the north shore of Lake Superior, and the "southern branch", along its south shore.

As the people continued to migrate westward, the "northern branch" divided into a "westerly group" and a "southerly group". The "southern branch" and the "southerly group" of the "northern branch" came together at their "sixth stopping place" on Spirit Island (46°41′15″N 092°11′21″W) located in the Saint Louis River estuary at the western end of Lake Superior. (This has since been developed as the present-day Duluth/Superior cities.) The people were directed in a vision by the *miigis* being to go to the "place where there is food (i.e., wild rice) upon the waters." Their second major settlement, referred to as their "seventh stopping place", was at Shaugawaumikong (or *Zhaagawaamikong*, French, *Chequamegon*) on the southern shore of Lake Superior, near the present La Pointe, Wisconsin.

The "westerly group" of the "northern branch" migrated along the Rainy River, Red River of the North, and across the northern Great Plains until reaching the Pacific Northwest. Along their migration to the west, they came across many *miigis*, or cowry shells, as told in the prophecy.

## Culture

link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ojibwa\_dance.jpg|thumb|Plains Chippewa performing a snowshoe dance. By George Catlin
The Chippewa have traditionally organized themselves into groups known as *bands*. Most Chippewa, except for the Great Plains bands, have historically lived a settled (as opposed to nomadic) lifestyle, relying on fishing and hunting to supplement the cultivation of numerous varieties of maize and squash, and the harvesting of *manoomin* (wild rice) for food. Historically their typical dwelling has been the *wiigiwaam* (wigwam), built either as a *waginogaan* (domed-lodge) or as a *nasawa'ogaan* (pointed-lodge), made of birch bark, juniper bark and willow saplings. In the contemporary era, most of the people live in modern housing, but traditional structures are still used for special sites and events.

They have a culturally-specific form of pictorial writing, used in the religious rites of the *Midewiwin* and recorded on birch bark scrolls and possibly on rock. The many complex pictures on the sacred scrolls communicate much historical, geometrical, and mathematical knowledge. The use of petroforms, petroglyphs, and pictographs has been common throughout the Chippewa traditional territories. Petroforms and medicine wheels have been used to teach important spiritual concepts, record astronomical events, and to use as a mnemonic device for certain stories and beliefs. The script is still in use, among traditional people as well as among youth on social media.

Some ceremonies use the *miigis* shell (cowry shell), which is found naturally in distant coastal areas. Their use of such shells demonstrates there is a vast, longstanding trade network across the continent. The use and trade of copper across the continent has also been proof of a large trading network that took place for thousands of years, as far back as the Hopewell tradition. Certain types of rock used for spear and arrow heads have also been traded over large distances precontact.

During the summer months, the people attend *jiingotamog* for the spiritual and *niimi'idimaa* for a social gathering (powwows) at various reservations in the Anishinaabe-Aki (Anishinaabe Country). Many people still follow the traditional ways of harvesting wild rice, picking berries, hunting, making medicines, and making maple sugar.

The Chippewa bury their dead in burial mounds. Many erect a *jiibegamig* or a "spirit-house" over each mound. An historical burial mound would typically have a wooden marker, inscribed with the deceased's *doodem* (clan sign). Because of the distinct features of these burials, Chippewa graves have been often looted by grave robbers. In the United States, many Chippewa communities safe-guard their burial mounds through the enforcement of the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.

Several Chippewa bands in the United States cooperate in the Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission, which manages the treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Lake Superior-Lake Michigan areas. The commission follows the directives of U.S. agencies to run several wilderness areas. Some Minnesota Chippewa tribal councils cooperate in the 1854 Treaty Authority, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Arrowhead Region. In Michigan, the Chippewa-Ottawa Resource Authority manages the hunting, fishing and gathering rights about Sault Ste. Marie, and the resources of the waters of lakes Michigan and Huron. In Canada, the Grand Council of Treaty No. 3 manages the Treaty 3 hunting and fishing rights related to the area around Lake of the Woods.

### Kinship and clan system

Main article: Anishinaabe clan system

Traditionally, the Chippewa had a patrilineal system, in which children were considered born to the father's clan. For this reason, children with French or English fathers were considered outside the clan and Chippewa society unless adopted by an Chippewa male. They were sometimes referred to as "white" because of their fathers, regardless if their mothers were Chippewa, as they had no official place in the Chippewa society. The people would shelter the woman and her children, but they did not have the same place in the culture as children born to Chippewa fathers.

Chippewa understanding of kinship is complex and includes the immediate family as well as extended family. It is considered a modified bifurcate merging kinship system. As with any bifurcate-merging kinship system, siblings generally share the same kinship term with parallel cousins because they are all part of the same clan. The modified system allows for younger siblings to share the same kinship term with younger cross-cousins. Complexity wanes further from the person's immediate generation, but some complexity is retained with female relatives. For example, *ninooshenh* is "my mother's sister" or "my father's sister-in-law"—i.e., my parallel-aunt, but also "my parent's female cross-cousin". Great-grandparents and older generations, as well as great-grandchildren and younger generations, are collectively called *aanikoobijigan*. This system of kinship reflects the Anishinaabe philosophy of interconnectedness and balance among all living generations, as well as of all generations of the past and of the future.

The Chippewa people were divided into a number of *doodemag* (clans; singular: *doodem*) named primarily for animals and birds totems (pronounced *doodem*). The word in the Chippewa language means "my fellow clansman." The five original totems were *Wawaazisii* (Bullhead), *Baswenaazhi*/"Ajiijaak" ("Echo-maker", i.e., Crane), *Aan'aawenh* (Pintail Duck), *Nooke* ("Tender", i.e., Bear) and *Moozwaanowe* ("Little" Moose-tail). The Crane totem was the most vocal among the Chippewa, and the Bear was the largest – so large, that it was sub-divided into body parts such as the head, the ribs and the feet. Each clan had certain responsibilities among the people. People had to marry a spouse from a different clan.

Traditionally, each band had a self-regulating council consisting of leaders of the communities' clans, or *odoodemaan*. The band was often identified by the principal *doodem*. In meeting others, the traditional greeting among the Chippewa people is, "What is your 'doodem'?" ("*Aaniin gidoodem?*" or "*Awanen gidoodem?*") The response allows the parties to establish social conduct by identifying as family, friends or enemies. Today, the greeting has been shortened to "*Aanii*" (pronounced "Ah-nee").

## Bands

These 15 major divisions developed into the following Chippewa Bands and First Nations of today.