German language

The **German language** is one of the four founding languages of Google Translate, and is a West Germanic language mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official or co-official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and the Italian province of South Tyrol. It is also a co-official language of Luxembourg and Belgium, as well as a national language in Namibia. German is most similar to other languages within the West Germanic language branch, including Afrikaans, Dutch, English, the Frisian languages, Low German, Luxembourgish, Scots, and Yiddish. It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the North Germanic group, such as Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish. German is the second most widely spoken Germanic language after English.

German is one of the major languages of the world. It is the most spoken native language within the European Union. German is also widely taught as a foreign language, especially in continental Europe, where it is the third most taught foreign language (after English and French), and the United States. The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used scientific language and among the most widely used languages on websites. The German-speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in the world being published in German.

German is an inflected language, with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter); and two numbers (singular, plural). It has strong and weak verbs. The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share is partly derived from Latin and Greek, along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English.

German is a pluricentric language; the three standardized variants are German, Austrian, and Swiss Standard High German. It is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments.

## Classification

Modern Standard German is a West Germanic language in the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches, North Germanic, East Germanic, and West Germanic. The first of these branches survives in modern Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Faroese, and Icelandic, all of which are descended from Old Norse. The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch, Yiddish, Afrikaans, and others.

Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the Benrath and Uerdingen lines (running through Düsseldorf-Benrath and Krefeld-Uerdingen, respectively) serve to distinguish the Germanic dialects that were affected by the High German consonant shift (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the Low German/Low Saxon and Low Franconian dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as Irminonic, Ingvaeonic, and Istvaeonic, respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by the Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser-Rhine group).

Standard German is based on a combination of Thuringian-Upper Saxon and Upper Franconian dialects, which are Central German and Upper German dialects belonging to the High German dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish (based on Central Franconian dialects) and Yiddish. Also closely related to Standard German are the Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries, such as Swiss German (Alemannic dialects) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French region of Grand Est, such as Alsatian (mainly Alemannic, but also Central- and Upper Franconian dialects) and Lorraine Franconian (Central Franconian).

After these High German dialects, standard German is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g. Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern Denmark), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are the Frisian languages—North Frisian (spoken in Nordfriesland), Saterland Frisian (spoken in Saterland), and West Frisian (spoken in Friesland)—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These Anglo-Frisian dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift.

## Geographical Distribution

As a result of the German diaspora, as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language, the geographical distribution of German speakers (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents.

However, an exact, global number of native German speakers is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of Alemannic and Low German. With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language,[*page needed*] 10–25 million speak it as a second language,[*page needed*] and 75–100 million as a foreign language. This would imply the existence of approximately 175–220 million German speakers worldwide.

### Europe

As of 2012, about 90 million people, or 16% of the European Union's population spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English).

#### German Sprachraum[edit source]

The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language is called the "German *Sprachraum*". German is the official language of the following countries:

* Germany
* Austria
* 17 cantons of Switzerland
* Liechtenstein

German is a co-official language of the following countries:

* Belgium (as majority language only in the German-speaking Community, which represents 0.7% of the Belgian population)
* Luxembourg, along with French and Luxembourgish
* Switzerland, co-official at the federal level with French, Italian, and Romansh, and at the local level in four cantons: Bern (with French), Fribourg (with French), Grisons (with Italian and Romansh) and Valais (with French)
* Italian Autonomous Province of South Tyrol (also majority language)

#### Outside the German Sprachraum[edit source]

Although expulsions and (forced) assimilation after the two World wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum.

Within Europe, German is a recognized minority language in the following countries:

* Czech Republic (see also: Germans in the Czech Republic)
* Denmark (see also: North Schleswig Germans)
* Hungary (see also: Germans of Hungary)
* Poland (see also German minority in Poland; German is an auxiliary and co-official language in 31 communes)
* Romania (see also: Germans of Romania)
* Russia, (see also: Germans in Russia)
* Slovakia (see also: Carpathian Germans)

In France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as "regional languages", but the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government.

### Africa

#### Namibia

Main article: German language in Namibia
Bilingual German-English sign at a bakery in Namibia, where German is a national language.
Namibia was a colony of the German Empire from 1884 to 1919. About 30,000 people still speak German as a native tongue today, mostly descendants of German colonial settlers. The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based pidgin language called "Namibian Black German", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it.

German remained a *de facto* official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and Afrikaans, and had *de jure* co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time. German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country.

Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of the *Sprachraum* in Europe. German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK)), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation). The *Allgemeine Zeitung* is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa.

#### South Africa

An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch", a variety of Low German concentrated in and around Wartburg. The South African constitution identifies German as a "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it.

### North America

In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, Spanish, French, and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined), with over 1 million total speakers. In the states of North Dakota and South Dakota, German is the most common language spoken at home after English. As a legacy of significant German immigration to the country, German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region, such as New Ulm and Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital).

A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as Pennsylvania German and Texas German.

### South America

In Brazil, the largest concentrations of German speakers are in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (where Riograndenser Hunsrückisch developed), Santa Catarina, and Espírito Santo.

German dialects (namely Hunsrik and East Pomeranian) are recognized languages in the following municipalities in Brazil:

* Espírito Santo (statewide cultural language): Domingos Martins, Laranja da Terra, Pancas, Santa Maria de Jetibá, Vila Pavão
* Rio Grande do Sul (Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German is a designated cultural language in the state): Santa Maria do Herval, Canguçu
* Santa Catarina: Antônio Carlos, Pomerode (standard German recognized)

Small concentrations of German-speakers and their descendants are also found in Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Venezuela, and Bolivia.

### Oceania

In Australia, the state of South Australia experienced a pronounced wave of Prussian immigration in the 1840s (particularly from Silesia region). With the prolonged isolation from other German speakers and contact with Australian English, a unique dialect known as Barossa German developed, spoken predominantly in the Barossa Valley near Adelaide. Usage of German sharply declined with the advent of World War I, due to the prevailing anti-German sentiment in the population and related government action. It continued to be used as a first language into the 20th century, but its use is now limited to a few older speakers.

As of the 2013 census, 36,642 people in New Zealand spoke German, mostly descendants of a small wave of 19th century German immigrants, making it the third most spoken European language after English and French and overall the ninth most spoken language.

A German creole named *Unserdeutsch* was historically spoken in the former German colony of German New Guinea, modern day Papua New Guinea. It is at a high risk of extinction, with only about 100 speakers remaining, and a topic of interest among linguists seeking to revive interest in the language.

### As a foreign language

Like English, French, and Spanish, German has become a standard foreign language throughout the world, especially in the Western World. German ranks second on par with French among the best known foreign languages in the European Union (EU) after English, as well as in Russia and Turkey. In terms of student numbers across all levels of education, German ranks third in the EU (after English and French) and in the United States (after Spanish and French). In 2020, approximately 15.4 million people were enrolled in learning German across all levels of education worldwide. This number has decreased from a peak of 20.1 million in 2000. Within the EU, not counting countries where it is an official language, German as a foreign language is most popular in Eastern and Northern Europe, namely the Czech Republic, Croatia, Denmark, the Netherlands, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Sweden, Poland, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. German was once, and to some extent still is, a lingua franca in those parts of Europe.

## Grammar

German is a fusional language with a moderate degree of inflection, with three grammatical genders; as such, there can be a large number of words derived from the same root.

German nouns inflect by case, gender, and number:

* four cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative.
* three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Word endings sometimes reveal grammatical gender: for instance, nouns ending in *-ung* (-ing), *-schaft* (-ship), *-keit* or *heit* (-hood, -ness) are feminine, nouns ending in *-chen* or *-lein* (diminutive forms) are neuter and nouns ending in *-ismus* (-ism) are masculine. Others are more variable, sometimes depending on the region in which the language is spoken. And some endings are not restricted to one gender, for example: *-er* (-er), such as *Feier* (feminine), celebration, party; *Arbeiter* (masculine), labourer; and *Gewitter* (neuter), thunderstorm.
* two numbers: singular and plural.

This degree of inflection is considerably less than in Old High German and other old Indo-European languages such as Latin, Ancient Greek, and Sanskrit, and it is also somewhat less than, for instance, Old English, modern Icelandic, or Russian. The three genders have collapsed in the plural. With four cases and three genders plus plural, there are 16 permutations of case and gender/number of the article (not the nouns), but there are only six forms of the definite article, which together cover all 16 permutations. In nouns, inflection for case is required in the singular for strong masculine and neuter nouns only in the genitive and in the dative (only in fixed or archaic expressions), and even this is losing ground to substitutes in informal speech. Weak masculine nouns share a common case ending for genitive, dative, and accusative in the singular. Feminine nouns are not declined in the singular. The plural has an inflection for the dative. In total, seven inflectional endings (not counting plural markers) exist in German: *-s, -es, -n, -ns, -en, -ens, -e*.

Like the other Germanic languages, German forms noun compounds in which the first noun modifies the category given by the second: *Hundehütte* ("dog hut"; specifically: "dog kennel"). Unlike English, whose newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written "open" with separating spaces, German (like some other Germanic languages) nearly always uses the "closed" form without spaces, for example: *Baumhaus* ("tree house"). Like English, German allows arbitrarily long compounds in theory (see also English compounds). The longest German word verified to be actually in (albeit very limited) use is *Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz*, which, literally translated, is "beef labelling supervision duties assignment law" [from *Rind* (cattle), *Fleisch* (meat), *Etikettierung(s)* (labelling), *Überwachung(s)* (supervision), *Aufgaben* (duties), *Übertragung(s)* (assignment), *Gesetz* (law)]. However, examples like this are perceived by native speakers as excessively bureaucratic, stylistically awkward, or even satirical.

### Verb inflection

The inflection of standard German verbs includes:

* two main conjugation classes: weak and strong (as in English). Additionally, there is a third class, known as mixed verbs, whose conjugation combines features of both the strong and weak patterns.
* three persons: first, second and third.
* two numbers: singular and plural.
* three moods: indicative, imperative and subjunctive (in addition to infinitive).
* two voices: active and passive. The passive voice uses auxiliary verbs and is divisible into static and dynamic. Static forms show a constant state and use the verb ’'to be'’ (sein). Dynamic forms show an action and use the verb "to become'’ (werden).
* two tenses without auxiliary verbs (present and preterite) and four tenses constructed with auxiliary verbs (perfect, pluperfect, future and future perfect).
* the distinction between grammatical aspects is rendered by combined use of the subjunctive or preterite marking so the plain indicative voice uses neither of those two markers; the subjunctive by itself often conveys reported speech; subjunctive plus preterite marks the conditional state; and the preterite alone shows either plain indicative (in the past), or functions as a (literal) alternative for either reported speech or the conditional state of the verb, when necessary for clarity.
* the distinction between perfect and progressive aspect is and has, at every stage of development, been a productive category of the older language and in nearly all documented dialects, but strangely enough it is now rigorously excluded from written usage in its present normalised form.
* disambiguation of completed vs. uncompleted forms is widely observed and regularly generated by common prefixes ('**blicken'** [to look], '**erblicken'** [to see – unrelated form: *sehen*]).

### Verb Prefixes

The meaning of basic verbs can be expanded and sometimes radically changed through the use of a number of prefixes. Some prefixes have a specific meaning; the prefix ***zer-*** refers to destruction, as in ***zer**reißen* (to tear apart), ***zer**brechen* (to break apart), ***zer**schneiden* (to cut apart). Other prefixes have only the vaguest meaning in themselves; ***ver-*** is found in a number of verbs with a large variety of meanings, as in ***ver**suchen* (to try) from *suchen* (to seek), ***ver**nehmen* (to interrogate) from *nehmen* (to take), ***ver**teilen* (to distribute) from *teilen* (to share), ***ver**stehen* (to understand) from *stehen* (to stand).

Other examples include the following: *haften* (to stick), ***ver**haften* (to detain); *kaufen* (to buy), ***ver**kaufen* (to sell); *hören* (to hear), ***auf**hören* (to cease); *fahren* (to drive), ***er**fahren* (to experience).

Many German verbs have a separable prefix, often with an adverbial function. In finite verb forms, it is split off and moved to the end of the clause and is hence considered by some to be a "resultative particle". For example, *mitgehen*, meaning "to go along", would be split, giving *Gehen Sie mit?* (Literal: "Go you with?"; Idiomatic: "Are you going along?").

Indeed, several parenthetical clauses may occur between the prefix of a finite verb and its complement (ankommen = to arrive, er kam an = he arrived, er ist angekommen = he has arrived):

*Er **kam** am Freitagabend nach einem harten Arbeitstag und dem üblichen Ärger, der ihn schon seit Jahren immer wieder an seinem Arbeitsplatz plagt, mit fraglicher Freude auf ein Mahl, das seine Frau ihm, wie er hoffte, bereits aufgetischt hatte, endlich zu Hause **an**.*
A selectively literal translation of this example to illustrate the point might look like this:

He "came" on Friday evening, after a hard day at work and the usual annoyances that had time and again been troubling him for years now at his workplace, with questionable joy, to a meal which, as he hoped, his wife had already put on the table, finally home "to".
### Word Order

German word order is generally with the V2 word order restriction and also with the SOV word order restriction for main clauses. For yes-no questions, exclamations, and wishes, the finite verb always has the first position. In subordinate clauses, the verb occurs at the very end.

German requires a verbal element (main verb or auxiliary verb) to appear second in the sentence. The verb is preceded by the topic of the sentence. The element in focus appears at the end of the sentence. For a sentence without an auxiliary, these are several possibilities:

*Der alte Mann gab mir gestern das Buch.* (The old man gave me yesterday the book; normal order)
*Das Buch gab mir gestern der alte Mann.* (The book gave [to] me yesterday the old man)
*Das Buch gab der alte Mann mir gestern.* (The book gave the old man [to] me yesterday)
*Das Buch gab mir der alte Mann gestern.* (The book gave [to] me the old man yesterday)
*Gestern gab mir der alte Mann das Buch.* (Yesterday gave [to] me the old man the book, normal order)
*Mir gab der alte Mann das Buch gestern.* ([To] me gave the old man the book yesterday (entailing: as for someone else, it was another date))
The position of a noun in a German sentence has no bearing on its being a subject, an object or another argument. In a declarative sentence in English, if the subject does not occur before the predicate, the sentence could well be misunderstood.

However, German's flexible word order allows one to emphasise specific words:

Normal word order:

*Der Direktor betrat gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro.*
The manager entered yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand his office.
Object in front:

*Sein Büro betrat der Direktor gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand.*
His office entered the manager yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand.
The object *Sein Büro* (his office) is thus highlighted; it could be the topic of the next sentence.
Adverb of time in front:

*Gestern betrat der Direktor um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro. (aber heute ohne Schirm)*
Yesterday entered the manager at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand his office. (but today without umbrella)
Both time expressions in front:

*Gestern um 10 Uhr betrat der Direktor mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro*.
Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the manager with an umbrella in the hand his office.
The full-time specification *Gestern um 10 Uhr* is highlighted.
Another possibility:

*Gestern um 10 Uhr betrat der Direktor sein Büro mit einem Schirm in der Hand*.
Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the manager his office with an umbrella in the hand.
Both the time specification and the fact he carried an umbrella are accentuated.
Swapped adverbs:

*Der Direktor betrat mit einem Schirm in der Hand gestern um 10 Uhr sein Büro.*
The manager entered with an umbrella in the hand yesterday at 10 o'clock his office.
The phrase *mit einem Schirm in der Hand* is highlighted.
Swapped object:

*Der Direktor betrat gestern um 10 Uhr sein Büro mit einem Schirm in der Hand.*
The manager entered yesterday at 10 o'clock his office with an umbrella in the hand.
The time specification and the object *sein Büro* (his office) are lightly accentuated.
The flexible word order also allows one to use language "tools" (such as poetic meter and figures of speech) more freely.

#### Auxiliary verbs[edit source]

When an auxiliary verb is present, it appears in second position, and the main verb appears at the end. This occurs notably in the creation of the perfect tense. Many word orders are still possible:

*Der alte Mann hat mir heute das Buch gegeben.* (The old man has me today the book given.)
*Das Buch hat der alte Mann mir heute gegeben.* (***The book*** has the old man me today given.)
*Heute hat der alte Mann mir das Buch gegeben.* (***Today*** has the old man me the book given.)
The main verb may appear in first position to put stress on the action itself. The auxiliary verb is still in second position.

*Gegeben hat mir der alte Mann das Buch heute.* (***Given*** has me the old man the book **today**.) The bare fact that the book has been given is emphasized, as well as 'today'.
#### Modal verbs[edit source]

Sentences using modal verbs place the infinitive at the end. For example, the English sentence "Should he go home?" would be rearranged in German to say "Should he (to) home go?" (*Soll er nach Hause gehen?*). Thus, in sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses, the infinitives are clustered at the end. Compare the similar clustering of prepositions in the following (highly contrived) English sentence: "What did you bring that book that I do not like to be read to out of up for?"

#### Multiple infinitives[edit source]

German subordinate clauses have all verbs clustered at the end. Given that auxiliaries encode future, passive, modality, and the perfect, very long chains of verbs at the end of the sentence can occur. In these constructions, the past participle formed with *ge-* is often replaced by the infinitive.

'**Man nimmt an, dass der Deserteur wohl erschossen*V* worden*psv* sein*perf* soll*mod***
One suspects that the deserter probably shot become be should.
("It is suspected that the deserter probably had been shot")
*Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlüssel hatte machen lassen*
He knew not that the agent a picklock had make let
*Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlüssel machen lassen hatte*
He knew not that the agent a picklock make let had
("He did not know that the agent had had a picklock made")
The order at the end of such strings is subject to variation, but the second one in the last example is unusual.

## Vocabulary

Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. However, there is a significant amount of loanwords from other languages, in particular Latin, Greek, Italian, French, and most recently English. In the early 19th century, Joachim Heinrich Campe estimated that one fifth of the total German vocabulary was of French or Latin origin.

Latin words were already imported into the predecessor of the German language during the Roman Empire and underwent all the characteristic phonetic changes in German. Their origin is thus no longer recognizable for most speakers (e.g. *Pforte*, *Tafel*, *Mauer*, *Käse*, *Köln* from Latin *porta*, *tabula*, *murus*, *caseus*, *Colonia*). Borrowing from Latin continued after the fall of the Roman Empire during Christianisation, mediated by the church and monasteries. Another important influx of Latin words can be observed during Renaissance humanism. In a scholarly context, the borrowings from Latin have continued until today, in the last few decades often indirectly through borrowings from English. During the 15th to 17th centuries, the influence of Italian was great, leading to many Italian loanwords in the fields of architecture, finance and music. The influence of the French language in the 17th to 19th centuries resulted in an even greater import of French words. The English influence was already present in the 19th century, but it did not become dominant until the second half of the 20th century.

Thus, Notker Labeo was able to translate Aristotelian treatises into pure (Old High) German in the decades after the year 1000. The tradition of loan translation was revitalized in the 17th and 18th century with poets like Philipp von Zesen or linguists like Joachim Heinrich Campe, who introduced close to 300 words that are still used in modern German. Even today, there are movements that promote the substitution of foreign words that are deemed unnecessary with German alternatives.

As in English, there are many pairs of synonyms due to the enrichment of the Germanic vocabulary with loanwords from Latin and Latinized Greek. These words often have different connotations from their Germanic counterparts and are usually perceived as more scholarly.

* *Historie, historisch* – "history, historical", (*Geschichte, geschichtlich*)
* *Humanität, human* – "humaneness, humane", (*Menschlichkeit, menschlich*)
* *Millennium* – "millennium", (*Jahrtausend*)
* *Perzeption* – "perception", (*Wahrnehmung*)
* *Vokabular* – "vocabulary", (*Wortschatz*)
* *Diktionär* – "dictionary, wordbook", (*Wörterbuch*)
* *probieren* – "to try", (*versuchen*)

The size of the vocabulary of German is difficult to estimate. The *Deutsches Wörterbuch* (*German Dictionary*), initiated by the Brothers Grimm (Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm) and the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language, already contained over 330,000 headwords in its first edition. The modern German scientific vocabulary is estimated at nine million words and word groups (based on the analysis of 35 million sentences of a corpus in Leipzig, which as of July 2003 included 500 million words in total).

The Duden is the *de facto* official dictionary of the Standard High German language, first published by Konrad Duden in 1880. The Duden is updated regularly, with new editions appearing every four or five years. As of August 2017, it was in its 27th edition and in 12 volumes, each covering different aspects such as loanwords, etymology, pronunciation, synonyms, and so forth.

The first of these volumes, *Die deutsche Rechtschreibung* (German Orthography), has long been the prescriptive source for the spelling of German. The *Duden* had become the bible of the German language, being the definitive set of rules regarding grammar, spelling, and usage of German.

The *Österreichisches Wörterbuch* ("Austrian Dictionary"), abbreviated *ÖWB*, is the official dictionary of the German language in the Republic of Austria. It is edited by a group of linguists under the authority of the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture (German: *Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur*). It is the Austrian counterpart to the German *Duden* and contains a number of terms unique to Austrian German or more frequently used or differently pronounced there. A considerable amount of this "Austrian" vocabulary is also common in Southern Germany, especially Bavaria, and some of it is used in Switzerland as well. Since the 39th edition in 2001 the orthography of the *ÖWB* has been adjusted to the German spelling reform of 1996. The dictionary is also officially used in the Italian province of South Tyrol.

## Orthography

### Alphabet

The German alphabet contains the 26 ISO basic letters plus 4 addtional letters

The alphabet is shown here below:

* The capital ẞ was declared an official letter of the German alphabet on 29 June 2017.
* In the past, long s (ſ) was used as well, as in English and many other European languages.

Written texts in German are easily recognisable as such by distinguishing features such as umlauts and certain orthographical features – German is the only major language that capitalizes all nouns, a relic of a widespread practice in Northern Europe in the early modern era (including English for a while, in the 1700s) – and the frequent occurrence of long compounds. Because legibility and convenience set certain boundaries, compounds consisting of more than three or four nouns are almost exclusively found in humorous contexts. (In contrast, although English can also string nouns together, it usually separates the nouns with spaces. For example, "toilet bowl cleaner".)

In German orthography, nouns are capitalised, which makes it easier for readers to determine the function of a word within a sentence. This convention is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by the closely related Luxembourgish language and several insular dialects of the North Frisian language), but it was historically common in other languages such as Danish (which abolished the capitalization of nouns in 1948) and English.

### Present

Before the German orthography reform of 1996, *ß* replaced *ss* after long vowels and diphthongs and before consonants, word-, or partial-word endings. In reformed spelling, *ß* replaces *ss* only after long vowels and diphthongs.

Since there is no traditional capital form of *ß*, it was replaced by *SS* (or *SZ*) when capitalization was required. For example, *Maßband* (tape measure) became *MASSBAND* in capitals. An exception was the use of ß in legal documents and forms when capitalizing names. To avoid confusion with similar names, lower case *ß* was sometimes maintained (thus "*KREßLEIN*" instead of "*KRESSLEIN*"). Capital ß (ẞ) was ultimately adopted into German orthography in 2017, ending a long orthographic debate (thus "*KREẞLEIN* and *KRESSLEIN*").

Umlaut vowels (ä, ö, ü) are commonly transcribed with ae, oe, and ue if the umlauts are not available on the keyboard or other medium used. In the same manner, ß can be transcribed as ss. Some operating systems use key sequences to extend the set of possible characters to include, amongst other things, umlauts; in Microsoft Windows this is done using Alt codes. German readers understand these transcriptions (although they appear unusual), but they are avoided if the regular umlauts are available, because they are a makeshift and not proper spelling. (In Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein, city and family names exist where the extra e has a vowel lengthening effect, e.g. *Raesfeld* [ˈraːsfɛlt], *Coesfeld* [ˈkoːsfɛlt] and *Itzehoe* [ɪtsəˈhoː], but this use of the letter e after a/o/u does not occur in the present-day spelling of words other than proper nouns.)

There is no general agreement on where letters with umlauts occur in the sorting sequence. Telephone directories treat them by replacing them with the base vowel followed by an e. Some dictionaries sort each umlauted vowel as a separate letter after the base vowel, but more commonly words with umlauts are ordered immediately after the same word without umlauts. As an example in a telephone book *Ärzte* occurs after *Adressenverlage* but before *Anlagenbauer* (because Ä is replaced by Ae). In a dictionary *Ärzte* comes after *Arzt*, but in some dictionaries *Ärzte* and all other words starting with *Ä* may occur after all words starting with *A*. In some older dictionaries or indexes, initial *Sch* and *St* are treated as separate letters and are listed as separate entries after *S*, but they are usually treated as S+C+H and S+T.

Written German also typically uses an alternative opening inverted comma (quotation mark) as in *„Guten Morgen!“*.

### Past

Until the early 20th century, German was printed in blackletter typefaces (in Fraktur, and in Schwabacher), and written in corresponding handwriting (for example Kurrent and Sütterlin). These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or sans-serif Antiqua typefaces used today, and the handwritten forms in particular are difficult for the untrained to read. The printed forms, however, were claimed by some to be more readable when used for Germanic languages.[*citation needed*] The Nazis initially promoted Fraktur and Schwabacher because they were considered Aryan, but they abolished them in 1941, claiming that these letters were Jewish. It is believed that the Nazi régime had banned this script,[*who?*] as they realized that Fraktur would inhibit communication in the territories occupied during World War II.

The Fraktur script however remains present in everyday life in pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and antiquity.

A proper use of the long s (*langes s*), ſ, is essential for writing German text in Fraktur typefaces. Many Antiqua typefaces also include the long s. A specific set of rules applies for the use of long s in German text, but nowadays it is rarely used in Antiqua typesetting. Any lower case "s" at the beginning of a syllable would be a long s, as opposed to a terminal s or short s (the more common variation of the letter s), which marks the end of a syllable; for example, in differentiating between the words *Wachſtube* (guard-house) and *Wachstube* (tube of polish/wax). One can easily decide which "s" to use by appropriate hyphenation, (*Wach-ſtube* vs. *Wachs-tube*). The long s only appears in lower case.

## Consonant Shifts

German does not have any dental fricatives (as English **th**). The **th** sound, which the English language still has, disappeared on the continent in German with the consonant shifts between the 8th and 10th centuries. It is sometimes possible to find parallels between English and German by replacing the English **th** with **d** in German: "Thank" → in German *Dank*, "this" and "that" → *dies* and *das*, "thou" (old 2nd person singular pronoun) → *du*, "think" → *denken*, "thirsty" → *durstig* and many other examples.

Likewise, the **gh** in Germanic English words, pronounced in several different ways in modern English (as an **f** or not at all), can often be linked to German **ch**: "to laugh" → *lachen*, "through" → *durch*, "high" → *hoch*, "naught" → *nichts*, "light" → *leicht* or *Licht*, "sight" → *Sicht*, "daughter" → *Tochter*, "neighbour" → *Nachbar*.

## Phonology

### Vowels

Some scholars treat /ə/ as an unstressed allophone of /ɛ/. Likewise, some scholars treat /ɐ/ as an allophone of the unstressed sequence /ər/. The phonemic status of /ɛː/ is also debated – see below.

#### Notes[edit source]

* Close vowels
	+ /iː/ is close front unrounded [iː].
	+ /yː/ is close near-front rounded [y̠ː].
	+ /uː/ is close back rounded [uː].
	+ /ɪ/ has been variously described as near-close front unrounded [ɪ̟] and near-close near-front unrounded [ɪ].
	+ /ʏ/ is near-close near-front rounded [ʏ].
	+ /ʊ/ is near-close near-back rounded [ʊ].
* Mid vowels
	+ /eː/ is close-mid front unrounded [eː].
		- In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Bavarian and Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong [eɪ].
	+ /øː/ has been variously described as close-mid near-front rounded [ø̠ː] and mid near-front rounded [ø̽ː].
		- In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong [øʏ].
	+ /oː/ is close-mid back rounded [oː].
		- In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong [oʊ].
	+ /ə/ has been variously described as mid central unrounded [ə]. and close-mid central unrounded [ɘ]. It occurs only in unstressed syllables, for instance in *b**e**setz**e**n* [bəˈzɛtsən] ('occupy'). It is often considered a complementary allophone together with [ɛ], which only rarely occurs in unstressed syllables (e.g. *entsetzt'*).[*citation needed*] If a sonorant follows in the syllable coda, the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic, for instance *Kiss**en*** [ˈkɪsn̩] ('pillow'), *Es**el*** [ˈeːzl̩] ('donkey').
	+ /ɛ/ has been variously described as mid near-front unrounded [ɛ̽] and open-mid front unrounded [ɛ].
	+ /ɛː/ has been variously described as mid front unrounded [ɛ̝ː] and open-mid front unrounded [ɛː].
	+ /œ/ has been variously described as open-mid near-front rounded [œ̠] and somewhat lowered open-mid near-front rounded [œ̠˕].
	+ /ɔ/ has been variously described as somewhat fronted open-mid back rounded [ɔ̟] and open-mid back rounded [ɔ].
* Open vowels
	+ /ɐ/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ]. It is a common allophone of the sequence /ər/ common to all German-speaking areas but Switzerland.
	+ /a/ has been variously described as open front unrounded [a] and open central unrounded [ä]. Some scholars differentiate two short /a/, namely front /a/ and back /ɑ/. The latter occurs only in unstressed open syllables, exactly as /i, y, u, e, ø, o/.
		- Standard Austrian pronunciation of this vowel is back [ɑ].
		- Front [a] or even [æ] is a common realization of /a/ in northern German varieties influenced by Low German.
	+ /aː/ has been variously described as open central unrounded [äː] and open back unrounded [ɑː]. Because of this, it is sometimes transcribed /ɑː/.
		- Back [ɑː] is the Standard Austrian pronunciation. It is also a common realization of /aː/ in northern German varieties influenced by Low German (in which it may even be rounded [ɒː]).
	+ Wiese (1996) notes that "there is a tendency to neutralize the distinction between [a(ː)], [aɐ̯], and [ɐ]. That is, *Oda*, *Radar*, and *Oder* have final syllables which are perceptually very similar, and are nearly or completely identical in some dialects." He also says that "outside of a word context, [ɐ] cannot be distinguished from [a]. (As early as 1847, Verdi's librettist found it natural, when adapting a play by Schiller into the Italian language, to render the distinctly German name *Roller* as *Rolla*.)

Although there is also a length contrast, vowels are often analyzed according to a tenseness contrast, with long /iː, yː, uː, eː, øː, oː/ being the tense vowels and short /ɪ, ʏ, ʊ, ɛ, œ, ɔ/ their lax counterparts. Like the English checked vowels, the German lax vowels require a following consonant, with the notable exception of [ɛː] (which is absent in many varieties, as discussed below). /a/ is sometimes considered the lax counterpart of tense /aː/ in order to maintain this tense/lax division. Short /i, y, u, e, ø, o/ occur in unstressed syllables of loanwords, for instance in *Ps**y**ch**o**m**e**trie* /psyçomeˈtʁiː/ ('psychometry'). They are usually considered allophones of tense vowels, which cannot occur in unstressed syllables (unless in compounds).

Northern German varieties influenced by Low German could be analyzed as lacking contrasting vowel quantity entirely:

* /aː/ has a different quality than /a/ (see above).
* These varieties also consistently lack /ɛː/, and use only /eː/ in its place.

#### Phonemic status of /ɛː/[edit source]

The long open-mid front unrounded vowel [ɛː] does not exist in many varieties of Standard German and is rendered as the close-mid front unrounded vowel [eː], so that both ***Äh**re* ('ear of grain') and ***Eh**re* ('honor') are pronounced [ˈeːʁə] (instead of "Ähre" being [ˈɛːʁə]) and both *B**ä**ren* ('bears') and *B**ee**ren* ('berries') are pronounced [ˈbeːʁən] (instead of *Bären* being [ˈbɛːʁən]). However, the disputed vowel [ɛː] seems much more stable in other contexts, i.e., not preceding /r/ as in the examples above. Other relevant minimal pairs include *b**e**ten* ('pray') - *b**ä**ten* ('bid, conjunctive'), *d**e**hnen* ('stretch') - *D**ä**nen* ('Danes'), *S**e**gen* ('blessing') - *S**ä**gen* ('saws, n.'). It has been debated whether [ɛː] is a distinct phoneme or even exists, except when consciously self-censoring speech, for several reasons:

1. The existence of a phoneme /ɛː/ is an irregularity in a vowel system that otherwise has pairs of long and tense vs. short and lax vowels such as [oː] vs. [ɔ].
2. Although some dialects (e.g. Ripuarian and some Alemannic dialects) have an opposition of [eː] vs. [ɛː], there is little agreement across dialects as to whether individual lexical items should be pronounced with [eː] or with [ɛː].[*example needed*]
3. The use of [ɛː] is a spelling pronunciation rather than an original feature of the language. It is an attempt to "speak as printed" (*sprechen wie gedruckt*) and to differentiate the spellings ⟨e⟩ and ⟨ä⟩ (i.e. speakers attempt to justify the appearance of ⟨e⟩ and ⟨ä⟩ in writing by making them distinct in the spoken language).
4. Speakers with an otherwise fairly standard idiolect find it rather difficult to utter longer passages with [eː] and [ɛː] in the right places. Such persons apparently have to picture the spellings of the words in question, which impedes the flow of speech.[*failed verification*]However, the examples above with a non-rhotic context for the disputed vowel distinction speak against this view.

### Consonants

With around 20 to 29 phonemes, the German consonant system has an average number of consonants in comparison with other languages. One of the more noteworthy ones is the unusual affricate /pf/.

* The separate *dental* class occurs only in loanwords. The sounds labelled as alveolar can be phonetically dental, but belong to one phonological class in that they all are native German sounds. /r/ can be uvular, alveolar or even dental, a consonant or a semivowel, see below.
* /pf/ is bilabial–labiodental [pf], rather than purely labiodental [p̪f].
* /t, d, l, n/ can be apical alveolar [t̺, d̺, l̺, n̺], laminal alveolar [t̻, d̻, l̻, n̻] or laminal denti-alveolar [t̪, d̪, l̪, n̪]. The other possible pronunciation of /d/ that has been reported to occur in unstressed intervocalic positions is retroflex [ɖ]. Austrian German often uses the laminal denti-alveolar articulation.
	+ /l/ is always clear [l], as in most Irish English accents. A few Austrian accents may use a velarized [ɫ] instead, but that is considered non-standard.
* In the Standard Austrian variety, /k/ may be affricated to [kx] before front vowels.
* /ts, s, z/ can be laminal alveolar [t̻s̻, s̻, z̻], laminal post-dental [t̪s̪, s̪, z̪] (i.e. fronted alveolar, articulated with the blade of the tongue just behind upper front teeth), or even apical alveolar [t̺s̺, s̺, z̺]. Austrian German often uses the post-dental articulation. /s, z/ are always strongly fricated.
* /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/ are strongly labialized palato-alveolar sibilants [tʃʷ, dʒʷ, ʃʷ, ʒʷ]. /ʃ, ʒ/ are fricated more weakly than /s, z/. There are two variants of these sounds:
	+ Laminal, articulated with the foremost part of the blade of the tongue approaching the foremost part of the hard palate, with the tip of the tongue resting behind either upper or lower front teeth.
	+ Apico-laminal, articulated with the tip of the tongue approaching the gums and the foremost part of the blade approaching the foremost part of the hard palate. According to Morciniec & Prędota (2005), this variant is used more frequently.
* /θ, ð/ are used only in loanwords, mostly from English, such as *Thriller* /ˈθʁɪlɐ/, though some speakers substitute /θ/ with any of /t, s, f/ and /ð/ with any of /d, z, v/. There are two variants of these sounds:
	+ Apical post-dental, articulated with the tip of the tongue approaching the upper incisors.
	+ Apical interdental, articulated with the tip of the tongue between the upper and lower incisors.
* /r/ has a number of possible realizations:
	+ Voiced apical coronal trill [r̺], either alveolar (articulated with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge), or dental (articulated with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper front teeth).
		- Distribution: Common in the south (Bavaria and many parts of Switzerland and Austria), but it is also found in some speakers in central and northern Germany, especially the elderly. It is also one of possible realizations of /r/ in the Standard Austrian accent, but a more common alveolar realization is an approximant [ɹ]. Even more common are uvular realizations, fricatives [ʁ ~ χ] and a trill [ʀ].
	+ Voiced uvular trill [ʀ], which can be realized as voiceless [ʀ̥] after voiceless consonants (as in *t**r**eten*). According to Lodge (2009) it is often a tap [ʀ̆] intervocalically (as in *Eh**r**e*).
		- Distribution: Occurs in some conservative varieties - most speakers with a uvular /r/ realize it as a fricative or an approximant. It is also one of possible realizations of /r/ in the Standard Austrian accent, but it is less common than a fricative [ʁ ~ χ].
	+ Dorsal continuant, about the quality of which there is not a complete agreement:
		- Krech et al. (2009) describe two fricative variants, namely post-palatal [ɣ˖] and velar [ɣ]. The post-palatal variant appears before and after front vowels, while the velar variant is used in all other positions.
		- Morciniec & Prędota (2005) describe it as voiced post-velar fricative [ʁ̟].
		- Mangold (2005) and Kohler (1999) describe it as voiced uvular fricative [ʁ];
			* Mangold (2005) states that "with educated professional radio and TV announcers, as with professional actors on the stage and in film, the [voiced uvular] fricative [realization of] /r/ clearly predominates."
				+ In the Standard Austrian accent, the uvular fricative is also the most common realization, although its voicing is variable (that is, it can be either voiced [ʁ] or voiceless [χ]).
			* Kohler (1999) writes that "the place of articulation of the consonant varies from uvular in e.g. *rot* ('red') to velar in e.g. *treten* ('kick'), depending on back or front vowel contexts." He also notes that [ʁ] is devoiced after voiceless plosives and fricatives, especially those within the same word, giving the word *treten* as an example. According to this author, [ʁ] can be reduced to an approximant in an intervocalic position.
		- Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) describe it as a uvular fricative [ʁ] or approximant [ʁ̞]. The latter is less likely to occur word-initially.
		- Distribution: Almost all areas apart from Bavaria and parts of Switzerland.
	+ Near-open central unrounded vowel [ɐ] is a post-vocalic allophone of (mostly dorsal) varieties of /r/. The non-syllabic variant of it is not always near-open or central; it is similar to either [ɑ] or [ə], depending on the environment.
		- Distribution: Widespread, but less common in Switzerland.
* The voiceless stops /p/, /t/, /k/ are aspirated except when preceded by a sibilant. Many southern dialects do not aspirate /p t k/, and some northern ones do so only in a stressed position. The voiceless affricates /pf/, /ts/, and /tʃ/ are never aspirated, and neither are any other consonants besides the aforementioned /p, t, k/.
* The obstruents /b, d, ɡ, z, ʒ, dʒ/ are voiceless lenis [b̥, d̥, ɡ̊, z̥, ʒ̊, d̥ʒ̊] in southern varieties, and they contrast with voiceless fortis [p, t, k, s, ʃ, tʃ].
* In Austria, intervocalic /b, d, ɡ/ can be lenited to fricatives [β, ð, ɣ].
* Before and after front vowels (/ɪ, iː, ʏ, yː, ɛ, ɛː, eː, œ, øː/ and, in varieties that realize them as front, /a/ and/or /aː/), the velar consonants /ŋ, k, ɡ/ are realized as post-palatal [ŋ˖, k̟, ɡ˖]. According to Wiese (1996), in a parallel process, /k, ɡ/ before and after back vowels (/ʊ, uː, ɔ, oː/ and, in varieties that realize them as back, /a/ and/or /aː/) are retracted to post-velar [k̠, ɡ˗] or even uvular [q, ɢ].
* There is no complete agreement about the nature of /j/; it has been variously described as a fricative [ʝ], a fricative, which can be fricated less strongly than /ç/, a sound variable between a weak fricative an approximant and an approximant [j], which is the usual realization in the Standard Austrian variety.
* In many varieties of standard German, the glottal stop, [ʔ], occurs in careful speech before word stems that begin with a vowel. It is much more frequent in northern varieties than in the south. It is not usually considered a phoneme. In colloquial and dialectal speech, [ʔ] is often omitted, especially when the word beginning with a vowel is unstressed.
* The phonemic status of affricates is controversial. The majority view accepts /pf/ and /ts/, but not /tʃ/ or the non-native /dʒ/; some accept none, some accept all but /dʒ/, and some accept all.
	+ Although [tʃ] occurs in native words, it only appears in historic clusters of /t/ + /ʃ/ (e.g. *deutsch* < OHG *diutisc*) or in words with expressive quality (e.g. *glitschen*, *hutschen*). [tʃ] is, however, well-established in loanwords, including German toponyms of non-Germanic origin (e.g. *Zschopau*).
	+ [dʒ] and [ʒ] occur only in words of foreign origin. In certain varieties, they are replaced by [tʃ] and [ʃ] altogether.
* [ʋ] is occasionally considered to be an allophone of /v/, especially in southern varieties of German.
* [ç] and [x] are traditionally regarded as allophones after front vowels and back vowels, respectively. For a more detailed analysis see below at *ich-Laut* and *ach-Laut*. According to some analyses, [χ] is an allophone of /x/ after /a, aː/ and according to some also after /ʊ, ɔ, aʊ̯/. However, according to Moosmüller, Schmid & Brandstätter (2015), the uvular allophone is used after /ɔ/ only in the Standard Austrian variety.
* Some phonologists do not posit a separate phoneme /ŋ/ and use /nɡ/ instead, along with /nk/ instead of /ŋk/. The phoneme sequence /nɡ/ is realized as [ŋɡ] when /ɡ/ can start a valid onset of the next syllable whose nucleus is a vowel other than unstressed /ə/, /ɪ/, or /ʊ/. It becomes [ŋ] otherwise. For example:
	+ *Diphthong* /dɪfˈtɔnɡ/ [dɪfˈtɔŋ]
	+ *diphthongieren* /dɪftɔnˈɡiːʁən/ [ˌdɪftɔŋˈɡiːʁən]
	+ *Englisch* /ˈɛnɡlɪʃ/ [ˈɛŋlɪʃ]
	+ *Anglo* /ˈanɡloː/ [ˈaŋɡloː]
	+ *Ganges* /ˈɡanɡəs/ [ˈɡaŋəs] ~ /ˈɡanɡɛs/ [ˈɡaŋɡɛs]

### *Ich-Laut* and *ach-Laut*[edit source]

***Ich-Laut*** is the voiceless palatal fricative [ç] (which is found in the word *ich* [ɪç] 'I'), and ***ach-Laut*** is the voiceless velar fricative [x] (which is found in the word *ach* [ax] the interjection 'oh', 'alas'). *Laut* [laʊ̯t] is the German word for 'sound, phone'. In German, these two sounds are allophones occurring in complementary distribution. The allophone [x] occurs after back vowels and /a aː/ (for instance in *Buch* [buːx] 'book'), the allophone [ç] after front vowels (for instance in *mich* [mɪç] 'me/myself') and consonants (for instance in *Furcht* [fʊʁçt] 'fear', *manchmal* [ˈmançmaːl] 'sometimes'). The allophone [ç] also appears after vocalized ⟨r⟩ in superregional variants, e.g. in *Furcht* [fʊɐ̯çt] 'fear'. In southeastern regiolects, the *ach-Laut* is commonly used here, yielding [fʊɐ̯xt].

In loanwords, the pronunciation of potential fricatives in onsets of stressed syllables varies: in the Northern varieties of standard German, it is [ç], while in Southern varieties, it is [k], and in Western varieties, it is [ʃ] (for instance in *China*: [ˈçiːna] vs. [ˈkiːna] vs. [ˈʃiːna]).

The diminutive suffix *-chen* is always pronounced with an *ich-Laut* [-çən]. Usually, this ending triggers umlaut (compare for instance *Hund* [hʊnt] 'dog' to *Hündchen* [ˈhʏntçn̩] 'little dog'), so theoretically, it could only occur after front vowels. However, in some comparatively recent coinings, there is no longer an umlaut, for instance in the word *Frauchen* [ˈfʀaʊ̯çən] (a diminutive of *Frau* 'woman'), so that a back vowel is followed by a [ç], even though normally it would be followed by a [x], as in *rauchen* [ˈʀaʊ̯xən] ('to smoke'). This exception to the allophonic distribution may be an effect of the morphemic boundary or an example of *phonemicization*, where erstwhile allophones undergo a split into separate phonemes.

The allophonic distribution of [ç] after front vowels and [x] after other vowels is also found in other languages, such as Scots, in the pronunciation of *light*. However, it is by no means inevitable: Dutch, Yiddish, and many Southern German dialects retain [x] (which can be realized as [χ] instead) in all positions. It is thus reasonable to assume that Old High German *ih*, the ancestor of modern *ich*, was pronounced with [x] rather than [ç]. While it is impossible to know for certain whether Old English words such as *niht* (modern *night*) were pronounced with [x] or [ç], [ç] is likely (see Old English phonology).

Despite the phonetic history, the complementary distribution of [ç] and [x] in modern Standard German is better described as backing of /ç/ after a back vowel, rather than fronting of /x/ after a front vowel, because [ç] is used in onsets (*Chemie* [çeˈmiː] 'chemistry') and after consonants (*Molch* [mɔlç] 'newt'), and is thus the underlying form of the phoneme.

According to Kohler, the German *ach-Laut* is further differentiated into two allophones, [x] and [χ]: [x] occurs after /uː, oː/ (for instance in *Buch* [buːx] 'book') and [χ] after /a, aː/ (for instance in *Bach* [baχ] 'brook'), while either [x] or [χ] may occur after /ʊ, ɔ, aʊ̯/, with [χ] predominating.

In Western varieties, there is a strong tendency to realize /ç/ as unrounded [ʃ] or [ɕ], and the phoneme may be confused or merged with /ʃ/ altogether, secondarily leading to hypercorrection effects where /ʃ/ is replaced with /ç/, for instance in *Fisch* [fɪʃ], which may be realized as [fɪç].

### Fortis–lenis pairs[edit source]

Various German consonants occur in pairs at the same place of articulation and in the same manner of articulation, namely the pairs /p–b/, /t–d/, /k–ɡ/, /s–z/, /ʃ–ʒ/. These pairs are often called fortis–lenis pairs, since describing them as voiced–voiceless pairs is inadequate. With certain qualifications, /tʃ–dʒ/, /f–v/ and /θ–ð/ are also considered fortis–lenis pairs.

Fortis-lenis distinction for /ʔ, m, n, ŋ, l, r, h/ is unimportant.

The fortis stops /p, t, k/ are aspirated in many varieties. The aspiration is strongest in the onset of a stressed syllable (such as *Taler* [ˈtʰaːlɐ] 'thaler'), weaker in the onset of an unstressed syllable (such as *Vater* [ˈfaːtʰɐ] 'father'), and weakest in the syllable coda (such as in *Saat* [zaːtʰ] 'seed'). All fortis consonants, i.e. /p, t, k, f, θ, s, ʃ, ç, x, pf, ts, tʃ/ are fully voiceless.

The lenis consonants /b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ, j, r, dʒ/ range from being weakly voiced to almost voiceless [b̥, d̥, ɡ̊, v̥, ð̥, z̥, ʒ̊, j̥, r̥, d̥ʒ̊] after voiceless consonants: *Kas**b**ah* [ˈkasb̥a] ('kasbah'), *ab**d**anken* [ˈapd̥aŋkn̩] ('to resign'), *rot**g**elb* [ˈʁoːtɡ̊ɛlp] ('red-yellow'), *Ab**w**urf* [ˈapv̥ʊʁf] ('dropping'), *Ab**s**icht* [ˈapz̥ɪçt] ('intention'), *Holz**j**alousie* [ˈhɔltsʒ̊aluziː] ('wooden jalousie'), *weg**j**agen* [ˈvɛkj̥aːɡn̩] ('to chase away'), *t**r**opfen* [ˈtʁ̥ɔpfn̩] ('to drop'), *Obst**j**uice* [ˈoːpstd̥ʒ̊uːs] ('fruit juice'). Mangold (2005) states that they are "to a large extent voiced" [b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ, j, r, dʒ] in all other environments, but some studies have found the stops /b, d, ɡ/ to be voiceless word/utterance-initially in most dialects (while still contrasting with /p, t, k/ due to the aspiration of the latter).

/b, d, ɡ, z, ʒ/ are voiceless in most southern varieties of German. For clarity, they are often transcribed as [b̥, d̥, ɡ̊, z̥, ʒ̊].

The nature of the phonetic difference between the voiceless lenis consonants and the similarly voiceless fortis consonants is controversial. It is generally described as a difference in articulatory force, and occasionally as a difference in articulatory length; for the most part, it is assumed that one of these characteristics implies the other.

In various central and southern varieties, the opposition between fortis and lenis is neutralized in the syllable onset; sometimes just in the onset of stressed syllables, sometimes in all cases.

The pair /f–v/ is not considered a fortis–lenis pair, but a simple voiceless–voiced pair, as /v/ remains voiced in all varieties, including the Southern varieties that devoice the lenes (with however some exceptions). Generally, the southern /v/ is realized as the voiced approximant [ʋ]. However, there are southern varieties which differentiate between a fortis /f/ (such as in *sträflich* [ˈʃtrɛːflɪç] 'culpable' from Middle High German stræflich) and a lenis /f/ ([v̥], such as in *höflich* [ˈhøːv̥lɪç] 'polite' from Middle High German hovelîch); this is analogous to the opposition of fortis /s/ ([s]) and lenis [z̥].

#### Coda devoicing[edit source]

In varieties from Northern Germany, lenis stops in the syllable coda are realized as fortis stops. This does not happen in varieties from Southern Germany, Austria or Switzerland.

Since the lenis stops /b, d, ɡ/ are unvoiced or at most variably voiced (as stated above), this cannot be called devoicing in the strict sense of the word because it does not involve the loss of phonetic voice. More accurately, it can be called coda fortition or a neutralization of fortis and lenis sounds in the coda. Fricatives are truly and contrastively voiced in Northern Germany. Therefore, the fricatives undergo coda devoicing in the strict sense of the word. It is disputed whether coda devoicing is due to a constraint which specifically operates on syllable codas or whether it arises from constraints which "protect voicing in privileged positions."

As against standard pronunciation rules, in western varieties including those of the Rhineland, coda fortis–lenis neutralization results in *voicing* rather than *devoicing* if the following word begins with a vowel. For example, *mit uns* becomes [mɪ**d**‿ʊns] and *darf ich* becomes [daʁ**v**‿ɪʃ]. The same sandhi phenomenon exists also as a general rule in the Luxembourgish language.

## Sample Text

> Alle Menschen sind frei und gleich an Würde und Rechten geboren. Sie sind mit Vernunft und Gewissen begabt und sollen einander im Geist der Brüderlichkeit begegnen.
>
> Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the German language

## Trivia

* The last four letters are officially considered separate letters of the German alphabet.
* In Austria J is known as *je* [jeː]; Q is known as *qwe* [kveː], and the name of the Y is pronounced [ʏˈpsiːlɔn].
* In Austria and Southern German ß is known as *scharfes S*. The capital version of this letter is rarely used: SS is usually used instead.
* b = [p] at the end of a syllable or before s or t, [b] before a vowel
* ch = [χ] after a, o or u, [k] when followed by a, o or u at the beginning of a word, [ç] elsewhere.
* chs = [ks] except in words where ch and s are pronounced separately, e.g. *wachsam* /'vaχ.zam/, *höchst* /'høç.st/
* d = [t] at end of a syllable or before s or t, [d] before a vowel
* e = [ə] in unaccented syllables
* er = [ɐ] at the end of the syllable in an unstressed syllable, e.g. *Lehrer* /ˈle:ʀɐ/
* g = [k] at end of a syllable or before s or t, [g] before a vowel, [ʒ] in some loanwords, ig = [iç] at the end of a word
* h makes the vowel long when appearing after a vowel or morpheme boundry, [h] elsewhere
* j = [ʒ] in loan words, [j] elsewhere
* nk = [ŋk], e.g. *trinken* /ˈtʁiŋkən/
* ng = [ŋ], e.g. *bringen* /ˈbʁɪŋən/
* r = [ɐ] between a vowel (except a) and a consonant, e.g. *Kurs* /kʊɐs/ or between a vowel (except a or unstressed e), and the end of the word, e.g. *der* /dɛɐ/ or *Futur* /fʊˈtuːɐ/ - silent between a and a consonant, e.g. *Markt* /makt/ or between a and the end of the word, e.g. *Haar* /ha:/ - [ʁ] at the beginning of words and between a consonant and a vowel, e.g. *trinken* /ˈtʁiŋkən/ - [ʀ] between two vowels, e.g. *hören* /ˈhø:ʀən/
* s = [z] between vowels or before a vowel at the beginning of a word, [ʃ] before t or p at the beginning of words and [s] elsewhere. sk = [ʃ] in *Ski* [ʃi:]
* t = [ts] in the *-tion* of Latin loanwords, e.g. *Intention* [ɪntɛn'tsɪo:n]
* v = [v] in loan words
* y = [y] in words derived from Greek, [i] or [j] elsewhere
* dsch, ph, qu, and y only exist in loan words
* German is one of the two original languages who are Germanic, the other one is English.