Ch'ing

## Ch'ing dynasty

**Ch'ing** (Latin transcription: daicing gurun, Chinese: Daqing) is an absolute monarchy located in northern mainland China. The capital is Beijing.

## **HISTORY**

In 1906, the Russian Empire decided to deepen diplomatic relations with the Qing Dynasty and established the Oriental Bank in Harbin, Manchuria. Russia provides military training and technical guidance to Qing Dynasty officials and military leaders to assist them.

### Oriental Bank

The Oriental Bank was established in Harbin in 1906 following Russia's victory in the Russo-Japanese War. This bank was founded and operated by the Russian Empire and was primarily involved in investments in various industries such as railways, mining, and agriculture. It rapidly developed with the support of Russian capital and aimed to facilitate the influx of Russian capital and promote the expansion of Russian companies in the Manchuria region to secure Russia's commercial interests there. The establishment of The Oriental Bank played a crucial role in consolidating Russia's control over the Manchurian region and had a significant impact on subsequent events, including the founding of Manchukuo and post-Russo-Japanese War diplomatic negotiations.

In 1907, Russia and the Qing Dynasty entered into a military alliance known as the Russo-Chinese Agreement, in which Russia increased its military presence in Qing China by deploying additional troops.

### **Russo-Ch'ing Pact**

The Russo-Chinese Agreement, also known as the Russo-Chinese Accord, was a military alliance concluded in 1907 between the Russian Empire and the Qing Dynasty. While the primary purpose of this agreement was to strengthen diplomatic relations between the two nations, it also laid the foundation for Russia's East Asian expansionist policies. According to the agreement, both countries pledged to cooperate militarily to ensure mutual security along their border regions and not to compromise each other's interests in specific areas. Russia also promised to increase its garrison in Qing China and participate in infrastructure development, including railway construction.

The Russo-Chinese Agreement served as a means for Russia to provide military support to Qing China as it sought to establish new forms of influence and control within the Qing Empire. Russia also engaged in military training and provided technological guidance to the Qing Dynasty's New Army, contributing to the decline of this modernized Chinese military force. The agreement deepened the relationship between the two nations and obligated Qing China, particularly in supporting Russia's expansion of power in East Asia.

**[Contents of the Russo-Chinese Agreement]**

* The Russian Empire and the Qing Dynasty agree to conclude a military alliance for mutual defense and security.
* Russia will provide the Qing Dynasty with military technology, training, and equipment.
* The Qing Dynasty will respect Russia's interests within Qing territory and guarantee the safety and rights of Russians residing in Qing China.
* Both countries will share military information and cooperate militarily.
* Both countries will jointly undertake the development of the Manchuria region and infrastructure construction, as well as raise funds for these purposes.
* The Russo-Chinese Agreement is effective for a period determined jointly by the contracting parties.

In 1908, the Qing government provided assistance to the Harbin Uprising, an anti-Russian rebellion in opposition to Russian rule in Manchuria. After suppressing the rebellion, Russia succeeded in securing its interests in the Manchurian region, which the Qing Dynasty recognized.

### **Harbin Uprising**

During that time, anti-Russian sentiments were running high in China, leading to a rebellion by Chinese who did not desire Russian rule in their region. The rebellion took place in the vicinity of Harbin in Manchuria, an area within Russia's sphere of influence where Russian forces were stationed. The instigator of the rebellion, Cai Yuanpei, infiltrated Harbin to organize and plan the anti-Russian movement with the cooperation of local Chinese. While the number of participants in the rebellion was around 10,000, the rebel forces received support from the Guangfuhui (Restoration Society) and assistance from the British, leading to armed conflicts with Russian forces.However, due to the disparity in equipment and military strength, the rebel forces faced difficulties. The Qing government's response to the rebellion was not proactive, as it sought to avoid direct confrontation with Russia and could not support the rebel forces. On the other hand, the Russian government's response to the rebellion was harsh. Russian forces gradually took control of rebel strongholds one by one and captured rebel leaders. Cai Yuanpei fled to the United Kingdom, and the Guangfuhui was dissolved by the Russian government. As a result of the rebellion, Russia successfully strengthened its control over the Manchurian region. Meanwhile, the Guangfuhui was crushed, and anti-Russian activities temporarily subsided. However, anti-Russian sentiments remained strong, leading to a resurgence of anti-Russian movements later, led by the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance (Tongmenghui).

In 1909, Russia continued providing military training and technological guidance to Chinese politicians and military leaders. With Russian support, the Qing Dynasty pursued the Manchurian Project. Sergei Witte, who served as Russia's Prime Minister in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and was instrumental in modernizing the Russian Empire, proposed a similar modernization project for China. He suggested that China's political leader, Yuan Shikai, who was supportive of the plan, implement this modernization project.

### **Manchuria Plan**

【Description of plan】: Modernization of agriculture, industry, and education

This plan aimed to modernize agriculture, industry, and education by introducing Russian technology and funding. Specifically, in the industrial sector, it involved the construction of railways and factories, while in education, it included establishing and improving schools and universities. Russian politicians placed particular emphasis on railway construction. The Qing government expedited railway construction and developed a railway network throughout China. Additionally, improvements in port facilities, factory construction, and the development of communication networks were also carried out. As a result, the Qing Dynasty experienced economic development, improved living standards in urban areas, and advancements in the education system.

【Result of the plan】

Positive Impacts:

* The development of industry led to increased employment opportunities and contributed to the growth of the national economy.
* Infrastructure development improved the quality of life for urban residents.
* Enhanced education levels raised the cultural standard of the population and successfully cultivated talent.

Negative Impacts:

* Dependence on Russian support limited Qing sovereignty and increased foreign intervention.
* While modernization progressed, urbanization advanced, leading to economic disparities and poverty issues in rural areas.
* Conversion of agricultural land into industrial areas and rural-to-urban migration resulted in decreased food production and widespread famines.

### Russo-Ch'ing Treaty of Goodwill and Commerce

In 1910, following Russia's victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1909, Russia demanded mining rights for coal, iron ore, oil, and natural gas in the northern regions of China, as well as railway concessions, and entered into the "Russo-Chinese Treaty of Amity and Commerce."

Content: Russia's victory in the 1909 Russo-Japanese War had led to Russian interests in the northern regions of China. Among these interests, the most significant were the coal and iron ore mines in the vicinity of Shenyang (present-day Shenyang City, Liaoning Province) and the oil fields around Fengtian (present-day Shenyang City, Liaoning Province). Russia also had plans to construct railways in the northern region and demanded rights to this endeavor. The treaty recognized China's concession of railway construction and resource extraction rights in the northern region to Russia. The railway would connect Shenyang to Fengtian, Changchun (present-day Changchun City, Jilin Province), and extend further south to Beijing. Furthermore, Russia gained the ability to extract resources such as coal and iron ore mines around Shenyang and oil fields around Fengtian. As a result of this treaty, China relinquished its resources and territory to Russia, leading to criticism both domestically and internationally. Additionally, the treaty strengthened Russia's economic dominance in the northern region, at the expense of China's national interests.

In 1911, concerned about Russia's expansion, Britain planned a rebellion within China. In Guangzhou, the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, supported by Japan and Britain, staged an armed uprising.

### **Guangzhou Uprising**

In 1911, Huang Xing of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance (Tongmenghui) received support from Britain and planned a rebellion within the Qing Dynasty. With assistance from Japan and Britain, Huang Xing and his associates staged an armed uprising in Guangzhou.

Content of the Minor Uprising: The Chinese Revolutionary Alliance demanded autonomy for Guangdong Province from the Qing Dynasty and initiated an armed struggle. In the initial stages, the rebellion received support from Japan and Britain, including the supply of weapons and ammunition, which led to early successes. The Qing Dynasty dispatched its military forces in response, but the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, with competent leadership, achieved a series of victories, nearing overall success. However, the intervention of Russian troops changed the course of the conflict. Faced with challenges such as insufficient troops and inadequate equipment, the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance struggled, and within a few months, the uprising was suppressed. Huang Xing, a central figure in the rebellion, managed to escape, but he was later arrested by the Qing Dynasty government and executed. While this uprising was relatively small in scale, it marked the first armed rebellion for the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance and became a significant event that set the stage for the later Xinhai Revolution. Furthermore, due to the support from Japan and Britain, it had implications for the relationship between Japan, Britain, and China. Russia also intensified its crackdown on revolutionary forces by further reinforcing its garrison.

In 1912, the Qing Dynasty was plunged into turmoil following the Guangzhou Uprising. The Russian Empire, under the pretext of protecting Russian nationals in Manchuria, concluded the Beijing Treaty, leading to the establishment of the Russian-controlled Chinese Eastern Railway Zone in Manchuria.

### Treaty of Beijing

* The Qing Dynasty acknowledges entering under Russian protection, and Russia pledges to respect the territorial integrity, sovereignty, and autonomy of the Qing Dynasty.
* The Qing Dynasty shall be subservient to Russia's foreign policy and cooperate in establishing and maintaining diplomatic relations.
* The Qing Dynasty commits to providing military cooperation to Russia and offering a certain number of troops.
* The Qing Dynasty recognizes its defeat in the Guangzhou uprising and allows the establishment of the Manchurian Governor-Generalship under the protection of the Russian Empire.
* The authority of the Manchurian Governor-Generalship is delegated to the governor-general appointed by the Qing Emperor. The governor-general will govern the Manchurian region and follow instructions from the Russian Empire.
* Trade in the Manchurian region will be conducted exclusively with the Russian Empire. Trade with the Qing Dynasty will be managed by the Manchurian Governor-Generalship.
* The defense of the Manchurian region will be the responsibility of the Russian Empire. Russian troops will be allowed to station in the region, and the Manchurian Governor-Generalship will be under the military command of the Russian Empire.
* Russian laws will be applied in the Manchurian region. The Manchurian Governor-Generalship is expected to adhere to Russian laws.

【Content of Governance:】

One of the negative policies was the confiscation of grain resources in the Manchurian region by Governor-General Aleksey Kuropatkin, which resulted in local farmers suffering and contributed to famine. Additionally, many enslaved laborers were relocated from the Korean Peninsula to Manchuria as part of the Manchurian project. These laborers were subjected to harsh treatment, particularly during the famine. Another highly criticized aspect of governance was the establishment of a class system, with Russians at the top, followed by Manchus in power. Han Chinese and Koreans were enslaved, while Mongols received preferential treatment.On the positive side, Governor-General Kuropatkin placed emphasis on education, establishing numerous schools and universities. He recognized the literacy gap highlighted during the Russo-Japanese War and implemented policies to improve literacy rates. Kuropatkin also promoted the simplification of Chinese characters, making information more accessible even to those who couldn't read complex characters, contributing to societal development. Furthermore, he introduced Russian culture and technology, improved infrastructure including roads, railways, and electricity, and played a significant role in the economic development of Manchuria. However, this heavy influence of Russian culture led to resistance from the Manchurians and Han Chinese.

### **Beijing Uprising**

In 1915, Yuan Shikai initiated a coup in Beijing, proclaiming it as the "Beijing Uprising". He advocated opposition to Russia and the establishment of a constitutional democratic state. Emperor Guangxu was placed under house arrest, and Yuan Shikai assumed the position of de facto ruler as the Grand President. Yuan Shikai received support from influential figures, generals, and organizations with political influence, including those who opposed Russia. His sphere of influence primarily covered major northern cities and their surrounding regions. Specifically, he had control over Beijing, Tianjin, Shanxi, Hebei, and nearby areas. However, simultaneously, in various regions, several warlords declared independence amidst the chaos. The rebel forces led by Yuan Shikai engaged in combat with Russia's Manchurian Army. The battleground was situated in the southwestern part of the Manchurian region, with major cities such as Shenyang. The battles between the two sides were fierce, with the initial advantage going to the rebel forces. However, Russia had enhanced the Manchurian Railway as part of its Manchurian project, enabling them to efficiently supply troops and resources. With fewer troops but overwhelming resources, Russia managed to suppress the advance of Yuan's rebel forces. The casualties in this conflict were approximately 20,000 for the rebel forces and around 4,000 for the Russian army. As a result of this battle, Yuan Shikai's rebel forces suffered a complete defeat, the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) was virtually destroyed, and Song Jiaoren was ousted from power. Subsequently, remnants of the Nationalist Party, led by figures like Sun Yat-sen, founded the Revolutionary Party (later restructured as the Nationalist Party, or Kuomintang). By the beginning of 1916, the rebel forces were nearly incapable of mounting any significant resurgence, and Yuan Shikai, overwhelmed by numerical superiority, died in the Battle of Beijing. His death led to chaos among the rebel forces, allowing the Russian army to enter Beijing. Emperor Guangxu was liberated and reinstated as emperor once again.