Mars

Image of Mars, viewing the Valles Marineris

> "*Mars is there, waiting to be reached*"
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> —Buzz Aldrin

**Mars** is the fourth and final terrestrial planet in the Sol system, and one of the planetary bodies in the solar system which harbors human life. Named after the Roman god of war, it is distinct due to its finely grained iron oxide soil which gives the planet its reddish colour of its surface. Mars is a dynamic planet, having seasons, frozen water in its ice caps, canyons, and extinct volcanoes, giving evidence that Mars was far more geologically active in the past.

Mars is among the brightest objects in Earth's sky, with considerable cultural significance; the name *Mars* is that of the Roman god of war. Since the late 20th century, Mars has been explored by uncrewed spacecraft and rovers, with the first flyby by the *Mariner 4* probe in 1965, the first Mars orbiter by the *Mars 2* probe in 1971, and the first landing by the *Viking 1* in 1976. In 2027, the first manned mission to Mars took place. By the 2030s, cities were established across the Martian surface, under the authority of Earth nations

During the Third World War, many corporate cities declared independence, and dragged Mars further into economic subjugation by Earth, such that by the 2070s, radical movements began a conflict which tore Mars' political systems apart, resulted in the abandonment of the planet by the US, and concluded in a major war which unified the planet under its current governing body, the Martian Confederacy.

## History

### Geological History

#### Formation

Mars formed around 4.5 billion years ago during the early solar system, and grew via the accretion of material from the Sun's protoplanetary disk. During this process, many lighter elements such as chlorine, phosphorous and sulfur made their way to the Martian surface

#### After Formation

After formation, Mars was subjected to heavy bombardment - 60% of the surface of Mars shows a record of impacts from that era. Enormous impact basins are evident in the northern hemisphere, suggesting Mars was impacted by a Pluto-sized body, which created the smooth Borealis basin which covers 40% of the planet, and is responsible for the dichotomy between the Martian hemispheres. The history of Mars after this point can be split into three sections:

* Noachian period - Between 4.5 and 3.5 billion years ago, and featured many impacts. Many volcanoes also formed during this time.
* Hesperian period - Between 3.5 and 3.3 billion years ago; 2.9 billion years ago. Characterized by the formation of extensive lava plains
* Amazonian period - Between 3.3 and 2.9 billion years ago; 2.9 billion years ago to the present. Characterized with relatively few meteorite impacts, but are otherwise varied in temperament

### Human History

#### Early Exploration

Before modern science, Mars was observed by ancient societies, who revered the planet for its fiery red colouration. During later centuries, scientists discovered the fact that Mars was another planet within the solar system, and was observed close-up with telescopic imagery. Culturally, it has also influenced Earth as a candidate for extraterrestrial life.

During the 20th and early 21st century, unmanned missions to Mars began, starting with the flyby of Mariner 4. Many other missions took place to the planet, by both the US and Soviet Union, to varying degrees of success. In 1975, the *Viking 1* lander became the first probe to successfully land. In 1996, Mars was completely mapped, and saw the first deployment of a rover - Sojourner. Over the next 2 decades, many other rovers and landers were deployed by a variety of nations.

#### Manned Expeditions

Manned expeditions to Mars took place during the mid-2020s, amid a new space race between the European Union, United States and China. The race saw initial development of colonies on Luna, as well as manned landings on Mars. In 2027, the joint ESA-NASA Ares I landed on the Martian surface, operating for 5 weeks before departure. Over the early 2030s, five more manned missions took place, including one from China.

#### Early Settlement

By 2036, the first permanent colony was established on the planet, and fierce competition in the space race led to it being rapidly expanded and developed. By 2045, the first "dome city" was established. Initial populations remained relatively low - only in the tens of thousands. Corporate interests in Mars' resources began to shift the balance of the population, as private cities were established with the lower class of the populace under contractual obligations to settle Mars, although corporate cities were infamous for their critically poor conditions, with poverty, hunger and disease being commonplace. Despite the poor conditions, the population of the planet skyrocketed into the low millions.

#### Independence

In 2070, Martian separatists detonated a bomb in Nova Olympia Train Station, and began a campaign of terror across American Mars which lasted 6 years, resulting in the colony being abandoned. Following *de facto* independence, the new Martian government engaged in a war of conquest across the planet, unifying Mars under one banner.

In the post-independence period, Mars has seen much development, attracting many millions of migrants from Earth, increasingly from overpopulated nations such as India, Nigeria and the Congo. Mars has turned to agriculture and biological resources as its main exports, with greenhouse domes covering much of the surface in turn feeding the outer planets and asteroid belt.

## Geography & Geology

### Surface

Mars is a terrestrial planet, with a surface that consists of minerals containing silicon and oxygen, metals, and other elements. The Martian surface is primarily composed of basalt

### Internal Structure

Mars has a crust made of iron, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, and potassium. This crust is between 10 and 50 kilometers deep. Beneath the crust is a rocky mantle between 1,240 and 1,880 kilometers thick, and below that, is a dense core made of iron, nickel, and sulfur, between 1,500 and 2,100 kilometers in radius. Mars is seismically active, with an average of 400 marsquakes and other similar events annually

### Atmosphere

Mars has a thin atmosphere made up mostly of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and argon gases. The sky is typically a hazy red in colour owing to suspended dust in the atmosphere. However, as the atmosphere is only 0.6% of Earth's, it gives little protection against impacts. This has led to Mars investing in a large number of orbital anti-asteroid defenses to protect the dome cities on its surface.

Occasionally, winds on Mars are strong enough to create dust storms that cover much of the planet. After such storms, it can be months before all of the dust settles.

### Moons

Mars has two small moons, Phobos and Deimos, that are likely to be captured asteroids, and are named after the horses that pulled the chariot of the Greek god of war, Ares. Phobos, the innermost and larger moon, is heavily cratered, with deep grooves on its surface. Until the Phobos Acceleration Project in the early 22nd century, Phobos was gradually falling towards the Martian surface, expected to impact or break apart in 50 million years. Deimos is home to Mars' major orbital port and shipyard. Deimos is about half as big as Phobos and orbits two and a half times farther away from Mars, and houses Mars' foremost observatories and telescope labs, as well as a major university site, a subsidiary of Olympus Mons University.

### Major Features

#### Olympus Mons

Olympus Mons is the largest volcano in the Solar System, three times as tall as Mount Everest. Although it is extremely tall, it has a very gentle gradient of only 5% in most places. As such, the mountain was not climbed until 2098. Today, the Olympus Mons trail is a major hiking location for tourists, and is heavily urbanized, housing Mars' capital city, Nova Olympia.

#### Valles Marineris

Valles Marineris, or Mariner Valley, is a vast canyon system that runs along the Martian equator just east of the Tharsis region. Valles Marineris is 4000 km long and reaches depths of up to 7 km. The extent of Valles Marineris spans about 20 percent (1/5) of the entire distance around Mars, and is home to Mars' most densely populated urban region. The valley is a large tectonic 'crack' in the Martian crust, forming as the planet cooled, affected by the rising crust in the Tharsis region to the west, and subsequently widened by erosional forces. However, near the eastern flanks of the rift there appear to be some channels that have been formed by water.

## Human Geography

### Geopolitics

Mars currently only has one nation - the Martian Confederacy, which claims sovereignty over the entire gravity well of Mars, including its moons. However, in the past, Mars was home to a number of independent entities, consisting of Earth-based nations and corporations. However, with Martian independence from the US in 2076, Earth power began to wane from Mars, culminating in the Martian Unification Wars which wracked the planet for 4 years until it was unified under the Confederacy

### Natural Resources

Mars' natural resources mainly consist of ores including copper, chromium, iron, and nickel. Although its ore resources are not enough to justify export to Earth, they have greatly aided in giving Mars economic independence

### Human Landmarks

#### Opportunity Rover

The Opportunity Rover is a major landmark on Mars, and its path is a popular hiking route following many of Mars' places of natural beauty. The rover itself is preserved and protected from the elements by an isolation dome.

#### Ares I Landing Site

The Ares I landing site is a major historical location for Martians, and the entire region where the Ares I expedition took place is an area of natural conservation