Ancient History

Political, religious, commercial and legal systems are recorded as operating at the beginning of civilisation in the first dynasty of Sumer, 2300-2400 BCE [1].

**1754 BC**, the first extant written laws of the **code of Hamurabi**[2]. Hamurabi states that the purpose of the law was: "...*to bring about the rule of righteousness in the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil-doers; so that the strong should not harm the weak; ...and enlighten the land, to further the well-being of mankind."* The code of Hammurabi detailed several hundred laws to govern society.

**1450 BC**, the **Israelite Mosaic law** codified at Mount Sinai in Arabia. The Mosaic law had many similarities with the code of Hammurabi.

The essence of these ancient laws were: do not trespass, do no harm and cause no loss. There was also a positive side to these laws being to love thy neighbour and love thy creator.

**510 BC** The tetradrachm, an ancient Greek silver coin, the first world currency.

**312 AD**, the Roman emperor Constantine adopts Christianity as the state religion. This led to the rise of the **Roman Catholic Church** who made the claim that as the keys of the Earthly kingdom had been given to St Peter (who they claimed as their first pope) then the line of popes were rightful heirs of the world. Naturally, the bible and the Mosaic law, became the foundation for the law of Europe up until the present. The law that ruled in the church itself was called **Canon law** or Ecclesiastical law.

**529-534 AD**, western Roman emperor, Justinian I, collected and standardised centuries of Roman Civil Law in the **Corpus juris civilis**. The Roman republic had a constitution Mos Majorum.

**1216 AD**, the Magna Carta (Great Charter of Freedoms), in order to limit the power of the king, establishing the protection of church rights, protection of barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown. Although legally, of limited practical value, it nevertheless carried a lot of symbolic significance regarding the freedom of the individual against the power of a despot, such as informing the United States constitution.

**1302 AD**, 18th November, Pope Boniface VIII,  issues a papal bull and created the first Express Trust, called **Unum Sanctum**. It proclaimed the *"unity of the Catholic Church, the necessity of belonging to it for eternal salvation, the position of the Pope as supreme head of the Church and the duty thence arising of submission to the Pope"*. This was a Claim of Right over all souls in the world. This Express Trust was followed by others described here.

This doctrine was supported by the Canon of Christian scripture. In the Gospel of Matthew 16:18-19, if is recorded of Jesus saying: *"I tell you that you are Peter, and it is on this rock that I will build my congregation, and the powers of hell will not conquer it. I will give you the keys to the kingdom from heaven. Whatever you prohibit on earth will have been prohibited in heaven, and whatever you permit on earth will have been permitted in heaven.”* The Catholic doctrine through adopting Peter as the first pope, from which all Catholic popes are descended, can claim similar ruler-ship of all Earthly Kingdoms as God's representative.

**1517 AD**, Martin Luther initiates the protestant reformation against the excesses of the Catholic church. This led to the separation of church and state, Catholic ecclesiastical law, becoming subjugated to civil or **common law**. Common law, being established through case law, being the set of decided cases of resolved legal disputes. The rules of equity therefore being an underpinning of common law. Statute law is instituted by governments, being subject to common law. A separate set of laws is required when operating at sea or commercially between countries, called **Admiralty law**.

**1666 AD**, during the black plague and the fires of London, parliament enacts the **Cestui Que Vie Act**. Due to the widespread death, the state places everybody as well as their property into a trust. The state thus became the trustee holding all titles to the people and property, until a living man comes back to reclaim those titles.

**1689 AD**, the English Bill of Rights, a landmark act protecting the rights and freedoms of people in the Commonwealth.

**1694 AD**, the Bank of England founded, becoming a model for future central banks. It had the power to issue paper currency, and originally owned by private stockholders.

**1776 AD**, the beginning of the American era, see next section.