China

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中文

**China**, officially the **People's Republic of China** (**PRC**), is a socialist republic in East Asia and, with a population of around 1.409 billion, the world's second most populous country.

The Communist Party of China exercises jurisdiction over 21 provinces, five autonomous regions, three direct-controlled municipalities (Bohai, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and the special administrative regions of Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Wa State and South Tibet. China is also in a Union state with Bhutan, Mongolia, Myanmar and Nagalim, all of whom officially use the Renminbi as their currency and do not maintain independent militaries, with the exception of Nagaland's paramilitary force.

Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978, China's economy has been one of the world's fastest-growing with annual growth rates consistently above 6 percent. As of 2040, it is the world's largest economy by both nominal GDP and purchasing power parity (PPP). China is also the world's largest exporter and importer of goods.

China is a recognised nuclear weapons state and has the world's largest standing army and largest defence budget. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the UN Security Council in 1971.

China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organisations, including the United Asian Cooperative (UAC), the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and the Shanghai Pact.

China is often characterised as a world superpower along with the United States.

## History

*For pre-2018 see History of China*

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## Geography

China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia.

The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers (9,000 mi) long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas.

China connects through the Kazakh (Eurasian) border to the Eurasian Steppe which has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the Steppe route – the ancestor of the Eurasian Land Bridge.

## Environmental Issues

### Pollution and Power Production

In the early 2000s, China suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution, with urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country.

While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law were fairly stringent, they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favour of rapid economic development. The country also had significant water pollution problems: 40% of China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011 and in 2014, internal freshwater resources per capita of China reached an all time low of 2,062m3, while the world average was 5,920m3 at the time. In 2013, China began a five-year, US$277 billion effort to reduce air pollution, particularly in the north of the country and while it did delay the issue it did not remove it. Although completion of a series of anti drought canals in 2020 drastically eased the water crisis in the north.

In 2021 the government declared a state of emergency after Air pollution in the capital Beijing reached physically un-breathable levels. The government issued new laws relating to the quantity of pollution that could be produced by industries in highly urbanised areas. These laws caused the closure, and subsequent relocation of many factories along the east cost. This was only a temporary fix however as many factories simply moved inland before continuing to pollute the countryside.

In 2022 the government announced plans to close down 32 major state owned coal power plants across the country over the next 5 years with energy to to be temporarily rationed before suitable non-fossil fuel replacements, mostly nuclear and hydroelectric, could be constructed as part of the clean energy project. China also put significant restrictions on non electric cars in major urban areas and greatly subsidised the purchase of Chinese state produced electric cars, which were put into mass production in late 2024. While these initiatives would lead to declining GDP growth in the short-run they were extremely popular with much of the population who could almost immediately see the improvement in air quality.

The construction of 4 tidal power plants, 7 solar farms, 11 wind farms, 41 hydroelectric dams and 23 nuclear power plants by 2028 brought Chinese non-fossil fuel energy production above 75%, the first major nation to do so. While the scheme had put a huge strain on the Chinese economy it payed off during the 2030 oil crisis just 1 year later which saw the collapse of Middle Eastern oil market in the aftermath of the Fourth Gulf War. While the markets of many countries crashed during this period in what became known as the Second Great Depression, China's highly centralised oil independent economy stayed relatively stable. This gave China a great amount of power, especially over its greatly weakened southern neighbours allowing to directly intervene in the Myanma Civil War without fear of Indian or American reactions. Chinese interference in Africa during this period is often cited as one of the main causes of the Great African War although much of the blame still goes to the ineptitude of the post colonial division of Africa and repeated American interference in the north of the Continent during the Arab Spring and beyond.

China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialisation, with $352 billion invested in 2036 alone; it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects. By 2038, over 56% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources, while most notably from hydroelectric power: a total installed capacity of 1221 GW makes China the largest hydroelectric power producer in the world. China also has the largest power capacity of installed solar photovoltaics system and wind power system in the world.

### Flooding and Rising sea levels

China experienced significant flooding on its eastern coast in the 2030s with the permanent submersion of much of Tianjin city and former Jiangsu province, a region with over 74 million inhabitants, and the destruction of a significant amount of farmland. With the government unable to house around 24 million of these people many people remained in these flooded areas living in the upper floors of high rise buildings, particularly in Tianjin. The safety of this accommodation is highly disputed with 15 building collapses occurring over the last 10 years.

A series of Great Sea walls were build around Shanghai and the Guangdong delta region to prevent flooding of these major regions.

## Politics

China's constitution states that The People's Republic of China "is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants," and that the state organs "apply the principle of democratic centralism."

The PRC is one of the world's few remaining socialist states openly endorsing communism. The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and corporatist, with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against free access to the Internet, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, free formation of social organisations and freedom of religion.

Its current political, ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as the "people's democratic dictatorship", "socialism with Chinese characteristics" (which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances) and the "socialist market economy" respectively.

### Communist Party

China's constitution declares that the country is ruled "under the leadership" of the Communist Party of China (CPC). Although China has two official opposition parties, the Chinese League for Democracy and the Labour Party, these parties hold little power in the mainland making China a de facto one-party state.

The General Secretary (party leader) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government serving as the paramount leader. The electoral system is pyramidal. Local People's Congresses are directly elected by the populace, and higher levels of People's Congresses up to the National People's Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.

Since Xi Jinping came to power in 2012, he made significant strides in centralising the political system and removing provincial and sub-provincial leaders autonomy making Chinese bureaucracy one of the most efficient in the world.

Another nine political parties, have representatives in the NPC and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC). China supports the Leninist principle of "democratic centralism", but critics describe the elected National People's Congress as a "rubber stamp" body.

### Government

The President is the titular head of state, elected by the National People's Congress. The Premier is the head of government, presiding over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent president is Wu Yazhu, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader. The incumbent premier is He Xuegang, who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body.

There have been some moves toward political liberalisation, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels. However, the party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with over 90% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2038 survey.

### Administrative Divisions

The People's Republic of China is divided into 21 provinces, five autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; three municipalities; and five special administrative regions (SARs) which enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 31 provincial-level divisions can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes the three SARs of Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macau. Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions can be grouped into six regions, including North China, Northeast China, East China, South Central China, Southwest China and Northwest China.

China also has de facto administration of the sovereign state of Mongolia as the two countries share the same legislature, the NPC(GM).

* Fujian (福建省)
* Gansu (甘肃省)
* Guangdong (广东省)
* Guizhou (贵州省)
* Hainan (海南省)
* Hebei (河北省)
* Henan (河南省)
* Hubei (湖北省)
* Hunan (湖南省)
* Jiangxi (江西省)
* Jilin (吉林省)
* Liaoning (辽宁省)
* Shaanxi (陕西省)
* Shandong (山东省)
* Shanxi (山西省)
* Sichuan (四川省)
* Yunnan (云南省)
* Inner Mongolia (内蒙古自治区)
* Ningxia (宁夏回族自治区)
* Xinjiang (新疆维吾尔自治区)
* Tibet (西藏自治区)
* Chongqing (重庆市)
* Shanghai (上海市)
* Macau (澳门特别行政区)
* South Tibet (藏南特别行政区)
* Taiwan (台湾特别行政区)
* Wa State (佤邦特别行政区)

### Foreign Relations

The PRC has diplomatic relations with 111 countries and maintains embassies in 104. Its legitimacy is disputed only by the Vatican city; it is thus the largest and most populous state with 'limited' recognition. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries.

Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences. This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as the Free Islamic Republic of Yemen, Zambezia and Yugoslavia.

China officially has militarily alliances with Bhutan, Cambodia, Korea, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nagalim, Nepal and Vietlaos as part of the United Asian Cooperative agreement. China also has a particularly close economic and military relationship with the Eurasian Union, and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.

China was a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (now Shanghai Pact), along with Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan (now Eurasia) and plays a leading role in its operation, maintaining good relationships with all of its members.

#### Trade

2035 saw the the partial Chinese takeover of the word market with the Chinese Yuan becoming the dominant currency for trade within the Shanghai Pact. This spelled the end of the US dollar's time as the only global currency and further established China's status as a second world superpower.

The Eurasian Land Bridge and other elements of the One Belt One Road Initiative proved vital in China's domination of the world market, making many countries in both Asia and Europe heavily reliant on Chinese trade giving China a great amount of power in international politics, demonstrated during the Great African War in which China acted as both in a peacekeeping role and later as the sole depositary to the peace agreement. The expansion of the New Silk Road southwards after the war saw exponentially increasing investment and trade between China and the continent with Sino-African trade reaching over US$1.57 trillion in 2039. China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Columbia and Paraguay.

#### Territorial Disputes

Since the Sino-Indian Proxy war ended in 2039 China has had very few border disputes, what with the annexation of Taiwan and Treaty of Lhuntse settling nearly all historical claims, mostly in China's favour. The Vietnamese handover of the Nansha (Spratly) Islands during their admission to the UAC and the subsequent dropping of China's '9 dash claim' ended Chinese involvement in the South China Sea dispute. China is now only involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East China Sea, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal.

### Sociopolitical Issues

The Chinese League for Democracy, social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state. Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling Communist Party are tolerated and two official opposition parties are allowed to stand for election, censorship of political speech and information deemed dangerous or radical by the CPC, most notably on the Internet, routinely occurs.

State-sponsored slavery is part of the Chinese penal system, and there are over a thousand labour prisons and camps known collectively as the Laogai. Prisoners are not paid at all, are only given the basic necessities needed to survive, and often need their families to send money to them. Prisoners who refuse to work are not given food rations and or put in isolation. Some of the prisoners are political or religious dissidents. Laogai in Chinese means forced labour and reform. A Chinese president said that they want to see two products coming out of the prisons: the man who has been reformed, and the product made by the man.

The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the right to subsistence and economic development is a prerequisite to other types of human rights, and that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of economic development. It emphasises the rapid rise in the Chinese standard of living, literacy rate and average life expectancy since the 1970s, as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods. Furthermore, with the formation of China's first and second opposition parties as well as the publishing of local election results have been seen by many as a move towards democratisation. The Chinese government is also largely tolerant to critical NGOs that offer practical, efficient solutions to social problems.

The lifting of Tenzin Gyatso's exile in 2031 has often been cited as a turning point in religious freedom in China, and while China did not recognise his role as regent of Tibet, he was permitted to continue acting as a spiritual leader of the Buddhist and Tibetan population within China. Similar improvements in treatment to religious groups was also seen in Xinjiang with the release of many detained Muslims.

While Beijing is still very opposed to any official religious authority that subverts the power of the CPC, such as the Vatican, and refuses to teach religion as part of its syllabus in schools, international rights groups have stated that China has taken a more liberal approach to religion in recent years, even joining as an observer to the OIC to represent its Islamic community.

Chinese recognition and official apology for the Tiananmen Square Massacre weeks before its 50th Anniversary in 2039 and the establishment of a memorial in Tiananmen Square is again cited by many as being indicators of China's move towards sociopolitical reform, however many critics have simply stated the apology has come 50 years to late.

## Military

With over 3.1 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world, commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC). China has the second-biggest military reserve force, only behind India. The PLA consists of the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF), and the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF). According to the Chinese government, China's military budget for 2039 totalled US$1.7 Trillion, constituting the world's largest military budget, although the military expenditures-GDP ratio with 1.9% of GDP is below world average.

However, many western authorities – including SIPRI and the U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense – argue that China does not report its real level of military spending, which they claim is allegedly much higher than the official budget which they often use to justify their own high spending.