United States of America

(Frank Orren Lowden)

**United States of America**, commonly known as the USA, is a federal republic located in North America, bordered by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Its capital is the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.).

## **HISTORY**

### **Prewar Period**

In 1906, the San Francisco earthquake occurred, causing extensive damage to the city, with buildings collapsing and fires spreading. However, this major disaster also awakened the spirit of unity and rebuilding among Americans.

By 1907, the United States was still dealing with the effects of an economic downturn caused by earthquakes. However, industries such as steel and automobile manufacturing were expanding, and the economy gradually began to recover. Nevertheless, there were deep-seated social issues, particularly in the South, where problems like racial discrimination and labor rights persisted. Struggles such as those against the Jim Crow laws, which enforced racial segregation, and labor union oppression continued.

In 1909, William Howard Taft assumed the presidency of the United States. He was a capable leader who actively worked for the nation's development.

In 1910, the Republican Party suffered defeat in the midterm elections, and the Democratic Party gained a majority in the House of Representatives. Woodrow Wilson was subsequently elected as the next president. Wilson pursued progressive policies and boldly tackled various domestic issues during his presidency.

### **Wilson's Rise and Declaration of Neutrality**

On November 5, 1912, Woodrow Wilson assumed the presidency, marking the beginning of a new era. He implemented progressive policies such as strengthening anti-trust laws, protecting workers' rights, and introducing income taxes. Additionally, Wilson advocated for the establishment of the League of Nations to maintain world peace.

However, racial discrimination remained deeply entrenched in the South. In 1912, as the progressive wing of the Republican Party split from the main party in opposition to Wilson's reelection, the Progressive Party was formed. This new political party confronted racial discrimination in the South and advocated for the expansion of Black voting rights. Despite their efforts, Wilson won the election, and racial discrimination continued.

In the 1912 presidential election, Woodrow Wilson of the Democratic Party emerged victorious. He campaigned on issues like addressing racial discrimination and promoting fair competition policies, advancing progressive agendas. In his foreign policy, Wilson aimed to improve relations with Central and South American countries, pursuing an active diplomatic approach.

However, the Wilson administration faced criticism for attempting to maintain neutrality when World War I broke out. This neutrality stance garnered controversy, and anti-war movements gained momentum domestically. In 1914, as the Great War unfolded in Europe, the American export industry thrived, but American companies engaging in trade with Germany for wartime profit became a contentious issue.

### **Post-Great War turmoil**

In the early 1920s, the United States entered a period of turmoil in the aftermath of World War I and was hit by the waves of economic recession. It was during this time that Warren G. Harding, a new President, came into office. He advocated for a policy of "America First" and worked to protect domestic industries and agriculture. However, despite his intentions, unemployment rates rose, and policies that were unfavorable to agriculture and immigrants became prevalent. The unintended consequences of his policies were akin to the story of the "Boy Who Cried Wolf."

Simultaneously, racial discrimination remained deeply rooted in the South. The Democratic Party, with strong support in the South, held influence even within law enforcement agencies. In this context, events like the Tulsa Race Massacre and the Rosewood Massacre exposed the problems within the Democratic Party. Calls for reform grew, but those seeking to protect vested interests hindered progress. As a result, the Democratic Party's support base rapidly diminished.

Amid this backdrop, the socialist movement gained rapid traction and garnered attention among workers. This movement, born out of economic and social discontent both domestically and internationally, criticized capitalism and free-market economies while advocating for the reconstruction of society.

Among the socialist movements, the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) stood out as a major organization. They collaborated with socialists and strengthened the labor union movement. Employing tactics like direct action and strikes, they did not shy away from confrontations with capitalists and the government, advocating for the improvement of workers' rights. Their slogan, "Power to the People," sent shockwaves throughout American society.

However, the spread of the socialist movement also provoked a backlash from conservatives and reactionaries. They condemned socialism as an anti-establishment force and resorted to suppression. Among these, the IWW was seen as a symbol of anti-establishment, leading to arrests and attacks against them. Nevertheless, they persisted in their resistance, continuing the fight for workers' rights and social justice.

### **The Lafollette Sr. Administration Period**

In the midst of these challenges, a ray of hope emerged in the 1924 presidential election. Robert M. La Follette Sr. ran as the Progressive Party candidate and defeated the candidates of both the Democratic and Republican parties to become President. He championed the demands for social justice, representing the interests of African Americans, laborers, and many others, which garnered widespread support.

After La Follette's inauguration as President, American politics underwent significant changes. He took a strong stance against racial discrimination and the abuse of police power, actively promoting policies aimed at achieving social justice, including police reform and the advancement of African American rights. Under his leadership, America moved closer to a fairer society.

The La Follette Sr. administration marked a turning point in American politics, plunging the nation into a whirlwind of transformation. In the midst of tumultuous waves, factions advocating for social justice clashed fiercely with conservatives seeking to preserve vested interests.

In the early years of the Senior administration, the United States saw a major shift. Strict enforcement of anti-trust laws (known as the Senior Act) restrained the ambitions of big businesses, creating a vibrant stage for competition. Consumers enjoyed lower prices and improved quality, and the economy experienced a renewed vitality. Simultaneously, the protection of workers' rights advanced, leading to increased productivity. Fair tax reforms prevented tax evasion by the wealthy, expanding social fairness.

The Education Equity Act was one of the significant achievements of the Senior administration. Under this law, African American and working-class children gained access to equitable education opportunities. Educational resource disparities and racial discrimination diminished, giving rise to a new educational environment.

However, the tide against racial discrimination faced opposition from conservatives in the South. The Senior Act's breakup of corporations was a blow to the titans of big business, leading them to resist government regulations. Furthermore, the pursuit of social justice became a burden for the wealthy elite, causing them to voice their resistance. These conservatives united and organized a formidable opposition force against the Senior administration.

### **Assassination of President Senior**

In the 1928 presidential election, Robert M. La Follette Sr. achieved a resounding victory, defeating Al Smith, the former Governor of New York, securing his re-election. La Follette enjoyed overwhelming support from various segments of society, including African Americans, laborers, and farmers.

However, in 1929, shortly after the enactment of the "Equal Employment Opportunity Act," aimed at ending racial discrimination, President La Follette Sr. faced strong backlash from the extremist and right-wing factions within the Republican party. Tragically, he became the victim of a violent assassination. This event plunged American politics into a state of turmoil.

### **Wheeler's Political Transformation and the Great Depression**

Afterward, Burton K. Wheeler emerged as the successor to the senior leadership. He rejected the long-term economic reforms implemented during the senior administration and advocated for a free-market economy. This was influenced by his own ideological background and pressure from large corporations. Specific policies included tax incentives for corporations and the promotion of market liberalization to stimulate corporate growth. Additionally, tax cuts were introduced for individuals and families, and financial support was provided to local governments to boost economic activity.

However, these policies were favorably received by the wealthy while facing resistance from the impoverished and laborers. Wheeler was also reluctant to support labor union liberalization and protect workers' rights, and he introduced unfavorable policies in this regard. As a result, he failed to gain support from the working class, and criticism against him grew within the Progressive Party.

American politics witnessed tumultuous developments like these. Dramatic victories, tragic events, controversial policy implementations, and the resulting turmoil and backlash continued. The Wheeler administration was characterized by its pursuit of economic liberalism, deregulation of corporations, and the promotion of a free market.

Nevertheless, these policies had unexpected weaknesses. In the pursuit of low-cost production, quality control and safety measures were neglected, resulting in a flood of low-quality and unsafe products in the market. Consumers were plagued by unreliable products, undermining market integrity.

Similarly, in the agricultural sector, there was an emphasis on mass production and export competition, leading to a decline in the quality of agricultural products and serious consequences such as reduced incomes for farmers. Furthermore, price competition associated with mass production drove down market prices for agricultural products, making it difficult for small-scale farmers to survive.

Such policies were seen as effective means for economic development at the time but ultimately led to issues such as decreased product quality, safety concerns, and the decline of small-scale farmers.

Then, in 1931, the Great Depression struck. Excessive adoption of free-market policies, corruption in the banking sector, and overheating of the stock market, among other factors, converged to deepen the economic downturn, affecting the entire United States.

sought to encourage the unrestricted growth of large corporations. However, this policy ultimately resulted in significant social problems such as lower product quality, poor working conditions for laborers, and disruption in the agricultural sector.

Working-class and farming communities faced challenging times, and economic imbalances became evident. The pursuit of mass production and export competition led to lower product quality and safety, as well as price reductions in the agricultural market, causing the bankruptcy of small-scale farmers.

As a result, American politics descended into chaos, with rising discontent among the population and economic stagnation. The Great Depression persisted, and calls for national reconstruction grew louder. America entered an era where it awaited new leadership. This challenging period had a profound impact on the direction of the American economy and politics.

### **Presidential Election of 1932**

In the run-up to the 1932 presidential election, Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Democratic nominee, experienced a worsening of his symptoms of polio and was unable to run for office. This situation forced the Democratic Party to hastily select a new candidate, but internal divisions intensified, and they were unable to settle on a nominee (1932 United States presidential election).

On the other hand, the Republican Party sought to take advantage of this confusion and attempted to secure a victory for Herbert Hoover. However, the failures of the Republican administration's past economic policies had eroded support among the populace. As a result, the Democratic Party saw the emergence of formidable contenders other than Roosevelt. Additionally, the Progressive Party, not aligned with the Wheeler faction, also rose to prominence, advocating for social justice, posing a threat to the Republican Party.

The election campaign was intense, with supporters of different candidates clashing over policy and ideology, and societal unrest continued to rise. Hoover attributed the causes of the Great Depression to external factors and failed to adequately address domestic issues while maintaining a conservative economic policy. On the other hand, the opposing candidates harshly criticized the mistakes of past Republican administrations and proposed policies focused on rebuilding the domestic economy and protecting workers' rights.

As a result of the election, Hoover narrowly secured victory, but societal instability continued to increase. The Hoover administration failed to overcome the Great Depression and had lost the support of the public. Meanwhile, leaders of the opposition candidates refused to accept defeat in the election and continued to criticize the administration. They opposed Hoover's conservative economic policies and advocated for policies aimed at improving the living standards of the American people.These election results marked a turning point in American politics.

### **Hoover caused a period of turmoil.**

In 1933, conservative President Hoover took office, and his economic policies sparked significant controversy. The Hoover administration emphasized fiscal expenditure reduction and the maintenance of the gold standard as part of its economic recovery efforts, which ultimately contributed to the worsening of the Great Depression. The standard of living for the impoverished declined, and social inequality deepened. Particularly, the financial sector and large corporations received favorable treatment, while workers and farmers faced challenging circumstances

During this period, the socialist movement gained momentum, and opposition to the Hoover administration grew. The Hoover administration escalated political conflicts with socialists and labor unions while adopting repressive policies, leading to increased social unrest and further exacerbation of tensions.

Simultaneously, in the South, an extreme right-wing organization known as the "Silver Shirts," supported by white supremacists, was active. They espoused ideologies such as nationalism, America-firstism, anti-Semitism, anti-Slavism, and anti-racism against people of color, propagating conspiracy theories about Jews and Slavs. However, their views found support primarily among radical elements and anti-government factions, facing condemnation from the general public.

In 1935, the American Socialist Party and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) merged to form the American Industrial Workers Front (AIWF), bolstering left-wing forces. This development alarmed conservative and far-right groups like the Silver Shirts, who began to incite the populace.

The Silver Shirts accused the American Socialist Party and IWW of supporting communism and vehemently criticized them. They further argued that these left-wing forces posed a danger to American national security and called for the exclusion of left-wing elements.

Conversely, the Progressive Party took a critical stance towards the Silver Shirts' positions, opposing the suppression of left-wing forces. They accused the Silver Shirts of inciting the populace and suppressing left-wing forces to create an America aligned with their own agenda. However, the influence of the Silver Shirts rapidly expanded, leading some citizens to follow their incitement and engage in acts of violence.

The Silver Shirts were notably known for their violent actions against left-wing organizations. They engaged in activities such as attacking AIWF supporters, obstructing the distribution of AIWF's publications, and threatening AIWF members.

Moreover, the Silver Shirts perpetrated acts of violence against minority groups, including Jews and Black individuals. These actions included assaults on Jewish and Black-owned businesses and residences, threats against Jewish and Black individuals, and physical attacks on these communities.

FIA deployed various means to prevent workers' unity and organization, including disseminating anti-communist propaganda among factory workers and obstructing their efforts to organize. Additionally, they formed private security groups to disrupt AIWF demonstrations and strikes.

Ford Motor Company, in particular, established a private security group to protect its factories and workers, occasionally engaging in skirmishes with the AIWF. The existence of such private security forces fueled public mistrust and exacerbated social divisions.

AIWF continued its fight to strengthen workers' rights and welfare, deepening its conflict with corporate coalitions. Nevertheless, corporate coalitions like Ford Motor Company strengthened their cooperation with conservative factions and the media, promoting anti-communism and liberal values widely in society and enhancing their political influence.

As a result, these conflicts led to social instability, impacting the lives of workers and citizens. Furthermore, the presence of private security groups increased public mistrust, contributing to the expansion of corporate coalition's political influence.

These circumstances persisted, and repression against left-wing forces like the American Socialist Party and IWW continued. Attempts by workers to unite and organize were impeded, and the fight against improving labor conditions and addressing social inequalities was constrained. Left-wing forces resisted political repression, with the Progressive Party and other left-wing groups at the forefront of the opposition.

However, the opposition from the Progressive Party and left-wing forces faced political suppression from corporate coalitions and conservative factions, resulting in ongoing social unrest. During this period, political confrontations intensified, with both sides pursuing their political interests while the lives of workers and citizens remained difficult.

These tensions in society, coupled with economic downturns and political turmoil, fostered a sense of anxiety and discontent throughout American society. Voices protesting against inequality and injustice grew louder, and movements for social reform and political reconstruction gained traction.

Indeed, this situation symbolized a transitional period in American politics and society, laying the groundwork for subsequent political changes in later eras. Movements seeking workers' rights and social justice went on to play crucial roles in American society, paving the way for progress and the pursuit of equality.