recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Executive Function

Executive functions are a set of supervisory processes that control lower-level operations in the service of goal oriented behavior. The most commonly accepted "core" executive functions are shifting, updating, and inhibition (Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, & Howerter, 2000). Other terms are sometimes used interchangeably (e.g., flexibility for shifting, control for inhibition, and working memory for updating; Diamond, 2013). Executive functions are believed to be somewhat discrete, though intercorrelated. The prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus are associated with tasks that measure executive function. Common tasks include the Tower of Hanoi and the Wisconsin Card Sort Task.

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review Of Psychology, 64135-168. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., & Howerter, A. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex 'frontal lobe' tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49-100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Retroactive and Proactive Interference

Proactive interference causes problems with newly acquired information because of older information causing interference or confusion. So, for example, when asked for your current, new address, remembering only your recent, old address. Or, calling your new significant other by someone else's name from the past! Retroactive interference occurs when you learn something new, and it makes it harder to remember the older information that is related. This happens, for example, when you apply for a job and have to try to remember your three last addresses for a background check.

Personal story - when I brought home my new puppy last week, I kept slipping into calling him by my last dog's name. Hence - proactive interference!

When I teach this, I tell my students to keep them straight by simply thinking of the direction the interfering (more easily remembered) information goes - when it goes forward, it is proactive, when it goes backward, it is retroactive.
Leafeon

Toucannon | Darkrai

TPWT: N/Q

TPWT: N/Q

Glaceon (older sister)

Espeon & Umbreon (older siblings)

Jolteon (younger brother)

Eevee (baby sister)

**Leafeon**, labeled **The Peace Keeper**, started out as an Eevee and eventually evolved into Leafeon. He was a castmate on Total Pokémon Action and was on Team Toucannon and Team Darkrai. He joined the game in Zombieoxys and was eliminated in Pokémillionaire. He didn't qualify for Total Pokémon World Tour.
Team Heracross

**Team Heracross** was one of the two original teams of Total Pokémon World Tour. It consisted of Azelf, Castform, Crawdaunt, Dodrio, Espeon, Flygon, Glaceon, Jynx, Lapras, Manectric, Mantine, Marowak, Pachirisu, Persian, Phione, Roserade, Sableye, Scizor, Scrafty, Starmie, Teddiursa, Uxie, Weavile, Xatu, Zangoose, and Zebstrika.
Heuristics

Heuristics are mental shortcuts used in problem-solving and decision-making. These short-cut strategies quicken decision-making and can potentially make a person’s decision-making process more efficient by reducing effort and the amount of information processed. Heuristics can be very helpful, but can also lead to cognitive biases. Common heuristics include the availability heuristic, representative heuristic, and affect heuristic.
Fluffy Sackson

## Basic Info

Age - 19

Height - 6'

Weight - 195

Hair Color : Black, slick

## Involvement with Gurt

Daniel "Fluffy" Sackson first became acquainted with Gurt Michaels when he found the then homeless Gurt digging around in the dumpster behind his garage (Gurt's current housing). Chasing Gurt down with a custom-modded Kel-Tec KSG like a raccoon, Fluffy believed him to originally be a hobo who stumbled onto the wrong property. However, as Gurt's visits became more frequent, Fluffy soon found that it was simply a waste of ammo to chase him away, and soon allowed the man to stay in his backyard, beginning a connection which can only very loosely be defined as a "friendship". The two often bicker and fight, often ending up with one sustaining injuries. Gurt often finds himself trying to take advantage of Fluffy and steal his belongings, while Fluffy returns the favor with verbal and physical abuse.

Fluffy's hobbies include recreational auto repair, aviation, repairing and modifying electronics, playing guitar, and keeping Gurt from destroying his property on a daily basis.

## Encounter with the FBI

Not long after Gurt's arrival, Fluffy was abruptly greeted by the FBI, who stated that Gurt was to be placed under witness protection, specifically under Fluffy's protection. Fluffy initially objected to this, but was threatened to keeping Gurt alive and safe under his watch indefinitely, He was also told that should Gurt die for any reason, he would be held responsible. Begrudgingly, Fluffy agreed. To this day, it has been 3 years, and Fluffy finds himself at his wits end and harming Gurt in frustration, reluctantly sparing his life while doing so.
Ratings Wiki

## ***Highest-Rating Albums***

**1. Joanne** (Lady Gaga)

**2. Rainbow** (Kesha)

 **3. Born To Die** (Lana Del Rey)

**4. Paradise** (Lana Del Rey)

**5. The Fame Monster** (Lady Gaga)

**6. Reputation** (Taylor Swift)

**7. Harry Styles** (Harry Styles)

**8. Born This Way** (Lady Gaga)

**9. ARTPOP** (Lady Gaga)

**10. Places** (Lea Michele)

## ***Artists***

* 5 Seconds of Summer
* Adele
* Alicia Keys
* Ariana Grande
* AURORA
* Avril Lavigne
* Bebe Rexha
* Bea Miller
* Beyonce
* Billie Eilish
* Bonnie Tyler
* Britney Spears
* Camila Cabello
* Celine Dion
* Charlie Puth
* Christina Aguilera
* Christina Perri
* Coldplay
* Cyndi Lauper
* Demi Lovato
* Ellie Goulding
* Fifth Harmony
* Florence + The Machine
* Grouplove
* Harry Styles
* James Arthur
* Julia Michaels
* Justin Timberlake
* Katy Perry
* Kelly Clarkson
* Kesha
* Kylie Minogue
* Lady Gaga
* Lana Del Rey
* Lea Michele
* Leona Lewis
* Lorde
* Lord Huron
* Lykke Li
* Madonna
* Marina And The Diamonds
* Melanie Martinez
* Miley Cyrus
* Nicki Minaj
* Paloma Faith
* Panic! At The Disco
* Passenger
* Pink
* Rachel Platten
* Rihanna
* Rita Ora
* Selena Gomez
* Shakira
* Shawn Mendes
* Sia
* Taylor Swift
* The Runaways
* Toni Braxton
* Troye Sivan
* ZAYN

Zawartość
* Awards
* Artist Of The Year
* Song Of The Year

Ostatnie zmiany

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Mental rotation

Thing #29: Roger Shepard’s classic studies of **mental rotation** (Cooper & Shepard, 1973; Shepard & Metzler, 1971) illustrate one of the most important methodologies in cognitive psychology, and anchor one of the most famous and contentious arguments in our field. The mental rotation paradigm is certainly chronometric (‘thing #11’ from our list), but is more basically *psychophysics*: manipulation of a physical stimulus (e.g., it’s degree of rotation from some canonical orientation) to determine the effect on psychological experience and behavior? The ubiquitous finding that RT

   increases as a function of the degree of rotation, and that mental rotations appear to be analog and continuous—just like physical rotations—provide important insights into the nature of representation, particularly for theorists like Kosslyn who favor a depictive (versus Pylyshyn’s descriptive or propositional) view of imagery. I’m sure there will be future ‘things’ that also relate to this debate.

Mental rotation is also relevant to ‘thing #3’ (Baddeley’s model of WM), given the likelihood that imagery and visuospatial working memory are overlapping cognitive constructs.

The original Shepard studies are fantastic to read, or you can see a brief review of the behavioral work and then a meta-analysis of the neuroscientific studies of mental rotation here:

Zacks, J. M. (2008). Neuroimaging studies of mental rotation: a meta-analysis and review. *Journal of cognitive neuroscience*, *20*(1), 1-19. https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/jocn.2008.20013

Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. *Science*, *171*(3972), 701-703.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1731476.pdf

Cooper, L. A., & Shepard, R. N. (1973). Chronometric studies of the rotation of mental images. In *Visual information processing* (pp. 75-176).
Burt Michaels

## Basic Info

Age - 72

Height - 5'8"

Weight - 154 pounds

Hair Color - Balding/Orange

## Unknown Origins

The story of Burt is a difficult one to tell, as no one man knows the complete story.

Some say Burt was not a man at all, but rather an old donkey that the Gods had enchanted to become a human as a joke, but in doing so accidentally passed on their godly powers, making him immortal.

Some say Burt was a hermit living alone in the grassy hills of Cyrodiil that decided to take up martial arts and in doing so, became a fighting master.

Others say that Burt was a bitter man who hated all races that turned to physical fighting so that he could eradicate them by his own.

But others seem to think that all of these stories are true.

## Marriage and Offspring

Burt gained the attraction of the goddess Dibella during his exploration of the land. His strong nature and stone-like demeanor made him lusted after by the goddess to the point where copulation was inevitable.

Or, she could have just wanted to see what fucking an old man would be like - I mean, she was pretty fucking obsessed with getting laid, she probably tried anything once.

However, this was no mere quick one night stand, as after they were finished, it soon became apparent that Dibella was pregnant with the child of Burt. Initially, Burt, wanting to avoid paying child support for an immortal child that would never end, panicked and did not know how to handle the situation. However, realizing that the goddess's followers often made money tributes to the goddess herself, decided to stay with her and raised the boy to become the greatest warrior in all of Tamriel. Following Dibella's instructions, Burt then followed the path to enlightenment, and when the boy, Vurt, became of age, ascended to godhood and left his son to carry on the Michaels family legacy.

## Rivalry with Fluffy Sackson

Burt has a great disdain for the legendary wizard, Fluffy Sackson. He believes that Fluffy would not have won in their multiple physical encounters had Fluffy not used his "Church's Chicken Run-Like-A-Lil-Bitch spell and his hand zapping things". He views Fluffy as a pompous and unpleasant person, believing himself to be superior as he glances down on "us hardworking pure white folk" from his tower in the Jerall Mountains.
Paul Meehl

Meehl was part of an eminent group of University of Minnesota psychologists including B.F. Skinner (thing 9), William Estes, Kenneth MacCorquodale (with Meehl, a noted opponent of thing 17), and Marian Breland Bailey (of thing 9 and 'Misbehavior of Organisms' fame). Meehl was extremely successful (APA Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology award at age 38, APA president at age 42) as, among other things, a clinical psychologist who was highly critical of the things that psychologists do. To list a few criticisms cognitive psychologists should be aware of at all times:

Meehl's paradox :: Experiments and analyses should be planned such that collecting more and more data should give us a better and better (more and more specific) understanding of the phenomena of interest. However, psychologists rarely behave this way. Instead, more and more data is paradoxically used to make an increasingly trivial inference - that data are inconsistent with a null value. Note that this second inference was assured from the start - as long as you keep collecting data, you will eventually demonstrate, for example, that a coin flipping heads 50.000001% of the time is SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT from chance

Inference 'in the head' :: In attempting to predict behavior, formal methods (objective, principled) outperform informal (subjective, 'in the head', professional opinion) methods. Really a tautology at heart, since professional judgment is subject to all of the limits and biases enumerated in our 100 things and formal methods are not (necessarily). Formal != complicated, since even a central tendency is formal, but instead connotes that aggregating data (be they raw data, or collections of central tendencies / p values / effect sizes) is a job better suited to those without 100 things and without tenure clocks :)

Ad hoc fallacies :: Using addendums to theories to save them from falsification. Bertrand Russell meets philosophy of science.

Crummy criterion fallacy :: An empirically validated measure is still valid even if it didn't say what you think it should have said. It's asinine for psychologists to spend their conference time and discussion sections "explaining away" their data by speculating about what went wrong with their [construct valid, empirically validated] measure of choice. As if any such argument would have been made if the measure \*had\* said what you thought it should have said...

Meehl, P. E. (1973). Why I do not attend case conferences. Psychodiagnosis: selected papers, 225-302.
GurtMichaels Wiki

Burt Michaels (Grandfather)

Bessie Michaels (Mother)

Kurt Michaels (Oldest Brother)

Durt Michaels (Older Brother)

Jessie Michaels (Sister)

Justin "Electric" Sausage ("Friend", neighbor)

Rafi Rakabaka (Evil Entity)

Jibak Rakabaka (Terrorist)

Kabij Rakabaka (Rapper Gurt has beef with)

Samuel Conrad Mauser (White Nationalist who wants to kill Gurt for tipping a black stripper)

Jan Mauser (Ally of Sam Mauser)
3. Working Memory

Working memory theory, as conceived and innovated by Alan Baddeley, is concerned with the active manipulation of information in mind, as distinct from a passive intuiting of relationships via associationism or a more rote activation of information in short-term memory theories. Interest in understanding the processes involved in the "active manipulation", and identifying the nature and form of the "information", has been the impetus for working memory becoming perhaps THE dominant theory and paradigm of Western cognitive psychology in the last quarter century.

For a review of working memory theory, see:
Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual review of psychology, 63, 1-29.
Agency

Agency is defined as having a sense of control, in other words the awareness that you are controlling your own actions. Agency can be implicit or explicit and refer to the execution of physical movements or thoughts. An example would be if you allowed someone else to move your arm vs. if you moved your arm. The action is the same in both cases, however you will only have a sense of agency for the latter.
EU4 Present Day Mod Wiki

## Welcome to the EU4 Present Day Mod Wiki

This is for the WIP Present Day mod for Europa Universalis IV.

## About the Mod

The Present Day mod for Europa Universalis IV is a work in progress mod that updates the game to present day. All countries have their borders changed to modern day. All leaders changed. The US, Canada, and Australia are also split up into their respective states, provinces, or territories. Ride forth and make your destiny in the modern world!

## Latest activity

Photos and videos are a great way to add visuals to your wiki. Add one below!

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31. The brain

"The brain?!", you might think. "That wrinkly piece of meat?!"

That's the one! Where we find brains, we find cognition. Can real or artificial beings evidence cognition-like outputs without the big cluster of neurons and fluids we recognize as a brain? Sure! But our cognitive psychology, as much as it purports to be a study of mind(s) writ large, is really and truly the study of the outputs of a primate or primate-like nervous system. These outputs, the behavior and cognition and representation that psychologists spend careers studying, are a rich field of study - someone could come up with at least 100 interesting things in this field I'd guess. But for those seeking additional richness, a sibling field of cognitive neuroscience attempts to make the links between brain regions and cognition even more discrete. What inferences can you draw about cognition when you see different brain regions lighting up in an fMRI? Yeah, okay, but what about any good ones? Or if two different brain regions are seemingly involved in some cognition (e.g., memory), does that necessarily mean that there are two processes involved? But... why?
Central Capacity Theory

Despite a consensus that humans are limited in their capacity for cognitive effort, there has been remarkably less agreement about the nature of that limitation, especially among attention researchers in the mid-20th century. On one side, Broadbent (1957) argued that a selection filter existed early in processing; alternatively, Deutsch and Deutsch (1963), among others, maintained that the bottleneck was located later in the processing chain. Triesman’s (1964) workaround was the suggestion that the filter was a bit leakier than initially conceived. Each of these positions was well-evidenced, making it difficult to jettison one explanation for another without careful regard for context. Kahneman (1973) posited that attention was tantamount to cognitive effort and argued that the amount of effort available for investment in mental work (i.e., capacity limits) fluctuated depending on variables such as task demands, environmental conditions, and physiological arousal. The idea that a general pool of resources could be flexibly mobilized was a strength of the model in that it provided a way to unite previously-incompatible evidence; ironically, this was also its weakness as Kahneman's theory proved unfalsifiable and eventually fell out of favor. However, researchers still lean on its descriptive utility to illustrate cognitive phenomena (e.g., dual process, ironic process, multiple resource theories).

Kahneman, D. (1973) Attention and Effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Justin Sausage

## Basic Info

Age - 21

Height - 6'3"

Weight - 160 pounds

Hair Color - Black, barely there

## Involvement with Gurt

Shortly after Fluffy Sackson moved to Bigcity, PA, Justin "Electric" Sausage followed suit - finding a job in the financial district and earning money on the side playing gigs at local restaurants, bars, and clubs.

One day, while the two were sitting on the couch playing Halo 3 co-op, Gurt strolled in with an AK47 on his back and a wild look in his eyes induced by 3 grams of cocaine and several ounces of mescaline. Responding to the potential threat the only way that seemed fit, Justin quickly drew his Glock 19 before Fluffy signaled the defense off. Due to Sackson's obligations to keep Gurt protected, the two simply had to sit by and watch as Gurt attempted to stumble into the garage and lay down on what he originally thought to be a beanbag chair, but was actually a burlap sack Fluffy used to hold bolts.

Since this day, Gurt has remained a constant connection in Sausage's life - often showing up early in the morning due to Fluffy's more night-owl based schedule. Justin has attempted to find common ground with Gurt, however these connections do not stray beyond drinking whiskey, playing video games, and eating fried chicken.

## Present Day

Justin still resides in his Bigcity apartment - collecting instruments and guns, coding, practicing crafts such as carpentry and automotive repair, and lifting weights.

When he is not at home or at Fluffy's, Justin can often be found walking the streets of Bigcity in his orange Adidas jacket, going through thrift stores and stopping at his favorite local deli. His usual order is a thin-sliced turkey and provolone sandwich on scali bread with shredded lettuce, light tomato, onion, thin pickles, black pepper, light mayonnaise, and red wine vinegar - served with jalapeno kettle chips.

Justin's future goals are to eventually buy out the building his apartment is located in, and install a Helipad for easy access when he and Fluffy wish to travel overseas, attend to a domestic threat, or go to Chick-fil-A.
Attention Networks (Posner)

Attention is an umbrella term that describes a variety of behaviors and functions. Michael Posner identified three discrete subsystems that, together, comprise what we generally regard as attention. These three components are: alerting, orienting, and executive control.

Alerting is the ability and preparedness to attend to (and to sustain attention to) high priority stimuli. Orienting is the selection of attention to high priority stimuli. Executive control of attention is the ability to resolve competition for attention (e.g., ignoring an irrelevant stimulus).

In 2002, Posner and colleagues developed the Attention Network Task (ANT), a behavioral task that includes measures for all three subsystems.

Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Sommer, T., Raz, A., & Posner, M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(3), 340-7. doi:10.1162/089892902317361886

Posner, M. I., & Petersen, S. E. (1990). The attention systems of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13, 25- 42
Attachment Theory

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Attachment theory stresses the importance of bonding between an infant and a primary caregiver. John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth were both major players in developing this theory. Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation” provided research on the differences between children’s attachment to their primary caregiver based on how they reacted to being left alone in a room with a stranger. According to Ainsworth, there are four types of attachment: secure, anxious-ambivalent, anxious-avoidant, and disorganized. Any of the non-secure attachment types can result from neglect, abuse, or other type of family/ caregiver issues.

Bretherton, I. (1992). The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. *Developmental psychology*, *28*(5), 759.

Harry Harlow, an ethologist, studied infant-mother attachment in rhesus macaques, finding that infant monkeys preferred a cloth covered “mother” to a wire “mother” with milk. This furthered attachment theory for both humans and animals by suggesting that attachment is more than just providing sustenance and fulfillment of physical needs, but may also play a role in emotional satisfaction and growth.

Harlow, H. F. (1959). Love in infant monkeys. *Scientific American*, *200*(6), 68-75.
Kurt Michaels

## Basic Info

Age - 32

Height - 6'0"

Weight - 186 pounds

Hair Color - Brown/Orange

## Early Life

Kurt Michaels was the first child born of Vurt and Bessie Michaels. From a young age, Vurt taught him the ways of combat, and Kurt soon fell in love with the art of War. At the tender age of 6 years old, Vurt bought his son a 9mm 1911 pistol, a weapon that Kurt keeps at his side to this day. Practicing his aim in the back yard with cans of Pabst Blue Ribbon, fruits, and the local wildlife, Kurt became quite the sharpshooter during the course of his childhood. Gurt and Kurt had a typical older/younger brother relationship - though, more violent than most, the typical day between them consisting of Kurt shooting at Gurt's legs while chasing him around the trailer park. When Kurt reached high school, he always kept his eye out for enlistment opportunities from officials visiting the school - wishing to become a US Marine and go down in history as an expert marksman. As soon as he turned 18, Kurt applied for his GED, passed the test, and headed home to enlist in the Marine Corps.

## Military Service

During his time in the Marines, Kurt excelled in both strategic planning as well as field operations. He was under the command of Samuel Conrad Mauser for his tour of duty, who eventually left him for dead out in the field before Samuel was dishonorably discharged. His eagle eye never failing him, Kurt got to be a Staff Sergeant before he was dishonorably discharged for taking one of the helicopters on base for a joyride while high on some of the locals' home-brewed hallucinogenics.

## Present Day

Shamefully making his way back to the States, he could only find work at a local Burger King, where he spends all day preparing chicken sandwiches and making little fake guns out of the napkins and pretending to still be out on the field, earning every accolade a marksman can achieve and silently waiting for the day where he may shine again.

While working a late shift at his location, he stopped for a quick snack break to find the restaurant completely empty, save for one single woman - an English teacher from the local high school. When the two made eye contact and saw that their meals - a triple Whopper with 4 slices of cheese, extra mayo and barbecue sauce, 8 strips of bacon, a chicken sandwich patty wedged in between the beef, a large coke, and a small fry - the two knew right then and there that it was love. The two proceeded to have sex in the back room of the restaurant from 2:07 to 6:38 AM, pausing only briefly for snacks along the way. A few months after this encounter, the two got married and have settled down in Michigan.
Automatic and Controlled Processing

Automatic processing is generally defined as response biases that are well learned, relatively not demanding and thus not strongly effected by concurrent load, and difficult to change, ignore, or suppress. Conversely, controlled processing is generally defined as responses that are more cognitively demanding, sensitive to concurrent load, and more easily changed by an individual. The concept of automatic and controlled processing may be associated with a variety of other constructs, including executive function, heuristics, and dual-process theory.

Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. *Psychological Review*, *84*(1), 1-66. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.1.1

Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory. *Psychological Review*, *84*(2), 127-190. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.127
4. Gestalt theory

Gestalt theory is made of 5 principles of visual perception based on the basic principle that all stimuli are perceived as the "sum of its parts." According to Gestalt psychology, the smaller parts of a stimulus are grouped together to form a larger stimulus in its simplest form during perception. It is sometimes referred to as the "Law of Simplicity."

Review paper: Melnick, J. (1997). Welcome to "Gestalt Review": An editorial. *Gestalt Review*, *1*, 1-8.
Episodic vs. Semantic Memory

Episodic memory is defined as memory for a past, personal event, that involved recollection of the "who, what, when, where" and even "why" and "what it felt like" aspects of a past event in one's life. Some, including Tulving, have argued episodic memory is a form of mental time travel, with Tulving arguing that it also involves autonoetic consciousness, or the sense of reliving the event in one's mind. This idea has been highly controversial and strongly investigated in other species.

EM is often contrasted with semantic memory, which is memory that can be shared with many people, as it is memory of specific facts. This can include facts about events, of course, that do not include the personal aspects of episodic memories.

As an example, it is semantic memory to know that Sid Bream scored from second on a really close play at the plate to send the Braves to the World Series in 1992. It is episodic memory when I recall that my tennis coach jumped up onto the couch, which broke in half, when that happened, and that later that night I (I mean, a friend of mine) tried to ride a police horse, which already had a police officer on it\*.

\*to be fair, he was directing traffic with a giant tomahawk, so it was one of those all-bets-are-off nights. And, by he, I mean the police office, not the horse. That would have really been something.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

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Frustration-Aggression hypothesis states that frustration occurs from the blocking of goal attainment, and that frustration is a root cause of aggression. This theory has been used as an explanation for aggressive behaviors, violence, etc in both human and nonhuman animals. Frustration is supposed to be a required precursor to aggression. However, aggression does not necessarily always follow from frustration. Debate resulted from unclear definitions of frustration as well as other critiques of the research.

Miller, N. E. (1941). I. The frustration-aggression hypothesis. *Psychological review*, *48*(4), 337.

Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. *Psychological bulletin*, *106*(1), 59.
17. Universal Grammar

Behaviorist traditions had an enormous amount of trouble finding a sensible way to talk about language. Families of universal grammar theories were a hugely influential response to such traditions. As the name suggests, universal grammar theories tend to emphasize the study of commonalities in language structure across culture, the neurobiological or genetic or evolutionary mechanisms that might explain these commonalities, and the developmental stages of these commonalities' expression. These interests are frequently at the expense of exploring the role of learning and experience in language.

Chomsky, N. (2011): Language and Other Cognitive Systems. What Is Special About Language?,Language Learning and Development, 7:4, 263-278.
Social Brain Hypothesis

The social brain hypothesis posits that the large brain size (when compared to body size) of both human and nonhuman primates is related to their complex sociality (Dunbar, 1998). Both human and nonhuman primates exist in vastly intricate social environments that require high-functioning cognitions, such as facial recognition and identification, learning, and cooperation, to navigate successfully. The link between social complexity and brain size has been studied in a multitude of ways in both species, including group size, deception, formation of coalitions, and mating strategies. All of these aspects of sociality (and more) have been found to be positively correlated with neocortex size, and in humans, evidence suggests that there is a connection between social network size, cognitive skills, and brain volume (Dunbar, 2012). Despite the compelling support for the social brain hypothesis, much debate still exists as to the cause-and-effect aspects of brain size and social complexity.

Dunbar, R. I. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. *brain*, *9*(10), 178-190.

Dunbar, R. I. (2012). The social brain meets neuroimaging. *Trends in cognitive sciences*, *16*(2), 101-102.
Forgetting Curve

The forgetting curve is Hermann Ebbinghaus's general theory for how long we can retain information, defined by a formula for how long items will remain in a person's memory. A graph of this formula shows the forgetting curve, which describes how much information is lost over time, specifically when there is no attempt to retain it (see photo). According to Ebbinghaus, how well you retain information depends on the strength of your memory and the amount of time that has passed since you learned that information.
Levels of Processing / Elaborative Encoding

Is memory really comprised of separate structures or types (semantic v episodic, ltm v stm, phonological loop v visuospatial sketchpad, etc), or just one kind of memory that functions in different ways when conditions (e.g., type of stimulus, length of time) vary?

The **levels (or depth) or processing (LOP)** perspective (Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Craik & Tulving, 1975) is a unistore account that replaces the classic STM/LTM distinction with consideration of whether the processing of to-be-remembered information is shallow (i.e., processing physical or phonological features) versus deep (or processing of meaning). Information is remembered better and longer under conditions of deep **elaborative rehearsal** (i.e., linked to existing knowledge) than when processed only with shallow **maintenance rehearsal** (i.e., phonological or articulatory repetition).

LOP was attacked as circular and descriptive rather than explanatory, and was generally dismissed as an alternative to multistore models. Nevertheless, its empirical phenomena are robust and important. For recent work, see: Rose, Myerson, Roedigger & Hale (2010): "Similarities and differences between working memory and long-term memory: Evidence from the levels-of-processing span task." *Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition* 36.2 (2010): 471-483.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2832224/
Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism occurs when human-like qualities are ascribed to nonhuman animals, objects, etc. In terms of psychological research, studies involving animals must avoid assumptions of cognitions and behaviors in animals based on a perceived similarity to human cognition and behaviors. Researchers who work with animals must be aware of the problem of anthropomorphism both in study design and interpretation. For example, studies on metacognition, emotion, theory of mind, among others can often mistakenly assume aspects of animal psychology that are assumed in humans when in reality these processes may look very different from human psychology.

Eddy, T. J., Gallup Jr, G. G., & Povinelli, D. J. (1993). Attribution of cognitive states to animals: Anthropomorphism in comparative perspective. *Journal of Social issues*, *49*(1), 87-101.

Wynne, C. D. (2007). What are animals? Why anthropomorphism is still not a scientific approach to behavior. *Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews*, *2*.
Word Effects

Different factors influence how we understand the meaning of words and how we attend and remember them. For example, the relative usage of words in a particular language affects how quickly we can read and process those words, with faster reading times shown for higher-frequency words (word frequency effect). Additionally, the length of the word can affect how memorable a word is (word length effect), and letters are easier to identify if they are included as part of a word than when they are seen in isolation or in a string of letters forming a non-word (word superiority effect). Because of these and many other factors, cognitive researchers must carefully select word stimuli in a task, many times pulling from standardized word banks that have been matched along various dimensions (e.g. concreteness, frequency, word length).
Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget developed a theory of cognitive development that included four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stage. Piaget suggested all humans encounter environmental challenges by either assimilation (interpreting new information into existing schemas) or accomodation (adapting current schemas to incorporate new information). Criticisms of Piaget's theory have included the following: lack of understanding of culture on cognition (Dasen, 1994), modularity or domain-specificity (Callaghan, 2004), and the role of language in cognitive development.

On a more interesting note (at least to me) James Fowler (1981) modeled his theory of faith development on PIaget's theory as well as Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Fowler's theory of faith development was the first well known attempt to identify "religious cognition," which has since been challenged by Pascal Boyer and Justin Boyer, who have cited modularity for the cognitive byproduct explanation of religion.

* Boyer, Pascal. *Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought* Basic Books, 2001
* Boyer, Pascal. "Religious Thought and Behavior as By-Products of Brain Functions," *Trends in Cognitive Sciences* 7, pp 119–24
* Piaget, J. (1977). The role of action in the development of thinking. In Knowledge and development (pp. 17–42). Springer US
* Barrett, J.L. "Cognitive Science of Religion: What Is It and Why Is It?" *Religion Compass* 2007, vol 1.
* Barrett, J.L. "Exploring the Natural Foundations of Religion." *Trends in Cognitive Sciences* 2000, vol. 4 pp 29–34
* Barrett, J.L. *Why Would Anyone Believe in God?* AltaMira Press, 2004.
Stroop effect

The Stroop effect (for J. Ridley Stroop, 1935) is interference when trying to name the color of a stimulus that is itself an incongruous color word (e.g., RED in blue letters) compared to when the stimulus is a congruous color word or a neutral word (BLUE or ROD in blue). This competition from strong S-R associations has been extended to other Stroop-like effects (e.g., number, size).
15 Gf, Gc, g (Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory)

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Support for general intelligence (g) dates back to Spearman (1904), but Raymond Cattell (1941—and, arguably, Hebb independently!) made the influential distinction between fluid intelligence (Gf, or reasoning) and crystallized intelligence (Gc, or knowledge), later expanded by his student John Horn. John Carroll (1993) organized this information into a three-stratum hierarchical framework (known as CHC theory), with narrow mental abilities clustered under the broad ‘flavors’ of intelligence like Gc and Gf, which are subsumed under the g-factor.

One of my favorite recent reviews of intelligence is Deary, I. J. (2012). Intelligence. *Annual Review of Psychology*, 63, 453-482. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100353  https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100353
Nudges

I like leaning on Nobel Prize winning ideas to ensure good contributions to the list. So, I bring you the Nudge, courtesy of Richard Thaler (and, to be fair, others before him). This is an idea grounded in what is often called *paternal libertarianism*, or the idea that one allows people to retain their choices, but one also shapes decisions by presenting them in ways that will lead to the "better good" through default choices that people tend to make.

A nudge is thus a choice presentation that is likely to produce a specific and predictable outcome from the chooser, without them feeling as if 1) options were taken away or 2) they were manipulated. Often, these are simple framing effects. For example, a nudge toward more organ donation is to have people opt OUT of being an organ donor rather than opt IN. People tend to not check boxes for things, and so here, they stay IN the program. Other nudges include food placement in school cafeterias, donation solicitations, and others.

And, there is always the nudge found in some men's rooms, in the form of a target to aim at in the urinal, to promote greater cleanliness! For more on that, see: https://wapo.st/2mnRagY
Deficit-based approach & research participants with amnesia (E.P., Clive Wearing, H.M., etc.)

Our understanding of learning and memory has been informed by studying individuals who exhibit cognitive impairments after sustaining some form of trauma to the brain. For instance, the study of individuals with amnestic disorders suggests that different mechanisms support procedural and declarative memory: Despite anterograde amnesia, H.M. showed evidence of learning, E.P. could learn new sentences, and Clive Wearing retained his musical ability. Though research on amnesia is insufficient and sometimes controversial (and wildly misrepresented in media), combining this evidence with results obtained with other approaches (e.g., studying healthy individuals, studying expert performance) has resulted in a clearer understanding of how human memory does *not* work.

Medved, M.I., Hirst, W. (2006). Islands of memory: Autobiographical remembering in amnestics. *Memory, 14*(3), 276-288. doi: 10.1080/09658210500233524

for fun, see also: https://soundcloud.com/radiolab/memory-and-forgetting
Mirror self-recognition

Mirror self-recognition (MSR) is defined as being able to recognize one’s self in a mirror, as opposed to thinking the image is another individual. Tests of MSR are used to study whether an individual has self-awareness or a “sense of self” and self-concept. MSR in humans has been shown to develop around age two and includes four stages of development (Amsterdam, 1972). MSR is traditionally tested using a mirror mark test (first developed by Gallup, 1970, for use with nonhuman animals). During this test, a mark is placed unknowingly on an individual’s face in a place that can only be seen with a mirror. Behaviors in front of the mirror directed at the self (including mark-directed behaviors) are evidence of mirror self-recognition, as opposed to behaviors directed at the mirror image as if the image was another conspecific (e.g., play behavior). Research in animals with the mark test has shown MSR in several species but not in others. However, there is debate around whether the mark test is the best task for animal research of MSR.

Amsterdam, B. (1972). Mirror self-image reactions before age two. Developmental Psychobiology, 5, 297-305.

Gallup, G. G., Jr. (1970). Chimpanzees: Self-recognition. Science, 167, 86-87.
Source Monitoring

Source monitoring is an aspect of memory that deals with the origin, or source, of the information. Errors in source monitoring occur when the recollected origin of a memory is attributed to an incorrect source. For example, one may recall first hearing of a concept in school when really it was first heard from the television. Errors in source monitoring have been associated with stages of development as well as cognitive and memory deficits. For a detailed review on source monitoring framework, see below:

Johnson, M. K., Hashtroudi, S., & Lindsay, D. S. (1993). Source monitoring. *Psychological Bulletin*, *114*(1), 3.
State-Dependent and Context-Dependent Memory

State-dependent learning refers to situations in which memory retrieval is enhanced when an individual is in a similar psychological state to when the information’s first encoded. For example, being under the influence of alcohol at retrieval can be beneficial to memory recall if alcohol was ingested at the time of encoding. This phenomena differs from context-dependent learning wherein the external environment influences memory recall rather than internal mental states.

Smith, S. M., & Vela, E. (2001). Environmental context-dependent memory: A review and meta-analysis. *Psychonomic bulletin & review*, *8*(2), 203-220.

Eich, J. E. (2014). State-dependent retrieval of information in human episodic memory. *Alcohol and Human Memory (PLE: Memory)*, *2*, 141.
Donders' Subtractive Method (Mental Chronometry)

In the 19th century, Dutch opthalmologist Franciscus Donders assumed that the total time to complete a mental task was the summed duration of each component mental operation. To isolate a mental operation, Donders calculated the difference between the time required to execute a task and the time required to execute the same task when a hypothesized component operation was appended. Several landmark findings in cognitive psychology owe a debt to the development of this tremendously influential method, including the Stroop effect AND SEVERAL OTHER STUDIES I WILL NOT NAME BECAUSE THEY SHOULD BE ON THIS WIKI.

Donders, F. C. (1868). On the speed of mental processes. *Arch. Néerland.* 3, 269–317.

Gottsdanker, R. & Shragg, G.P. (1985). Verification of Donders' subtraction method. *Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 11*(6), 765-776.
Temporal Discounting

Temporal (or delay) discounting occurs when rewards are valued differently relative to each other based on points in time. For example, would you rather receive $100 today or $130 a month from today? This presents people with larger later vs. smaller sooner reward options. Present rewards tend to be valued more than future rewards, given two similar rewards. Humans are said to discount the value of the later reward. This trend is related to impulsivity and immediate gratification in self-control research. Some research (the hyperbolic discounting theory) has found that discounting does not occur at a constant rate across time. When both rewards are in the distant future (e.g. one year vs. one year and a month) the values placed on rewards decreases slower, that is people tend to wait for the larger reward. However, valuations fall rapidly for rewards in the near future (e.g., now vs. one week).
62. Gambler's fallacy & Hot-hand fallacy

The Gambler’s fallacy is a misconception of probability in
which one believes that the probability of a future event is related to its
previous events. Kahneman & Tversky (1974) describe this as a cognitive bias
arising from the representativeness heuristic. In other words, we expect a random
sequence to “appear random”. If flipping a coin, we would interpret H-T-H-T-T-H
as more likely than H-H-H-T-T-T. Therefore, the gambler’s fallacy is a
phenomenon in which we base our expected probability judgements on previous
events. For example, if you role a dice and get a “4” several times in a row,
you might believe that you are LESS likely to roll another “4” since you’ve
already done it several times in a row, despite the fact that each roll (i.e.
event in the random sequence) is independent of one another.

As a sort of counterpart to the gambler’s fallacy is the hot-hand
fallacy. Here people predict the likelihood of a future event to be increased
by previous/recent events. In a classic example, a basketball player is
considered ‘hot’ if they continue to make a basket one after another. Therefore,
people think their likelihood of continuing the streak is increased/the
sequence of events is nonrandom.

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgement under
Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. *Science,*
185, *1124-31.*
Functional Fixedness and Mental Set

**Functional fixedness** is a mental state in which one thinks only of standard/typical uses of objects or typical ways of doing things, and thus is "fixed" on the typical functions to the detriment of creative problem solving. It is a type of **mental set**, or specific way of looking at a problem, that can cause troubles when items/actions need to be considered in ways that are not typical for them. The "candle" problem is, of course, the famous example of this, but I like some others more relevant to real life. By which I mean, my life. When I travel, I sometimes bring oatmeal packets for conference mornings where I might not have time to get food, and I always forget spoons. So, then I spend the morning trying to drink down oatmeal because, well, no spoon. However, if I looked around and thought about things in a new way, I would realize that I could use coffee stirrers as a makeshift spoon. Or, I could even use my toothbrush, if I really had to!

Also, I win the 100 Things synergy award with this post. I just talked about spoons as part of **functional fixedness**, but spoons also factor into the famous Spoon test of **episodic memory** and mental time travel, which I may now choose to encode as a future submission for this list, thereby forming a **prospective memory** that links back to an earlier 100 Things that was posted. You can all be impressed. If you **paid attention** in class, the person's name who proposed the Spoon test might be in the **tip of your tongue**, and if you can engage in past **elaborative encoding**, you might show recall of Tulving's name. Yes, I can do this all day, brining together topics from the 100 Things list!
Yerkes-Dodson Law

The Yerkes-Dodson law, as most often characterized, dictates that the relationship of arousal to performance resembles a bell curve. Performance improves as arousal increases, but there is a tipping point at which increased arousal actually degrades performance. In the original paper, mice producing incorrect responses in a two-choice discrimination task were given electric shocks that varied in strength. The speed of habit formation was affected by the strength of shocks such that stronger shocks resulted in faster acquisition, but only to a point. When shocks were rather more intense, acquisition was impaired.

Yerkes R.M., Dodson J.D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18: 459–482.

Teigen, K.H. (1994). Yerkes-Dodson: A law for all seasons. Theory & Psychology, 4(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/095935439044004