Particles

## Adverbs

Adverbs are realized as single particles.

Relativized verbs may also be treated as manner
adverbials and may either directly precede or succeed the subject of the main
verb.

'Voreh loudly sings.'

*Nin-di                  Voreh  hi-naa*

sing-PRS.S.NTR Voreh REL-loud

'Valuur dances happily.'

*Shav-ti                   Valuur  hi-zas*

dance-PRS.S.NTR Valuur REL-happy

List of coordinating conjunctions:

*Hlem/em/e:* presents two non-contrasting clauses; “and”

*Sav:*
presents two non-contrasting word classes together, such as nouns with nouns or
verbs with verbs; “and”.

*No:* presents
a contrast or exception; “but” or “but not”.

*Qono:*
presents an alternative item or idea, the exclusive disjunction; “either… or”

There is a contrast between presenting
two non-contrasting clauses and presenting two non-contrasting word class
groups. Two separate morphemes are used for each respective case.

"I run and I jump."

*Xhav-fun-di                       hlem xhav-ghom-di*

1.S.OBJ-run-PRS.S.NTR and   1.S.OBJ-jump-PRS.S.NTR

"You will never begin to take control
of me, not today or on any day."

*Xhav-ro-qa-shou-shom-da                                       dou sav zoqudou.*

1.S.OBJ-2.S.-NEG-SUB-begin-control-PRS.S.TR
day  and on no day

The coordinating conjunction *no*
may take on nominal, verbal, or clausal complements.

'I have one goat, but not any yaks.'

*Hla-hohlat-sa                    niera-kan no da-daazo*

1.S.SUB-have-PRS.S.TR goat-one  but cow-cow

'I took the bread but didn’t eat it.'

*Hla-sa-kan-ta*
                            gien   no  tav-hla-foq-da

1.S.SUB-CAU-give-PRS.S.TR bread but
3.S.OBJ-1.S.SUB-eat-PRS.S.TR

'The swordmaster attacked but didn’t kill
Taloun.'

*Tav-fut-sa*
                          ne-xaan      no   ra-sahaaq-sa                 Taloun.

3.S.OBJ-attack-PST.S.TR user-sword but
3.S.SUB-kill-PST.S.TR Taloun

The coordinating conjunction *qono*,
meaning “or,” is an exclusive disjunction by which one idea or item may be the
case, but not the other.

When a verb would be otherwise repeated
in the second half of the conjunct, it may be replaced by a proverb.

'Either she’s deceiving us or she isn’t.'

*Qov-ra-houzh-ta                                  qono qa-ta*

1.P.OBJ-3.S.SUB-deceive-PRS.S.TR
or     NEG-PRS.S.TR

In some rare cases, a verb marked as a
relativized clause may be treated as a main verb. In this case, the proverb is
not mentioned at all, and the sentence ends with the conjunction or an optional
negation.

'Either Varoux is dead or he isn’t."

*Varoux*
hi-huk    qono (qu)

Varoux REL-die or     NEG

### Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions in Taran are used to express
lists of three or more.

*Ni…m:* presents three or more non-contrasting clauses; “and”

*Ni… sov:* presents three or more non-contrasting items or
actions; “and”

*Ni… no:*
presents three or more contrasting items or actions, only one of which can be
the case; “either… or”

The first particle directly precedes the list and the
second is placed between the penultimate and final item on the list.

'She either flew to Qa Rimu, Fahar, or
Farasat.'

*Tav-shan-si                     ni       fu-Qa Rimu Fahar no Farasat*

1.S.OBJ-fly-PST.S.NTR either to-Qa Rimu
Fahar  or Farasat

'The people eat curd cheese, goat meat,
and drink yak milk.'

*Foq-dam              shus*
ni     die                fanier       sov holo-daas

ingest-PRS.P.TR people PRT curd cheese
goat meat and liquid-yak

### Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions or prepositions include a
number of adpositives and other grammatical functions. There is no syntactic or
morphological difference in the treatment between what may be called a
subordinating conjunction and a preposition. Unlike coordinating and
correlative conjunctions, subordinating grammatical elements are typically
treated as prefixes rather than separate particles.

*Mam/am:* anti-benefactive, “against”

*Fi:* before in place or time; “before”

*Fu:* progressing in the direction of, “to” in a locative sense

*Ghu:* comitative “with”

*Neha:*who

*Sash:* expresses cause or reason; “because” or “by”

*Sezh:* in order to, for

*Shi:* expresses the use of an instrument for; “with”

*Zhe:* behind in place or time; “after”

*Zo:* when

Subordinating conjunctions precede their
complement and directly attach to the first word if it is a multi-word
complement. Conjunctive phrases are placed between the subject and object of a
sentence.

Xhadouk kills Zhokur with a sabre after he
attacks the king.

*Sahaaq-ta        Xhadouk shi-xaando Zhokur zhe     ra-fut-sa*

kill-PRS.S.TR Xhadouk with-sabre  Zhokur after 1.S.SUB-attack-PRS.S.TR

*sahurr*

king

Subordinating conjunctions may also act
as interrogative particles in questions.

'Why did you refuse me?'

*Xhav-ro-qar-da                                  sash*

1.S.OBJ-2.S.SUB-refuse-PRS.S.TR because

'Who sang?'

*Vil-zi                    neha*

sing-PRS.S.NTR person