recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Unifon

The Unifon alphabet contains 40 glyphs, intended to represent the 40 "most important sounds" of the English language. Although the set of sounds has remained the same, several of the symbols were changed over the years, making modern Unifon somewhat different from "Old Unifon".

Of the 66 letters used in the various Unifon alphabets, 43 of the capitals can be unified with existing Unicode characters. Small letters are printed as small capitals. Fewer of them are available in Unicode as dedicated small-cap forms, but the usual Latin minuscules can be made small-cap in a Unifon font.

Other letters include Ↄ [tʃ], ...

## References

1. ↑ http://www.unifon.org/pages/unifon-alphabet.html
2. ↑ http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12138-n4262-unifon.pdf
Unua phonology

The following table lists the contrastive consonant sounds of Unua. There are 16 consonant phonemes for younger Unua speakers and an additional three contrastive velarized labial consonants for older speakers, shown below in parentheses.

The following table lists the contrastive vowel sounds of Unua. Younger speakers have five vowel phonemes and older speakers have an additional three, shown in parentheses.

Vowels
Trilled affricate

**Trilled affricates**, also known as **post-trilled consonants**, are consonants which begin as a stop and have a trill release. These consonants are reported to exist in some Northern Paman languages in Australia, as well as in some Chapacuran languages such Wari’ language and Austronesian languages such as Fijian and Malagasy.
Tonga phonology

## Consonants

* /l/ can also be heard as a tap sound [ɾ] in free variation.
* Post-alveolar affricates /t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ, ⁿd͡ʒ/ can also be heard as palatal stops [c, ɟ, ᶮɟ] in free variation among dialects.
* /w/ can also be heard as a labio-palatal [ɥ] when occurring before /i/.
* /f, v/ can also be heard as glottal fricatives [h, ɦ] in the Plateau dialect.
* /sʲ, zʲ/ are heard as voiceless and breathy palatal approximants [j̊, j̤] in the Northern dialects.
Toba Qom phonology

## Consonants

* /p t k q/ can have aspirated allophones [pʰ tʰ kʰ qʰ] in word-initial position, and unreleased [p̚ t̚ k̚ q̚] in word-final position.
* Voiced stops /ɡ ɢ/ may also be heard as fricative [ɣ ʁ] sounds.
* Affricates /t͡ʃ d͡ʒ/ can also be heard as palatal stops [c ɟ].
* /n/ can be heard as [n̥] word-finally when preceded by a glottal stop /ʔ/.
* /ɾ/ is heard as a trill [r] when following a /t/.
* /w/ can be heard as a labiodental fricative [v], when preceding or following /i/.
* /s l n/ can also have tense allophones as [sː lː nː].

## Vowels

 Close-mid | e eː
 Open-mid | œ œː
 Open | æ æː

Phonetic allophones
 /i/
 /e/
 /eː/
 /o/
 /a/
 /ɑ/
 /œ/
 /ʌ/

* A nasalized [ã] occurs when preceded and followed by /h/.

## References

1. ↑ Censabella. 2002.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Manelis-Klein, 2001.
Timor–Alor–Pantar phonology

Holton & Klamer (2018) reconstruct the Proto–Timor–Alor–Pantar consonant inventory as follows:

Proto–Alor–Pantar developed a voiceless uvular plosive \*q but lost \*f and some of the liquids.

Usher (2020) reconstructs a somewhat different inventory:

\*l and \*r do not occur initially in native words.

Usher reconstructs the vowels as \*i \*u [\*e] [\*o] \*a \*ɒ (where it's not clear that \*e, \*o were phonemically distinct) and the diphthong \*ai.

Heston reconstructs the vowels \*a, \*e, \*i, \*o, \*u, and \*ə.

Heston also proposes that Proto–Timor–Alor–Pantar had penultimate stress when the penultimate and final syllables were both light, and final stress when the final syllable was heavy.
Tshwa phonology

The Cire-cire (not cited) dialect has the following consonant inventory:

The clicks have a very uneven distribution: Only a dozen words begin with one of the palatal clicks (ǂ), and these are replaced by dental clicks (ǀ) among younger speakers. Only half a dozen words start with one of the alveolar clicks (ǃ), and half a dozen more with one of the affricated clicks. These rather marginal sounds are placed in parentheses in the chart.

Tsoa has the five vowels /a e i o u/. It is not clear if Tsoa has long vowels, or simply sequences of identical vowels /aa ee ii oo uu/.

There are two tones, high and low, plus a few cases of mid tone.

In the northern dialect of Kua, like all other East Kalahari Khoe languages, the palatal click series has become palatal stops. Southern Kua has retained the palatal clicks, but the dental stops have palatalized, as they have in Gǀui and ǂʼAmkoe. Thus northern Kua has /ɟua/ 'ash' and /d̪u/ 'eland', whereas southern Kua has ᶢǂua 'ash' and /d̪ʲu/ (or perhaps /ɟu/) 'eland'.

## References

1. ↑ Gerlach, Linda (2015) "Phonetic and phonological description of the Nǃaqriaxe variety of ǂʼAmkoe and the impact of language contact". PhD dissertation, Humboldt University, Berlin
Tày phonology

## Consonants

* The Cao Bẳng Tày dialect is the only variety to have the sounds /j w r ɣ b d bʲ/.

## Vowels

Diphthongs

* There are also three semivowels [u̯ i̯ ɯ̯] that mainly occur in syllable-coda position in combination with other vowel sounds. [u̯ i̯] are typically realized as consonant sounds [w j]. [u̯] follows front vowels /i e ɛ/ and central vowels /ə a ɐ/. [i̯] follows back vowels /u o ɔ/ as well as central vowels /ə a ɐ/. However, [ɯ̯] only follows /ə/.

## Tones

Six tones are present in Cao Bẳng Tày:
Tofa orthography

Tofa, although not often written, employs a Cyrillic alphabet:

Tofa has letters that are not present in the Russian alphabet: Ғғ [ɣ], Әә [æ], Ii [iː], Ққ [q], Ңң [ŋ], Өө [œ], Үү [y], Һһ [h], and Ҷҷ [d͡ʒ]. Additionally, the letter ъ is sometimes used after a vowel to mark pharyngealization [ˤ], as in эът [ʔɛˤt̪] "meat".
Tokelauan orthography

Tokelauan is written in the Latin script, albeit using only 15 letters:
**A**, **E**, **I**, **O**, **U**, **F**, **G**, **K**, **L**, **M**, **N**, **P**, **H**, **T**, and **V**.

Its alphabet consists of 5 vowels:
a (pronounced: /a/), e (pronounced: /e/), i (pronounced: /i/), o (pronounced: /o/) and u (pronounced: /u/);

and 10 consonants:
/p t k f v h m n ŋ l/, /ŋ/ spelled g

Long vowels are marked with a macron above them:
ā (/aː/), ē (/eː/), ī (/iː/), ō (/oː/), ū (/uː/)

The Tokelauan alphabet is phonemic, except for long vowels that are not differentiated orthographically by most Tokelauan writers. The language does not heavily rely on the use of macrons to lengthen their vowels. There are some phonetic similarities between sounds in the language, such as /h/ and /f/, which results in some variation in orthographic practice. For example, toha and tofa both mean goodbye but can be pronounced differently. The sounds for h, s, f and wh can all be used interchangeably. There are two dialects in Polynesia, which has shaped the Tokelauan language to sound how it does. The h and wh sounds are from the older dialect, while the f and s sounds are from the newer one. The fact that all these sounds are interchangeable regardless of when it arrived at the islands suggests that no one dialect surpassed the other. Although Tokelauan is closely related to the Samoan language, there is a distinct difference between their pronunciation of words. For example, Samoan words containing the k sound can sound like g with words such as hiki often mistakenly heard as higi. Tokelauan language does not allow the k's to drop.

Like English, vowels can be short or long. Moreover, vowels are lengthened for a more expressive statement. To indicate whether a vowel is read short or long, Tokelauan language denotes a long vowel with a macron over the letter symbol. A macron is a horizontal line, also seen in English. However, it is worthwhile to note that not all Tokelauan speaking peoples agree with the use of the macron. Those residing in the three atolls of Tokelau are known to have shown much resistance to the macron, while the Tokelauan speakers of New Zealand are more open and accepting of adopting the use of this linguistic symbol.

Although there is not a lot of available systemic data for Tokelauan word stressing, linguistics have developed three rules relating word stress and vowels based upon some previous evidence. The first rule is that a long vowel will receive the main stress. Secondly, with some exceptions to rule number one, the second to last vowel would be the main stress (if the long vowel is not the main stress). And thirdly, words do not lose their normal stress when compounded with another word. Furthermore, monosyllabic grammatical morphemes are left unstressed.
Ukue phonology

Ukue has a rather reduced system, compared to proto-Edoid, of seven vowels; these form two harmonic sets, /i e a o u/ and /i ɛ a ɔ u/.

The language arguably has no phonemic nasal stops; [m, n] alternate with [β, l], depending on whether the following vowel is oral or nasal. Unusually, it has fricatives but no sibilants. The inventory is:

(\*See Edo for a likely interpretation of the two rhotics.)

## References

1. ↑ Archangeli & Pulleyblank, 1994. *Grounded phonology*, p 181*ff*
2. ↑ Jeff Mielke, 2008. *The emergence of distinctive features*, p 136*ff*;
also found in *Variation and gradience in phonetics and phonology*, p 26*ff*
Tutchone phonology

## Northern Tutchone

The consonants and vowels of Northern Tutchone and their orthography are as follows:

### Vowels

Vowels are differentiated for nasalization and high, mid, and low tone.

* Nasalized: į, ų, ę, ą̈, ǫ, ą
* High Tone: í, ú, é, ä́ , ó, á
* Mid Tone: ī, ū, ē, ǟ, ō, ā
* Low Tone: unmarked

## Southern Tutchone

### Vowels

Vowels are differentiated for nasalization and high, mid, and low tone.

* Nasalized: į, ų, ų̈, ę, ą̈, ǫ, ą
* High Tone: í, ú, ǘ, é, ä́ , ó, á
* Mid Tone: ī, ū, ǖ, ē, ǟ, ō, ā
Tyap orthography

The Tyap alphabet (*Zwunzwuo A̱lyem Tyap ji*) had 39 letters, as drafted by the Tyap Literacy Committee (TLC) during the early 1990s:

However, a current development as of 2018, has the Tyap Basic Alphabetical Chart reduced to 24, as follows:

The letter "ch" would henceforth be represented by the symbol "c", without the "h". All others remain the same.

## References

1. ↑ Haruna, D.; Follingstad, C. & J. (n.d.), p. 74.
Tobati phonology

/f/ also shows allophony as [p]. However, it does not behave as a stop.

Tobati has a ten-vowel system of /a ɑ æ e ø i ɨ ɤ o u/, realized as /a ɒ ɐ ɛ œ i ɪ ʌ ɔ ʊ/ in closed syllables.

## Phonotactics

Tobati permits 3 consonants in the onset, and at most a single consonant or a nasal-stop cluster in the coda.

Nasal-stop clusters only permit a nasal and a stop of the same PoA. For the /nd/ sequence, /n/ becomes dental [n̪]. Neither the bilabial, consisting of /b/ and the /f/ allophone [p], nor palatal nasal-stop clusters distinguish voice (i.e. they are [pm~bm] and [cɲ~d͡ʒɲ] respectively). The /Nk/ sequence voices to [ŋg].
Tillamook phonology

## Consonants

### Internal rounding

The so-called "rounded" consonants (traditionally marked with the diacritic ⟨ʷ⟩, but here indicated with ⟨ᵓ⟩), including rounded vowels and ⟨w⟩ (/ɰᵓ/), are not actually labialized. The acoustic effect of labialization is created entirely inside the mouth by cupping the tongue. Uvulars with this distinctive internal rounding have "a kind of ɔ timbre" while "rounded" front velars have ɯ coloring. These contrast and oppose otherwise very similar segments having ɛ or ɪ coloring—the "unrounded" consonants.

/w/ is also formed with this internal rounding instead of true labialization, making it akin to [ɰ]. So are vowel sounds formerly written as /o/ or /u/, which are best characterized as the diphthong /əɰ/ with increasing internal rounding.
Tigre phonology

Tigre has preserved the two pharyngeal consonants of Ge'ez. The Ge'ez vowel inventory has almost been preserved except that the two vowels which are phonetically close to [ɐ] and [a] seem to have evolved into a pair of phonemes which have the same quality (the same articulation) but differ in length; [a] vs. [aː]. The original phonemic distinction according to quality survives in Tigrinya. The vowel [ɐ], traditionally named "first order vowel", is most commonly transcribed *ä* in Semitic linguistics.

The phonemes of Tigre are displayed below in both International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols (indicated by the IPA brackets) and the symbols common (though not universal) among linguists who work on Ethiopian Semitic languages. For the long vowel /aː/, the symbol 'ā' is used per Raz (1983). Three consonants, /p, p', x/, occur only in a small number of loanwords, hence they are written in parentheses.

As in other Ethiopian Semitic languages, the phonemic status of /ə/ is questionable; it may be possible to treat it as an epenthetic vowel that is introduced to break up consonant clusters.

Vowels

## Consonant length

Consonant length is phonemic in Tigre (that is, a pair of words can be distinct by consonant length alone), although there are few such minimal pairs. Some consonants do not occur long; these include the pharyngeal consonants, the glottal consonants, /w/, and /j/. In this language, long consonants arise almost solely by gemination as a morphological process; there are few, if any, long consonants in word roots. Gemination is especially prominent in verb morphology.
Tofa phonology

## Vowels

The following table lists the vowels of Tofa. The data was taken from Ilgın and Rassadin.

All vowels except [æ] can be pharyngealized [◌ˤ]. According to Rassadin pharyngealization is realized as creaky voice [◌̰]. There is also a short [ĭ].

## Consonants

The following table lists the consonants of Tofa. The data was taken from Ilgın and Rassadin.

## Vowel harmony

Many dialects of Tofa exhibit vowel harmony, although this harmony seems to be linked to fluency: as one decreases, so does the other. Tofa vowel harmony is progressive and based on two features: backness and rounding, and this occurs both root-internal and in affixes. Enclitics do not appear to trigger backness harmony, and rounding harmony in Tofa has been undergoing changes, and may apply inconsistently. In some cases this may be due to opaque rules resulting in an apparent "disharmony", especially among speakers of the younger generation. The complications surrounding Tofa vowel harmony may also be due to fluctuations from language endangerment. In general, Russian loanwords do not appear to conform to vowel harmony. Given the increasing quantity of these loanwords, leveling may also be a factor in the inconsistent application of vowel harmony.
Tikopia phonology

## Consonants

There are twelve consonant phonemes that this language uses. There have been debates from different linguists on whether or not Tikopia uses l or r. Elbert claims that Tikopia is a language that uses l but not r and he strongly believes this because he believed Tikopia was a colony of Samoa. Raymond Firth said, “Dumont DʻUrville published a small dictionary in 1834 where 235 words were collected.” R was the most dominant in that dictionary because it appeared in 50 words while l appeared in only 15. The language changed in over a century and modernly more words are used with l. Raymond Firths own work shows that both l and r phonemes are used. Not too many words use the letter l and are actually rarely heard in native speakers (Firth, 1963).

## Vowels

The vowel phonemes of this language are basic. They use /a, e, i, o, u, æ, ɛ, ɪ, ɒ, ʌ, ɔ, ʊ/. The vowel length is similar to the consonant lengths. Linguists do not interpret long vowels in writing so they use shortcuts like macrons (a line over the vowel indicating a longer length), but in Tikopia writing they use two identical juxtaposed vowels. According to the Tikopia dictionary, “This has typographical simplicity, but may present a problem of interpretation as to where long vowel and rearticulation actually occur.
Tujia phonology

## Consonants

The following are the consonants in both the Northern and Southern Tujia dialects:

1. /f/ occurs only in the Southern Tujia dialects.
2. [n] and [l] are in free variation.
3. [ɲ] is an allophone of /n/.
4. /x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.

## Vowels

* Combinations with oral vowels /y ʉ/ and nasal vowel /æ̃/ occur only in the Southern dialects.
* Combinations with vowels /ɛ ɜ ɤ ɔ/ and coda /n/ occur only in the Northern dialects.
Tübatulabal orthography

Transcriptions in this article follow the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Much published material concerning Tübatulabal uses the Americanist orthography. In addition, the most important linguistic work on Tübatulabal, the original grammatical description of the language.

Voegelin writes *ɨ* as ⟨ï⟩ and *ɔ* as ⟨ô⟩. He also writes *ʃ* as ⟨c⟩, *t͡ʃ* as ⟨tc⟩, *ʔ* as ⟨‘⟩, *d͡ʒ* as ⟨dž⟩ and *j* as ⟨y⟩. He also uses a number of special symbols for vocalic allomorphs. ⟨ι⟩ is an allomorph of ⟨i⟩, ⟨μ⟩ is an allomorph of ⟨u⟩, ⟨o⟩ is an allomorph of ⟨ô⟩ (IPA *ɔ*), and ⟨ŏ⟩ is an allomorph of both ⟨a⟩ and ⟨ô⟩.

The letter ⟨ü⟩ in the name Tübatulabal represents the central unrounded vowel *ɨ*.
Tiruray phonology

Two features set the Tiruray language apart from other Austronesian languages of the area. The first is a twenty-vowel system, and the second is the lack of a bilabial stop, but the presence of a bilabial fricative in its place.

## Vowels

The Tiruray language has 20 vowel phonemes. These are split into three categories: front vowels, central vowels, and back vowels.

The vowels /a, i, ʉ, e, ɔ/ have allophones used before the /p, t, k/, voiced stops, nasals, /l/, and /r/ in closed syllables.

## Syllables

Tiruray does not allow vowel sequences. The syllable structure is CVC or CV. The majority of word bases in Tiruray have two syllables, but stems may have from one to five syllables. Adding affixes, a word can consist of as many as eight syllables.

There is no restriction on consonants used in a word as long as the word follows the CVC or CV structure. However, the letters /w/ and /j/ never follow after /i/, and same rule applies to /w/ after /u/.

## Stress

The primary word stress is placed on the ante-penultimate (third from the last syllable) or the penultimate (second to the last syllable) of a word with four syllables or more. Secondary stress is present on polysyllabic words, preceding the primary stress by two syllables. Stress is non-contrastive and non-phonetic.
Tyap phonology

## Vowels

The seven vowels of Tyap may either be short or long monophthongs sounds. The language has five (or six) diphthongs: /ei(/əi) ea əu ai oi/.

## Consonants

The language has over 80 monographic and digraph labialized and palatalized consonant sounds, classified into fortis and lenis modifications. The following table contains the main basic consonant sounds of Tyap:

## References

1. ↑ A̱lyiat A̱gwaza na di̱n Tyap: A̱li̱ka̱uli A̱fai (2015), p. vii.
2. ↑ McKinney, N. P. (April 1990), p. 256.
3. ↑ Akau, K. T. L. (2014), pp. xxv-xxvi.
4. ↑ Akau, K. T. L. (2014), p. xxiv-xxix.
5. ↑ Haruna, D.; Follingstad, C. & J. (n.d.), pp. 72-73
6. ↑ A̱lyiat A̱gwaza na di̱n Tyap: A̱li̱ka̱uli A̱fai (2015), p. viii-ix.
7. ↑ McKinney, N. P. (April 1990), p. 257
Tongan alphabet

Tongan is written in a subset of the Latin script. In the old, "missionary" alphabet, the order of the letters was modified: the vowels were put first and then followed by the consonants: a, e, i, o, u, etc. That was still so as of the Privy Council decision of 1943 on the orthography of the Tongan language. However, C. M. Churchward's grammar and dictionary favoured the standard European alphabetical order, which, since his time, has been in use exclusively:
Tigrinya phonology

## Consonant phonemes

The charts below show the phonemes of Tigrinya. The sounds are shown using the same system for representing the sounds as in the rest of the article. When the IPA symbol is different, it is indicated in square brackets. The consonant /v/ appears in parentheses because it occurs only in recent borrowings from European languages.

The Fricative sounds [x], [xʷ], [xʼ] and [xʷʼ] occur as allophones.

## Vowel phonemes

The sounds are shown using the same system for representing the sounds as in the rest of the article. When the IPA symbol is different, it is indicated in square brackets.

**Vowels**
 Close-mid | e
 Open-mid | ɛ
 Open | æ

## References

1. ↑ Buckley, E. (1994). Tigrinya vowel features and vowel coalescence. *University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics*, *1*(1), 2.
Toto phonology

## Vowels

Toto Language consists of 25 segmental Phonemes of which 19 are consonants and 6 are vowels. The phonemes of this language are as follows:
Vowels:
These are 6 vowel phonemes in Toto language. They can be classified horizontally into three as front unrounded, central unrounded and back rounded vowels and vertically as close, close-mid, open-mid and open.

The following minimal pairs establish the phonetics status of the vowel

**/i/~/u/**

/Jiya/ ‘rat’

/Juya/ ‘bird’

**/i/~/e/**

/iŋ/ ‘brother in-law’

/eŋ/ ‘ginger’

/ciwa/ ‘tear’

/cewa/ ‘cut’ (cloth)

**/i/~/a/**

/guJi/ ‘owl’

/guJa/ ‘pocket’

/nico/ ‘fire’

/naco/ ‘two’

**/e/~/o/**

/je/ ‘grass’

/jo/ ‘breast’

**/e/~/a/**

/lepa/ ‘brain’

/lapa/ ‘jungle betel leaf’

/kewa/ ‘birth’

/kawa/ ‘sound’

There are eight diphthongs realized in Toto language. These are /ei/, /ai/, /oi/, /ui/, /əi/, /eu/, /au/ and /ou/. Diphthong /ui/ occurs in all positions, /eu/ occurs initial and medial positions, /ai/, /oi/, /əi/, and /ei/ occur medial and final positions. While /ou/ and /au/ occur only in the medial positions.
Furthermore, with regard to consonants, Toto has an inventory of ten obstruents, eight of which are contrastive in voicing. Toto also distinguishes the voiceless obstruents /t/ and /p/ with its aspirated equivalents /tʰ/ and /pʰ/, respectively.
Tiriyó phonology

Tiriyó has 7 vowels and 10 consonants, as shown in the chart below. (Orthographic symbols in bold, IPA values in square brackets.)

## Vowels

* The vowels (**a**, **e**, **i**, **o**, **u**) are very close to their usual values in, e.g., Spanish.
* The central vowel **ï** is usually [ɨ], but [ɯ] is also heard, especially after a velar consonant;
* The central vowel **ë** is usually [ə], but [ʌ] or [ɤ] are also common.

## Consonants

1. The fricative /s/ shows a considerable amount of variation. Some speakers have [s], others have [ç] or [s̠], or even [ʃ]. The following vowel also influences the pronunciation of /s/: [ʃ]-like realizations are more frequent before /i/ and /e/.
2. The rhotic **r** is often retroflex ([ɽ]) and may have some laterality ([ɺ]); simple taps ([ɾ]) are also heard.
3. The approximant **w** has usually no rounding ([β̞]), and sometimes (especially if followed by **e** or **i**) some friction [β̝]
4. The glottal fricative /h/ is the most obvious difference between the two main dialects. K-Tiriyó is a dialect without /h/; where H-Tiriyó has an /h/, K-Tiriyó shows a VV sequence (realized as a long vowel). In H-Tiriyó, each **h**-cluster - **hp**, **ht**, **hk** (historically \*[hp], \*[ht], \*[hk]) - has a different realization: [(h)ɸ], [ht], [(h)h] (i.e., with **p** and **k**, [h] is weakly realized and spirantizes the following plosive; with **t**, [h] is stronger and there is no spirantization). Older H-Tiriyó speakers have a fourth cluster **hs** [(h)s̠], with a weakly realized [h], while younger H-Tiriyó speakers have [ːs̠] ~ [s̠s̠] (K-Tiriyó speakers have only [ːs̠]); all in all, its status is, however, marginal.
The examples in the table below illustrate these various realizations:

 \*wɨhse | [ʋɨ(h)s̠e]~[ʋɨːs̠e]~[ʋɨs̠s̠e] | [ʋɨɨs̠e] | anatto
Torwali phonology

Although descriptions of Torwali phonology have appeared in the literature, some questions still remain unanswered.

## Vowels

Vowels According to Edelman

Edelman's analysis, which was based on Grierson and Morgenstierne, shows nasal counterparts to at least /e o a/ and also found a series of central (reduced?) vowels, transcribed as: ⟨ä⟩, ⟨ü⟩, ⟨ö⟩.

Vowels According to Lunsford

Lunsford had some difficulty determining vowel phonemes and suggested there may be retracted vowels with limited distribution: /ɨ/ (which may be [i̙]), /e̙/, /ə̙/. Retracted or retroflex vowels are also found in Kalash-mondr.

## Consonants

The phonemic status of the breathy voiced series is debatable.

Sounds with particularly uncertain status are marked with a superscript question mark.
Toda phonology

## Vowels

For a Dravidian language, Toda's sixteen vowels is an unusually large number. There are eight vowel qualities, each of which may occur long or short. There is little difference in quality between the long and short vowels, except for /e/, which occurs as [e] when short and as [æː] when long.

## Consonants

Toda has an unusually large number of fricatives and trills. Its seven places of articulation are the most for any Dravidian language. The voiceless laterals are true fricatives, not voiceless approximants; the retroflex lateral is highly unusual among the world's languages.

Voiceless fricatives are allophonically voiced intervocalically in Toda. There are also the invariably voiced fricatives /ʒ, ʐ, ɣ/, though the latter is marginal. The nasals and /r̠, ɽr, j/ are allophonically devoiced or partially devoiced in final position or next to voiceless consonants.
Tolowa phonology

As with many Athabaskan languages, Tolowa features contrasting aspirated, unaspirated, and ejective stops, as well as contrasting vowel length and nasality. Tolowa is not fully tonal, but instead has a pitch accent. This is typical of the Pacific Coast Athabaskan languages.

## Consonants

/ɬ/ is affricated to [tɬ] after vowels. /j/ is realized as [j̃] after nasal vowels.

## Vowels

Tolowa vowels have some degree of allophonicity. /u/ and /o/ are in free variation; [ɔ] is an allophone of /a/ after palatals and velars; /ə/ is raised to [ɨ] near palatals and to [ʉ] before velars, and is nasalized ([ə̃]) before nasal consonants. In addition, Tolowa has three diphthongs: [ai], [au], and [ui].

## Alphabet

Syllables are usually separated with an en dash (-) for clarity. The 1997 Tolowa Dee-niʼ alphabet (below) replaces the special characters ą, į, ɨ, ł, ų, and ʉ with a~, i~, lh, u~ and v, respectively. Note that the distinction between ɨ and ʉ is lost.
Tsafiki phonology

## Consonants

* /b, d/ are preglottalized [ˀb, ˀd] when occurring intervocalically.
* /k/ can become voiced [ɡ] when intervocally after nasal sounds.
* /ɹ/ is heard as [ɾ] when occurring word-initially, and when following a nasalized vowel, an allophone [n] occurs.
* /s/ is heard as [ʃ] when preceding high vowels /i, u/ and after unaccented high vowels.
* /t͡s/ is heard as [t͡ʃ] when preceding high vowels, but many speakers pronounce it as [t͡ʃ] in all environments.

## Vowels

Tsafiki has five vowels Four vowels have nasalized forms.

* Unaccented vowels before voiceless stops are often devoiced [ḁ].
Udege orthography

*1931-1937 alphabet*

Udege is currently written in two versions of the Cyrillic alphabet, known as the "Petersburg" and the "Khabarovsk" versions. The Khabarovsk version is used more often.

*Cyrillic alphabet (Khabarovsk version)*

A few older letters that were used in this language: Ж ж, З з, Љ љ, Ц ц, Ш ш, Щ щ, Ъ ъ, Ы ы, ‘Ы ‘ы, Ы̄ ы̄, Ы̂ ы̂, Ю ю, ‘Ю ‘ю, Ю̄ ю̄, Ю̂ ю̂, Я я, ‘Я ‘я, Я̄ я̄, Я̂ я̂
Toposa phonology

## Consonants

* All consonants (except, of course, for /w/ and /j/) can occur in labialized and palatalized forms.

## Vowels

+ATR
 Mid | e

-ATR
 Mid | ɛ
 Open |  | a

* Toposa, like many Nilotic languages, has vowel harmony with two sets of vowels: a set with the tongue root advanced (+ATR) and a −ATR set. +ATR is marked. The vowel /a/ is neutral with respect to vowel harmony.
* All nine vowels also occur as devoiced, contrasting with their voiced counterparts. These voiceless vowels occur primarily in prepause contexts. Some Toposa morphemes consist only of a high voiceless vowel; the functional load appears to be much greater with the high vowels than with the lower.
* Toposa has tone, which is grammatical rather than lexical. Tone is used to mark case in nouns and tense in verbs.

## References

1. ↑ Schröder & Schröder 1987b, p. 27
2. ↑ Schröder & Schröder 1987a, p. 17
Torani

Almond RocaAlmondAmarettoAppleBlackberryBlue CuracaoBlue RaspberryBlueberryBourbon CaramelBrown Sugar CinnamonButterscotchCaramelCassisCherryChocolate Chip Cookie DoughChocolate MilanoChocolate MacadamiaClassic HazelnutChocolate MintCoconutCinnamonCreme de MentheCreme de BananaCreme de CacaoCoffeeCoffee Liqueur FlavoringCreme CaramelFrench VanillaGingerbread SyrupGrapeEnglish ToffeeGrenadineGreen AppleLavenderKiwiLemonIrish CreamHuckleberryItalian EggnogLimeMacadamia NutMangoLycheeMaple FlavorOrangePeppermintPassion FruitPeachPineapplePomegranatePumpkin PieSalted CaramelStrawberryRed RaspberryRoseRaspberryTangerineToasted MarshmallowVanilla BeanWatermelonWhite ChocolateTiramisu
Tlapanec phonology

The following presents one view of the phonology of the Malinaltepec Tlapanec language, but a view that looks at Tlapanec language with a broader view has resulted in a quite different analysis.

## Vowels

Oral vowels
 Close-mid | e eː
 Open-mid | ɛ ɛː
 Open |  | a aː

Nasal vowels
 Close-mid | ẽ ẽː
 Open-mid | ɛ̃ ɛ̃ː
 Open |  | ã ãː

## Consonants

Allophones of the sounds /v b ɡ ʂ n r/ include [f β ɣ ʃ ŋ ɾ~ʐ]. In the existence of the cluster /hw/, an allophone [ɸ] may be heard.

The glottal stop is written with a saltillo ⟨ꞌ⟩.
Urartian phonology

Urartian had at least the following consonants, conventionally transcribed below:

Labial stops: p, b, ṗ

Dental stops: t, d, ṭ

Velar stops: k, g, q

Sibilants: s, z, ṣ, ẓ, š, ž

Labial fricatives: f, v

Dental fricatives: þ, ð

Velar fricatives: x, ɣ

Gutturals: ʔ, h, ḫ

Nasals: m, n, ŋ

Lateral approximants: l, ł

Trills: ʋ, r

There were presumably also the semivowels /w/ and /j/.

As usual with ancient languages, the exact nature and pronunciation of the consonants are uncertain. As the table shows, the stops and the sibilants all display a three-way distinction between voiced, voiceless and "emphatic" consonants, but it cannot be ascertained what was special about the third groups of consonants, which were rendered with the Akkadian cuneiform signs for the Semitic emphatics. Perhaps they were glottalized or aspirated. The pronunciation of the sibilants is debatable, as it is for Akkadian; some may actually have been affricates.

The script distinguishes the vowels *a*, *ɛ*, *e*, *i*, *ɔ* and *u*. It is unclear whether there was an /o/ as well. There may have been phonemic vowel length, but it is not consistently expressed in the script. Word-finally, the distinction between *e* and *i* is not maintained, so many scholars transcribe the graphically vacillating vowel as a schwa: *ə*, while some preserve a non-reduced vowel (usually opting for *i*). The full form of the vowel appears when suffixes are added to the word and the vowel is no longer in the last syllable: *Argištə* "Argišti" - *Argištešə* "by Argišti (ergative case)". This vowel reduction also suggests that stress was commonly on the next-to-the-last syllable.

In the morphonology, various morpheme combinations trigger syncope: \**ar-it-u-mə* → *artumə*, \**zaditumə* → *zatumə*, \**ebani-ne-lə* → *ebanelə*, \**turul(e)yə* → *tul(e)yə*.
Ume Sámi phonology

## Consonants

/f, ʋ/ and /θ/ are allophones of /v/ and /ð/, respectively. When a /h/ sound occurs before a plosive or an affricate sound, they are then realized as preaspirated sounds. If an /l/ sound occurs before a /j/ sound, it is realized as a palatal lateral /ʎ/ sound. Some western dialects of the language lack the /ð/ phoneme.

## Vowels

Four diphthongs are included; /ie/, /yʉ/, /ʉi/, /uo/. A schwa sound /ə/ may exist as an allophone of various vowel sounds.
Tuvan phonology

## Vowels

Vowels may also be nasalized in the environment of nasal consonants, but nasalization is non-contrastive. Most Tuvan vowels in word-initial syllables have a low pitch and do not contrast significantly with short and long vowels.

### Vowel harmony

Tuvan has two systems of vowel harmony that strictly govern the distribution of vowels within words and suffixes. Backness harmony, or what is sometimes called 'palatal' harmony, requires all vowels within a word to be either back or front. Rounding harmony, or what is sometimes called 'labial' harmony, requires a vowel to be rounded if it is a high vowel and appears in a syllable immediately following a rounded vowel. Low rounded vowels [ø] [o] are restricted to the first syllable of a word, and a vowel in a non-initial syllable may be rounded only if it meets the conditions of rounding harmony (it must both be a high vowel [y] [u] and be preceded by a rounded vowel). See Harrison 2001 for a detailed description of Tuvan vowel harmony systems.
Tok Pisin alphabet

The Tok Pisin alphabet contains 22 letters, five of which are vowels, and four digraphs. The letters are (vowels in bold):

**a**, b, d, **e**, f, g, h, **i**, j, k, l, m, n, **o**, p, r, s, t, **u**, v, w, y
The four digraphs note diphthongs, as well as certain consonants:

⟨**ai**⟩, ⟨**au**⟩, ⟨**oi**⟩ and ⟨ng⟩ (used for both /ŋ/ and /ŋɡ/)
Tifal phonology

## Consonants

/b/ is realized as [pʰ] word finally, as [p] in syllable-coda position before a consonant, and [b] elsewhere.
/t/ is realized as [t] in syllable coda before a consonant and [tʰ] elsewhere.
/d/ is realized as [ɾ] intervocalically, e.g. /didab/: [dɪˈɾʌpʰ] 'water container'.
/k/ is [ɣ] intervocalically, [k] in syllable coda before consonants, and [kʰ] elsewhere.
/s/ is realized as [ʂ] before /u/.
/l/ is alveolar adjacent to back vowels and alveodental elsewhere. One dialect realizes /l/ as [r] intervocalically.
## Vowels

Vowels
 Open | æ æː | ɐ ɑ ɑː | ɒ ɒː

/o/ and /oː/ rarely contrast.

Vowel allophones
 /a/
 /u/
 /eː/
 /o/

## References

1. ↑ Boush 1974, pp. 8-9.
2. ↑ Boush 1974, p. 22.
3. ↑ Boush 1974, pp. 17-19.
Tukang Besi phonology

The northern dialect of Tukang Besi has 25 consonant phonemes and a basic 5-vowel system. It features stress which is usually on the second-to-last syllable. The language has two implosive consonants, which are uncommon in the world's languages. The coronal plosives and /s/ have prenasalized counterparts which act as separate phonemes.

Notes:

* /b/ only appears in loanwords, but it contrasts with /ɓ/
* [d] and [z] are not phonemic and appear only as allophones of /dʒ/, which appears only in loanwords.
Ura phonology

## Consonants

Ura contains 18 consonant phonemes. One of the main differences between Ura and Sye is that /f/ and /v/ in Ura are contrasting consonants, while Sye contains no contrasting fricatives. /r/ is an apical alveolar flap or trill, and is sometimes confused with /l/ which is an alveolar lateral, even though there is clear phonetic contrast. This may be due to a speaker's lack of articulation or because /r/ and /l/ are phonetically close phonemes (Crowley, 1999)

## Vowels

Diphthongs are present in Ura, and can be seen in contrast to corresponding vowels. For example, /ne/ meaning ‘water’ compared to /nei/ meaning ‘coconut,’ or /uvo/ meaning ‘still’ compared to /uyou/ meaning ‘old woman’ (Crowley, 1999).

## Syllable structure

In the Ura language, 88% of the words contain two to three syllables. Possible combinations of these phonological segments include: V, CV, VC, and CVC (where V = vowel and C = consonant). Ura's root-initial segments can contain up to two vowels in a row, with the first vowel being a non-high vowel (/e/, /o/, and /a/), and the second vowel being a high vowel (/i/ and /u/) to make the following combinations: /ei/, /eu/, /oi/, /ou/, /ai/, and /au/. /y/ and /w/ can be followed by any of the five syllables, with the exception of /wu/. In addition, the majority of non-verbal roots begin with consonants, while most verbal roots begin with vowels, with the majority of these being high vowels. On the other hand, root-final segments exclude /v/, /f/, /h/, and /γ/ fricatives as well as consonant clusters from the root-final position. These rules are an example of how Ura is a more restricted language than Sye (Crowley, 1999).
Ume Sámi orthography

Shortcomings:

* Vowel length is ambiguous for the letters ⟨u⟩, ⟨ü⟩ and ⟨å⟩. In reference works, the length is indicated by a macron (⟨ū⟩, ⟨ǖ⟩, ⟨å̄⟩). In older orthographies, length could be indicated by writing a double vowel.
* No distinction is made between long and overlong consonants, both being written with a double consonant letter. In reference works, the overlong stops are indicated with a vertical line (⟨bˈb⟩, ⟨dˈd⟩ etc.)
Tuvaluan phonology

## Vowels

The sound system of Tuvaluan consists of five vowels (/i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/). All vowels come in short and long forms, which are contrastive.

Vowels
 Close | i y
 Close-mid | e ø
 Open-mid | ɛ œ
 Open | æ a

There are no diphthongs so every vowel is sounded separately. Example: *taeao* ‘tomorrow’ is pronounced as four separate syllables (ta-e-a-o).

## Consonants

Consonants
 Lateral |  | l

/h/ is used only in limited circumstances in the Nukulaelae dialect.

The sound system of Tuvaluan consists of 10 or 11 consonants (/p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /f/, /v/, /s/, /h/, /l/), depending on the dialect. All consonants also come in short and long forms, which are contrastive. The phoneme /ŋ/ is written ⟨g⟩. All other sounds are represented with letters corresponding to their IPA symbols.

## References

1. ↑ Donald G. Kennedy. 1954. *Handbook on the Language of the Ellice Islands* Sydney: Parker Prints (Reprint. Originally published in Suva, 1945 – see link below).
Tiv phonology

## Vowels

Short vowels

Long vowels

* Vowel sounds are phonetically nasalized before nasal consonants.
* /a/ can be freely heard as [æ̃] or [ɑ̃] before a nasal consonant.

## Consonants

* /ɣ/ is heard phonetically as [x], but is often voiced as [ɣ].
* [ɱ] is heard in free variation in word-final positions.
* [d͡z] occurs in other dialects.

## Tone

Tiv has three main tones (five if rising and falling are counted as separate tones instead of composites of existing tones). They are most importantly used in inflection.

## Accents

The accents of Tiv are as follows:

* Ityoisha, spoken in the southeast, noted for its exaggerated palatalisation of vowels;
* Shitile, spoken by most Tiv east of the Katsina Ala River, apparently slower sounding than the other Tiv accents and slurs vowels into their neighbouring consonant;
* Iharev, which gives an exaggerated roll to the phoneme [r]~[l]
* Kparev, spoken in the centre and south-centre;
	+ Kunav, a sub-accent of Kparev, noted for its preference for [d͡ʒ] sounds where other Kparev use [d͡z].

Vocabulary, particularly plant and tool names, changes from one part of Tiv territory to the other.
Toʼabaita phonology

Toqabaqita phonemes consist of 17 consonants and 5 vowels.

/k͡p/ and /g͡b/ are doubly-articulated voiceless and voiced labial–velar]] stop consonants. Pre-nasalization is a feature of particular Toqabaqita consonants, including all the voiced plosives, that is /b/, /d/, /g/ and /g͡b/, and for the glide /w/ . The degree of prenasalization varies and is determined by their position in the word.

Vowel Phonemes
 Open | æ | a | ɒ

Vowels can be long, but it is not allowed to have adjacent long vowels.
Stress is not indicated by the phonemes, but by the symbols (?) for primary stress and (?) for secondary stress (presumably by Lichtenberk, and presumably when glottal stop is written ⟨q⟩).

## References

1. ↑ Lichtenberk 2008, p.8
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Lichtenberk, 2008, p.10
Tokunoshima phonology

The following is the phonology of the Kametsu dialect, which is based on Hirayama et al. (1986).

## Consonants

As with most Ryukyuan languages to the north of Central Okinawan, stops are described as "plain" C’ and "glottalized" C‘. Phonetically, the two series are lightly aspirated [Cʰ] and tenuis [C˭], respectively.

**Notes**

* The zero onset /'/ may be added. It is contrasted with glottal /h/ and /ʔ/.
* /h/ is [ç] before /i/ and /j/, and [ɸ] before /u/ and /w/.
* /pʰ/ is new and infrequent.
* /si/, /t͡ʃʰɨ/ and /t͡ʃ˭ɨ/ are realized as [ʃɪ], [t͡sʰɨ] and [t͡sɨ], respectively.
* /dz/ is [d͡z] before /ɨ/ and /ɘ/, and [d͡ʒ] elsewhere.
* [ʃa], [ʃe], [ʃu] and [ʃo] are phonemically analyzed as /sja/, /sje/, /sju/ and /sjo/, respectively.
* [t͡ʃʰa], [t͡ʃʰe], [t͡ʃʰu] and [t͡ʃʰo] are phonemically analyzed as /t͡ʃʰja/, /t͡ʃʰje/, /t͡ʃʰju/ and /t͡ʃʰjo/, respectively.
* [t͡ʃa], [t͡ʃu] and [t͡ʃo] are phonemically analyzed as /t͡ʃ˭ja/, /t͡ʃ˭ju/ and /t͡ʃ˭jo/, respectively.

## Vowels

Tokunoshima has /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/, /ɑ/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɔ/, /ʊ/, /ɨ/, /ɘ/, /ʉ/, /ɵ/, /æ/ and /ʌ/, long and short.

## Correspondences to Standard Japanese

Only major sound correspondences are listed.

* Standard Japanese /e/ mostly corresponds to /ɨ/.
* Standard Japanese /o/ is merged into /u/.
* Tokunoshima /e/, /ɘ/ and /o/ are of secondary origin and mostly correspond to Standard Japanese diphthongs.
* Standard Japanese /hi/ and /he/ corresponds to Tokunoshima /sɨ/ and /hwɨ/, respectively.
* Standard Japanese /si/ and /zu/, /zi/ and /zu/, and /t͡ʃi/ and /t͡ʃu/ are merged into /sɨ/, /zɨ/, and /t͡ʃɨ/, respectively.
* The fusion of two consecutive morae resulted in glottalized consonants in Tokunoshima.

## References

1. ↑ Samuel E. Martin (1970) "Shodon: A Dialect of the Northern Ryukyus", in the *Journal of the American Oriental Society*, vol. 90, no. 1 (Jan–Mar), pp. 97–139.
Wandala phonology

Wandala is reported to have no phonemic vowels, a rarity among the world's languages. An alternative analysis is that it has three underlying vowels *a i* and *u* and six phonetic vowels [a], [i], [u], [ə], [e] and [o].

It has a rich consonant inventory, with more than forty consonantal segments. There are two tones, with their functions differing among different morpheme classes.

## Syllable structure

Some possible syllable structures are V, N (nasal consonant), CV, Glide V, VC, CVC. Consonant clusters are not permitted in the coda. To avoid breaking this constraint, a central vowel may be inserted in word-final position. The consonant *r* may act as a syllabic peak, meaning the structure Cr is a possible syllable structure.
Waray phonology

## Vowels

Most Waray dialects have three vowel phonemes: /a/ [a], /i/ [ɛ~i] and /u/ [ɔ~u]. Some dialects have an additional vowel /ə/ [ə]; words with /ə/ in these dialects have /u/ in the majority dialects.

 Close-mid | ø
 Open-mid | œ
 Open | æ

## Consonants

Waray has a total of 16 consonant phonemes: /p, t, k, b, d, ɡ, m, n, ŋ, s, h, l, ɾ~r, w, j, ʔ/. Two extra post-alveolar sounds [tʃ, dʒ] are heard when /i/ occurs after /t, d/, further proceeding another vowel sound.
Wa phonology

Standard Wa is a non-tonal language. However, tone has developed in some of the dialects. There is correspondence between tones in tonal dialects and tenseness in non-tonal dialects.

In Wa, there are 44 phonemes; 35 consonants and 9 vowels. All of these vowels can be tense or lax. Tenseness is a phonemic feature in syllables with unaspirated initials.

## Vowels

Vowel phonemes

There are 15 diphthongs: *iu, ɯi, ui, ia, ɤi, ua, ei, ou, oi~ɔi, ai, aɯ, au* and 2 triphthongs: *iau, uai*. The general syllabic structure of Wa is C(C)(V)V(V)(C). Only a few words have zero-initials.
Wayuu phonology

**Vowels**

Note: ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ are more open than in English. ⟨a⟩ is slightly front of central, and ⟨ü⟩ is slightly back of central. All vowels can either occur in short or long versions, since vowel length is distinctive.

**Consonants**

⟨lr⟩ is a lateral flap pronounced with the tongue just behind the position for the Spanish ⟨r⟩, and with a more lateral airflow.
Ventureño orthography

Ventureño has been written in several different ways by different linguists. John Peabody Harrington, who compiled most of the data on Ventureño, used a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Harrington differed from the International Phonetic Alphabet in the following symbols: a kappa ⟨к⟩ (small-cap 'k') for [q], a ⟨q⟩ for [x], a slanted bar ⟨ł⟩ for [ɬ], a reversed apostrophe ⟨‘⟩ for aspiration, and a right-turned (standard) apostrophe ⟨’⟩ for a glottal stop (this symbol was also used for ejectives and glottalized sonorants).

The Barbareño/Ventureño Band of Mission Indians has adopted an Americanist form of transcription for Ventureño based on the work done by Harrington: ⟨š⟩ for [ʃ], ⟨ł⟩ for [ɬ], ⟨x⟩ for [x], ⟨ʰ⟩ for aspiration, ⟨y⟩ for [j], and ⟨q⟩ for [q]. A standard apostrophe ⟨’⟩ continues to be used for a glottal stop [ʔ] and for denoting ejectives. Glottalized sonorants [m̰, n̰, w̰, j̰] are written with a combining apostrophe over the symbol. This transcription is in keeping with most current Chumashists (such as Wash below) except that alveolar affricates ([t͡s]) are written as ⟨ts⟩ in Ventureño, where other Chumashists write them as ⟨c⟩. Likewise, Ventureño writes postalveolar affricates ([t͡ʃ]) as ⟨tš⟩, where other Chumashists write this sound as ⟨č⟩.

## References

1. ↑ Harrington, J. P. (1981). The Papers of John Peabody Harrington in the Smithsonian 1907-1957: A Guide to the Field Notes: Native American History, Language, and Culture of Southern California/Basin, vol. 3. Elaine L. Mills and Ann J. Brockfield, eds. Microfilm reels 69, 89, and 94 on Ventureño.
Ticuna phonology

Vowels
Vowels qualities are /a e i ɨ u o/. Vowels may be nasalized and/or show creaky voice, under which tones are lowered. There are diphthongs /ai̯/ and /au̯/ that carry a single tone, contrasting with vowel sequences /ai/ and /au/ that carry two tones.

Oral and nasalized vowels and creaky voiced

Tones
Ticuna has one of the largest tone inventories in the world with 8-12 phonemic tones depending on the dialect.

Consonants
The consonants of Ticuna consist of the following phonemes:

Ticuna has no lateral or uvular consonants.

The affricate /dʒ/ (spelled "y") may be pronounced as /ɟ/, and also /j/, but only before the vowel /a/. A central /ɨ/ vowel sound may also be pronounced as a back [ɯ] sound. /f s x l/ are found in Spanish loans.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Anderson, Doris, *Conversational Ticuna*, Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1962
Turkmen orthography

## Evolution

### Consonants

While Turkmen Latin Alphabet has 9 vowels and 21 consonants, Turkmen Arabic Alphabet has 32 consonants, as there are sounds that are represented by more than one consonant. The two letters, **نگ** are treated as one letter, as they are pronounced as a single sound.

## Letter names and pronunciation

Long vowels are not shown in the writing.
Washo orthography

## Vowels

There are six distinct vowel qualities found in the Washo language, each of which occurs long and short. The sound quality of a vowel is dependent upon their length and the consonant they precede, as well as the stress put on the vowel.

Washo vowels
 **ɨ****ɨ꞉** | /ɨ//ɨː/ | Mášd**ɨ**mmi 'he's hiding'

Vowels marked with the acute accent ( ´ ) are pronounced with stress, such as in the Washo *ćigábut* (summer).

In Washo, vowels can have either long or short length qualities; the longer quality is noted by appending a colon ⟨꞉⟩ to the vowel, as in the above example **míši milí꞉giyi**. Vowels with such a mark are usually pronounced for twice the normal length. This can be seen in the difference between the words *móko* (shoes) *mó꞉ko* (knee). However, vowels pronounced this way may not always be followed by a colon.

Jacobsen described in detail various vowel alternations that distinguished the Washo speech communities.

## Consonants

Sequences not represented by a single letter in Washo almost always tend to occur in borrowed English words, such as the *nd* in **kꞌindí** (*candy*).

In the area around Woodfords, California, the local Washo dialect substituted [θ] for /s/, thus, *sí꞉su* 'bird' was written *thithu*.

## References

1. ↑ The Washo Project: Vowels
2. ↑ William H. Jacobsen, Jr. 1978. "Washo Internal Diversity and External Relations," Selected Papers from the 14th Great Basin Anthropological Conference. Ed. Donald R. Tuohy. Ballena Press Publications in Archaeology, Ethnology and History 11. Socorro, New Mexico. Pages 115-147.
3. ↑ The Washo Project: Consonants
4. ↑ Washoe Language Lessons
5. ↑ Caitlin Keliiaa. 2012. "Washiw Wagayay Maŋal: Reweaving the Washoe Language," University of California, Los Angeles MA thesis.