recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Dogrib phonology

## Consonants

The consonants of Tłıchǫ Yatıì in the standard orthography are listed below (with IPA notation in brackets):

Tenuis stops may be lightly voiced. Aspirated stops may be fricated [Cˣʰ] before back vowels.

## Vowels

The language uses long, short and nasal vowels, and distinguishes them in writing, along with low tone:

* Nasal vowels are marked by an ogonek (called *wı̨ghǫą*, 'its little nose', in Tłı̨chǫ Yatıı̀) e.g. **ą**.
* Low tone is marked with a grave accent (called *wets'aà*, 'its hat', in Tłı̨chǫ Yatıı̀), e.g. **à**.
* High tone is never marked.
* The letter 'i' is written without a dot (tittle).
Czech orthography

## Alphabet

The Czech alphabet consists of 42 letters.

The letters *Q*, *W*, and *X* are used exclusively in foreign words, and the former two are replaced with *KV* and *V* once the word becomes “naturalized” (assimilated into Czech); the digraphs dz and dž are also used mostly for foreign words and are not considered to be distinct letters in the Czech alphabet.

## Orthographic principles

Czech orthography is primarily phonemic (rather than phonetic) because an individual grapheme usually corresponds to an individual phoneme (rather than a sound). However, some graphemes and letter groups are remnants of historical phonemes which were used in the past but have since merged with other phonemes. Some changes in the phonology have not been reflected in the orthography.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Unofficial ligatures are sometimes used for the transcription of affricates: /ts/, /dz/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/. The actual IPA version supports using two separate letters which can be joined by a tiebar.
2. ↑ The "long-leg R" ⟨ɼ⟩ is sometimes used to transcribe voiced ⟨ř⟩ (unofficially). This character was withdrawn from the IPA and replaced by the "lower-case R" with the "up-tack" diacritic mark, which denotes "raised alveolar trill".
Cebuano phonology

## Vowels

Below is the vowel system of Cebuano with their corresponding letter representation in angular brackets:

 **Standard Cebuano vowel phonemes**

* /a/ an open front unrounded vowel similar to English "f**a**ther"
* /ɛ/ an open-mid front unrounded vowel similar to English "b**e**d"
* /i/ a close front unrounded vowel similar to English "mach**i**ne"
* /o/ a close-mid back rounded vowel similar to English "f**o**rty"
* /u/ a close back rounded vowel similar to English "fl**u**te"

## Consonants

For Cebuano consonants, all the stops are unaspirated. The velar nasal /ŋ/ occurs in all positions, including at the beginning of a word (e.g. *ngano*, "why"). The glottal stop /ʔ/ is most commonly encountered in between two vowels, but can also appear in all positions.

Below is a chart of Cebuano consonants with their corresponding letter representation in parentheses:

In certain dialects, /l/ ⟨l⟩ may be interchanged with /w/ ⟨w⟩ in between vowels and vice versa depending on the following conditions:

* If ⟨l⟩ is in between ⟨a⟩ and ⟨u⟩/⟨o⟩, the vowel succeeding ⟨l⟩ is usually (but not always) dropped (e.g. *lalom*, "deep", becomes *lawom* or *lawm*).
* If ⟨l⟩ is in between ⟨u⟩/⟨o⟩ and ⟨a⟩, it is the vowel that is preceding ⟨l⟩ that is instead dropped (e.g. *bulan*, "moon", becomes *buwan* or *bwan*)
* If ⟨l⟩ is in between two like vowels, the ⟨l⟩ may be dropped completely and the vowel lengthened. For example, *dala* ("bring"), becomes *da* (/d̪aː/); and *tulod* ("push") becomes *tud* (/t̪uːd̪/). Except if the **l** is in between closed syllables or is in the beginning of the penultimate syllable; in which case, the ⟨l⟩ is dropped along with one of the vowels, and no lengthening occurs. For example, *kalatkat*, "climb", becomes *katkat* (/ˈkatkat/ not /ˈkaːtkat/).

A final ⟨l⟩ can also be replaced with ⟨w⟩ in certain areas in Bohol (e.g. *tambal*, "medicine", becomes *tambaw*). In very rare cases in Cebu, ⟨l⟩ may also be replaced with ⟨y⟩ in between the vowels ⟨a⟩ and ⟨e⟩/⟨i⟩ (e.g. *tingali*, "maybe", becomes *tingayi*).

In some parts of Bohol and Southern Leyte, /j/ ⟨y⟩ is also often replaced with d͡ʒ ⟨j/dy⟩ when it is in the beginning of a syllable (e.g. *kalayo*, "fire", becomes *kalajo*). It can also happen even if the ⟨y⟩ is at the final position of the syllable and the word, but only if it is moved to the initial position by the addition of the affix *-a*. For example, *baboy* ("pig") can not become *baboj*, but *baboya* can become *baboja.*

All of the above substitutions are considered allophonic and do not change the meaning of the word.

In rarer instances, the consonant ⟨d⟩ might also be replaced with ⟨r⟩ when it is in between two vowels (e.g. Boholano *ido* for standard Cebuano *iro*, "dog"), but ⟨d⟩ and ⟨r⟩ are not considered allophones, though they may have been in the past.

## Stress

Stress accent is phonemic, so that *dapít* (adverb) means "near to a place," while *dāpit* (noun) means "place."
*dū-ol* (verb) means "come near," while *du-ól* (adverb) means "near" or "close by."
Efik phonology

## Vowels

Vowels in Efik vary phonetically depending on whether they occur between consonants (i.e. in closed syllables) or not. Vowels in closed syllables are shorter and more centralized than those in open syllables. Thus /i/ and /u/ are highly centralized in the following:

[ɲɨk̚] (push or press someone to do something)
[bʉt̚] (shame)
As /i/ is a front vowel, centralization involves a position further back while in the case of /u/, a back vowel, centralization involves a position further front in the mouth.

## Tones

Oral Efik is predominantly tonal in structure, and this is essentially the pitch of the voice in saying a word or syllable of a word  A word may have two or more meanings depending on the tonal response of the speaker. Examples include: Ákpá - River, Àkpá - First and Àkpà - Stomach. In Efik, there are five different tone marks that aid in the definition of the meaning of words:

1. High Tone defined by (⸝)
2. Low Tone defined by (⸜)
3. Mid Tone defined by (–)
4. Falling Tone defined by (∧)
5. Rising Tone defined by (∨)

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Essien, p. 19
2. ↑ Aye,A learner's Dictionary, p. x
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Essien, p. 21
Dan orthography

The orthography of Liberia includes this alphabet:

The capital **ɤ** is not in Unicode.

Tones are marked as follows:
extra high tone: a̋;
high tone: á;
medium tone: ā;
low tone: à;
extra low tone: ȁ;
high drop tone: â;
extra low hanging tone: aʼ.

The digraphs ⟨bh, dh, gb gw, kp, kw⟩ keep the same values as in the spelling of 1982, and the nasal vowels are also indicated by appending the letter n after the letter of the vowel ⟨an, æn, ʌn, ɛn, in, ɔn, œn, un⟩.
Chamorro phonology

Chamorro has 24 phonemes: 18 are consonants and 8 are vowels.

## Vowels

Chamorro has at least 8 vowels, which include:

* /ɑ/, open back unrounded vowel equivalent to the "a" in "father."
* /ɒ/, open back rounded vowel
* /æ/, near-open front unrounded vowel equivalent to the "a" in "cat."
* /ɛ/, open-mid front unrounded vowel
* /œ/, open-mid front rounded vowel
* /e/, close-mid front unrounded vowel equivalent to the "e" in the Received Pronunciation of "met".
* /ø/, close-mid front rounded vowel
* /i/, close front unrounded vowel equivalent to the "ee" in "sleep."
* /ʌ/, open-mid back unrounded vowel
* /ɔ/, open-mid back rounded vowel
* /ɤ/, close-mid back unrounded vowel
* /o/, close-mid back rounded vowel equivalent to the "o" in "corn."
* /u/, close back rounded vowel equivalent to the "u" in "flu."

## Consonants

Below is a chart of Chamorro consonants; all are unaspirated.

* /w/ does not occur initially.

* Affricates /t̪͡s̪ d̪͡z̪/ can be realized as palatal [t͡ʃ d͡ʒ] before non-low front vowels.
Dothraki phonology

## Consonants

There are 23 consonant phonemes in the Dothraki language. Here the romanized form is given on the left, and the IPA in brackets.

The letters ⟨c⟩ and ⟨x⟩ do not appear in Dothraki, although ⟨c⟩ appears in the digraph ⟨ch⟩.

⟨p⟩ and ⟨b⟩ seem to appear only in names, as in *Pono* and *Bharbo*. These consonants were used in the past but have since developed into [f] and [v]. They can still be used as variants of /f/ and /v/.

Voiceless stops may be aspirated. This does not change word meaning.

The geminates of consonants marked with digraphs have a reduced orthography:

* ⟨kkh⟩ represents /xː/ (not /kx/)
* ⟨tth⟩ represents /θː/ (not /tθ/)
* ⟨ssh⟩ represents /ʃː/ (not /sʃ/)
* ⟨zzh⟩ represents /ʒː/ (not /zʒ/)
* ⟨cch⟩ represents /t͡ʃː/ (not /kt͡ʃ/)

## Vowels

Dothraki has a four vowel system shown below:

There are no diphthongs.

In the *A Song of Ice and Fire* books, ⟨u⟩ never occurs as a vowel, appearing only after ⟨q⟩, and only in names, as in *Jhiqui* and *Quaro*.

In sequence of multiple vowels, each such vowel represents a separate syllable. Examples: *shierak* [ʃi.eˈɾak] ('star'), *rhaesh* [ɾhaˈeʃ] ('country'), *khaleesi* [ˈxa.le.e.si] ('queen').

The vowels /i, e, o, a/ are realized as [e, ɛ, ɔ, ɑ] after /q/. /o/ turns into [ɤ] after dental consonants.
Edo phonology

## Vowels

There are seven vowels, /i e ɛ a ɔ o u/, all of which may be long or nasal, and three tones.

## Consonants

Edo has a rather average consonant inventory for an Edoid language. It maintains only a single phonemic nasal, /m/, but has 13 oral consonants, /ɺ, l, ʋ, j, w/ and the 8 stops, which have nasal allophones such as [n, ɲ, ŋʷ] before nasal vowels.

The three rhotics have been described as voiced and voiceless trills as well as a lax English-type approximant. However, Ladefoged found all three to be approximants, with the voiced–voiceless pair being raised (without being fricatives) and perhaps at a slightly different place of articulation compared to the third but not trills.

## Phonotactics

Syllable structure is simple, being maximally CVV, where VV is either a long vowel or /i, u/ plus a different oral or nasal vowel.
Duodecimal

The **duodecimal** system (also known as **base 12**, **dozenal**, or, rarely, **uncial**) is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base.

## Languages List

### Gwandara

The Nimbia dialect has a duodecimal numeral system (they count in base 12), whereas other dialects, such as Karshi below, have decimal systems:

It is thought that Nimbia, which is isolated from the rest of Gwandara, acquired its duodecimal system from neighboring East Kainji languages. It is duodecimal even to powers of base twelve:

 wo bi | 288 | (two gross)

### Janji

Janji has, or had, a duodecimal number system.

### Maldivian

Maldivian uses two numeral systems. Both of them are identical up to 30. After 30, however, one system places the unit numeral stem before the decade, for example, eh-thirees '31' (lit. "one and thirty") while the other combines the stem of the decade with the unit numeral, for example, thirees-ekeh '31' ("thirty + one"). The latter system also has numerals multiplied by ten for decades 70, 80 and 90. The decade fas dholhas '60' ("five twelves"), comes from a much older duodecimal, or dozen-based, system which has nearly disappeared.

## References

1. ↑ Matsushita, 'Decimal vs. Duodecimal'
2. ↑ Matsushita, 'Decimal vs. Duodecimal'
Dimasa phonology

## Vowels

There are six vowels in Dimasa language.

* All vowels can occurs in all three positions, except /ə/ which occurs only medially.

## Consonants

There are sixteen consonants in the Dimasa language.

* The three voiceless aspirated stops, /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/, are unreleased in syllable final position. Their unaspirated voiced counterparts are released and cannot occur word final position.
* Sometimes /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, s/ are pronounced as /b, d, g, z/ respectively.
* The consonants /pʰ, b, tʰ, kʰ, m, n, ɾ, l/ can occur in all position.
* The consonants /g, s, s, ɦ/ cannot occur in Dimasa indigenous words, but can occur in loan words.
* The consonants /d, w, j/ cannot appear in word final positions in Dimasa.
* The consonants /ŋ/ cannot appear in word initial positions.
Dhatki phonology

Dhatki has implosive consonants, unlike other closely related Rajasthani languages but like the neighbouring (but more distantly related) Sindhi language. It is likely that these consonants developed in the language from contact with more culturally dominant Sindhi speakers. Aside from this, its phonology is much like other Indo-Aryan languages:

Notes
1. Marginal and non-universal phonemes are in parentheses. /ɽ/ is lateral [ɺ̢] for some speakers (Masica 1991:98).
2. /ɣ/ is post-velar.

Dhakti has a fairly standard set of vowels for an Indo-Aryan language: [ə aː ɪ iː ʊ (sometimes: u) uː eː oː ɛː ɔː]. The vowel *ʊ* may be realized as a short *u* and the vowel *ɪ* may be realized as a short *i*. The vowel *ɛː* is often realized as the diphthong *əiː* based and context or as an *æː* based on the speaker's accent. The vowel *ɔː* is often realized as the diphthong *əuː* based and context. Nazalized vowels occur word finally in Dhakti, they are: [ĩː ẽː ɛ̃ː ɑ̃ː ɔ̃ː õː ũː].
Doromu orthography

From March 18 to March 25 of 2002 in Kasonomu village the current orthography was developed during the Doromu Alphabet Design Workshop. The orthography developed from this workshop were discussed with various areas in the language group and were agreed upon. One problem was how borrowed words with letters not contained in the Doromu orthography would be dealt with. The proposed solution from the native speakers was to spell the loan words as they are spelled in their original language.
Crow phonology

## Vowels

There are five distinct vowels in Crow, which occur either long or short with the exception of the mid vowels.

 High (close)

There is also a marginal diphthong *ea* [ea] that only occurs in two native Crow stems: *déaxa* 'clear' and *béaxa* 'intermittent'.

## Consonants

Crow has a very sparse consonant inventory, much like many other languages of the Great Plains.

Stops are aspirated word-initially, word-finally, when geminated (e.g. [ppʰ]) and when following another stop (e.g. [ptʰ]). Stops in a consonant cluster with *h* as the initial radical (*hp*, *ht*, *hk*) are unaspirated and lax. Gemination in stops only occurs intervocalically. Intervocalic single, nongeminating stops are lax, unaspirated, and generally voiced. The difference between voiced stops *b* and *d* (allophones of *m* and *n*) and voiceless stops is hardly discernible when following a fricative, since both are unaspirated and lax. The phoneme *k* has a palatalized allophone [kʲ] that occurs after *i*, *e*, *ch* and *sh*, often word-finally.

Fricatives are tense; they are only lax when intervocalic. Palatal *sh* is often voiced intervocalically; *s* is sometimes voiced intervocalically; *x* is never voiced. The alveolar fricative /s/ has an optional allophone /h/ in phrase-initial position:

* *sáapa* "what" > [háapa]
* *sapée* "who" > [hapée]

Sonorants voiced /m/ and /n/ have three allophones: *w* and *l* intervocalically, *b* and *d* word initially and following an obstruent, and *m* and *n* in all other conditions. In conservative speech, *l* is realized as a tapped *r*, however in general cases it is realized as *l*, perhaps due in part to the influence of English. Word initially, *b* is optional for /m/, though *b* is more commonly realized. The glottal sonorant /h/ assimilates to the nasality of the following segment, but retains its voicelessness. When following *i* or *e* or preceding *ch*, /h/ may be realized as an alveopalatal fricative.
Dorig phonology

Dorig has 8 phonemic vowels. These include 7 short monophthongs /i ɪ ɛ a ɔ ʊ u/ and one long vowel /aː/.

Dorig vowels

The phonotactic template for a syllable in Dorig is: /CCVC/ — e.g. /rk͡pʷa/ ‘woman’; /ŋ͡mʷsar/ ‘poor’; /wrɪt/ ‘octopus’. Remarkably, the consonant clusters of these /CCVC/ syllables are not constrained by the Sonority Sequencing Principle.
Dental click

**Dental** (or more precisely **denti-alveolar**) **clicks** are a family of click consonants found, as constituents of words, only in Africa and in the Damin ritual jargon of Australia.

In English, the *tut-tut!* (British spelling, "tutting") or *tsk! tsk!* (American spelling, "tsking") sound used to express disapproval or pity is an unreleased dental click, although it is not a lexical phoneme (a sound that distinguishes words) in English but a paralinguistic speech-sound. Similarly paralinguistic usage of dental clicks is made in certain other languages, but the meaning thereof differs widely between many of the languages (e.g., affirmation in Somali but negation in many varieties of Arabic).

The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the place of articulation of these sounds is ⟨ǀ⟩, a vertical bar. Prior to 1989, ⟨ʇ⟩ was the IPA letter for the dental clicks. It is still occasionally used where the symbol ⟨ǀ⟩ would be confounded with other symbols, such as prosody marks, or simply because in many fonts the vertical bar is indistinguishable from an el or capital i. Either letter may be combined with a second letter to indicate the manner of articulation, though this is commonly omitted for tenuis clicks.
Dangme phonology

## Consonants

* /m, p, b/ are bilabial, whereas /f, v/ are labiodental.
* /p, b, t, d, k, ɡ/ are singly articulated plosives, /t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/ are affricates (stops with a strong fricative release), whereas /k͡p, ɡ͡b/ are doubly articulated plosives.
* /l/ varies between a lateral approximant [l] and a central trill [r].
* /j/ has a fricative allophone [ʒ].

## Vowels

Adangme has 18 oral vowels and 18 nasal vowels.

* The front vowels are unrounded, whereas the back vowels are rounded.
* /i, u/ are slightly more open than /ĩ, ũ/.
* /e, o/ are close-mid [e, o]. They do not have nasal counterparts.
* /ɛ̃, ɔ̃/ are open-mid [ɛ̃, ɔ̃], whereas /ɛ, ɔ/ are somewhat lower (near-open) [æ, ɔ̞].
* The nasal /ã/ is open front [ã], whereas the oral /a/ is slightly retracted (near-front) [a̠].

## Tones

Adangme has three tones: high, mid and low. Like many West African languages, it has tone terracing.

## Phonotactics

The possible syllable structures are V, CV, or CCV where the second consonant is /l/.
Ekoid phonology

Proto-Ekoid is reconstructed with the following vowels and tones: \*/i y e ø ɛ œ æ a ɑ ɒ ʌ ɔ ɤ o ɯ u ɨ ʉ ɘ ɵ ɜ ɞ ɐ/; high, low, rising, falling, and downstep. The rising and falling tones, though, might be composite.

It is thought to have the following consonants:

[ɲ] occurs at the beginning of a word, and [ŋ] in the middle or at the end.
Desia phonology

Desia variety has 21 consonant phonemes, 2 semivowel phonemes and 6 vowel phonemes.

There are no long vowels in Desia just like Standard Odia.

Desia shows loss of both voiceless and voiced aspirated consonants as well as retroflex consonants like retroflex unaspirated nasal ɳ and ɭ which are present in Standard Odia.
Darumbal phonology

## Consonant inventory

### Voicing distinction of stops

Dharumbal possesses a rare distinction (among Pama-Nyungan languages) between voiced and voiceless stops, which seems to be maintained intervocalically, but not in other environments, where voicing seems to be in free variation. This observation, posited by Holmer and maintained by Terrill, is supported by the consistency to which older authors transcribed certain words; intervocalically, there is greater consistency in the use of a certain symbol, while in other environments (word-initially, after liquids), there is more variation.

Other Pama-Nyungan languages with a voicing distinction of stops include Thangatti, Marrgany-Gunya, Wangkumara, and Diyari.

### Laminals

Laminal consonants are often realised interdentally, but may also be realised palatally in any position, except for the laminal nasal, which must be realised palatally in word-final position.

### Laterals

Lateral consonants may not appear word-initially.

### Rhotics

From the existing material, Terrill concludes that there were likely three phonemically distinct rhotic consonants: a retroflex continuant, and two trills, distinguished by voicing. The two trills only appear intervocalically and never word-initially. The (near) minimal pairs given by Stephen Wurm are:

* *wuru* "son"
* *wurhu* "nose"
* *gurru* "fly"

Additional minimal pairs were observed by Holmer.

## Vowel inventory

 Open

Dharumbal has three phonemic vowels. Terrill finds no evidence for contrastive vowel length. Roth used various diacritics in his transcriptions, but no explanation for their function was provided.
Cyrillic script

The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. It has twenty consonants (⟨б⟩, ⟨в⟩, ⟨г⟩, ⟨д⟩, ⟨ж⟩, ⟨з⟩, ⟨к⟩, ⟨л⟩, ⟨м⟩, ⟨н⟩, ⟨п⟩, ⟨р⟩, ⟨с⟩, ⟨т⟩, ⟨ф⟩, ⟨х⟩, ⟨ц⟩, ⟨ч⟩, ⟨ш⟩, ⟨щ⟩), ten vowels (⟨а⟩, ⟨е⟩, ⟨ё⟩, ⟨и⟩, ⟨о⟩, ⟨у⟩, ⟨ы⟩, ⟨э⟩, ⟨ю⟩, ⟨я⟩), a semivowel (⟨й⟩), and two modifier letters ("signs": ⟨ь⟩ and ⟨ъ⟩) that alter pronunciation of a preceding consonant and/or a following vowel.
Dom phonology

The Dom consonant system consists of 13 indigenous and 3 loan consonants.

The phonemes /c/[ts], /j/[ndʒ]and /ʟ/[ʟ] are loan phonemes and unstable in use.

~ ˩˥*du* 'squeeze'
~ ˩˥*nu* 'aim at'
~ ˩˥*ku* 'hold in the mouth'
~ ˩˥*gu* 'shave'
~ ˩˥*pu* 'blow'
~ ˩˥*mu* 'his/her back'
~ ˩˥*yu* 'harvest taro'
### Allophones

Variants can be determined by the factors of dialect or age. Certain exceptions show archaic variants, for example the existence of intervocal [b] in the word ˥˩*iba* 'but' or the otherwise non-existent sequence [lk], which is used only by elderly people or in official situations. Brackets "()" show, that the allophone is used only in loanwords.
Derung phonology

## Consonants

Dulong has twenty-four initial consonants at six points of articulation, plus the consonant clusters /pr, br, mr, kr, xr, gr, pl, bl, ml, kl, gl/ in initial position; only the consonants /p, t, ʔ, k, b, d, ɡ, n, m, ŋ, f, s, x, v, z, ɣ, ʙ, r, l, ʎ, ʟ/ occur in final position.

## Vowels

Dulong has sixteen vowels, /i, y, ø, ɘ, ε, œ, ə, æ, ɑ, ɒ, ʌ, ɔ, ɵ, ɤ, ɯ, u/, and six diphthongs, /əi, ɑi, ɯi, əu, ɑu, yu/, which only appear in open syllables.

## Tones

Dulong has 3 tones: high level, high falling, and low falling. In the Dulong language, tone has the role of differentiating the meaning of a few words, with about 8% words (out of about 4000) completely relying on tones to distinguish them.
Dogri phonology

## Consonants

* Gemination occurs in all consonants except the consonants /ɾ ʃ ɽ ɳ/.
* Retroflex consonants /ɽ ɳ/ rarely occur in word initial position.
* /f z/ only occur from Perso-Arabic loan words, and /f/ is also heard as an allophone of an aspirated /pʰ/.
* /ɾ/ can also marginally be heard as trilled [r] in some speech.
* In some words, /s/ can become more weakly pronounced, or even eliminated and replaced by a glottal fricative sound [h].
* A palatal nasal sound [ɲ] typically occurs when a dental nasal precedes a post-alveolar affricate consonant, rarely occurring in words word-initially or medially.
* A velar nasal sound [ŋ] typically occurs when a dental nasal precedes a velar plosive consonant, and rarely occurs word-initially or medially.

## Vowels

* There are nasalized variations of the following vowels [ĩ ʊ̃ ɔ̃ ɑ̃ ɛ̃].
* Vowel sounds are often nasalized when occurring before a word-medial or word-final /n/, except when /n/ occurs before a word-final vowel.
* /ʊ/ can have a marginal upgliding allophone [ʊᵛ] when occurring before a /ɑ/ vowel sound.

A word-final /ɑ/ can also be realized as drifting toward a centralized [a] sound.
Dalabon phonology

## Consonants

There are 22 or 23 phonemic consonants in Dalabon, depending on the phonemic status of /h/. A table containing the consonant phonemes is given below with their orthographic representation (in angle brackets).

## Vowels

There are 6 vowels in Dalabon. A table containing the vowel phonemes is given below with their orthographic representation (in angle brackets).

Dalabon vowel phonemes
 mid | ⟨e⟩ /e/
 low |  | ⟨a⟩ /a/
Cupeño phonology

## Vowels

 **Low** | æ, æː | a, aː | ɒ, ɒː

/ɛ/ and /o/ appear largely in Spanish loanwords, but also as allophones of /ə/ in native Cupeño words.

/i/ can also be realized as [ɪ] in closed syllables, and [e] in some open syllables.

/u/ may reduce to schwa in unstressed syllables.

/ə/ also appears as [ɨː] when long and stressed, [o] after labials and [q], and as [ɛ] before [w].

/a/ is also realized as [ɑ] before uvulars.

## Consonants

1. /kʷ/ is realized as [qʷ] before unstressed /a/ or /e/. [x] and [χ] appear to be in free variation.
2. /tʃ/ is realized as [ʃ] in syllable codas.
3. /v/, /ð/, and /ɾ/ appear only in Spanish loanwords.
Crimean Tatar alphabet

For the modern Crimean Tatar phonology, the Latin and the Cyrillic alphabets are used. The Latin script dominates on the Internet and the Cyrillic script in printed productions. Historically, the Arabic script was also used.

## History

### The Arabic Script

1 — The letter **ﻙ** (kef) was often used in place of **ﮒ** and **ﯓ**.

### The Latin Alphabet

In 1928, during latinisation in the Soviet Union the Crimean Tatar Arabic alphabet was replaced by the Latin alphabet based on the Yañalif script. This alphabet contained a number of differences from the modern variant. Particularly, in letters **Ь ь**, **Ƣ ƣ**, **N̡ ᶇ**, **Ɵ ɵ**, **X x**, **Ƶ ƶ**, **I i** instead of modern **Â â**, **Ğ ğ**, **I ı**, **İ i**, **Ñ ñ**, **Ö ö**, and **Ü ü**.

## Modern alphabets

### Latin

Modern Latin alphabet for Crimean Tatar was introduced in 1990s. It is based on Turkish alphabet with three special letters — **Q**, **Ñ**, **Â**. Its official use in Crimea was accepted in 1997 by Crimean Parliament. In 2021 it was approved by the government of Ukraine, to be adopted in education by September 2025.

\***Ââ** is not recognized as separate letter. It is used to show softness of a consonant followed by **Aa**.

### Cyrillic

Cyrillic for Crimean Tatar was introduced in 1938 as part of Cyrillization of languages in Soviet Union. It is based on Russian alphabet with no special letters. From 1938 to 1990s, that was the only alphabet used for Crimean Tatar.

\**Гъ* (*ğ*), *къ* (*q*), *нъ* (*ñ*) and *дж* (*c*) are separate letters of the alphabet (digraphs).
Edo orthgraphy

The Edo alphabet has separate letters for the nasalised allophones of /ʋ/ and /l/, *mw* and *n*:

Long vowels are written by doubling the letter. Nasal vowels may be written with a final -n or with an initial nasal consonant. Tone may be written with acute accent, grave accent, and unmarked, or with a final -h (-nh with a nasal vowel).
Drag-yab phonology

Suzuki & Nyima (2018) report the following phonemes from the Razi dialect of Drag-yab.

Consonants: /pʰ, p, b, tʰ, t, d, ʈʰ, ʈ, ɖ, kʰ, k, ɡ, qʰ, q, ɢ, ʔ, tsʰ, ts, dz, tɕʰ, tɕ, dʑ, ɸ, β, f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ɕ, ʑ, x, ɣ, χ, ʁ, h, ɦ, m, m̥, n, n̥, ȵ, ȵ̊, ŋ, ŋ̊, ɴ, ɴ̥, l, l̥, r, r̥, w, j/.

Vowels: /i, y, e, ø, ɛ, œ, æ, a, ɑ, ɒ, ʌ, ɔ, o, u, ɯ, ɨ, ʉ, ə, ɘ, ɵ, ɜ, ɐ/. Suzuki & Nyima (2018) report that each vowel has a creaky and nasalized counterpart.

Tones are high and rising. The first two syllables of each word act as the tone bearing unit. The second syllable is occasionally out of the tone bearing unit.
Czech phonology

## Consonants

The following chart shows a complete list of the consonant phonemes of Czech:

/iː/ is spelled í and ý
/ɛː/ is spelled é
/aː/ is spelled á
/oː/ is spelled ó (this phoneme occurs almost exclusively in words of foreign origin)
/uː/ is spelled ú and ů with the former only used when it is the first letter of an unbound morpheme, as well as in loanwords and onomatopoeia.
### Diphthongs

/au̯/ is spelled au (occurs almost exclusively in words of foreign origin)
/eu̯/ is spelled eu (occurs in words of foreign origin only)
/ou̯/ is spelled ou
Decimal

The **decimal** numeral system (also called the **base-ten** positional numeral system, and occasionally called **denary** or **decanary**) is the standard system for denoting integer and non-integer numbers. It is the extension to non-integer numbers of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. The way of denoting numbers in the decimal system is often referred to as *decimal notation*.
Dusun phonology

Dusun is written using the Latin alphabet using 22 characters (the letters C, E, F, Q, and X are used in loanwords):

A B D G H I K L M N O P R S T U V W Y Z

These characters together are called *Pimato*.

## Vowels

The vowels are divided into:

Simple vowels: /i u a e o/

Diphthongs: *aa ai* (sometimes pronounced /e/) *ii oi uu*

Forschner (1978) notes for the Rungus dialect that the phoneme /e/ is a contraction of the diphthongs /ai/ or /oi/.

Some combinations of vowels do not form diphthongs and each vowel retains its separate sound: **ao ia iu ui ue**. In some words aa is not a diphthong, and this is indicated by an apostrophe between the two vowels: a’a.
Ekari phonology

## Consonants

 voiced | b
 Nasal | m
 Approximant | w

The voiced velar stop (ɡᶫ) is pronounced with lateral release. Doble (1987) describes both /k/ and /ɡᶫ/ as being labialized [kʷ, ɡᶫʷ] after the back vowels /o, u/ (i.e. *okei* 'they', *euga* 'more'), with *g* having 'varying' degrees of the lateral. Staroverov & Tebay (2019) describe /ɡᶫ/ as being velar lateral [ɡᶫ] before front vowels and uvular non-lateral [ɢʶ] before non-front vowels. When lateral, there is usually a stop onset, but occasionally just [ʟ] is heard.

/j/ is a 'more palatalized [ʒ]' (perhaps [ʝ] or [ʑ]) before the high front vowel /i/ (i.e. *yina* 'insect').

## Vowels

Both Doble (1987) and Staroverov & Tebay (2019) describe five vowel qualities. Long vowels and diphthongs are analyzed as sequences.

 high-mid | e
 low-mid | ɛ
 low | æ

## Tone

Ekari has pitch accent. One syllable in a word may have a high tone, contrasting with words without a high tone. If the vowel is long or a diphthong and not at the end of the word, the high tone is phonetically rising.

CV words have no tone contrast. CVV words may be mid/low or high. (In all of these patterns, here and following, initial C is optional.)

Words of the following shapes may have a contrastive high tone on the final syllable: CVCV, CVCVV. Words of the following shapes may have either a rising or a falling tone on the first long syllable: CVVCV, CVVCVV, CVCVVCVV, CVVCVCV (rare), CVVCVCVV (rare). The following word shapes do not have contrastive tone: CVCVCV, CVCVVCV, CVCVCVV, and words of 4 or more syllables.
Cree phonology

This table shows the possible consonant phonemes in the Cree language or one of its varieties.

Vowels

In dictionaries focused on Eastern Swampy Cree, Western Swampy Cree may readily substitute ⟨sh⟩ with ⟨s⟩, while Lowland Moose Cree may readily substitute ⟨ñ⟩ with their ⟨l⟩. In dictionaries focused on Southern Plains Cree, Northern Plains Cree may readily substitute ⟨ē⟩ with ⟨ī⟩, while materials accommodating Rocky Cree will indicate the Plains Cree [j] that is [ð] in Rocky Cree as ⟨ý⟩. Similarly, in dictionaries focused on Western Swampy Cree, Woods Cree may readily substitute ⟨ē⟩ with ⟨ī⟩, while materials accommodating Woods Cree will indicate the Western Swampy Cree [n] that is [ð] in Woods Cree as ⟨ń⟩. Atikamekw uses ⟨c⟩ [ʃ], ⟨tc⟩ [t͡ʃ], and ⟨i⟩ [j] (which also serves as ⟨i⟩ [i]). Eastern James Bay Cree prefers to indicate long vowels (other than [eː]) by doubling the vowel, while the western Cree use either a macron or circumflex diacritic; as [eː] is always long, often it is written as just ⟨e⟩ without doubling or using a diacritic. While Western Cree dialects make use of ⟨o⟩ and either ⟨ō⟩ or ⟨ô⟩, Eastern Cree dialects instead make use of ⟨u⟩ and either ⟨uu⟩, ⟨ū⟩, or ⟨û⟩.
Diphthong

A **diphthong**, also known as a **gliding vowel**, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of the speech apparatus) moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. In most varieties of English, the phrase *no highway cowboy* has five distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable.
Dargwa phonology

## Consonants

* Phonemes in gold are present in the literary standard dialect of Dargwa but absent in some other dialect(s).
* Phonemes in pink are present in some dialect(s) of Dargwa but absent in the literary standard dialect.
* The source is rather ambiguous in its using the term "laryngeal" for a presumed column of consonants that includes both a "voiced" and a "glottalized" plosive. A voiced glottal plosive cannot be made, because the glottis needs to be closed, and an ejective consonant requires an additional closure further up the vocal tract. Pending clarification, this row has been transcribed here as an epiglottal column and a glottal stop, both found in many other East Caucasian languages.

## Vowels

The Dargwa language features five vowel sounds /i, e, ə, a, u/. Vowels /i, u, a/ can be pharyngealized as /iˤ, uˤ, aˤ/. There may also be a pharyngealized mid-back vowel [oˤ] as a realization of /uˤ/, occurring in the Megeb dialect.
Crimean Tatar phonology

## Vowels

The vowel system of Crimean Tatar is similar to some other Turkic languages. Because high vowels in Crimean Tatar are short and reduced, /i/ and /ɯ/ are realized close to [ɪ], even though they are phonologically distinct.

## Consonants

In addition to these phonemes, Crimean also displays marginal phonemes that occur in borrowed words, especially palatalized consonants.

/k/ and /ɡ/ are usually fronted, close to [c] and [ɟ].
Dzubukua phonology

Phonology of the Dzubukua language:

## Vowels

Vowel sounds are presented as [i, ɨ, ʉ, u, e, ø, ɤ, o, ə, ɛ, ʌ, ɔ, æ, ɐ, a, ɑ, ɒ] and [œ] which is written out as a double vowel *oe*. Nasal vowels are pronounced as [ɐ̃, ẽ, ɛ̃, ĩ, õ, ɔ̃, ũ] along with nasalized double vowels *oê* and *aê*, not pronounced as diphthongs, but as nasalized monophthongs [œ̃, æ̃].

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 de Queiroz, José Márcio Correia. 2008. *Aspectos da fonologia Dzubukuá*. MA thesis, Recife: Universidade Federal de Pernambuco. 124pp.
Ejective consonant

In phonetics, **ejective consonants** are usually voiceless consonants that are pronounced with a glottalic egressive airstream. In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated, voiced and tenuis consonants. Some languages have glottalized sonorants with creaky voice that pattern with ejectives phonologically, and other languages have ejectives that pattern with implosives, which has led to phonologists positing a phonological class of glottalic consonants, which includes ejectives.
Dolgan orthography

Over time, the language itself has changed and adapted. Even during the time period when it had a Cyrillic alphabet, it changed over the years. The first version of alphabet of the language had the following appearance: **А а, Б б, В в, Г г, Д д, Дь дь, Е е, Ё ё, Ж ж, З з, И и, Иэ иэ, Й й, К к, Л л, М м, Н н, Ӈ ӈ, Нь нь, О о, Ө ө, П п, Р р, С с, Т т, У у, Уо уо, Ү ү, Үө үө, Ф ф, Х х, Һ һ, Ц ц, Ч ч, Ш ш, Щ щ, Ъ ъ, Ы ы, Ыа ыа, Ь ь, Э э, Ю ю, Я я**.

The current Dolgan alphabet is still Cyrillic and looks as follows:

## References

1. ↑ *Аксенова О. Е.* Бэсэлээ буквалар. — Красноярск: Красноярское кн. изд-во, 1990. — 16 с.
Dirasha phonology

## Phonetic Inventory: Consonant IPA Symbols

Dirayta transcription utilizes symbols that differ from those of the traditional IPA chart. Each ejective may be written two ways.

When /n/ and /ʔ/ occur as /nʔ/, they contract to form ŋ. /n/ and /ʔ/ must occur in that sequence, with no intervening vowels or consonants.

## Low and High Tones

-Dirayta is a 2-tone language.

**-Low Tone:** Absence of accentual markings

Low Tone: Monosyllabic CVVC words
 e
 a
 u

**-High Tone:** Represented by acute accent diacritic above vowel (í, é, á, ú, ó, ɔ́)

-Mandatory for monosyllabic CVC and disyllabic CVC/CVVC words

High Tone Accentual Patterns: Monosyllabic CVC Words
 á
 ú
 ɔ́

-For disyllabic words, only one syllable may contain high tone.

-High tone is (mostly) assigned to the first vowel within the initial syllable. However, high tone may be assigned to the first vowel within the ultimate syllable.

-For trisyllabic words, high tone is (mostly) assigned to the ultimate syllable. However, high tone may be assigned to BOTH initial and ultimate syllables.
Elfdalian phonology

## Consonants

* /v/ was historically pronounced as [β].
* Sounds /t͡s̺ d͡z̺ s̺/ are released as apico-alveolar.

## Vowels

* Sounds /o oː/ are heard as /u uː/ in some parts of Övdaln.

Nasal vowels

* Sounds /ɛ̃ ɛ̃ː/ are heard primarily in Övdaln, whereas /æ̃ æ̃ː/ are heard in other parts nearby.
* Sounds /ɔ̃ ɔ̃ː/ are heard as /õ õː/ or /ũ ũː/ in some parts of Övdaln.

The close vowel sounds /i iː/ or /ĩ ĩː/ are not present in Elfdalian.

### Diphthongs

* Sounds /uo uoː/ can be realized in some village dialects as [ʏæ ʏæː].
* /ɔy/ is realized in some village dialects [ɔj].
* /juo/ is realized in some dialects as [jʏæ].

Nasal diphthongs

* Sounds /ũo ũoː/ can be realized in some village dialects as [ʏæ̃ ʏæ̃ː].
* /jũo/ is realized in some dialects as [jʏæ̃].
Dungan phonology

## Consonants

The corresponding table compares current Dungan spelling, old Dungan spelling, pinyin and IPA.

## Vowels

Using Standard Chinese vowels as basis, each vowel and its respective current Dungan spelling is presented below, along with the old Dungan spelling, using pinyin and IPA.

Note that the correspondence between Dungan vowels and Standard Chinese vowels is not perfect.
Duna phonology

## Consonants

Duna's consonant system consists of twenty consonant phonemes with some allophonic variation. Stop phonemes are distinguished by aspiration and voicing / prenasalisation in three places of articulation. Only the glottal fricatives appear as distinct phonemes, but the aspirated stops can be realized as allophonic affricates or fricatives word-initially, f.e. in /pʰu/ "blow" which occurs as voiceless stop [pʰu], affricate [pɸu] or fricative [ɸu]. The glottal fricative only appears at the beginning of roots and alternates between a voiceless [h] and a murmured [ɦ] realisation: see /hɔ/ "here it is" with [hɔ] or [ɦɔ]. Allophonic variation also occurs with word-initial prenasalised stops in bilabial or velar place of articulation when preceding the vowel /a/, where the stop can be dropped: [ᵐbapu] vs. [mapu] "(en)circle". Word-initially, the tap has four allophonic realisations: [ɾ], [t], [d], [dɾ], as in /ɾiⁿdi/ "land", while emphatic speech can also lead to a realisation of a trill [r] word-initially or medially. Glides usually do not vary allophonically.

## Vowels

There are five phonemically distinct vowels. Following a back vowel, unrounded vowels in final syllables with a palatal glide in the coda are often reduced to an [ɘ] or [ɨ]. Vocalic nasalization often occurs for sound related words, as in *rũ-* "whine", and in context of nasal consonants; however, nasalisation seems to be optional in most cases.

## Pitch contrast

Ex. monosyllable pitch contrasts

"shore"

"origin"

"spell"

"lie"
Denaʼina phonology

Denaʼina is one of seven Alaska Athabaskan languages which does not distinguish phonemic tone.

## Consonants

The consonants of Denaʼina in practical orthography, with IPA equivalents indicated in square brackets.

## Vowels

The 18 vowels of Denaʼina. Note that close vowels are more open in the environment of a uvular consonant.

Generally, the vowels i, a, and u are considered 'long' vowels and are fully pronounced in words, however the e is considered a reduced vowel similar to the English schwa.

## Syllable structure

In the Inland dialect, syllables at the end of a semantic unit are often longer, lower in pitch, and have longer rhymes. The onset of a syllable has consonant clusters of up to three, such as CCCVC, though these are rare and more commonly, a syllable onset is one or two consonants.
Dahalik phonology

## Vowels

/ɛ/ might be another vowel. The vowel /ə/ only occurs in unstressed syllables.

 Close-mid | e
 Open-mid | ɛ
 Open | a

## Consonants

Dahalik has 21 consonants.

* The voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/ is the most common articulation of /q/ in the intervocalic position, while the voiceless uvular fricative /χ/ is used after a fricative.
* The velar fricative /x/ and the voiced alveolar sibilant /z/ are only used in loanwords from Arabic.
* Except for /c/ in a few cases, there are no ejective consonants in Dahalik, and the degree of pharyngealization in /tʼ/ is weak.
Degema phonology

Dẹgẹma is the only Niger-Congo language to match the vowel inventory reconstructed for Proto-Ijoid. There are ten vowels, in two harmonic sets: /i e a o u æ/ and /ɪ ɛ ə ɔ ʊ ɑ/.

Dẹgẹma has 24 consonants (including labialized velar-glottal sounds):

## References

1. ↑ Archangeli & Pulleyblank, 1994. *Grounded phonology*, p 181*ff*
Fang phonology

## Vowels

Fang has 7 vowels, each of which can have short or long realizations.

Vowel Phonemes
 Close-mid | e eː (ẽ)
 Open-mid | ɛ ɛː (ɛ̃)
 Open | a aː (ã)

Nasal vowels are allophones of the respective oral vowels, when followed by a nasal consonant [ŋ] or [ɲ]. Words can not start with [ɛ], [i], [ɔ] nor [u].

### Diphthongs

Diphthongs can be a combination of any vowel with [j] or [w], as well as [ea], [oe], [oa], [ua].

## Tone

Fang distinguishes between 7-8 different tones, conventionally called: high, mid, low, rising, falling, mid-high rising, mid-low falling, extra high (phonemic?). One vowel in a sequences of vowels can be elided in casual speech, though its tone remains and attaches to the remaining vowel.

## Consonants

In Fang, there are 24 plain consonants. The majority of them can become prenasalized:

/h/ is only used in interjections and loanwords.
Words can not start with /ŋ/, except when followed by a velar consonant. /ɾ/ and /z/ also are restricted from word-initial position. /g/ and /p/ can only come in word-initial position in words of foreign origin, although in many of these cases, /g/ becomes realized as [ŋg].

The morpheme "gh" is pronounced as ɾ in the case of the word "Beyoghe" (the Fang term for Libreville); one of several changes to pronunciation by morphology.

It is also important to note that in Fang, at every "hiatus" (shock of two vowels), such as in "Ma adzi", it is required for one to make the second word an aphetism, dropping the pronunciation of the aː sound at the start of the second word (e.g. "Ma dzi") in order to make grammatically correct sentences.
Domari phonology

## Vowels

There are five main vowel sounds, however this inventory shows the variation and quantity of short vowels. Most are interchangeable with a vowel sound next to it, however all of the sounds produced above are identical to the local Palestinian Arabic (Matras 1999).

 **Mid** | ɛ eː
 **Low** |  | ɑ aː

## Consonants

Most of these consonants are influenced by Palestinian Arabic such as gemination; however, consonants such as [p], [g], [tʃ] and [h] are not found in the local dialect. There is speculation among linguists that these sounds are considered a part of the pre-Arabic component. Alveopalatal affricates such as [tʃ] and [dʒ] are also consonants that differ in sound from Arabic.

## Stress

The biggest difference in expression of language between Arabic and Domari is where the stress is placed. Arabic has phoneme-level stress while Domari is a language of word-level stress. The Domari language emphasizes stress on the final syllable, as well as grammatical markers for gender and number. Most nouns, besides proper nouns, adopted from Arabic sound distinct because of the unique stresses in Domari (Matras 1999). Domari is thought to have borrowed a lot of words and grammatical structure from Arabic; however, this is not entirely true. Complex verbs and most core prepositions did not transfer into the realms of grammar of the Domari language. The syntactic typology remains independent of Arabic influence. It also important to note that the numerals used by the *Doms* were inherited from Kurdish. Even though Domari was influenced by local Arabic, the language also felt the impacts of Kurdish and certain dialects of Iranian in the grammar of the language.
Erromanga phonology

## Consonants

* /s/ is heard as [ʃ] when preceding /t/.
* /r/ is heard as [d] when following /n/. Elsewhere, it is heard as a trill [r] or tap [ɾ].

## Vowels

The main difference between the Southern Vanuatu vowel systems lies in the status of the mid central vowel, which was present in the proto-language. This vowel is not present in Anejom̃, while it is in the Tanna languages. In Erromango, however, while there is evidence for an underlying contrastive schwa /ə/, it does not contrast at the surface level of representation.
Emilian phonology

## Consonants

* Affricates [t͡s, d͡z] are heard as alternates of fricative sounds /θ, ð/ particularly among southern dialects.
* In the Piacentino dialect, an /r/ sound can be heard as either an alveolar trill [r], or as a uvular fricative [ʁ] sound.

## Vowels

* Rounded front vowel sounds /y, ø, œ/ and a mid-central vowel sound /ə/ are mainly common in the Piacentino and western dialects.
* In the Piacentino dialect, five vowel sounds being followed by /n/, are then recognized as nasalized [ĩ ẽ ɛ̃ ã ɔ̃ õ ũ], unless /n/ occurs between two vowel sounds.

* Vowel length is also distinguished for the following vowels [iː eː ɛː aː ɔː oː uː].
Emphatic consonant

In Semitic linguistics, an **emphatic consonant** is an obstruent consonant which originally contrasted with series of both voiced and voiceless obstruents. In specific Semitic languages, the members of this series may be realized as uvularized or pharyngealized, velarized, ejective, or plain voiced or voiceless consonants. It is also used, to a lesser extent, to describe cognate series in other Afro-Asiatic languages, where they are typically realized as ejective, implosive, or pharyngealized consonants.
Gokana orthography

Nasal vowels are indicated by a tilde and Tones are indicated by an acute or grave accent:

* The high tone is indicated by an acute accent : á, ã́, é, ẹ́, ẽ́, í, ĩ́, ó, ọ́, ṍ, ú, ṹ, ḿ ;
* The low tone is indicated by a grave accent  : à, ã̀, è, ẹ̀, ẽ̀, ì, ĩ̀, ò, ọ̀, õ̀, ù, ũ̀, m̀ ;
* The middle tone is indicated with no diacritic.
Fon phonology

Fon has seven oral vowel phonemes and five nasal vowel phonemes.

/p/ only occurs in linguistic mimesis and loanwords, though often it is replaced by /f/ in the latter, as in *cɔ́fù* 'shop'. Several of the voiced occlusives only occur before oral vowels, while the homorganic nasal stops only occur before nasal vowels, indicating that [b] [m] and [ɖ] [n] are allophones. [ɲ] is in free variation with [j̃]; Fongbe therefore can be argued to have no phonemic nasal consonants, a pattern rather common in West Africa. /w/ and /l/ are also nasalized before nasal vowels; /w/ may be assimilated to [ɥ] before /i/.

The only consonant clusters in Fon have /l/ or /j/ as the second consonant; after (post)alveolars, /l/ is optionally realized as [ɾ]: *klɔ́* 'to wash', wlí 'to catch', jlò [d͡ʒlò] ~ [d͡ʒɾò] 'to want'.

Tone
Fon has two phonemic tones, HIGH and LOW. High is realized as rising (low–high) after a voiced consonant. Basic disyllabic words have all four possibilities: HIGH–HIGH, HIGH–LOW, LOW–HIGH, and LOW–LOW.

In longer phonological words, such as verb and noun phrases, a high tone tends to persist until the final syllable; if that syllable has a phonemic low tone, it becomes falling (high–low). Low tones disappear between high tones, but their effect remains as a downstep. Rising tones (low–high) simplify to HIGH after HIGH (without triggering downstep) and to LOW before HIGH.

Hwevísatɔ́, é ko hɔ asón we.
"The fishmonger, she bought two crabs"
In Ouidah, a rising or falling tone is realized as a mid tone. For example, mǐ 'we, you', phonemically high-tone /bĩ́/ but phonetically rising because of the voiced consonant, is generally mid-tone [mĩ̄] in Ouidah.
Erromintxela phonology

According to Baudrimont's description of 1862 and modern southern sources, Erromintxela appears to have, at maximum, the sound system below. Southern speakers appear not to have the rounded vowel /y/ or the consonant /θ/, in line with north-south differences in Basque, and it is not clear if the northern distinction between /ɡ/ and /ɣ/ also exists in the south.

Baudrimont uses a semi-phonetic system with the following diverging conventions:

## References

1. ↑ Baudrimont, A. (1862) *Vocabulaire de la langue des Bohémiens habitant les pays basques français* Academie Impériale des Sciences, Bordeaux