recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Energibærere

Energycarriers are a convenient form of stored energy. Electrical energy is an example of an energy carrier. We cannot find any usable electrical energy in nature, and it is therefore an energi carrier and not an energy source. Hydrogen gas does not exist in large amounts on Earth either and we cannot use it is an energy source, but we use it as an energy carrier.

Most of the electrical energy produced in Norway comes from hydroelectric power plants. The energy source is hydroelectricity, but we convert it into electrical energy so that it is easier to transport and use later.

Electrical energy itself is not harmful for the environment. Whether it is sustainable or not depends on the energy source. The electrical energy produced in Norway usually comes from hydroelectricity. However, most of the electrical energy produced worldwide comes from burning fossil fuels, and is therefore not sustainable.
Vitamin K

Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin, and is important for blood coagulation and the building and maintanance of bones.

We have two types: vitamin K1 and vitamin K2. Vitamin K1 exists mainly in greeny leefy vegetables such as kale, spinach, romaine and so on, as well as other vegetables such as brussel sprouts, broccoli, cabbage and so on. K2 is made from bacteria, so the best sources are therefore fermented foods such as yoghurt, cheeses, fermented vegetables, and so on. Our body can also create K2 with our own intestine bacteria, but some believe this amount is not sufficiant.

Sources:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1492156, https://www.vitusapotek.no/livsstil-og-kosthold/vitaminer-og-mineraler/vitamin-k2/a/A101017, https://forskning.no/menneskekroppen-blod-forebyggende-helse/derfor-er-k-vitamin-sa-viktig/276706
Solar panels

The basic concept for a solar panel, is to turn solar energy into electricity. This is useful due to, solar energy being a renewable energy source. Unlike solar collectors, solar panels can turn solar energy into electricity.

Now, let's get into the how of it!

The solar panel itself doesn't turn solar energy into electricity. It uses solar cells to do this. The only problem is that solar cells produce a small amount of energy. Therefore, we need to group quite a few of solar cells, and then we create the solar panel.

The question is, how do solar cells work?

Inside the solar cell, we have two kinds of wafers- thin layers of silicon, placed on top of each other. Note that this two silicons are different. The top layer has been modified to be negative, because it has a surplus of electrons, and we call N type. The bottom layer has been modified to be positive, because it has a lack of electrons, and we call it P type. You might notice that these two silicons complement each other. One has a surplus of electrons while the other wants electrons. The setup is ready to go. However, we are missing one thing. The electrons in the silicon crystals can't move until being exposed to light.

The panel, once exposed to light, the photons will excite the electrons in the N type silicon which will do that the electrons jump and are move to the P type silicon. This creates DC (Direct Current), and then we have electricity. However, our electricity is used in AC type (Alternating Current) so they have to pass an inverter.
Vitamin C

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin found in all fruits with larger amounts in citrus fruits. Unlike most animals, humans cannot synthesize vitamin C in their bodies, and therefore needs to be obtained through food. Vitamin C acts as an antioxidant. It’s necessary for the development, growth and repair of body tissues.

Since Vitamin C is water-soluble, excess amounts of the vitamin will be excreted through urin.

Vitamin C deficiency (scurvy) can lead to symptoms like fatigue, depression and  tissue defects (rashes, petechiae, gingivitis, impaired wound healing and internal bleeding). It has to said that it is uncommon to get a severe deficiency in modern society.

Sources:

https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-Consumer/

https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/nutritional-disorders/vitamin-deficiency,-dependency,-and-toxicity/vitamin-c
PET

PET - radioactive trace elements that sends out gamma foton pairs.

PET is a method where you use a radioactive isotop to make pictures. PET gives very accurate pictures right down to a cellular level. For eksempel scientists can bind radioactive fluorine atoms (F- 18) to glukose molecules, witch then gets injected into a pasient.

The PET- machine was made so it can register a foton pair with a gamma camera and in that way, make a picture that shows accurately where waves comes from. The method is similar to scintigraphy, but gives much more details.

**Positron emission tomography–computed tomography** (better known as **PET-CT** or **PET/CT**) is a nuclear medicine technique which combines, in a single gantry, a positron emission tomography (PET) scanner and an x-ray computed tomography (CT) scanner, to acquire sequential images from both devices in the same session, which are combined into a single superposed (co-registered) image. Thus, functional imaging obtained by PET, which depicts the spatial distribution of metabolic or biochemical activity in the body can be more precisely aligned or correlated with anatomic imaging obtained by CT scanning. Two- and three-dimensional image reconstruction may be rendered as a function of a common software and control system.
Starch

**Starch** is a polysaccharide consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by bonds. Corn and potatoes contain a high amount of starch, although polysaccharides is mostly produced by green plants as energy storage. When starch is consumed in our body instead, our digestive system splits it into glucose before entering the bloodstream.

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Trace Elements

**What is a trace element?**

A trace element, or a micronutrient, is an element our body needs in fewer amounts than the macronutrients. Per day, our body needs about 15 milligrams of micronutrients per day (Britannica, 2018), but in general, trace elements have similar abilities and cover the same uses as minerals/ macronutrients. Examples of important micronutrients are iron and zinc, both crucial for several enzymes to work properly in the body.
Absorption spectrum

In an *absorption spectrum,* portions of a continuous spectrum are missing because they have been absorbed by the medium through which the light has passed; the missing wavelengths appear as dark lines or gaps.

A *material's absorption spectrum* is the fraction of incident radiation absorbed by the material over a range of frequencies. The absorption spectrum is primarily determined by the atomic and molecular composition of the material. The absorption that occurs due to a transition between two states is referred to as an absorption line and a spectrum is typically composed of many lines.

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**Read more: https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/nasa/measuringuniverse/spectroscopy/a/absorptionemission-lines**

## Relation to emission spectrum

Emission is a process by which a substance releases energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The emission spectrum will typically have a quite different intensity pattern from the absorption spectrum, though, so the two are not equivalent.

Within *absorption spectrum*, the frequencies where absorption lines occur, as well as their relative intensities, primarily depend on the electronic and molecular structure of the sample. The frequencies will also depend on the interactions between molecules in the sample, the crystal structure in solids, and on several environmental factors (e.g., temperature, pressure, electromagnetic field).
Chromosome mutations

Chromosome mutations are mutations in a chromosome. There are different kinds of mutations, some include the whole chromosome, while others only include pieces of a chromosome. Some examples are: mutations there parts of the chromosome get erased, mutations where parts are added to the chromosome. There is also a possibility that parts of the chromosome change places. These are all changes that include many genes. Some might be dangerous, some might not.

An example of a syndrome that exists due to chromosome mutations is Downs syndrom. The people who have downs syndrome have three chromosome pairs of chromosome pair 21. The third chromosome pair exists because while Meiosis happened there were egg cells created with an additional chromosome pair. When the 24 chromosome pairs from the egg cell melt together with the 23 chromosome pairs from the sperm cell, the human that gets formed, receives one additional chromosome pair.
Ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation is a type of processionals that affects the atoms and molecules inside the human body. Some atoms are unstable and want to stabilize their nucleus. When the nucleus changes it emits such a high level of energy that it makes it possible for some of the atom's tightly bound electrons to get removed. After the electrons are removed from the atom the atom changes so that it is charged, or ionized.

Alpha, Beta and Gamma are the three most common types of ionizing radiation, and can be emitted as either waves or particles. Alpha travels rather slowly compared to other forms of radiation, and as it interacts with atoms and electrons it looses its energy. This makes alpha radiation more or less no threat to humans, unless it is released inside of the human body, if so it can do big damage causing ionization of atoms inside the body. Beta radiation travel faster and longer than alpha radiation , and can therefore cause more damage than alpha radiation on the outside our bodies, depending on their speed. As an example beta particles can cause beta burns, which are severe skin burns, if they are in fallout. Gamma radiation is the most damaging type of radiation out of the three mentioned above, and can easily penetrate through our skin. How far into our body it penetrates depends on its energy, some gamma rays can penetrate entirely through the body, ionizing thousands of atoms and cause major damage.

https://www.who.int/ionizing\_radiation/about/what\_is\_ir/en/

https://ehss.energy.gov/ohre/roadmap/achre/intro\_9\_1.html
Diagnostics

Diagnostics

Diagnostics are various methods used in the medical industry to identify the sickness/ disease of the patient, as well as the location. To treat a sickness one must first diagnose where and what it is.

There are diverse ways to diagnose patients, and some utilize ionising radiation, whereas some don’t. Examples of diagnosis methods can for example be ultrasound, which uses high frequency sound waves, or MR, which uses the magnetic field as well as radio signals.

Ionising radiation can also be used in various ways, too, with different types of radiation:

Diagnostics with ionizing radiation from outside the body, is used to illustrate the body’s content and structure, most commonly X-ray and CT.

Diagnostics where the ionizing radiation source is inside the body, is using gamma radiation to locate where its coming from.
Nature vs Nurture

Your characteristics are affected by both your parents and the enviroment you grow up in. Some characteristics are results of the people around you, while others are determined by one gene or several genes. Your genes determine what you will look like, and the enviroment decides how you act as a person, as well as what you are good / not good at.
Structure of carbohydrates

**Structure of carbohydrates**

Carbohydrates are classified into three subtypes: Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

The structure of carbohydrates determines how energy is stored in carbohydrate bonds during photosynthesis and how breaking these bonds releases energy through respiration.

**Monosaccharides**

Monosaccharides consist of a carbon chain of three or more carbon atoms containing an OH-group attached to every carbon except one. The lone carbon atom is double-bonded to an oxygen atom, and this double-bond may be in any position along the carbon chain. Therefore, one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms are present for every carbon atom in a monosaccharide.

**Disaccharides**

Dissacharides are sugars(carbohydrate molecules) that form when two monosaccharides are combined. Additionally, this reaction results in a glycosidic bond between the two monosaccharide molecules. This reaction also produces water (dihydrogenmonoxide) as a side product.

**Polysaccharides**

Polysaccharides are molecules composed of long chains of monosaccharides. Being relatively large macromolecules(A very large molecule), polysaccharides are usually insoluble in water.
Combustion

Combustion is a chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidising agent that produces energy (heat and light). Can be an exergonic or exothermic chemical reaction. It is also just known as burning - common examples being coal, methane gas, and sparklers. The general equation for this process is:

Fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Complete: The complete oxidisation of fuel. Produces high amounts of energy. Occurs where there is enough oxygen present. Produces CO2 and H2O as major byproducts. Creates a blue-coloured flame.

Incomplete: The partial oxidisation of fuel. Produces low amounts of energy. Occurs where there is not enough oxygen present. Produces CO, carbon dust and soot as major byproducts. Creates a yellow-coloured flame.
Carbohydrate's functions

The primary function of carbohydrates in our body is to provide our body with energy. Most of the carbohydrates we eat are digested and then broken down to glucose.

**Instant fuel**

All cells in our body rely on carbohydrates, especially glucose, to function. Glucose is essential for the proper function of our cells and provides then with instant fuel.

**Stored energy**

When our body has enough glucose to fulfill its needs, the excess glucose can be stored in the form of glycogen. Glycogen plays an important part in our energy levels, and whenever our energy levels drop, our body converts glycogen to glucose. In cases where both your body´s needs are fulfilled and glycogen storage is full, the excess carbohydrates are stored as triglyceride molecules, also known as fat.

**Transport**

**Digestive health**

Sources

Pearson, K. (2017) *What Are the Key Functions of Carbohydrates.* Downloaded 22.10.18 from https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/carbohydrate-functions
2

to wasa havre knekkebrød med leverpostei, majones og agurk. et 2dl glass med blå lett melk.

leverpostei: 1 ss = 20g, 3ss=60g --> dele 100 på en så gange med 60

according to ontrackdiabetes.com you should eat 45 to 60 grams carbs at breakfast

according to eatthis.com you should eat 15-25 grams of protein at breakfast

according to Columbia University ryou should eat 350 to 500 calories at breakfast

I would say I have a haelthy breakfast. I am within all the recommended amounts, except for kcal.
Fuel cells

Fuel cells is a type of galvanic element. You can find more about galvanic elements, by clicking the link. Fuel cells are cells that have the ability to produce electric energy, as long as enough fuel runs through the cell. There are different types of fuel cells that use different types of fuel, for example, Methane gas, methanol or ethanol, but the most fuel cells use Hydrogen gas.

**Hydrogen Fuel cell**

As said before, a fuel cell works only as along as fuel is available. The yellow arrows show the hydrogen gas entering the cell. Two and two hydrogen atoms bond to form H2. This bond gets broken, when the Hydrogen atoms bond with the metal in the electrolyte. The hydrogen atom who only possesses one electron, gives this electron away to the metal and turns into a positive hydrogen ion. The ion can now get through the electrolyte to the other side. The electron that it has given away travels through the circuit and creates electricity. On the other side, the electron now reunites with the positive hydrogen ion and creates a hydrogen atom. This atom bonds with oxygen atoms and creates H2o, water vapor.

Fuel cells can be used in cares. Many thought this was a solution to the problem of global warming through emissions, as cars with hydrogen fuel cells only emit water vapour. You can read more about sustainable energy here.
Henri Becquerel

The Discovery of Radioactivity - Becquerel

Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) born in Paris, was a physicist, Nobel laureate, and member of a distinguished wealthy household of scholars and known physicists. What was undoubtedly his greatest accomplishment, and remains his legacy, is being the first person to discover evidence of radioactivity. In 1896, in order to study the properties of x-rays (which has been discovered only a year earlier), he was using naturally fluorescent minerals - He had long been intrigued in phosphorescence "the emission of light of one colour following a body's exposure to light of another colour" which was the foundation for his discovery. By leaving a slice of radium in his vest pocket, then realising the burning effects, it led to the development of radiotherapy, the treatment of cancer today, as he uncovered that radioactivity could serve medical purposes too. His discovery of uraniums radioactive qualities forced scientists to alter all their plans on atomic structure. He also observed that radiation could discharge electrified bodies. His death, although stated was due to unknown causes, was most likely as a result of serious burns that had developed on his skin, from the handling of radioactive materials.
12

Consisting of primarily healthy fats and carbs, this breakfast is sufficiently healthy. The oatmeal provides a solid basis, and fills you up for longer times rather than other empty calorie foods such as sugary cereals or white bread. The toppings of yoghurt, raisins, chia and sesame seeds give more taste whilst still maintaining the healthiness. Concluding with a cup of ginger tea, no added sugars, is a good daily antioxidant.  Given my height, weight, and workout routines, this is a good meal plan, although my carbohydrate intake could be slightly restricted.
Harm done by alpha, beta and gamma

Exposure to radiation can cause some serious damage on our body. The severity of these symptoms depends on several factors such as: Amount of exposure, age, whether the radiation is internal or external, the distance from the source and you. Depending on these factors the severeness may vary.

**ALPHA EMISSION**

* ***Internal:*** Due to alpha having a short travel time, they will concentrate in a small area which causes the cells to die. This doesn't cause ARS (Acute Radiation Syndrome), but may lead to cancer.
* ***External:*** Since it's travel time is so short, then it can't penetrate meaning it doesn't harm us as much. It's the least dangerous of the external radiation.
Proteins

Proteins are made of amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids, and they can bind together to form long chains with hundreds of amino acids. The properties of a protein are decided by what amino acids the protein is made of, and the order of the amino acids.

When the cells make new proteins, three and three base pairs in the DNA, called codons, are a code for a specific amino acid. The four bases in the DNA can make 64 codons, and the 20 amino acids have more than one code each. Some codons work as start or stop signals.
Gene therapy

**Gene therapy** is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease. In the future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient's cells instead of using drugs or surgery.

Researchers are testing several approaches to gene therapy, including:

* Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene.
* Inactivating, or “knocking out,” a mutated gene that is functioning improperly.
* Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease.

### How gene therapy works

Gene therapy is designed to introduce genetic material into cells to compensate for abnormal genes or to make a beneficial protein. If a mutated gene causes a necessary protein to be faulty or missing, gene therapy may be able to introduce a normal copy of the gene to restore the function of the protein.

A gene that is inserted directly into a cell usually does not function. Instead, a carrier called a vector is genetically engineered to deliver the gene. Certain viruses are often used as vectors because they can deliver the new gene by infecting the cell. The viruses are modified so they can't cause disease when used in people.

### CRISPR/Cas9

With CRISPR/Cas9, scientists can go into cells and edit the genes themselves more easily and cheaper than previous methods. These changes in the DNA will not only be transfered to the human that grows up, but their children as well.
Visible light

Visible light is a form for electromagnetic radiation. Visible light is generally defined as the wavelengths that are visible to most human eyes. It is one of the seven regions the electromagnetic spectrum is divided into in order of decreasing wavelength and increasing energy and frequency.

Sources:

https://www.livescience.com/50678-visible-light.html
Natural Sciences

Natural sciences are important for our society. Regardless of if we're breeding better fish, producing more efficient energy or using stem cells to our advantage, research helps us approach relevant societal issues with a greater understanding and a greater ability to assess.

Often when carrying out experiments, we end up finding out something other than what we intended. If you are for example using a medicine on both boys and girls in order to find out how efficient it is, you might end up finding out that it only works for girls.
UV-stråling og ozonlaget

Det er slik UV-stråling blir absorbert i ozonlaget. Den begynner i den ytterste delen av atmosfæren, i ca. 100 kilometers høyde, der de mest energirike ultrafiolette strålene med bølgelengde mellom 180 og 240 nm. Her spaltes O2 gasser til frie O-atomer.

Det er den ultrafiolette strålingen som setter i gang denne reaksjonen.

Ozonlaget befinnes lengre nede i atmosfæren, i en høyde av ca. 30 km. Her spalter fotoner med bølgelengde fra 200 til 320 nm ozonmolekyler til vanlige oksygenmolekyler, og deretter frie oksygenatomer. Da blir energien overført til O2-molekylene og O-atomene, og da sier vi at fotonene er da absorbert.

Etter denne spaltingen, går de atomene sammen igjen for å danne nye O3-molekyler og da får vi tilbake den energien som var lagret i hos atomene og molekylene, fra fotonene, men energien vi får tilbake blir dels frigitt som varme til omgivelsene og dels fordelt på andre fotoner med lengre bølgelengder.

I konklusjon: ozonlagets O3- O2- molekyler og O-atomer absorberer energirik UV-stråling ved kjemiske reaksjoner og sender energien videre som varme eller ufarlige fotoner.
Energy production

In the world today, there are many instances of radiation sources that are used in order to produce electrical and thermal energy. These radiation sources can be used to generate energy for things such as spacecrafts and satellites, among other things that are generally found in remote areas. However, the most commonly known usage of radiation sources for energy production are the nuclear power plants that generate about 11% of the electricity being produced in the world today, mainly for consumer use. These nuclear power plants have become quite common in the recent years, and today there are more than 50 countries that use nuclear power for their energy production, and there are about 225 nuclear power plants in total all over the world.

No matter what kind of energy one attempts to produce with nuclear energy, they would need a nuclear reactor. These reactors can be found therefore be found within any nuclear power plant. Of these reactors, there are generally two different types. These are pressurized water reactors, and boiling water reactors. Both use radioactivity in order to heat water in order to produce steam. This steam will then turn a turbine that is connected to a generator, thereby producing electricity that is sent out to the general public.

An important thing to think about when discussing nuclear power plants are the nuclear meltdowns that have occurred in the past. There have been three major accidents regarding nuclear power, and these have led a lot of people to believe that nuclear power is unstable and unsafe. However, in reality nuclear power has actually proved to be one of the safest ways to generate electricity, even considering the long lasting damage that could occur when radiation is released due to a nuclear meltdown.
126C

126C - This is an example of nuclear Notation. In this particular case, we see Carbon in it's most abundant form, with an atomic mass of 12.

The recipe for nuclear notation is as follows: In Superscript, the mass number of the isotope is written, represented as A. In Subscript, the atomic number, which is the number of protons is written, represented as Z. The chemical symbol of the element is represented as X.

Example: Carbon-14. Carbon-14 has a mass number of 14, i.e., the number of nucleons <-- represented as A. Since we know Carbon has an atomic number of 6, that is what Z represents in this case. So far we have 146, and the only thing we are missing is the Chemical symbol of the element, which is C <-- Carbon.

To go further in depth; if you encounter a nuclear equation, using the knowledge of nuclear notation, as well as the type(s) of radiation emitted(alpha, beta and gamma), one can find out the resulting nuclide and type of radiation.

Example: 23490Th --> ? + Beta

Here you use your knowledge of Beta decay, which is 0-1B, and then you enter that into the equation, resulting in: 23490Th --> ? + 0-1Beta. Thereafter, you have to remember to look at the arrow(-->) as an equal sign and do the math, revealing the unknown nuclide: 23490Th --> 23489Ac + 0-1B.
Increased greenhouse effect and consequences in the nature

## Enhanced greenhouse effect - in the nature

The increased concentrations of *greenhouse gases* have led to an increase in the global average surface temperature, a process called the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Increase of *greenhouse gasses* levels and average global temperatures have been accepted by scientists, although there is uncertainty regarding what future consequences of this will be. To help understand this, scientists go through modelling, especially within mathematical models.

* **Modelling** plays an essential role in order to predict future consequences in the nature, including the Artic regions with notable and different effects.

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## Consequences - in the nature

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3

## **Breakfast project**

I believe my breakfast is quite healthy, as it is varied and nutrious. I get a lot of fibre form the oats, fat from the peanut butter, vitamins from the raspberries and protein from the oats, oatmilk and peanut butter. There are also plenty of micronutrients in each of the foods my breakfast consists of. Vitamins from the raspberries, and minerals and trace elements from the rest. I get a healthy amount of calories, from filling foods. I do consume a considerable amount of carbohydrates, but as I do not eat a lot of these for lunch, I don’t think that’s problematic. The same goes for protein; I don’t consume a lot for breakfast, but I eat a lot of nuts, beans and other protein rich foods throughout the day.
Microwaves

Microwaves are radio waves with a wavelength varying between 1mm (300 MHz) and 1m (300GHz), and the waves travel in the line-of-sight, meaning that they travel in a straight line from the source to the receiver. The waves will be blocked if they encounter an object, and cannot penetrate them if they stand in their path.

Cell phones receive and send microwaves called electromagnetic radiation, along with the kitchen appliance microwave, who use the radiation from the waves to penetrate the foods, heating it up.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio\_wave#Speed,\_wavelength,\_and\_frequency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line-of-sight\_propagation
Redox reactions

Redox reactions (reduction-oxidation reactions) are (probably) the most normal reactions in the universe, and are reactions where two species react with eachother, causing one electron transfers from one species to the next. This means one species in the reaction loses an electron (is reduced), while the other gains an electron (is oxidized). The idea that something gains an electron and is still "reduced", might seem counterintuitive, but the reasoning is that the electron gives atoms a negative charge, reducing the electric charge.

[1]

Unlike reduction and oxidation reactions, redox reactions are not so easy to identify (not on our level anyway). For an example, (Cu2O ----> Cu + CuO) is a redox reaction. The clue here is that oxygen is involved, and that something happened with the species containing the oxygen. Another example is (Cl2 + 2\*F ----> F2 + 2\*Cl-). The clue here is that one species lost its negative charge to another one. Some are even trickier, but we won't have to do those until next year. Don't get it? That's okay. We can eat ice cream in the tub together.
18

Yoghurt
 Orange juice

I do realize now that I had a very simple and boring breakfast and I am currently regretting it. It is 11:17 AM and I am already hungry:( I should probably start eating a slightly larger breakfast.

This breakfast makes up less than half of the recommended daily intake of energy for someone like me. The food I ate adds up to 1224.5 kcal.

The meal is pretty healthy just as it is, but I could definitely make it much more healthy by simply eating a piece of fruit or something to keep my energy level a bit more stable throughout the day. Another thing I could do to make it more healthy is to eat something with a bit more protein to make sure I get enough of that, since there is quite little in what I ate for breakfast.
7

My Breakfast

I think the breakfast I had was a healthy breakfast considering that the sum of all the protein, fats and carbohydrates I ate were around the recommended amount. The only thing that was over the recommended amount was the calories, but I still wouldn´t call it an unhealthy amount since its only 21kcal over the recommended amount. Although I had a healthy breakfast that morning, sometimes I only have a banana for breakfast. Now that I have learnt what the healthy amount is to eat, I can fix my breakfast routine.
Range of radiation

There are three different types of radiation:

**Alpha**

**Beta**

**Gamma**

The range of these different types of radiation is how far these charged particles can move until their energy is at almost zero. The different types have different ranges and penetrate different materials. This variates between having a short range in the air (alpha) to only being put to a halter by a wall of lead or concrete (gamma).

Ranges vary depending on the initial kinetic energy of the charged particles, and how thick the different materials are. The range of Alpha radiation is usually when the ionization ceases to occur (Britannica.com), and one often measured from the source in a straight line. Beta radiation is measured differently, often by how penetrating the radiation is in regard to different substances by finding out the minimum thickness of the substance needed to stop all radiation.

When measuring gamma radiation with a Geiger-Müller counter, we can observe that this type of radiation is the most ionizing and therefore will be the most penetrating and have the longest range.
Vitamin D

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that can be found in food such as fatty fish (mackerel, tuna and salmon) and dairy products. Vitamin D is unique from the other vitamins, since it’s the only vitamin besides B3 that humans can synthesize. the others have to come from our diets or injections. Vitamin D is produced in our skin when exposed to sunlight. Our skin produces the amount of vitamins needed, but in darker seasons in certain areas (like winter in the northern-hemisphere) when there is a lack of sunlight, larger amounts should be implemented in our diets.

Vitamin D is needed for the absorption of calcium and strengthening of bones.

Vitamin D deficiency is a common problem in places where sunlight is limited, such as northern parts of the world. Symptoms may include bone pain and muscle weakness. In more severe cases, there can be a loss in  bone density, and can lead to fractures and osteoporosis.

Sources:

https://www.quora.com/Which-vitamin-can-be-synthesized-by-the-human-body

https://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/guide/calcium-vitamin-d-foods

https://www.vitamindcouncil.org/about-vitamin-d/how-do-i-get-the-vitamin-d-my-body-needs/
Disaccharides

Disaccharides: Carbohydrates composed by two monosaccharides linked together in a glycosidic bond. Like monosaccharides, disaccharides are water soluble. The three major disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose. These disaccharides all have the same general chemical formula: C12H22O11. The difference between the three lies in their chemical structure.

Sucrose is formed following photosynthesis in green plants. It also occurs naturally in sugarcane, sugar beets, sugar maple saps, dates, and honey. Sucrose is used as common table sugar. It consists of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule.

Lactose is milk sugar, it is found in the milk of all mammals and consists of a glucose and galactose molecule.

Maltose, or malt sugar consists of two glucose molecules. Maltose can be found in bread products.

https://www.britannica.com/science/disaccharide

https://www.britannica.com/science/sucrose
Consequences of increased greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process which is essential for life on Earth. However, human activity is increasing the greenhouse effect, which could have drastic implications for the Earth's climate. The consequences of this increase in greenhouse effect, known as the *enhanced greenhouse effect* can be many and grave. There is uncertainty in scientific circles about the true impact of this in the future, but the general consensus is that human activity that increases the greenhouse effect should be minimized and avoided.

## Global warming

Global warming is perhaps the most infamous consequence of an enhanced greenhouse effect. It is the process of the Earth's temperature rising at a speed and to an extent that natural causes cannot account for, and is therefore typically considered man-made. It is a phenomenon directly caused by the gases that act as insulation around the planet, making sure that the heat that comes in, stays in.

It is important to note that the greenhouse effect, in itself, is a natural event, without which the planet would not be inhabitable by humans. It is vital because it keeps the temperature warm and stable enough for Earth to be able to sustain life. In essence, the greenhouse effect only becomes an issue when it occurs to an extent that is beyond what it would naturally be; only the enhanced greenhouse effect is cause for alarm by scientists. Since about two hundred years ago, around the start of the industrial revolution in Europe, humans have been releasing an excess of the gases that contribute to the insulation in the atmosphere. The planet has gradually been warming up at a steady pace since this, slowly heating it up.

 Region-specific consequences

In many areas, the environmental changes attributed to the enhanced greenhouse effect are very specific to that region or habitat. It affects urban areas very differently than in nature. Additionally, the areas by the poles, such as in the Arctic, which is not continental mass but rather floating ice, can be especially vulnerable to the greenhouse effect.

## Opposers of the increased greenhouse effect

It can also be argued that certain consequences of the greenhouse effect are not negative or unnatural occurrences. For instance, it is a known fact that the Earth is in a constant cycle of hotter and cooler periods, which is what opposers of global warming attribute the obvious changes in temperature to. However, the rising temperature, and by extension the gases causing them, is occurring at a rate that cannot be accounted for when looking at the Earth's atmosphere over a longer period of time. The changes occurring now are more drastic, and most scientists will agree that they are, in fact, man-made.

## Sources

https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/z8fn2p3/revision/1

https://www.asoc.org/advocacy/climate-change-and-the-antarctic

https://www.massaudubon.org/our-conservation-work/climate-change/why-we-care/greenhouse-gases
DNA

## The structure of DNA

DNA molecules are made up of strands consisting alternately deoksyribose and phosphorous molecules, forming a double helix. A base is attached to each sugar molecule, the four different bases being A (adein), T (tymin), G (guanin) and C (cytosin), and each containing nitrogen.

The bases are connected by weak hydrogen bonds. A and T and C and G make respectively make up base pairs, and therefore one can precisely determine the order of one strand if one knows the exact order of the other.

Genes

A gene is a sequence of nucleotides in the DNA. It contains a template for a specific protein that performs a function. There are about 20 000 genes in each of our cells, which is what our 46 DNA molecules contain of.
Therapeutic cloning

Therapeutic cloning uses our own DNA to create stem cells.

When cells in our body die, they are replaced by stem cells. They come in different types and have different uses in our body. These cells duplicate and develop into "normal" cells.

Scientists hope that stem cells can be used for

* Making new, healthy cells replacing sick cells or even entire organs
* Testing medicines, instead of testing them on animals
* Scientific research regarding for example development of cancer cells

Sometimes our body rejects transplantations of other stem cells, but therapeutic cloning uses our own DNA and creates stem cells that already exists in our body.
Ecosystem

**10.1 The Ecosystem**

 Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms in its environment. This includes the study of food chains, symbiotic and asymbiotic components in their environment. Relevant topics incorporate population growth, biodiversity, cooperation/competition between organisms.

**Individual:** One single organism of a species

**Population**: Several organisms of a species together in a group that live in a specific, restricted area

**Community:** All the differents populations in the same habitat

**Ecosystem:** All the living organisms (biotic factors) and all the abiotic factors like wind, temperature in a habitat.

***The ecosystem contains of***

Biotic Factors

* All living organisms

Abiotic Factors

* Not living organisms

**Food chain**

A food chains is a series of organisms that eat one another so that energy and nutrients flow from one to the next. In a food chain, there is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy passes when one organism eat another. Food chains intertwine into a food web since organisms normally eat or get eaten by several organisms. Food web are several food chains interwine and linked together.

*Sorce: Succession and ecology PowerPoint On It's*
Carbon dating

**Radiocarbon dating**

Radiocarbon dating is a method used to determine the age of organic material. All living organisms consume carbon in some form either through photosynthesis or as food. In all living organisms the ratio of Carbon-14 and other carbon isotopes is the same at 1:10^12. When the organism dies it will stop consuming carbon, and the radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14 will decay with a half life of 5730 years.

To identify the amount of Carbon-14 in the dead organism, a small amount of it is burned and the amount of betaradiation emitted by the carbon dioxide gas is used to calculate the amount of Carbon-14 in the gas and consequently the organism. Then the amount of Carbon-14 present is compared to what is compared to a present day organism, and the ratio is used to calculate the amount of decay and subsequently the age.
Space

### The Big Shablam and background radiation

According to *The Big Bang Theory* (not the TV-sitcom), the universe was created out of nothing after a, drum roll... big bang, that happened 13.7 billion years ago. Electromagnetic radiation from this event is called background radiation. It was visable light before, but got longer wave-length due to the universe expanding and is now in the microwave-area on the spectrum. We can measure the variation in this radiation that gives us information about the universe's age, composition and expansion speed.

###

### Stars

Stars send out differents amounts of wave-lenghts, and this affects their color based on thir surface temperature. A star with a hotter temperature on the surface, sends out short-waved radiation, making the star appear more blue. Stars who send out long-waved radiation, are cooler on the surface and appear more red.

###

#### Other info about space:

Doppler effect

What can we measure in space?
Succession

**Suksesjon**

Suksesjon er når økosystemer endrer seg gradvis og langsomt over tid. Utviklingsforløpet og endepunktet for forandringen er som oftest kjent. Ytre påvirkninger som skogbrann og hogst er ikke suksesjon, men de kan være faktorer som setter suksesjonen igang, som en gradvis oppbygging av økosystemene.

Ulike samfunn avløser hverandre i en bestemt og kjent rekkefølge som skyldes samspill mellom artene og miljøet. Den første fasen av suksesjon heter pionérfasen. Arter som er tilpasset denne fasen, kalles pionérplanter eller pionérarter. Sluttfasen av suksesjon heter klimaksfasen, og i denne fasen er samfunnene stabile. De kalles klimakssamfunn, og er stabile fordi organismene lever i balanse med hverandre og med miljøet. I klimakssamfunn er det som regel flere arter, lengre næringskjeder og mer biomasse enn i pionersamfunn. En art kan dominere i én fase i suksesjonen, men være absolutt utkonkurrert i neste.

I tillegg til de forskjellige fasene i suksesjonen, er det også to hovedtyper av suksesjoner: primærsuksesjon og sekundærsuksesjon. **Primærsuksesjon** er den typen suksesjon der utviklingen starter helt fra grunnen av, uten plante- og dyresamfunn fra før av (bart fjell, lavastein etter et vulkanutbrudd). De første artene som etablerer seg her kalles pionerarter. Pionerartene forandrer de abiotiske faktorene og er med på å danne jordsmonn. **Sekundærsuksesjon** er den typen suksesjon der utviklingen starter på et sted der deter et plante- og dyresamfunn fra før av (gjenvoksing etter snauhogst, jordras og skogbrann, når åkerland legges brakk, og når en innsjø gror igjen.

Klimaendringer skaper nye miljøer og nye artsammensetninger. Vi får suksesjonsprosesser som ender opp i nye klimakssamfunn. Suksesjon har formet Norge gjennom klimaendringene, helt fra om lag 12 000 år siden da klimaet begynte å forandre seg. Den kilometertykke isen Norge lå under begynte å smelte, og de sørlige delene, og så de østlige delene, av landet ble isfrie. Snart rykket trær og vegetasjon inn. For 7-5 tusen år siden var det varmere enn i dag, og store deler av Hardangervidda var dekt i hasselskog. Da grantrærne kom til Norge for omlag 2500 år siden var det blitt kaldere, og fellene i Midt-Norge var blitt til treløse høyfjellsvidder. Derfor rakk ikke grantrærne å spre seg til Vestlandet på en naturlig måte.
Clavicipitaceae

**Clavicipitaceae** on sieniheimo johon kuuluu useita ergoliinialkaloideja erittäviä sieniä. Torajyvä eli ***Claviceps purpurea***oli keskiajalla tunnettu ergotismi-sairauden kautta, kun ihmiset söivät saastunutta viljaa. ***Periglandula ipomoeae*****ja *Periglandula turbinae***ovat taas ilmeisesti vastuussa eri elämänlankojen psykedeelisistä vaikutuksista, nämä sienet elävät symbioosissa päivänsinen ja käärmeenyrtin pinnoilla.
Sievert

Similar to the unit gray, sievert is a unit for measuring radiation dose quantities. What gray does not tell us is how dangerous that radiation is, or in other words, how much of it is absorbed by human tissue. Therefore we use sievert as an equivalent unit for gray to consider the danger of various radiations.

Gray is only the actual physical dose:

1 Gy = 1 J/kg

But this does not tell us how dangerous the radiation is. For instance, 1 Gy of alpha radiation is 20 times more dangerous than 1 Gy of gamma radiation. 1 Gy (J/kg) of alpha radiation corresponds to 20 Sv of the equivalent dose:

 Gamma
Energy balance in the atmosphere

Received energy = Emitted energy

The earth receives energy from the sun in form of solar radiation.The earth emits energy in the form of heat radiation. There is a balance between insolation and radiance.

When the relation between emitted energy and received energy is unbalanced, the global temperature will change. The earth's temperature increases when the earth receives more energy from the sun in the form of solar radiation, than the energy the earth emits in the form of heat radiation. However, when the earth’s temperature rises, the heat radiation emitted from the earth rises as well. Therefore, at one point there is a new balance between insolation and radiance.

Furthermore, at this point the earth emits as much energy as it receives from the sun.

The earth's temperature decreases when the earth emits more energy than it receives from the sun. However the earth will emit less energy as the temperature decreases which then again stabilizes the energy balance.
What can we measure in space?

Space, also called outer space, is the astronomical term for what is outside the earths atmosphere. This differs from **the universe**, which is about everything in its entirety, while outer space is the "empty" space in general.

In space, we can measure numerous things.

The distance to stars and galaxies can be measured using these methods: Parallax method, hubble's law and using the brightness of a star.

The movement of stars and galaxies can be measured using these methods: Doppler effect(with colors).

The elemental composition of stars: The spectrum and what Spectral lines are present.

The surface temperature of stars: Planck curve and the color of the star. The spectrum(If there are many or few lines).
Marie Curie

**Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie (1867 - 1936)**, more known as **Marie Curie** was a born Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to ever win the Nobel Price, the first person and only woman to win twice, and the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. The second of which she received recognized her discovery and research of two elements: radium and polonium.

- Polonium was a nod to her home country, Poland.

Marie Curie's life was pure struggle. She had to overcome countless obstacles to be able to dedicate herself to science, since in her country, Poland, women were not allowed to go to university. She had to seek for alternative higher education for women, thus her french residence and association.

Marie's notebooks which she used when performing her most important research on radiation in the early 20th century, she had no idea the effects it would have on her health. It wasn't unusual for her to walk around her lab with bottles of polonium and radium in her pockets. **Marie Curie died of aplastic anemia**, likely caused by prolonged exposure to radiation, in 1934. Even her notebooks are still radioactive a century later. Today they're stored in lead-lined boxes, and will likely remain radioactive for another 1500 years.

***ー Not everything is relevant for the test***
X-ray

X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation that is mainly used for medical imaging and treating cancer. They can see through skin and reveal images of the bones beneath it. X-rays are very useful and can do things from showing images of extremely small biological cells and the structural components of materials like cement to killing cancer cells.

There are two different categories of x-rays, hard x-rays and soft x-rays. Soft x-rays are the lower energy x-rays and have wavelengths of about 10 nanometers. Hard x-rays, the higher energy x-rays, have wavelengths of about 100 picometers. X-rays are at the high energy end of the electromagnetic spectrum, and only gamma rays carry more energy.