recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Kaleidocosmos

**Kaleidocosmos** is a kaleidoscope draw by Valgo.

## How to Use

To play, simply move your finger and it will create a kaleidoscope pattern. There are 20+ colors and a width change slider.

## About

This project is on game changers, and is the most popular project in the community. It has 30k+ likes and has 1m+ plays. It is the first project with a million plays.

The project can be seen with a pattern made by Valgo on Game Changers. It is the very top project.
Rawrbear

**Rawrbear** is a Hopscotcher and helper on the Hopscotch Wiki.

Rawrbear has currently been inactive from the forum.

## About Rawrbear

(adapted from Rawrbear's profile description on the forum)

Rawrbear is a 12 year old boy in 7th grade. He's been on top of Featured twice, and has been featured four times total. He has also been on the top of Rising and Trending.

## What does he do on the Forum?

He helps others! He makes tips and has the slightest humor in the posts he make.

## What does he do on Hopscotch?

He makes a variety of projects, including sine and cosine, Undertale, etc. He has gotten on Featured 3 times (Lightrail, Sound of a Starter, and Leprechaun Simulator). He goes to the same school as MobCraft and is his coding partner.
Hopscotch Wikia

## Welcome to the Hopscotch Wiki!

The non-official wiki for the coding app, Hopscotch! Here, you can find resources for making your next Hopscotch game. Happy coding!

## What is Hopscotch?

Hopscotch is a mobile app on iOS platforms. It is mainly for young coders to strengthen their knowledge about coding, although anyone can use hopscotch! Many things have been created on this wonderful app. There are lots of music, art, games, stories, and various other things. What is great about Hopscotch is that it is a child friendly community! If you are a parent or a guardian who is thinking about getting hopscotch, please do! You are giving your child a great advantage. Here are some reasons that you might want to use Hopscotch:

1. It's a fun way to learn how to code

2. You can communicate and collaborate with your favorite hopscotchers, or even friends in real life!

3. There are tons of awesome games and projects to play.

4. It is kid friendly, so you don't need to worry about any inappropriate things.

5. You can hopscotchify games or make your own.

6. A very unique and fun way to learn math

7. There will always be someone to help you

8. It's a stepping stone if you want to code advanced languages in the future.

Don't understand how to use the interface? No worries! Try watching a video on YouTube by Hopscotch.

Have fun with hopscotch! We love it, and we know you will too!

You can download Hopscotch here:

https://appsto.re/us/f2cYK.i

Hopscotch has been released in the year of 2013. The community started out small but grew throughout the course of years.

## Help Us!

It would be helpful for you guys to contribute to this wiki! You can do that by adding to articles and by requesting for new stuff!

<wikiaforum></wikiaforum>
Morpher

Created by: MobCraft

**Morpher** is a game by MobCraft.

## How to Play

To play, simply move your finger around the screen. The character moves according to its gravity mode (in some modes, the character moves opposite of the finger). You have to dodge spikes and crosses. There are also two modes: Line and Rectangle. In Line mode, the character moves in a line. In Rectangle mode, the character will get dragged to the finger. Also, you will have to go to a certain rectangle to survive.

### **Illuminati Boss**

The Illuminati boss is a secret boss. To get to the boss mode, you will have to click on the square on the progress bar. You will have to survive for around 30 seconds to fight the boss, which has 100 HP.

## About

Morpher appears on the home page of newly made account, as well as featured. It is based off Lightrail by Rawrbear.
Valgo

**Valgo** is a Hopscotcher.

## What does he do on the Forum?

Valgo has not been active on the forum recently. He is currently a member and makes helpful posts!

## What does he do in Hopscotch?

Currently, Valgo has the most viewed project in Hopscotch, Kaleidocosmos, with over 1,400,000 views and 50,000 likes. He has been on Game Changers (Kaleidocosmos, Beatronix Alpha) and Rising (Swipe My Floating Logo!). He is considered a visual coder, and often makes tests in hopscotch, resulting in new inventions and ideas.

He discovered the HSB Copy and Paste trick, as well of some other neat tricks.
Looks & Sounds Blocks

This is the list of the Looks and Sounds blocks as of now (version 2.17.1):

## Set Color

Sets the color of the object. This only works with text and shapes.

## Set Text

Sets the text of the object. WARNING: IF THERE IS A SET TEXT FOR OBJECTS BESIDES THE TEXT OBJECT, THE OBJECT WILL NOT BE ABLE TO CHANGE BACK UNLESS THE SET TEXT IS REMOVED.

## Grow By

Makes the object grow a certain percentage of its current size.

## Shrink By

Makes the object shrink a certain percentage of its current size.

## Start Sound

Makes the object play a sound and wait a certain amount of seconds. Music is created mainly using this block.
The Electron I

***The Electron I*** is the tenth lecture in the **Properties of Matter** section of PH1011. It covers electrolysis, the unit Faraday, cathode rays and the effects of magnetic and electric fields.

Previous: Properties of Phases

Next: The Electron II

## Content

### Electrolysis

Electrolysis involves passing charge through a solution via electrodes (anode -> cathode) in order to cause the ions to become atoms and amass at the relative electrode. The mass produced is proportional to the amount of electrons transferred at that electrode. The charge (in Faradays) required to discharge one mole of a substance at an electrode is equal to the number of excess charges per ion.

In example -

* 0.5A passed in one hour produces 2g silver metal on the cathode. This gives a total charge of (0.5Ax3600s) = 1800C. As the mass is 0.002kg, the charge per kg is (1800/0.002) ~106C/kg. Per mole (MAg = 108g/mol) this gives 97,500 C. Running the same calculation with hydrogen finds 100,000C required - and a more exact measurement finds a constant **96,500**C/mol.

**1 Faraday = 96,500C/mol**

As the mole corresponds to a known number of atoms, 6.022x1023, the charge required per atom is (96500/6.022x1023) **1.6x10-19C**. This proves charge to be quantised; overall charges required for materials are integer multiples of 96,500C.

### Cathode rays

Cathode ray tubes are evacuated tubes through which a high energy stream of electrons are passed, travelling from a cathode to an anode. These are observed to travel in straight lines, bend in a magnetic field and a high electrostatic field, and pass through thin foils. Cathode rays were concluded to be tiny negative charges and dubbed electrons.

### Magnetic and Electric Fields

The right hand rule states that **F = qvB**. Using this in conjunction with F=ma (as F is perpendicular to velocity here, perpendicular motion occurs) and magnetic force = mass x centripetal acc. (**evB = mv2/r** => **e/m = v/(rB)**) allows measurement of B and r, but v is still unknown.

Balancing the perpendicular electric field to the magnetic field with **F=eE** gives eE = Bev; therefore **v = E/B**. Experimental values give E/B = ~c/10; the electron is not an electromagnetic wave. Using v=E/B and e/m = v/(rB), **e/m = v/(rB) = E/(rB2)**.

## Summary

Electrolysis involves the passing of charge through solution to produce pure elements at the electrodes; the mass of these products depends on the quantity of charge input. The charge required to produce one mole of any substance is **96,500C**, and the charge on an individual electron is **1.6x10-19**C. A variety of equations can relate fields to electron speed; setting electric field strength equal to magnetic field strength allows calculation of the size and therefore velocity of the electron.
Particle Theory of Light

*See also: X-Rays*
**Particle Theory of Light** is the third lecture within the **Quantum Phenomena** section of PH1012. It covers the wave-particle duality of light.

Previous: *The Photoelectric Effect*

Next:

## Content

### Light as a wave

Maxwell held the theory that light exists as an electromagnetic wave, backed up by phenomena such as Young's slits. Plotting the value of an electric or magnetic field by time or position shows a progressing sine graph, with wave energy proportionate to the light intensity and the squared amplitude of the electric field. This gives wave energies which are not quantised.

### Xray tubes

Xray tubes produce xrays of approximately 1 Angstran wavelength by eatinng a coiled filament. This input of energy releases electrons through the thermoionic effect (heat causes ionisation) which are accelerated via a potential difference to very high speeds until they strike the given target. This strike causes the electrons to decelerate abruptly, releasing their kinetic energy as a photon. Quantisation is shown here by the fact that xrays can be released as single photons rather than a continuous stream.

The spectra produced show a curve with a distinct cut-off point and irregualr sharp peaks. The cutoff point is the minimum wavelength of xrays that can be produced, given by **c/vmax**, where hvmax is the total energy of incoming electrons. These xrays are caused by impact of electrons which lose all energy in a single impact. The rest of the xrays emitted have a lower energy as their electrons have lost energy through multiple collisions. The peaks are specific to the electronic configuration of the target material - when electrons strike a nucleus directly they cause an atmoc electron to be ejected. This leaves a gap in the shell which must be filled by a higher electron dropping down, which has an associated release of energy.

## Summary

Phenomena such as Young's slits show light to be a wave. Phenomena such as xray tubes show light to be a particle. Light can be emitted from atoms by inputting energy from electrons at high speeds.
Introduction to Quantum Physics

**An Introduction to Quantum Physics** is the first lecture within the **Quantum Phenomena** section of PH1012. It covers a brief history of quantum concepts and the Ultraviolet Catastrope.

Previous: N/A

Next: *The Photoelectric Effect*

## Content

### A Brief Timeline

Prior to the nineteen hundreds, physics operated entirely on a classical understanding of the world. However as these theories began to disagree with experimental results a new set of observations began to fit together to form our current understanding of physics with quantum effects. The most prominent of these were as follows:

* in 1900, Planck noted that the energy of electromangetic waves is quantised (only exists with discrete energies). He used this to explain the theory behind thermal radiation.
* in 1905, Einstein proposed that light waves exist as a collection of individual particles (later christened photons). This was used to explain the photoelectric effect.
* in 1913, Bohr proposed a new structure of the hydrogen atom. Although Bohr's model is understood now to be flawed, it is still used as a good model of a simple atom.
* in 1923, De Broglie proposed that matter can behave as waves do (a likewise to the earlier understanding that light waves can behave as particles).

Beyond then Schrödinger and Heisenberg developed further important theories, and physics moved into the quantum age.

### The Ultraviolet Catastrope

All bodies can be observed to emit radiation. The concept of a "blackbody" is an object which is a perfect radiator - and an emission spectrum for any hot body can be drawn. Bodies that are relatively warm have peak wavelengths in the visible spectrum, which causes them to initially glow red through to blue. However as the temperatures are increased this peak shifts toward lower wavelengths (although the overall light being produced causes the object to glow white as enough of the visible spectrum is present). Classical physics fails here as it did not predict a peak wavelength but rather that for any temperature therer would be an exponentially larger quantity of UV rays produced.

Quatisation of energy can be described by the relationship **E = nhν**, n being an integer, h Planck's constant and v the radiation's frequency.

## Summary

Classical physics was debunked to a large extent in the early nineteen hundreds. Energy quantisation, light as particles and matter as waves are all theories born of quantum physics.
Advanced Higher Chemistry

"*The Advanced Higher Chemistry Course develops learners' knowledge and understanding of the physical and natural environments beyond Higher level.*

*The Course builds on Higher Chemistry and continues to develop the underlying theories of chemistry, and the practical skills used in the chemistry laboratory.*" -- SQA statement

**Advanced Higher Chemistry** is a New Advanced Higher course in Scottish Qualifications. It consists of three main units - Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, Organic Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis, and Researching Chemistry - alongside a Project and an LO3.

## Units

### Inorganic and Physical Chemistry

The longest unit, and the most mathematical. Contains Electromagnetic Radiation theory, Orbitals, Transition Metals, Equilibrium theory and Kinetics.

### Organic Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis

The intermediate unit; contains further work on molecular structures, Stereochemistry, Synthesis, and Pharmaceutical Chemistry.

### Researching Chemistry

The shortest unit; mostly concerned with practical applications and techniques.

## Project

The Advanced Higher project is worth 30 marks (~23% of the total grade) and is conducted by the candidate in order to gain a deeper insight into an aspect of chemistry. It consists of a 2,500 - 3,000(?) word essay detailing procedures, results and discussion of both.

## Exam

The exam is out of 100 marks (~77% of the total grade), and consists of a single paper. A Data Booklet is provided.
Electromagnetic Radiation

*Note: This page refers to the lecture in PH1011, not the phenomena itself.*
Previous: N/A

Next: *What is Light, and How is it Generated?*

***Electromagnetic Radiation*** is the first lecture within the Waves and Optics section of PH1011. It is an introduction to EM radiation - namely what light is and how it occurs.

## Content

### Definition of light

**Light** refers to visible EM radiation - wavelengths which occur between 400 and 700nm. They arise through a combination of perpendicular electrical and magnetic fields; a changing electrical field induces an in-phase changing magnetic field and vise versa, and the elecromagnetic field arises here. However the two parent fields do not form each other - they keep inducing new fields, indefinitely.

### Source

The fields are created by the motion of an oscillating charge; accelerating charged particles causes the release of EM waves, which in this case include visible wavelengths. Field lines flow from positive to negative charges in an electric field, and as with all waves the wavespeed is given by v = fλ. All light waves travel at equal speed, *c*, so if the frequency or wavelength of an individual wave is known then the other can be calculated.

## Summary

The electromagnetic spectrum is a series of waves which travel with equal speed in a vacuum, induced by the acceleration of charges in an EM field. The human eye can detect some of these wavelengths and interpret them as light.

1

2
Superheavy samurai magnet

super heavy samurai magnet is the marauding captain of the arc-type but unlike marauding captain witch states on his card "your opponent cannot attack face up warrior type monster except this one", superheavy samurai magnet says "monsters your opponent controls cannot attack any monsters except this one" witch makes him much better. and if you own a marauding captain you probably know that he can special summon a monster and it has to be you probably guessed it superheavy samurai monsters. it is good that he has 900 ATK and 1900 DEF and if you do special summon a monster with his effect, you can then change him to defense mode

ATK900

DEF1900
Imaging with One Lens

Previous: Ray Optics (the action of a lens)

Next: Magnifying Glass, Imaging with Two Lenses

***Imaging with One Lens*** is the fifth lecture within the **Waves and Optics** section of PH1011. It covers focal lengths, the thin lens equation, linear magnification and angular magnification.

## Content

### Focal Lengths

The definition of the focal length is the distance from the lens at which incoming parallel rays (eg from a source at infinite distance) converge at one point. The paraxial approximation allows tanθ = sinθ = θ, and these calculations work for thin lenses (small distance in comparison to the object and image distances). Images are real if they form on the positive side of the lens and virtual if they form on the same side that they came from. real images are always inverted.

As the angle alpha is conserved, both tangents can be set to equal and rearranged to give the linear magnification; **h'/h = -v/u**. The thin lens formula **1/u + 1/v = 1/f** can be found by setting the two angles on the right focal distance equal and deriving from there.

### Angular Size

Angular size α = h'/d (α measured in radians) as α = sinα for thin lenses); this proves that image height is dependent on the angle is is seen at.

## Summary

The focal length is the distance at which incoming parallel rays converge. Real images form for positive v (image distance) and virtual images for positive u; the inverse of the focal length is equal to the sum of the inverses of the image and object distances. Linear magnification is given by negative image distance divided by object distance, and angular magnification is given by image height divided by distance.
Friction

Previous: Newton's Laws of Motion

***Friction*** is the fifth lecture in the **Mechanics** section of PH1011. It covers sliding friction in both static and kinetic cases.

Next: Work and Energy I

## Content

### Cause

Friction occurs due to the formation of weak atomic bonds when two bodies are placed close to one another. Surface irregularities ensure that the actual touching surface is lower than the surface area of the objects, meaning that area cannot be used to calculate friction (and that it has little effect on the friction). This binding force must be less than the other forces present for motion to occur. The friction acts in the opposite direction to any applied force, and is dependent on the surface materials, the magnitude of the normal force and whether the object in question is stationary or in motion.

### Static Friction

Static friction refers to a motionless body; any force acting upon it is not having enough of an effect to shift the object, and is therefore smaller than the frictional force. The static friction is not constant - it increases as the external force increases in order to ensure no movement until it reaches its maximum value. The maximum value is proportional to the object's coefficient of static friction and the normal force in the relationship **fs max= μsn**.

Static friction is independent of the objects' masses and surface areas, and the effects of gravity.

### Kinetic Friction

Kinetic friction acts when an object is moving. The work done by this force is mostly lost as heat and sound, and it has a lower value than the static friction due to the surface bonds nnot having time to form properly as the object passes. The relationship remains **fk= μkn**. μk acts independent of mass, surface area and velocity.

### Critical Angle

Up to a certain angle, the force of static friction can prevent objects from sliding down a slope. By dividing the weight of a box into its components (Wx = Wsinθ = fs≤ μsn, |Wy| = -Wcosθ = n) and then dividing Wx by Wy, Wsinθ/Wcosθ = tanθ ≤ μs. The critical angle is given as **tanθc = μs**; from observation of this μs can be directly measured.

## Summary

Friction occurs due to the formation of atomic bonds along the surfaces in question. It can act in both static and kinetic cases, although will have a differing magnitude in each - it will be equal to the applied force statically, but vary with the material's coefficient alone for kinetic. The critical angle relates to the coefficient of static friction in the relationship tanθc = μs.
Collisions

Previous: Impulse and Momentum

***Collisions*** is the ninth and final lecture in the **Mechanics** section of PH1011. It covers elastic and inelastic collisions in one dimension, and Galileo Transformations.

Next: N/A

## Content

### Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

Inelastic collisions cause the objects to move off as one mass after impact; the momentum is conserved but the kinetic energy is not (some is lost through deformation, heat, sound ect). A perfectly inelastic collision would lose the maximum possible energy.

Elastic collisions are the opposite; they conserve both kinetic energy and momentum, and move off separately after impact. The final velocities are therefore more difficult to calculate as two equations must be used - these must be derived from p1=p2, and total out at

* **v1' = m1-m2 / m1+m2 v1 + 2m2/m1+m2 v2**
* **v2' = 2m1/m1+m2 v1 + m2-m1 / m2+m1 v2**

Limiting cases help - where m1 is far larger than m2, v1 does not change in collision whereas v2 rebounds with double the speed of impact (v2 having started from rest). If the two are equal then the impacting mass stops moving whereas the stationary mass gains a velocity equal to the impact velocity. Where a very small mass hits a larger one it rebounds with its initial speed, and the hit mass does not move.

### Galileo Transformation

The Galileo transformation refers to taking results and expressing them from the reference frame of the centre of mass. As the centre of mass velocity does not change during or after the collision, in an inelastic case the two masses move off along the centre of mass velocity. rjcom = rj - rcom; differentiation of this gives vjcom = vj - vcom. r and vjcom are the positions and velocities on a given object j from the reference of the centre of mass. For an inelastic system v1'com = v2'com = 0 and v2com = -m1/m2 v1com : v1com = m2(v1-v2)/m1+m2. Visually, the two masses approach one another and then come to rest at the centre of mass.

For an elastic system vjcom = vj - vcom again; v1com and v2com are equal as before but vcom' = -vcom now. Visually this results in the two masses approaching each other and then recoiling.

### Example

* Dropping a large object attached to a small object

The experiment consists of taping a golf ball to a basketball and dropping them both; the recoil of the golf ball hitting the Earth causes it to rebound is opposite to its incoming velocity, which (according to gravitational potential and energy conservation) is = -(√2gh). The basketball then immediately collides with the golf ball, which gives v2' = 2m1/m1+m2 v1 + m2-m1 / m2+m1 v2. From here the expected height of the golf ball can be calculated in an assumed perfect elastic impact.

## Summary

Elastic collisions conserve energy; inelastic collisions do not. This makes inelastic final speeds easy to calculate, but elastic final speeds must use two separate equations - v1' = m1-m2/m1+m2 v1 + 2m2/m2+m1 v2 and v2' = 2m1/m1+m2 v1 + m2-m1/m2+m1 v2. The Galileo transformation involves taking the results as observed from the centre of mass.
CH1402

***CH1402*** is the second compulsory module in first year chemistry courses, and deals with inorganic chemistry. It covers Thermodynamics and general chemistry. It follows CH1401, and need not be taken alongside CH1601 (Organic Chemistry).

## Mark Breakdown

* 60% final exam
* 30% labs
* 5% tutorials
* 5% class test

## Content

* Section 1: Inorganic Solids
* Section 2:
Noatak

Example

### Family

Yakone (father), Yakone's wife (mother), Tarrlok (Younger brother), Korra (Girlfriend/Wife), Sialuk (Son) Sialuk's sister (First born daughter), Sialuk's other younger brother and sister (Second born son & daughter), Kazumi (sister-in-law) Roku 2 (Nephew) Tulok (Nephew) Ursa 2 (niece) Tonraq (Father-in-law) Senna (mother-in-law) Sialuk's oldest son (Grandson)Sialuk's youngest daughter (granddaughter)Noatak and Korra 2 (Grandson and Granddaughter)

### Allies

The Pie Family, Cheese Sandwih, Gummy, Rarity, Fluttershy, Twilight Sparkle, Applejack, Rainbow Dash, Spike, Zecora, Sunset Shimmer, Starlight Glimmer, Discord, Apple Family, Apple Bloom, Sweetie Belle, Scootaloo, Cranky Doodle Donkey, Matilda, The three princesses, Shining Armor, Baby Flurry Heart, Mr & Mrs. Cake, Pound & Pumpkin Cake, Mayor Mare, Citizens of Ponyville, Canterlot, Cloudsdale, Appleloosa, and all of equestrian, Patrick star, SpongeBob and friends, Spider Man and his team, Nick fury and the rest of shield, the agents of smash, the avengers, Dr. Octopus (sometimes) Sally, Marcus & Bianca, Mozenrath (sometimes), Granny, Sid, Harold, Arnold, Helga and other kids, Zuko, Katara, Holt, Frankie, Jackson, Koji, Zoe

### Ability

Party Cannon, Bouncing, Randomness, Speed (as Fili-Second),Strength
Advanced Higher Physics

"*The Advanced Higher Physics Course enables learners to build on the knowledge and skills developed in the Higher Physics Course and to use their mathematical knowledge and skills to analyse and solve problems in real-life contexts. Through a deeper insight into the structure of the subject, the Course reinforces and extends knowledge and understanding of the concepts of physics and develops skills in investigative practical work.*" -- SQA statement

**Advanced Higher Physics** is a New Advanced Higher course in Scottish Qualifications. It consists of three main units - Rotational Motion and Astrophysics, Quanta and Waves, and Electromagnetism - alongside a Project and an LO3.
Electromagnetic radiation and atomic spectra

**Electronic radiation and atomic spectra** is the first subtopic in Unit 1 of the Advanced Higher Chemistry course. It contains a deeper investigation of the electromagnetic spectrum in how it occurs, what its uses are and how it relates to individual atoms and substances.

## Content

### The Electromagnetic Spectrum

This work is largely covered in higher Physics, and is relatively straightforward. The electromagnetic spectrum is the series of electromagnetic radiation; Gamma Rays, X-Rays, UV Light, Visible Light, Infra-red Radiation, Micro Waves and Radio Waves.

All waves in the EM spectum travel at thesame velocity (*c* = 3x108m s-1) but with different frequencies, energies and wavelengths. Waves with shorter wavelengths (eg gamma rays) have very high frequencies and energies; larger wavelengths make for lower frequencies and energies (eg radio waves).

Wavelength (λ) is the distance of one wave, measured in metres or nanometres or any other compatible measurement (whichever is more suitable).

By the end of this topic, you should know that:

* there is a spectrum of electromagnetic radiation;
* electromagnetic radiation can be described in the terms of waves;
* Electromagnetic radiation can be characterised in terms of wavelength or frequency;
* the relationship between wavelength and frequency is given by c = f ×LaTeX: $\lambda $;
* absorption or emission of electromagnetic radiation causes it to behave more like a stream of particles called photons;
* the energy lost or gained by electrons associated with a single photon is given by E = hf;
* it is more convenient for chemists to express the energy for one mole of photons as E = Lhf;
* atomic emission spectra are made up of lines at discrete frequencies;
* photons of light energy are emitted by atoms when electrons move from a higher energy level to a lower one;
* each element produces a unique pattern of frequencies of radiation in its emission spectrum;
* atomic emission spectroscopy and atomic absorption spectroscopy are used to identify and quantify the elements present in a sample.
Superheavy samurai ogre shtendoji

superheavy samurai ogre Shutendoji (sh-oot-en-do-ge) is a card with nothing that special but he has a good ability. you know a card called heavy storm its sooo good. what if i told you this card has the same ability but better, when he is summoned and you have no spell or trap cards in your graveyard you can destroy all spell and trap cards your opponent controles. and a nifty 2500 DEF he can attack with. i suggest running 1 to 3 of them its that good

ATK 500

DEF 2500
Radioactivity I

***Radioactivity I*** is the fourteenth lecture within the **Properties of Matter** subtopic of PH1011. It covers the proprties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation, the effects that these have on their parent atoms, and half-lives.

Previous: Atomic Structure

Next: Radioactivity II

## Content

### Alpha, beta, gamma

**Alpha** radiation involves the emission of an α-particle - a helium nucleus, of two protons and two neutrons. This can be deflected using a magnetic field, and can cause high levels of damage if it manages to pass into avulnerable system. However this is uncommon, as α-particles can be absorbed by a sheet of paper (and therefore cannot penetrate skin). Emission of an α-particle causes its parent element to shift two elements down in the periodic table (due to the loss of two protons) and loose significant mass.

**Beta** radiation is the emission of an electron from the nucleus; is is deflected in the opposide direction in a magnetic field, and causes far less damage than an alpha particle - but equally is more penetrating (can be stopped by a sheet of aluminium). Emission of an electron from an atom also releases an electron anti-neutrino ( ̅νe). The opposite of thisis electron capture, where the nucleus gains an electron but still releases ̅νe - and positron emission can also occur, still causing a ̅νe to be released.

**Gamma** radiation involves the release of a gamma ray - not a particle at all, but an electromagnetic wave. These are not deflected by magnetic fields, and can only be stopped by thick lead. γ emission is caused by nuclear rearrangements (electrons changing configuration, for example) and usually occurs alongside other emissions.

### Decay

Decays usually occur in series - that is, the initial decay will usually lead to another unstable isotope, and this will in turn decay until a stable atom is reached (usually lead). Radioactive decay is a statistical process; it lessens with time by the relationship ***dN = -λNdt*** => ***dN/N = -λdt***. This can be integrated down to give:

***N = Noe-λt***

The decay rate R is the number of decays per second, and is given by ***R = -dN/dt = λN = λNoe-λt = Roe-λt***.

To find the half life, simply let N = No/2 and substitute that into *N = Noe-λt* -

* 1/2 = e-λt
* ***t0.5 = ln(2)/λ***

Graphing the number of atoms by half life, therefore, gives an exponential decay.

### Utilising radiation as power

As particles are emitted with energy, this can be harvested and used as power. The total power available is given by *number of decays per second x energy of each* or **P = R x E**

* eg (mass/molar mass) \* Na \* λ \* energy of each

## Summary

α, β-, and γ particles can be emitted spontaneously from an unstable nucleus. The leave with energy which can be used as power.
What is Light, and How is it Generated?

Previous: Electromagnetic Radiation

Next: Ray Optics (Snell's Law, T.I.R)

 ***What is Light, and How is it Generated?*** is the second lecture within the **Waves and Optics** section of PH1011. It gives a further understanding as to the nature of light.

## Content

### Particle vs Wave

Light travels by means of carrier particles - photons - which have properties reminiscent of both particles and waves. This wave particle duality is present in the fact that light can be observed diffusing and spreading like a wave, but can be detected as individual quantised energy sets (E = hf) and during the photoelectric effect acts as a particle through emission only being possible above certain threshold frequencies. It nonetheless displays a distinct wavelength and frequency, as waves do.

### Black body radiation and Atomic Emission

All bodies emit radiation on principle; a "black body" is defined as a perfect radiator, which therefore emits the widest range of EM radiation. This is caused by the vibration of electrons - atomically photons can also be released as electrons undergo energy level transitions, moving to lower energy levels and releasing specific wavelengths of light with energies corresponding to the difference in levels.

The colours of light experienced through vision are dependent entirely on the wavelengths of the light source rather than properties of objects - if a blue lamp is shone onto an object which appears red in white light the object will appear black as it absorbs blue and green light but reflects red - and in this case there is no red to reflect.

## Summary

Electromagnetic radiation displays wave-particle duality. It can be radiated from black bodies or emitted from atomic shifts in electron orbitals.
Rei, Sailor Mars

***Rei, Sailor Mars*** est le troisième épisode de *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal*.

## Synopsis

Au lycée, tout le monde parle du bus diabolique de 18h, dont les passagers disparaissent mystérieusement. Usagi Tsukino suit une belle jeune fille jusqu'au temple Hikawa. Il s'agit de Rei Hino, la prêtresse du temple aux mystérieux pouvoirs que tout le monde soupçonne d'être responsable des disparitions.

## Résumé

Au lycée, tout le monde parle du bus diabolique de 18h, dont les passagers disparaissent mystérieusement. Usagi suit une belle jeune fille jusqu'au temple Hikawa. Il s'agit de Rei Hino, la prêtresse du temple aux mystérieux pouvoirs que tout le monde soupçonne d'être responsable des disparitions.

Quand cette dernière est finalement enlevée par Jadeite, l'un des généraux du Dark Kingdom, devant Usagi, Sailor Moon et Sailor Mercury volent à son secours. En difficulté face à leur ennemi, les deux guerrières se voient aider par Rei Hino, qui se transforme en Sailor Mars. Ensemble, elles parviennent à blesser grièvement Jadeite, qui s'enfuit, et à libérer les personnes kidnappées.
Properties of Phases

***Properties of Phases*** is the ninth lecture within the **Properties of Matter** section of PH1011. It covers

Previous: Forces Between Atoms

Next: The Electron I

## Content

### Phases

The most common phases of matter are solids, liquids and gases. Solids retain shapes, are generally incompressible and have ordered molecules; liquids are disordered and will lose their shape whilst retaining volume, and gases are disordered and will fill a given container. One definition of "phase" is a chemically and physically homogeneous part of a system. Matter is almost always able to pass from one phase to another.

### Heating Matter

The change in temperature of solids or liquids must be calculated differently to that of gases. It is dependent upon the mass of material, which material and energy suppplied in the relationship Q = cmΔT; c is the specific heat capacity of the material, different to the molar heat (c is the energy required to heat 1kg of matter; Cv or p was the energy required to heat one mole.

If a material is heated enough, a change in phase will occur as the atoms gain enough energy to break their intermolecular bonds. This is the latent heat of transformation, L, and relates to the energy required for a phase change by **Q = mL**. L is given in J/kg. Vapourising a substance requires more energy than melting it, and sublimation requires the sum of the two. Phase changes do not release energy - the temperature of a substance will not chance whilst its phase is changing.

### Phase Diagrams

This is the phase diagram of water in a constant volume environment. Along each boundary between phases there is a curve at which they sit at equilibrium, during which dynamic processes occur at an equal rate. For most diagrams the green line (solid-liquid boundary) has a positive gradient - water is abnormal as it expands upon freezing.

### Exotic Phases

When matter is heated or cooled greatly exotic phases can occur - at high temperatures plasmas happen (electrons are removed from the nucleus) and at low temperatures Bose Einstein Condensates occur (atoms behave coherently).

## Summary

Liquids and solids are dense and cannot expand to fill an available volume. The specific heat capacity of a material refers to the amount of energy it must take in to increase in temperature. Heating matter far enough causes a phase change, over the duration of which temperature change stops. Exotic phases occur at very high or very low temperatures.
Forces Between Atoms

***Forces Between Atoms*** is the eighth lecture within the **Properties of Matter** section of PH1011. It covers forces between molecules, equilibrium separation and dissociation energy, Young's modulus and elastic energy.

Previous: Heat Transfer

Next: Properties of Phases

## Content

### Atomic Forces and Potentials

In a simplistic model all atoms should repel one another due to their electron clouds - leaving all substances gaseous. However this is not true, and furthermore solids will resist both compression and extension, suggesting that the atoms exist in an equilibrium position. The balance is between a short range repulsive force (which prevents them from merging entirely) and a long range attractive force (which prevents them from drifting apart, and is caused by dipoles). These forces can be expressed graphically as seen in the image.

Additionally, the potential energy of the system can be found through integration of the force - giving a diagram V(r) = -∫F.dr. The distance from 0 to the minima on the x axis is the equilibrium separation; on the y axis it is the input energy required to split the two atoms. For neutral molecules, the potential is given as **V(r) = A/r12 - B/r6**, A and B being constants affecting the potential's shape.

### Stress and Strain

The elasticity of objects is determined by their ability to regain their original shape after deformation. This can be examined though stress (**σ**) and strain (**ε**). Stress is the deformng force, given by F/A (Nm-2 or Pa) and strain is the unit deformation given by Δl/l (no units). Graphing the results finds that objects can be stressed to a certain point and regain elasticity, but after the yield point will be permanently deformed or eventually rupture.

### Young's Modulus

Young's Modulus is the relation between stress and strain, and is given by **E=σ/ε**. The scale of the modulus in specific materials gives an indication of their specific atomic bond strengths.

* **Example:** Calculate the extension of a 1m beam (E=200x109) with yield strength 250x106 Pa at its yield point.
* E=stress/strain => strain = 250x106 Pa/200x109
* = 1.25x10-3.
* ε = Δl/l => Δl = 1 x 1.25x10-3 = 1.25mm

Over very small deformations, the stored elastic energy is given by ∫Fdl and the stored energy per volume is given by ∫σdε. These can be integrated down to '**1/2EA/l(Δl)2 and 1/2Eε2 respectively.**

## Summary

Molecules are held in equilibrium by a combination of a short-distance repulsive force and a long distance attractive force. The potential energy required to break this bond can be found by taking the negative integral of the force by extension. Stress is a deforming force and strain is the unit deformation, and the two are related through Young's modulus. For very small deformations simle linear relations can be used.
Sailor Moon

Sailor Moon

## Production

### Voix française

Emmanuelle Pailly (saison 1-3)Anouck Haubois (Sailor Moon Crystal)juliette bassebois

### Première apparition

*Usagi, Sailor Moon*

**Sailor Moon** est la forme Guerrière Sailor d'Usagi Tsukino, le personnage principal de l'anime.

## Apparence

Tous comme pour les autres personnages, l'apparence de Sailor Moon dans le nouvel anime se rapproche de son apparence dans le manga.

Elle a les cheveux blonds et longs souvent coiffés en deux macarons sur les côtés nommé dango. Elle porte la fameuse tenue de sailor composé d'une jupe bleue, de bottes et de rubans rouges et de gants blancs. Elle a également deux barrettes blanches dans les cheveux et des disques rouges sur ses chignons, ainsi que des boucles d'oreilles en forme de croissants de lune et sa broche mystique épinglée sur le noeud rouge de son col marin.

## Biographie

### Saison 1

Quand Usagi Tsukino se transforme en Sailor Moon pour la première fois dans l'épisode 1, *Usagi, Sailor Moon*, elle est d'abord choquée. Elle va, petit à petit, aidée de son chat gardien Luna, de Tuxedo Mask et des autres guerrières (Sailor Mercure, Sailor Mars, Sailor Jupiter et Sailor Venus combattre les forces du Dark Kingdom.

Sailor Moon découvre vite qu'elle est en réalité la Princess Serenity du royaume de la Lune, le Silver Millenium, et commence à se rappeler sa vie antérieure.

Quand elle réussit à se débarrasser de Queen Metalia une bonne fois pour toutes, elle reçoit une broche de transformation encore plus puissante que la précédente, appelée la broche du Cristal d'argent.

## Pouvoirs et capacités

* Le Cristal d'argent : Sailor Moon détient le Cristal d'argent qu'elle a hérité de sa mère, Queen Serenity. Cette pierre précieuse aux pouvoirs incroyables est l'objet des convoitises de ses ennemis. Il lui permet notamment de guérir des humains transformés en monstres par le Dark Kingdom à la fin de la saison 1.
* Sa broche de transformation : elle lui permet de se transformer en Sailor Moon.

### Transformations

* Moon Prism Power, Make Up!
* Moon Crystal Power, Make Up!

### Attaques

* Supersonic Waves
* Moon Tiara Boomerang
* Tiara Attack sans nom
* Moon Healing Escalation
* Moon Princess Halation
Acte 9 : Serenity - Princess -

***Acte 9 : Serenity - Princess -*** est le neuvième épisode de *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal*.

## Synopsis

Usagi est désespérée après que Tuxedo Mask a été grièvement blessé par Kunzite en tentant de la protéger. Son immense peine entraîne l'apparition d'un croissant de lune sur son front et une de ses larmes se transforme en Cristal d'argent.
Inorganic Solids

**Inorganic Solids** is a set of six lectures within CH1401. It covers an introduction to the composition both chemically and physically of simple inorganic solids.

Previous: N/A

Next:

## Content

The properties of a material are determined by its composition and structure. Materials can be classified either by structure or properties, depeding upon their position on the periodic table, purity, size, functions (eg charge, conductivity, appearence, catalysis) and structural properties (eg hardness, strength, flexibility).

### Bonding

Metals are compounds whose electrical conductivity decrease where temperature increases (due to increased heat causing the overall lattice to move more, removing the electrons' previous easy motion even though they too are moving faster). They exist in a closely packed structure with delocalised electrons (obeying the band theory), and have both good thermal and electrical conduction. They also have a lustrous appearence and are strong whilst malleable.

Ionic solids are formed by electron exchange between a number of atoms. Their electrons cannot move, giving the materials insulating properties, and although their bond energies are high they are very brittle.

Covalent solids have localised electrons and distinct directional bonding (unlike ionic lattices, which exist in disorder) as well as insulating properties and weaker bond strengths.

Although these categories are useful, in reality most compounds are not entirely one or the other of these but somewhere between. In ambiguous cases it can be more useful to categorise compounds by their electronegativity (found by 1/2(Ionisation energy+electron affinity))and chemical hardness (1/2(EI-Ae)).

### Hard and Soft Compounds

A species is chemically 'hard' if it is small with high charge and low ability to polarise. Likewise 'soft' species are large, with low charges and high ability to polarise. Hard reacts quickly and forms stronger bonds with hard, whereas soft reacts quickly and forms stronger bonds with soft. Much like polarity this embodies the like-to-like system found in chemistry.
Vectors

Previous: Straight Line Motion

***Vectors*** is the second lecture in the **Mechanics** section of PH1011. It covers an introduction to what vectors are and how they can be combined through addition/subtraction and multiplication.

Next: Motion in 2D and 3D

## Content

### Vectors

Vectors are those quantities which are described by both a magnitude and direction; they are represented visually by an arrow and can act in two or three dimensions. The direction is defined as angle θ counter clockwise from the x axis, and the magnitude is given as |a| = √(a.a) = √(ax2 + ay2 + az2).

Any vector can be resolved into components acting horizontally and vertically; this allows calculation of its angle and/or magnitude through trigonometry. The components of a vector are scalar quantities.

Unit vectors are vectors with a magnitude of 1 acting along axis: *i* acts on the x axis, *j* acts on the y axis and *k* acts on the z axis. Resultant vectors can be expressed as a multiple of a combination of unit vectors.

### Mathematical Combination

Addition and subtraction of vectors is most easily achieved graphically; placing the vectors nose to tail for addition and tail to tail for subtraction allows the resultant vector to be found. Multiplying a vector by a scaler creates a resultant with the same direction but multiplied magnitude to its original.

## Summary

Vectors have magnitude and direction, and can be added graphically or multiplied to give scalars. Unit vectors act on axis and have a magnitude of one.
Researching Chemistry

**Researching Chemistry** is the third unit in the Advanced Higher Chemistry course. It consists of four subtopics; Gravimetric analysis, Volumetric analysis, Practical skills and techniques, and Stoichiometric calculations.

## Subtopics

Throughout each of the key areas the following must be considered:

* 1. precision
	2. accuracy
	3. uncertainties
	4. units

### Gravimetric analysis

* Analytical determination of composition of a substance’s mass by chemically changing the substance.
* Understanding of key techniques including ‘weighing by difference’ and ‘heating to constant mass’.

### Volumetric analysis

* Characteristics of substances that can be used as a primary standard.
* Preparation of a standard solution and their use in determination of a solution’s

unknown concentration.

* Role of a control in experiments to validate techniques.
* Use of complexometric titration in quantitative analysis of solutions containing a

metal ion.

* Back titrations and associated calculations.

### Practical skills and techniques

* Preparation of standard solutions using accurate dilution technique.
* Formation and use of calibration curves, using colorimetry to determine unknown using solutions of appropriate concentration.
* Use of distillation, reflux, vacuum filtration, recrystallisation and use of a separating funnel in the preparation and purification of an experimental product.
* Uses of thin-layer chromatography, melting point and mixed melting point determination in evaluating the purity of an experimental product.
* Calculation of Rf values from relevant data and its use in following the course of a reaction.

### Stoichiometric calculations

* Calculations from balanced equations, including multi-step reactions, reactant excess, and empirical formulae from given data.
* Calculations and explanations comparing theoretical and actual yield.
Ray Optics (the action of a lens)

Previous: Ray Optics (Snell's Law, T.I.R)

Next: Imaging with One Lens

***Ray Optics (the action of a lens)*** is the fourth lecture within the **Waves and Optics** section of PH1011. It covers imaging, with pinholes and lenses.

## Content

### Pinholes

Imaging can be achieved through pinholes - the light from an object will be focused through a narrow area, but will be upside down, dim and fuzzy due to interference of multiple light beams. Making the pinhole smaller will make the image duller, rather than sharper.

### Lenses

Glass with correct surface angles can be used to refract the light so that all incident light from one point converges on the other side of the glass - this is how lenses work. The paraxial approximation allows this to work so long as angles of incidence and refraction are less than 10°; Snell's law runs the necessary calculation. This causes the image to be sharp, although still inverted.

## Summary

Pinholes are not useful. Lenses focus incoming rays to a single point, allowing a sharp and bright image to form.