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ongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new Mongol state.

The Mongols created a "Han Army" (漢軍) out of defected Jin troops, and another army out of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).

Genghis Khan died in 1227 while his armies were attacking Western Xia. His successor, Ögedei Khan, invaded the Jin dynasty again in 1232 with assistance from the Southern Song dynasty. The Jurchens tried to resist; but when the Mongols besieged Kaifeng in 1233, Emperor Aizong fled south to the city of Caizhou. A Song–Mongol allied army surrounded the capital, and the next year Emperor Aizong committed suicide by hanging himself to avoid being captured in the Mongols besieged Caizhou, ending the Jin dynasty in 1234. The territory of the Jin dynasty was to be divided between the Mongols and the Song dynasty. However, due to lingering territorial disputes, the Song dynasty and the Mongols eventually went to war with one another over these territories.

In *Empire of The Steppes*, René Grousset reports that the Mongols were always amazed at the valour of the Jurchen warriors, who held out until seven years after the death of Genghis Khan.

## Military[edit]

Cataphracts with Jin dynasty (Jurchen) flags. *Ruiyingtu* (瑞應圖, *Illustrations of Auspicious Omens*), Song dynasty painting.

Contemporary Chinese writers ascribed Jurchen success in overwhelming the Liao and Northern Song dynasties mainly to their cavalry. Already during Aguda's rebellion against the Liao dynasty, all Jurchen fighters were mounted. It was said that the Jurchen cavalry tactics were a carryover from their hunting skills. Jurchen horsemen were provided with heavy armor; on occasions, they would use a team of horses attached to each other with chains (*Guaizi Ma*).

As the Liao dynasty fell apart and the Song dynasty retreated beyond the Yangtze, the army of the new Jin dynasty absorbed many soldiers who formerly fought for the Liao or Song dynasties. The new Jin empire adopted many of the Song military's weapons, including various machines for siege warfare and artillery. In fact, the Jin military's use of cannons, grenades, and even rockets to defend besieged Kaifeng against the Mongols in 1233 is considered the first ever battle in human history in which gunpowder was used effectively, even though it failed to prevent the eventual Jin defeat.

On the other hand, the Jin military was not particularly good at naval warfare. Both in 1129–30 and in 1161 Jin forces were defeated by the Southern Song navies when trying to cross the Yangtze River into the core Southern Song territory (see Battle of Tangdao and Battle of Caishi), even though for the latter campaign the Jin had equipped a large navy of their own, using Han Chinese shipbuilders and even Han Chinese captains who had defected from the Southern Song.

In 1130, the Jin army reached Hangzhou and Ningbo in southern China. But heavy Chinese resistance and the geography of the area halted the Jin advance, and they were forced to retreat and withdraw, and they had not been able to escape the Song navy when trying to return until they were directed by a Han Chinese defector who helped them escape in Zhenjiang. Southern China was then cleared of the Jurchen forces.

The Jin military was organised through the *meng-an mou-k'o* system, which seemed to be similar to the later Eight Bannersof the Qing dynasty. *Meng-an* is from the Mongol word for thousand, *mingghan* (see Military of the Yuan dynasty) while *mou-k'o* means clan or tribe. Groups of fifty households known as *p'u-li-yen* were grouped together as a *mou-k'o*, while seven to ten *mou-k'o* formed a *meng-an*, and several *meng-an* were grouped into a *wanhu*, Chinese for Ten Thousand Households. This was not only a military structure but also grouped all Jurchen households for economic and administrative functions. Khitans and Han Chinese soldiers who had defected to the Jin dynasty were also assigned into their own *meng-an*. All male members of the households were required to serve in the military; the servants of the household would serve as auxiliaries to escort their masters in battle. The numbers of Han Chinese soldiers in the Jin armies seemed to be very significant.

### Jin Great Wall[edit]

See also: History of the Great Wall of China § The northern walls of the Khitan, Jurchens, and Tanguts
"Great Golden Central State O-Giao Jeo-Shio" (1196), found in now Mongolia.
In order to prevent incursion from the Mongols, a large construction program was launched. The records show that two important sections of the Great Wall were completed by the Jurchens.

The Great Wall as constructed by the Jurchens differed from the previous dynasties. Known as the Border Fortress or the Boundary Ditch of the Jin, it was formed by digging ditches within which lengths of wall were built. In some places subsidiary walls and ditches were added for extra strength. The construction was started in about 1123 and completed by about 1198. The two sections attributable to the Jin dynasty are known as the Old Mingchang Walls and New Great Walls, together stretching more than 2,000 kilometres in length.

## Government[edit]

The government of the Jin dynasty merged Jurchen customs with institutions adopted from the Liao and Song dynasties.The pre-dynastic Jurchen government was based on the quasi-egalitarian tribal council. Jurchen society at the time did not have a strong political hierarchy. The *Shuo Fu* (說郛) records that the Jurchen tribes were not ruled by central authority and locally elected their chieftains. Tribal customs were retained after Aguda united the Jurchen tribes and formed the Jin dynasty, coexisting alongside more centralised institutions. The Jin dynasty had five capitals, a practice they adopted from the Balhae and the Liao. The Jin had to overcome the difficulties of controlling a multicultural empire composed of territories once ruled by the Liao and Northern Song. The solution of the early Jin government was to establish separate government structures for different ethnic groups.

## Culture[edit]

Because the Jin had few contacts with its southern neighbour, the Song dynasty, different cultural developments took place in both states. Within Confucianism, the "Learning of the Way" that developed and became orthodox in Song did not take root in Jin. Jin scholars put more emphasis on the work of northern Song scholar and poet Su Shi (1037–1101) than on Zhu Xi's (1130–1200) scholarship, which constituted the foundation of the Learning of the Way.

### Architecture[edit]

The Jin pursued a revival of Tang dynasty urban design with architectural projects in Kaifeng and Zhongdu (modern Beijing), building for instance a bell tower and drum tower to announce the night curfew (which was revived after being abolished under the Song). The Jurchens followed Khitan precedent of living in tents amidst the Chinese-style architecture, which were in turn based on the Song dynasty Kaifeng model.

### Religion[edit]

Jin dynasty fresco of a Bodhisattvafrom Chongfu Temple (崇福寺), Shuozhou, Shanxi.

#### Taoism[edit]

A significant branch of Taoism called the Quanzhen School was founded under the Jin by Wang Zhe (1113–1170), a Han Chinese man who founded formal congregations in 1167 and 1168. Wang took the nickname of Wang Chongyang(Wang "Double Yang") and the disciples he took were retrospectively known as the "seven patriarchs of Quanzhen". The flourishing of *ci* poetry that characterized Jin literature was tightly linked to Quanzhen, as two-thirds of the *ci* poetry written in Jin times was composed by Quanzhen Taoists.
Jade ornament with flower design, Jin dynasty, Shanghai Museum.

Chinese gold plates and a chalice from the Jin Dynasty's Zhongdu.

The Jin state sponsored an edition of the Taoist Canon that is known as the *Precious Canon of the Mysterious Metropolis of the Great Jin* (*Da Jin Xuandu baozang* 大金玄都寶藏). Based on a smaller version of the Canon printed by Emperor Huizong (r. 1100–1125) of the Song dynasty, it was completed in 1192 under the direction and support of Emperor Zhangzong (r. 1190–1208). In 1188, Zhangzong's grandfather and predecessor Shizong (r. 1161–1189) had ordered the woodblocks for the Song Canon transferred from Kaifeng (the former Northern Song capital that had now become the Jin "Southern Capital") to the Central Capital's "Abbey of Celestial Perpetuity" or Tianchang guan 天長觀, on the site of what is now the White Cloud Temple in Beijing. Other Daoist writings were also moved there from another abbey in the Central Capital. Zhangzong instructed the abbey's superintendent Sun Mingdao 孫明道 and two civil officials to prepare a complete Canon for printing. After sending people on a "nationwide search for scriptures" (which yielded 1,074 fascicles of text that was not included in the Huizong edition of the Canon) and securing donations for printing, in 1192 Sun Mingdao proceeded to cut the new woodblocks. The final print consisted of 6,455 fascicles. Though the Jin emperors occasionally offered copies of the *Canon* as gifts, not a single fragment of it has survived.

#### Buddhism[edit]

A Buddhist Canon or "Tripitaka" was also produced in Shanxi, the same place where an enhanced version of the Jin-sponsored Taoist Canon would be reprinted in 1244. The project was initiated in 1139 by a Buddhist nun named Cui Fazhen, who swore (and allegedly "broke her arm to seal the oath") that she would raise the necessary funds to make a new official edition of the Canon printed by the Northern Song. Completed in 1173, the Jin Tripitaka counted about 7,000 fascicles, "a major achievement in the history of Buddhist private printing." It was further expanded during the Yuan.

Buddhism thrived during the Jin, both in its relation with the imperial court and in society in general. Many sutras were also carved on stone tablets. The donors who funded such inscriptions included members of the Jin imperial family, high officials, common people, and Buddhist priests. Some sutras have only survived from these carvings, which are thus highly valuable to the study of Chinese Buddhism. At the same time, the Jin court sold monk certificates for revenue. This practice was initiated in 1162 by Shizong to fund his wars, and stopped three years later when war was over. His successor Zhanzong used the same method to raise military funds in 1197 and one year later to raise money to fight famine in the Western Capital. The same practice was used again in 1207 (to fight the Song and more famine) as well as under the reigns of emperors Weishao (r. 1209–1213) and Xuanzong (r. 1213–1224) to fight the Mongols.

**=== Fashion[edit] ===**
Main article: Fashion in the Jurchen Jin dynasty

## See also[edit]

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	* v
	* t

	* Eastern Xia
	* Jurchen Jin emperors family tree
	* Korean–Jurchen border conflicts
	* Timeline of the Jin–Song Wars
## References[edit]

### Citations[edit]

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	24. **^** Tao (1976), Chapter 6. "The Jurchen Movement for Revival", pp. 69–83
	25. **^** Schneider, Julia. “The Jin Revisited: New Assessment of Jurchen Emperors.” Journal of Song-Yuan Studies, no. 41, 2011, p. 389. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23496214?seq=47#metadata\_info\_tab\_contents. Accessed 17 Dec. 2020.
	26. **^**
	27. **^**
	28. **^**
	29. **^**
	30. **^**
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	33. **^** https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/新元史/卷146[*bare URL*]
	34. **^**
	35. ^ Jump up to: ***a*** ***b***
	36. ^ Jump up to: ***a*** ***b***
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	38. **^**
	39. **^**
	40. ^ Jump up to: ***a*** ***b*** ***c*** ***d*** ***e*** Tao (1976), Chapter 2. "The Rise of the Chin dynasty", pp. 21–24
	41. **^** Gernet (1996), p. 357. "Nanking and Hangchow were taken by assault in 1129 and in 1130 the Jürchen ventured as far as Ning-po, in the north-eastern tip of Chekiang."
	42. **^**
	43. **^** Franke 1994, pp. 273–277.
	44. **^**
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	46. **^** Franke 1994, pp. 265–266.
	47. **^** Franke 1994, p. 266.
	48. **^** Franke 1994, p. 270.
	49. **^** Franke 1994, p. 267.
	50. **^** Tillman 1995b, pp. &#91, *page needed*&#93, .
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	54. **^** Boltz 2008, pp. 291–92.
	55. ^ Jump up to: ***a*** ***b*** Boltz 2008, p. 292.
	56. **^** Yao 1995, p. 174; Goossaert 2008, p. 916 (both Buddhist Canon and Daoist Canon printed in Shanxi).
	57. ^ Jump up to: ***a*** ***b*** ***c*** Yao 1995, p. 174.
	58. **^** Yao 1995, p. 173.
	59. ^ Jump up to: ***a*** ***b*** ***c*** Yao 1995, p. 175.
	60. ^ Jump up to: ***a*** ***b*** Yao 1995, p. 161.
	61. **^** Yao 1995, pp. 161–62.
### Sources[edit]

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	* (hardcover)