Japan

**Japan** (Nihon or Nippon), commonly known as Japan, is a trade unionist state by the Japan Confederation of Trade Unions located in East Asia. The capital is Tokyo.

## **HISTORY**

### **The Russo-Japanese War and Its Aftermath**

During the Russo-Japanese War, the Japanese army suffered a significant defeat on land, but a decisive battle took place at sea in the Battle of Tsushima. Japan emerged victorious in the naval battle, but the elite Russian fleet managed to escape to Vladivostok, limiting Japan's war gains.

Subsequently, the Treaty of Tianjin was negotiated with the mediation of the Qing government. According to this treaty, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, the Korean Peninsula, and Manchuria came under Russian control. This treaty was a painful outcome for Japan.

After the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War, the Japanese population became divided between proponents of continuing the war and those advocating for peace. Large-scale protests erupted in places like Hibiya and Ueno, leading to clashes between supporters of the two factions. Furthermore, some socialists gained prominence, creating a connection between anti-war sentiment and socialism. In response to these developments, the Katsura Cabinet fell apart, and the Second Saionji Cabinet was established.

In 1908, an incident occurred in Tokyo's Kanda district where socialists waved red flags, sang revolutionary songs, and marched (known as the Red Flag Incident). During this incident, individuals like Kanmura Arai and Eizo Osugi were arrested, and Shusui Kotoku, who was staying in the vicinity, was also apprehended as a conspirator. Additionally, due to financial issues, conflicts with the genro (elder statesmen), and the earlier Red Flag Incident, the Second Saionji Cabinet collapsed, and the Second Katsura Cabinet was formed.

Subsequently, the Miyashita Incident took place, during which individuals like Taiji Miyashita were arrested for plotting the assassination of Emperor Meiji. However, Shusui Kotoku was spared from prosecution (as he was imprisoned during the Red Flag Incident). Following the Miyashita Incident, the Second Katsura Cabinet also fell apart, and the Second Saionji Cabinet was reestablished.

Further complications arose with the issue of adding two divisions to the military. Yamagata Aritomo advocated for the expansion of two divisions as retaliation for the Russo-Japanese War and for defense purposes. This issue led to the dissolution of the Saionji Cabinet and the formation of the Third Katsura Cabinet. However, due to movements like the Constitutional Protection Movement, the Third Katsura Cabinet also collapsed.

Subsequently, the First Yamamoto Cabinet was formed but faced its downfall due to the Siemens Incident.

### **Great War**

The Second Katsura Cabinet was formed. During this period, the First World War erupted, and a revengeful sentiment against Russia, known as the "Decade of Revenge," was advocated. The Army faction in Japan pushed for the country's participation in the war. This led to a division within Japan between proponents of entering the war and those advocating for peace. Furthermore, socialists agitated against the peace faction, and anti-war and labor movements intensified. During this time, there were also movements like the Three Party Leaders' Conference aimed at toppling the government, and the socialist movement gained momentum. In this tense atmosphere, the Second Katsura Cabinet collapsed.

Subsequently, the Terashima Cabinet was established but did not involve Japan in the First Great War.

### **Revolution and Establishment**

After the collapse of the Terashima Cabinet, the Hara Kei Cabinet was formed. However, Hara Kei was assassinated by socialists. The Takahashi Korekiyo Cabinet was established but fell apart due to internal disagreements, leading to the formation of the Kato Takaaki Cabinet.

During this tumultuous period, labor and socialist movements intensified.

In August 1923, the "8-8 General Strike" triggered a socialist revolution, plunging all of Japan into chaos. Furthermore, the death of Kato Takaaki and the devastating Great Kanto Earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 7.9 on September 1st (the Great Kanto Earthquake) led to the "9-1 Revolution." Amid this turmoil, the Empire of Japan was established, with Sakai Toshihiko, a leader of the Japan Socialist Alliance, taking the lead in the revolution. Figures like Kanmura Arai and Eizo Osugi organized militia units and led the struggle against the Imperial Japanese Government forces. Despite the chaos caused by the earthquake, the rapidly organized revolutionary forces quickly gained control of the Kanto region.

On the other hand, riots and uprisings occurred, such as the "Kawagoe Riot" by textile factory workers in Saitama and the "Mito Uprising" led by the army in Ibaraki Prefecture. In the Tohoku region, army personnel from poor farming backgrounds went rogue, and the Imperial Japanese Government forces were pushed back to Osaka, Hiroshima, and Kyushu before eventually seeking refuge in the Taiwan Government. Thus, the socialist revolution plunged all of Japan into turmoil, with riots and uprisings occurring throughout the country.

### **Establishment of the State of Japan and Beyond**

Sakai aimed to establish a socialist system and utilized the Japan Labor General Alliance for this purpose. Sakai requested that Suzuki Bunji resign from his position as secretary-general, which Suzuki accepted.

Subsequently, Sakai restructured the Japan Labor General Alliance into a syndicalist council, taking on the role of secretary-general himself. Through this council, Sakai worked to integrate industries and local communities and fought for the rights and interests of laborers. Militia groups led by figures like Kanmura Arai and Eizo Osugi also supported the Sakai administration in safeguarding the rights and interests of laborers.

In 1924, Sakai Toshihiko implemented rapid socialist reforms for the construction of a socialist state in Japan. During the First Japan Labor General Alliance Congress, the new constitution known as the Japanese Constitution (commonly referred to as the Sakai Constitution) was enacted. A new syndicalist system was established, and reforms were made to the education and legal systems. Furthermore, the "National Industrialization Decree" was issued, leading to the nationalization of industries across the Japanese archipelago. Additionally, the "Land Reform Law" and the "Soil Reform Law" were enacted, promoting the distribution of land to landless farmers and the nationalization of land held by large landowners and public entities, resulting in an improvement in the living standards of laborers.

In 1925, a problem arose regarding the treatment of Crown Prince Hirohito, who had been concealed by individuals like Asou Hisashi and Abe Isao during the revolution (the Hirohito Issue). However, Sakai Toshihiko considered using him politically in the Taiwan exile government and allowed him to reside in Tokyo on the condition that his assets were confiscated and he was given a new name. During the same period, the "Noble Peerage Dissolution Decree" was promulgated, which required individuals of the former noble peerage to surrender their assets and abandon their aristocratic and traditional names. The law Sakai enacted to nationalize the remaining assets and means of production of the business conglomerates was named the "Business Conglomerate Dissolution Decree." Under this law, capitalists were obligated to transfer their assets to the state. After the promulgation of the Business Conglomerate Dissolution Decree, individuals associated with the business conglomerates were compelled to go into exile in Taiwan.

### **The New Capital Construction Project and the Rise of the Fraternal Idea**

In the "New Capital Construction Plan" formulated in 1924 as part of the earthquake recovery plan, a strong emphasis was placed on addressing housing issues for the working class. The goal was to move away from traditional, small, and dark housing towards modern collective housing.

This led to the construction of revolutionary collective housing units, departing from the old traditional wooden structures and instead using modern materials like stone and red bricks. These new buildings were equipped with modern interior facilities, and rent prices were kept affordable to accommodate the needs of laborers.

Furthermore, within these buildings, communal facilities and shared spaces were provided, allowing laborers to form communities and support each other in their daily lives. These collective housing units were welcomed by the working class as a new form of housing where people could live together, and they had a significant impact. They came to be known as "living communities," and the idea of considering fellow laborers as family members began to take root among the people. This concept of living communities evolved into the "philosophy of mutual love," led by figures like Uchimura Kanzo and Tokutomi Soho. The philosophy of mutual love became the foundation of the Japan Labor General Alliance system and played a central role in shaping the worldview of Japanese-style socialism.

### **The Activities of the Socialist Advisory Group**

In 1925, a political organization called the Socialist Advisory Group was formed, with key figures like Sanzo Nosaka, Hiroshi Shibata, Sadao Nabe, Shumei Okawa, and Osamu Nishida. Members of this advisory group traveled to various countries to study aspects of socialism, industrial systems, economic systems, production methods, machinery, and weapons.

Those who went to the German Soviet Republic (Räterepublik) investigated the realities of mechanization and industrial development and aimed to apply their findings to Japan's industrial progress upon their return. They also studied the socialist system in the German Soviet Republic with the intention of potentially implementing it in Japan.

On the other hand, those who traveled to the United Kingdom in 1925 had contact with the far-left figures of the Progressive Party, formed in 1926, and developed a unique ideology that advocated the coexistence of constitutionalism and socialism.

This advisory group had a significant influence on the development of the socialist movement in Japan. After returning, Sanzo Nosaka and others formed the New Industrial Alliance and contributed to domestic industrial development. Additionally, while in Germany, Sanzo Nosaka encountered the Strasser brothers and was exposed to the new ideology of National Socialism, which had an impact on his later political views. Hiroshi Shibata stayed in rural areas of the German Soviet Republic, learning about agricultural production from Konrad Meyer, and subsequently addressed rural issues in Japan. The Socialist Advisory Group later transformed into the National Renewal Committee.

During this period, Sanzo Nosaka, who had traveled to Germany, dedicated his efforts to promoting Japanese-style socialism in various regions of Asia. This laid the groundwork for future connections with the Zhejiang government and the Indochinese People's Republic. In 1927, the Control Office (Touseifu) was established under the leadership of Sanzo Nosaka. This organization played a role in promoting controlled economy and mobilization efforts, eventually falling under the influence of the National Renewal Committee.

However, in Western Japan, anti-government partisans were active, engaging in armed struggles against the government. To suppress these activities, the government established the Labor Surveillance Bureau, which monitored the population and functioned as a secret police force, maintaining law and order.

The year 1926 saw a rapid increase in military strength under the leadership of Sakai. The Japanese Red Army, the regular army, was established, and it played a key role as the main force of the Japanese socialist military, strengthening its military capabilities.

At the same time, under the guidance of Sanzo Nosaka from the National Renewal Committee and the efforts of the militia led by Kanmura Kanmura, the People's Navy Plan was executed, with the goal of elevating Japan's status as a maritime nation. During this time, Sanzo Nosaka established the National Defense Institute (Kokubouin), appointing Hiroshi Wada as its director. The militia independently established the "Militia Navy Technical Arsenal" and worked on data collection from the remaining Imperial Japanese Navy and research and development. Moreover, the Labor General Alliance set up the Labor General Alliance Navy Department and appointed Goro Kokuryo as its head. This plan led to a swift construction of warships and an expansion of Japan's military presence in the Pacific.

In addition to these military efforts, Japan also placed significant emphasis on international economic relations. The country signed the Japan-Germany Agreement and the Japan-Italy Agreement, strengthening its economic ties with European nations, and entered into the Tripartite Trade Agreement. Through this agreement, Japan reinforced its economic relations with European countries and secured the resources necessary for its military expansion.

### **Growing Awareness of National Defense**

In 1927, a collision incident occurred off the coast of Amami Oshima involving Japan's trade transport ships and small vessels from the Taiwanese government. This incident made Japan acutely aware of the need to further strengthen its defense capabilities. It simultaneously acted as a catalyst for Japan's efforts to improve its international standing and increase domestic industrial infrastructure.

Consequently, the government decided to pursue rapid industrial development through a plan known as the Three-Year Plan. This plan spanned from 1927 to 1930 and focused on making substantial investments in key sectors of the Japanese economy, including railways, aviation, electricity, and heavy chemicals.

The Three-Year Plan significantly bolstered Japan's domestic industrial infrastructure, accelerating economic growth. Furthermore, on the military front, Japan leveraged the newly established industrial base to enhance its military strength.

While the Three-Year Plan succeeded in promoting economic and military growth, it also prompted criticism of the government's centralized economic planning. In response, figures like Sanzo Nosaka and other socialist forces advocated for economic policies that promoted market principles while pursuing economic development, expressing resistance to the government's centralized economic planning.

During the same period as the Three-Year Plan, a new labor system known as "7-6 Labor" was adopted. Under this system, workers were required to work a maximum of seven hours on weekdays and less than six hours on Sundays (which was designated as a day of rest). The goal of this new labor system was to improve worker productivity by reducing the previously prevalent long working hours.

Moreover, this new labor system incorporated revolutionary ideas. For example, holiday work included not only productive activities but also activities for union members to enjoy leisure time collectively. This aimed not only to change working conditions but also to enhance the quality of life for workers.

In addition, children under 16 were encouraged to focus on their studies and were prohibited from labor. However, during the "concentrated production period," they were allowed to work up to 20 hours a week. This was intended to enable children to work during the long school vacation periods, earn an income, and contribute to their families.

The introduction of this new labor system aimed to improve worker productivity, eliminate child labor, and enhance the quality of life for workers.

In 1928, Japan signed the Japan-Australia Trade Agreement, strengthening its international economic relations. Through this agreement, Japan imported raw materials from Australia, further developing its domestic industrial base. Simultaneously, Japan exported silk, raw silk, and steel to contribute to Australia's economic growth.

In the same year, the Fujian Socialist Front in China's Fujian Province rebelled against the Fujian warlord government, and the Japanese government provided military assistance. Kanmura Kanmura is said to have played a leading role in facilitating the loan of outdated weaponry to the militia. The Japanese government aimed to strengthen its relationship with the Fujian warlord government and increase its influence in China.

These events reflect a period of significant economic and military development in Japan, accompanied by evolving labor practices and a growing role in international affairs.

### **The "Make it, Make it" Plan to Increase Production**

In 1929, in addition to the Three-Year Plan, a separate agricultural plan was implemented. This plan, known as the "Production Increase Plan," had a prominent slogan, "Produce, Produce," and aimed to exceed the grain production of the previous year by at least 10%. Alongside labor unions, agricultural cooperatives were organized to achieve this goal. Modern agricultural tools were actively deployed and a production system was established, largely spearheaded by Hiroshi Shiba. This plan ultimately succeeded in surpassing its production targets.

During the late 1920s, Japan's agriculture sector still faced significant challenges, with many agricultural laborers living in poverty, and low productivity. However, government agricultural policies gradually began to improve the situation. Hiroshi Shiba focused on introducing and enhancing agricultural machinery, contributing to increased agricultural productivity. Furthermore, he dedicated efforts to the development of agricultural cooperatives, fostering modernization in production methods. These endeavors resulted in the successful achievement of grain production targets, marking a significant step toward modernizing agriculture.

Additionally, the redevelopment of regions in the Tohoku and Hokkaido areas prioritized the development of key industries such as coal, steel, and fertilizers. A plan was implemented with the establishment of the "National Core Industries Special Association" to organize systematic production. Particularly in the coal industry, railway networks were expanded, greatly improving coal transportation efficiency. In the steel industry, large-scale steel mills were constructed, and significant advancements were made in fertilizer production.

These initiatives led to economic development in the Tohoku and Hokkaido regions, giving rise to new industries and providing employment opportunities for many workers. Furthermore, the increase in domestic productivity enhanced Japan's international competitiveness.

### **Slump and death of Toshihiko Sakai**

In the late 1920s, Japan experienced rapid urbanization and development, but this growth eventually led to economic stagnation. To address this issue, the Minister of Construction at the time, Kizo Yamamoto, undertook efforts to expand infrastructure, stimulating domestic demand. By correcting the balance between supply and demand, the Japanese economy regained momentum, and Yamamoto was recognized as a key contributor to Japan's development.

However, in 1931, a major problem arose as the grain surplus that had been steadily increasing due to the "Production Increase Plan" became difficult to sell amidst the Great Depression. This posed a significant economic challenge, but it was partly mitigated through a cooperative approach with socialist nations.

Nevertheless, politically, Japan entered a dark period. Instances of corruption and misconduct within labor unions led by the militia became widespread, resulting in the deterioration of the socialist system. In response to these issues, Kizo Yamamoto attempted reforms and in 1932, hosted the 4th National Labor Federation Congress, where he declared the strengthening of the Labor Inspection Bureau's authority to combat corruption and malpractice. However, despite these efforts, corruption within the Labor Inspection Bureau continued to escalate, and the decay within the socialist system remained unresolved.

Furthermore, Kizo Yamamoto tragically passed away due to a cerebral hemorrhage caused by overwork. This left the National Labor Federation without a successor for the position of secretary-general. This transition led to a council-based political system, making it increasingly challenging to reach a consensus.

Additionally, the intensification of corruption within the Labor Inspection Bureau hindered the execution of Kizo Yamamoto's proposed crackdown on corruption and decay. In 1935, the Crown Prince Issue resurfaced at the 6th National Labor Federation Congress, pressuring Japan to make a decision. However, internal divisions within the National Labor Federation deepened, preventing any decisive action from being taken.