Saxons

The Saxons arose when the ancient gods made the first people from trees. They walked with the gods and have interbred with the great and small among them. The gods made people to have allies against the giants and subterranean forces of Nature. They made different tribes of people so they would compete with each other to manifest the virtues that make humans great. Humans are beings of “courage, individuality, loyalty, and honor.” These virtues were distributed among the many peoples, thus creating the different tribes who settled in various regions of the continent. The actual Saxon tribes comprise a large group, but other significantly large groups include the Jutes and Angles; all three were driven from their ancestral homelands by the hostile Danes. In Britain they reasserted themselves by conquering and settling this land.

## Stereotype

Big, slow, unsophisticated people who rely on their size and physical intimidation to get their way rather than respecting the law and custom of the land and cling to old Pagan ways or perhaps even darker beliefs. Willing to besmirch their own honorthey are even said to murder their own children.

## Self-image

Strong, independent people who rely only on themselves and who will not bend to the will of any soft and decadent folk. Saxons are

* pastoral: most Anglo-Saxons are farmers;
* communal: village life and self-regulation are common;
* heroic: individual honor is paramount and shame is to be avoided;
* generous: gifts are given to those higher in station as loyalty and to those below as rewards;
* intelligent: a complex system of administration and law governs many facets of life and a portion of the secular population is literate;
* introspective: poems recounting everything from famous battles to haunting Roman ruins are entertainment;
* loving: children are considered a family’s greatest joy; and
* pecuniary: most things have a price and can be bought.

## Let’s Be Practical

It is difficult for them to obtain knighthood, but once knighted, they have what it takes for success: they are big, handsome and murderous.

## Saxon Knights

Berroc (a.k.a., Surrey; former county of Windsor) is a Saxon land loyal to Logres, whether ruled by King Uther or King Arthur, and largely Christian, with some among them retaining their old worship.

## Names

### Male

Aelfric, Aesewine, Bassa, Beorhtric, Caedwalla, Caewlin, Centwine, Cenwalch, Cerdic, Coelred, Coelric, Coelwulf, Coenhelm, Conerad, Conewalch, Coenwulf, Cuthbert, Cuthred, Cuthwulf, Cyneagils, Cynewulf, Cynric, Eadbald, Eadberht, Eadric, Eardwulf, Edwin, Edgert, Ethilfrith, Ethelheard, Ethelred, Ethelwulf, Hengest, Hlothere, Horsa, Ine, Octa, Oeric, Osric, Oswald, Oswine, Oswulf, Oswy, Peada, Penda, Sigebryht, Wihtred, Wulfhere.

### Female

Aelflaed, Aelgifu, Aethelred, Burhred, Cuthburh, Cyneburh, Eadgifu, Eadgyth, Eadhild, Ealhred, Eormenburh, Hereswith, Raedburh, Sexburh, Wihtburh.

### Naming Rules

Saxon names are diathemic; two words are combined to make a whole. The first part of the name, the prefix, is often not gender specific. The second part, the suffix, usually is. To create a Saxon name, combine a prefix with a suffix. Alliteration between generations is common.

To differentiate between two people with the same name, bynames are often given. Bynames add to or completely replace given names. Bynames usually provide some kind of descriptor, either occupational or personal, about the person. They aren’t always complimentary.

#### Common Prefixes

Aelf, Aethel, Al, Alf, An, Beorht, Beorn, Bot, Coel, Coen, Cuth, Cyne, Ead, Eald, Ealh, Ecdg, Ed, Eg, Eor, Frea, Frithu, God, Heah, Here, In, Leof, Os, Sige, Wig, Wiht, Wulf.

#### Common Male Suffixes

bald, frea, frith, gar, geat, heah, helm, here, laf, mund, noth, raed, red, ric, sige, stan, wald, ward, wine, wig, wulf.

#### Common Female Suffixes

burh, gifu, gyth, hild, laed, red, swith, waru, wynn.

 Braders
 Gupe
 Heofudwund
 Langa
 Lytla
 Muf
 Scirlocc
 Tredwude

## Religion

### Germanic Pagan

Germanic paganism reveres a pantheon of gods and goddesses. The chief god of the nobles and warriors is Wotan, the all-seeing god of kings, warriors, and poets. Seax is the sword and war god.

“We worship the gods of our ancestors. Our gods have led us in peace and in war, and their blood runs in our veins. It would be folly to abandon that history.”

#### Charms

A frequently seen syncretism between formal religion and popular belief are charms against elves, devils, poisons, and disease. Elves are ambivalent, immoral creatures that lurk beyond the borders of human settlements causing all kinds of problems. The elves use their elf-shot to cause all sorts of ailments, both physical and spiritual. A run of bad luck or a pain in the side that just won’t go away can both be caused by elves. Possession by devils can cause fevers, madness, or other health concerns. To counteract these things, Saxons use charms. Mostly, charms are verbal: spoken, sung, or intoned ~ although some charms may have physical components. Pagan charms call on deities to heal the person. Christians change the names to those of Christian saints, but the means of delivery stays the same.

#### Amulets

Like charms, amulets protect people from diseases caused by elves and evil spirits. Worn on a thong around the neck or carried in a belt pouch, amulets can include sprigs of herbs like mugwort, stones (such as amber or amethyst), crystals, seashells, wolf teeth, or eagle claws. Although these are the most common types, any unusual object can become an amulet ~ small fossils, for instance, or Roman or other foreign/ancient coins.

#### The Old Ways

All the gods were provided their due worship. While an individual might favor one god over another, he or she was careful not to slight any of them. Most worship is performed at simple household altars, although sacred groves, stones, and trees might also be visited. Ritual observances and sacrifices (usually of food or animals) are frequent.

In the Saxon cosmology, there are seven realms. Humans live in Middangeard, which is surrounded by two saltwater seas and two freshwater seas. A barricade, made from the eyebrows of the giant Claeg, surround Middangeard, separating it from the other worlds. Above Middangeard is Heofon, home of the gods and connect to the land of men by the Heofonlic Boga (Heavenly Bridge). The land of the dead, Hel, lies below Middangeard. Within the boundaries of the three worlds are four realms belonging to the Dweorgian, Beorht Aelfan, Deorc Aelfan, and Ents. The three worlds are connected by the Yew of Irminsul. One root of Irminsul reaches into Hel and draws sustenance from the Sweging Cital (Roaring Cauldron), which is guarded by the devourer of corpses, a great wyrm named Fretanre Death. Irminsul’s second root draws from the Spring of Wisdom in Middangeard. The third root of Irminsul reaches into the Spring of Destiny in Heofon.

The three daughters of Niht ~ Wyrd, Metod, and Sculd ~ exist outside, but near the three worlds, serving as Fate, Measurer, and Cutter. Each day Wyrd drinks of water from the Spring of Destiny and spins a man’s thread of life. Metod measures it, making it long or short. Sculd cuts the thread according to Metod’s measure. If the cut is ragged the man dies viciously, if the cut is the clean the man dies honorably. The trio weaves the threads on a loom made of bones, weighted by skulls. No one can escape their thread.

### British Christian

Some Saxons may have converted to the faith of their lords.

“The God of the victors is clearly the God of Victory, and we are wise to emulate the winners in their worship as well as their ways of war. We accept the new faith and swear to defend it against desecrators and heretics.”

However, their conversion is often more in name than in practice, as revealed by their Traits.

#### Common Tithes

The Church and its priests live on tithes. People donate all manner of goods to churches and the Church has established certain days where certain tithes are to be made.

 Young animals
 Harvest grains
 Peter's Pence
 Dues
 1/2 d of beeswax
 Soul Scot

#### Types of Churches

There are four types of churches in Berroc and other Christian Saxon settlements. Unlike homes and other buildings, churches are frequently built of stone.

* **Heafod-mynstres:** head minsters, usually the seat of a bishop.
* **Medemran mynstres:** medium rank churches have a collegiate or monastic group of clergy. Often have daughter churches under them.
* **Git læssan:** literally “yet lesser.” These churches have a graveyard and perform basic divine services. Most private churches founded by laymen fall within this category.
* **Feld-circan:** field churches are country chapels without a graveyard. These churches usually lack a permanent priest.

## Appearance

The average Saxon male is 5’8” tall, while the average woman is 5’4” high. Hair color can be blonde, brown, black, or red; indicative of the various ancestors of the Saxons.

### Clothing

Clothing is either made of wool or linen ~ linen being more expensive and only available to the wealthy. The truly wealthy wear linen with silk trim. Although status is often defined more by the weapons carried, there are differences between the common folk and the wealthy in their clothes as well. The common man wears a short woolen tunic that falls above the knees, belted at the waist, over leggings. A wealthy man adds a long cloak that falls below his knees, secured at the shoulder with an expensive brooch. A sword is also the purview of the wealthy man; a commoner may only carry a spear. Women wear long dresses. Wealthy women add dark grey veils attached to colorful headdresses; they may also sharpen their nails to points. Children wear short, loose tunics and usually run around barefoot.

Shoes for both sexes are simple leather uppers sewn to a leather sole with a heel. Most shoes are ankle high. When the sole wears out, it’s pulled away from the upper and replaced. Accoutrements include gems, necklaces, and arm rings made of gold. Bags and pouches with walrus or elephant ivory closure rings are hung from belts. During winter, people add leather leggings, shoe covers, and over shirts to keep out the rain and the snow. Everyday headwear for men is a woolen slouch cap.

### Hairstyle

A privilege of freemen, regardless of class, is to wear their hair long, which they do. Only slaves and priests have short hair. Men, especially warriors, also wear long, trimmed mustaches. To forcibly cut a man’s hair or mustache is a crime. Children wear their hair short. They’re permitted to grow it out after reaching adulthood (around ten or twelve years of age). Women also have long hair but either pull it back in braids or wear an early form of a wimple to control their hair. Slaves have their hair cut short, indicative of their loss of status. Priests in Berroc have a tonsure, either at the front in the Celtic style or more commonly at the top in the Roman style. Priests also have to shave their mustache.

## Land Administration

The most basic measure of land in Saxon lands is the “hide,” which is enough land to support a family. Depending on the quality of the land, hides vary in size, but average between 40 and 120 acres. They’re used as the basis for determining the “geld,” or land tax.

Ten hides form a “tithing.” The tithingman, head of this administrative unit, is primarily responsible for law enforcement. The tithingman is usually a thegn (an aristocratic retainer of a king or nobleman).

Roughly, one hundred hides form a “hundred.” The specific number of hides varies, usually because of the merging or splitting of hides as families and estates change over time. A hundred is overseen by a hundredeolder (an eolderman). He’s responsible for administration, meting out justice, and supplying and leading the troops. A hundred court meets periodically to handle cases. Most hundreds take their names from the court’s meeting place.

Above the hundred is the “scir,” or shire, the largest administrative unit beneath a “kingdom.” An ealdorman oversees the scir

## Settlement Types

There are several types of settlements dotting the landscape of Saxon kingdoms.

### Burh

A burh is a fortified settlement that serves as home to a thegn and houses a mint, where the kingdom’s coins are minted. Burhs are fortified with wooden palisades, earthen ramparts and, in some cases, stone towers. Harvests are transported to burhs for sorting, storage, and taxation.

### Hill Fort

The Saxons maintain some hill forts, solely for defense, not as permanent settlements. Such hill forts are usually located on the site of Iron Age hill forts or even Roman fortifications. Some are manned year round, others only in time of need. Villagers unable to reach a burh in times of trouble may flee to a hill fort instead.

### Monastery

Monasteries, while sites of religious education, often become a focus for industry and trade. The communities that spring up around monasteries produce specialized goods, such as textiles and metalwork.

### Wic

A wic is a secular version of the community that exists around a monastery. Wics are planned settlements belonging to the king. They have streets, uniform housing, and manufacturing zones. These settlements are not full towns like burhs, though. They lack royal and ecclesiastical functions.

### Village

A village is similar to a burh, but lacks a mint and usually a thegn. Villages range from a few homesteads grouped together in the countryside to settlements of twenty or so families. Most villages lack defensive structures. In the event of an invasion, the residents flee to the nearest burh or hill fort.

## Social Structure

Much like Cymric kings, Saxon kings don’t have a year-round residence. Instead, he travels the country staying with nobles, always at their expense. Ealdormen, later known as earls, serve as councilors and deputies to the king.

Reeves and thegns in turn are under the ealdormen. Reeves provide administrative responsibilities, such as collecting taxes, overseeing markets, and managing estates. Thegns are wealthy landowners who are leaders of communities and warriors.

The witenagemot is an advisory council to the king, made up of the most important secular and ecclesiastical personages in the kingdom, including ealdormen, thegns, and bishops. The witenagemot meets only when summoned by the king; to meet on their own is treason. It also has no fixed meeting spot. The members have the power to organize the land, rule on taxation and jurisprudence, and advise on internal and external security matters. Two powers possessed by the witenagemot that aren’t often invoked are the rights to choose and depose kings.

Below the reeves and thegns are the ceorls, the lowest rank of free landowners. A successful ceorl can rise to the rank of thegn by acquiring the accoutrements of a thegn. As a freeman, a ceorl is obliged to pay taxes and perform public duties. In return, the ceorl can participate in court, including swearing oaths.

The next step down from ceorls are the geburas, a class of tenant farmers that do not own their land. They pay rent in labor or in kind.

The lowest class, comprising about 12% of the population, are slaves. The line between geburas and slave is very grey. All the classes from ceorls on up employ slaves. Slaves can be beaten, but they can’t be killed with impunity. Freemen can choose to become slaves to meet financial obligations. Parents can sell children into slavery to settle fines or other commitments. Captured warriors can become slaves. Slavery can also be levied on a person as punishment for committing a crime. Slavery isn’t a permanent condition. Slaves can be freed via wills, marriage, manumission, or buying their own freedom, since slaves aren’t forbidden from earning money or operating a business.

## Family

The basic unit of an average Saxon family is the “hired,” a unit consisting of a husband, wife, and their children. According to the law, a kinless man is one who has no close family (extended family is not taken into account). An extended family, or cynn, such as grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins, might live in the same household, but they don’t legally define the family.

The head of the family is the husband, but his duties often keep him in the fields or on the battlefield so women play an important role in the household. Unlike other societies, the father does not have absolute control over his family.

Ancestry is important to Anglo-Saxons. A man should be able to recite his ancestry and their great accomplishments.

## Marriage

Since the basic unit of organization is the hired, marriage plays an important role in society and is regulated. Marriages at this time are done either for love or politics. There are a few types of improper marriages: bigamy, young brides under the age of 15, and a widower marrying his stepmother or sister-in-law are all looked down upon by society.

When a couple gets married two transactions take place. The first is the bride price, which is money given to the bride. In the event of separation, the money transfers to the bride’s family. Although viewed by some as “buying a wife,” it is intended to ensure good behavior on the part of the husband.

The morgengifu (morning gift) given by the husband to his new wife the first morning after consummation. It is irrevocably hers unless she remarries ~ after waiting a year after the death of her husband, in which all property that her husband brought into the marriage, including the morgengifu, are returned to his family. If the wife dies childless, the morgengifu passes to her family.

Theoretically, marriage lasts until the death of one of the partners. Sometimes, however, that doesn’t work out. A man can leave his wife or a woman can leave her husband merely by doing so and stating it as fact. How the property is divided depends on who leaves and whether or not the family has children. If the wife leaves and takes the children, she is entitled to one-half of the communal goods. If the husband leaves and takes the children, the wife gets one-quarter of the communal goods. That is the same if the husband leaves and the family has no children.

## Women

Women are legally responsible for their actions, even if married. In addition, they are responsible for family honesty. If a woman knows of a crime committed by her husband or children, she must report it or be sold into slavery. Saxon women hold rights that are uncommon for women elsewhere. They can own property, be witnesses in court, call witnesses in court, serve as patrons and founders of churches, own and administer estates if wealthy, administer households if of ceorl status, and inherit and bequeath. All this is done without input from men.

Women also own a chest or cupboard to which only they have access. The contents of this chest are the woman’s purview and run the gamut from money to nice clothing or ritual implements. Women carry keys to this chest and are usually buried with the keys.

As has been the practice for centuries, marriages are often of political expediency, even if the politics is only on the village scale, where two ceorl families intermarry to be able to take advantage of combined resources. To counteract this trend, some families send their daughters to monasteries to protect them from politics.

## Children

Children are the pride of Saxon families. In the wealthiest families, byrððenu (midwives) assist with the birthing process. Most families do not have that convenience and infant mortality rates are high among all classes.

Childhood has several important stages. If a child is going to be fostered, this typically happens around age 7. In Saxon fosterage, a child lives with another family for an agreed upon period of time. There are several reasons for sending a child away for fostering. Since times are dangerous, it insures that an orphan will be cared for; fosterage also widens a child’s network of support. The wealthy may take in children of lower social class; not only does this give the foster child unprecedented chances for education, but it insures the loyalty of the family.

In the foster system, the foster parents are legally bound to look out for the foster child, treating them as their own. Maltreatment of foster children is socially and legally unacceptable. If a foster child is injured or dies due to maltreatment or neglect, the foster child’s birth family can sue for compensation.

Formal education begins around 7 years of age. The type of education available varies depending on gender and status. Both lower and upper class children learn from listening to the epic poems and heroic stories recited by poets. The poems teach important guidelines for behavior, such as generosity and bravery. They also learn the histories of important families and events, the politics of feuds, land rights, and boundaries.

Most learning for the elite families occurs in monastic schools where both children and adult learners attend a leorninghus. Teachers at a leorninghus even employ textbooks to teach complicated subjects such as Latin. In addition, boys are given their first spear and learn of its usage. Girls begin to learn the skills they’ll need as adult women.

Between the ages of 10 and 12 a child is considered to have reached the end of childhood. Boys are given their first shields and girls are given girdles, brooches, and keys. Although children of this age have reached their legal and ritual age, children between the age of 10 and 15 can be given special dispensation because of their age if they commit a crime. Note that they can be given dispensation, they don’t necessarily have to be given it. For example, King Ine convicted a 10-year-old of thievery. The real end of childhood usually occurs between 15 and 20, when execution becomes a viable punishment.

### Children’s Games

Numerous games happened on the plaistow (playground). Many adults also participate in the games, some to pass the time, others to train for war. Games include physical ones, such as running, spear throwing, mock combat, king of the hill, and climbing; board games such as hnefatafl, which features 13 defenders (12 soldiers and a king) trying to escape from 24 attackers; and dice games. If Church commentators are to be believed, the most popular game for boys is running naked through the mud, taunting churchmen.

## Béot

The béot is a ritualized boast, promise, vow, or threat made by a Saxon man. Christianity lumps the béot in with sinful pride

In the pleasant confines of a thegn’s hall, a warrior, usually on the eve of battle, makes a boast. Maybe he’ll be the first to strike a blow in battle or he’ll be the one to save the community from the monster. He then recounts his past glories, usually embellished, as proof of his capabilities. If he manages to succeed, his status among his people is greatly increased.

The béot follows a certain structure. First, the warrior makes his pledge; he states what the challenge will be. Then, he defines the meaning of two possible outcomes, success and failure; what will happen if he succeeds and what will happen if he fails (usually death). Finally, the warrior places the outcome in the hands of a higher power: the Christian God or a Pagan deity.

In game terms, if a knight goes through a béot and is successful in the task, he or she gains 10 Glory immediately. If the task is failed, the terms of the failure condition are imposed. At the player’s discretion, an Orate roll can be attempted when boasting: if successful, and the challenge is accomplished, the knight receives 20 Status instead of 1D10.

## Buildings

The typical Saxon building, regardless of purpose, is made of oak timbers with a turf or thatch roof. As the Saxon word for “to build” is timbran, that makes sense. Churches and some towers are made of stone, but few other buildings. The stone comes from incorporating Roman buildings directly into the architecture or by pilfering Roman building materials, spolia, from the landscape. There are few quarries in Saxon lands, whereas Roman ruins are easily accessible.

Buildings are usually aligned on an east-west axis with entrances facing north-south. As only the wealthy have interior lighting and beeswax is reserved for the church, it’s necessary to maximize direct sunlight for as long as possible. There is no glass in windows; instead, there are openings to allow light in and smoke out.

Although personal chests and wardrobes are frequently locked, few houses had door locks. Wooden fences also surround many buildings. Cattle roam free and it’s a landholder’s duty to ensure that his property is protected from the cows.

### Personal Residence

The average Saxon home is a single-room building. Curtains provide privacy when needed. The most common furniture includes beds, tables, and benches with cushions for sitting. Boxes and chests with locks are used for private storage.

Wealthier homes have wall hangings and table linens as well. A fire pit provides heat, a cooking area, and a measure of light. Some have earthen floors while others have wooden floors covering a sunken cellar.

### Thegnly Residence

To become a thegn, a man needs only a few things: five hides of land, a church, a kitchen, a bell-house, a burh-gate, and a seat and special office in the king’s hall. Most of the items can be built provided enough wealth. The last item on the list might be the hardest to get, but loyalty and good deeds will go a long way. All of the physical requirements are usually contained within a palisade, which is more for status than defense.

A residence fit for a thegn is a long wooden hall, usually with a second story and a cellar. The interior is a large open space with a central fire pit. Long rectangular tables and benches are set up for meals, which can be moved out of the way for sleeping. A wooden floor covers a pit that is used for food storage and to help with humidity regulation. Curtains and moveable walls provide privacy.

Junior warriors, geoguth, sleep on the ground floor. Experienced warriors, duguth, who are married or have been granted land, live in their own building or on their own estate. The owner of the residence and his immediate family sleep on the upper floor. Other important women, unmarried sisters, mother-in-law, mother, sleep in separate apartments within the palisade.

### Grubenhauser

A grubenhaus, or grub hut, as they’re affectionately known, is a wooden building with a gabled roof, no windows, a single door, and a wooden floor covering an earthen walled cellar. The buildings are almost exclusively used for weaving, an important craft in Saxon Lands.

## Currency and Taxes

Although Saxon kingdoms have coinage, barter and payment in goods is still the primary basis for transactions. Animals and agricultural goods such as honey, ale, loaves, and butter are frequently traded. The average landholder pays most of his dues, taxes, and rents in goods, not coin

The silver d (penny) forms the basis of the Anglo-Saxon fiduciary economy. A typical coin is about the size of a modern day American quarter, has the king’s portrait and name on the obverse and a design, typically a cross, and the minter’s name on the reverse. Other values are referred to, but they represent a number of pence, not individual coins.

 120 pence
 30 pence
 12 pence

Coins are recalled and reissued every 6 years. The old coins become non-legal tender. To exchange the coins, a person must travel to a burh with a mint. A tax is levied when the money is exchanged so people typically returned home with less coinage than they had before the exchange.

Any transaction that involves four or more pence requires a witness, ensuring that, should a question later arise, there is an impartial party to state that everything was traded properly.

Various animals cost in pence, and by extension, what the item is worth in barter
 Ox
 Cow
 Pig
 Sheep
 Goat

### Taxes

Saxon kingdoms have a very efficient and accepted taxation infrastructure. The tax collector, a shire-reeve, doesn’t expect trouble when collecting taxes. Taxes are collected at trades and markets, the amount of the tax dependent upon the value of the transaction. Usually 10%, but greedy reeves sometimes add a few extra percent for themselves.

Foreign ships are also taxed, either in goods or cash. A small ship putting in must pay a half penny, larger ships with sails must pay a penny, and a merchant ship must pay 4 pence.

A final form of taxation is the burden placed on landowners and anyone who holds land by royal decree. These people are responsible for the maintenance of bridges and fords on their land, as well as the maintenance of town fortifications (and providing men for military service). Undoubtedly the labor is drawn from the landowner’s slave and geburas population, but the cost of supplies and lost labor on the estate itself can place hardship on the landowner.

## Crime and Punishment

Since Saxon society is, at heart, communal and familial, one of the biggest motivators for “proper behavior” is shame. Everybody in a community usually knows everyone else, so keeping a crime secret is almost impossible. Add to that the constant gossiping, especially at feasts, and everybody knows everybody’s business. To compound the difficulty, what would a thief do with the stolen goods? Most people in the village will recognize something unique and other communities will consider a stranger looking to fence something with suspicion and probably send him packing.

That’s not to say that crime doesn’t occur. When a person wants to accuse another of a crime they are advised to do so publicly. The accused and accuser appear before a court of their free neighbors. Evidence isn’t as important as a person’s character and the number of good character witnesses which can be called. In most cases, someone with a bad reputation will be found guilty, regardless of whether or not they committed the crime, whereas a well-regarded, important member of society will most likely be found innocent.

Another important element in determining guilt is whether or not the crime was committed in secret or in public. A crime committed in secrecy is more heavily punished than one committed in public. Burning a man’s trees is worse than chopping one down, because fire burns silently, while anyone nearby can hear an axe. If a man kills a thief and publicly proclaims it, the victim’s family has no redress, but if he hides the killing, the relatives can bring him to court.

Restraint is also taken into account. If a person resists the temptation to become involved in violence, the person who showed restraint is eligible for compensation. The visibility of the damage is also a factor. A person injured in such a way that scars are left visible is eligible for more compensation than someone whose scars are easily concealed.

### Punishment

The most common form of punishment is a fine. The guilty party can pay a rate based on the weregild of the injured party or a set fine. Given the high fines, most are paid in goods, however slavery is also a possibility for the loser. It’s up to the winner in the case to ensure payment of fines; no court system exists to act as an intermediary in the payments. The parties agree upon the terms of payment, usually not to exceed one year from the date of the judgment. Failure to pay can result in the confiscation of goods or even a blood feud.

#### Mutilation and Execution

If a person is mutilated for their crimes they must be abandoned for three days. If after that time the person is still alive, friends and families may give aid. Executions are performed in public. They can range from immolation to decapitation, slitting the guilty party’s throat, or tossing them off a cliff. The body of an executed person is always buried face down in unconsecrated ground with his hands tied behind his back. If he’s decapitated, his head is placed between his legs.

#### Crimes and Reparations

Here are several crimes and their associated punishments. Some of the crimes are duplicates ~ the GM should pick the one most fitting.

#### Weregild

Weregild, the value placed on a person, is one of the cornerstones of early Saxon law. Depending on the time and place, a person’s weregild varied, but it is always directly tied to the person’s status in society. If a person is injured, only a pro-rata amount is paid. Goods, rather than actual money, are the primary form of payment.

 Ceorl
 Thegn
 Bishop (in Berroc)
 King

### Adjudicating Court Cases

If knights find themselves embroiled in a Saxon court case, Glory is the single most important thing. The case should be broken down into several phases.

#### First Phase

Swearing of oaths by the accused and the accuser; opposed Orate

#### Second Phase

Swearing of oaths by witnesses. Each witness rolls Honor, with a +1 bonus for every 1000 points of Glory ~ keep a tally for each side in terms of successes and failures; the side whose witnesses garner the greater number of successes wins.

#### Final Phase

The court determines the verdict; the accused and accuser make an opposed Honor roll ~ modified in the following ways:

* +1 for every 1000 points of Glory
* The character who won the opposed Orate roll receives a +5 bonus.
* The character whose witnesses had the greater number of successes receives a +5 bonus. If a draw, then no bonus is awarded.

Anyone who fails a court case, whether accuser or accused, loses 2 Honor.

### Outlawry

An outlaw is someone stripped of all their legal rights. This means they can be killed with impunity and without the fear of retribution. Anyone who aids an outlaw also runs the risk of being outlawed himself. Outlawry is usually reserved for repeat offenders but can be levied on a first offender if the crime is particularly heinous, such as mass murder. No one is safe from a sentence of outlawry; kings themselves can be declared outlaw by the witenagemot.

### Feuds

The fæhth (blood feud) comes into play when a murderer refuses to pay weregild. Protracted blood feuds can wreak havoc on a society, so there are laws in place to curtail them. The relatives of a man killed unlawfully can only legally extract vengeance on the killer himself and only if the killer and his associates were unable to raise the weregild after a year of trying. In addition, anyone who legitimately kills someone as part of a blood feud is only be admitted to the king’s presence if he carries out penances. The vengeance seekers must also announce their intentions to their target. Secret or sudden vengeance on an unsuspecting man was not legally tolerated.

In theory, a blood feud should end after the first legitimate vengeance killing. In practice, blood feuds degenerated into a tit-for-tat bloodletting that can span generations.

## Food, Farming, and Hunting

The Saxon diet is fairly consistent with little variety. Although meats and fish are salted and grains dried, seasonality affects what foods are available. Beyond providing basic sustenance, food is used to reward followers, cement political and kinship relationships, and strengthen social ties at marriages, feasts, and funerals. Eating, like many things in Anglo-Saxon life, is properly done communally. A glutton is not only someone who eats too much but also eats in private, away from the community.

### Food

A typical diet consists of vegetables, meats, fish, and some spices. Common fruits and vegetables include grains (collectively called corn), such as wheat, barley, and rye for making bread; peas, hazelnuts, cherries, sloes, parsnips, plantains, blackberries, apples, plums, and pears. Meats available include cattle, goat, sheep, pigs, deer, boar, chicken, geese, partridge, buzzard, blackbird, and even mice and rats when times are hard. Most fish are river fish such as salmon, eel, rudd, barbel, perch, trout, and pike. The common deep sea fish is herring. Other foodstuffs include bread and butter (a staple of the Saxon diet), honey (the only readily available sweetener), rosemary, mint, rue, and gentians. Corncockle (a weed usually growing in wheat fields) is included in many diets ~ a mild irritant that causes stomach aches.

Drinks include mead, milk, ale, wine, and beer made from fermented fruits. The staple drink is mead. Wine is reserved for special occasions and beer is nothing like what will be known a millennium and a half later.

The availability of certain foods, especially meats, depends on a person’s place in society. The wealthy have access to a wider variety of foods, including venison, hare, pike, and oysters, while the common folk content themselves with cattle. The most common meat sources are goats, sheep, and pigs.

Exotic imports find their way to the tables as well. Coriander, pepper, oil, lavender, cinnamon, ginger, liquorice, and sugar are available, at least to the wealthy, in small quantities.

### Preparation and Meals

Livestock, allowed to roam free, is brought to the market and sold on the hoof. The buyer then takes the meat back to his home and slaughters it in the backyard. The backyard is also where he keeps a small garden to grow vegetables.

Bread is baked in a pan over a fire or the pan is buried in hot ashes. A few bread ovens exist but they are in the minority. The grain for bread is either ground by women at home or by men with water, tidal, or oxen driven mills. The primary food, stew, is cooked in a kettle suspended over a fire. Those seeking a more luxurious meal roast their meat over a fire.

On most days a typical Saxon eats two meals. One meal is around noon, the other in the evening. Both are usually stew of some kind. Special days might have more meals or fewer, depending on whether it’s a festival or fast day. Common festival days, where more food is consumed communally, are winter’s day, Easter, after harvest, after sheaf binding, after plowing, mowing, rick making, wood carting, and corn carting. These extra feasts are rewards for hard work. At a feast, people can interact with their neighbors, especially those that live on the other side of the community, listen to prayers from the priests, and receive extra food to help them through tough times. Feast food is provided by the thegn or another local leader to reward the ceorls for their hard work (and to remind them who is in charge).

A single bladed knife, spoon, and fingers are the most common eating utensils. People bring their own utensils to a meal. Because stews are de rigeur, bowls are the most common tableware. Round bottom cups and horns are for drinking. The round bottoms indicate that the beverage is to be drunk in one go, or in the case of large horns, passed from person to person. Tableware is made of pottery, wood, leather, or metal, with wood being the most common.

### Farming

Saxons practice open-field farming. Arable land is divided into strips that combine into furlongs and then grouped into fields. One field is left fallow every year, used for livestock grazing or for the growing of herbs and medicinal plants. Effective drainage and plowing, and other good land management techniques, increase the amount of food available from one year to the next. Oxen typically pull the plow, creating a ridge and furrow field, although slave pulled plows can be used.

### Fishing and Hunting

Most fishing is done on rivers using nets. Some deep sea fishing, with lines, is performed at coastal communities. Weirs and traps are also placed in rivers to catch fish and eels. Hunting is done with spear, sling, or bow. Animals frequently hunted for food include boar, roe and red deer, otter, and beaver. Any bird that can be hit with a sling stone is also fair game.

## Travel

Overland travel is usually done on foot, following the road. Off road travel is prohibited. Horse riding is an elite activity and many people are rightly leery of an armed man on horseback. Wagons, pulled by oxen or by slaves move goods across the island.

Rivers are the preferred way to move goods long distances. Roads connect ports to cities and the rivers are continually being upgraded through the digging of channels. Most ships that ply the rivers do so via oars.

Ocean going travel is important to the Saxons. It’s how Saxon goods reach continental markets and how foreign goods, even some from as far away as the near east or India reach Britain. As a matter of fact, if a man undertakes three trading missions to the continent at his own expense, he is eligible to be made a thegn.

## Entertainment

Saxons, regardless of class, seek entertainment. Some examples are listed under the children’s games section. Those aren’t the only forms, though.

Both hunting and hawking are considered good ways for warriors to maintain their skills when not on the battlefield. Wolf, boar, deer, hare, otter, and beaver are all viable targets. Spears are the primary hunting weapon, especially when hunting for sport; however, some warriors demonstrate their prowess by taking on boars with sword and shield. Hunting dogs are frequently used. Hawking is particularly popular among the elite, especially on long journeys and when on campaign. Hawks are trained to bring back small mammals and other birds.

In addition to hnefatafl (a strategy game where an outnumbered king and retainers try to escape an encroaching army), variants of modern-day backgammon, nine-men’s morris, and fox and geese are played. Gambling goes hand-in-hand with Anglo-Saxon board games.

### Poems and Riddles

Heroic poems serve to drive men to greatness. Poems remind warriors of the great deeds of their ancestors, tell of titanic struggles between men and monsters, and remind everyone of what is expected of them. A scop (poet), memorizes numerous poems and recites them in thegns’ halls long into the night, using firelight and occasional music to great effect.

Riddles are a popular form of entertainment. They run the gamut from tame to ribald. They’re used not only as a form of entertainment, some are a vehicle for philosophical and religious discourse. They’re typically rendered in verse.

#### Sample Riddles

> I am solitary, wounded by iron
>
>
> Battered by weapons, tired of battle-play
>
>
> Wear of sword-edges. I often witness war,
>
>
> fierce fight, with no hope of help,
>
>
> Or an succor, before I,
>
>
> Among warriors, am totally destroyed.
>
>
> Hammered blades, hard-edged and horribly sharp,
>
>
> Batter me, the handiwork of smiths,
>
>
> Biting in the burh. I must abide at all times the hateful strife.
>
>
> Never in all the habitations of man
>
>
> Could I find the medicine to heal my scars with herbs,
>
>
>
> But the wounds increase on me by day and night.
>
>

The answer to the above riddle is: a shield.

> I am a wondrous creature: to women a thing of joyful expectancy, to close-lying companions serviceable. I harm no city-dweller except the one who kills me. My stem is erect and tall ~ I stand up in bed ~ and whiskery somewhat down below. Sometimes the pretty daughter of a countryman will dare, rude girl, to grip me. She attacks me, red as I am, and seizes my head and clenches me in a cramped place. She will soon feel the effect of her encounter with me, this curly-haired woman who squeezes me. Her eye will be wet.
>
>

The answer to the above riddle is: an onion.

## Warfare

The Saxons came to the island in violence.

### Fyrd

The fyrd is the basic unit of any Saxon fighting force. It’s a levy of all free men between the ages of 15 and 60 capable of fighting. Because this can rapidly deplete a region of its workers and leave homes undefended, each group of five hides must supply one man for combat. The remainder of the men pays 4 shillings to cover 2 months of expenses for the man.

Members of the fyrd supply their own weapons and gear. In some cases the men who stay behind combine resources to supply war gear for the man selected to join the fyrd. A select fyrd draws soldiers only from thegns and ceorls experienced in combat. It’s an attempt to create a more disciplined, less hodgepodge fighting force. Again, they supply their own arms.

### Hearthweru

The hearthweru (hearth guard) are the personal troops of kings and powerful thegns. They are semi-professional warriors and form the core of any Saxon fighting force. Much of their free time is spent training for war, usually through hunting and physical contests.

A hearthweru gets his gear from his lord. This gear, called the heriot, consists of four spears, four shields, four horses (2 with saddles), two swords, a metal helmet, and a mail shirt. This gear is returnable should a member of the hearthweru decide to leave his lord’s service. The most common reason for leaving is dishonorable behavior on the part of the lord. Loyalty to the hearthweru supplants loyalty to family.

### War Gear

The most common gear wielded on the field are spears and leather helms for ceorls, and swords, mail shirts, and metal helms for thegns. Both groups also use shields. There is nothing prohibiting a ceorl from wielding a sword and wearing a metal helm and mail, but it doesn’t make him a thegn.
Thegns and hearthweru wear mail shirts into battle. These steel shirts are thigh or knee length tunics. Most ceorls wear their normal woolen tunics. War helms are conical helmets either made of leather supported by a metal frame or made entirely of metal. A nosepiece protects the bridge of the nose. Shields are round and made of linden planks covered in cowhide. An iron boss, usually unadorned, attaches the handle to the shield.

The spear is by far the most common weapon. Warriors have long spears for thrusting, short spears for throwing, and intermediate length spears that can be thrown or thrust. Spears have iron leaf blades for tips. A few warriors prefer to use single-headed axes in battle. Bows aren’t common on the Saxon battlefield. They go against the idea that an enemy should be met face-to-face. When archers are used, it’s done piecemeal, not as a massed force as seen in later English armies. When used, the bows are longbows with a six-foot stave. Yew or ash is the wood of choice for the stave. Poplar or beech is used for the arrows. The string is wound linen. Swords, a sign of power for the Saxons, are double bladed. They’re pattern welded; hammer welding combines twisted sections of different grades of steel into the blade. Swords are often the pride of a warrior’s kit and even the most basic sword can be passed down from generation to generation. The seax is a single bladed knife carried by most fighters. It’s a weapon of last resort should all other weapons be lost or damaged.

Horses are used for transport to the battlefield and chasing down fleeing foes. Fighting takes place on foot, another example that honorable warriors fight face-to-face.

### Mustering

The call to muster is carried by messengers from hide to hide. Those selected to join the fyrd gather at pre-defined mustering points, usually along roads. Once assembled, the troops are reviewed for fitness by a thegn or shire-reeve. The fyrd gathered at a single mustering point typically serves as one unit in the larger army.

If someone didn’t show, he forfeited his land to the king. Without land, he can no longer be considered a free man. A thegn or ceorl can opt out of service by paying a 40 shilling substitution fee to his lord. If the lord, in turn, doesn’t actually recruit a substitute he pays 40 shillings to his lord.

Once assembled, the fyrd marches to meet with the king and the other forces. As the fyrd marches, it grows in size as more contingents coalesce into one force. Essential food, supplies, and gear are carried. Most gear is carried on ox, horse, or man pulled carts. Non-combatant ceorls manage the baggage train and carry additional supplies on their backs. Along the way, men stay in villages or in tents in field camps. Villages, churches, and lands owned by the king provide additional supplies to the army as it marches.

A member of the fyrd is obligated to serve 60 days. When those 60 days are up, he goes home. It’s not uncommon for men to leave as soon as their 60 days are up, even if they’re taking part in a siege or a battle. To counteract this, kings divide the call-up into two groups that serve 60 days each. One group remains at home while the other group is in the field. In theory, the group that’s at home replaces the group in the field just as the 60 days is reached. In practice though, the king and his hearthweru sometimes find themselves without an army when the replacement troops are delayed for some reason.

### The Shield Wall

Anglo-Saxon battlefield tactics consist of a shield wall backed by spears that slowly advances on its enemy’s shield wall. A shield line provides protection not only to the shield holder but also to his neighbor as well. The tactic is popular, as it doesn’t take much skill to hold a shield in a line and advance en mass. The two walls clash, becoming a back and forth shoving match comprised of brute strength and spear thrusts. The walls soon collapse and fighting devolves into small groups and one-on-one combat. It’s a messy, bloody affair.

Couriers on foot or horseback carry commands from one contingent of the fyrd to another as needed. Once an enemy is broken and flees the field, the victor takes to his horse in pursuit.

## Time and Year

Saxons measure their day from sunset to sunset.

The Saxon year begins on December 25th and is divided into twelve months with room for an intercalendrical thirteenth month every nineteen years to correct calendrical drift. The Saxons view their months as purpose driven. There’s a specific event that tends to take up most of the time in a given month.

## Health, Healing, and Death

Overall, Saxons are healthy, but life can be rough. Bee-stings, gashes from pig tusks, the common cold, and injuries from a season of fending off Cymric incursions can lay anyone low. Luckily, there are healers to tend the wounds. There is a mix of treatments from natural sources to a belief in miracles. The two elements, natural and supernatural, work hand-in-hand and are indistinguishable to most Saxons.

Many women are dead by the age of thirty. Men live until their forties. Only 10 percent of the population survives past forty-five years. Living to old age didn’t mean a loss of status, although many families do request that the Church or others care for the elderly.

### Sanitation

Sanitation in most Saxon communities is rudimentary at best. Most communities have shared cesspits to facilitate later fertilizing of farmland. The Saxon word, feltun, means both privy and dunghill. Other refuse, such as animal carcasses and rotten vegetables, are dumped behind the house. Domestic rubbish (animal bones and partially eaten food) are left on the floor where they fell.

The Saxons take for granted that their bodies play host to numerous parasites, from whip-worms to fleas. Lice are everywhere. Cleanliness as disease prevention doesn’t exist. If food falls on the dirt, pick it up, brush it off, make the sign of the cross or an appropriate rune over it, and then eat it.

### Illness and Injury

Common afflictions among the Saxons include vertebral degeneration osteoarthritis (a breakdown of the cartilage of the joints and discs in the neck and lower back; almost everybody suffers from the condition ~ a reward for a lifetime of hard work), tuberculosis, and leprosy. Outbreaks of plagues devastate the countryside. The victims of contagious diseases are sometimes separated away from the community.

Both the Devil and God, as well as the various gods and spirits, also send sickness. A common belief is that disease is caused by elf-shot ~ tiny barbs fired by fairies or agents of the Devil. Elf-shot typically causes diseases, pain, and injuries that have no obvious cause. Intestinal pain or side stitches are usually caused by elf-shot. However, someone who transgresses against the gods, God or the Church can find they are struck down with paralysis or another debilitating condition.

Battlefield and occupational injuries are serious matters, which can be life threatening. Daily labor, such as felling trees or repairing a wall, can result in accidental death or broken bones. When violence strikes, the chance of death rises dramatically. Warriors tend to aim for the head and shoulders, insuring many lethal blows.

### Treatment

The first line of treatment is the family. Many people with minor injuries or illnesses are treated with herbal remedies made in the home. Often a cunning man or woman, one who knows of herbs and remedies, may be consulted; however, the Church and God-fearing folk might view such people with suspicion. More serious injuries and illnesses call for a visit to the laece (physician). The most common forms of treatment are bleeding and cautery. To bleed a person, the laece applies leeches to the infected area or cuts the flesh to allow it to bleed freely. It is unwise to bleed when the moon is waxing and the tide flowing. Cautery is the application of red-hot pokers to the flesh in a form of acupuncture. An illustrated Italian manuscript details all the necessary locations to apply the searing poker to ensure maximum efficacy. It also recommends the liberal application of strong mead prior to commencing the procedure.

A laece relies on experience, observation, and Bald’s Leechbook, which is a handbook for secular doctors. It is not a comprehensive book and assumes knowledge on the part of the reader, being a compendium of Ancient Latin and Greek medical texts. It serves as an aid to help the doctor remember diseases and their cures rather than containing the cures within its bindings. For instance, the compiler and his scribe substituted appropriate local herbs for the Mediterranean ones mentioned in the original text. It often includes numerous remedies for the same ailment, sometimes with notes as to which are efficacious, and stresses throughout that the doctor is to proceed intelligently, taking into account the patient’s history and current state. If a patient is young, weak, or pale, the doctor should lower the dosage and not view the book as an absolute. The doctor is instructed to first diagnose the illness before treating it and the book includes guidelines for determining the severity of the issue and how quickly the doctor must act. The Leechbook consists of two parts. The first starts with head illnesses and injuries, and proceeds around the body including sections on worm diseases, and those caused by insects and parasites. It concludes with a discussion on treating fevers and madness. The second book deals with diagnosing and treating internal illnesses.

Another Saxon medical text is the Lacnunga (Remedies). It, like the Leechbook, is a collection of remedies and cures for illnesses and injuries. Various sections are written in Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and a corrupt form of Old Irish. The Lacnunga includes practical remedies, but also intersperses charms to be recited. Whether the charms are intended to invoke spiritual aid or have a calming psychological effect is unclear.

Religious centers serve as places of healing. People travel for days or weeks to visit a holy site to pray for healing. If a location has a reputation for miraculous healing, the sick will travel from Rome for healing.

Serious injury or illness that doesn’t end in death can result in an invalid. These unlucky people are cared for by their family, kinsmen, neighbors, or a monastery. The first choice is always family, kinsmen, or neighbors, because the sick can stay in the community. Some monasteries include facilities for the care of the sick and terminally ill. Depending on the illness, people might live another decade or more under the care of monks or nuns.

### Doctor's Toolkit

Bald’s Leechbook includes a list of tools considered necessary for someone practicing the trade.

### Sample Treatments

The treatments range from practical application of experience to the use of charms.

* Baldness: apply the ointment from the ashes of burned bees to the scalp.
* Poison: the Lacnunga includes the advice for dealing with “flying venom,” requiring that person be slashed four times in the hind quarters with an oak branch, so that they be made bloody; the branch should then be thrown away. While Bald’s Leechbook includes the following recipe for curing the victims of poisons: “For drink of poison; seethe a hen and leaves of mallow in water, remove the fowl and the worts, give the man the broth to sip, well buttered, as hot as he can tal'e it. If he hath drunken poison before, it will be none the worse with him. If he supneth the broth beforehand thou mayst not that day give him poison”
* Shingles: combine the bark of aspen, apple, maple, elder, willow, sallow, myrtle, wych-elm, oak, blackthorn, birch, olive, dogwood, ash-tree, and quickbeam (mountain ash) into a poultice and apply over the shingles liberally.
* Sores and other skin conditions: gangrene can be a serious problem in a world without good sanitation. Bald’s Leechbook contains guidelines for numerous remedies: “Cure the scarifyings thus; take bean or oat or barley meal, or some of such meal as to thee seemeth good, so that it will serve, add vinegar and honey, seethe together and lay on, and bind upon the sore places. If thou shouldst wish that the salve be stronger, add a little salt, bind on at whiles and wash with vinegar or with wine. If need be, give at whiles a wort drink, and observe always when thou art applying the strong leechdoms, what the power be, and what the nature of the body of the patient; whether it be strong and hardy, and easily may bear the strong leechdoms, or whether it be nice and tender and thin, and may not bear the leechdoms.”
* Spider bites: fry and grind black snails to spread over the bite.
* Evil spirits: trepanning; a mechanical bow drill is used to puncture the skull, freeing the soul from evil spirits.
* A wen (sebaceous cyst): the Anglo-Saxons believed in bleeding, followed by the following charm:
> Wen, wen, little wen,
>
>

Here you shall not build, nor any dwelling have.

But forth you must, even to the near-by hill.

Where a poor wretch, a brother you have;

He shall lay you a leaf at your head.

Under the wolf's foot, under the eagle's wing,

Under the eagle's claw—ever may you wither!

Shrivel as the coal upon the hearth!

Shrink as the muck in the stream,

And dwindle even as water in a pail!

May you become as little as a linseed grain,

And much smaller, likewise, than a hand-worm's hip-bone!

And even so small may you become, that you become as nought.

## Death and Burial

Death comes to everyone. In Berroc, burials are performed in a churchyard without grave goods. Burials are oriented east-west and are sparsest on the north side of the church, an area of bad luck. Infant burials are clustered around graveyard walls. The wealthiest are buried with coffins and stones as markers. The poor are buried in a consecrated hole without a coffin or marker.

Not everyone receives a consecrated burial. Those executed (whose mortal remains are more or less intact) are buried outside churchyards, face down with their hands tied behind their back. If they were decapitated, the head is placed between their legs. Other people not eligible for churchyard burials are adulterers, oath breakers, homicides, those who refused to pay church dues, and those who have sex with nuns.

The Church has the right to refuse churchyard burial to those who died in such a way that they might not have received final confession or absolution, including women who died in childbirth, children who died unexpectedly, strangers and foreigners, and men who died in battle. In some cases, the Church compromises and the person is buried half in and half out of the churchyard.