Second Napoleonic War

Combatants| **Continental System*** French Empire
	+ *French African Subjects*
* Austrian Empire
	+ Rudolfsland
* Polish Commonwealth
* Sultanate of Egypt
	+ *And Subjects*
* Kingdom of Denmark-Norway
* Confederation of the Rhine
	+ Kingdom of Westphalia
	+ *Other member states*
* Kingdom of Italy
* Kingdom of Naples
* Kingdom of Greece
* Nouvelle-Hollande

**Support from:*** Kingdom of Spain
* Kingdom of Venezuela
* Kingdom of Prussia
* United Kingdom
	+ Dominion of Australia
	+ Dominion of India
	+ *British African Subjects*
* Tsardom of Bulgaria
* Kingdom of Serbia
* Principality of Albania

**Support from:*** United Kingdoms of Portugal and Brazil

Casualties| **Military Dead:*** Over 2 500 000

**Civilian Dead:*** Over 1 000 000

**Total Dead:*** Over 3 500 000

**Civilian Dead:*** Over 1 500 000

**Total Dead:*** Over 4 500 000

The **Second Napoleonic War**, known as the **War of the Seventh Coalition**, was a major global conflict that took place from 1915 to 1919. It involved two alliances: the Continental System and the Grand Coalition, also referred to as the Seventh Coalition.

At the turn of the century, tensions in Europe had reached a boiling point. The Treaty of Potsdam in 1908, which renewed the partnership between Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom, significantly added to the mounting tensions. France, sensing the growing threat posed by this new alliance, responded by increasing the size of its military and promoting nationalist ideals.

The major European powers. In the immediate aftermath of this event, on March 21, 1915, France, along with its satellite states, and Russia, mutually declared war against each other. Shortly thereafter, Britain followed suit and joined the conflict on the side of Russia. This alliance was formalized in the Brandenburg Accord, creating the Grand Coalition. The early stages of the war were characterized by naval engagements as well as military actions on land. Russia initiated an invasion of the Polish Commonwealth with the support of Prussia. In response, Prussia launched the North German Offensive, aided to some extent by Russia and Britain. The First Battle of Brunswick, a particularly brutal and costly engagement, resulted in a pyrrhic victory for the Prussian forces. The intensity of the conflict led to a temporary halt in the fighting by the spring of 1916.

The year 1916 witnessed significant developments in the conflict. With the arrival of newly trained British troops and a relative stabilization of the Prussian-Polish front, the Prussians launched their ambitious 1916 Summer Offensive. Despite achieving victories in numerous battles and advancing as far as Oldenburg, where they connected with the British forces in the Netherlands, their progress was halted at the gates of Bielefeld. This crucial city was fiercely defended by a united Rheinbunder legions. Meanwhile, British and French forces engaged in multiple skirmishes in the Netherlands, Sahara region and Coalition advances in Australasia. In a particularly bloody European encounter, the British emerged victorious at Chaudfontaine. However, they were ultimately compelled to withdraw from their offensive around Namur. Nevertheless, the British armed forces occupied much of mainland Denmark, attaching with Prussia from the north. The Kingdom of Sweden joined the Grand Coalition later that autumn and started the Norwegian Offensive. As the Russian forces drew closer to Warsaw, the Austrian Empire entered the conflict in the winter of 1916, providing a much-needed boost to French morale.

In 1917, the war in Europe saw several significant developments. Austria became embroiled in a conflict in the Balkans, while the Russians escalated their involvement through the Galician Front. It was a relatively peaceful year compared to the previous ones, with the Prussians making gradual advances in western Germany. One notable event was the 1917 Irish Uprising, which had received support from the French. British forces successfully quelled the rebellion. During this period, both sides focused on investing in new technologies and modernizing their military capabilities. The Grand Coalition, facing challenges in achieving their objectives, began preparing for a final offensive in the spring of 1918.

In the latter stages of the war, several significant developments took place. The Continental System gained an advantage with the entry of multiple new French allies, including partial support from Spain. Austrian victories against Serbia, notably at Novi Pazar, further solidified the System's position. In a desperate move, the powerful Prussian army, with limited support from Britain and Russia, launched the Glorious Offensive. The objective was to reach and cross the Rhine, cutting off French forces and supplies in Germany, which would have had devastating strategic and political consequences for the Continental System if successful. The early battles in cities like Münster, Wesel, Dortmund, and Wuppertal initially favored the Coalition. However, the renewed strength of the French and their satellite forces from the South led to a crucial defensive victory for the Alliance at the Battle of Heimerzheim. This prompted the Prussians to retreat, resulting in significant casualties and a drop in morale. British forces also withdrew behind the Meuse River before allowing an informal ceasefire. The final French offensive against the Prussians at the Second Battle of Brunswick ultimately led to Prussia agreeing to a ceasefire as well. These events marked a turning point in the war and set the stage for negotiations and the eventual end of hostilities.

In early 1919, Russian forces suffered decisive defeats in the face of a series of Austrian and Polish offensives. Political turmoil and the loss of Lithuania to the enemy prompted Russian leadership to seek a peaceful resolution to the conflict. Diplomats from Britain, Prussia, and Russia convened in the relatively neutral territory of Bavaria to negotiate and eventually sign the Treaty of Regensburg on April 1, 1919. While many hostilities had already ceased by the early winter of 1919, this treaty officially marked the end of the Second Napoleonic War and all hostilities, although it took time for the news to reach distant regions such as Australasia, Africa, and the Americas. The terms of the treaty were relatively lenient for Britain and, to a lesser extent, Russia, as they did not face significant territorial losses or punitive financial penalties. However, the Prussians were severely impacted by the agreement, as they were required to pay substantial reparations. This financial burden pushed Prussia into debt and ultimately led to the Prussian Revolution.

This prolonged and devastating war resulted in significant casualties, including a substantial number of civilians. Ultimately, the Continental System emerged as the informal victors, albeit at a high cost. The aftermath of the war was marked by widespread famine and considerable political turmoil, leading to instability and uncertainty in the post-war era.

## Background

### Rising Tensions

#### Russia

Tensions between the French Empire and the Russian Empire had been increasing since the turn of the century. The rise of global imperialism in Africa and Asia led France and the Anglo-Russian alliance to compete for territory in the Middle East, Africa, and the Orient. Diplomatic disputes ranging from the Turkish-Egyptian war in 1850, the subsequent Armenian Question and the Russian control over Persia and Manchuria were major headaches.

The French and Russians also found themselves on opposite sides on conflicts in China, where the Russians supported the Qing and the French backed Taiping. During the Russo-Japanese War, the pro-French Japanese Army army was decimated by the Russians.

Increasing tensions between the United Kingdom and her ally, Russia against the continued domination of Europe by the French Empire ultimately disrupted the near-century of relative peace on the European continent.

Significantly, both sides engaged in covert support for separatist movements within each other's empires. Instances of Mosin-Nagant rifles being discovered in the possession of Rhenish and Piedmontese separatists occurred, while France and Poland provided assistance to nationalist groups in regions like Ukraine, Georgia, and among the Caucasian Muslim populations.

#### United Kingdom

The United Kingdom had maintained a consistent stance of opposition toward France from the inception of the Coalition Wars. Various factors, including strong nationalistic sentiments, played a pivotal role in fueling their anti-French rhetoric. The ongoing conflicts in Africa, incidents involving the Royal Navy intercepting French vessels in the Atlantic, and diplomatic hostilities all contributed to the deepening animosity between the two nations.

Economically, both nations find themselves in fierce competition across various industries, with a particular emphasis on automation. The struggle for foreign investments has intensified, propelling rapid technological advancements.

This heightened economic rivalry has, in turn, fueled mutual apprehension and led to the proliferation of exaggerated narratives concerning each other's military prowess. These exaggerated stories have further contributed to the escalating tension between the two nations

#### Kingdom of Prussia

A rising power, the young monarch, Wilhelm II, has recently displayed a series of jingoistic attitudes in his speeches and political actions. Notably, the Prussian army has embarked on a swift rearmament process, which has raised concerns among the French.

Additionally, Wilhelm's strong aversion towards the Austrians has led to a significant deterioration in their relations. The Kingdom of Prussia's new political polarization worries officials and asks for war to united the population. The Kingdom of Prussia's recent political polarization has become a cause for concern among government officials. In an attempt to unify the population and address these internal divisions, there have been calls for a war that would rally the people around a common cause.

#### French Empire

Under the rule of Charles I, the French Empire experienced a period of stagnation during the 1910s. Economic and technological progress slowed down, which created vulnerabilities and attracted the attention of other European nations that sought to undermine the empire's stability and power. This decline in progress contributed to growing challenges and external threats faced by the French Empire during this era.

The presence of imperialist figures like Georges Ernest Boulanger in the French political landscape added to the apprehension of European monarchs. There were concerns that the French Empire might be inclined to take offensive actions.

## Prelude

### Paris Bombing of 1915

*This is about the Paris Bombing of 1915*

On the morning of March 12, 1915, a series of explosions rocked Paris, with the majority of them occurring on the western side of the city. Following a swift investigation, the French police identified a Russian national, Stefan Alexandrov, as the primary suspect and alleged puppet master behind these incidents. Stefan Alexandrov was the son of the Russian ambassador (Andrei Alexandrov) and hailed from a noble family, earning him a reputation in Russia for his strong patriotic sentiments. The next day, he was arrested in Lille, allegedly hiding from the police.

On the 17th of March, 1915, in a notable breach of international agreements, the Russian Embassy in Paris was raided by French authorities. This action was taken after the Paris Police claimed to have gathered sufficient evidence suggesting a significant amount of terrorist planning had taken place within the embassy's premises. Several classified Russian documents were seized by the French.

#### Russian Response

Upon receiving the news of the raid on the Russian Embassy in Paris, Tsar Nikolai II was deeply affected. He had a personal friendship with Andrei Alexandrov, the father of Stefan Alexandrov, and this turn of events infuriated him. Nicholas II found it hard to believe that such actions could be attributed to Alexandrov.

Later that afternoon, on the 17th of March, Tsar Nikolai II convened an emergency meeting with several of his advisors. Coincidentally, his more pragmatic and anti-war consultants (including the Prime Minister) were absent since they were occupied in another conference from Moscow. Surrounded by pro-war strategists, his mood quickly turned vengeful. Despite war being far from his mind, after hearing a misleading report that French battleships were heading for the Baltic Sea, he became alarmed.

Following extensive discussions and military planning, the more moderate figures leaned towards imposing an embargo on the French. Nevertheless, the more radical individuals, such as the previously unknown Grigori Rasputin, advocated for an official mobilization and war. Two hours after the conclusion of the consultation, the Tsar, still driven by anger, firmly believed that war was the only solution.

#### General Mobilization

On the midnight of March 19, Russian Minister of War Alexey Polivanov, acting upon Nikolai's orders, declared an immediate general mobilization for all Russian reserves. Given that a significant portion of Russian forces were already in training, 500 000 soldiers were swiftly deployed on the same day, with several hundred thousand more following suit in the subsequent days.

French intelligence had received warning signals of the Russian mobilization, prompting Charles I to issue orders for the partial deployment of 100 000 troops near the Rhine River. He instructed them to exercise extreme caution in preparation for potential developments.

### French Embassy Siege

*This is about the 1915 French Embassy Siege*

On March 20th, reports of the Russian deployment had spread throughout Europe. In St. Petersburg, the general population, furious over the unfolding events, descended upon the panicked French Embassy. The situation escalated to the point where several French diplomats were forced to take up arms in self-defense against the unyielding crowd. Tragically, the confrontation resulted in the deaths of 20 diplomats, and an additional 5 were subjected to public hangings in the midst of the outcry.

## Early Stage

### Declaration of War

Nikolai II, recognizing that the storming of the embassy marked a point of no return, reaffirmed his decision to declare war shortly before midnight on March 20th in Moscow. He stayed up late into the night, surrounded by a diverse group of advisors, and at 1:03 AM UTC+03:00 on March 21st, 1915, he put his signature on the official declaration of war document. The French soon followed by declaring war on Russia in their turn 5 hours later.

King Wilhelm II's hasty decision to declare war on France without prior consultation with his ministers left Prussia largely unprepared for the conflict. The official declaration of war took place on March 24, but the French had time to react and remove the element of surprise from the equation. This lack of preparation would have significant consequences for Prussia in the early stages of the war.

The Continental Alliance, including all the alliance's German states, in accordance with its pact with France, declared war against France's enemies on March 28. However, Egypt, initially hesitant to join the conflict, delayed its declaration of war until April 20. This delay gave Egypt additional time to assemble its forces.

Notably, the British Empire, along with all its colonies, entered the conflict on the side of the Russians. This decision was made despite not being obligated to do so by the Treaty of Potsdam, which primarily covered defensive wars.

### Battle of the Baltic Sea

Upon receiving the order, the Russian pre-dreadnought battleships Slava and Tsesarevich, alongside other vessels of the Gangut class, were immediately dispatched to confront the local French fleet. A naval engagement quickly unfolded, resulting in the sinking of several smaller French vessels. By March 29, a Prussian naval task force, led by Alfred von Tirpitz and featuring a couple of Moltke-class battlecruisers, arrived to reinforce the Russian fleet.

On March 30, a fierce confrontation erupted as the French fleet engaged the combined Prussian-Russian forces. During the battle, the gunboat Sivuch and the Prussian vessel Prinz Adalbert were sunk, while the French battleship Suffren also met its demise. Ultimately, the Battle of the Baltic Sea concluded in a stalemate, with the French forces compelled to disengage without significant damage on their own fleet.

Within weeks, the British Army had mobilized and joined its Russian allies in war, while the French brought in their vast Continental System of allies, protectorates, and client states. Prussia, seeking to realize its ambitions to destroy the Confederation of the Rhine and unite Germany once and for all, soon declared war on Paris as well. The Concert of Europe established by Napoléon a century before was burnt in the ashes.

The aerial bombing of the Imperial Library of Paris by Prussian airships unfortunately means we have no record of the battles that took place. Perhaps if someone who is not taking 18 credits this semester is willing to develop this further, we might find some "lost documents".

What we do know are the results. After nearly four years of fighting and over twenty-five million dead on all sides, the Continental System emerged victorious. France asserted its dominance over the continent once more, exacting heavy territorial and financial reparations from the humiliated British and Russian Empires. Russia, having exited the war without the consent of its allies, had portions of occupied territory annexed into the Grand Duchy of Poland, which shortly afterwards declared the revival of the Old Commonwealth in name, if not its political system. Tsar Nicolas II was forced to abdicate in the waning days of the war in favor of his more liberal brother, Grand Duke Michael, who promptly granted the Russian Duma the right to responsible government. Russia narrowly avoided revolution -- though the Halevik Insurrection swept through several major cities, the rebels were swiftly defeated without broad support from the Russian Left.

Britain, owing to its isolation from the rest of Europe, was spared from harsh punishment, but her allies in Berlin were much less so. Enraged at being promised a united and free Germany only to lose over 15 percent of the entire fighting-age male population of their nation to war, the workers of Prussia rose under the banner of Heinrich Blander, who led the Prussian Reds to victory against the Blacks (supporters of the monarchy). Prussia became the first Halevist state, a much more radical strain of socialism theorized by Rhenish philosopher and revolutionary Charles Halevi (Karl Marx in OTL) in the 19th century that was inspired by the Jacobins of old.

With the old order very nearly swept away in the tide of blood, Europe in the year 1936 seems unlikely to enjoy another century of peace. To paraphrase Marshal Ferdinand Foch, from Paris to Petersburg, many fear Europe is not a peace, but merely an armistice of twenty years.