recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Luchazi phonology

## Consonants

The following table displays all the consonants in Luchazi:

The position of the speech-organs in producing the consonants is different from the positions taken in producing the similar sounds in European languages. T and D, for example, are lower than in English but higher than in Portuguese. L is flatter-tongued than in either English or Portuguese. Practically all the consonants have similar differences. The language contains many consonantal glides, including the prenasalized plosives and the voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate (the ts sound).

## Vowels

The close front vowel (i), when occurring before another vowel, becomes a semi-consonant and is written y, unless it is immediately preceded by a consonant, when it remains i. Examples: yange, viange.

The vowels have the so-called Continental or Italian values. They are shorter when unstressed and are prolonged when doubled or when stressed at the end of a word.

* The vowel **a** is Long when accented, as *a* in *tata, nana*.

Short when unstressed or before two consonants or *y* or *s* and in monosyllabic adverbs, as *a* in *tata, paya, asa, hanga*. Prolonged when doubled or stressed at the end of a word or syllable. Example: *ku laako*.

* The vowel **e** is Long when accented, as *a* in *heta, seza*.

Short when unstressed, as *a* in *hete, seze*.
Short with the value of *e* in *henga, lenda* before two consonants. Exceptions are hembo and membo (due to coalescence of vowels). Many words derived from Portuguese have the short vowel though not followed by two consonants. Examples: *pena, papelo, luneta, ngehena,* etc. Prolonged when stressed at the end of a word.

* The vowel **i** is Long when accented, as *e* in *tina, sika*.

Short when unstressed or before two consonants, as *e* in *citi, linga*. In monosyllabics it is short, as *i* in *it*. Examples: ni, ndi. Prolonged when stressed. Examples: ti, fui.

* The vowel **o** is Long when accented, as *o* in *sota, koka*.

Short when unstressed, as *o* in *soko, loto*.
Short, with value of *o* in *onga, yoya, kosa, luozi, ndo*, before two consonants or y or s, and sometimes before z and in some monosyllables. The o is long in *zoza* and *ngozi*. Sometimes prolonged when stressed at the end of a word. Example: *to*.

* The vowel **u** is Long when accented, as *u* in *tuta, fula*.

Short, when unstressed or before two consonants or before s, as *u* in *futuka, mbunga, kusa*.

## References

1. ↑ Gerhard Kubik, 2006, *Tusona: Luchazi Ideographs : a Graphic Tradition of West-Central Africa*, pp. 300, 303
2. ↑ Emil Pearson, Luchazi Grammar, pp. 5, 6, 7
3. ↑ Emil Pearson, Luchazi Grammar, pp. 5, 6, 7
Lendu phonology

Demolin (1995) posits that Lendu has voiceless implosives, /ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ɠ̊/ (/ƥ ƭ ƙ/). However, Goyvaerts (1988) had described these as creaky-voiced implosives /ɓ̰ ɗ̰ ɠ̰/, as in Hausa, contrasting with a series of modally voiced implosives /ɓ ɗ ɠ/ as in Kalabari, and Ladefoged judges that this seems to be a more accurate description.

## References

1. ↑ Demolin, Didier. 1995. The phonetics and phonology of glottalized consonants in Lendu. In Connell, Bruce and Arvaniti, Amalia (eds.), Phonology and Phonetic Evidence. Papers in Laboratory Phonology IV, 368-385. Cambridge Univ. Press.
2. ↑ Goyvaerts, Didier L. 1988. Glottalized Consonants a New Dimension. Belgian Journal of Linguistics 3. 97-102. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Ladakhi phonology

## Consonants

* /b d ɡ/ can fricative sounds [β ð ɣ] as allophones that occur within free variation.
* /k/ has an allophone of a retracted velar stop [k̠].
* /l r/ can have allophones [l̥ r̥] when occurring initially before a voiceless consonant.

## Vowels

Vowels with allophones

* Allophones of /ə/ in word-final position are heard as [a ɐ].
* Allophones of /e o/ are heard as [ɛ̝ ɔ̝].
* Allophones occur in free variation.
Laha phonology

## Consonants

* In both dialects, /tʃ/ can be heard as [tɕ] when occurring before front vowels.

### Final consonants

Both have the same final consonants, except /l/ is only in the Noong Lay dialect.

Tà Mit final consonants

Noong Lay final consonants

## Vowels

* Vowel sounds /ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ/ can occur long as /ɪː, ɛː, aː, ɔː, ʊː/.

Final vowels

Both dialects have two vowels /i, u/ in final position. They also may be heard as glide sounds [j, w].
Lakon phonology

Lakon has 20 phonemic vowels.
These include 10 short /i ɪ ɛ æ a ɐ ɒ ɔ ʊ u/ and 10 long vowels /iː ɪː ɛː æː aː ɐː ɒː ɔː ʊː uː/.

Lakon vowels

Historically, the phonemicisation of vowel length originates in the compensatory lengthening of short vowels when the alveolar trill /r/ was lost syllable-finally.
Kutenai phonology

## Consonant phonemes

Kutenai has no phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants.

## Vowel phonemes

Vowel length in Ktunaxa is also contrastive, so two words can be differentiated just by lengthening or shortening a vowel. Some such minimal pairs are the verbal stem 'to dig something up' [ʔakaːkʼuː] and the noun '(steel animal) trap' [ʔaːkaːkʼuː] and the verbal stem for 'to fall out in this direction/to fall out from somewhere' [ʔakmuːxuː] and 'the place where (someone is) sitting, one's place at a table' [ʔaːkmuːxuː]. Both pairs differ only in the length of the first vowel, [a] vs [a:].
Macushi phonology

## Vowels

Vowels

Nasality also occurs, and is transcribed with a [ã] mark.

The suprasegmental system consists of a high and low or unmarked pitch at the word level”, such as in: átí ‘you go’ and ‘àtí’ ‘he goes’. High pitch is considered the marked pitch, and can be found on the final, penultimate or antepenultimate syllable of the word.
Lule Sami phonology

## Consonants

Some analyses of Lule Sámi phonology may include preaspirated stops and affricates (/hp/, /ht/, /ht͡s/, /ht͡ʃ/, /hk/) and pre-stopped or pre-glottalised nasals (voiceless /pm/, /tn/, /tɲ/, /kŋ/ and voiced /bːm/, /dːn/, /dːɲ/, /gːŋ/). However, these can be treated as clusters for the purpose of phonology, since they are clearly composed of two segments and only the first of these lengthens in quantity 3. The terms "preaspirated" and "pre-stopped" will be used in this article to describe these combinations for convenience.

* Stops before a homorganic nasal (pre-stopped nasals) are realised as unreleased stops.
* /v/ is realised as a labiodental fricative [v] in the syllable onset (before a vowel), and as bilabial [w] in the syllable coda (in a consonant cluster).

## Vowels

Lule Sámi possesses the following vowels:

* /ea̯/ can be realised as a true diphthong, or a long monophtong [ɛː].
* Long /eː/ and the diphthongs /ea̯/ and /oɑ̯/ occur only in stressed syllables.
* Long /iː/ and /uː/ are very rare, as is short /e/. They also only occur in stressed syllables.
* Short /o/ and long /oː/ can occur in unstressed syllables, but only when a preceding stressed syllable contains /o/.
Makalero phonology

The data in this section are from Huber (2017).

## Consonants

Makalero has 11 native consonant phonemes.

## Vowels

### Monophthongs

Makalero has fifteen vowel phonemes. Most long vowels occur in predictable contexts; thus Huber argues long vowels are marginal phonemes at best.

Syllables are commonly CV; some are CVC. Epenthetic vowels are often inserted between series of two consonants, and echo vowels are often added to the end of phonological phrases.
Lahu phonology

## Consonants

* Palatal consonant sounds when occurring before a close central vowel /cɨ, cʰɨ, ɟɨ, ʃɨ, jɨ/ are heard as dental affricate sounds [tsɹ̩, tsʰɹ̩, dzɹ̩, sɹ̩, zɹ̩]. Stop sounds may also be heard as palato-alveolar sounds [tʃ, tʃʰ, dʒ] elsewhere, in free variation.
* /h/ may also be heard as a velar fricative [x], in free variation.
* /n/ before /i/, can be articulated as a palatal nasal [ɲ].
* Labial sounds before a close back vowel /pu, pʰu, bu, mu/ have affricated variants, heard as [pfɯ, pfʰɯ, bvɯ, mvɯ].

## Vowels

* When following palatal or labial consonants, /ɨ, u/ have special allophones [ɹ̩, ɯ].
Lycian alphabet

The Lycian alphabet contains letters for 29 sounds. Some sounds are represented by more than one symbol, which is considered one "letter". There are six vowel letters, one for each of the four oral vowels of Lycian, and separate letters for two of the four nasal vowels. Nine of the Lycian letters do not appear to derive from the Greek alphabet.

## References

1. ↑ Adiego (2007) page 764.
2. ↑ Bryce (1986) pages 56-57.
3. ↑ Bryce (1986) page 58.
Maia phonology

The phonemic inventory of Maia is fairly small, as is typical of languages from Papua New Guinea.

In some cases, vowels and consonants are modified or deleted across morphemes in a word. These morphophonemic rules are detailed in this section.

## Consonants

The following table details these consonant phonemes and allophones for each, if any.

The voiced labiovelar approximant /w/ is the sole multi-place consonant in Maia.

## Vowels

Maia contains the five basic vowel phonemes in the chart below:

 Mid
 Open

## Syllable Structure

Possible syllable structures in Maia are illustrated in the chart below. Onsets in Maia can end with a vowel, while codas can end in either a vowel or consonant.

 CV onset
 CCV onset
 CVC
 CV coda
 CVC coda
Lak phonology

## Consonants

* The consonants in orange are given by Schulze, but not by TITUS. The consonant /ʡ/ (grey) is given by TITUS, but not by Schulze.
* The sound transcribed here as a glottal stop is named rather ambiguously a "glottalic laryngeal" by both sources.

## Vowels

Five vowels are presented as /a, e, i, o, u/. Three vowels /i, a, u/ are also pharyngealized as /iˤ, aˤ, uˤ/, and also have fronted allophones of [e, æ, œ].

## References

1. ↑ Consonant Systems of the North-East Caucasian Languages on TITUS DIDACTICA
2. ↑ The Lak Language – A quick reference, by Wolfgang Schulze (2007)
Lenakel phonology

The phonemic inventory is as follows:

## Consonants

* When followed by an /h/, sonorant sounds /mʷ m n ŋ l ɾ/ are heard phonetically as voiceless [m̥ʷ m̥ n̥ ŋ̊ l̥ ɾ̥~r̥].
* /ɾ/ is mostly a flap sound, in word-final position, it is heard as a trill sound [r].
* ⟨v⟩ is noted as a high central glide sound, phonetically noted as [j̈] or [ɨ̯].
* /t/ can become palatalized [tʲ] when occurring before /i/. It may also sound voiced in different positions as [dʲ].
* /k/ can become a voiced stop [ɡ] or fricative [ɣ] when in intervocalic positions.
* /t k/ can become aspirated [tʰ kʰ] before /h/. /p k/ when heard before an /h/ can have allophones as [ɸ x].
* A word-final /s/, can freely vary, being heard as [h].

## Vowels

* /i/ and /u/ become glide sounds [j] and [w] when adjacent to vowels.
* In closed syllables, /i/ and /u/ can be heard as [ɪ] and [ʊ].
* /e/ and /o/ are heard as [ɛ] and [ɔ] before a consonant. When occurring before a vowel or in word-final position, they are heard phonemically.
* /ə/ is heard as high as [ɨ] when occurring after alveolar consonants.
* After a labialized bilabial consonant, /a/ is heard as [ɒ]. When occurring after /j̈/, it is fronted as [a].
Lezgian phonology

## Vowels

Vowels of Lezgian
 Mid | e (е; э)
 Open |  |  | a (а)

* /a/ has two main allophones: [ɑ] and [ʌ]; the former prevails in closed syllables (especially before uvulars and /r/), the latter in open syllables.
* /a/ is very often rounded after labialized consonants, which may then lose their labialization.
* /e/ is open ([ɛ]) in stressed syllables
* if a vowel plus /n/ sequence is not followed by a vowel, the /n/ may be deleted and the vowel nasalized. Thus /zun/ ('I') can be pronounced [zũ].

## Consonants

There are 54 consonants in Lezgian. Characters to the right are the letters of the Lezgian Cyrillic Alphabet. Note that aspiration is not normally indicated in the orthography, despite the fact that it is phonemic.
Maguindanao orthography

* A - a - [a/ɑ]
* Æ - æ - [æ]
* B - ba - [b]
* C - ca - [c/ç/ʃ]
* D - da - [d]
* E - e - [ə]
* Ɛ - ɛ - [ɛ]
* F - fa - [f]
* G - ga - [ɡ]
* Ɣ - ɣa - [ɣ]
* H - ha - [h]
* I - i - [i/e]
* J - ja - [ɟ/ʝ/ʒ]
* K - ka - [k]
* L - la - [l]
* Lg - lga - [ʟ]
* Ly - lya - [ʎ]
* Ł - ła - [ɹ]
* M - ma - [m]
* N - na - [n]
* Ng - nga - [ŋ]
* Ny - nya - [ɲ]
* O - o - [ɔ]
* P - pa - [p]
* Q - qa - [ʔ]
* R - ra - [ɾ/r]
* Rb - rba - [ʙ]
* Rl - rla - [ɺ]
* S - sa - [s]
* T - ta - [t]
* U - u - [u/o]
* V - v - [v]
* W - wa - [w]
* Ɯ - ɯa - [ɰ]
* X - xa - [x]
* Y - ya - [j]
* Z - za - [z]
Lalo phonology

## Consonants

* /t͡ʂ, t͡ʂʰ, d͡ʐ, ʂ, ʐ/ are heard as alveolo-palatal [t͡ɕ, t͡ɕʰ, d͡ʑ, ɕ, ʑ] before front vowels /i, y, ɛ/.
* The glottal fricative /h/ is mainly always nasalized as [h̃], and vowels following /h/ are also nasalized.
* Approximant sounds /w, j/ are in complementary distribution. [w] is before back vowels [u, ɑ], and [j] is before front vowels /i, y, ɛ/.
* /x/ is always heard as labio-dental [f] before front vowels /i, ɛ/. In the Western dialects, /f/ is phonemically distinct.
* /ɣ/ is always heard as a voiced glottal sound [ɦ] before vowels /i, y, ɛ, ɑ/. In the Western dialects, /ɣ/ is heard as [ɣʷ] before /o/, [w] before /u/, and [j] before vowels /i, y, ɛ/.
* Nasals /n, ʔn/ are heard as palatal [ɲ, ʔɲ] before a close vowel /i/.
* Nasals /m n ŋ/ can have syllabic allophones of [m̩, n̩, ŋ̍] when preceding other consonants.
* The glottalized /ʔl/ is heard as a glottalized retroflex sound [ʔʐ] before a central close /ɨ/ vowel.
* Syllables with no initial consonant, always phonetically begin with a glottal stop [ʔ].

## Vowels

Central Lalo vowels

* Close vowels /i, y, u/ are realized as mid sounds [ɛ̠, ø̠, o̠] and the back vowel /ɑ/ is realized as [a̠], within syllables of harsh phonation. Vowels /ɛ, o/ do not occur in syllables with harsh phonation.
* The close rounded vowel /ø/ mainly occurs after velar initials.
* The close central vowel /ɨ/ is heard as rounded [ʉ] when after bilabial consonants /p, pʰ, b, m/, as syllabic [z̩] after alveolar sounds /t͡s, t͡sʰ, d͡z, s, z/ and as a syllabic retroflex [ʐ̩] after retroflex sounds /t͡ʂ, t͡ʂʰ, d͡ʐ, ʂ, ʐ/. /ɨ/ also only occurs after bilabial, retroflex and velar initial consonants and never after alveolar stops, labio-dental or labio-velar initials.
* Mid-central vowel /ə/ is realized as a syllabic labiodental fricative [v̩], when after labio-dental fricatives. /ə/ never occurs after labial consonants or alveolar affricates or fricatives.

Western Lalo vowels

Western Lalo nasal vowels and syllabics

* In citation form, front vowels /i, y, ø/ are heard as diphthongs with an offglide as [iɛ, yɛ, øɛ].

* Close central vowel /ɨ/ is heard as an apical syllabic sound [z̩] after alveolar affricates and fricatives and as [ʐ̩] after retroflex affricates and fricatives.

* Open back vowel /ɑ/ is typically realized as a central [ɐ] and is then raised after retroflex sounds as a mid sound [ə].

* A syllabic fricative [v̩] is contrastive with back vowels /u, o/. It only occurs after labio-dental consonants /f, v/.

## Tones

The following are the tones in Central and Western Lalo:

Central Lalo tones

Western Lalo tones
Mah Meri phonology

## Vowels

Register 1 vowels
 High | i     ĩ
 Mid High | e     ẽ
 Mid Low | ɛ     ɛ̃
 Low |  | a     ã

Register 2 vowels
 High | i̤
 Mid High | e̤
 Mid Low | ɛ̤
 Low |  | a̤

## Voice Register

There are two voice registers in Mah Meri:

**Register 1:** Register 1 vowels have a clear tense voice quality, shorter duration and lower pitch. Register 1 vowels also have fewer phonotactic restrictions.

**Register 2:** Register 2 vowels are laxer, longer and higher in pitch. Register 2 vowels also have a slight breathy voicing.
Lidepla orthography

The official Lidepla alphabet is based on the Latin script and contains the following 25 letters, and their upper case equivalents:

The letter *q* is not used, and *c* occurs only in the digraph “ch”. The letter *y* represents the same vowel as “i”, but is never stressed. The following digraphs and letters are pronounced as follows, with examples:

* **ch** – /t͡ʃ/ as in “cheese”: *chay* — tea
* **-ng**, at the end of a word – /ŋ/ as in *fang*: *feng* — wind
* **sh** – /ʃ/ as in “shoes”: *shi* — ten
* **j** – /d͡ʒ/ as in “Jack”: *jan* — to know
* **z** – /d͡z/: *zun* — to go in for
* **x** – /ks/ as in “extra”: *examen* — exam

*-ng-* in the middle of a word is pronounced /ŋg/ (as is “ng” in *finger*). *v* and ending *-ng* may alternatively be pronounced as /w/ (as in *wood*) and /n/ (*nose*), respectively. *x* between two vowels may be slightly voiced, and *x* before a consonant may be pronounced as /s/.

Some learning material uses /h/ for the letter **h**. The grammar allows that pronunciation, but gives /x/ as *ch* in German *Fach* as the primary.

For more details on the phonology, see the section Phonology below.

## Stress

The general rule regarding the stress is:

* the vowel before the last consonant (or “y”) is stressed: *máta* (mother), *família* (family), *akshám* (evening), *ruchéy* (brook)

Lidepla tries to preserve the original sounding of the international words, though, so there are some exceptions, as follows, in short:

* some endings (*-um, -us, -er, -en; -ik-, -ul-*, and most but not all suffixes) are never stressed
* the doubled vowel is always stressed (like in *adyoo*, “bye”)

## References

1. ↑ English Wikibooks course, and: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RfItYf-cAig, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KUz\_mjfqBIY
2. ↑ Do note that *-fula* is an ending on its own, not containing the -ul- ending, and thus receives normal stress
Lengo phonology

## Vowels

Lengo has 12 vowels.

Vowel sequences occur commonly for all combinations of these vowels, with the exception of /uo/. The front open-mid vowel /ɛ/ never occurs in sequence.

## Consonants

Lengo has 20 consonants.

Voiced stops are prenasalized. Two instances of regional variation in these phonemes have been observed. These are /v/ becoming /β/, and /ð/ becoming /z/.
Mahasu Pahari phonology

## Consonants

* Sounds [tsʰ bʱ dʱ] are only seldom heard among dialects.
* Allophones of /b d ɡ/ are heard as [b̥ d̥ ɡ̊] in word-final position.
* [tʃʰ] occurs from Hindi loanwords.
* [ʒ] can be heard as allophone of /dʒ/.
* [ŋ] is heard when a nasal occurs before velar stops.
* /ɦ/ may also be heard as a voiceless [h] among dialects.
* [j, w] are mainly heard after vowels. [w] can also be an allophone of /ʋ/.

## Vowels

Oral vowels
 Mid | e eː
 Open-mid | ɛ ɛː
 Open | æ æː

Nasal vowels
 Close-mid | ẽ
 Open-mid | ɛ̃
 Open | æ̃

* A short /u/ may also have an allophone of a near-close sound [ʊ].
* [ə] is mainly heard as an allophone of /ɑ/. /ɑ/ can also be heard as an open mid sound [ʌ].
Láadan phonology

## Tones

Láadan is a tonal language. It utilises two distinct tones:

* *lo* – /lō/ or /lò/, a short, medium or low tone, represented by a single unmarked vowel
* *ló* – /ló/, a short, high tone, represented by a single marked vowel

The word "Láadan" has three syllables: "lá-" with the short vowel /a/ plus high tone; "-a" with the short vowel /a/ and no tone; and "-dan".

Láadan does not allow any double [i.e. long] phonemes. Whenever two identical short vowels would occur side by side in a single morpheme, one of them has to be marked for high tone. When adding an affix would result in two identical vowels side by side, an epenthetic /h/ is inserted to prevent the forbidden sequence. The language will allow either "máa" or "maá," but not "maa". These combinations can be described as:

* *loó* – /lǒː/, a long, low-rising tone, represented by a double vowel, the second of which is marked
* *lóo* – /lôː/, a long, high-falling tone, represented by a double vowel, the first of which is marked

(Some people analyze these tone sequences as tonemic as well, for a total of four tones.)

Elgin preferred an analysis of the language as having no long vowels and a single tone, the high tone (distinguished from "neutral, baseline pitch"), but she acknowledged that linguists using other formalisms would be justified in saying that there are two tones, high and low (or unmarked or mid).

## Vowels

Láadan has five vowels:

* *a* – /ɑ/, an open back unrounded vowel (as English *calm*),
* *e* – /ɛ/, an open-mid front unrounded vowel (as English *bell*),
* *i* – /ɪ/, a near-close near-front unrounded vowel (as English *bit*),
* *o* – /o/, a close-mid back rounded vowel (as English *home*),
* *u* – /u/, a close back rounded vowel (as English *boon*).

## Consonants

Láadan lacks the consonants /p, t, k, ɡ, s, z, f, v/. However, it uses *b*, *d*, *sh* (/ʃ/), *m*, *n*, *l*, *r*, *w*, *y* (/j/), *h* with the same phonetic value as English. In addition to these, three digraphs require further explanation:

* *th* – /θ/, a voiceless dental fricative (always as in English *think*, never as *then*),
* *zh* – /ʒ/, a voiced postalveolar fricative (as English *plea**s**ure*),
* *lh* – /ɬ/, a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative (as Welsh *llan*).
Laz orthography

Laz is written in Mkhedruli script and in an extension of the Turkish alphabet. For the Laz letters written in the Latin script, the first is a letter from the writing system introduced in Turkey in 1984 that was developed by Fahri Lazoğlu and Wolfgang Feurstein and the second is the transcription system used by Caucasianists.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Extension consonnant for the Latin version of the Latin alphabet, often represented with the digit 3 (currently missing from Unicode ?) ; the Cyrillic letter *ze* (З/з) has been borrowed in newspapers published in the Socialist Republic of Georgia (within USSR) to write the missing Latin letter ; modern orthographies used today also use the Latin digraphs *Ts/ts* for З/з and *Ts’/ts’* for З’/з’.
Mambai phonology

## Consonants

* /r, h, k/ can also be heard as [ɾ, ħ, ʔ].
* /p, k/ can also be heard as aspirated [pʰ, kʰ].
* /d/ is also heard as a voiced post-alveolar stop [d̠].
* /t/ is slightly aspirated [tʰ] before mid and low vowels. /t/ can also have an allophone [ts] when preceding high vowels.
* The plosives /p, b, t, d, k/ are unreleased [p̚, b̚, t̚, d̚, k̚] in word-final position.

## Vowels

 Close-mid | e
 Open-mid | ɛ
 Open |  | a

* /i, u/ can also have shortened allophones [ɪ, ʊ].

Diphthongs
 Mid | ei
Lotha phonology

## Consonants

* /v/ when followed by /o/ can also be heard as [w] in free variation.
* The pronunciation of /ɹ/ may vary as a trill [r] or a retroflex fricative [ʐ] among speakers.

## Vowels

* When /u/ follows a labial consonant or /k, kʰ/, the consonant is then affricated and /u/ is realized as unrounded [ɯ]. The result is then from /ku, kʰu, pu, pʰu/ to [kvɯ, kfɯ, pvɯ, pfɯ].
* /ə/ may also range in pronunciation to a back sound [ɯ].
* /i/ may also tend to centralize and lower as [ɨ, ə] in open syllables when following sibilant sounds (/ʃi/ ~ [ʃɨ~ʃə]).
Kwadi phonology

## Vowels

Kwadi had at least the oral vowels /a e i o u/, with phonetic [ɛ] possibly either a free variant of /e/ or a surface realization of /ae/. It had at least the nasal vowels /ã ĩ ũ/. Phonetic [ẽ õ] frequently appear to be free variants of /ĩ ũ/, though it's possible that a phonemic /ẽ/ derives from historical \*ãĩ.

## Tones

The tone system is unclear, due to limited data and to the poor quality of recordings. At least two tones (high and low) are necessary to explain that data:

[ʔáú] 'dog', [ʔáù] 'fish'
[k’ó] 'meat', [k’ò] 'man, male'
## Consonants

The following consonants are attested. It's not clear that all are phonemic; [s, ʃ] for example are likely to be allophones, while a [ǀ, ŋǀʔ] distinction might have been lost by the time of the last recordings.

/ǀ’h/ is a ǃKung loan. Consonants in parentheses derive from Bantu loans. Intervocalic /mb, nd, ŋɡ/ also occur in Bantu loans.

Only dental clicks remain. Proto-Khoe--Kwadi \*ǃ, \*ǂ, \*ǁ are replaced with non-click consonants such as /c, tɬ, c’, tɬ’, x’, ʔʲ/.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Fehn, Anne-Maria. (2020). Towards a reconstruction of Proto Khoe-Kwadi: The challenges (and benefits!) of applying the historical-comparative method to archival data. Handout of paper presented at the Zoom meeting of the KBA Network, 15 October 2020.
Lake Miwok phonology

## Consonants

The consonant inventory of Lake Miwok differs substantially from the inventories found in the other Miwok languages. Where the other languages only have one series of plosives, Lake Miwok has four: plain, aspirated, ejective and voiced. Lake Miwok has also added the affricates **č**, **c**, **čʼ**, **cʼ**, **ƛʼ** and the liquids **r** and **ł**. These sounds appear to have been borrowed through loanwords from other, unrelated languages in the Clear Lake area, after which they spread to some native Lake Miwok words.
Lihir phonology

Lihir has a relatively large vowel phone inventory, in which all vowel phonemes can occur word initially with the exception of the front rounded vowel. Sources are indeterminate with regards to the phonemic status of different surface vowels, although minimal pairs provide evidence for the phonemic status of most vowel qualities.
Harákmbut phonology

The following inventory is that of Amarakaeri, the most vital dialect. Other dialects appear to only differ in the presence of /h/ or the lack of /w/.

Amarakaeri has ten vowels:

When adjacent to /a/, /e/ tends to rise to /i/ or /j/. This can cause palatalization of a preceding consonant, e.g. *kate-apo* 'why?' as [ˈkatiabɔ] or [ˈkaʧabɔ]. Similarly, /o/ tends to rise to /u/ or /w/ when adjacent to /a/ or /e/, e.g. *ĩ-nõ-põ-ẽ-ỹ* 'I know' as [ĩˈnõpwẽj̃].

Consonants are as follows:

The phonemic status of [h] and [ʔ] is not clear. They vary between dialects, but also between speakers and even with the same speaker in Arakmbut. They may be epenthetic consonants used to demarcate syllables that do not have an onset or coda consonant.

/t k n s/ occur in syllable codas, and /ŋ/ only in syllable codas.

Stops tend toward [b d ɡ] in intervocalic position. (In Toyoeri and Sapiteri, this has only been reported for /k/.) Among younger people, and often among their elders, the alveolars /t n/ palatalize to [t͜ʃ] and [ɲ] (or [nd͜ʒ]) before /i, ĩ/; /s/ palatalizes to [ʃ] before /i, ĩ/ and /u, ũ/. (In Toyoeri and Sapiteri, this has only been reported for /t/.)

The nasal consonants have different realizations, depending on whether adjacent vowels are oral or nasal, with /m/ and /n/ affected before an oral vowel, and /n/ and /ŋ/ affected after one:

Nasal allophones
 n
 ŋ

This allophonic variation is reflected in the community orthography, and the same pattern has been reported for Watipaeri, Arasaeri, Toyoeri and Sapiteri.

The nature of Harakmbut nasality has yet to be fully elucidated, and in Amarakaeri at least there is some free variation of allophones. For instance, 'five' has been attested as both [waˈmaʔnẽŋ] and [waˈmbaʔnẽŋ]. Nonetheless, there is a phonemic distinction of vowel nasalization after nasal consonants, as in the proper name /moɾimõ/.

Stress is on the penultimate syllable, not counting inflectional suffixes, which do not change stress placement in a word.
Mandinka phonology

Mandinka is here represented by the variety spoken in Casamance. There is little dialectical diversity.

## Vowels

Vowel qualities are /i e a o u ɪ ɛ ɑ ɔ ʊ æ ə ɨ/. All may be long or short. There are no nasal vowels; instead, there is a coda consonant /ŋ/. Long vowels are written double: *aa*, *ee*, *ii*, *oo*, *uu*.

## Consonants

The following table gives the consonants in the Latin orthography, and their IPA equivalent when they differ.

Syllabic nasals occur in e.g. *nnààm* 'yes!' (response), *ŋte* "I, me". Word-initial *mb, nd, ndy, ng* occur but are not particularly common; it is not clear whether they should be considered syllabic nasals or additional consonants.

Consonants may be geminated in the middles of words (at least /pp, cc, jj, kk, ll, mm, nn, ññ/). The only other consonant found at the ends of syllables in native words is /ŋ/. It assimilates to the following consonant: /ns, nc, mb/ etc. Syllable-final /r/ and /s/ are found in French loans (e.g. /kùrtù/ "pants").

## References

1. ↑ Maŋ Lafi Dramé (c. 2003) *Parlons Mandinka*
Makasar script

## Basic letters

Basic letters (𑻱𑻭𑻶𑻮𑻶𑻦𑻭 *anrong lontara’* ) in Makasar script represents a syllable with inherent /a/. There are 18 basic letters, shown below:

Note that the Makassar script has never undergone a standardization process like the Buginese Lontara script later on, so there are many variations of writing that can be found in Makassar manuscripts. The form in the table above is adapted from the characters used in the diary of Pangeran Gowa, Tropenmuseum collection, numbered KIT 668-216.

## Diacritic

Diacritics (𑻱𑻨𑻮𑻶𑻦𑻭 *ana’ lontara’*) are markings on the basic letters to change its vowel. There are 4 diacritics, shown below:

***Vowel diacritics***
𑻱𑻨𑻱𑻳𑻭𑻦𑻵
𑻱𑻨𑻱𑻳𑻭𑻯
𑻱𑻨𑻭𑻳𑻱𑻶𑻮𑻶
 na

## Punctuation

Historical Makassarese texts are written without wordspacing (*scriptio continua*) and do not use punctuation. The Makasar script is known to have only two original punctuation marks: ***passimbang*** and a section ending mark. *Passimbang* functions like a period or comma in the Latin script by dividing the text into chunks that are similar (but not the same) to stanzas or sentences, while section ending marks are used to split the text into chapter-like units.

Punctuations

In certain manuscripts, the ending mark of a section is replaced by a punctuation that resembles a palm tree (🌴), and for the end of larger sections it is common to use the stylization of the word *tammat* which uses Arabic letters تمت‎).

## Repeated consonants

Continuous syllables with the same initial consonant are often written in abbreviated form using double diacritics or a repeater letter ***angka*** which can then be reattached with a diacritic. Its use can be seen as follows:

Double diacritics

*Angka*
Lontara script

## Consonants

The consonants (*indo’ surə’* ᨕᨗᨉᨚ ᨔᨘᨑᨛ or *ina’ surə’* ᨕᨗᨊ ᨔᨘᨑᨛ) consist of 23 letters. Like other Indic abugidas, each consonant represents a syllable with the inherent vowel /a/.

## Buginese Extensions

### Vowels

* 16E00 𖸀 BUGINESE LETTER A-2
* 16E01 𖸁 BUGINESE LETTER A-3
* 16E02 𖸂 BUGINESE LETTER I
* 16E03 𖸃 BUGINESE LETTER U
* 16E04 𖸄 BUGINESE LETTER E
* 16E05 𖸅 BUGINESE LETTER O
* 16E06 𖸆 BUGINESE LETTER AE

### Consonants

* 16E07 𖸇 BUGINESE LETTER KA-2
* 16E08 𖸈 BUGINESE LETTER KHA
* 16E09 𖸉 BUGINESE LETTER GA-2
* 16E0A 𖸊 BUGINESE LETTER GA-3
* 16E0B 𖸋 BUGINESE LETTER NGA-2
* 16E0C 𖸌 BUGINESE LETTER NGA-3
* 16E0D 𖸍 BUGINESE LETTER NGA-4
* 16E0E 𖸎 BUGINESE LETTER NGKA
* 16E0F 𖸏 BUGINESE LETTER NGGA
* 16E10 𖸐 BUGINESE LETTER PA-2
* 16E11 𖸑 BUGINESE LETTER BA-2
* 16E12 𖸒 BUGINESE LETTER BA-3
* 16E13 𖸓 BUGINESE LETTER BBA
* 16E14 𖸔 BUGINESE LETTER BBA-2
* 16E15 𖸕 BUGINESE LETTER MPA
* 16E16 𖸖 BUGINESE LETTER MPA-2
* 16E17 𖸗 BUGINESE LETTER MBA
* 16E18 𖸘 BUGINESE LETTER MBA-2
* 16E19 𖸙 BUGINESE LETTER MBA-3
* 16E1A 𖸚 BUGINESE LETTER MMA
* 16E1B 𖸛 BUGINESE LETTER TTA
* 16E1C 𖸜 BUGINESE LETTER DDA
* 16E1D 𖸝 BUGINESE LETTER DHA
* 16E1E 𖸞 BUGINESE LETTER NTA
* 16E1F 𖸟 BUGINESE LETTER NTA-2
* 16E20 𖸠 BUGINESE LETTER NDA
* 16E21 𖸡 BUGINESE LETTER NDA-2
* 16E22 𖸢 BUGINESE LETTER NDA-3
* 16E23 𖸣 BUGINESE LETTER NNA
* 16E24 𖸤 BUGINESE LETTER CA-2
* 16E25 𖸥 BUGINESE LETTER CA-3
* 16E26 𖸦 BUGINESE LETTER JA-2
* 16E27 𖸧 BUGINESE LETTER JA-3
* 16E28 𖸨 BUGINESE LETTER JA-4
* 16E29 𖸩 BUGINESE LETTER JA-5
* 16E2A 𖸪 BUGINESE LETTER JA-6
* 16E2B 𖸫 BUGINESE LETTER JA-7
* 16E2C 𖸬 BUGINESE LETTER NYA-2
* 16E2D 𖸭 BUGINESE LETTER NYA-3
* 16E2E 𖸮 BUGINESE LETTER NYCA
* 16E2F 𖸯 BUGINESE LETTER NYJA
* 16E30 𖸰 BUGINESE LETTER YA-2
* 16E31 𖸱 BUGINESE LETTER YA-3
* 16E32 𖸲 BUGINESE LETTER RA-2
* 16E33 𖸳 BUGINESE LETTER RRA
* 16E34 𖸴 BUGINESE LETTER LA-2
* 16E35 𖸵 BUGINESE LETTER LA-3
* 16E36 𖸶 BUGINESE LETTER SA-2
* 16E37 𖸷 BUGINESE LETTER SA-3
* 16E38 𖸸 BUGINESE LETTER SA-3
* 16E39 𖸹 BUGINESE LETTER SSA
* 16E3A 𖸺 BUGINESE LETTER HA-2
* 16E3B 𖸻 BUGINESE LETTER HA-3
* 16E3C 𖸼 BUGINESE LETTER HA-4
* 16E3D 𖸽 BUGINESE LETTER ZA
* 16E3E 𖸾 BUGINESE LETTER ZA-2
* 16E3F 𖸿 BUGINESE LETTER FA
* 16E40 𖹀 BUGINESE LETTER FA-2
* 16E41 𖹁 BUGINESE LETTER FA-3
* 16E42 𖹂 BUGINESE LETTER GGA
* 16E43 𖹃 BUGINESE LETTER QA
* 16E44 𖹄 BUGINESE LETTER SYA
Maltese phonology

## Vowels

Maltese has sixteen short vowels, /ɐ ɑ ɒ æ ɛ ʌ ø ɪ y ʉ œ ɔ ɤ ʊ ɯ ə/, written *a e i o u;* sixteen long vowels, /ɐː ɑː ɒː æː ɛː ʌː øː ɪː iː ɨː œː ɔː ɤː ʊː uː əː/, written *a, e, ie, i, o, u,* all of which (with the exception of *ie* /ɪː/) can be known to represent long vowels in writing only if they are followed by an orthographic *għ* or *h* (otherwise, one needs to know the pronunciation; e.g. *nar* (fire) is pronounced /naːr/); and seven diphthongs, /ɐɪ ɐʊ ɛɪ ɛʊ ɪʊ ɔɪ ɔʊ/, written *aj* or *għi, aw* or *għu, ej* or *għi, ew, iw, oj,* and *ow* or *għu.*
Lithuanian phonology

## Vowels

Lithuanian has six long vowels and five short ones (not including the disputed /e/). Length has traditionally been considered the distinctive feature, though short vowels are also more centralized and long vowels more peripheral:

### Diphthongs

Lithuanian is traditionally described as having nine diphthongs, *ai*, *au*, *ei*, *eu*, *oi*, *ou*, *ui*, *ie*, and *uo.* However, some approaches (i.e., Schmalstieg 1982) treat them as vowel sequences rather than diphthongs; indeed, the longer component depends on the type of stress, whereas in diphthongs, the longer segment is fixed.

Lithuanian long stressed syllables can have either a rising or a falling tone. In specialized literature, they are marked with a tilde ⟨˜⟩ or an acute accent ⟨´⟩ respectively. The tone is especially clearly audible in diphthongs, since in the case of the rising tone, it makes the second element longer (e.g., *aĩ* is pronounced [ɐɪ̯ˑ]), while the falling tone prolongs the first element (e.g., *ái* is pronounced [âˑɪ̯]) (for more detailed information). The full set is as follows:
Leti phonology

## Consonants

In addition, the phonemes /c/ and /h/ occur only in loans, mostly from Indonesian, Tetum, and the local variety of Malay.

## Vowels

These vowels can also occur long; the phonemic status of long vowels hangs on the interpretation of Leti's pervasive metathetic processes.

The mid vowels /e, o, ɛ, ɔ/ are restricted to the penult of lexical morphemes, which is stressed. The majority of these morphemes provide no evidence for the height contrast — /ɛ, ɔ/ are found before an ultimate /a/ and /e, o/ in other positions — and diachronically there was no contrast. However, the contrast is set up synchronically on account of certain exceptions (/ea/ 'he, she', /msena/ 'refuse', /dena/ 'stay'), and the fact that when suffixed the conditioning vowel can disappear:

/kɛrna/ 'dry' → /ŋkɛrnulu/ 'it dries first'
/kernu/ 'descend' → /ŋkernulu/ 'he descends first'
Lao phonology

## Consonants

Many consonants in Lao have a labialized and plain form, thus creating a phonemic contrast. The complete inventory of Lao consonants is as shown in the table below:

### Final consonants

All plosive sounds are unreleased in final position. Hence, final /p/, /t/, and /k/ sounds are pronounced as [p̚], [t̚], and [k̚] respectively.

* The glottal stop appears at the end when no final follows a short vowel.

## Vowels

All vowels make a phonemic length distinction. Diphthongs are all centering diphthongs with falling sonority. The monophthongs and diphthongs are as shown in the following table:

### Unchecked syllables

There are six phonemic tones in unchecked syllables, that is, in syllables ending in a vowel or other sonorant sound ([m], [n], [ŋ], [w], and [j]).

### Checked syllables

The number of contrastive tones is reduced to four in checked syllables, that is, in syllables ending in an obstruent sound ([p], [t], [k], or the
glottal stop [ʔ]).

 falling | /hâːk/ຮາກ | vomit, root

## Syllables

Lao syllables are of the form (C)V(C), i.e., they consist of a vowel in the syllable nucleus, optionally preceded by a single consonant in the syllable onset and optionally followed by a single consonant in the syllable coda. The only consonant clusters allowed are syllable initial clusters /kw/ or /kʰw/. Any consonant may appear in the onset, but the labialized consonants do not occur before rounded vowels.

One difference between Thai and Lao is that in Lao initial clusters are simplified. For example, the official name of Laos is Romanized as *Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao*, with the Thai analog being *Satharanarat Prachathipatai Prachachon Lao* (สาธารณรัฐประชาธิปไตยประชาชนลาว), indicating the simplification of Thai *pr* to Lao *p*.

Only /p t k ʔ m n ŋ w j/ may appear in the coda. If the vowel in the nucleus is short, it must be followed by a consonant in the coda; /ʔ/ in the coda can be preceded only by a short vowel. Open syllables (i.e., those with no coda consonant) and syllables ending in one of the sonorants /m n ŋ w j/ take one of the six tones, syllables ending in /p t k/ take one of four tones, and syllables ending in /ʔ/ take one of only two tones.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Blaine Erickson, 2001. "On the Origins of Labialized Consonants in Lao". Analysis based on L. N. Morev, A. A. Moskalyov and Y. Y. Plam, (1979). *The Lao Language*. Moscow: USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Oriental Studies. Accessed 2009-12-19.
2. ↑ Blaine Erickson, 2001. "On the Origins of Labialized Consonants in Lao". Analysis based on T. Hoshino and R. Marcus (1981). *Lao for Beginners: An Introduction to the Spoken and Written Language of Laos*. Rutland/Tokyo: Tuttle. Accessed 2009-12-19.
Manang phonology

## Consonants

There are 29 consonants in Manange, which are summarized in the table below. The contrastive status of the consonants in parentheses is questionable, as they are rare idiosyncratic in distribution.

As the table shows, voicing is not contrastive in Manange, although in word-medial position, consonants may be voiced intervocalically.

## Vowels

There are six oral vowels and five nasalized vowels, which contrast with the oral vowels. Length is emergent and not phonemic.
Maay Maay phonology

### Consonants

A nasal consonant preceding a /n/ sound will always be realized as a [ŋ] sound. A [ɣ] sound is an intervocalic allophone of /ɡ/.

### Vowels

Maay Maay exhibits significant amounts of epenthesis, inserting central or high-central vowels to break up consonant clusters. Vowel length is contrastive; minimal pairs such as *bur* 'flour' and *buur* 'mountain' are attested.
Maldivian phonology

Vowels

* [æː] is developed as a sound from the diphthong /ai/.
* The short open back vowel is phonetically central [ä].

## Borrowed phonemes

Modern Standard Maldivian has borrowed many phonemes from Arabic. These phonemes are used exclusively in loan words from Arabic, for example, the phoneme /x/ in words such as /xaːdim/ ('male servant'). The following table shows the phonemes that have been borrowed from Arabic/Persian together with their transliteration into Tāna.
Mbula orthography

As stated above, vowel length is contrastive. What would be written phonetically as a: is represented by aa. All long vowels are written this way. All alveolars (/t/, /d/, /n/, /nd/) are dental-alveolars. They are represented in the orthography by t, d, n and nd. The /j/ sound is represented by y. The complete orthography of Mbula is as follows:
Labialization

**Labialization** is a secondary articulatory feature of sounds in some languages. Labialized sounds involve the lips while the remainder of the oral cavity produces another sound. The term is normally restricted to consonants. When vowels involve the lips, they are called rounded.

The most common labialized consonants are labialized velars. Most other labialized sounds also have simultaneous velarization, and the process may then be more precisely called **labio-velarization**.

In phonology, labialization may also refer to a type of assimilation process.
Limburgish phonology

## Consonants

* /ɡ/ may not show up in the Hasselt dialect, but is common in other Limburgish dialects, e.g. *zègke* (Dutch: *zeggen*) "to say".
* Other Limburgish dialects also have the following sounds: [c] (lan**dj**); [ɲ] (te**nj**, teeth).
* /w/ is realized as [β̞] in Belgian Limburgish.
* [ɫ] is a common allophone of /l/, especially in coda position. It is rare in the Montfortian dialect.
* [ç] and [ʝ] are allophones of /x/ and /ɣ/, occurring in a front-vowel environment.
* [ɦ] is an allophone of /h/. In some dialects, it may be the usual realization of /h/.
* In most modern dialects, /r/ is uvular.

Overall, Limburgish dialects tend to have more consonants than Dutch. They also tend to have more vowels. According to Peter Ladefoged, the vowel inventory of the dialect of Weert is perhaps the richest in the world. It has 28 vowels, among which there are 9 long monophthongs, 10 short monophthongs and 9 diphthongs (three of which pattern with the long monophthongs, rather than the other diphthongs).

In most of the Limburgish dialects spoken to the southeast of Panningen—for example those of Roermond, Sittard and Heerlen—[ʃ] appears at the beginning of words in the consonant clusters *sp*, *st*, *sl*, *sm*, *sn* and *zw*. The same sound is realized as [s] elsewhere (e.g. *sjtraot*/*straot*, "street"). This is not the case, however, in the dialects of for example Venlo, Weert, Maastricht, Echt, Montfort and Posterholt.

## Vowels

### Monophthongs

* /ə/ only occurs in unstressed syllables.
* /øː œː uː/ are realised as [øə œə uə] before alveolar consonants.

### Diphthongs

The diphthongs /iə ø eɪ æɪ uɪ ɔɪ aɪ ou/ occur, as well as combinations of /uː ɔː ɑː/ + /j/. /aɪ/ only occurs in French loanwords and interjections.

/ou/ is realized as [oə] before alveolar consonants. /eɪ/ can be realized as [eə] or [ejə]. In the dialect of Geleen, /eː/ is realized as [iɛ] and /oː/ as [ɔː]. In many dialects such as that of Maastricht and Sittard, the long vowel /aː/ in Dutch cognates is most of the time realized as [ɒː], as in *nao* ("after", "to, towards"). The Standard Dutch equivalents are *na* [naː] and *naar* [naːr].

In about 50 Belgian Limburgish dialects, the rounded front vowels /y, yː, ø, øː, œ, œː, œy/ are unrounded to /i, iː, ɪ, eː, ɛ ~ æ, ɛː, ɛi/ in most native words. They are retained in French loanwords such as *dzjuus* /dʒys/.
Lau phonology

Lau distinguishes voiced and voiceless stops and has a separate series of labial-velar phonemes distinct from the regular velars. The complete consonant inventory is presented in the table below (with orthographical conventions in angled brackets). The /r/ is a trilled apical rhotic.

The vowel inventory of five items is presented in the table below (again with orthographical conventions in angled brackets). These vowels can be long or short depending on the word. Long vowels are orthographically represented by doubling the vowel. The phonotactics do not allow closed syllables, i.e. every word ends with a vowel.

Lau Vowels
Mano phonology

## Tones

The language has nine register and contour tones.

## References

1. ↑ Christopher Green and Steven Moran. 2014. Mann sound inventory (GM).
In: Moran, Steven & McCloy, Daniel & Wright, Richard (eds.)
PHOIBLE Online.
Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
(Available online at http://phoible.org/inventories/view/1518, Accessed on 2016-11-12.)
2. ↑ Khatchaturyan, Maria. 2015. Grammaire du mano. *Mandenkan* 54, 1-252.
Kyirong phonology

## Consonants

There are 36 consonants in Kyirong, which are summarized in the table below.

## Vowels

There are eight places of articulation for vowels. There is a length distinction at each place of articulation, as well as a long nasalised vowel.

## Tone

Kyriong has a three tone system; high, medium and low. Low tone is often accompanied by breathy voice.
Kâte phonology

## Vowels (orthographic)

Kâte distinguishes six vowels. The low back vowel *â* (representing /ɔ/) sounds like the vowel of English *law* or *saw* (Pilhofer 1933: 14). Length is not distinctive.

 Low | a | ⟨ɒ⟩

## Consonants (orthographic)

The glottal stop, written *-c*, only occurs after a vowel and Pilhofer first describes it as a vowel feature that distinguishes, for instance, *bo* 'sugarcane' from *boc* 'very' and *si* 'planting' from *sic* 'broth'. However, McElhanon (1974) notes that final glottal stop is barely phonemic in the Wemo dialect, but corresponds to a wider variety of syllable-final consonants in Western Huon languages (*-p, -t, -k, -m, -n, -ŋ*), which are neutralized (to *-c, -ŋ*) in the Eastern Huon languages, including Kâte. Pilhofer (1933) writes the lateral flap with an *l*, but Schneuker (1962) and Flierl and Strauss (1977) write it with an *r*.

The fricatives *f* and *w* are both labiodentals, according to Pilhofer (1933), but bilabials, according to Flierl and Strauss (1977). Alveopalatal *z* and *ʒ* are affricates, [ts] and [dz] respectively, but they otherwise pattern like the stops, except that *z* only occurs between vowels, while *ʒ* occurs morpheme-initially (Flierl and Strauss 1977: xv). Both Pilhofer (1933: 15) and Flierl and Strauss (1977) describe the labiovelars *q* and *ɋ* as coarticulated and simultaneously released [kp] and [gb], respectively. (The letter *ɋ* is a curly *q* with hooked tail that cannot properly be rendered if it is missing from system fonts.)
Maku phonology

The Máku syllable structure is (C)(C)V(V)(C).

/k/ is voiced to [ɡ] intervocalically and can occasionally be realized as [ɡ] in other environments too.

/j/ is sometimes realized as [ʑ] word-initially before /a u/ or word-medially, as in /jukude/ [ʑokude̞] 'person'. It can occasionally be fronted to [ð] or [z].

Nasals assimilate to the place of articulation of the stop they precede.

/w/ is realized as [ʋ] before /i e/. It is realized as [ʋ] or [ɥ] before /y/ (a sequence which only occurs in the word /lymywy/ 'take'). Rogers (2020) does not state that /w/ is realized as [ʋ] before /ɨ/, but provides the example /wɨtsɨ/ [ʋɨtsɨ] 'mouth'.

/d/ is realized as laminal before [u] – in some words this is in free variation with [d].

/s, ts, n, k/ are palatalized to [ʃ, tʃ, ɲ, c] before /i, y/, while /t, d, l/ become [tʲ, dʲ, lʲ].

Although there exist minimal pairs between /o/ and /u/, some words show free variation between /u/ and /o/, and [o] is an allophone of /u/ in some environments. Rogers (2020) hypothesizes that these patterns are a result of a diachronic sound change in progress and that /o u/ do not represent separate phonemes synchronically.

Apart from the sequences [eo], [au~ao] and [ia], as well as /ai oi/ [aj oj] within a word stem, vowel-vowel sequences are resolved by deleting the first vowel of the sequence, e.g. /teana/ [tana] 'I smell (it)'. The first vowel in a stem may also be deleted in fast speech.

/a/ and /e/ are realized as [ə] when unstressed.

High and mid vowels are lowered word-finally.

Vowels are nasalized following a nasal consonant, /ʔ/ or /h/.