Buster Keaton

American actor and filmmakerTemplate:SHORTDESC:American actor and filmmaker[[Category:**Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Pagetype/config' not found.**s with short description]]

Template:Use mdy dates

* comedian
* director
* producer
* writer
* Joe Keaton
* Myra Keaton

**Joseph Frank Keaton** (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966), known professionally as **Buster Keaton**, was an American actor, comedian, film director, producer, screenwriter, and stunt performer. He is best known for his silent films, in which his trademark was physical comedy with a consistently stoic, deadpan expression that earned him the nickname "The Great Stone Face". Critic Roger Ebert wrote of Keaton's "extraordinary period from 1920 to 1929" when he "worked without interruption" on a series of films that make him "the greatest actor-director in the history of the movies". His career declined afterward with a loss of artistic independence when he signed with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, his wife divorced him, and he descended into alcoholism. He recovered in the 1940s, remarried, and revived his career as an honored comic performer for the rest of his life, earning an Honorary Academy Award in 1959.

Many of Keaton's films from the 1920s remain highly regarded, such as *Sherlock Jr.* (1924), *The General* (1926), and *The Cameraman* (1928), with *The General* widely viewed as his masterpiece. Among its strongest admirers was Orson Welles, who stated that *The General* was cinema's highest achievement in comedy, and perhaps the greatest film ever made. Keaton in 1996 was recognized as the seventh-greatest film director by *Entertainment Weekly*, and the American Film Institute ranked him in 1999 as the 21st greatest male star of classic Hollywood cinema.

## Career

### Early life in vaudeville

Keaton was born into a vaudeville family in Piqua, Kansas, the small town where his mother, Myra Keaton (née Cutler), was when she went into labor. He was named "Joseph" to continue a tradition on his father's side (he was sixth in a line bearing the name Joseph Keaton) and "Frank" for his maternal grandfather, who disapproved of his parents' union. Later, Keaton changed his middle name to "Francis". His father was Joseph Hallie "Joe" Keaton, who owned a traveling show with Harry Houdini called the Mohawk Indian Medicine Company or the Keaton Houdini Medicine Show Company, which performed on stage and sold patent medicine on the side.Template:Citation needed

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According to a frequently repeated story, which may be apocryphal, Keaton acquired the nickname "Buster" at the age of about 18 months. An actor friend named George Pardey was present one day when the young Keaton took a tumble down a long flight of stairs without injury. After the infant sat up and shook off his experience, Pardey remarked, "He's a regular buster!" After this, Keaton's father began to use the nickname to refer to the youngster. Keaton retold the anecdote over the years, including a 1964 interview with the CBC's *Telescope*. In Keaton's retelling, he was six months old when the incident occurred, and Harry Houdini gave him the nickname.

At the age of three, Keaton began performing with his parents in The Three Keatons. He first appeared on stage in 1899 in Wilmington, Delaware. The act was mainly a comedy sketch. Myra played the saxophone to one side, while Joe and Buster performed on center stage. The young Keaton would goad his father by disobeying him, and the elder Keaton would respond by throwing him against the scenery, into the orchestra pit, or even into the audience. A suitcase handle was sewn into Keaton's clothing to aid with the constant tossing. The act evolved as Keaton learned to take trick falls safely; he was rarely injured or bruised on stage. This knockabout style of comedy led to accusations of child abuse, and occasionally, arrest. However, Buster Keaton was always able to show the authorities that he had no bruises or broken bones. He was eventually billed as "The Little Boy Who Can't Be Damaged", with the overall act being advertised as "The Roughest Act That Was Ever in the History of the Stage". Decades later, Keaton said that he was never hurt by his father and that the falls and physical comedy were a matter of proper technical execution. In 1914, Keaton told the *Detroit News*: "The secret is in landing limp and breaking the fall with a foot or a hand. It's a knack. I started so young that landing right is second nature with me. Several times I'd have been killed if I hadn't been able to land like a cat. Imitators of our act don't last long, because they can't stand the treatment."

Keaton claimed he was having so much fun that he would sometimes begin laughing as his father threw him across the stage. Noticing that this drew fewer laughs from the audience, he adopted his famous deadpan expression whenever he was working.

The act ran up against laws banning child performers in vaudeville. According to one biographer, Keaton was made to go to school while performing in New York, but only attended for part of one day. Despite tangles with the law and a disastrous tour of music halls in the United Kingdom, Keaton was a rising star in the theater. Keaton stated that he learned to read and write late, and was taught by his mother. By the time he was 21, his father's alcoholism threatened the reputation of the family act, so Keaton and his mother, Myra, left for New York, where Buster Keaton's career swiftly moved from vaudeville to film.

Keaton served in the American Expeditionary Forces in France with the United States Army's 40th Infantry Division during World War I. His unit remained intact and was not broken up to provide replacements, as happened to some other late-arriving divisions. During his time in uniform, he suffered an ear infection that permanently impaired his hearing.

### Film

*Main article: Buster Keaton filmography*
#### Silent film era

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 File:Keaton Cops pt1.ogg
In February 1917, Keaton met Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle at the Talmadge Studios in New York City, where Arbuckle was under contract to Joseph M. Schenck. Joe Keaton disapproved of films, and Buster also had reservations about the medium. During his first meeting with Arbuckle, he was asked to jump in and start acting. Buster was such a natural when making his first film *The Butcher Boy* he was hired on the spot. At the end of the day's work he asked to borrow one of the cameras to get a feel for how it worked. He took the camera back to his hotel room where he dismantled and reassembled it by morning. Keaton later claimed that he was soon Arbuckle's second director and his entire gag department. He appeared in a total of 14 Arbuckle shorts, running into 1920. They were popular, and contrary to Keaton's later reputation as "The Great Stone Face", he often smiled and even laughed in them. Keaton and Arbuckle became close friends, and Keaton was one of few people, along with Charlie Chaplin, to defend Arbuckle's character during accusations that he was responsible for the death of actress Virginia Rappe. (Arbuckle was eventually acquitted, with an apology from the jury for the ordeal he had undergone. It is widely accepted that he was the victim of attempted extortion and an overzealous District Attorney with political ambitions)

In 1920, *The Saphead* was released, in which Keaton had his first starring role in a full-length feature. It was based on a successful play, *The New Henrietta*, which had already been filmed once, under the title *The Lamb*, with Douglas Fairbanks playing the lead. Fairbanks recommended Keaton to take the role for the remake five years later, since the film was to have a comic slant.

After Keaton's successful work with Arbuckle, Schenck gave him his own production unit, Buster Keaton Productions. He made a series of two-reel comedies, including *One Week* (1920), *The Playhouse* (1921), *Cops* (1922), and *The Electric House* (1922). Keaton then moved to full-length features.

 File:Keaton-Writers-1923.jpg
Keaton's writers included Clyde Bruckman, Joseph Mitchell, and Jean Havez, but the most ingenious gags were generally conceived by Keaton himself. Comedy director Leo McCarey, recalling the freewheeling days of making slapstick comedies, said, "All of us tried to steal each other's gagmen. But we had no luck with Keaton, because he thought up his best gags himself and we couldn't steal *him!*" The more adventurous ideas called for dangerous stunts, performed by Keaton at great physical risk. During the railroad water-tank scene in *Sherlock Jr.*, Keaton broke his neck when a torrent of water fell on him from a water tower, but he did not realize it until years afterward. A scene from *Steamboat Bill, Jr.* required Keaton to stand still on a particular spot. Then, the facade of a two-story building toppled forward on top of Keaton. Keaton's character emerged unscathed, due to a single open window. The stunt required precision, because the prop house weighed two tons, and the window only offered a few inches of clearance around Keaton's body. The sequence furnished one of the most memorable images of his career.

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Aside from *Steamboat Bill, Jr.* (1928), Keaton's most enduring feature-length films include *Our Hospitality* (1923), *The Navigator* (1924), *Sherlock Jr.* (1924), *Seven Chances* (1925), *The Cameraman* (1928), and *The General* (1926). *The General*, set during the American Civil War, combined physical comedy with Keaton's love of trains, including an epic locomotive chase. Employing picturesque locations, the film's storyline reenacted an actual wartime incident. Though it would come to be regarded as Keaton's greatest achievement, the film received mixed reviews at the time. It was too dramatic for some filmgoers expecting a lightweight comedy, and reviewers questioned Keaton's judgment in making a comedic film about the Civil War, even while noting it had a "few laughs."

It was an expensive misfire, and Keaton was never entrusted with total control over his films again. His distributor, United Artists, insisted on a production manager who monitored expenses and interfered with certain story elements. Keaton endured this treatment for two more feature films, and then exchanged his independent setup for employment at Hollywood's biggest studio, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). Keaton's loss of independence as a filmmaker coincided with the coming of sound films (although he was interested in making the transition) and mounting personal problems, and his career in the early sound era was hurt as a result.

#### Sound era

Template:More citations needed

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Keaton signed with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1928, a business decision that he would later call the worst of his life. He realized too late that the studio system MGM represented would severely limit his creative input. For instance, the studio refused his request to make his early project, *Spite Marriage*, as a sound film and after the studio converted, he was obliged to adhere to dialogue-laden scripts. However, MGM did allow Keaton some creative participation on his last originally developed/written silent film *The Cameraman*, 1928, which was his first project under contract with them, but hired Edward Sedgwick as the official director.

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Keaton was forced to use a stunt double during some of the more dangerous scenes, something he had never done in his heyday, as MGM wanted badly to protect its investment. "Stuntmen don't get laughs," Keaton had said. Some of his most financially successful films for the studio were during this period. MGM tried teaming the laconic Keaton with the rambunctious Jimmy Durante in a series of films, *The Passionate Plumber*, *Speak Easily*, and *What! No Beer?* The latter would be Keaton's last starring feature in his home country. The films proved popular. (Thirty years later, both Keaton and Durante had cameo roles in *It's a Mad Mad Mad Mad World*, albeit not in the same scenes.)

In the first Keaton pictures with sound, he and his fellow actors would shoot each scene three times: one in English, one in Spanish, and one in either French or German. The actors would phonetically memorize the foreign-language scripts a few lines at a time and shoot immediately after. This is discussed in the TCM documentary *Buster Keaton: So Funny it Hurt*, with Keaton complaining about having to shoot lousy films not just once, but three times.

Keaton was so demoralized during the production of 1933's *What! No Beer?* that MGM fired him after the filming was complete, despite the film being a resounding hit. In 1934, Keaton accepted an offer to make an independent film in Paris, *Le Roi des Champs-Élysées*. During this period, he made another film, in England, *The Invader* (released in the United States as *An Old Spanish Custom* in 1936).

#### Educational Pictures

Upon Keaton's return to Hollywood in 1934, he made a screen comeback in two-reel comedies for Educational Pictures. Most of these 16 films are simple visual comedies, with many of the gags supplied by Keaton himself, often recycling ideas from his family vaudeville act and his earlier films. The high point in the Educational series is *Grand Slam Opera* (1936), featuring Buster in his own screenplay as an amateur-hour contestant.

#### Gag writer

When the Educational series lapsed in 1937, Keaton returned to MGM as a gag writer, supplying material for the final three Marx Brothers MGM films *At the Circus* (1939) and *Go West* (1940), and *The Big Store* (1941); these were not as artistically successful as the Marxes' previous MGM features, but Keaton's sight-gag contributions were helpful.

#### Columbia Pictures

In 1939, Columbia Pictures hired Keaton to star in 10 two-reel comedies; the series ran for two years, and comprise his last series as a starring comedian. The director was usually Jules White, whose emphasis on slapstick and farce made most of these films resemble White's famous Three Stooges shorts. Keaton's personal favorite was the series's debut, *Pest from the West*, a shorter, tighter remake of Keaton's little-viewed 1934 feature *The Invader*; it was directed not by White but by Del Lord, a veteran director for Mack Sennett. Moviegoers and exhibitors welcomed Keaton's Columbia comedies, proving that the comedian had not lost his appeal. However, director White's insistence on blunt, violent gags resulted in the Columbia shorts being the least inventive comedies he made. The final entry was *She's Oil Mine* (1941), a two-reel reworking of Keaton's 1932 feature *The Passionate Plumber*. Columbia and White wanted to sign Keaton for more shorts but the comedian declined, resolving that he would never again "make another crummy two-reeler."

#### 1940s and feature films

Keaton's personal life had stabilized with his 1940 marriage to MGM dancer Eleanor Norris, and now he was taking life a little easier, abandoning Columbia for the less strenuous field of feature films. Resuming his daily job as an MGM gag writer, he provided material for Red Skelton and gave help and advice to Lucille Ball.

Keaton accepted various character roles in both "A" and "B" features. He made his last starring feature *El Moderno Barba Azul* (1946) in Mexico; the film was a low-budget production, and it may not have been seen in the United States until its release on VHS in the 1980s, under the title *Boom in the Moon*.

Critics rediscovered Keaton in 1949 and producers occasionally hired him for bigger "prestige" pictures. He had cameos in such films as *In the Good Old Summertime* (1949), *Sunset Boulevard* (1950), and *Around the World in 80 Days* (1956). In *In the Good Old Summertime*, Keaton personally directed the stars Judy Garland and Van Johnson in their first scene together, where they bump into each other on the street. Keaton invented comedy bits where Johnson keeps trying to apologize to a seething Garland, but winds up messing up her hairdo and tearing her dress.

Keaton also appeared in a comedy routine about two inept stage musicians in Charlie Chaplin's *Limelight* (released in 1952), recalling the vaudeville of *The Playhouse*. With the exception of *Seeing Stars*, a minor publicity film produced in 1922, *Limelight* was the only time in which the two would ever appear together on film.

### Television and rediscovery

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In 1949, comedian Ed Wynn invited Keaton to appear on his CBS Television comedy-variety show, *The Ed Wynn Show*, which was televised live on the West Coast. Kinescopes were made for distribution of the programs to other parts of the country, since there was no transcontinental coaxial cable until September 1951. Reaction was strong enough for a local Los Angeles station to offer Keaton his own show, also broadcast live, in 1950.

*Life with Buster Keaton* (1951) was an attempt to recreate the first series on film, allowing the program to be broadcast nationwide. The series benefited from a company of veteran actors, including Marcia Mae Jones as the ingenue, Iris Adrian, Dick Wessel, Fuzzy Knight, Dub Taylor, Philip Van Zandt, and his silent-era contemporaries Harold Goodwin, Hank Mann, and stuntman Harvey Parry. Buster Keaton's wife Eleanor also was seen in the series (notably as Juliet to Buster's Romeo in a little-theater vignette). The theatrical feature film *The Misadventures of Buster Keaton* was fashioned from the series. Keaton said that he canceled the filmed series himself, because he was unable to create enough fresh material to produce a new show each week.

Keaton's periodic television appearances helped to revive interest in his silent films during the 1950s and 1960s. He appeared in the early television series *Faye Emerson's Wonderful Town*. Whenever a TV show wanted to simulate silent-movie comedy, Buster Keaton answered the call and guested in such successful series as *The Ken Murray Show*, *You Asked for It*, and *The Garry Moore Show*, and *The Ed Sullivan Show*. Well into his fifties, Keaton successfully recreated his old routines, including one stunt in which he propped one foot onto a table, then swung the second foot up next to it and held the awkward position in midair for a moment before crashing to the stage floor. Garry Moore recalled, "I asked (Keaton) how he did all those falls, and he said, 'I'll show you.' He opened his jacket and he was all bruised. So that's how he did it—it *hurt*—but you had to care enough not to care."

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### Silent films revived

In 1954, Buster and Eleanor Keaton met film programmer Raymond Rohauer, with whom they developed a business partnership to re-release his films. Actor James Mason had bought the Keatons' house and found numerous cans of films, among which was Keaton's long-lost classic *The Boat*. Keaton had prints of the features *Three Ages*, *Sherlock Jr.*, *Steamboat Bill, Jr.*, and *College* (missing one reel), and the shorts "The Boat" and "My Wife's Relations", which Keaton and Rohauer then transferred to Cellulose acetate film from deteriorating nitrate film stock.

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On April 3, 1957, Keaton was surprised by Ralph Edwards for the weekly NBC program *This Is Your Life*. The program also promoted the release of the biographical film *The Buster Keaton Story* with Donald O'Connor. In December 1958, Keaton was a guest star in the episode "A Very Merry Christmas" of *The Donna Reed Show* on ABC. He returned to the program in 1965 in the episode "Now You See It, Now You Don't". In August 1960, Keaton played mute King Sextimus the Silent in the national touring company of the Broadway musical *Once Upon A Mattress*. In 1960, he returned to MGM for the final time, playing a lion tamer in a 1960 adaptation of Mark Twain's *The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn*. Much of the film was shot on location on the Sacramento River, which doubled for the Mississippi River setting of Twain's book. In 1961, he starred in *The Twilight Zone* episode "Once Upon a Time", which included both silent and sound sequences. He worked with comedian Ernie Kovacs on a television pilot tentatively titled "Medicine Man," shooting scenes for it on January 12, 1962—the day before Kovacs died in a car crash. "Medicine Man" was completed but not aired.

Keaton also found steady work as an actor in TV commercials, including a series of silent ads for Simon Pure Beer made in 1962 by Jim Mohr in Buffalo, New York, in which he revisited some of the gags from his silent film days.

Meanwhile, Keaton's big-screen career continued. He had a cameo as Jimmy, appearing near the end of the film *It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World* (1963). Jimmy assists Spencer Tracy's character, Captain C. G. Culpepper, by readying Culpepper's ultimately-unused boat for his abortive escape. (The restored version of that film, released in 2013, contains a scene where Jimmy and Culpeper talk on the telephone. Lost after the comedy epic's "roadshow" exhibition, the audio of that scene was discovered, and combined with still pictures to recreate the scene.)

Keaton starred in four films for American International Pictures: 1964's *Pajama Party* and 1965's *Beach Blanket Bingo*, *How to Stuff a Wild Bikini*, and *Sergeant Deadhead*. Director William Asher recalled:

> I always loved Buster Keaton.… He would bring me bits and routines. He'd say, "How about this?" and it would just be this wonderful, inventive stuff.
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In 1965, Keaton starred in the short film *The Railrodder* for the National Film Board of Canada. He traveled from one end of Canada to the other on a motorized handcar, wearing his traditional pork pie hat and performing gags similar to those in films that he made 50 years before. The film is also notable for being his last silent screen performance. He played the central role in Samuel Beckett's *Film* (1965), directed by Alan Schneider. Also in 1965, he traveled to Italy to play a role in *Due Marines e un Generale*, co-starring Franco Franchi and Ciccio Ingrassia.

In 1965 he appeared on the CBS television special *A Salute to Stan Laurel*, a tribute to the comedian and friend of Keaton who had died earlier that year.

Buster Keaton's last commercial film appearance was in *A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum* (1966), which was filmed in Spain in September–November 1965. He amazed the cast and crew by doing many of his own stunts, although Thames Television said that his increasingly ill health did force the use of a stunt double for some scenes. His final appearance on film was a 1965 safety film produced in Toronto by the Construction Safety Associations of Ontario, and he died shortly after completing it.

## Style and themes

### Use of parody

 File:Buster Keaton and a Spanish journalist.png
Keaton started experimenting with parody during his vaudeville years, where most frequently his performances involved impressions and burlesques of other performers' acts. Most of these parodies targeted acts with which Keaton had shared the bill. When Keaton transposed his experience in vaudeville to film, in many works he parodied melodramas. Other favorite targets were cinematic plots, structures and devices.

One of his most biting parodies is *The Frozen North* (1922), a satirical take on William S. Hart's Western melodramas, like *Hell's Hinges* (1916) and *The Narrow Trail* (1917). Keaton parodied the tired formula of the melodramatic transformation from bad guy to good guy, through which went Hart's character, known as "the good badman". He wears a small version of Hart's campaign hat from the Spanish–American War and a six-shooter on each thigh, and during the scene in which he shoots the neighbor and her husband, he reacts with thick glycerin tears, a trademark of Hart's. Audiences of the 1920s recognized the parody and thought the film hysterically funny. However, Hart himself was not amused by Keaton's antics, particularly the crying scene, and did not speak to Buster for two years after he had seen the film. The film's opening intertitles give it its mock-serious tone, and are taken from "The Shooting of Dan McGrew" by Robert W. Service.

In *The Playhouse* (1921), he parodied his contemporary Thomas H. Ince, Hart's producer, who indulged in over-crediting himself in his film productions. The short also featured the impression of a performing monkey which was likely derived from a co-biller's act (called *Peter the Great*). *Three Ages* (1923), his first feature-length film, is a parody of D. W. Griffith's *Intolerance* (1916), from which it replicates the three inter-cut shorts structure. *Three Ages* also featured parodies of Bible stories, like those of Samson and Daniel. Keaton directed the film, along with Edward F. Cline.

### Body language

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Film critic David Thomson later described Keaton's style of comedy: "Buster plainly is a man inclined towards a belief in nothing but mathematics and absurdity ... like a number that has always been searching for the right equation. Look at his face—as beautiful but as inhuman as a butterfly—and you see that utter failure to identify sentiment." Gilberto Perez commented on "Keaton's genius as an actor to keep a face so nearly deadpan and yet render it, by subtle inflections, so vividly expressive of inner life. His large, deep eyes are the most eloquent feature; with merely a stare, he can convey a wide range of emotions, from longing to mistrust, from puzzlement to sorrow." Critic Anthony Lane also noted Keaton's body language:

> The traditional Buster stance requires that he remain upstanding, full of backbone, looking ahead... [in *The General*] he clambers onto the roof of his locomotive and leans gently forward to scan the terrain, with the breeze in his hair and adventure zipping toward him around the next bend. It is the *angle* that you remember: the figure perfectly straight but tilted forward, like the Spirit of Ecstasy on the hood of a Rolls-Royce... [in *The Three Ages*], he drives a low-grade automobile over a bump in the road, and the car just *crumbles* beneath him. Rerun it on video, and you can see Buster riding the collapse like a surfer, hanging onto the steering wheel, coming beautifully to rest as the wave of wreckage breaks.
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Film historian Jeffrey Vance wrote:

> Buster Keaton's comedy endures not just because he had a face that belongs on Mount Rushmore, at once hauntingly immovable and classically American, but because that face was attached to one of the most gifted actors and directors who ever graced the screen. Evolved from the knockabout upbringing of the vaudeville stage, Keaton's comedy is a whirlwind of hilarious, technically precise, adroitly executed, and surprising gags, very often set against a backdrop of visually stunning set pieces and locations—all this masked behind his unflinching, stoic veneer.
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Keaton has inspired full academic study.

## Personal life

 File:Buster Keaton with Family 1922.jpg
On May 31, 1921, Keaton married Natalie Talmadge, sister of actresses Norma Talmadge and Constance Talmadge. She co-starred with him in *Our Hospitality*. The couple had sons Joseph, called James (June 2, 1922 – February 14, 2007), and Robert (February 3, 1924 – July 19, 2009), both of whom later took the surname Talmadge.

After the birth of Robert, the relationship began to suffer. Talmadge decided not to have more children, and this led to the couple staying in separate bedrooms. Her financial extravagance was another factor in the breakdown of the marriage, as she would spend up to a third of his salary on clothes. Keaton dated actress Dorothy Sebastian beginning in the 1920s and Kathleen Key in the early 1930s. After attempts at reconciliation, Talmadge divorced him in 1932, taking his entire fortuneTemplate:Cn and refusing to allow any contact between him and his sons.Template:Cn Keaton was reunited with them about a decade later when his older son turned 18.Template:Cn

With the failure of his marriage and the loss of his independence as a film-maker, Keaton lapsed into a period of alcoholism. In 1926, he spent $300,000 to build a 10,000-square-foot (930 m2) home in Beverly Hills designed by architect Gene Verge Sr., which was later owned by James Mason and Cary Grant.

Keaton was briefly institutionalized, according to the Turner Classic Movies documentary *So Funny it Hurt*. He escaped a straitjacket with tricks learned from Harry Houdini. In 1933, he married his nurse Mae Scriven during an alcoholic binge about which he afterwards claimed to remember nothing. Scriven claimed that she didn't know Keaton's real first name until after the marriage. She filed for divorce in 1935 after finding Keaton with Leah Clampitt Sewell, the libertine wife of millionaire Barton Sewell, in a hotel in Santa Barbara. They divorced in 1936 at great financial cost to Keaton.

Keaton was given large amounts of alcohol and aversion therapy. He stopped drinking for five years.Template:Citation needed

On May 29, 1940, Keaton married Eleanor Norris (July 29, 1918 – October 19, 1998), who was 23 years his junior. She has been credited with saving his life by stopping his heavy drinking and helping to salvage his career. The marriage lasted until his death. Between 1947 and 1954, they appeared regularly in the Cirque Medrano in Paris as a double act. She came to know his routines so well that she often participated in them on TV revivals.

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## Death

Keaton died of lung cancer on February 1, 1966, aged 70, in Woodland Hills, California. Despite being diagnosed with cancer in January 1966, he was never told he was terminally ill. Keaton thought that he was recovering from a severe case of bronchitis. Confined to a hospital during his final days, Keaton was restless and paced the room endlessly, desiring to return home. In a British television documentary about his career, his widow Eleanor told producers from Thames Television that Keaton was up out of bed and moving around, and even played cards with friends who came to visit the day before he died. He was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Hollywood Hills, California.

## Influence and legacy

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Keaton was presented with a 1959 Academy Honorary Award at the 32nd Academy Awards, held in April 1960. Keaton has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: 6619 Hollywood Boulevard (for motion pictures); and 6225 Hollywood Boulevard (for television).

A 1957 film biography, *The Buster Keaton Story*, starring Donald O'Connor as Keaton was released. The screenplay, by Sidney Sheldon, who also directed the film, was loosely based on Keaton's life but contained many factual errors and merged his three wives into one character. A 1987 documentary, *Buster Keaton: A Hard Act to Follow*, directed by Kevin Brownlow and David Gill, won two Emmy Awards.

The International Buster Keaton Society was founded on October 4, 1992: Keaton's birthday. Dedicated to bringing greater public attention to Keaton's life and work, the membership includes many individuals from the television and film industry: actors, producers, authors, artists, graphic novelists, musicians, and designers, as well as those who simply admire the magic of Buster Keaton. The Society's nickname, the "Damfinos," draws its name from a boat in Keaton's 1921 comedy, *The Boat*.

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In 1994, caricaturist Al Hirschfeld penned a series of silent film stars for the United States Post Office, including Rudolph Valentino and Keaton. Hirschfeld said that modern film stars were more difficult to depict, that silent film comedians such as Laurel and Hardy and Keaton "looked like their caricatures".

In his essay *Film-arte, film-antiartístico*, artist Salvador Dalí declared the works of Keaton to be prime examples of "anti-artistic" filmmaking, calling them "pure poetry". In 1925, Dalí produced a collage titled *The Marriage of Buster Keaton* featuring an image of the comedian in a seated pose, staring straight ahead with his trademark boater hat resting in his lap.

Film critic Roger Ebert stated, "The greatest of the silent clowns is Buster Keaton, not only because of what he did, but because of how he did it. Harold Lloyd made us laugh as much, Charlie Chaplin moved us more deeply, but no one had more courage than Buster."

In his presentation for *The General*, filmmaker Orson Welles hailed Buster Keaton as "the greatest of all the clowns in the history of the cinema... a supreme artist, and I think one of the most beautiful people who was ever photographed".

Filmmaker Mel Brooks has credited Buster Keaton as a major influence, saying: "I owe (Buster) a lot on two levels: One for being such a great teacher for me as a filmmaker myself, and the other just as a human being watching this gifted person doing these amazing things. He made me believe in make-believe." He also admitted to borrowing the idea of the changing room scene in *The Cameraman* for his own film *Silent Movie*.

Actor and stunt performer Johnny Knoxville cites Keaton as an inspiration when coming up with ideas for *Jackass* projects. He re-enacted a famous Keaton stunt for the finale of *Jackass Number Two*.

Comedian Richard Lewis stated that Keaton was his prime inspiration, and spoke of having a close friendship with Keaton's widow Eleanor. Lewis was particularly moved by the fact that Eleanor said his eyes looked like Keaton's.

In 2012, Kino Lorber released *The Ultimate Buster Keaton Collection*, a 14-disc Blu-ray box set of Keaton's work, including 11 of his feature films.

On June 16, 2018, the International Buster Keaton Society laid a four-foot plaque in honor of both Keaton and Charles Chaplin on the corner of the shared block (1021 Lillian Ave) where each had made many of their silent comedies in Hollywood. In the honor of the event, the City of Los Angeles declared the date "Buster Keaton Day."

In 2018 filmmaker Peter Bogdanovich released *The Great Buster*, a documentary about Keaton's life, career, and legacy.

### Pork pie hats

Keaton designed and modified his own pork pie hats during his career. In 1964, he told an interviewer that in making "this particular pork pie", he "started with a good Stetson and cut it down", stiffening the brim with sugar water. The hats were often destroyed during Keaton's wild film antics; some were given away as gifts and some were snatched by souvenir hunters. Keaton said he was lucky if he used only six hats in making a film. Keaton estimated that he and his wife Eleanor made thousands of the hats during his career. Keaton observed that during his silent period, such a hat cost him around two dollars (~$25-30 in 2018 dollars); at the time of his interview, he said, they cost almost $13 (~$105 in 2018 dollars).

## See also

* Charlie Chaplin
* Harold Lloyd

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Template:Cite book
2. ↑ Obituary *Variety*, February 2, 1966, page 63.
3. ↑ Barber, Nicholas (8 January 2014). "Deadpan but alive to the future: Buster Keaton the revolutionary", *The Independent*. Retrieved on 3 November 2015.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Ebert, Roger (November 10, 2002). "The Films of Buster Keaton". Archived from the original on November 3, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151103163906/http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-the-films-of-buster-keaton. Retrieved January 28, 2016.
5. ↑ "Buster Keaton's Acclaimed Films". They Shoot Pictures, Don't They. http://www.theyshootpictures.com/keatonbuster.php. Retrieved September 29, 2016.
6. ↑ "*Sight & Sound* Critics' Poll (2002): Top Films of All Time". Sight & Sound via Mubi.com. Archived from the original on January 29, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160129151429/https://mubi.com/lists/sight-and-sound-critics-poll-2002-top-films-of-all-time. Retrieved January 29, 2016.
7. ↑ "Votes for The General (1924)". British Film Institute. http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6aae85f3/sightandsoundpoll2012. Retrieved September 29, 2016.
8. ↑ Andrew, Geoff (January 23, 2014). "The General: the greatest comedy of all time?", *Sight & Sound*. Retrieved on January 28, 2016. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015.
9. ↑ Orson Welles interview, from the Kino Nov 10, 2009 Blu-Ray edition of The General
10. ↑ "The 50 Greatest Directors and Their 100 Best Movies", *Entertainment Weekly* (April 19, 1996), p. 2. Retrieved on January 28, 2016. Archived from the original on June 26, 2015.
11. ↑ Template:Cite press release
12. ↑ Stokes, Keith, ed. "Buster Keaton Museum". KansasTravel.org. Archived from the original on January 16, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160116052738/http://www.kansastravel.org/busterkeatonmuseum.htm. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
13. ↑ "County Correspondence", *The Butler County Democrat, El Dorado, Kansas* (March 19, 1896), p. 8.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 McGee, Scott. "Buster Keaton: Sundays in October". Turner Classic Movies. http://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/161352%7C0/Buster-Keaton-Profile.html. Retrieved October 19, 2017.  Note: Source misspells Keaton's frequent appellation as "Great Stoneface".
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Meade, Marion (2014). *Buster Keaton: Cut to the Chase: A Biography*. Open Road Media. p. 19. Template:ISBN.
16. ↑ *Telescope: Deadpan: An Interview with Buster Keaton*, 1964 interview of Buster and Eleanor Keaton by Fletcher Markle for the CBC.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 "Part I: A Vaudeville Childhood". International Buster Keaton Society. Archived from the original on January 8, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150108225544/http://www.busterkeaton.com/bio1.htm. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
18. ↑ "Buster Keaton". Archive.sensesofcinema.com. February 1, 1966. Archived from the original on February 2, 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100202061846/http://archive.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/keaton.html. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
19. ↑ Biography: Part 1. www.busterkeaton.org. Retrieved August 26, 2019.
20. ↑ "Part II:The Flickers". International Buster Keaton Society. October 13, 1924. Archived from the original on March 3, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150303033019/http://www.busterkeaton.com/partii.htm. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
21. ↑ Martha R. Jett. "My Career at the Rear / Buster Keaton in World War I". worldwar1.com. http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/buster.htm.
22. ↑ Master Sergeant Jim Ober. "Buster Keaton: Comedian, Soldier". California State Military Museum. http://www.militarymuseum.org/Keaton.html.
23. ↑ Prikryl, Jana (July 9, 2011), "The Genius of Buster", *The New York Review of Books*, **58** (10): 30–33.
24. ↑ Yallop, David (1976). The Day the Laughter Stopped. New York: St. Martin's Press. Template:ISBN.
25. ↑ Maltin, Leonard, The Great Movie Comedians, Bell Publishing, 1978
26. ↑ "Reviews : The General/Steamboat Bill Jr". The DVD Journal. http://www.dvdjournal.com/reviews/b/busterkeatondf.shtml. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
27. ↑ "Moving Pictures: Buster Keaton’s ‘General’ Pulls In To PFA. Category: Arts & Entertainment from The Berkeley Daily Planet – Friday November 10, 2006". Berkeleydaily.org. http://www.berkeleydailyplanet.com/issue/2006-11-10/article/25592?headline=Moving-Pictures-Buster-Keaton-s-General-Pulls-In-To-PFA. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
28. ↑ "Buster-Keaton.com". Buster-Keaton.com. http://www.buster-keaton.com/. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Everson, William K. *American Silent Film*. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. p. 274-5.
30. ↑ Template:Cite book
31. ↑ Template:Cite book
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Knopf, Robert *The Theater and Cinema of Buster Keaton* By p.34
33. ↑ Kathleen Brady (May 31, 2014). "Lucille The Life of Lucille Ball – Kathleen Brady". *kathleenbrady.net*. http://kathleenbrady.net/lucille\_the\_life\_of\_lucille\_ball\_18269.htm.
34. ↑ "The House Next Door: 5 for the Day: James Mason". www.slantmagazine.com. August 24, 2009. http://www.slantmagazine.com/house/2009/24/5-for-the-day-james-mason. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
35. ↑ Lovece, Frank (June 1987). "Where's Buster? Despite Renewed Interest, Only a Handful of Buster Keaton's Classic Comedies Are on Tape", *Video*. Retrieved on August 31, 2013. Archived from the original on October 7, 2013.
36. ↑ "Series Details". Cinema.ucla.edu. http://www.cinema.ucla.edu/calendar/calendardetails.aspx?details\_type=2&id=373. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
37. ↑ ""The Donna Reed Show" A Very Merry Christmas (1958)". Us.imdb.com. https://us.imdb.com/title/tt0564206/. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
38. ↑ Template:Cite book
39. ↑ Crowther, Bosley (August 4, 1960). "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1960)".
40. ↑ Spiro, J. D. (February 8, 1962). "Ernie Kovacs' Last Interview", *The Milwaukee Journal*. Retrieved on October 16, 2010.
41. ↑ "Buster Keaton For Simon Pure Beer – Brookston Beer Bulletin" (in en-US) (2015-10-04).
42. ↑ Lovece, Frank (February 1987). "Beach Blanket Buster", *Video*. Retrieved on August 31, 2013. Archived from the original on October 13, 2013.
43. ↑ "Buster Keaton Rides Again: Return of 'The Great Stone Face'". *DangerousMinds*. http://dangerousminds.net/comments/buster\_keaton\_rides\_again\_return\_of\_the\_great\_stone\_face.
44. ↑ Buster Keaton: A Hard Act to Follow, Chap. 3, Thames Television, 1987
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 Knopf, Robert *The Theater and Cinema of Buster Keaton* By p.27
46. ↑ Mast, Gerald (1979) *The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies*p.135
47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Balducci, Anthony (2011) *The Funny Parts: A History of Film Comedy Routines and Gags* p.231
48. ↑ "Laurel & Hardy". *google.com*. https://books.google.com/books?id=VcVohkED9e4C&pg=PA23.
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Keaton, Eleanor, and Vance, Jeffrey. Buster Keaton Remembered, H.N. Abrams, 2001, pp. 95
50. ↑ Thomson, David, *Have you Seen...?*, Alfred A. Knopf Publishing, 2008, p. 767.
51. ↑ Perez Gilberto 'The Material Ghost—On Keaton and Chaplin' 1998
52. ↑ Lane, Anthony, *Nobody's Perfect*, Knopf Publishing, 2002, pgs. 560–561
53. ↑ Vance, Jeffrey. "Introduction." Keaton, Eleanor and Jeffrey Vance. Buster Keaton Remembered. Harry N. Abrams, 2001, pg. 33. Template:ISBN
54. ↑ Trahair, Lisa (October 27, 2004). "The Narrative-Machine: Buster Keaton’s Cinematic Comedy, Deleuze’s Recursion Function and the Operational Aesthetic". http://sensesofcinema.com/2004/comedy-and-perception/keaton\_deleuze/. Retrieved October 3, 2019.
55. ↑ Smith, Imogen Sara (2008). *Buster Keaton: The Persistence of Comedy*. Gambit Publishing. p. 140. Template:ISBN. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
56. ↑ James Talmadge at the United States Social Security Death Index via FamilySearch.org. Retrieved on December 7, 2015. "Attached to: Joseph Talmadge Keaton 1922–2007"
57. ↑ Robert Talmadge at the United States Social Security Death Index via FamilySearch.org. Retrieved on December 7, 2015.
58. ↑ Cox, Melissa Talmadge, in Bible, Karie (May 6, 2004). "Interviews: Melissa Talmadge Cox (Buster Keaton's Granddaughter)". Archived from the original on December 8, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151208203150/http://www.filmradar.com/interviews/item/melissa\_talmadge\_cox\_buster\_keatons\_granddaughter/. Retrieved December 7, 2015. "My Dad was christened Joseph Talmadge Keaton. When my grandparents (Buster Keaton and Natalie Talmadge) divorced, my grandmother took her maiden name back and his name his legally became Talmadge."
59. ↑ Template:Cite book
60. ↑ "The City of Beverly Hills: Historic Resources Inventory (1985–1986)". http://www.beverlyhills.org/cbhfiles/storage/files/6333100111590038901/HistoricResourcesInventory%281985-1986%29.pdf. Retrieved October 3, 2019.
61. ↑ "Buster Keaton's Second Wife Sues Him for Divorce" (July 18, 1935). Retrieved on 7 May 2012.
62. ↑ "Keaton Divorce Made Final", *The New York Times* (October 28, 1936), p. 31. Retrieved on 29 September 2019.
63. ↑ Template:Cite book
64. ↑ Vance, Jeffrey. "Introduction." Keaton, Eleanor and Jeffrey Vance. Buster Keaton Remembered. Harry N. Abrams, 2001, pg. 29. Template:ISBN
65. ↑ "Buster Keaton, 70, Dies on Coast. Poker-Faced Comedian of Films.", *The New York Times* (February 2, 1966). Retrieved on July 4, 2008. "Buster Keaton, the poker-faced comic whose studies in exquisite frustration amused two generations of film audiences, died of lung cancer today at his home in suburban Woodland Hills."
66. ↑ Turner Classic Movies.
67. ↑ "Buster Keaton". Turner Classic Movies. http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/99741%7C25179/Buster-Keaton/biography.html. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
68. ↑ Erickson, Hal. "The Buster Keaton Story". All Movie Guide / Rovi via The New York Times. https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/86310/The-Buster-Keaton-Story/overview. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
69. ↑ "Buster Keaton: A Hard Act to Follow (American Masters)". Emmys.com. http://www.emmys.com/awards/nominations/award-search?search\_api\_views\_fulltext=Buster+Keaton+a+Hard+Act+to+follow&submit=Search&search\_api\_views\_fulltext\_1=&search\_api\_views\_fulltext\_3=&search\_api\_views\_fulltext\_2=&search\_api\_views\_fulltext\_4=&field\_nominations\_year=1949-01-01+00%3A00%3A00&field\_nominations\_year\_1=2014-01-01+00%3A00%3A00&field\_nomination\_category=All. Retrieved June 22, 2014.
70. ↑ Associated Press, Polly Anderson, January 20, 2003. "Famed Caricaturist Al Hirschfeld Dies".
71. ↑ Leopold, David. *Hirschfeld's Hollywood*, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, p. 20.
72. ↑ Elder, R. Bruce (2015). *Dada, Surrealism, and the Cinematic Effect*. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 623. Template:ISBN.
73. ↑ Ebert, Roger, and Mary Corliss (2005). *The Great Movies II*. New York: Broadway Books. p. 93. Template:ISBN.
74. ↑ "Mel Brooks on Buster Keaton--The Lybarger Links Interview". http://www.tipjar.com/dan/melbrooks.htm.
75. ↑ Ressner, Jeffrey (September 29, 2006). "The Strange Behavior of Johnny Knoxville". *Time*. http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1541047,00.html.
76. ↑ TCM voice-over, October 2011, "Buster Keaton Month".
77. ↑ Template:Cite journal
78. ↑ Bell, Nathaniel (June 12, 2018). "Keaton Weekend in L.A. Celebrates the Great Silent Comedian". https://www.laweekly.com/arts/keaton-weekend-in-la-celebrates-the-great-silent-comedian-9517544.
79. ↑ "City of Los Angeles to declare June 16, 2018 "Buster Keaton Day"". May 22, 2018. https://hollywoodworldmagazine.com/2018/05/22/city-of-los-angeles-to-declare-june-16-2018-buster-keaton-day/.
80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 "*How To Make A Porkpie Hat*. Buster Keaton, interviewed in 1964 at the Movieland Wax Museum by Henry Gris". Busterkeaton.com. http://www.busterkeaton.com/howto.htm. Retrieved February 17, 2010.

## Further reading

* Agee, James, "Comedy's Greatest Era" from *Life* (September 5, 1949), reprinted in *Agee on Film* (1958) McDowell, Obolensky, (2000) Modern Library
* Keaton, Buster (with Charles Samuels), *My Wonderful World of Slapstick* (1960) Doubleday
* Blesh, Rudi, *Keaton* (1966) The Macmillan Company Template:ISBN
* Lahue, Kalton C., *World of Laughter: The Motion Picture Comedy Short, 1910–1930* (1966) University of Oklahoma Press
* Template:Interlanguage link multi, *Buster Keaton* (1967) A.S. Barnes
* Brownlow, Kevin, "Buster Keaton" from *The Parade's Gone By* (1968) Alfred A. Knopf, (1976) University of California Press
* McCaffrey, Donald W., *4 Great Comedians: Chaplin, Lloyd, Keaton, Langdon* (1968) A.S. Barnes
* Robinson, David, *Buster Keaton* (1969) Indiana University Press, in association with British Film Institute
* Robinson, David, *The Great Funnies: A History of Film Comedy* (1969) E.P. Dutton
* Durgnat, Raymond, "Self-Help with a Smile" from *The Crazy Mirror: Hollywood Comedy and the American Image* (1970) Dell
* Maltin, Leonard, *Selected Short Subjects* (first published as *The Great Movie Shorts*, 1972) Crown Books, (revised 1983) Da Capo Press
* Gilliatt, Penelope, "Buster Keaton" from *Unholy Fools: Wits, Comics, Disturbers of the Peace* (1973) Viking
* Mast, Gerald, *The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies* (1973, 2nd ed. 1979) University of Chicago Press
* Kerr, Walter, *The Silent Clowns* (1975) Alfred A. Knopf, (1990) Da Capo Press Template:ISBN
* Anobile, Richard J. (ed.), *The Best of Buster: Classic Comedy Scenes Direct from the Films of Buster Keaton* (1976) Crown Books
* Yallop, David, *The Day the Laughter Stopped: The True Story of Fatty Arbuckle* (1976) St. Martin's Press
* Byron, Stuart and Weis, Elizabeth (eds.), *The National Society of Film Critics on Movie Comedy* (1977) Grossman/Viking
* Moews, Daniel, *Keaton: The Silent Features Close Up* (1977) University of California Press
* Everson, William K., *American Silent Film* (1978) Oxford University Press
* Maltin, Leonard, *The Great Movie Comedians* (1978) Crown Books
* Dardis, Tom, *Keaton: The Man Who Wouldn't Lie Down* (1979) Scribners, (2004) Limelight Editions
* Benayoun, Robert, *The Look of Buster Keaton* (1983) St. Martin's Press
* Staveacre, Tony, *Slapstick!: The Illustrated Story* (1987) Angus & Robertson Publishers
* Edmonds, Andy, *Frame-Up!: The Shocking Scandal That Destroyed Hollywood's Biggest Comedy Star Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle* (1992) Avon Books
* Kline, Jim, *The Complete Films of Buster Keaton* (1993) Carol Pub. Group
* Meade, Marion, *Buster Keaton: Cut to the Chase* (1995) HarperCollins
* Rapf, Joanna E. and Green, Gary L., *Buster Keaton: A Bio-Bibliography* (1995) Greenwood Press
* Scott, Oliver Lindsey, *Buster Keaton: the little iron man* (1995) Buster Books
* Oldham, Gabriella, *Keaton's Silent Shorts: Beyond the Laughter* (1996) Southern Illinois University Press
* Horton, Andrew, *Buster Keaton's Sherlock Jr.* (1997) Cambridge University Press
* Bengtson, John, *Silent Echoes: Discovering Early Hollywood Through the Films of Buster Keaton* (1999) Santa Monica Press
* Knopf, Robert, *The Theater and Cinema of Buster Keaton* (1999) Princeton University Press Template:ISBN
* Keaton, Eleanor and Vance, Jeffrey *Buster Keaton Remembered* (2001) Harry N. Abrams Template:ISBN
* Mitchell, Glenn, *A–Z of Silent Film Comedy* (2003) B.T. Batsford Ltd.
* McPherson, Edward, *Buster Keaton: Tempest in a Flat Hat* (2005) Newmarket Press Template:ISBN
* Neibaur, James L., *Arbuckle and Keaton: Their 14 Film Collaborations* (2006) McFarland & Co.
* Neibaur, James L., *The Fall of Buster Keaton: His Films for MGM, Educational Pictures, and Columbia* (2010) Scarecrow Press
* Neibaur, James L. and Terri Niemi,*Buster Keaton's Silent Shorts* (2013) Scarecrow Press
* Oderman, Stuart, *Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle: A Biography of the Silent Film Comedian* (2005) McFarland & Co.
* Keaton, Buster, *Buster Keaton: Interviews* (Conversations with Filmmakers Series) (2007) University Press of Mississippi
* Brighton, Catherine, *Keep Your Eye on the Kid: The Early Years of Buster Keaton* (2008) Roaring Brook Press (An illustrated children's book about Keaton's career)
* Smith, Imogen Sara, *Buster Keaton: The Persistence of Comedy* (2008) Gambit Publishing Template:ISBN
* Carroll, Noel, *Comedy Incarnate: Buster Keaton, Physical Humor, and Bodily Coping* (2009) Wiley-Blackwell

## External links

Template:Sisterlinks

* Template:IMDb name
* Template:Tcmdb name
* Template:Rotten-tomatoes-person
* The International Buster Keaton Society
* Buster Keaton Museum
* Buster Keaton and the Muskegon Connection
* Buster Keaton in Five Easy Clips
* Buster Keaton Photo Galleries (includes rare images of BK smiling and laughing)
* Buster Keaton as a child performer (Univ. of Washington/Sayre collection)
* Buster Keaton's Silent Shorts (1920–1923) by James L. Neibaur and Terri Niemi

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