recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Kuonamka Formation Dinocarida

The Kuonamka Formation Dinocarida is an unnamed genus of putative dinocarid that lived in Russia during the Middle Cambrian.

## History

S.V. Grishin discovered and donated the specimen to the Paleontological Institute. A.G. Ponomarenko published a brief description of the specimen in September 2010.

## Description

The specimen in question is an articulate bodily fragment 8 centimeters long containing the middle of the animal. The full animal coule have been 20-30 centimeters long, which makes sense since dinocarids were the only large Cambrian animals. The body strong narrows to the posterior, with the first segment 2x as wide as the last. The lateral margins of these segments appear to bend down, making it similar to *Hurdia*. The segments are covered by many parallel lines that are oriented at various animals to the body axis. These may represent gill filaments. The lack of stretched out lateral lobes makes identification difficult, but it likely represents a new genus that Ponomarenko (2010) leaves unnamed due to fragmentary material.

## References

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227016902\_First\_Record\_of\_Dinocarida\_from\_Russia
Leptoteuthis

Leptoteuthis is an extinct genus of leptoteuthid Loligosepiina vampyromorph that lived in Germany during the Late Jurassic.

## Classification

This genus left no known descendants despite being one of the most abundant species in the Solnhofen and Nusplingen Lithographic Limestone.

## Paleoecology

It, *Trachyteuthis hastiformis* and *Plesioteuthis prisca* are the most common fossil Octopodiformes from Solnhofen and are well-known from the Nusplingen Lithographic Limestone (which is 500 kya older than Solnhofen). These two sites, however, do not present morphological distinction in any of these taxa. 10 other vampyropod taxa are known from these sites.

## References

* https://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/njgpa/detail/245/59131/Coleoid\_cephalopods\_from\_the\_plattenkalks\_of\_the\_U?af=crossref
* https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon\_no=15953
Lewisville Formation dromaeosaurine

The Lewisville Formation dromaeosaurine is an unnamed genus of dromaeosaurine dromaeosaurid dinosaur that lived in Texas during the Early Cretaceous.

## Description

The Lewisville dromaeosaurine is known from the specimens DMNH 2013-07-1080, DMNH 2014-06-02, SMU 73779, SMU 76948 and SMU 77217; all teeth. They can not be identified as velociraptorine (due to distal denticles subequal in size to the mesials) and bear some dromaeosaurine qualities, so the 2022 description publication refers to them informally as dromaeosaurines. However, the systematic designation and the tables refer to them as dromaeosaurids. The teeth are triangular and recurved with fine serrations. Specimens SMU 73779, SMU 76948 and SMU 77217 are much smaller than the others among other small differences. The enamel has a braided texture. A strongly concave distal margin, lack of basal constriction of the root and crown, mesial denticles smaller than distal and a lingual concavity along the basal surface identify it as Dromaeosauridae. DMNH 2013-07-1080 exceeds *Utahraptor*, *Dakotaraptor* and *Achillobator* teeth in size, leading to a size estimation of over 5 meters. This would make the Lewisville taxon the largest dromaeosaur.
Megalenhydris

Credit: HodariNundu on DeviantArt.

*Megalenhydris* is an extinct genus of otter that lived in Sardinia during the Late Pleistocene.

## Description

*Megalenhydris* is only known from its tail, the vertebrae are significantly flattened, which suggests that it was well adapted for its marine habitat. *Megalenhydris* is much larger than accompanying genera in the region. The shape of its teeth suggests it had a diverse diet. The rest of the tail is not known, meaning that *Megalenhydris* may have had a much larger tail fluke than previously thought. *Megalenhydris* is a likely ancestor to *Lutra*, having diversified and spread throughout Europe and surrounding areas. Because of this, *Megalenhydris* and closely-related otter genera are fitted inside the tribe Lutrini.

## Paleoecology

*Megalenhydris* is one of four otter genera in the region, the others being: *Algarolutra*, *Cyrnolutra* and *Sardolutra*. *Megalenhydris* likely fed on large fish, crustaceans, shellfish and molluscs. *Megalenhydris* was likely primarily aquatic, with the ability to walk onto land.

## References

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalenhydris
* https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242666628\_Megalenhydris\_and\_its\_relationship\_to\_Lutra\_Reconsidered
Knightia (fish)

Credit: Nobu Tamura.

*Knightia* is an extinct genus of ray-finned bony fish that lived in North America and Asia during the Early Eocene.

## History

Not only was *Knightia* made the state fossil of Wyoming, it is one of the most commonly excavated fossils in the world.

## Description

Rows of dorsal and ventral scutes line the body; starting at the head and ending at the medial fins. *Knightia* has many small, heavy scales, and its jaws were lined with small conical teeth. Species varied greatly in size. *K. eocaena* was 25 centimeters (10 inches) long, though most specimens grow no larger than 15 centimeters. *K. alta*, however, was shorter and wider; being between 6-10 centimeters long.

## Paleoecology

*Knightia* was a small schooling fish, and was since an abundant food source. *Diplomystus*, *Lepisosteus*, *Amphiplaga*, *Mioplosus*, *Phareodus*, *Amia*, and *Astephus* have all been found with Knightia either in their stomachs, or in their jaws, and possibly many more predators ate *Knightia* fish. *Knightia* lived in freshwater lakes and rivers, feeding on diatoms, algae and occasionally smaller fish species..

## Species

* *K. alta*
* "K. bohaiensis"
* *K. branneri*
* *K. eocaena*
* *K. humulus*
* *K. irregularis*
* *K. vetusta*
* *"K." yuyanga"*
Liopleurodon

Credit: R.J. Palmer.

*Liopleurodon* is an extinct genus or marine reptile that lived in Europe during Middle to Late Jurassic.

## Description

*Liopleurodon* was an apex predator. The flippers suggest *Liopleurodon* was a powerful swimmer, using a four-paddle swim technique like all other pleisiosaurs. *Liopleurodon*'s fins were not good for speed, but for acceleration, good for an ambush predator. Studies conducted on the nostrils concluded that *Liopleurodon* could probably scan the water to make out smells.

Size estimates for *Liopleurodon* over 20 meters are generally considered dubious. Finding accurate size estimates is often hard because little of *Liopleurodon*'s postcranial anatomy is not well known. One size estimate based on the skull being one-seventh of the 20 meter estimate, placed at 10 meters (33 feet) largest, averaging 5-7 meters (16-23 feet). Body mass is placed at 1-1.7 tons (2200-3700 pounds).

## Synonyms

* *Pliosaurus ferox*
* *Pliosaurus pachydeirus*
* ?*Pliosaurus giganteus*
* ?*Ischyrodon meriani*
* *Aramberri pliosaur (*outdated)

## Classification

*Liopleurodon* lays in Pliosauridae, a clade that existed in Europe and North America during the Jurassic and possibly from the Cretaceous. *Liopleurodon* assumed a more basal position, usually differentiated by alveoli count, smaller skull and overall body mass. *Simolestes*, *Peloneustes*, *Pliosaurus*, *Liopleurodon* and *Gallardosaurus* are all thalassophoneans.

## References

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liopleurodon
* https://peerj.com/articles/13244/
Kompsornis

Credit: Gabriel Ugueto.

*Kompsornis* is an extinct genus of Jeholornithiforme that lived in China during the Early Cretaceous.

## History

*Kompsornis* means 'pretty/elegant bird'. The species name, *longicaudus*, is derived from Greek 'longis' (elongated) and 'caudus' (tail).

## Description

*Kompsornis* is a small, mostly toothless-beaked avialan. *Kompsornis* has long wings, and a developed pubis and keel/sternum. The discovery of the fused sternum, like modern aves, may have had well developed, strong flight. The specimen recovered was determined to be about four years old at death, and nearly at maturity.

## Classification

Upon analyzing *Kompsornis*, *Jeholornis*, *Shenzhouraptor*, and possibly even *Jixiangornis*, scientists not only classified *Kompsornis*, they also found that *Dalianraptor* may be a chimera of existing genera.

## Notable Specimens

* AGB-6997: The holotype of *Kompsornis*, a single complete sub-adult skeleton. The individual was at least four years old at death.

## Paleoecology

*Kompsornis* flew between trees in the Jiufotang Formation eating high foliage during the Early Cretaceous.

## References

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompsornis
* http://novataxa.blogspot.com/2020/05/kompsornis.html
Isisford Ornithopod

The Isisford ornithopod is an unnamed genus that lived in Queensland, Australia during the Early Cretaceous.

## Description

The Isisford Ornithopod is a small bodied Ornithopod that shows a combination of basal and more derived traits. It comes from the Winton Formation (Upper Albian) of Queensland, Australia. The taxon is known from from an exceptionally well-preserved skull, and partial post-cranial material from at least 3 individuals. The taxon may shed light on the phylogenetic relationships of the Gondwanan Ornithopods and the diversity of the clade during the Late Jurassic and Cretaceous.

## References

* AN EXCEPTIONALLY PRESERVED SMALL-BODIED ORNITHOPOD DINOSAUR FROM THE LOWER CRETACEOUS (UPPER ALBIAN) WINTON FORMATION OF ISISFORD, CENTRAL-WESTERN QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA, AND THE DIVERSIFICATION OF GONDWANAN ORNITHOPODS SALISBURY, Steven W., University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; HERNE, Matthew C., University of New England, Armidale, Australia; LAMANNA, Matthew C., Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America; NAIR, Jay P., University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; SYME, Caitlin, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; WITMER, Lawrence M., Ohio Univ, Athens, OH, United States of America SVP conference abstracts 2019
Manu

Credit: Brian J. Marples.

*Manu* is an extinct genus of birds that lived in New Zealand during the Oligocene.

## History

The holotype of *Manu* was discovered in 1945 in the Maerwhenua Greensand near Duntroon, Otago, on the South Island of New Zealand. It is a partial furcula (wishbone), deposited in the Otago Museum in Dunedin. (Catalog number C.45.7). Most of the bird fossils from this formation are penguins, and this furcula differs from both modern and fossil penguins. It was named *Manu antiquus* by Brian Marples in 1946. The genus name *Manu* is the Maori word for "bird" and the specific epithet *antiquus* means "ancient" in Latin.

## Classification

In its original description, Marples compared the *Manu* holotype to the furculae of various birds, and found that it resembled albatrosses (Diomedeidae), though it was clearly distinct from them. He did not assign *Manu* to the family Diomedeidae or the order Procellariiformes, simply noting a possible affinity with these taxa.

In 1985, Storrs Olson determined that it was not an albatross.

In 2009, Gerald Mayr suggested that *Manu* may be a pelagornithid. It is unclear what this hypothesis was based on as no pelagornithid furculae were known at the time.

The first pelagornithid furcula, from *Pelagornis chilensis* was described in 2010 in a paper co-authored by Mayr. This paper notes that the furcula of *Pelagornis* is very different from that of *Manu*. Until further study is conducted on the holotype of *Manu*, its affinities and phylogenetic placement are unclear.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 https://www.deviantart.com/p2n2222a/journal/Manu-antiquus-is-not-a-pelagornithid-907550881
Lilstock Monster

Credit: Hodari Nundu on DeviantArt.

The Lilstock monster/ichthyosaur or Aust Colossus is an unnamed genus of ichthyosaur that lived in the United Kingdom during the Late Triassic.

## Description

The Lilstock monster was estimated to be 26 meters long, rivaling blue whales in size. The singular bone found was thought to be scattered during a whale fall-esque event that happened when the animal died. Paul de la Salle found the animal on Lilstock, Somerset during May 2016. When he returned, material recovered spanned almost 1 meter in length. The bone initially appeared as a rock, but defining characteristics such as grooves and bone structure differentiated it from the surrounding matrix. He contacted Dean Lomax and Judy Massare, who determined the age and stratigraphy of the specimen. It was a surangular from the mandible of a massive ichthyosaur, and found it was a shastasaurid-like ichthyosaur based on comparison with *Shonisaurus* material from the Royal Tyrell Museum. The groove de la Salle noticed would confirm it was a surangular. It was likely ~25% larger than the latter shastasaurid. Other measurements place this individual at 20-25 meters.

In 1850, a large Late Triassic bone from Aust Cliff, Gloucestershire, United Kingdom was described alongside four other fragmentary bones. Two are missing (presumed destroyed), and were identified as limbs from stegosaurs and sauropods. However, thee were likely mandibular elements of massive ichthyosaurs. Dean Lomax says one of the Aust bones is a surangular from a similar animal, and may be even larger. To confirm this, however, more complete remains must be found. The Lilstock specimen is among the largest ichthyosaurs, and may reassign many "dinosaur" bones to ichthyosaur surangulars.

## References

1. ↑ https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/biggest-ichthyosaur-1.4612537
2. ↑ https://www.manchester.ac.uk/discover/news/uk-giant-ichthyosaur-is-one-of-the-largest-animals-ever/
3. ↑ https://theconversation.com/how-we-found-a-giant-ichthyosaur-almost-as-big-as-a-blue-whale-92618
LDRCv2

LDRCv2 is an indeterminate genus of theropod dinosaur that lived in China during the Early Cretaceous.

## Description

LDRCv2 is a thick sauropod thoracic rib shaft attributable to *Dongbeititan*, which contains the embedded tooth of a medium-sized theropod dinosaur. It has been suggested this tooth belonged to either a scavenger, or a sauropod-hunting animal. As suggested for *Yutyrannus*, the theropod may have been a pack-forming, sauropod hunter. The rib itself is 11.5 centimeters, and every tooth puncture has varying lengths, averaging ~6 millimeters, having a bite force of ~8880 Newtons. The tooth is ~10 millimeters across, belonging to an unnamed theropod form.

## References

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1502-3931.2012.00310.x
MUPE HB-87

MUPE HB-87 is an unnamed genus of possibly spinosaur theropod dinosaur that lived in Niger during the Middle Jurassic.

## Description

MUPE-H8-87 was first published by Alejandro Serrano-Martínez et al. (2016) from the Irlhazer Shale of Niger, directly associated with a *Spinophorosaurus* skeleton. It is much older than the derived spinosaurs of the Early Cretaceous, which would make it the oldest spinosaur. They suggested a model where spinosaurs derived from 'typical' generalist theropods. In Darren Naish's Dinopedia: A Brief Compendium of Dinosaur Lore, he mentions an unnamed "possible Middle Jurassic form [that] has been reported from Niger", which may be in reference to this tooth.

## References

* http://sciencythoughts.blogspot.com/2015/08/isolated-theropod-teeth-from-middle.html
* https://bioone.org/journals/acta-palaeontologica-polonica/volume-61/issue-2/app.00101.2014/Isolated-Theropod-Teeth-from-the-Middle-Jurassic-of-Niger-and/10.4202/app.00101.2014.full
* https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app61/app001012014.pdf
* http://agro.icm.edu.pl/agro/element/bwmeta1.element.agro-323f6e32-3f6e-4070-bbe7-84a7c2810bb4
* https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281232329\_Isolated\_Theropod\_Teeth\_from\_the\_Middle\_Jurassic\_of\_Niger\_and\_the\_Early\_Dental\_Evolution\_of\_Spinosauridae
* Naish, Darren. *Dinopedia: A Brief Compendium of Dinosaur Lore*. Princeton University Press, 2021.
Limaysaurus

Credit: Cisiopurple on DeviantArt.

*Limaysaurus* is an extinct genus of rebbachisaurid sauropod dinosaur that lived in Patagonia during the Late Cretaceous period.

## Description

The generic name means "Limay lizard". G.S. Paul (2010) estimated it was 15 meters long and 7 tonnes heavy. The dorsal neural spines are long and the dorsals and cervicals are L-shaped rather than the traditional V. Curved teeth lined the jaws. *Limaysaurus* suggests that there was indeed a land bridge that connected South America to Africa 100 million years ago, especially since it was related to the Moroccan taxon *Rebbachisaurus*. It lived with *Giganotosaurus* and *Andesaurus* in a mild, humid plains and shallow lagoons environment. Gastroliths are associated with *Limaysaurus* remains.

## History

*L. tesseonei* was originally combined as *Rebbachisaurus tessonei* by Calvo and Salgado (1995), and later opposed by Salgado, Garrido and Sergio and Juan Cocca (2004). They named it after Río Limay, which borders the region, and the specific epithet after Lieto Tessone, who discovered the holotype (MUCPv-205; a partial skeleton and the back of the skull found in 1988). This study altered knowledge on Gondwanan dinosaur distribution during the Cenomanian. Most specimens found were mostly complete, including the holotype, which is 80% complete. This makes it one of the most complete dretaceous sauropods from South America. MUSPv-206 is a fragmentary skeleton discovered by José Bonaparte and collected alongside the holotype. These two specimens are of the Candeleros Formation. MUCPv0153 is a smaller specimen found nearby at the base of the Huincul Formation. This gives it an age range of Early-Late Cenomanian Specimens are found 15 kilometers south of Villa El Chocón, Picún Leufú Department, Neuquén Province, Patagonia, Argentina. specimens from the Río Limay Subgroup, Lohan Cura Formation were later named *Comahuesaurus*.

## References

1. ↑ http://www.dinochecker.com/papers/Calvo+Salgado-%5B1995%5D-Rebbachisaurus-tessonei.pdf
2. ↑ https://www.infobasepublishing.com/Bookdetail.aspx?ISBN=0816059616
3. ↑ https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691167664/the-princeton-field-guide-to-dinosaurs
4. ↑ https://www.academia.edu/47966411/A\_Land\_Bridge\_Connection\_Between\_South\_America\_and\_Africa\_During\_Albian\_Cenomanian\_Times\_Based\_on\_Sauropod\_Dinosaur\_Evidences
5. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237522620\_A\_LAND\_BRIDGE\_CONNECTION\_BETWEEN\_SOUTH\_AMERICA\_AND\_AFRICA\_DURING\_ALBIAN-CENOMANIAN\_TIMES\_BASED\_ON\_SAUROPOD\_DINOSAUR\_EVIDENCES
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 http://www.dinochecker.com/papers/Calvo+Salgado-%5B1995%5D-Rebbachisaurus-tessonei.pdf
7. ↑ https://www.nhbs.com/the-age-of-dinosaurs-in-south-america-book
8. ↑ http://www.dinochecker.com/papers/Calvo+Salgado-%5B1995%5D-Rebbachisaurus-tessonei.pdf
Megacerops

Credit: Roman Uchytel.

*Megacerops* is an extinct genus of hoofed mammal that lived in North America during the Late Eocene.

## Description

*Megacerops* is characterized by a single blunt v-shaped horn that sits stop the tip of its skull. This horn varies by species, and males have larger horns. This suggests that males butted heads in search of females. *Megacerops* easily approached the size of the African forest elephant, which currently the third largest extant terrestrial animal. The vertebrae between *Megacerops*' shoulders where elongated, which is an adaptation supported by rhinoceroses to support thick neck muscles to hold the heads weight. The morphology of *Megacerops* teeth indicates the animal ate soft-stemmed plants and leaves. It may have possessed fleshy lips and a long tongue to carefully select soft plants among tough vegetation. Many skeletons were found by the Sioux tribe, calling them "thunder beasts", the *Megacerops* discovered were killed by volcanic eruptions during that time.

## Paleobiology

Male individuals sport rib fractures and similar injuries, which supports the theory that males butted their head gear. No creature that lived during the time and in the region could have inflicted such an injury. The injury could not heal due to the creatures breathing, however. Adults may have also used their "horns" to defend themselves, from hyaenodonts, entelodonts, nimravids and the terror bird *Bathornis*.

## Classification

*Megacerops* has a long history of misidentification, starting with countless genera erected that actually belonged to *Megacerops*. Leidy (1870) named *Megacerops*, and *M. coloradensis* was given type status and then synonymized with Menodus (Clark and Beerbower, 1967). The same year, Leidy also assigned *Megacerops* to Brontotheriidae, and Carroll (1988), Mader (1989) and Mader (1998) confirmed this.

## Synonyms

* *Brontotherium*
* *Brontops*
* *Menodus*
* *Titanotherium*
* *Ateleodon*
* *Oreinotherium*

## References

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megacerops
* Specimen information tag at the ROM
Meganeura

Credit: A. Blazquez.

*Meganeura* was a gigantic dragonfly that lived during the Late Carboniferous in Europe.

## Description

*Meganeura* had swiveling, eyes, which were good at spotting movement. *Meganeura* flew by beating two pairs of wings stiffened by veins. *Meganeura monyi* is the largest flying insects known. *Meganeura* was thought to have been as large as it was due to three hypothesis: oxygen levels and atmospheric density, lack of predators and aquatic larvae stadium.

The way insects breath through their tracheal breathing system all over their bodies sets a size limit, which most extinct insects seem to exceed. Harlé proposed in 1911 that *Meganeura* was able to fly die to more oxygen in the Earths atmosphere than the current 20%. This was initially dismissed but looked-into when gigantism and oxygen availability was studied further. If this is true, Carboniferous insects would be vulnerable to falling oxygen levels and could not survive our current atmosphere.

The second theory, by Bechly in 2004, states that *Meganeura*, and close insects, thrived in size due to a lack of airborne predators. This process is likely accelerated to compete with other Meganeurids and other of its kind.

The last theory states that larvae remained in the water until they grew their wings, as to protect them from the high levels of oxygen.

## Paleoecology

*Meganeura* flew through forests, changing speed and direction almost instantly, grabbing insects with its legs, and bringing them up to its mouth to feed as it flew. Such giant protodragonflies had stronger legs than living dragonflies, and could have tackled flying animals as large as cockroaches. *Meganeura* was adapted to open spaces, similar to living hawker dragonflies. *Meganeura* bears spines on its tibia and tarsi, which function as a trap to scoop prey into. *Meganeura* was very susceptible to overheating.

## References

* Dorling Kindersley Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Life, p.28
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meganeura
Megaladapis

Credit: Roman Yevseyev.

*Megaladapis* is a genus of extinct lemurs from Pleistocene Madagascar.

## Description

*Megaladapis*' arms and legs were specialized for grasping at tree limbs to reach high leaves. *Megaladapis* is like a modern koala and lemur combined. The jaw of *Megaladapis* is like a cows, with canines. Approximately 500 years ago, *Megaladapis* was unable to adapt to the rapid change and went extinct. When humans arrived at Madagascar about 2,000 years ago, the forests *Megaladapis* inhabited were cleared to make room for civilization. Legends of the tretretretre, by the Malagasy people, are thought to refer to *Megaladapis*, however the traits described, like the noted 'human-like face' resemble another ape, *Palaeopropithecus*. *Peloriadapis* is often considered a subgenus.

## Reference

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaladapis
Jucha

Credit: Andrey Atuchin.

*Jucha* is an extinct genus of plesiosaur that lived in Russia during the Early Cretaceous.

## History

The name derives from the girl, Jucha, in Turkic demonology. The demon has snake skin and can transform into a dragon, who can remove their hair when styling it. Since the holotype lacked a skull, the authors decided to name the remains "*Jucha*". The remains were covered in a mineral crust of pyrite, hence the epithet "*squalea*".

## Description

*Jucha* is one of the basalmost Elasmosauridae, based on a lack of heart-shaped intercoracoid fenestra and median pectoral bar, among other features. *Jucha* shows early progress at cervical elongation attempts through differential growth. The exact patterns of neck elongation and shortening is hidden by unstable phylogenic factors. The remains were found enveloped in a pyrite crust. The holotype consists of 17 cervical, 4 caudal and 9 dorsal vertebrae, a neural spine and fragmented limbs, and was discovered in 2007 near Ulyanovsk, Russia in the Klimovka Formation.

## References

* https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa103/5918315?redirectedFrom=fulltext
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jucha
Khetranisaurus

"Khetranisaurus" (early name/lapsus "Khateranisaurus") is a naked genus of titanosaurid sauropod dinosaur that lived in Pakistan during the Late Cretaceous.

## Description

"Khetranisaurus", first known as "Khateranisaurus" through early reports, was first coined by M. Sadiq Malkani (2006) based on a tail vertebrae from the Vitakri Member, Pab Formation. It was assigned "Pakisauridae" (=Titanosauridae) with "Pakisaurus" and "Sulaimanisaurus". However, the name was properly published in 2021.

## References

* Harris, Jerald D. (2007-06-27). "Arsenic and Old Papers". *Dinosaur Mailing List Archives*. Cleveland Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2007-07-29. (discontinued link)
* https://www.webcitation.org/5hjMtRzjs?url=http://www.gsp.gov.pk/Malkani%202006b.pdf
LP-4450-IEI

A drawing of the specimen.

LP-4450-IEI is an indeterminate and unnamed genus of enantiornithes that lived in Spain during the Cretaceous.

## Description

The remains were studied in December 2006, focusing on histology. Unknown in other enantiornithes, LP-4450-IEI may possess a squamosal bone. This enantiornithe is a juvenile from El Montsec Formation. It had a humerus that has pores that travel obliquely through the cortical. The bone surface is rough on the distal end of the humerus. Short longitudinal traits are observed at the epiphysis.

## References

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26580536\_Estimating\_the\_Ontogenetic\_Status\_of\_an\_Enantiornithine\_Bird\_from\_the\_Lower\_Barremian\_of\_El\_Montsec\_Central\_Pyrenees\_Spain
MNN TIG6

MNN TIG6 is an unnamed genus of Elaphrosaurine Ceratosaur that lived in Niger during the Early Cretaceous.

## Description

The Taxon is known from 8 cervical vertebrae, 13 dorsal vertebrae, 3 sacral neural arches, partial, a dorsal, and sacral ribs, and ossified tendons. Paul Serrano originally referred this specimen to *Spinostropheus gautieri*, but only part of a vertebra overlap and according to Rauhut and Carrano (2016) the specimen differs greatly from the known specimens of *Spinostropheus*.

## References

* https://www.theropoddatabase.com/Ceratosauria.htm#Elaphrosaurinae
* https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Spinostropheus-gautieri-basal-ceratosaurian-MNN-TIG6-a-Silhouette-reconstruction-in\_fig2\_8405613
Irritator

Credit: Connor Ashbridge on the Wikimedia Commons.

*Irritator* is an extinct genus of spinosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in Brazil during the Early Cretaceous.

## Discovery & Naming

*Irritator* is known from a near-complete skull that was acquired from illegal fossil dealers, and named in 1996 after the word "irritation", which it's describers felt after finding the specimen was damaged by collectors. The specific name is after the fictional character Professor Challenge. Andrea Cau (2021) speculates *Mirischia* may be an *Irritator* chick.

## Paleobiology

It was a generalist carnivore, based on Sues et al. (2002), who state there is no reason to assume devotion to a piscivorous diet, finding it was able to eat smaller prey animals, as present in other spinosaurs. Naish et al. (2004) find that it was aquatic and terrestrial as a generalist that likely searched for carrion. An *Irritator* tooth lodged in an ornithocherid cervical indicates that they ate pterosaurs, even individuals with 3.3 meter wingspans. Aureliano et al. (2018) present a possible food web for the Romualdo, finding spinosaurines as predators for crocodyliforms, juveniles of their species, turtles and small/medium-sized dinosaurs.

Skull morphology suggests that spinosaurines had binocular vision. The mandibular joints of this species may suggest that it could flex its jaws in a way that broadened them (much like pelicans).

## References

1. ↑ https://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/153/1/5
2. ↑ https://www.nature.com/news/brazil-clamps-down-on-illegal-fossil-trade-1.14808
3. ↑ https://theropoda-blogspot-com.translate.goog/2021/09/carcharodontosauri-ditalia.html?\_x\_tr\_sch=http&\_x\_tr\_sl=auto&\_x\_tr\_tl=en&\_x\_tr\_hl=en-GB&\_x\_tr\_pto=ajax,se,nv,elem
4. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254314432\_Irritator\_challengeri\_a\_Spinosaurid\_Dinosauria\_Theropoda\_from\_the\_Lower\_Cretaceous\_of\_Brazil
5. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/40663003\_Ecology\_Systematics\_and\_Biogeographical\_Relationships\_of\_Dinosaurs\_Including\_a\_New\_Theropod\_from\_the\_Santana\_Formation\_Albian\_Early\_Cretaceous\_of\_Brazil
6. ↑ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08912960410001674200
7. ↑ https://www.nature.com/articles/430033a
8. ↑ https://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/455/1/7
9. ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665537/
10. ↑ https://paleorxiv.org/mjt95/
11. ↑ https://osf.io/bjkg6/files/
12. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324950412\_Semi-aquatic\_adaptations\_in\_a\_spinosaur\_from\_the\_Lower\_Cretaceous\_of\_Brazil
13. ↑ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667117305153
14. ↑ https://palaeo-electronica.org/content/2023/3821-the-osteology-of-irritator
Koreaceratops

Credit: Jun-Hyeok Jang.

*Koreaceratops* is an extinct genus of aquatic ceratopsian dinosaur that lived in South Korea during the Early Cretaceous.

## Description

In 2011, fossils of a small ceratopsian dinosaur was discovered in South Korea. The fossil preserved a majority of the animal. The tail on *Koreaceratops* was flat, like those of *Spinosaurus*.

## Paleobiology

Unpublished research featured in the 2021 SVP abstracts conducts histological analyses on the specimen to find many new unknown aspects of *Koreaceratops*. They found it was around 8 years old at death, with forelimbs that underwent a biomechanics change during death and sits closer to *Psittacosaurus* and *Protoceratops* than other ceratopsians. This is due to many shared features in the anatomy of the ontogenetic series mapped out for these taxa.

## Paleoecology

*Koreaceratops* lived in South Korea during the Early Cretaceous. Analysis on the fossils prove that the tail was a single adaptation, for swimming and eating seaweed and other sea plants. Little is known about how *Koreaceratops* fitted into it's ecosystem.

## References

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreaceratops
* https://vertpaleo.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/SVP\_2021\_VirtualBook\_final.pdf
* https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667122000143
Meidum goose

## Anatidae sp.

The original hieroglyph at the far left, with a reconstruction on the left compared to the red-breasted goose on the right. Credit: Dr. Anthony Ramilio.

## Statistics

### Diet

Carnivorous

The Meidum goose (Anatidae sp.?) is a possible extinct species of goose that lived in Egypt 4,600 years ago.

## History

In 1871, the hieroglyph was discovered in an Egyptian tomb near the Meidum Pyramid, built by Snefru. The tomb itself was dedicated to the pharaoh's son, Nefermaat, and the painting was likely discovered in a chapel dedicated to Nefermaat's wife, Itet. Since the family was royal, they were granted a large mastaba tomb located near the pharaoh's pyramid, with the best artists employed. The paintings were featured below a scene of men catching birds in clap nets to propose to the pharaoh's son. A scene like this isn't notable, except the fact of it being the oldest and best-preserved of all similar scenes. It was admired since discovery, known as "Egypt's Mona Lisa".

## Description

The Meidum goose has striking bold colours that distinguish it from other geese in the tomb, leading some to believe it was an extinct species, and others chalking it up to artists creativity. Dr. Anthony Romilio, lead author of the study recognizing the painting, used the Tobias criteria to identify the bird. He states artistic license is not the case, since other depictions in the same tomb are extremely realistic in anatomy and markings. It does not match any other geese in the tomb. No fossils of the species are known, but it is assumed to be a lost Egyptian species.

## References

http://www.sci-news.com/archaeology/meidum-geese-09407.html
MPCM-LH-26189 a/b

MPCM-LH-26189 a/b is an unnamed genus of enantiornithes that lived in Europe during the Early Cretaceous.

## Desccription

MPCM-LH-26189 a/b is known from a single hatchling consisting of slab and counter-slab elements. Features such as sternum ossification and tail vertebrae fusion point out how later enantiornithes came to be.

## References

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantiornithes#Dubious\_genera\_and\_notable\_unnamed\_specimens
MMNS VP-6332

Credit: Tsogtbaatar et al..

MMNS VP-6332 is an indeterminate genus of ornithomimosaur that lived in North America during the Late Cretaceous.

## Description

This taxon suggests a gigantic body size that just rivals *Deinocheirus*.

## References

* https://interestingengineering.com/science/more-than-800-kg-the-biggest-ostrich-like-dinosaur-of-north-america-revealed
* https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0266648
Longiteresoolithus

Credit: Alamy.

*Longiteresoolithus* is an extinct, dubious oogenus of oviraptor egg that live in North America and Asia during the Cretaceous.

## Description

*Longiteresoolithus* was discovered in 1995 by Wang and Zhou, but has since been made synonymous with *Macroelongatoolithus*.

## References

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroelongatoolithus
Kronosaurus

Credit: Slate Weasel on the Wikimedia Commons.

*Kronosaurus* is a dubious genus of short-necked pliosaur that lived during the Early Cretaceous.

## History

In 2021, *Kronosaurus* was labelled as a nomen dubium. The holotype was kept as referred to *K. queenslandicus* because it was seen as undiagnostic, everything included in *K. boyacensis* was lumped into a new genus, *Monquirasaurus* and moved diagnostic *K. queenslandicus* to a new genus, *Eiectus*. However, many have shown their disapproval of this decision and future taxonomic revision is almost certain. Some think the Harvard pliosaur specimen should be designated as a neotype, which was proposed as far back as 1962 - 3 years after the specimen was prepared and mounted. Albian *Eiectus* may represent a distinct genus, which would leave an excuse for *Kronosaurus* to be conserved,

## Notable Specimens

* GM F1609: A mandibular symphyseal region with left and right dentaries, 3 teeth and alveoli.

## References

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronosaurus
* https://twitter.com/TetZoo/status/1473053638075596812
* https://t.co/aghABWXske
* https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon\_no=100125
* H. A. Longman. 1924. Some Queensland fossil vertebrates. *Memoirs of the Queensland Museum* **8(1)**:16-28
* https://t.co/pwTYi0GjSi
Jiulongshan Flea

A-F Sp. Nov. 1. G-I Sp. Nov. 2. A, B, C, D, G, H Female. E, F Male.

The Jiulongshan Fleas are Siphonapterans that lived in China during the Middle Jurassic. These fossils are later named as ***Pseudopulex wangi*** and ***Hadropsylla sinica*** in 2013.

## Description

The fossil (NIGP coll.) is known from an unclear number of slabs, around 6 or 7. The condition of the flea's large size, females possessing setae and scattered ctenidia, 14- to 17-segmented flagella, and lack of stout, posteriorly directed setae make the taxon distinct from modern fleas, as well as *Tarwinia* and *Saurophthirus*. This taxon lacked wings and an ability to jump.

## References

Huang, D., Engel, M., Cai, C. *et al.* Diverse transitional giant fleas from the Mesozoic era of China. *Nature* **483,** 201–204 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10839

Huang, DiYing; Engel, Michael S.; Cai, ChenYang; Nel, André (2013-05-01). "Mesozoic giant fleas from northeastern China (Siphonaptera): Taxonomy and implications for palaeodiversity". Chinese Science Bulletin. 58 (14): 1682–1690. Bibcode:2013ChSBu..58.1682H. doi:10.1007/s11434-013-5769-3. ISSN 1861-9541.
Martinichthys

*Martinichthys* is an extinct genus of fish that lived in North America during the Late Cretaceous.

## Description

*Martinichthys* is a rare genus of fish, known only from the Smoky Hill Chalk. The heaviest bone in *Martinichthys*' body is the rostrum, which seems to be the most common part that fossilizes. However, the rest of the skeleton was poorly ossified, aside from one specimen where cranial material and vertebrae were recovered. In 2003, Mike Everhart and Pam (Everhart?; uncertain) donated 13 specimens of *Martinichthys* (their entire collection) to the Sternberg Museum of Natural History. Some specimens show bite marks on their snouts, possibly from a larger fish.

## References

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martinichthys
* http://oceansofkansas.com/page6.html
Kariridraco

Credit: Júlia d'Oliveira.

*Kariridraco* is an extinct genus of thalassodromine pterosaur that lived in Brazil during the Early Cretaceous.

## Description

MPSC R 1056, the holotype, is an incomplete, 3D skull, mandible and cervical vertebrae, showing unique features such as a tall and proportionally short nasoantorbita fenestrae, with a premaxillary crest having a ~45° angle from the skull axis. It was recovered as related to *Tapuxuara*, indicating Gondwana is the most parsimonious Tapejaridae origin point, with pterosaurs being drove by large tectonics.

## Classification

Kariridraco is a thalassmodromine tapejarid:

## Gallery

Kariridraco skeletal.png**Credit: Clumsystiggy on DeviantArt.****Credit: Victor Beccari.**
## References

http://www.app.pan.pl/article/item/app008482020.html
Megaselachus

NHMA 1327A (top row) and NHMA 1339 (bottom row), both once assigned Otodus (M.) megalodon.

## Statistics

### Diet

Carnivorous

*Otodus (Megaselachus)*, simply known as *Megaselachus* or megalodon, is an extinct subgenus of shark that lived nearly worldwide during the Miocene, and possibly into the Pleistocene.

## Classification

As dated scientific understanding says, *O. (Megaselachus)* is a subgenus of *Otodus*, and is still valid. However, most consider the subgenus invalid today.

## Reassigned Species

* *M. arcuatus*
* *M. auriculatus falciformis*
* *M. branneri*
* *M. brevis*
* *M. crassidens*
* *M. crassirhadix*
* *M. crassus*
* *M. gigas*
* *M. heterodon*
* *M. humilis*
* *M. incidens*
* *M. leviathan*
* *M. megalodon*
	+ *M. m. indicus*
* *M. polygyrus*
* *M. productus*
* *M. rectidens*
* *M. semiserratus*
* *M. subauriculatus*

## References

* https://www.deviantart.com/dontknowwhattodraw94/art/Megaselachus-megalodon-410899270
* https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Otodus\_(Megaselachus)
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalodon
Lewisville Formation carcharodontosaurian

The Lewisville Formation carcharodontosaurian is an unnamed genus of carcharodontosaurian theropod dinosaur that lived in Texas during the Late Cretaceous.

## Description

Apomorphies in fragmentary specimens from teeth, chevron and a manual ungual from AAS, Bear Creek, Lake Lewisville, and Veteran’s Park from the Lewisville Formation were described in 2022: DMNH 2013-07-0494, DMNH 2013-07-1081, DMNH 2013-07-1083, DMNH 2013-07-1255, DMNH 2013-07-1990, DMNH 2014-06-05, DMNH 2014-06-06 and SMU 76946 were all referred. The teeth presented are mostly incomplete and thus form a lacking morphotype, but they are still identifiable, characterized by lateral compression and a slightly flat oval base that is somewhat recurved. DMNH 2013-07-1083 bears shallow pits on the labial and lingual sides of the base. The crown is elongate and the base is narrow. DMNH 2013-07-1081, DMNH 2013-07-1255 and SMU 76946 bear enamel spalling, and some teeth have shallow, heterogeneously-oriented scratches. Scratches on the spalled surfaces may be taphonomic. This carcharodontosaur was large, and lived with tyrannosauroids and large dromaeosaurines. DMNH 2013-07-0494 is a manual ungual, probably phalanx II-3 due to the symmetrical surfaces of the articular facet, that was likely recurved to an unknown degree and bears a flexor tubercle. DMNH 2013-07-1990 is a chevron 230 millimeters long with some crushing at the proximal. Transverse enamel undulations, basally-inclined interdenticular sulci and an S-shaped mesiodistal profile help identify the teeth as charcharodontosaurian.
Kannemeyeria

Credit: Gabriel Ugueto.

*Kannemeyeria* is an extinct genus of dicynodont that lived in South Africa and South America during the Middle Triassic.

## Description

It measured ~3 meters (9.8 feet) long, with a large head that was light in weight due to enlarged orbits, muscle fenestrae and a nasal cavity. The limb girdles were comprised of large bony plates to support its weight. It was an effective herbivore, as evidenced by a powerful beak and jaw muscles built for shearing plants. It uprooted roots and stripped leaves. It was contemporaneous with those such as *Erythrosuchus* in the Karoo Supergroup.

## Classification

Kammerer et al. (2013) recover *K. simocephalus* and *K. lophorhinus* as sister to *Shaanbeikannemeyeria*. *K. aganosteus* was named in 2021 and thus not considered.

## References

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannemeyeria
Menefee Formation Turtle

The Menefee Formation Turtle is an unnamed genus of Turtle that lived in Colorado and New Mexico during the Late Cretaceous.

## Description

The specimen was discovered in 2022 by Dr. Heather F. Smith and colleagues on behalf of the Western Science Center. Turtle remains assignable to the family level have been found in the Menefee formation have been discovered previously, however, no taxa assignable to a genus or species has been reported from the Menefee Formation to date.

## References

* https://twitter.com/heatherfsmith/status/1530195313486618629
* Lucas, Spencer G.; Spielmann, Justin A.; Braman, Dennis R.; Brister, Brian S.; Peters, Lisa; McIntgosh, William C. (2005). "Age of the Cretaceous Menefee Formation, Gallina Hogback, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico" (PDF). New Mexico Geological Society Field Conference Series. 56.
LH PV39

LH PV39 is an unnamed genus of troodontid dinosaur that lived in Inner Mongolia during the Late Cretaceous.

## Description

LH PV39 has a dorsoventrally-compressed sacral centra. The fully-fused neurocentral junctions show LH PV39 was an adult, but is still 20% smaller than the contemporaneous *Philovenator*, being the second small-bodied troodontid from the Wulansuhai Formation. Phylogenetic analyses on LH PV39 in 2021 used different strategies and different algorithms. This undoubtedly recovered it as a troodontid. However, the parsimony-based analysis scored it as an independent OTU (with all available characteristics) included recovered it as a basal troodontid. The Bayesian analysis indicates a closer relationship with *Almas* and an unnamed troodontid. Body size analysis shows one trend of gigantism throughout the entire Troodontidae lineage, suggesting Late Cretaceous troodontids evolved in two paths:

1. A few size-independent characters evolved with retaining the small sizes.
2. Size-dependent characters (such as the elongated snout) evolved accompanying the size increase.

The mosaic features observed in small Late Cretaceous troodontids placed them as intermediate between the basal Early Cretaceous relatives and the large Late Cretaceous species in a well-resolved phylogeny. This is crucial to properly understand size and morphological evolution in troodontidae.

## References

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cla.12467
Jiangxi Megaraptoran

## Unnamed Jiangxi Megaraptoran

Credit: Manu or MB13

The Unnamed Megaraptoran from Jiangxi province of China; or officially named specimen; NHMG 8500 is an unnamed; unclear genus and species of large Megaraptoran from China.

## Description

It is an extremely fragmentary theropod known from only a mere few Tooth remains. This megaraptoran is estimated to be The largest megaraptoran known so far by reaching to 11 to 11.5 meters. It is quite a larger sized theropod for its habitat.

The only known remains are excavated from Nanxiong Formation of Nankang County, Jiangxi Province, southern China. The theropod likely lived in the Late cretaceous period.

## Sources

* https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270875350\_Large\_theropod\_teeth\_from\_the\_Upper\_Cretaceous\_of\_Jiangxi\_southern\_China
* http://www.ivpp.cas.cn/cbw/gjzdwxb/xbwzxz/201501/P020150112592082762393.pdf
Megachasma applegatei

Credit: National Geographic.

*Megachasma applegatei* is an extinct species of shark that lived in California from the Oligocene to the Miocene.

## Description

*M. applegatei* was described from several teeth, estimated at 6 meters. It was found in 1973, but was described in 2014. *M. applegatei* has shorter crowns, and side cusplets. This species is named after Shelton Applegate, the person who discovered *M. applegatei* . Fossil species are known only from teeth, with average sizes placed by the original *M. applegatei* describes placing at 6 meters. However, additional specimens reach about 8.1 meters, with absolute maximum individuals being up to 11 meters long . Krak and Shimada (2023) examined the morphometry of 207 teeth from the Jewett Sand, south California and discovered that the taxon displays greater variability than *M. pelagios* and correlates with the tooth types of *Odontaspis ferox*. This suggests that the dentition was consistent with the "lamnoid tooth pattern". Using this, they created several possible tooth configurations: the first based on *Odontaspis*, the second intermediate of it and *M. pelagios* and the third similar to the latter. The dentition of M. applegatei is thus identified as somewhere between the three hypothesized configurations and possibly closest to the second. This study is the first use of geometric morphometrics to recover extinct shark dentitions.

## Gallery

Comparison of (left-to-right) *M. applegatei*, *Megamouth shark* and *Odontaspis*.The three hypothesized dentition configurations (presented top-to-bottom, same order as text).
## References

1. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megachasma\_applegatei
2. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261912643\_A\_New\_Fossil\_Megamouth\_Shark\_Lamniformes\_Megachasmidae\_from\_the\_Oligocene-Miocene\_of\_the\_Western\_United\_States
3. ↑ https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4990r1hx#main
Kevin

Kevin is an unnamed genus of Chasmosaurine Ceratopsid dinosaur that lived in Montana during the Late Cretaceous.

## Classification

Kevin when put through a cladogram aligns between *Chasmosaurus* and *Mojoceratops*. The relationship between *Mojoceratops* and *Chasmosaurus* is very strenuous, with most researchers identified *Mojoceratops* as a junior synonym of *Chasmosaurus*, while others uphold its validity. This specimen may help to clarify those relationships.

This cladogram is modified from Scott Sampson (2010):

## References

https://twitter.com/Mosasaurologist/status/1464276217897619489

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasmosaurus