Mali

Republic of Mali

République du Mali (French)

ߙߋߓߎߓߟߌߞ ߓߎ ߡߊ߬ߟߌ߬ߓߊ (Mandinka)

Republik bu Maliba

𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤲𞤣𞤢𞤢𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞤢𞤤𞤭 (Fula)

Renndaandi Maali

Flag of Mali

13% Senufo

3.3% Dogon

3% Jola

2.5% Sosso

5% Other

2.6% Catholicism

1.6% Other

**Mali**, officially the **Republic of Mali**, is a Western African country bordered by Mauritania, Wallo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ashanti and Burkina Faso. It has a population of 44.7 million, concentrated in the country's tropical south, including the national capital of Bamako. Despite it's level of poverty, Mali historically had a huge impact on West Africa's culture, politics and society.

## History

Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, slaves, and other precious commodities majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa. These Sahelian kingdoms had no real borders, or any sort of ethnic identity, due to their multicultural populations.

The first of these was the Ghana Empire, which was dominated by the Soninke, a Mande-speaking people. The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the 8th century, stretching from Wallo in the west, to Wagadugu in the east, and even present-day Liberia in the south. However, in 1078, it was conquered by the Almoravids, as the empire posed a threat to the Almoravid expansion, particularly in Mauritania. Following Ghana’s collapse, the people of the former empire began to adopt Sunni Islam, though some resisted.

After the fall of the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River, and reached the height of power in the 14th century. Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Jenne and Segu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning. In it’s early years, the empire was known as Niani (Mande: ߢߋߣߌ *Nyeni*)‎, named after it’s capital. The empire was formed by Sundiata Keita, and the empire was so wealthy, that Mansa Musa, another king, made gold virtually worthless on his trip to Mecca. At its peak, Mali was the largest empire in West Africa, profoundly and widely influencing the culture of the region through the spread of its language, laws and customs.

The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire, a polity ruled by the Songhai, who originated in the western half of present day Daura. In the late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire. It was poor due to a lack of sea access, and therefore trade, though trade occurred nonetheless via the Jeliba River. In order to gain sea access, the Songhai Empire had to subjugate the Sosso & Fula peoples of the coastal regions directly west of Kayi.

After the leadership of King Askia, a series of plots and coups by his successors forced the empire into a period of decline and instability.  In 1591, a Moroccan invasion lead by Judar Pasha succeeded in capturing Kumbi & Saleh, in order to capture the Trans-Saharan trade route. This lead to the decline of the importance of the trans-saharan trade routes, and the trading cities of Jenne, Segu, Kumbi and Saleh. Although the empire was defeated, it actually remained until 1901 as the Dendi Kingdom in western Issaberi.

   During the early 1700's, a massive famine was reported in the region, caused by drought, as well as destruction of crops through warfare. It was reported that half of Bamako alone starved to death, and it would take 5 decades for the population to return to normal. This drought is generally thought to have ended in 1780, the some estimates see it ending at 1810.

Around the mid 1770s, the Wattara Empire arose, with it’s capital in the city of Kong. The kingdom was founded by Dyula (a Mande subgroup) and Senufo migrants from the declining Mali Empire, with Seku Wattara as it’s first documented ruler. He oversaw the invasion of the key city of Korhogo, a primarily Senufo city. Their invasion of Jenne was a failure, and led to the Bambara Empire invading the kingdom. As a punishment, the Dyula were forced into mainstream Mande society, and many attempts at crushing the Dyula identity were made.

Around the same time in 1774, Lusitanian colonials set up a slave trading fort on Kalumo Island offshore of the city of Konakiri, claiming that is now the Konakiri and Kankan regions as the Colony of Guinea (Lusitanic: *Colônia da Guiné*). The Lusitanic soon built up the port of Kamsar (Lusitanic: *Camsar*) to supply the mainland with materials from the colony. Disputes over leadership of the region with France and Spain resulted in a brief standoff known as the Kamsar Incident, which resulted in France consolidating control over the region in exhange for monetary assets.

Following the loss of Jenne, the Wattara Empire promptly collapsed. Mamary Kulibali, a prominent in the Battle of Djenne, was made the first ruler of the Bambara Empire. His rule saw an incursion into present day Gabu, incorporating it’s Mande held territories into it’s land. It’s fall led to the invasion of it’s territories by the Segu Tukolor, an empire founded by the Halpulaar of Wallo and the Fula. It’s government was an imamate, and it lasted until 1893. By 1905, all of Mali fell to France, when the Segu Tukolor finally dissolved. The area was colonized as French Sudan, named for the geographic region. French rule saw industrialization, which was limited to the French colonizers and a select few Malians. Calls for Malian independence were repeatedly quelled until after WWII, when it seceded in late 1958.

In early 1959, the French Sudan changed it's name to the Sudanese Republic, and Wallo with the country united to become the Mali Federation, which only lasted a year due to political infighting. Then prime minister of the federation, Modibo Keïta, went on to become Mali's first president, espousing a form of African socialism. On August 19, 1960, the Sudanese Republic leaders in the Mali Federation mobilized the army, and Wallese leaders in the federation retaliated by mobilizing the gendarmerie (national police), this resulted in a tense stand-off, and led to the withdrawal from the federation by Wallo the next day, thus ending the federation.

On 19 November 1968, following rapid economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloody military coup led by Moussa Traoré, a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day. The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy, but failed. Part of his failure can be attributed to the 1968-1974 famine, which killed off 50,000~120,000 people. After 1980, the government continued to attempt economic reforms, with no results and an increasingly unsatisfied populace. In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed limited political liberalization, but refused to implement a fully democratic system.

Protests against Traoré intensified in 1991, eventually leading to a new constitution and a transitional government, but protests continued, which would eventually evolve into the March Revolution. Although the vast majority of protesters were non-violent, looting and vandalism occurred across Bamako, leading the soldiers to fire at everyone, mostly non-violent protesters. On 26 March, 4 days after the protests started, clashes between soldiers and protesters reached a climax, with 143 protesters shot dead, by order of Traoré himself. He and 3 associates would eventually be trialed, receiving the death sentence for the crimes committed that day.

After the events of 26 March 1991, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult, and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining the pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré, as opposition parties were legalized and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum

In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for a second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. In 2002 Amadou Toumani Touré, a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected. During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa.

Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in the March and April parliamentary elections, including the arrest of opposition leader Soumaila Cissé. Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June. On 18 August 2020, elements of the Malian Armed Forces began a mutiny. The soldiers detained several government officials including the President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta who resigned and dissolved the government. This is the country's second coup in less than 10 years, following the 2012 coup d'état. A vote deciding the government took place 8 months later, and Bah Ndaw became president in April 2021.

## Politics

Until the military coup of 22 March 2012 and a second military coup in December 2012, Mali was a constitutional democracy governed by the Constitution of 12 January 1992, which was amended in 1999. The constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The system of government can be described as "semi-presidential". Executive power is vested in a president, who is elected to a five-year term by universal suffrage and is limited to two terms.

Mali's foreign policy orientation has become increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time. Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002, Mali's relations with the West in general and with the United States in particular have improved significantly. Mali has a longstanding yet ambivalent relationship with France, a former colonial ruler. Mali was active in regional organizations such as the African Union until its suspension over the 2012 Malian coup.

The country is divided into ten regions and one capital district, known as a *dineja* (Mandinka: ߘߌߣߋߖߊ *region*). Each of the regions bears the name of its capital. These regions are subdivided into subregions, of which there are a total of 148 of. These states serve an administrative & political functions. Despite that, the actual cultural or ethnic regional lines are barely considered, though it is often clear which state is Mande-dominated or not.

Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals. Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy. General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations.

Mali's military forces consist of an army, which includes land forces and air force, as well as the paramilitary Gendarmerie and Republican Guard, all of which are under the control of Mali's Ministry of Defense and Veterans, headed by a civilian. The military is underpaid, poorly equipped, and in need of rationalization. The Library of Congress as of January 2005 stated that "the military is underpaid, poorly equipped, and in need of rationalization”. An 2015 estimate puts the size of Mali's military at 305,000 troops, making it one of Western Africa's larger armies.

## Geography & Nature

    Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, located southwest of Mauritania, east of Wallo and Gabu and west of Burkina Faso. The country is dominated by the Jeliba River, which provides the country's water, and acts as a route of trade. Mali lies in the torrid zone and is among the hottest countries in the world. The thermal equator, which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country.

The north, on the border with Mauritania cointains an inland delta, known as the Inland Jeliba Delta (Mande: ߡߊߛߌߣߊ *Masina*). The delta lies in the Sahelian zone, and has an ecosystem that is largely dependent on the amount of flooding it receives. While the region contains green areas, the landscape is semi-arid desert for the most part, in due to the effects of global warming, which Mali alone cannot afford to combat. This region is the site of mali's cointribution to the Great Green Wall, an initiative shared with 9 other African nations. It frequently suffers from extreme droughts in the dry season as a consequence of climate change.

Central Mali is also dependent on the Jeliba river, containing many of Mali's large cities including Bamako, Mopti, Kayes and Segu. This region is more fertile, and has much of the country's agricultural industry. Run-off from the use of fertilizers has caused significant ecological problems, killing many fish in the process. The region is where much of the country's national parks lie as well, which are poorly-defended against climate change and industrialization. Rapid industrialization and population growth continues to threaten the natural balance of this region.

To the west and south is the Bambuk region (Mande: ߓߊߡߓߎߤߎ *Bambuhu*), a fertile, forested region which contains Mali's coastline. This region is humid in nature, though it becomes dryer half of the year. Much of Mali's natural resources such as bauxite, tin, iron and lumber comes from this region, which is cause for concern from environmentalists in and out of the country, which is a given as the country's national park system is failing to protect many natural areas of interest. Bambuk is host to the Fuuta Jaloo (Fula: 𞤊𞤵𞥅𞤼𞤢 𞤔𞤢𞤤𞤮), a plateau which is the source of the Gambia River. The seaports of Konakiri, Bofa and Kamsar are all located in the Bambuk region.

Directly south of Central Mali is the Wattara region. Corresponding to the historic Wattara Kingdom, this region has features of the typical sahelian savanna, as well as a regular west African rainforest. It is much less populated than other regions of the country due to it's dense rainforest, which comes both as a benefit and detriment to the people. On one hand, much of this forest is protected by law and general disinterest, but this leaves not much space for the locals to farm in the region. This region recieves rainfall year-wide, though it often uneven with more rain during the wetter region.

The wildlife of Mali, composed of its flora and fauna, is widely varying from the fringes of the Sahelian desert in the north, to the savannah of the central regions, and the rainforests of the west and south. There is very little wild life and a few national parks in Mali. The reserve and largest national park is the Boucle du Baoule National Park at 7,710 square kilometres (2,980 sq mi), which is located to the northeast of Bamako. There are 146 species of mammals in Mali of which 2 are critically endangered (CR), 3 are endangered (EN), 10 are vulnerable (VU), and 3 are near-threatened (NT). Seventeen Important Bird Areas (IBAs) have been designated in Mali, encompassing an area of 28,692 square kilometres (11,078 sq mi) (about 2.3% of the surface area of the country).

## Economy & Infrastructure

The national economy is based to a large extent upon agriculture, with a mostly rural population engaged in subsistence agriculture. Though it was considered one of Africa's fastest growing and stable economies in the past, the coups in 2012 and 2020 seriously hurt investment in the country. Much of the country's foreign investment comes from former colonial ruler France, India, Russia and Egypt. Sanctions were placed on Mali for 8 months after the 2020 coup, which hampered growth and slightly increased poverty in urban areas.

Agricultural activities occupy 70% of Mali's labor force and provide 42% of the GDP. Cotton and livestock make up 75%–80% of Mali's annual exports. Small-scale traditional farming dominates the agricultural sector, with subsistence farming of cereals, primarily sorghum, pearl millet, and maize composing about 86.3% of the 14,000 square kilometres (,500,000 acres) under cultivation. Much of this agriculture takes place in the hinterland of Konakiri, and along the banks of the Jeliba River. The country lacks much of the necessary vehicles used for agriculture, so they must rely on older, inefficient models.

Mining has long been an important aspect of the Malian economy. Gold, largest source of Malian exports, is still mined in the southern region: at the end of the 20th century Mali had the third highest gold production in Africa (after South Africa and Ghana). These goldfields, the largest of which lie in the Kenieba Mountains in western Mali were a major source of wealth and trade as far back as the Ghana Empire. The former Lusitanic colony and region of Guinea is richly endowed with minerals, possessing an estimated quarter of the world's proven reserves of bauxite, more than 1.8 billion tonnes (2.0 billion short tons) of high-grade iron ore, significant diamond and gold deposits, and undetermined quantities of uranium.

During the colonial period, private capital investment was virtually nonexistent, and public investment was devoted largely to the Office du Niger irrigation scheme and to administrative expenses. Following independence, Mali built some light industries with the help of various donors. Manufacturing, consisting principally of processed agricultural products, accounted for about 8% of the GDP in 1990. Today, the manafucturing industry in Mali is centered around the cities of Kamsar and Kankan, and is almost entirely dedicated to light manafacturing

Mali's transportation infrastructure is regarded as poor, even by regional standards, and deficiencies have limited economic growth and development. Nevertheless, improvements have been noted in the early 2000s. Most of the transportation in Mali consists of cars, planes, and boats. Rail travel, though present since colonial Portugal and France, have been neglected for passenger use, and are only used for transporting materials. The country contains three international airports; Sundata Keita Bamako Intl. Airport, Dubreka-Konakiri Airport and Mopti-Sevare Airport. The country's main ports are in Kamsar and Konakiri, though they have low handling capacities.

Between 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment program that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances. This was reflected in the increased GDP growth rates (9.6% in 2002) and decreased inflation. GDP in 2002 amounted to US$3.2 billion, made up of agriculture 37.8%, industry 26.4% and services 35.9%. Nowadays, finance in Mali is a small but important sector of the Malian economy. The country's banks are mostly based in Bamako, and the most notable financial institutes include Ecobank Mali, Bank of Africa, Malian Solidarity, UBA and BCEAO.

Tourism in Mali is not well developed. Due to issues with infrastructure, tourism had been slow to grow but had seen improvements prior to the 2002 Africa Cup of Nations. Development of the tourist industry was hindered by the country's inadequate transport infrastructure and a shortage of hotels for visitors. In preparation for this event, the government implemented a social development programme called "Mali 2002". The tourist industry benefited from this programme. The country is host to many UNESCO Sites such as the Bandiagara Escarpment, the old towns of Jenne-Jeno and Hamdallahi and Fuuta Djallon, the Tata of Sikaso and Mount Nimba.

## Demographics

As of 2022, the population of the country was 44.6 million, with an annual growth rate of 2.8%. Most of these people live in rural areas, mostly in the more temperate north of Mali, along the Jeliba River. Of the urbanized population, most of them live in Bamako, or the cities of Kong, Sikaso, Mopti, and Segu. It is estimated that only 47.2% of the population resides in urban areas (roughly 21 million), with the rest of the populace residing in small towns or rural settings (around 23 million people, or 56.3%). The rate of urbanization is 4.3%, up from 3.2% in 1992.

As of 2021, the birth rate in Mali was 5.91 births per woman, which was down from a high of 7.16 in 1988. This has caused a considerable strain on the country's infrastructure. The growth rate was 5.1% in 2019, and considering that rate, the country will have over 43.7 million inhabitants by the next 20 years. Many solutions have been put forward by the Malian government, including free birth contraceptives, tax cuts for small families, and more controversially, a 5% income tax for each child in a family with more than 2 children.

More than half of the population is of the Mande ethnicity, numbering at 26.8 million in Mali (60.2% of the country). The Mande are descended from the inhabitants of the Mali Empire, and Mande populations are now present in Wallo, Mali and Burkina Faso. The Mande have long dominated Malian society, with the vast majority of the upper class and politicians being of Mande descent. They are divided into a western and eastern subgrouping, with even more regional identities such as the Dyula.

The next largest group are the Fulani, a pastoral group who are present in almost every West African country except Liberia, Sierra Leone and the Ashanti Republic. In Mali, they number 13.5%, or 6 million. The third largest are the Senufo, a people inhabiting Mali and Burkina Faso, with a population of 5.8 million. Smaller groups are present in the country, such as the Sosso, Dogon and the Jola.

    The official language of the country is French, although Mande and Fula are beginning to be implemented as an official language as well. Mandinka is spoken by 60-70% of the populace. The country has three official scripts, which are Latin, N'ko and Adlam. Despite it's status, Adlam has only begun to be implemented, and most documents are in Latin or N'ko. Regionally recognized languages include Dyula (sometimes considered a Mande dialect), Senufo, Sosso & Dogon.

The country is overwhelmingly Islamic, with 90.7% following various branches of Islam. Sunni's comprise most of the country, at 90.5%, first introduced in the 9th century by Tuareg people on the Trans-Saharan trade routes. Much of the country became islamicized when the Mali and Songhai empires adopted Islam as their official religion. The Shia's number 92,000, and are concentrated in Timbuktu and Bamako. The Catholics number 1.1 million adherents, mostly amongst the Sosso and Senufo people. It was introduced during it's time as a French colony. Animism and tribal religions have a following in the country, mostly by the Dogon, who largely resisted Christianity and Islam.

## Culture

The varied everyday culture of Malians reflects the country's ethnic and geographic diversity. Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals, dances, and ceremonies. As the country modernizes, people are finding ways to integrate it's ancient Sahelian culture with medieval and modern identities. Historically, Mali had a large influence over African culture, which can be found throught Western Africa's music, architecture and fashion.

    Malian musical traditions are derived from the griots, who are essentially musical story-tellers. Malian music is diverse and has several different genres. Some famous Malian influences in music are kora virtuoso musician Toumani Diabaté, the ngoni with Bassekou Kouyate the virtuoso of the electric jeli ngoni, the late roots and blues guitarist Ali Farka Touré. Dance also plays a large role in Malian culture. Dance parties are common events among friends, and traditional mask dances are performed at ceremonial events.

Though Mali's literature is less famous than its music, Mali has always been one of Africa's liveliest intellectual centers. Mali's literary tradition is passed mainly by word of mouth, with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories known by heart. Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life writing these oral traditions down for the world to remember. The country's most famed literary work is the Epic of Sundiata, which tells the occurences in the life of Sundiata Keita, the founder of the Mali Empire.

The most popular sport in Mali is association football, which became more prominent after Mali hosted the 2002 African Cup of Nations. Most towns and cities have regular games; the most popular teams nationally are Djoliba AC, Stade Malien, and Real Bamako, all based in the capital. Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball. Basketball is another major sport; the Mali women's national basketball team, led by Hamchetou Maiga, competed at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Traditional wrestling is also somewhat common, though popularity has declined in recent years.

    The architecture of Mali is a distinct subset of Sudano-Sahelian architecture indigenous to West Africa. It comprises adobe buildings such as the Great Mosque of Djenné or the modern-influenced BCEAO Tower. It can be found all over the Sahel region of Africa. Malian architecture developed during the Ghana Empire, which founded most of Mali's great cities. They then flourished in West Africa's two greatest civilisations, the Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire, but are now currently facing a decline due to the advent of modern architechture.

The varied everyday wear of Malians reflects the country's ethnic and geographic diversity. Most Malians wear flowing, colorful robes called Agbada, that are typical of West Africa. It is a wide-sleeved robe, which has origins in traditional Tuareg and Berber clothing. Bògòlanfini is a handmade cotton-based fabric often used in Malian clothing, but is also used in fine art and decoration. It is often found in Malian clothes, and has ocassionally made it's way into mainstream modern fashion. It is considered the national costume, though Mali does not officially have one as of yet.

Mali cuisine includes rice and millet as staples of Mali, a food culture heavily based on cereal grains. Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from edible leaves, such as sweet potato or baobab, with tomato peanut sauce. The dishes may be accompanied by pieces of grilled meat. The country’s national dish is Tiguadege Na, though Jolof Rice and Fufu are more popular.

Radio is the primary means of mass communication in Mali. In practice, widespread poverty and the low literacy rate, as well as poor distribution outside of Bamako, limit access to television and print media. Mali has more than 125 radio stations as well as one television station. The former government-controlled radio and television broadcasting company is officially autonomous, but it has been accused by the political opposition of having a pro-government bias.