Mahmud Bey

**Mahmud Bey** (1256 Bakvaär Old Palace, Bakvaär - died May 1308, Turfeş Palace) was son of Işa I and his concubine Şirin Hatun. He escaped together with his brother Mehmed when Murad I ascended the throne in 1278 and then he usurped his throne in 1293, beginning the Redsons' interregnum. He is sometimes called **Mahmud the Usurper** (Gaspçı Mahmud) or even **Mahmud the Savior** (Kurtarıcı Mahmud).

Mahmud is remembered as the first Yoman ruler to organize campaigns against the already decadent Hai Empire. His reign was also characterized by the quest to heal the imperial coffers caused by the reign of Murad I.

## Early life

He was the son of Işa I and Şirin Hatun, who accompanied him once he was appointed Sanjakbey of Katip in 1266 after the death of his brother Yakup who had been appointed after the death of Melek Bey in 1260 who in turn had been appointed Sanjakbey in 1256.

When Işa died in 1278 Murad ascended the throne executing all his brothers and their sons however Şirin, fearing for his son's life, hid him and helped him escape together with Mehmed Bey, another son of Işa. Mahmud and Şirin, together with his two children managed to escape. Mehmed subsequently joined them but without his mother Hürrem Hatun who was captured and then tortured and finally killed by Murad who wanted to know where Mehmed had escaped.

## Exile

It is not known for certain where Mahmud and Mehmed fled but it was certainly outside the borders of the empire. It is believed, however, it's thought that they remained in contact with their sisters, at least with Hiriban Hatun who later helped them as an intermediary between Murad and the two, others, however, say that they did not remain in contact with anyone and that simply when the two returned to the empire the sisters allied themselves with the parties that pleased them most.

However, it is known with certainty that the two gathered an army during their years of exile. Their army consisted of: some loyal men who escaped with them in 1278, mercenaries, and after many provinces declared war on Murad they allied with them.

## Return to the Empire

They returned to the borders of the empire after Murad signed the Treaty of Açukşu in (1288/1289) which caused many provinces to rebel against Murad and declare war. The province they were that of Koçi, Eskisanjak (where Şehzade Korkut was Snajakbey), Çaışık, Harmoçuk, Roşlik and border provinces such as: Küturma, Armina amd Rimanı (suppressed by Şehzade Ahmed and Kasım), Şirinşah and Mürmidan.

Mahmud and Mehmed gathered together with some provinces (the coastal ones and that of Çaışık) which offered their army and their economic help. Once they entered the borders of the empire they settled in Furdanı north of the province of Küturma. When Murad learned of their return he wanted to reach them and execute them, however once he learned of their army he withdrew and asked his younger sister, Hiriban Hatun to act as an intermediary between the two, thus becoming the first female ambassador of the Yoman Empire.

However, diplomacy failed to calm the waters and forced first the sisters of the princes and then the empire to take sides. However, this increased disagreements and betrayals in the family, causing much instability and fear among Murad's court. The execution by Murad of his mother Gülmah Hatun and of his sister Fatma Hatun (killed after Murad discovered that she was allied with Mahmud and Mehmed) exponentially increased the terrors at court. All this led Hundi Melek Hatun, another sister of Murad and Mahmud, to decide to take sides of Mahmud, in fact trying to ally the Janissaries with her.

Murad declared war on Mahmud and Mehmed in 1291, claiming it had already been declared in 1278 when they escaped execution. War was inevitable and would therefore be declared shortly thereafter by one of the parties.

## War of Redsons

### Battle of Barsa

The war caused the empire to split into two, some by Murad and some by Mahmud and Mehmed. Murad had the majority having the Janissaries and most of the provinces on his side. Murad's army and that of Mehmed and Mahmud clashed at Barsa, however Murad did not present his entire army believing it was not necessary.

The battle was won by Mahmud and his brother, in fact Murad's army, although in the majority, had a high rate of betrayal. Both the Janissaries (thanks to the help of Hundi Hatun) and the allied provinces helped the enemy army with resources, aid and reinforcements.

### Battle of the Red River

After the Battle of Barsa, their's army remained victorious but also devastated, forcing them to flee together with their army and their followers. They retreated outside the empire, to Pomens near Arannia, the idea was to regenerate their strength and later return stronger. Their self-exile began in August of 1292.

Murad gathered his army again and the next year he reached, without the Janissaries, Mehmed's army which was in Pomens in the Pomegranate plain. Mehmed's army was defeat and Mehmed's son, Orhan, Mehmed and his retinue were all executed. When Mahmud learned of the deaths of Mehmed and his son Orhan, he built a türbe in Pomens in their honor.

In Murad he was joined by the Janissaries and together they reached Mahmud's army which was near the Nur river, called also Red River. Mahmud sent his son Abdülmecid Çelebi's army first, however the army lost and Abdülmecid was executed by Murad. Abdülmecid's body was brought before Mahmud by the Grand Vizier's men. Mahmud was devastated and according to legend he wrote to a Janissary to kill Murad I's son, Şehzade Mustafa. It is not known if it is true but the fact is that Mustafa died during the Battle of the Red River.the same fate was for rhe Grand Vizier Piri Ahmed Pasha who was poisoned before the battle began.

Murad's and Mahmud's armies clashed along the banks of the river, Murad's army was still in the majority and doubled Mahmud's army. However, during the battle Murad was betrayed and killed by a Janissary who stabbed him in the chest with a dagger. While Murad was lying on the ground no one helped Murad and they left him to die. Once dead, his body was shown to his army and brought before Mahmud.

## Ascension to the throne

Mahmud was presented with the sword of Açuki Pasha which served to proclaim him emperor. Afterwards Murad's army bowed to Mahmud who rode on horseback across the battlefield.

Mahmud arrived as far as Bakvaär and together with his court entered the doors of the Türfeş Palace while Açuki shouted: "*Destur Shahansah Bey-i a'za Fatih-i Pûmen Beylerbeylerbeyi Mahmud Han Hazretleri*".

Once he ascended the throne Mahmud ordered the execution of every male descendant of Murad and thereafter he buried all of them, along with Murad's body in the mausoleum that Murad had built during his lifetime. He then buried his son in a türbe called "Güneşetapan ihtişamaşığı Türbesi" suggesting that he was a good worshiper of God.

## Reign

Mahmud was well received, the people had no interest while the politicians were relieved that they did not have to fear for their lives. However, after the terrible handling of the fire of 1297 Mahmud's popularity suffered but subsequently, thanks to the victory of a campaign, he began to be appreciated again. After Mahmud's death the actions of his descendants led intellectuals to condemn Mahmud's reign and call him "the usurper".

### Campaigns against the Hai Empire (1295-1306)

Mahmud, fearing that the Janissaries would rebel, and trying to resolve the economic crisis left by Murad, he organized campaigns against the Hai Empire. Mahmud took advantage of the instability present in the empire which was now in decline and given the expiry of the Peace Treaty between the two empires he had every right to do so.

Mahmud was responsible for organizing these campaigns throughout his reign, he managed to conquer part of the southern side of the Hai Empire, the conquered territory was large enough to name it Sanjak, however this province was under Mahmud's direct administration being this in fact difficult to govern due to the presence of revolts. Mahmud around 1301 gave the Grand Vizier the ability to control the Sanjak and established a special Divan for it, naming his most loyal men as Açuki Pasha and Mikkali Mustafa Pasha.

The last campaign against the empire was in 1306 when Mahmud conquered the cities of Murhino (renamed Apukirzade in honor of Apukir Pasha, son of Açuki Pasha who died during the conquest) and the city of Consuliz renamed Mirpudin, where the Mirpudin Sarayi was built.

After that due to Mahmud's death no more campaigns were organized by him but by his son Haznir Bey.

### Fire of 1297

In 1297 a big fire broke out in the capital, a boat caught fire and with it the entire pier and the surrounding territories including the districts and a part of the Old Bakvaär Palace Mosque ruining some tombs which were immediately renovated and rebuilt. The money earned from the previous campaign against the Hai Empire was all spent on the reconstruction of the Mosque and the pier, not having further money Mahmud did not rebuild the burned houses.

The muftis and other intellectuals they took advantage of the opportunity to financed the construction of the houses and highly criticized Mahmud's act of only taking care of the pier and the mosque, describing him as "usurper" and "selfish".

### Administration

Mahmud decided to eliminate the smaller provinces and merged them with the larger ones, for example the province of Gül was merged with that of Eskisanjak. This was to limit administrative costs, in fact after Murad's reign the empire suffered many financial losses and Mahmud had to argue with them.

Mahmud marked the first breach in the tradition of royal fratricide; however, he did not abolish it but made it clear that he did not intend for it to be respected. In fact, Mahmud wanted to avoid repeating situations like his and avoid disputes and civil wars. However after him only his son Haznir and Yoman respected this rule, after which subsequent rulers respected the law of fratricide. Furthermore, Mahmud diminished the power of women within the imperial family so as to definitively avoid further clashes and family disputes, which had characterized the reign of his predecessor.

## Column of Mahmud Bey

After Mahmud helped his sister Hiriban financially, she thanked him and erected a column in the Karazza market in his honor, the Mahmud Bey Sütunu (Column of Mahmud Bey), the column represented Mahmud's life and ascension to the throne, it was built in pre-fallen style taking inspiration from the columns of some Emperors. Mahmud's column started a tradition among subsequent rulers who built columns to celebrate their victory; this custom stopped with Ömer Bey.

This column depicted the trust that not only Hiriban but the entire kingdom had towards Mahmud and his dynasty, however despite at first Mahmud was seen as a savior years after his death due to the multiple mistakes caused by his descendants to be called "Mahmud the usurper " ("Gaspçı Mahmud").

## Murder and burial

Mahmud's death is suspicious. He had no health problems so it is thought that he was murdered as there are no records stating a possible accident that somehow led to Mahmud's death.

Mahmud also had several enemies within his family, in fact his sisters Salça Hatun and Hatice Hatun had grudges against their brother. Mahmud had ordered the murder of Salça Hatun's husband Piri Ahmed Pasha and therefore somehow may have held a grudge while Hatice Hatun had suffered several economic problems at the beginning of Mahmud's reign due to the confiscation of his assets by Mahmud himself and asked her brother for help however he refused due to the problems economic that the empire had, subsequently due to the elimination of the minor provinces her son, who provided her with a salary to survive, had been deposed from the title of Sanjakbey; Hatice wrote Mahmud a letter in 1298:

> I ask you for help oh my sovereign, oh my king, oh my bey, oh my brother. The new institution has hurt me a lot, I know I offended you but it wasn't my intention and I was driven by fear.
>
>

This letter it somehow confirms that there were misunderstandings between Hatice and Mahmud as the historical Mürçi declared. Some historians, however, claim that Mahmud helped her secretly, giving her at least the bare minimum through anonymous donations; in fact, according to historians, Hatice would never have survived on her own.

It is not actually known whether Hatice or Salça had anything to do with Mahmud's death, maybe both or maybe just Hatice or just Salça. It is thought that at least one of them if not two helped Mahmud's assassins in some way. According to some historians, Mahmud's son Haznir, who was about to ascend the throne, convinced his aunts to assassinate Mahmud. In fact, as soon as Haznir ascended the throne he increased Hatice Hatun's salary, so it was very possible Hatice who had something to do with the assassination.

Once Haznir ascended the throne he ordered Mahmud's body to be buried in the Sultaniye Complex in a dome dedicated to him and his family called: "Küçük Kırmızı Kubbe" (the little red dome) due to the red color present.

## Family

### Consorts

* Çiçek Hatun: one of his first concubine, she escaped with Mahmud in 1278 but died in exile;
* Kara Hatun: maybe mother of Haznir. she escaped with Mahmud in 1278 but died in exile;
* Emine Hatun: she escaped with Mahmud in 1278, when Mahmud ascended the throne she was still alive. Perhaps she was Haznir's adoptive mother or his biological mother. She died before the rise of Haznir;
* Dilşad Hatun: maybe mother of Mehmed.

### Sons

* Abdülmecid Çelebi (1273-1293); firstborn. He died during the Battle of Redsons;
* Ibrahim Çelebi (?-?);
* Haznir Bey (1284-1330)- with Kara or Emine. He ascended the throne after his father;
* Mehmed Çelebi (born 1303) named in honor of his uncle Mehmed, he died young.

### Daughters

* Aslıhan Hatun (1277-1333) she married the Grand Vizier, Taceddin Pasha and they had a son, Alaeddin Pasha. Then she married twice.