recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Topic C - Do TV and Video games affect young people's behaviour?

## Syllabus outline

1. Biological causes of aggression
2. Social Learning Theory (social theory)
3. Comparing Biological and Social Theories of Aggression
4. Nature-nurture debate in relation to understanding aggression
5. Ramirez et al (2001)
6. Anderson and Dill (2000)
7. Charlton et al (2000)
8. Williams (1981)
9. Content Analysis (methodology)
10. Ethical issues
11. Role of an educational psychologist
12. Censorship

## Key Terminology

**Amygdala:** A brain structure thought to be involved in aggression

**Limbic system:** An area of the brain involved in emotion

**Hormones:** Chemicals produced by the human body that send signals to organs around the body via the bloodstream

**Observational Learning:** The process of learning from watching others

**Modelling:** Observing, identifying with and copying the behaviour of a role model

**Identification:** A feeling of similarity with a role model that leads to the imitation of their behaviour - we believe that we can be like them

**Vicarious Reinforcement:** Learning through the positive consequences of other people's actions rather than firsthand - we are more likely to copy if they are rewarded

**Nature:** What we are born with

**Nurture:** What we learn from the way we are raised

**Content Analysis:** A research method used to measure the number of times something comes up in a book, newspaper article, television programme, etc.

**Tally:** A single mark on a chart to show that a behaviour/category has been found during a content analysis
Questionnaires

This is about the research method Questionnaires for Topic D - Phobias. Questionnaires are a series of questions asking for a person's opinion/data/information. You will need to learn about different kinds of questions.

## Question types

**Closed questions:** They are questions with one answer only. Yes/No answers is a good example.

**Open-ended questions:** Questions that can be answered in more detail. It gives more information. People can describe their feelings, opinions or actions.

**Rank style questions:** Asks the participant to say how much 'more' or 'less' things are. A good example is : "Give each animal below a number from 1 (most scary) to 4 (least scary)

**Likert-type scales:** A special kind of question. Participants are asked to judge how much they agree with a statement. This can be used to measure people's attitudes. For example: "Snakes move suddenly: *Strongly agree, Agree, Neither agree or disagree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree*"

## Evaluating questionnaires

**Strengths:**

**Can use standardised instructions,** so all participants get the same questions unlike an interview. This means that all the answers can be directly compared. Lots of questionnaires can be sent out, so the results of the phobia survey are more likely to be reliable.

**There are no ethical concerns** because informed consent needs to be gained. This is important as the subject such as phobias or aggression may be distressing. An experiment would not be appropriate in such cause as it may cause a bad response, so a questionnaire is more ethical.

**Questionnaires can ask direct questions about attitudes and opinions,** which cannot be gained by observations. It would be difficult and unethical to experiment on phobias as it can cause distress. Observing a fear response does not gain the qualitative data that is able to be gathered using a survey.

**Weaknesses:**

**Response bias:** When participants fill in a questionnaire they sometimes fall into patterns of answering, called response bias. If you think TV is damaging you might keep giving answers expressing this view. Sometimes participants may give answers they think the researcher wants.

**Social desirability bias:** Participants might not be truthful when answering a questionnaire, they might answer it in a way that makes them look good, even if they do it unconsciously. This can make them give socially acceptable answers rather than what they really do/believe.

**Hiding the aims:** Sometimes the researchers need to void participants knowing the aims of the study as this might bias their responses. This is an ethical problem as they are not giving fully informed consent.

## Standardised Instructions

Questionnaires need to have standardised instructions.

Instructions should have specific reference to procedure/aim/type of questions and a check of understanding or a good outline of ethics and refer to phobias/fears.
Topic E - Are criminals born or made?

**Syllabus content:**

1. Biological explanations of criminality (genetics, chromosomes, twin studies)
2. Social explanations of criminality (self-fulfilling prophecy, childrearing strategies, family patterns)
3. Comparing biological and social explanations of criminality, nature-nurture debate
4. Sigall and Ostrove 1975 (Aim, procedure, findings/results, conclusion, evaluation)
5. Madon et al 2004 (Aim, procedure, findings/results, conclusion, evaluation)
6. Theilgaard 1984 (Aim, procedure, findings/results, conclusion, evaluation)
7. Ethical and practical problems associated with biological and social research into criminality
8. Purpose, process and effectiveness of offender profiling as a method used to help catch criminals
9. Offender profiling in the case of John Duffy
10. Role of a forensic psychologistClick here to see example exam questions.
Carmichael, Hogan and Walter (1932)

## **Aim:**

To find out if verbal labels shown with pictures affects perception and the way the pictures were remembered

## **Procedure:**

* The experiment was a lab experiment.
* It used an independent groups design.
* Participants were split into 3 groups. Group 1 was shown pictures with verbal labels from List 1. Group 2 was shown pictures with verbal labels from List 2. A control group was shown pictures with no verbal labels from either group.
* Then they were asked to draw the picture.
* The pictures were compared to the original. This was the dependent variable.

## **Results:**

* In Group 1 , 73 percent of drawings resembled the word given.
* In group 2, 74 percent of drawings resembled the word given.
* In the control group, only 45 per cent resembled either one of the words.
* This shows that the words affected the participant’s memory of the pictures.

## **Conclusion:**

* Memory for pictures is reconstructed.
* The verbal labels affect the recall because the memory of the word alters the way the pictures are represented.

## **Evaluation**

 **Strengths**

* control group who didn’t hear anything at all was used to show that people’s drawings weren’t always distorted in the same way
* 12 pictures gave a lot of evidence
* Two lists showed clearly that verbal labels affected people’s drawings.

 **Weaknesses**

* In real life things are not as ambiguous
* Prentice (1954) tested the effects of verbal labels on recognition instead of recall. His results showed that verbal labels did not affect recognition. This would mean that Carmichael’s findings did not apply very widely.
Topic A - How do we see the world?

## Content

Here is an outline of all the content in Topic A, including a description of what questions you may get.

1. Biological structure of the eye
2. Gregory's theory: Cues to depth such as superimposition, relative size, linear perspective, stereopsis, texture gradient, height in the plane; size constancy. Strengths + Weaknesses
3. Gestalt laws: figure-ground, continuity, proximity, similarity and closure. Strengths + Weaknesses
4. Visual illusions: fictions, ambiguous, distortions
5. Palmer (Aims, procedure, findings/results, evaluation)
6. Bartlett (Aims, procedure, findings/results, evaluation)
7. Carmichael, Hogan and Walter (Aims, procedure, findings/results, evaluation)
8. IV, DV, statistics, independent groups design, repeated measures design, control of variables
9. Ethical issues in lab experiments: Informed consent, right to withdraw
10. Eyewitness memory and schema, influence on society

## Exam Questions

Easy: Multiple choice questions, could be on anything, most commonly on 1,2,3 and 4.

Medium: Asked to explain illusions. Asked about 9, 10, 11.

Hard: Asked about 6,7,8.

**Click here to see example exam questions for this topic!**

## Key Terminology

**SCHEMA:** A framework of knowledge about an object, event or group of people that can affect our perception and help us to organise information and recall what we have seen.

**PERCEPTUAL SET:** The tendency to notice some things more than others. This can be caused by experience, context or expectations.

**INDEPENDENT VARIABLE:** the factor which is changed by the researcher in an experiment to make two or more conditions.

**DEPENDENT VARIABLE:** the factor which is measured in an experiment

**CONTROL:** the factor(s) which are kept unchanged to measure the impact of the independent variable

**SERIAL REPRODUCTION:** a task where a piece of information is passed from one participant to the next in a chain or ‘series’. Differences between each version are measured.

**REPEATED PRODUCTION:** a task where the participant is given a story or picture to remember. They then recall it several times after time delays. Differences between each version are measured.

**RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY:** recalled material is not just a ‘copy’ of what we see or hear. Information is stored and when it is remembered it is ‘rebuilt’, so can be affected by extra information and by ideas (like schemas) we might already have.
Offender Profiling

## Aim

The profile can give clues about evidence that might be found on the criminal, such as souvenirs taken from the crime scene.

## Process

Analysis of the crime, making detailed records of the victim, place, photographs, DNA evidence and time of day. A criminal profiler uses this information to construct a list of probable features of a criminal.

## Evaluation

There has been debate over whether offender profiling is useful or not.

**Some people believe that offender profiling is only guesswork:**

 It is the profilers own subjective interpretation of behavioural characteristics of a crime;

Not based on actual evidence (e.g. DNA);

Has been responsible for false conviction, Colin Stagg was wrongly arrested and made an outcast due to an incorrect profile that pointed to him

**Some people believe that offender profiling is useful:**

 It is based on psychological theory/geographical profiling/clinical evidence/undertaken by an expert; Behavioural clues left at the crime scene can be considered evidence to build a profile; Cases such as John Duffy have been successful use of profiling.

**But we don't know because:**

 Its purpose is not to find a criminal but to narrow the field so it is difficult to judge whether it is guesswork. However, there are many factors that dictate successful cases so a criminal being caught or not may be a result of other factors. The police may not use the profile so it is difficult to judge accuracy/whether it is guesswork or not. Sometimes it works and sometimes it doesn’t, so it’s difficult to say if it works or not.
Character infobox

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Schema

You need to know:

* What is schema
* What is perceptual set
* How to explain schema
* What is eyewitness memory and why it is important

 Schema is a framework of knowledge about an object, event or group of people that can affect our perception and help us to organise information and recall what we have seen.

We all have a perceptual set, the tendency to notice some things more than others, which can be caused by experience, context or expectations.

In this syllabus you will learn about different ways schema affects our perception:

1. Visual context and illusions
2. Visual context in the real world: Palmer, Carmichael et al, Bartlett
3. Eyewitness memory
Case Study Method

A case study is an in-depth study that gathers a lot of detail about one person or a small group. It involves many research methods. It has an aim but no hypothesis. Interviews, questionnaires, experiments, secondary data and case histories can be used to collect data.

## Features of a case study

- In-depth, detailed

- Focuses on one person or a small group of people

- Uses many methods to collect information

## Qualitative and Quantitative data

**Qualitative** - Rich data, open questions, asking for someone's opinion. In-depth, detailed and personal information. Explanations and examples from the subject of the study.

**Quantitative**- Numerical data, numbers, statistics, eg. results from a brain scan. Closed questions are also in this category.

## Weaknesses of case studies

**Generalisability:** They are not generalisable, the results cannot be applied to all people because a case study is a study on only one person or a small group of people. Other people may behave differently.

**Reliability:** This is measured based on if another study would give the same results. Case studies are not reliable because they are difficult to repeat because of the different methods used and the depth of the data. If a case study is repeated the results would be different.

**Subjectivity and Objectivity:** Case studies are subjective and not objective (see key terminology). This means that the researcher has somehow affected the results, it is biased/subjective. Case studies are subjective because the researcher has selected and interpreted the results. A study needs to be objective to be more scientific.

## Strengths

**Valid:** It collects valid, real life data that directly applies to real life situations because a case study is about real events.

**Detail:** It can collect data that is hard to find in anyway. They are very detailed and provide information about many aspects of someone's life. Not many other research methods can achieve this.

## Ethics

**Privacy:** Making sure the identity of the participant is kept secret. Names must not be recorded and they must not be identifiable.

**Confidentiality:** Refers to the participant's right to withdraw/withhold information from the researcher. Information about the participant would not be shared with others without permission.

## Little Hans

See Freud's 1900 Theory of Dreaming for more information. This is a case study that you are required to learn about in this syllabus.
Ethical and practical problems with criminal research

## Biological

 Chromosome abnormalities are very difficult to detect. Very few obvious signs that a person has it.
 There are many different types of crimes and criminals. Crimes are very different. A criminal gene as a general concept is unlikely to be found.
 Family, twin and adoption studies often rely upon convictions and arrests. Many criminals are successful so will not be caught for their crimes and therefore will not be included in these studies.

==
**Social ==**

 Memory is not very reliable after a few years. Asking criminals themselves might be unreliable, may blame other factors to get out of jail
Discussing Case Studies and Experiments

Many people lose marks when they are asked to discuss experiments.

This has been briefly touched on in the Methodology pages, the information is all over the place, and here it is summarized into one page. This page explains all you need to know about ethical and practical issues with experiments, and how to talk to them.

You need to learn a few key features related to case studies/experiments

## Key Terminology

It is crucial that you use Key Terminology in your answers, this is how you score higher marks.

**Unrepresentative:** Limited so that it might not apply to everyone

**Reliability:** Refers to whether findings from a study would be found again if the study was repeated

**Consent:** Permission to take part in a study

**Right to withdraw:** A participant's right to leave a study at any time and their ability to do so

**Deception:** Being lied to

**Debrief:** Being told the truth about a study when it is over

**Competence:** A psychologist's ability to conduct a study

**Protection of participants:** Looking after the rights and welfare of participants to ensure no physical or psychological damage

**Independent Variable:** The factor which is changed by the researcher in an experiment to make two or more conditions

**Dependent Variable:** The factor which is measured in an experiment

**Natural experiment:** An experiment where the independent variable is naturally occuring and not set up by the researchers
Little Peter, Cover Jones (1924)

## Aim

To investigate whether a phobia in a little boy could be deconditioned and whether this would generalize to other objects.

## Procedure

Peter was 2 years old when Jones began observing him. He had a phobia of white rats. His reaction to different objects was observed. His fear of the white rat was generalized to other objects. Peter was also shown a rabbit and he was more afraid of the rabbit than the white rat, so a rabbit was used for deconditioning. Peter had daily play sessions with three other children and the rabbit, which the other children did not fear. Other children were role models(Social learning theory was used), classical conditioning was used. New situations were used to get Peter closer to the rabbit. Eventually, he manages to associate the rabbit with relaxation and is deconditioned.

## Findings/Results

Peter’s behaviour improved and worsened, eg. when he was scratched by the rabbit

Six people were given the descriptions of his reactions in a random order and asked to put them in order of improvement (tolerance series). He sometimes got better and he sometimes got worse.

## Conclusion

Both classical conditioning and social learning theory helped to decondition Peter. The deconditioning also reduced generalised fears and helped Peter to cope with new animals.

## Evaluation

 She asked other people to order the tolerance series so avoided being biased herself
 She used different ways to help Peter
Exam Technique

You need some degree of exam technique and language proficiency to achieve the highest marks in Psychology.

## Understanding the command terms

1. **State**
2. **Describe**
3. **Explain**
4. **Evaluate**

## How to approach a paper

1. Once you get your paper, briefly skim through the pages, so you can see what questions you are going to get and guess how long you need to spend on each question
2. The paper starts with multiple choice questions. Read the question carefully, do not rush through this section.
3. When you get longer answer questions read the questions even more carefully, highlighting important command terms.
4. Even if you don't know the answer, don't leave the question blank, just make a good guess
5. Questions with an asterix, \*, requires your answer to use good grammar and spelling, as well as good structure and content
6. Don't freak out

## How to revise for the test

1. Regularly look back on things you have learnt before
2. A good time to start revising what you have learnt so far is 2 months before the exam, you should be near the end of the syllabus
3. Check the content list to see if you have missed anything
4. Learn and make notes on anything you have missed
5. A common revision activity is to make posters about content you have trouble with
6. Start doing past papers, two past papers a week is a good number
7. One month before the exam make sure that you have finished the syllabus. This is a good time to start doing past papers.
8. A few days before the exam go back and revise everything you know. Make sure there are no gaps in your knowledge.
9. Go to bed early the night before the exam.
Methodology

## Topic B

1. **Qualitative data:**open-ended questions, interviews, long answers, detailed data
2. **Quantitative data:**numerical data, yes/no questions, one answer questions/answers
3. **Reliability:**refers to whether the findings from a study could be found again if repeated
4. **Privacy:**ethical guideline, names must not be recorded and they must not be identifiable
5. **Confidentiality:**ethical guideline, information gained must not be shared with others without permission
Content Analysis

You need to know:

* What content analysis is
* What researchers must be aware of while conducting content analysis
* How content analysis is conducted
* Reliability

## What is content analysis

A research method used to measure the number of times a behavior or event occurs within one or several forms of media.

## Conducting content analysis

Researchers who wanted to see how much aggression occurred on television would use content analysis as a research method. They would have to take a number of steps to do this:

* Decide what aggressive behaviour is.
* Develop a list of behaviours or categories that could be measured as aggressive.
* Decide on the sample they need to study
* Tally the number of times aggression occurred

## How is content analysis conducted

**Tallying:** The researcher uses a tally to record how many times they witnessed the aggressive acts on their list. These are added up to give the total number of aggressive acts so that they can decide how much aggression is on television.

**Choice of categories:** The list of behaviours needs to be a good example of what is being measured. Sometimes pushing may not be a good measure of aggression, especially when the children are only playing a game.

**Sampling:** Good content analysis depends on looking at a good sample of programmes. Even the time of day or type of programme can lead to a biased sample. See Watershed for an explanation.

## Reliability of content analysis

Each researcher has their own views, and this means that the results of a study might not be reliable. This could lead to researchers coming to different conclusions.
Topic D - Why do we have phobias?

## Content

1. Evolutionary explanation of preparedness (biological theory)
2. Social Learning Theory (social theory)
3. Classical conditioning
4. Nature-nurture debate in relation to phobias
5. Methodology (for this unit)
6. Questionnaires as a research method
7. Practical and ethical issues of animal experiments
8. Cover Jones (1924) The case of Little Peter
9. Bennett-Levy and Mareau (1984) Fear of animals, preparedness
10. Flooding and Systematic Desensitisation - Treatment of phobias
11. Role of a clinical psychologist
12. Heinrichs et al (2005) Cultural differences, social anxiety
Animal Experiments

You need to learn the practical and ethical issues with animal experiments.

## Ethical issues

**Causes pain and fear** - Some experiments on animals cause pain or fear. To remain ethical the experimenter has to make sure that only the lowest level of pain/fear is used. (minimizing pain) Coombes et al and Mineka et al are examples of two experiments where fear/pain was installed in the animals, but no major damage was caused.

**Social isolation -** Some experiments on animals require the animal to be kept alone. This could easily cause distress to some animals especially animals that are social (eg. dogs, monkeys and rats). To remain ethical this should be avoided.

**Number of animals -** It is often important to use several animals to be sure that the result is typical (reliability). However to remain ethical researchers still have to use as few animals as they can.

**Choice of species** - Different species of animal find different things distressing. So, for example, to avoid ethical issues with social isolation a less social animal should be chosen to study with. Jones used a rabbit which was an ethically good choice as rabbits are less afraid of humans.

## Practical issues

**Strengths of animal experiments:**

 - **They are similar to humans:** Animals and humans are similar, so the results can be generalised to humans

- **They are simpler than humans:** They are simpler to study, the results can be studies and scaled up for humans

- **Deprivation:** Animals are easier to control than humans, so they can be isolated to ensure that the variables under study are the only ones affecting them

**Weaknesses of animal experiments:**

- **Animals are different from humans:** People can learn through a process called insight, where we have a problem that we can't solve immediately using information given in the scene. But animals usually can't do this. We are able to do things that animals can't such as using language, so we learn in more complex ways. This suggests that not all studies with animals can apply to humans.
Evolutionary Theory and Preparedness

## Evolution and Phobias

The theory of evolution and preparedness can help explain biologically why people have phobias. To help you better understand this theory imagine this scenario: There are two animals living in a forest. One day there is a forest fire, and one animal runs away, while the other shows no fear and stays in the danger zone. According to the theory of evolution, the animal that runs away will survive. The same thing applies to humans. **This shows that fear helps us survive.**

## Preparedness

Preparedness is the tendency to learn some associations more easily, quickly and permanently than others. Less input is needed to fear something that was harmful to us in our evolutionary past than something that was not. This is why we are more likely to fear snakes more than rocks. Our ancestors developed genes of fear for objects that were harmful to them and passed them down to us, so we are more 'prepared' to fear them over objects that were not harmful to them in the past. The idea of preparedness also explains why we do not easily learn fears of modern things that are potentially dangerous, such as cars or knives.

**In conclusion, the biological theory of phobias suggests that we have genes of fear for these objects that were passed down to us from our ancestors, causing us to be more 'prepared' to fear objects that were harmful to early humans, making us more likely to fear these objects over objects that were not harmful to them in the past.**

## Bennet Levy and Marteau (1984)

This is a major study that you need to study in this syllabus. See Bennet-Levy and Marteau.

## Seligman (1971)

Seligman (1971) said that we have evolved to be conditioned to fear some things more than others. Seligman thought that less input was needed to learn an association to a prepared stimulus than to a non prepared one. If evolution prepares us to learn to be afraid of fire, we will make an association between fear and fire much more quickly than between fear and a non prepared stimulus such as a rock. These things included situations which can be dangerous/threatening to humans early in their evolution, such as fire, deep water, lightning, and heights. These are all common phobias.
Types of Exam Questions

1. **Multiple Choice** - These questions are very easy and test your basic knowledge about the topic. In the exam there are a few multiple choice questions at the start of every topic.
2. **Tick the boxes, simple diagram questions, etc.** Like multiple choice questions, this is a way of asking for more basic knowledge. Usually appears in every test.
3. **Study questions -** You will have learnt about various case studies in the syllabus. You may be asked about the aim, procedure, findings/results, conclusion and evaluation of these case studies. These questions can range from moderate to hard.
4. **Evaluation questions -** You may have to evaluate a certain study. Sometimes you have to describe and evaluate a whole theory. (10 mark questions) Make sure you learn the strengths and weaknesses of each theory.

See example exam questions answered for you in each topic:

**Topic A Example Questions**

**Topic B Example Questions**

**Topic C Example Questions**

**Topic D Example Questions**

**Topic E Example Questions**
Comparing the biological and social explanations of criminality

**Compare the Biological and Social explanations of criminality 10 marks**

 This is a question in the exam that you must know how to answer very well (for an A\* grade). You need to outline both the theories, provide evidence using the key studies that you have learnt about (explain their aim, procedure, findings and results) then evaluate both the studies and come to a reasonable conclusion.

Planning the answer:

 We inherit the genes that cause criminal behaviour. Preparedness
 Criminal behaviour runs in some families
 Adoption studies show how crime can be inherited
 Theilgaard (1984) XXY chromosome abnormality may cause aggression in males, leading to violent crime
 Chromosome research is limited, only a small sample have been gathered and studies
 But there is confusion between genetics and upbringing in family studies

Model Answer:

The Biological explanation of criminality states that we inherit the genes that cause criminal behaviour.

Theilgaard’s 1984 study wanted to see that if criminals had a particular gene that could be responsible for their behaviour. She took blood samples from over 20 000 men born in the 1940s and performed blood tests. She found two chromosome abnormalities, an XXY chromosome and an XYY chromosome pattern. XYY and XXY males were less intelligent and more aggressive than normal men. This could be evidence for a criminal gene if aggression is a sign for criminality.

Some more proof of this would be that criminal behaviour runs in some families.  Adoption studies show how crime could be inherited. These look at relatives that are adopted at a young age, meaning that they share the same genes but not the same environment. He looked at how many of the adopted children had criminal records compared to their biological and adoptive parents. He found that adopted children with criminal records for property theft also had biological fathers with criminal convictions even though they did not raise them. Mednick conducted a study of 14,427 adopted children in 1984.

The social theory of criminal behaviour focuses on how we are made criminal. Being brought up in a family that makes criminal behaviour more likely.

Madon’s study aimed to see if a parent’s expectation of their child’s drinking habits would become a reality. If parents thought that their child would drink a lot of alcohol, will this lead to them actually drinking more? She questioned 115 children aged between 12 and 13 and their parents. Parents were asked to guess how much alcohol their child regularly drank or would drink over the coming year. A year later, the children were asked about how much alcohol they actually consumed. The results showed that the children who drank the most alcohol were the ones that were predicted to have a greater use of alcohol. Therefore, a parent’s prediction of their child’s alcohol use was very accurate. This was concluded that this is a self-fulfilling prophecy because what the parent expected came true. This shows that a parent’s belief can have a massive influence on a child’s behaviour.
Criminality Studies - Practical and Ethical issues

Ethical issues:

- Offenders may lie about their past

- May underplay crimes for an early release

- May feel distressed or remorseful about their actions

- Their memories may be unreliable

## Biological

 Chromosome abnormalities are very difficult to detect. Very few obvious signs that a person has it.
 There are many different types of crimes and criminals. Crimes are very different. A criminal gene as a general concept is unlikely to be found.
 Family, twin and adoption studies often rely upon convictions and arrests. Many criminals are successful so will not be caught for their crimes and therefore will not be included in these studies.

## Social

 Memory is not very reliable after a few years. Asking criminals themselves might be unreliable, may blame other factors to get out of jail.
Charlton et al (2000) St Helena study

This is a key study in Topic C - Aggression. It investigates the nature/social side of the theory.

## Aim

To investigate the effects of television on children's social behaviour.

## Procedure

St Helena was a remote island in the South Atlantic Ocean, that was not connected to TV.

Independent variable - The introduction of TV

Dependent variable - Children's behaviour before and after the introduction of TV.

Charlton and his colleagues began their study of children's behaviour two years before TV was connected to the island. This was a natural experiment because the researchers did not have to set up the experiment themselves.

Charlton collected data about children's behaviour using number of methods:

* Using questionnaires and asking parent and teachers about the behaviour of children
* Observations of the children's behaviour were made in the school playground, particularly the level of aggression the children displayed
* The researchers' content analysed what and how much the children watched television and how much violence was seen.
* Video cameras were placed in the school classrooms and playgrounds to watch the children and measure the level aggression.

## Results/Findings

Charlton found very little difference in the children's behaviour before and after the introduction of television, the island had a very low rate of behavioural problems with children before the study and this did not significantly increase after TV was introduced.

Because the population of St Helena was so small, with everyone knowing everyone else, and parents having a high level of control over their children's behaviour, the effect of television was reduced. TV did not have the impact it could have had in a less isolated environment.

## Conclusion

This study shows that TV did not have a significant impact on children's behaviour. Even if violence was watched it was not copied. This was due to high levels of community control and surveillance and parents' control over behaviour.

## Evaluation

**Strengths:**

* This study was a natural experiment, which means it has greater realism than a laboratory or field experiment
* Discreet cameras were used so the children would have acted naturally because they did not know that they were being watched.

**Weaknesses:**

* Because of the close nature of the community, it might be that the children were more aggressive after watching TV, but that parents and teachers were unwilling to report this to maintain the reputation of the community
* Other psychologists have reported that the programmes watched by children contained less violence than programmes watched by mainland children
Williams (1981)

## Aim

Wanted to measure children's behaviour before and after television had been introduced to the town and also to compare the children's behaviour with that in other towns that did have TV.

## Procedure

It was a natural experiment. Measured a range of behaviours before and after the town received television.

**Independent Variable:** Before and after television was produced.

**Dependent Variable:**

* aggression of children in the playground and classroom
* leisure activities the community were involved in
* intelligence level of children
* creative and reading ability of children

To measure aggression, two observers watched children very closely in the school playground and classroom They only started observing once the children were used to their presence to make sure the children did not behave differently because they were being observed. They measured the number of physical aggression and verbal aggression seen. The participant's leisure time was recorded to see if time spent on leisure activities changed.

They measured 3 towns, Notel: had no television, Unitel: had only one TV channel, Multitel: had many TV channels. All three towns were studies before TV was introduced in Notel, and for two years later.

## Findings/Results

* The children were twice as aggressive after television was introduced.
* Children and adults spend less than half the time they had spent previously on other leisure activities.
* Children began to see increased gender differences between boys and girls after watching television.
* Children became less creative.
* IQ scores dropped slightly.
* Although aggression in all towns increased over the two-year study, aggression in NOtel children increased far more in comparison. But overall Unitel and Multitel were quite similar.

## Conclusion

Notel showed increased levels of aggression because of the introduction of television; we know this because aggression increased far more here than in towns that already received television. Television also reduced time spent on leisure activities and lowered creativity and intelligence slightly.

## Evaluation

Strengths:

* Natural experiment, greater realism.
* Children monitored over a long period of time, behaviour before and after TV could be directly compared.
* Children were observed in their natural surroundings.

Weaknesses:

* The researchers did not control what or how much TV the children watched, or the adult supervision and control of viewing.
* Observations might be biased because the researchers may have expected higher levels of aggression.
Ethics in Research (Topic A)

You need to know:

* Informed Consent
* Right to withdraw

## Informed Consent

An individual's right to know what will happen in an experiment, and its aim, before agreeing to participate.

Deception is when the participants are tricked in order to hide the aim of the experiment.

Sometimes this is necessary for the experiment.

In the exam, you will be expected how to solve issues like informed consent. For example, you can say that to solve informed consent you must inform the participants of the study's aims and avoid deception.

You need to identify informed consent as an ethical issue in a sample experiment.

## Right to Withdraw

A participant's right to know what will happen in an experiment, and its aims, before agreeing to participate.

In an experiment a participant needs to be able to withdraw at any time in order for the study to be ethical.

In the exam you need to identify this ethical issue
Syllabus

This course is 100% Exam based, no coursework involved. Please check out Edexcel's specification for more detailed information.

Two papers:

Paper 1 - 1hr 15mins, multiple choice and short answers. 40% of final grade

* Topic A: How do we see our world?  Optical illusions, art, perception
* Topic B: Is dreaming meaningful?

Paper 2 - 1 hr 45mins - some longer answers eg up to a page of A4. 60% of final grade

* Topic C: Do TV and video games affect young people's behaviour?
* Topic D: Why do we have phobias? Treatment options.
* Topic E: Are criminals born or made?

**Topic A - How do we see our world?**

 This unit focuses on perception (which means seeing and understanding) and how we see the things the way they are. This unit explains how we see distance or 'depth' and what goes wrong when we are fooled by optical illusions. You will learn about the structure of the eye, depth cues, Gregory's theory, Gestalt's theory, and different types of illusions to name a few.

**Topic B - Is dreaming meaningful?**

Psychologists have investigated dreaming for a long time. There seems to be many reasons as to why we dream. In this topic you will learn Freud's theory and Hobson & McCarley's theory of dreaming. You will learn different explanations for dreaming and compare/contrast them.

**Topic C - Do TV and video games affect young people's behaviour?**

 In this unit you will learn what may cause aggression. You will investigate whether hormones of the brain are responsible for aggression and how we might learn aggression from the TV and video games we watch. These are the biological and social theories to aggression. You will investigate this question by looking at how psychologists use content analysis, ethical problems with measuring aggression and case studies/research relating to aggression.

**Topic D - Why do we have phobias?**

 In this unit you will investigate why we have phobias, and what the nature-nurture debate is about. You will learn explore whether phobias are controlled by our biology or our environment. You will look at different types of experiments and ways to evaluate them, ethical and practical issues with animal research, and different ways psychologists collect data. You will also learn about how phobias are treated and the job of a clinical psychologist.

**Topic E - Are criminals born or made?**

 You will investigate key studies in this topic to examine whether criminals are born or made. The role of genetics, self-fulfilling prophecy, and how jury decision making is affected by attractiveness. This links to the nature-nurture debate. You will also learn about the case of John Duffy, offender profiling, and the job of a forensic psychologist.

*For more information please go to the Edexcel Psychology website and take a look at the specification. This is where you can also find past papers, which you must do to get good marks.*
Girls' Generation-TTS

Girls' Generation-TTS promovendo o mini-álbum Holler

**Girls' Generation-TTS** (em coreano: 소녀시대-태티서) é um girl group sul-coreano formado pela empresa e gravadora SM Entertainment. É a primeira sub-unit oficial do girl group Girls' Generation, formada pelas integrantes Taeyeon, Tiffany e Seohyun. O grupo estreou em 3 de maio de 2012, no programa musical M! Countdown, com o single Twinkle.

Com Twinkle, Girls' Generation-TTS foi a primeira sub-unit a ter um "triple crown" em um programa musical, ficando em primeiro lugar por três semanas consecutivas. Na época, a sub-unit também conseguiu a melhor posição para um artista sul-coreano no iTunes US e nos charts da Billboard.

## Temas de Cards

* Twinkle
* Holler
* Whisper
Ethics in Research (Topic C)

Although this is ethics in research that will specifically come up in the Topic C exam, it may be useful to other topics and to the course in general.

## Ethical guidelines

* **Consent** - participants should give their consent to taking part in a study
* **Right to withdraw -** participants should be able to withdraw their consent at any point in the study
* **Deception -** participants should not be lied to unless it is absolutely necessary
* **Debrief -** participants should be told the real aim of the study when it is over
* **Competence -** a researcher must be qualified to conduct the study
* **Protection of participants -** participants should not experience any physical or psychological harm, such as distress, anxiety, embarrassment or concern

## How can we protect participants?

* make sure all harm is minimised
* psychologists should seek professional help about the identified risks
* researchers should inform participants where possible about risks involved
* counselling/professional services should be provided if participants have been affected by the study

## Ethical issues in Aggression studies

* It is deliberately trying to cause aggression
* Participants are not protected because they are exposed to aggression
* Exposure to aggression may cause harm or distress
* It may also lead to long term aggressive behavior
* Informed consent often not gained because this may change how aggressive people will be pkaying a game
* They may feel as if they have to finish the game, so right to withdraw would be violated
* Participants are often deceived about the aim of the study
Sigall and Ostrove (1975)

## Aim

Whether attractiveness affected jury query making.This changes how Ostrove perceived the court of law.

## Procedure

120 participants were given a piece of card with a crime written on it and a photograph of a woman known as Barbara Helms. They were split into six different groups of 20 participants. Each group saw either an attractive or an unattractive photograph of Barbara and read about a fraud or burglary she had committed.

1 attractive photograph of Barbara accused of burglary

2 unattractive photograph of Barbara accused of burglary

3 no photograph with the burglary case (control group)

4 attractive photograph of Barbara accused of fraud

5 unattractive photograph of Barbara accused of fraud

6 no photograph with the fraud case (control group)

Firstly all participants were asked to rate how attractive Barbara was to make sure that the participants agreed which photographs showed Barbara as attractive or unattractive. Then the researchers asked the individual jurors in each group to give Barbara a prison sentence ranging from one to fifteen years.

## Results

A similar length of sentence was awarded for both crimes, with both the unattractive photo  and no photo. However, the attractive photo had a big effect on the participant's decision. They thought the attractive Barbara should spend longer in prison for fraud and less time in prison for burglary. Attractive people are associated with crimes like fraud because they use their good looks to swindle money out of others. Their victims would see them as trustworthy in order to hand over their money.

## Conclusion

Highlights the importance that looks have on jury decision making. Good looking people do get away with some crimes, but if they have used their looks to commit a crime they are less likely to get away with it.

## Evaluation

All participants were given the same instructions . More reliable, study could be repeated the same way again The control group was useful to show whether the photographs did affect participants’ decisions or not
 It could inform jurors/juries to not base their decisions on what a defendant looks like.