Verbs

Taran verbs have inflection. There is no grammatical category which distinguishes verbs from adjectives; both are treated morphologically the same.

A verb is composed of a stem, a sequence
of pronomial prefixes, and a suffix inflected for tense/aspect and number. Other suffixes may mark valence. Altogether, the form of the verb is:

(object) + (subject) + root + (valence) + tense/aspect

There are five verb tenses and aspects
morphologically coded in the language: present, present habitual, past, imperative, and future.

## Verb Classes

Verbs are divided into two separate classes. The roots of first conjugation verbs end in fricatives, including the voiceless lateral
fricative, and voiceless plosives, while second conjugation verbs end in
nasals, voiced plosives, and liquids.

First conjugation verbs endings: t, k, q, f, v, s, z, sh, zh, xh, x, and hl

Second conjugation verb endings: d, g, gh, m, n, r,
and l

No verbs end with a vowel or the consonant /h/.

Based upon whether a verb is of the first
or second conjugation, it will receive a different morphological suffix inflected for tense/aspect and number.

In some dialects, including the Standard
Taranvor Dialect, there are some exceptions to the conjugation verb endings. For instance, the verbs *kan*, *fun*, and *tom* are all treated
as verbs of the first conjugation despite their final consonant. This change
came about due to the etymological development of these words.

### Transitivity

First and second conjugation verbs are further
subdivided into transitive versus intransitive verbs. All verbs within the
language are “defaulted” to be either transitive or intransitive. Verbs which
are by default intransitive receive a different conjugation than verbs which
are by default transitive. Transitives tend to contain /a/ in the suffix, while
intransitives use /i/.

### Object and subject markers

Verbs also receive object and subject prefixes. These
prefixes do not vary depending upon whether a verb is of the first or second
conjugation class. Object markers are inflected for person and number. There is
a three-way distinction of number by singular, dual, and plural.

#### Subject markers

  **First Person**
  **Second Person**
  **Third Person**

#### Object markers

  **First Person**
  **Second Person**
  **Third Person**

Taran is an ergative-absolutive language.
When a sentence is intransitive, only the object markers are used.

'I run.'

*Xhav-fun-di*

1.S.OBJ-run-PRS.S.NTR

When a sentence is transitive, the object prefix comes
before the subject prefix.

'I know her.'

*Tav-hla-hlaehl-ta*

3.P.OBJ-1.S.SUB-know-PRS.S.TR

The subject and/or object prefixes may be deleted if
an explicit object or subject occurs in the sentence.

'Xhadouk kills Zhokur.'

*Sahaaq-ta        Xhadouk*
Zhokur

kill-PRS.S.TR Xhadouk Zhokur

### Valence

In some circumstances an intransitive
verb may be used transitively. To increase the valence of that verb, the
valence suffix *ax* is added directly after the verb root. In the Standard
Taran Dialect, the rest of the verb’s inflection is not changed by the addition
of a valence marker.

'I am afraid.'

*Xhav-haq-ti*

1.S.OBJ-afraid-PRS.S.NTR

'I scare you.'

*Qav-hla-haq-ax-ti*

2.P.OBJ-1.S.SUB-afraid-TR-PRS.S.NTR

It is much less common to decrease
valence, and different dialects use different mechanisms to mark it. In the
Standard Taranvor Dialect, the negation morpheme *qa* is added as a suffix
after the verb root.

'I agree with you.'

*Qav-hla-saen-da*

2.P.OBJ-1.P.SUB-agree-PRS.S.TR

'I agree.'

*Hla-saen-qa-da*

1.P.SUB-agree-DETR-PRS.S.TR

### Attributives

Verbs which describe a noun adjectivally but are not
the main verb of a sentence are prefixed with the relativizer *hi*. These
attributive verbs do not receive any other morphology.

'The angry sword master killed (someone).'

*Tav-sahaaq-ta                ne-xaan      hi-naaf*

3.S.OBJ-kill-PRS.S.TR user-sword REL-angry

## Verb inflections

Verbs receive a suffixal inflection which indicates
tense/aspect and number. Although Taran is an ergative-absolutive language,
both intransitive and transitive verbs receive inflectional suffixes. However,
these suffixes vary depending upon transitivity and the conjugation class of
the verb. This results in twelve different suffix endings per morphologically
marked tense.

### Present tense

The present tense is treated as the simple present
tense. Present tense verbs receive the following suffix conjugation:

  **First Conjugation Intransitive**
  **First Conjugation Transitive**
  **Second Conjugation Intransitive**
  **Second Conjugation Transitive**

Because of phonological dissimilation
rules, there are exceptions to this paradigm when a verb ends in /t/ or /d/.
The suffix of a first conjugation verb will begin with /s/, while the suffix of
a second conjugation verb will begin with /z/.

'I need it.'

Tav-hla-taem-da

3.P.OBJ-1.S.SUB-need-PRS.S.TR

'They deserve to say anything.'

*Rov-ghot-sim                  hi-kaam  no-no*

3.P.SUB-say-PRS.P.TR REL-say thing-thing

In the case of reduplication, only the first consonant
of the reduplication is affected by the phonological dissimilation rule. The
reduplication of the present tense suffix expresses the habitual.

'You always suffer.'

*Hihit-zati*

suffer-HAB.PRS.S.TR

### Past tense

The past tense is treated as the simple past tense. Past
tense verbs receive the following suffix conjugation:

  **First Conjugation Intransitive**
  **First Conjugation Transitive**
  **Second Conjugation Intransitive**
  **Second Conjugation Transitive**

If a verb root ends in /s/ or /z/, the
second fricative is deleted rather than repeated.

'She swam to shore.'

*Res-i           fu-fata*

swim-PST.S.NTR to-shore

### Future tense

Future tense verbs receive the following suffix
conjugation:

  **First Conjugation Intransitive**
  **First Conjugation Transitive**
  **Second Conjugation Intransitive**
  **Second Conjugation Transitive**

If a verb root ends in /f/ or /v/, the
second fricative is deleted rather than repeated.

### Imperative

Imperative verbs receive the following suffix
conjugation:

  **First Conjugation Intransitive**
  **First Conjugation Transitive**
  **Second Conjugation Intransitive**
  **Second Conjugation Transitive**

As with all other tenses, the plosives in
the onset of the suffix syllable become fricatives when preceded by a /k/ or
/g/ in the verb root. In these instances, the suffix begins with /x/ or /xh/.

The imperative is most frequently
used to mark commands. In these instances, the subject and object are
frequently left unmarked, and are assumed to be first person singular speaker
and second person interlocutor, respectively.

"Smile."

*Tun-ki*

smile-IMP.S.NTR

In the case that the imperative reflects
a command to someone other than the assumed speaker or second person recipient,
the pronomial prefixes are readded.

"They are to obey me."

*Xhav-rov-nul-kam*

3.P.OBJ-1.S.SUB-obey-IMP.P.TR

The imperative is also used to mark
requests, desire, and greetings.

'Please give me the curd cheese.'

*Fan-ka                 hi-kan*
 die

Allow-IMP.S.TR REL-give curd cheese

'May you die painfully.'

*Huk-xhi              hi-hit*

die-IMP.S.NTR REL-painful

The greeting *fanzhiq* may mean
‘please enter’ or, more idiomatically, ‘welcome back.’ Typically, it contains
no morphology except for the imperative suffix.

'Welcome back, my king.'

*Fan-zhiq,      hla-sahurr*.

Please-enter 1.POS.S-king

### Habitual

The habitual present is morphologically marked by
reduplicating the present tense prefix. The first two letters of the suffix are
reduplicated before the full conjugation, though typically the first iteration
of the vowel is reduced.

'They both fly home on a cockatrice.'

*Sav-shan-tir                       fu-hla-shafa             shi-hurrda*

3.D.OBJ-fly-PRS.D.NTR to-1.S.POS.S-house
with-cockatrice

'They both fly home on a cockatrice every
day.'

*Sav-shan-tatir                              fu-hla-shafa            shi-hurrda         dousha*

3.D.OBJ-fly-HAB.PRS.D.NTR
to-1.S.POS.S-house with-cockatrice every day

The habitual can also be used to mean “always” or
“constantly.”

'Rezhiq is always hungry.'

*Ghom-dadi                           Rezhiq*

hungry-HAB.PRES.S.NTR Rezhiq

At other times, the same morphological marking is used
to indicate repetitive action within one given moment.

'He shakes.'

*Tav-xef-tati*

3.S.OBJ-shake-HAB.PRS.S.NTR

The habitual past and rarer habitual future contain
the same constructions, using the suffixes for those respective tenses.

'He shook.'

*Tav-xef-sasi*

3.S.OBJ-shake-HAB.PST.S.NTR

The habitual can even be combined with the imperative
to express a repeated reading of the verb.

'May you always suffer.'

*Hihit-kaki*

suffer-HAB.PRS.S.NTR

## Copula

The copula is traditionally and formally *sahlarr*.
Diachronically, the verb began as a serial verb construction of ‘make live,’ *saemhlarr*,
and was reduced over time to *sahlarr*. The informal and more common use
of the copula, *sahl* in the Standard Taranvor Dialect, is the result of
further reduction. Other dialects have varying reductions of the copula *sahlarr*.

The copula is treated as a second class
verb which takes a nominal complement, but is marked morphologically as the
intransitive. The subject is not marked directly on the verb through the
presence of a pronomial prefix. The copula attaches to the subjective
complement while the subject itself follows the verb.

'The people are idiots.'

*Houzh-sahl-dim                shus*

idiot-COP-PRS.S.NTR    people

In the case that the subject is not
overtly stated, the pronomial prefix becomes a separate following particle.

'I am King Garet.'

*Sahurr garet-sahlarr-di              xhav*

king
Garet-COP-PRS.S.NTR 1.S.OBJ

## Evidentiality

Evidentiality is not a necessary verbal element but
sometimes used. In some dialects it has disappeared completely. Occasionally
evidentiality appears in the Standard Taranvor Dialect in the form of particles
following the verb.

The following particles indicate
evidentiality:

*Shid*: direct
knowledge; the speaker sensed its effects – usually by sight

*Shak:*
experiential; the speaker was there experiencing it firsthand

*Shaf:*
reportative; because the speaker heard about it from others

The change of the evidentiality marking
in turn changes how the speaker knows how an event occurred.

'I saw her die.'

*tav-huk-ti                          shak*

3.S.OBJ-die-PRS.S.NTR
EX

'I saw her dead.'

*tav-huk-ti                          shid*

3.S.OBJ-die-PRS.S.NTR
DIR

To express knowledge of how an action
occurred regarding sensory evidence, speakers may use the experiential evidentiality
marking or express a “because X” construction whereby the conjunction *sash*
takes on a relevant sensory nominal complement.

'The curd cheese is sour.'

*vat-si                    shid die*

sour-PRS.S.NTR DIR curd cheese

'I tasted that the curd cheese is sour.'

*vat-si                    sash      zhiefoq die*

sour-PRS.S.NTR because eating   curd cheese

The evidential markers may appear alone
in discourse when responding to a question of how information is known.

'How do you know?'

*tav-ro-min-da                                    sezh*

3.S.OBJ-2.S.SUB-know-PRS.S.TR in order to

'I was there.'

*Shak*

EX

This same discourse construction works
for the “because X” evidential construction.

'I read it.'

*Sash      zhietan*

because reading

## Proverbs

The root of a verb may be deleted in the verb phrase
in cases of redundancy. When that verb is repeated a second time after a
conjunction, it may be replaced by a proverb, which is simply the suffixal
ending it would otherwise take.

'I kicked and kicked.'

*Xhav-kuk-si                        he   si.*

1.P.OBJ-kick-PST.S.NTR and PST.S.NTR

If the verb is to be repeated three times, the
suffixal ending particle is reduplicated.

'I ran and ran and ran.'

*Xhav-fun-si                       he   si-si.*

1.P.OBJ-run-PST.S.NTR
and PST.S.NTR-PST.S.NTR