Frédéric II de Hesse-Cassel

Prince-Héréditaire de Cassel

Frédéric II de Hesse-Cassel in Prussian Uniform, portrait by Johann Heinrich Tischbein the Elder

## Title

### Secondary Titles

Prince-Comte de Hanau-Münzenberg
Chevalier de la Jarretière

## Occupations

### Allegiance

Landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel (1735-1785)
Kingdom of Prussia (1735-1740)

Electorate of Bavaria (1741-1745)

Kingdom of Prussia (1745-1785)

### Ranks Held

Capitaine, Régiment de Garde (1733)
Colonel, Régiment de Garde (1738)

Lieutenant Général (1742)

### Wars Fought

War of the Austrian Succession* Bavarian Campaign (1741-1743)
* Silesian Campaign (1744-1745)

Seven Years' War

War of the Bavarian Succession

War of American Independence

## Biography

### Born

14th August, 1720, Château de Cassel, Landgraviat de Hesse-Cassel

### Died

31st October, 1785, Château de Weissenstein, Landgraviat de Hesse-Cassel

### Burial

Église Sainte-Élisabeth, Cassel, Landgraviat de Hesse-Cassel

### Spouse

Marie de Grande-Bretagne (m. 1740)
Philippine de Brandenbourg-Schwedt (m. 1773)

### Issue

Guillaume IX de Hesse-Cassel (1785-1821)
Frédéric de Hesse-Cassel(1747-1837)

Charles de Hesse-Cassel (1744-1836)

### Religion

Protestant Lutheranism (1720-1749)
Roman Catholicism (1749-1785)

**Frédéric II de Hesse-Cassel** (German: *Friedrich II von Hessen-Kassel*; English: *Frederick II of Hesse-Kassel*; August 14th 1720-October 31st, 1785 ) was a Hessian Prince as the Heir and later *Landgrave de Hesse-Cassel* after his ascension in 1760. His reign as Landgrave saw Cassel blossom into an enlightened paradise with his remodeling of the state closely after the Prussian model in the manner of his patron and uncle, ***Frédéric le Grand***.

Frédéric's reign was eminently marked for his staunch militarism in the Prussian fashion; during his reign, many considered as Cassel to be the proving grounds for Prussian drill theory, battlefield malice and parade discipline. Among the plethora of campaigns and reforms for the Hessian military was Frédéric's fundamental interest in supporting his nephew, George III of Great Britain, in the suppression of the colonial rebellion in the new world. Despite the campaign being a strategic blunder due to the guerilla-style warfare conducted by the colonials, the American Revolution as it later became known was a financial success for the Hessian and Prussian treasuries due to the realpolitik of German canon-fodder in trade for English bouillon.

In his personal life, Frédéric II was controversial in many ways. In February of 1749, he secretly converted to Roman Catholocism in a bid to improve his personal and public relations with his neighbour, the Électeur-Archevêque de Cologne. This spiritual strife nearly plunged Cassel into a succession crisis due to the state's Protestant population. Prior to his ascension, Frédéric II was forced to swear an oath to religious liberties in the presence of the Estates of Cassel in 1754. Albeit his sermon to defend his new faith, This spiritual change created a drastic schism in his family life, almost causing his disownment from the Hessian succession. Historians speculate the reasons for his conversions, but some hypothesise that it was also a bid to improve Cassel's chances of being raised to the Electoral Dignity in the Holy Roman Empire or making overtures to France for reasons of potential political marriages for his children.

A diligent and loyal figure, Fréderic earnestly set about reforming Cassel into a modern state during his reign. He showed proficiency for statecraft in his youth when his father, Guillaume VIII, conferred upon him the domains of Hanau and Münzenberg. During his tenure as governor, he improved the local economies, legal systems and even reformed the local gendarmes. These successful experiences proved handily useful during his later reign as Landgrave.

Publicly, Frédéric was remembered for his eccentric lifestyle and his patronage of the arts; seen by many as benevolent, pious and extroverted, his presence in a room was said to leave a lasting impression with those around him. Considered an extrovert, he was often glad to share his opinions on philosophy, religion, music, politics and literature. He was immensely charitable, making often donations to many of the causes in Cassel, notably to the House of Invalides and other military organisations. In his private life, however, there was much strain with his wife. Gossip circulated of his fondness for wearing two different masks- one for ''public and agreeable acts'' and one for ''private and ruthless acts''; Contemporaries regarded his disposition as disturbing, considering he was aggressive by nature towards his spouse. Many speculate that he resented the fact of his marriage being one for realpolitik and not romance as he had hoped.

Among his other traits was Frédéric's especial taste for illustrious and fashionable habiliments as a paragon of courtly dress during his time. Records in Cassel indicate considerable expenditures in richly-embroidered suits from Paris and Berlin and a myriad of cosmetics, hair powder and accessories. A passionate hunter and outdoorsman, he was seldom seen without his favourite cane: A fine ebony staff with an ivory tip carved to resemble a lion's head. When in the gardens, Frédéric was often sighted with his German Spaniels, especially his favourites: *Luna* and *Caesar*.

As a proponent of the Enlightenment, Frédéric quickly became remembered in Hessian society as the ''Prince of the Enlightenment'' in local history. A bibliophile, he amassed a great library of over 3,000 volumes on a variety of topics, most notably the classics: Plato, Socrates, Aristotle, Homer and so on. An evening passion of the Landgrave was to compose treatises and other works on the Roman Empire and early European history. Pursuant to this, Frédéric also published pamphlets and verses on romance and fables. When he passed in 1785, it was remarked by many witnesses that numerous authors placed quills on Frédéric's epitaph as tribute.

## Early Life

### Birth and Pedigree

The occasion of Frédéric II's birth brought much jubilation to the court of Cassel. He was born during the early hours of August 14th, 1720, to Landgrave Guillaume VIII and Dorothée Wilhelmine de Saxe-Zeitz. At the time of his birth, there were fears of a succession crisis due to the death of an infant heir just a year prior. The advent of a newborn, healthy heir created a safeguard of relief in the various political and social circles in Hesse, protecting Cassel from the looming threat of a dispute with their relatives in Darmstadt. Nonetheless, Frédéric II's birth was much-celebrated across Cassel and the other Hessian states.

At the time of his birth, Frédéric II was a double-descendent of Elector Georges-Guillaume de Brandebourg through the female line of simultaneous ancestry of his paternal and maternal grandparents. His blood, it could be said, was deeply blue. Moreover, his paternal lineage made him among the strongest connections to Europe's reigning dynasties: His uncle, Frédéric I, reigned as Prince-Consort and later King of Sweden before also inheriting Hesse-Cassel; Frédéric II's father acted as Regent of Cassel until the death of Frédéric I in 1751; His aunt, Marie-Louise de Cassel, became Princess of Orange as consort to Jean-Guillaume-Friso. Abundantly, the House of Hesse's influence in Protestant Europe was well-cemented.

### Childhood and Education

In his formative years, Frédéric II was placed into the care Auguste-Maurice de Donop, a venerable general and commander of the Hessian army. Donop was said to be a kindly but stern, almost father-like figure to Frédéric II. The general ensured that the future Landgrave would become proficient in military history, fencing, equestrian techniques and above all else: discipline. Per family tradition, the future ruler had to be adept in military affairs and have a competency in warfare.

Eventually, it was necessary that Frédéric II also developed the necessary skills to rule a country and to acquire courtly manners. This task was assigned to the Swiss theologian and philosopher, Jean-Pierre de Crousaz. Crousaz, unlike Donop, was a soft, learned man of letters. Albeit having a tongue as sharp as a sword when it came to debating theology and history, Crousaz was rather sable. During his time in the care of Crousaz, Frédéric II was sent abroad to Geneva, where he was to learn about history, canonical, civil and criminal law. While traveling with Crousaz, Frédéric II developed a deep admiration for his preceptor; he commenced his eventual passion of writing by keeping a journal of his lessons, interactions and activities throughout the day. This type of relationship between Prince and Preceptor was unusual in an age where corporal punishment was rampant with royal pupils due to a lame interest in their destinies.

The Hessian financial disposition was contemporarily understood to be far better in comparison to neighbouring states. As a result of his family's affluent wealth and influence, Frédéric II was afforded a considerably prolific education. During his early adolescence, Frédéric II was noted to have discovered an adoration for the keyboard, eagerly studying the books of compositions by figures such as Bach, Couperin, Händel and Scarlatti. Among other artistic interests was a quick ability to excel in languages: Frédéric II was said to have been a notable pupil of Italian, Latin, French- even English, his native German and to the surprise of some: *Swedish;* he actively kept a life-long correspondence with his regal uncle until his demise.

### Adolesence

#### *Hunting*

During the eminent years of his adolescence, Frédéric II developed his familial passion for hunting. Each year, during the late spring, a great gathering of the Hessian echelons took place to commence the ''social season'' with a plethora of hunts, games and other festivities. In the forests of Cassel, Darmstadt, Homburg and Philippsthal, the future Landgraves would each compete in a campaign of hunting. The winning branch would be awarded a tribute by the other families; typically money, souvenirs or other objects.

Typically, the event scoring followed so:

* **Wild Turkey:** 5 Points
* **Rabbits:** 7 Points
* **Stags:** 10 Points
* **Wild Pigs or Boars:** 15 Points
* **Aviary Birds:** 20 Points

#### *Hessian Military*

As the Hereditary Prince, Frédéric II was obliged by his duties to have active involvement in the Hessian Army. Cassel, like the other Hessen paréages, was a member-state of the Holy Roman Empire. Because of this, they were required to contribute soldiers to the Imperial Army for campaigns against the foes of the Emperor. During his childhood with General Donop, Frédéric II was already commissioned as a Captain in the Life Guards due to his accorded status as heir-presumptive. On his 18th birthday in 1738, Frédéric II was promoted by his father to the rank of Colonel.

In the formative years of his military career, Frédéric II was often sent with other officers to Berlin and Potsdam to learn of the auspices of Prussia's then-reigning Frédéric-Guillaume I- the *Soldier King*. It was during the reviews in Potsdam and various manoeuvres in the Prussian countryside that Frédéric II met his future fond acquaintance who incidentally shared the same singular name, Prussia's then-Crowned Prince: ***Frédéric le Grand***.

Military life in Prussia was quite unlike the relatively frivolous culture in France, where Princes and Nobles sat in armchairs as their camp became a virtual outdoors palace with battalions of servants, cooks, palatial furniture and all other luxuries. Prussia, or *Sparta* as it was often called in a mockery; 'Twas cruel, vivid and unforgiving in its military culture. One could be punished for the most seemingly minor infraction, such as loose-kept hair, a dull buckle or the occasional absence from a review. The gauntlet, among other methods, was the most preferred in dealing with undesirables. Every regiment was expected to march as one man, like a moving wall. Musket volleys had to be a magnificent salvo and not similar to the *''Very French trend of sounding like fried corn kernels with incessant and untimely shots.''* as the Soldier King once lamented. This was the formula to the success of Europe's finest army.

#### *Anne-Amélie de Prusse*

Prussia proved to be an awakening experience for Frédéric II. The spartan court filled him with much curiosity and intrigue, especially considering the extreme opposite personalities of the King and Queen. It was not alien to the courts of Europe of the horrors endured by the Prussian Royal Family from the wrath of the Soldier King. A man with a fiery hatred for all things eccentric and refined, Frédéric-Guillaume I was unforgiving to any man who preferred peruques to military braid or silken suits to military cloth. In this dangerous lair of fearsome plights, Frédéric II found that the way to this King's heart was through piety and diligence.

On one occasion, during a review in Potsdam, Prussia's Madame Sixième, Anne-Amélie de Prusse, had joined her father. That morning, there had been a terrible rain, which turned the parade grounds into a muddy mess. Regardless of the weather, the Prussian King ordained that the day would carry on, much to the weariness of his subordinates. As she disembarked from her coach, Madame Sixième became stuck in the mud. When no other officer dared to move out of fear for reprimand from ''abandoning'' their posts, Frédéric II took the initiative:

Defaulting his posture, he hastily strode over to the princess, courteously bobbing before proceeding to (against all protocol), heave Madame Sixième out of the mud, remarking with a gentle smile as he held her in his arms: *''Permit me to relieve Madame of this awkward entrapment.''* Despite this chivalric sight, many nervous eyes danced between the King and the Hereditary Prince as the former marched over to the latter with an entourage of generals and lackeys. The King, as eyewitnesses attest, regarded Frédéric II with: *''Monsieur treats women as he does his regiment: Very well.''* Following this, Frédéric-Guillaume I merely carried on without awaiting a reply. That evening, Frédéric II was accorded with an invitation to the King's dinner table. The ordeal, as Frédéric II recorded in his journal, was *''. . .The most exhilarating and yet terrifying moments of my life as of this present occasion.''*

Pursuant to the muddy rescue in Potsdam, Frédéric-Guillaume I granted Frédéric II to accompany Madame Sixième as an escort- or, in the more courtly tone: An *enfant d'honneur*. The two often spent their time in the haven of Queen Sophie-Dorothée de Hanovre's court held at the Château de Monbijou. In the safety of the palace's domain, there existed a truly enlightened court with French etiquette, ceremony, protocol and finery as an enclave within the spartan culture of the Soldier King's court. Outside of Monbijou, the nobles were replaced by officers and etiquette replaced by drill. While attending court at Monbijou, Frédéric II and Madame Sixième grew fond of one-another, often playing cards or accompanying the Queen to theatre performances or promenades in the park. This romantic respite from military duty was to be abruptly ended by means beyond the control of either one of them, however.

## Adulthood

### Début and Marriage

With his coming of age, there soon arrived the question of Frédéric II's betrothal. Unknown to him, Guillaume VIII had spent years in consort with the Privy Council on the matter of his heir's marriage. As a wealthy dynasty with an esteemed military history, Hesse commanded great concessions in the European marriage markets. They had inserted themselves in all corners of the continent, ranging from Sweden to Savoy; to Prussia and the Netherlands.

During his time in Prussia, Frédéric II became smitten with Prussia's Madame Sixième, Anne-Amélie de Prusse. Much to his chagrin, however, Berlin had overlooked Cassel and had been making overtures to the Rhine, where negotiations had been undertaken to potentially betroth the Princess to Frédéric-Michel de Deux-Ponts-Birkenfeld in hopes of securing Prussian interests in the Rhenish duchies of Cleves, Jülich and Berg. When news of this reached Guillaume VIII, considerations were made towards their other candidates, the equally-formidable House of Hanover. Overtures to the Court of Saint-James were made and it was not long before songs of an English marriage were sung in the hallways of Hessian palaces. The thought of an English bride filled Frédéric II with anger and desolate melancholia, having felt robbed of his romance with Prussia and Madame Sixième.

Marie de Grande-Bretagne, the eighth child and fourth daughter of King George II of Great Britain and Caroline d'Ansbach, was the chosen candidate of marriage by both Cassel and England. Parliament granted Marie a dowry of £40,000. They were first married by proxy on May 8th, 1740, at the Royal Chapel of Saint-James's Palace in London, followed by Marie's departure from England arrival on the continent. She first paid tribute in Amsterdam to their mutual Dutch relatives after which she crossed the border into the Prussian County of the Mark and eventual arrival in Cassel. Upon her arrival, she was warmly received by crowds. Frédéric II, on the other hand, seemed highly reluctant. He professed his love in public and portrayed his loathing in private. The official marriage took place on June 28th, 1740 in Cassel.

Marie was described as ''tall and most attractive'' on many accounts; her husband was considered equally dashing. Yet, fate would have it that such a sweet pair were destined to have a bitter separation. This platonic relationship would sustain itself for the remainder of Guillaume VIII's reign. Despite his reluctance, Frédéric II intended to complete his duty of consummating the marriage. Over the course of the next seven years, four children would be born in an almost immediate succession; three survived infancy. Despite the ''inspiration'' to produce heirs, Frédéric II regarded childbearing as his dutiful obligation and nothing else. Soon, this neglectful impregnating and distant relationship took its mental toll on Marie as she elected to embark on a lengthy visit to England in 1746, not returning until the spring of 1747 just before the birth of her final child.

### War of the Austrian Succession

#### *Background*

On October 20th, 1740, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI unexpectedly died, just three weeks after his 55th birthday. The Emperor's death was caused by a staphylococcal infection due to his consumption of (unknowingly) poisonous mushrooms at a feast several days prior. Suffering from agonising pain, the sudden decline of the Emperor threw Vienna into fears of a succession crisis. Charles VI died without any male heirs, leaving his eldest daughter, the Archduchess Marie-Thérèse as the inheritor of his dominions outside of the Empire. Within the Holy Roman Empire, however, Habsburg succession was guaranteed only by the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713- a treaty which was soon ignored when Prussia's newly-crowned **Frédéric le Grand** cited Salic Law, refusing to support her election unless she agreed to his concession of the rightful handing-over of the Grand Duchy of Silesia and County of the Glatz in addition to a tribute of 2,000,000 Thalers. Refusing to await a reply, the new Prussian monarch, against all protocol, occupied Silesia without awaiting a reply, thus sparking the **War of the Austrian Succession** (1740-1748).

With the male Habsburg line now extinct, the question of the Roman-German Crown was brought into question. For centuries, the Habsburg's abused their powers and influence over the Empire, ultimately plunging it into ruin. By the death of Charles VI, the Empire had become everything but one in name as it was effectively a loose confederation of German states enslaved to Habsburg hegemony. All eyes lay on the giants: **Austria, Prussia, Bavaria** and **Saxony**. Frédéric le Grand cited his support for the Bavarian Elector, Charles-Albert de Wittelsbach. The Bavarians were the predecessor to the Austrians in the imperial lineage. A new age of prosperity would signal reform under Prussian influence.

Immediately, two alliances were formed: A Prussian-led coalition with France and Bavaria in rivalry to an Austrian-led coalition with Hungary, Bohemia, Croatia and potential Russian involvement. Expectedly, many of the Protestant nations in the Empire flocked to Prussia's side. Unexpectedly, so did a handful of the leading Catholic states, such as the Spiritual Electorates of Mainz, Cologne and Trier.

#### Conflict Overview

The war proved to be the freedom that Frédéric II craved from his marriage. Moreover, he was ecstatic at the news of the announcement of his father's decision to pledge his allegiance to the Prussian cause. Even more so, it would mean a chance to reconcile with Madame Sixième and her newly-crowned brother. However, Guillaume VIII saw right through this eagerness and assigned his son as an attaché to Munich and not Berlin. All is fair in love and war, as the saying goes.

The so-called Philosopher Prince of Rheinsberg, as was the nickname of the new Prussian King, shocked the courts of Europe with his blitzkrieg-style invasion of Silesia. The invasion barely lasting a week, Frédéric le Grand was at the gates of Breslau by Christmas Eve with His Prussian Majesty enjoying his roast beef at the pleasure of the Mayor of Breslau in the City Palace. The Austro-Bavarian theatre enjoyed similar, but not paralleled success. In the spring of 1741, Charles-Albert and the Bavarian Army occupied Passau, capturing the fortress there. Pursuant to this, the Austrians were obliged to send a relief force to prevent Vienna from a potential siege.

Through a joint intervention by Prussia, the coalition army invaded Bohemia, in November of 1741. Prague capitulated on November 26th. The Bohemian Estates elected to pledge their allegiance to Charles-Albert, crowning him as King on December 9th. Marie-Thérèse, failing to realise the capabilities of Prussia and Bavaria, had concentrated her forces in Italy and the Balkans against the French and Ottomans. With disastrous consequences for her, Charles-Albert was inaugurated as the next Roman-German Emperor byways of the Imperial Elections held in Frankfurt. Regardless of this joyous respite, the Bavarians failed to consider an Austrian counter-attack via the Tyrolian Alps.

Disaster struck in 1742 when an Austrian contingent under Louis-André de Khevenhüller bypassed the Bavarian forces in northern Austria, crossing the Alps and advanced on Munich during the very same day as Charles-Albert's coronation, January 24th. Soon, the coalition began to unravel as Bavaria's communications with Prussia and the other nations became foiled by the Austrian occupation. Bavaria, now isolated, was placed in a dire situation. Those courtiers who were fortunate-enough to flee before the Austrian arrival took refuge in nearby Saxony, Hesse and Prussia, including the Bavarian Electress, Marie-Amélie d'Autriche- the estranged aunt of the Archduchess Marie-Thérèse, who arrived in Berlin on March 3rd.

The Hessians, who, up to now, had been supporting the Bavarians, covered the retreat of the Bavarian army until they reached the safety of French picket lines in North-Western Bavaria. Meanwhile, the French under François-Marie, Duc de Broglie, were obliged to relieve Munich and force-march from Bohemia into Bavaria after abandoning Prague. Simultaneous with the advent of Spring, a new theater of war opened up in Italy: Bourbon Spain tried to expand its territory in Naples at the expense of Austria, but this was thwarted by Sardinia joining the fray, creating a buffer.

On May 17th, 1742, the Prussians under Frédéric le Grand defeated an Austrian army commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine at Chotusitz. The battle immediately led to the *Peace of Breslau*, which provisionally ended the **First Silesian War** in a favorable manner for Prussia. With peace on the horizon for Prussia, relations became strained with France and Bavaria due to the Prussians focusing on the Silesian-Bohemian theatres rather than providing a relief in Bavaria. Likewise, however, France had paid little commitment to the war itself as Louis XV was reluctant to see the rise of Bavarian rule in Germany.

In August of 1744, 80,000 Prussian troops under the Prussian King invade Bohemia, capturing Prague in just two weeks, succeeding where France failed. With Vienna once more threatened, Austria was again obliged to split her forces. Meanwhile, George II of Great Britain, at the head of an Anglo-Hanoverian force, marches into the Rhine, where he intends to push the French out.

1745 sees the two greatest battles of the war fought: **Fontenoy**, fought on May 11th between England and France, won by Louis XV against George II; **Hohenfriedberg**, fought on June 4th between Austria and Prussia, won by Frédéric le Grand against Charles-Alexandre de Lorraine. Despite the military successes, the Bavarian cause is fatally wounded by the death of Charles-Albert on January 20th in Munich during the Austrian occupation. His son and successor, Max. III Joseph, is reluctant to pursue his father's imperial ambitions and prefers to settle for peace, which is mediated by France.