The Ottoman Empire

## Why is it important to study it?

It was one of the greatest, most extensive, and longest-lasting (approx. 500 year) of the world's 13th-20th centuries. For a long time they where an European power and a very strong actor in European diplomacy.

The Ottoman Empire originated from a dozen of Anatolian principalities that, by following the tradition of Gaza and through the achievements of Osman –the leader of a small *gazi* principality– against the byzantine forces, established the bases to grow an Empire. This was later followed by the following events that transformed the Ottoman Empire into a World Power (*see timeline below*):

* **1453** - The occupation of Istanbul
* **1516** - The conquest of the Arab lands
* **1520-1566** – The European campaigns of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent.

They were a 'blend of influences' –Byzantium, Turkish nomads, Balkan States, Islamic world– and they understood the importance of allowing local customs to prospere, which differentiated them from previous Muslim states and allowed them to last so long.

It is important to note that, the fall of the Ottoman Empire led to the Modern Era and to the establishment of modern day middle east countries.

## Timeline

*This is a work in progress.*

The Ottoman Empire Timeline

## Documentaries

* BBC Documentary: Ottoman Empire The War Machine
* History Channel Documentary - Promises and Betrayals - The Middle East and uprising of States

## Changing balance of power in the 18th century / The question of modernisation

### The Decline Paradigm (1950's until late 1970's)

* Hourani points that until 17th all historians worked on the same framework where they analyze things from an experienced a Rise and Development of the Ottoman Empire and then experienced a steady decline from the 16th century until the Demise of the Empire following the WW1 in 1918. **Hourani disagrees with this paradigm**.

### World Systems / Dependency Theory

* Tension between core (Europe) and periphery (Middle East).
* We can explain this with the incorporation of the eastern economies into the world economy.
* In 1789 with the Industrial Revolution the Core accumulated capital by reaching Peripheral markets to sell the superfluous production (expensive), and buying from them raw materials (cheaper). In this way they created a mutual unequal dependency.
* Conflicting with the Decline Paradigm.
* **Hourani criticizes that this theory is based on essentialism**, as it's too simplistic without taking into consideration other factors other than economic factors.

### Albert Hourani, “Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables"

According to Hourani the common theory approach is not a historical theory. He therefore develops, in his book and the particular chapter 15, a theory that sits in the middle. *The purpose of this article is the periodization* – an alternative division of time periods other than that of the decline.

His theory analyzes the continuities and changes during this period and the changing dynamics in the relations between Europe and the Empire. Because of this in his theory 16th - 19th centuries are analyzed as a series of "ups and downs".

* Very rough division of Ottoman history:
	1. The rise of the Empire: Mainly traditional Islamic sources and archaeological artifacts.
	2. Ottoman archives joins in 15th-16th centuries.
	3. 1760-1860: The Modern Era in the Middle East.
		+ The rise of the Notables. 2 aspects of the notables' power:
			- Access to authority.
			- A separate power of their own society. Not part of the Askeri, they are reaya.
	4. 1860-1918: There is new self awareness.
		+ They started to understand that they had to adapt and learn new things from Europeans. That a set of reforms where needed to occur.

#### Two Rhythms of Change

* Internal changes:
	+ Power moved from the household of the Sultan to the grand vizier (the highest-ranking administrative official in the Ottoman Empire)
	+ The rise of the notables
		- Local garrison/ruling elite (Arab and Turkish)
		- Ulama
			* members of the Islamic religious establishment, judges, scholars, etc.
			* Coming from prominent families, being in charge of the *wakfs* -like donations- as endowments.

## The 19th century: Continuity and Change, reforms and modernization

Differences between 18th and 19th centuries reforms:

* 18th century: Trying to revive the Ottoman Golden Age
* 19th century: Opening to the West
* *What changed in between?* With the Industrial Revolution and the end of the reign of Sulyman The Magnificient a change in the balance of powers occurred where Europe grew in power and started challenging the Ottoman Empire.

In 1792 - 1815 the French invaded Egypt.

### Reformers

* Sultan Selim III (1789-1806)
* Sultan Mahmud II (1808-1839)
* Muhammad Ali *(Pasha)* (1805–1848)

### The Tanzimat Reforms

The Tanzimat Reforms happened in a context of a ***morally broken Ottoman Empire*** –after The Battle of Nezib (1839), where the Egyptians, led by Ibrahim, crushed the Ottomans–, a ***continuous need to face challenges*** –strenghting the reforms–, and with ***the impact of Liberalism***.
This reforms where characterized by the active role of the civilians in it –mainly **Europeanized Ottoman bureaucrats**, with **knowledge in European languages** and **serving in the ministry of foreign affairs, as ambassadors, or as grand viziriate**–.

## References

1. ↑ They are not a political categorization, it was a Social status.