United Kingdom

(George Lansbury)

**United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland** (English: United Kingdom, U.K., UK), officially the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy located on the northwest coast of continental Europe, comprising the island of Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many other islands. Its capital is London.

## **HISTORY**

### **Russo-Japanese War and Colonial Competition**

In 1905, the Russo-Japanese War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Tianjin. This war resulted in Russia's victory, diminishing Japan's influence and leading to significant changes in East Asian geopolitics.

In 1907, Britain faced a confrontation with the Russian Empire over influence in Iran but failed to garner popular support, leading to the unsuccessful attempt to establish Iran within its sphere of influence.

In 1908, Britain focused on its diplomatic relations with Afghanistan to counter Russian influence, ultimately strengthening their friendship. During the same year, Britain and Germany confirmed their spheres of influence in China and established a Commercial Commission in Nanjing. However, the situation in Egypt and Sudan strained British control, worsening relations between Britain and France.

In 1909, Herbert Henry Asquith, known for his emphasis on social policies, became the Prime Minister of Britain. During this period, a contentious battle erupted over the "Lloyd George Budget," a fiscal reform proposal by David Lloyd George. The budget aimed to introduce new tax measures, including increased income taxes and the introduction of a land tax, to fund social welfare policies. It was passed in 1910, laying the groundwork for social welfare in Britain.

In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution erupted in Nanjing, China, pressured by diplomatic efforts by Britain and Germany against the Qing Dynasty. Britain supported Afghanistan militarily to strengthen their relationship.

In 1912, the Irish Home Rule Bill was introduced, seeking to grant autonomy to Ireland and improve relations between Britain and Ireland. However, some Irish nationalists opposed the limited autonomy proposed in the bill, leading to large-scale demonstrations and its rejection. This opposition movement laid the foundation for later Irish independence efforts.

In 1913, the First Balkan War broke out, with Balkan countries competing to seize territory from the Ottoman Empire. While Britain declared neutrality, they prepared to safeguard their interests in anticipation of the Ottoman Empire's collapse.

### **Great War**

In 1914, the First World War erupted. Initially, Britain declared its neutrality, but after Russia sent an ultimatum to the Ottoman Empire, Britain declared war on Russia, siding with Germany. However, a series of events, including Italy joining the opposing side, the Egyptian Revolution leading to independence, and a major colonial rebellion in India, made it increasingly challenging to continue the war. In 1917, Britain entered into a ceasefire agreement, effectively surrendering.

After the defeat in the Great War, Britain, seeking peaceful and friendly relations among belligerents, entered into the St. Petersburg Treaty. This treaty delineated the status of territories among nations. As per the terms, the Indian region gained independence, granting autonomy to colonized areas under various nations. Egypt was recognized as an independent nation, and control of the Suez Canal, once under British jurisdiction, was relinquished. Moreover, countries in the Middle East were divided into spheres of influence under France and Russia, while some nations in Oceania were acknowledged as independent states.

### **Decline after Great War**

After World War I, Britain faced the loss of its colonies and economic turmoil, leading to heightened political instability. During this period, new political forces, such as the Labour Party, the Communist Party, and nationalists, rapidly gained influence, challenging the traditional two-party system maintained by the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party.

In this context, the 1922 general election witnessed a significant surge in support for the Labour Party, while the Conservative Party narrowly managed to hold onto power. In order to stabilize the government, the Conservatives merged with the Liberal Party, forming the Liberal Conservative Party to take control of the political direction.

However, within the Labour Party, differences of opinion arose over their response to the aforementioned General Strike of 1922. As a result, some members of the Labour Party's left-wing aligned with the Communist Party, while a portion of the right-wing merged with the Conservative Party, leading to a de facto split within the party. Consequently, the traditional two-party system, consisting of the Conservative Party and the Labour Party, underwent significant upheaval.

Amidst such political turmoil, the Progressive Reform Party emerged as a new political force. Formed primarily by factions of the divided Labour Party, it brought together independent members, former party members who had disassociated themselves from both major parties, and various minority groups. The party was founded on the principles of social democracy and progressivism. The Progressive Reform Party expressed concerns about the establishment of a dominant two-party system by the Conservative Party and intensified criticism directed at the Conservative Party, as well as the Communist Party.

### **Irish Independence**

The instability caused by the First World War indeed had significant implications for Ireland's quest for independence.

During the Easter Rising of 1916, which occurred during Easter Week in Dublin, Ireland, armed insurgents took control of key locations and fought against British forces. While the uprising was initially suppressed within a week, its leaders were executed. However, subsequent uprisings, such as the Christmas Rising in 1916 and the May Day Rising in 1917, with support from France, continued to challenge British rule in Ireland. The culmination of these events came in 1918 with the Irish Revolution, often referred to as the Easter Revolution, when Irish troops armed with French weapons launched their largest-ever offensive. Despite their determination, the British forces, having regrouped despite the toll of the war, managed to resist, and the conflict became protracted, particularly around Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland.

Ultimately, in 1920, the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed, formally granting independence to Ireland, though a small northeastern region remained part of the United Kingdom. The following year saw the outbreak of the Irish Civil War and continued turmoil in the region. Ireland's future would be marked by shifting alliances between Britain and France.

### **Overheated Labor Movement**

In the 1920s, labor disputes and strikes were widespread in the United Kingdom, causing significant social disruptions. Workers organized demonstrations and strikes to demand better labor conditions and protections from the Conservative government. In 1922, a nationwide "1922 General Strike" took place, with approximately 1.8 million workers participating to seek improvements in wages and working hours.

The General Strike escalated to the point where the police were called in, creating a major event that challenged the Conservative government led by Stanley Baldwin. The government initially adopted a hardline stance, but under mounting pressure from united labor forces, it eventually engaged in negotiations with the workers and conceded to some of their demands, leading to the end of the strike.

Additionally, in 1924, a riot known as the "Tooting Riot" occurred in South London, orchestrated by labor unions. The riot was a response to the police's violent crackdown on a strike by female hotel workers in the area. Furthermore, strikes by coal miners were frequent during this period. In 1926, a strike involving approximately 160,000 coal miners took place in South Wales, resulting in a complete halt in coal production. These labor disputes and strikes contributed to growing discontent and distrust toward the Conservative government, as they failed to address the workers' demands and exacerbated social instability.

Simultaneously, the widening wealth gap and demands for poverty alleviation became prominent issues. Rising unemployment rates and increased poverty became pressing social concerns. The Labour Party, emphasizing wealth redistribution and welfare policies, gained strong support among the working-class population. Conversely, the Conservative Party prioritized economic reconstruction and revitalizing the market economy.

Political divisions intensified, and violence became more frequent. The Conservative and Labour parties clashed fiercely over social issues and economic policies, sometimes leading to violent incidents among their supporters. The government deployed security forces to maintain order, but societal divisions and political confrontations ran deep, eroding trust in governance.

The government made efforts to quell societal divisions and political tensions but struggled to find lasting solutions. Social tensions persisted, and political conflicts became protracted. While the government sought dialogue and compromise to foster societal cohesion, the presence of extremist political factions and radicals exacerbated the divisions.

### **The Great Depression and its impact**

The international situation also had a significant impact on the political landscape in Britain. The global economic downturn of the 1931 Great Depression dealt a severe blow to the British economy, leading to a sharp increase in unemployment and the expansion of poverty. As a result, the discontent and anger among the working-class population escalated, and demands for addressing social inequality and poverty became more pronounced.

Labor disputes and strikes resurfaced during this period. Workers sought improvements in their rights and living conditions, voicing their concerns through unions and labor organizations. The conflict between labor unions and the government deepened, and the government attempted to mediate between labor and management, but the disputes were not easily resolved.

In such circumstances, British society, while grappling with instability, witnessed various movements and advocacy efforts. These included movements for workers' rights and social justice, efforts to protect domestic industries and strengthen the national economy under the banner of nationalism and conservatism, as well as radical revolutionary movements and far-right forces. Various political forces gained strength in this diverse political landscape.

Labor movements and political movements often worked in solidarity, with labor unions and political groups collaborating to pursue the realization of workers' rights and social justice. Strikes and demonstrations symbolized the unity of the working class and exerted pressure on the government and employers. However, political divisions deepened, and societal fragmentation continued to advance, complicating the path toward a cohesive political and social solution.

### **The Joads Lansbury Era**

The influence of the Progressive Reform Party continued to grow and had a significant impact on politics. However, in the politically divided landscape of Britain, dealing with the Great Depression lagged behind other countries. Therefore, in an effort to first stabilize the political situation, the Conservative Party compromised by appointing George Lansbury, a moderate within the Progressive Reform Party, as Prime Minister.

The Lansbury Cabinet initiated a range of innovative and diverse policies known as the "Housing Program." This included cuts to military spending and the establishment of initiatives such as support for the unemployed, housing construction, and public works, with Oswald Mosley playing a central role. In 1934, the National Insurance Act was enacted, introducing various forms of insurance, including healthcare, unemployment benefits, and old-age pensions. These measures improved the lives of the struggling populace during the economic downturn and helped maintain a degree of social peace.

However, the Housing Program faced challenges such as budget shortfalls and funding issues, preventing its full implementation. In order to secure funds, Lansbury decided to make even more significant cuts to military spending, which further alienated him from the Conservative Party. This led to Lansbury's political isolation, and the political divisions in Britain continued to widen