recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Déjà vu

I have the sense I have already posted this...

Déjà vu is the feeling that we have already done something before. There have been many hypotheses about why this occurs, including appeals to parapsychological explanations, but recent research is now showing that this is really an experience of memory failure. It is a "glitch" where we somehow connect a present experience to a real memory from the past, without knowing we have that memory. So, you might think you have been in a new neighbor's house before, even though you just moved to town, but it is really because the house has a layout similar to another house (or another building of some kind) that you have been in, but do not remember or are not connecting to the present experience. Anne Cleary has done excellent work in this area, and can now pretty reliably create the Déjà vu experience in lab participants, by giving them related experiences that they do not necessarily feel were related (but that are close enough to evoke the sense of Déjà vu).
Monster Organization

The **Monster Organization** is a group led by Nocturnus and Arcane. It is composed of not only monsters, but also robots, aliens, mutants and even a few humans. Their goal is to wipe out all who oppose them and take control of the surface world.

## Known Members

### Upper Echelon

* Arcane
* Synaptic
* Talking Stick
* Nightmare Butterfly
* Slasher
* Hurricane
* Spaghetti God
* Man-Eating Puppy
* DJ 3-I
* Boogieman
* Lumin
* Shadow Knight
* Reaper

### Other Members

* Inferno
* Lightning Stag Beetle
* Munchy
* Teethbrush
* Sleeping Bag Man
* Demon Octopus
* Candyman
* Eye Spider
* Radiohead
* Optix
* Demonic Fish
* Breakfast Man
* Prism
* Coconut
* Mr. Blizzard
* Tongue Man
* Flytrap
* Nightshot
* Comet Monster
* Bubblegum
* Slime
* Demon Raccoon
Oooh Shiny

**Season 1, Episode 23**

This is the twenty-third episode of Total Pokémon Island. The campers are shiny for the day and the challenge is to return to normal. A camper devises a plan to get an enemy eliminated, but it backfires when their team doesn't lose and someone else takes the fall.

The campers are turned shiny and given a challenge where they must find the pool to turn them back. They are also placed in random groups of two and three. The first group consists of Cherrim, Espeon, and Luxray. Unsurprisingly, Espeon takes charge. Hitmonchan tries to pump up his group of Delcatty and Rapidash. Chef Slaking chases Azumarill, Dewgong, and Umbreon because Dewgong ate all of his sandwiches. Purugly ditches Arcanine to do some sabotage. Mismagius and Smeargle accompanied by Furret run into Bellossom, Mightyena, and Reuniclus. Purugly reveals herself holding a camera, then leaves to regroup with Arcanine. The pair of Blissey and Vespiquen make it to the cave where the pool is located. Azumarill, Dewgong, and Umbreon are the first group to reach the pool. Cherrim, Espeon, Luxray, Blissey, and Vespiquen follow. Blissey finds Purugly's camera and, concerned, shows the picture on it to Umbreon. Delcatty, Hitmonchan, and Rapidash get to the pool as well as Smeargle and Mismagius. Arcanine and Purugly reach the pool next noticing Furret staying out of the water so she can stay shiny. Umbreon meets with Mismagius to express that he's upset. After Bellossom, Mightyena, and Reuniclus are told that they're too late and lost another challenge, Blissey shows up to call Reuniclus a pig for an unknown reason. In the end, it comes down to Mightyena and Reuniclus for losing the challenge, but Reuniclus gets the boot for being a cheater. In confessional, Purugly explains that she positioned a picture to make it look like Reuniclus and Mismagius were kissing. She planned for Umbreon to find it and get Mismagius eliminated. But, when Blissey found it and Team Tyrantrum lost, it got Reuniclus eliminated.
Max Wertheimer / Productive thinking / Phi phenomenon

Placeholder for Molly, who will edit this when she gets somewhere with internet. The **Phi phenomenon** is one of dozens of **perceptual illusions** (instances in which what is perceived is different from what is sensed) that could be listed as 'things' to know. Also, I think we should agree that **productive thinking** (vs reproductive thinking) includes **insight** as part of this 'thing.'

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

Max Wertheimer, along with Koffka and Kohler, was a founder
of Gestalt Psychology. His 1945 publication “Productive Thinking” discusses
productive thinking as insight-based reasoning, or the production of new ideas
or breakthroughs in solving a problem (as opposed to reproductive thinking – repetition
of already existing thoughts and ideas). A good example of insight provided by
Kohler were his experiments in which he provided chimpanzees with hanging
bananas that were out of reach. The chimps could jump and for bananas, but
could not reach them. Solving this problem required a moment of “insight” in
which they stack the boxes to reach the bananas.

Max Wertheimer is also known for his work on perception and
perceptual organization, which includes his experiments studying the Phi
phenomenon. This phenomenon is the apparent perception of motion when images
are shown in rapid succession, despite these images being stationary.

For an example:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O6ReijxZFmE

also see:

Wertheimer, M. (1912). Experimental Studies on Motion
Vision. *Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, 61*:
161-265.

Wetheimer, M. (1945). *Productive*
Thinking*. New York and Evanston: Harper & Row Publishers.*

the mentality of apes

Kohler, W.
(1925). *The mentality of apes.* New York: Liveright.
Change Blindness

**Change blindness** is a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when a change in a visual stimulus is introduced and the observer does not notice it. This can happen, for example, in movies, where we tend not to notice non-central features that might change between shoots of the scene (e.g., a smashed off mirror in a car chase might be present again a few seconds later, but no one notices). In the laboratory, this is typically investigated using the flicker paradigm, where the same image (almost) is presented for brief periods, with a brief black screen in between each presentation. When this happens, peripheral features to the scene can be changed with limited notice from the participant. Important researchers who study change blindness:

Ronald Rensink, Simons & Levin, Pashler, and of course (!) William James (first!)

A cool site with examples of change blindness:

http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~rensink/flicker/download/

Another site of interest:

https://www.theguardian.com/science/head-quarters/2016/sep/05/change-blindness-can-you-spot-the-difference
William James

In his magnum opus Principles of Psychology, first released in 1890, William James wrote the definitive volume of Psychology's early history. Using colorful language and metaphor, James crafted intuitively coherent descriptions of the types of phenomena (selective attention and multiple memory models and associative principles, to name three among hundreds of other constructs) that psychologists, especially cognitive psychologists, would come to take as primary areas of study. And Psychology was not even James' day job! He was trained as a good-for-nothing philosopher, and a large portion of his scholarly activities were in advancing his different philosophical positions, as distinct from the concerns of mere experimental psychologists.

Fun fact! Prior to Brielle and I, William James held the distinction as the most eminent 'Will' and 'James' in the history of Psychology. How the times have changed!
Vee’s Total Pokemon Wiki

## Welcome to the Vee’s Total Pokémon Wiki

This is the wiki for everything about my “fanfic” on Instagram. Go to @deeveeous for the details. I have just finished season 2, Total Pokémon Action, and Total Pokémon World Tour is on the way. So it’s basically a Youtube Total Pokémon series, but posted on Instagram. I'm very inspired by the videos and shows I grew up with around 2009-2012. If you’re interested, just check out my account and check on this wiki to catch up on what you missed! Thanks!
Prospective memory

**Prospective memory** is a form of memory that involves remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time. It is a type of planning behavior, and also a form of future-oriented cognitive processes.

There are lots of easy example, such as remembering to get milk on the way home to remembering to attach an email to a message you are currently writing to remembering that next spring you need to make a charitable donation before tax returns are due. People can be both very good and very bad at prospective memory.

There are two basic types - **event based PMs**, where the intended, stored future action is implemented on the basis of the right context (e.g., stopping to get more windshield washer fluid next time you are near an auto parts store), or **time based PMs**, where the intended action must be implemented at a specific time (e.g., remembering that you need to call your grandmother next Sunday at exactly 5:00 because she is having her birthday party then).

There is a lot of research into PM looking at a lot of questions. One big issue is the extent to which PM relies on monitoring of some sort (for noticing when it is the right time or the right context to implement the intended action) versus being more spontaneously retrieved (e.g., maybe happening to notice the auto parts store while sitting at a red light, and then remembering you need something from there). This is often studied by examining whether there are costs to ongoing activity performance as a function of intended prospective actions. For example, as the time nears for calling grandma, you might find it harder to concentrate on the book you are currently reading.

Some animal research has been done on PM in animals, largely with rats, primates, and a little bit with pigeons. They do seem to show many of the constituent parts of a PM system.
12. SNARC Effect

The spatial-numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect occurs when magnitude information is associated with a particular spatial organization. This association then effects subsequent tasks (response times, looking behavior, etc.). For example, people respond faster (e.g., a key press) to smaller numbers when they are presented on the left (or with the left hand) and to larger numbers when they are presented on the right (or with the right hand), due to the correspondence between the magnitude of a number on a mental number line. The direction of the SNARC effect depends on the orientation of the mental number line (e.g., horizontally left-to-right in English; vertically top-to-bottom in Japanese).
Cognitive Bias

A cognitive bias is a systematic error in thinking that can affect reasoning, evaluating, attending, remembering, or other cognitive processes. Biases often occur when people use mental shortcuts (heuristics) to simplify information that is being processed. These heuristics may or may not be based entirely on facts and usually do not include all the information available. Biases are not necessarily good or bad, and probably serve the function of allowing the brain to make inferences and decisions quickly.
63. Spreading Activation Theory

Collin and Quillian (1969) were among the first to develop a systematic model of semantic memory suggesting that it is organized in a hierarchical network. The major concepts are represented as nodes (e.g., fish) and each node is associated with features related to the concept (e.g., has fins). According to this model, sentences that *should* be similar in hierarchical distance (e.g., a crow is a bird & a penguin is a bird) should be similarly semantically related. However, it takes us longer to realize that a penguin is a bird compared to a crow suggesting that this is not the case.

Collin and Loftus (1975) put forth the **spreading activation theory** which helps to rectify the above problem - it considers typicality effects (discussed in earlier post). Their theory suggests that instead of hierarchies, semantic memory is organized by semantic distance (or relatedness). According to this theory, when a person encounters some sort of sensory input about a concept, the appropriate node is activated in semantic memory. The activation then spreads to nearby nodes that are most strongly associated or related semantically. In this way, activation would spread quicker from “bird” to “crow” than from “bird” to “penguin”.

Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969). Retrieval time from semantic memory. *Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior*, *8*(2), 240-247.

Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. *Psychological review*, *82*(6), 407.
Hindsight bias/ Knew-it-all-along effect

The hindsight bias occurs when we tend to overestimate the
probability of an event after it has occurred. Because of this, it is also
referred to as the “knew-it-all-along effect.” Despite not being able to
predict an event’s outcome before it happens, we often feel like after-the-fact
we are able to clearly see the signs leading up to that particular outcome. For
example, a girl opens her car door and accidentally taps the car parked next to
hers. After assessing for damage, she feels she should have seen that coming
considering the angle of the car and the distance of the neighboring car –
despite the fact she’s parked in this same spot at the same distance hundreds
of times before and prior to the event there was no reason to believe this would have happened (this is just an example and obviously not a personal example…).
Other examples can include the outcome of experimental studies or historical events.
The hindsight bias is also a form of memory distortion, as those of us experiencing
it tend to misremember our original probability judgements of particular
events.

Wasserman, D., Lempert, R. O., & Hastie, R. (1991). Hindsight
and causality. *Personality and Social*
Psychology Bulletin, 17*, 30-35.*
3-I

**3-I** is a member of the Monster Organization and is one of the higher ranking members.

## Appearance

3-I is a three-eyed humanoid who wears a purple sweater, black gloves, dark purple pants, white sneakers, a purple beanie and a pair of purple headphones. He also has a mask covering his mouth.

## Personality

3-I seems to be very calm and laid back most of the time. He likes to sit around and listen to electronic music through his headphones, or make his own music. However, he can get annoyed easily and become a bit aggressive. He listens to music in battle and is calm as well.

## History

Not much is known of 3-I except that he is a DJ who takes an interest in EDM music and likes to create his own tracks in his free time.

## Plot

### Monster Organization Arc

3-I first appeared when several members of the Monster Organization attacked New York City. He was seen killing several humans using his sword.

## Abilities and Powers

### Physical Abilities

**Enhanced Strength**: WIP

**Enhanced Speed and Reflexes**: WIP

### Equipment

**Sword**: 3-I carries a giant sword which is his main weapon in battle. He is shown to be very skilled in using it and can carry it around easily and is even shown holding it with one hand. This sword can create shockwaves if 3-I strikes the ground with it.

**CDs**: 3-I also carries several CDs which act as boomerangs. They can cut through human flesh with ease.

## Trivia

* He is one of Ghost's favorite characters in the series.
Ape (and other animals) Language Studies

I think all cognitive psychologists should know about the major ape language studies, including work with Washoe, Nim, Chantek, Sarah, Lana, Sherman & Austin, Kanzi, Ai, Panzee and Panbanisha, Alex, Ake, and others. Cognitive psychology in all its topic areas is intimately tied to language, and how we process linguistic information. This includes communication theory, and many other areas. Thus, a fully informed cognitive psychology must include knowledge of what we know about what nonhuman animals can (and cannot) do by way of learning aspects of human language. I would include also in this a broader understanding of basic animal communication systems, because those also involve cognitive processes shared with humans in some ways (e.g., perception, classification, discrimination, etc.). In addition, these animals studies describe how one can use the abilities of special animals to ask unique questions about the role of language in other cognitive processes.
Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a learning processes through which
behavior is changed using reinforcements (given or withdrawn) or punishments
after the desired response. E.L. Thorndike first studied this kind of learning,
which he labeled the “law of effect”, with cats in puzzle boxes. However, B.F.
Skinner is known as the father of operant conditioning, because he built upon
Thorndike’s ideas, coined the term “operant conditioning”, and invented the
Skinner box to further study the process.
Modal model (Atkinson & Shiffrin)

43: The model that launched a thousand misconceptions! Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) comprehensively summarized the memory literature and proposed that information is passed from brief sensory storage to short-term storage (via attention) and to long-term storage (via rehearsal). Their review remains impressive in its scope and clarity. Their theory is called **the modal model** because it emphasized modality-specific processing in sensory storage (visual stimuli to the icon, auditory to the echo, etc), STS and LTS. It might also be considered “modal” in the statistical sense (i.e., the mode, or most common): Variations on their model became the standard theory for decades, and the foundation for Baddeley and other contemporary memory theories.

An unfortunate effect of the influential modal model (thus called ‘the modal muddle’ by some) was the proliferation of “boxologies” of information processing, in which the serial rather than parallel nature of cognition was emphasized, and in which constructs like “the sensory store” and “short-term memory” were treated like actual things or places, rather than as shorthand for collections of behavioral phenomena.

Here’s a recent review I like: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10648-013-9246-y
Single/Double Dissociation

In a single dissociation, a manipulation (lesion, drug) leads to a change in one mental ability or capacity while leaving another intact. So, one might experience loss of ability to name an items one sees, but still be able to name it when touching it.

In a double dissociation, two experimental manipulations each have unique effects on two dependent variables (usually behaviors of interest). So, one manipulation affects one thing but not the other, and the other manipulation affects the second thing, but not the first.

What we all usually think of is the classic double dissociation of speech and language comprehension. Although both processes pertain to use of language, the brain structures that control them work independently. When Broca's area is damaged, patients may still understand language but be unable to speak fluently. They know what they want to say, but are unable to express themselves. Damage to Wernicke's area leads to patients who may still speak fluently, but struggle to comprehend language.

In general, double dissociation is seen as a much more valuable outcome from a study. And, although I have used the typical neuroscience examples here, designs in other areas of cognitive science also can lead to single or double dissociation.
2. Classical conditioning (Pavlov)

Classical conditioning is a theory of learning in which an association between two stimuli is formed such that a response initially elicited by an unconditioned stimulus will become initiated by a conditioned stimulus alone. Ivan Pavlov was one of the first to demonstrate this phenomenon in dogs, pairing food (unconditioned) with a tone (conditioned) to elicit a salivary response. Eventually, the tone elicited this response in the absence food.
16. False memory

False memories are created when misleading information is
combined with existing memories. In other words, false information can become
associated with past experiences already represented in long-term memory,
creating a ‘familiarity’ or sense that it could have occurred (also related to
source confusion, see earlier post on Source Monitoring). With repeated suggestion
and recall, these false memories can become more detailed and individuals
more confident in their reality. Elizabeth Loftus is well known for her work on
the distortion and creation of false memories, such as getting lost in a
shopping mall or misremembering details of an automobile/pedestrian accident.

Loftus, E. F. & Pickrell, J. (1995) The Formation of
False Memories. *Psychiatric Annals*.
25, 720-725.

Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G., Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic
integration of verbal information into a visual memory. *J Exp Psychol Hum Learn*. 4, 19-31.

Garry, M., Manning, C. G., Loftus, E. F., Sherman, S. J.
(1996). Imagination inflation: Imagining a childhood event inflates confidence
that it occurred. *Psychon Bull Rev* 3,
208-214.

Also:

Shaw, J., & Porter, S. (2015). Constructing rich false
memories of committing crime. *Psychol Sci*.
26, 291-301.

Hyman, I. E., Husband, T. H., Billings, J. F. (1995). False
memories of childhood experiences. *Applied*
Cognitive Psychology*. 9, 181-197.*

And many more!
Signal Detection Theory

Signal Detection Theory is a framework that accounts for the detection of a signal stimulus under conditions of uncertainty and is known for yielding measurements that meaningfully dissociate signal sensitivity from response bias. Sensitivity is indexed using the parameter d’ which takes into account the probabilities of hits and false alarms. Bias reflects the probability that an individual will produce one response (e.g., signal present) over the other (signal absent) and is assessed with C, which can be thought of as a decision criterion that shifts independently of sensitivity. Psychologists have applied the theory to research on perception, clinical diagnostics, decision making and memory.

Anderson, N.D. (03 June 2015). Teaching signal detection theory with pseudoscience. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00762 (Retrieved from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00762/full)

Tanner, W. P., and Swets, J. A. (1954). A decision-making theory of visual detection. Psychol. Rev. 61, 401–409.
77. Counterfactual thinking

Counterfactual thinking, or "what if" thinking, is our ability to formulate alternative scenarios to events that have already occurred. For example, one might say "if only I hadn't overslept, I wouldn't have missed my interview". Statements like this are alternative scenarios, contrary to reality, and may (negatively or positively) influence how we feel about the actual event and may further impact future decisions related to the actual event (e.g., setting 5 alarms next time). Counterfactual thinking in social interactions also seems to influence how we assign blame and responsibility. The ever present "Well, if she wasn't wearing... then..." and "Well, if he didn't run from... then..." statements have consistently shown to impact
 jury decision making.

Byrne, R. M. (2016). Counterfactual thought. *Annual review of psychology*, *67*, 135-157.
Choice Overload

Choice overload (also referred to as “overchoice”) is the overwhelming feeling of making a decision in the face of numerous, equally desirable options. Decision-making is stalled as a result of considering each option in order to avoid making the wrong decision. In the face of too many choices, choice overload can lead to increased feelings of pressure to make a decision and more dissatisfaction with your choice, compared to choices made from a smaller choice set. As a result of choice overload, people may tend to rely more on heuristics during decision-making (e.g., choosing the default option) or even opt for choice deferral, in order to avoid making the decision at all. Choice overload is said to be reversed when the choices are being made for someone else, and has important implications for behavioral economics.
21. Ebbinghaus Part Deux: Recency effect

Similar to the forgetting curve, Ebbinghaus conducted a series of studies to determine recall accuracy as a function of word position on a list. One finding from Ebbinghaus’ studies is what has been coined as the “recency effect” which is the improved recall of words at the end of a list. Ebbinghaus determined that we tend to remember the words at the end of a list because words are still stored in short term memory. The recency effect (and primacy effect – to be explained in another post by Brielle) have been used to dissociate between short term and long term memory. Interestingly, the recency effect can be extinguished by adding a delay between the end of the list reading and the recall test phase.
Cognitive Revolution

video File:Placeholder
The cognitive revolution refers to a shift in the field of psychology during the 1950s from behaviorist approaches to a focus on the mind. This shift marked the beginning of cognitive psychology and of research that aimed to reveal the inner workings of the human (and animal) mind rather than solely studying behavioral output and environmental input. The information-processing approach was one school of thought that arose during the cognitive revolution which posits that the human brain processes information in a way that is not unlike a computer.

## Section heading

Write the first section of your page here.

## Section heading

Write the second section of your page here.
McGurk Effect

The McGurk Effect is a multisensory phenomenon in which
inconsistent audio and visual stimuli are paired to create the misperception of
a third sound. For example, when presented with a video of someone saying “ga”
simultaneously with audio of saying “ba,” many people actually hear the
syllable “da.” The McGurk Effect was first described by McGurk and MacDonald in
1976 and has been replicated many times. It remains a robust illusion, with factors
such as sex, familiarity, being the speaker, whether there is a lag in stimulus
presentation, and several others either strengthening, weakening, or not altering
the effect. The McGurk Effect is an example of how top-down processing influences
the actual stimuli – otherwise, identical auditory information would always sound
identical regardless of the visual information being presented. In other words,
what you hear isn’t always what you see!

McGurk H.,
MacDonald J. (1976). Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature 264, 746–748. https://doi.org/10.1038/264746a0

And here is a good video demonstrating it: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-lN8vWm3m0
Karl Lashley – Law of Mass Action/Law of Equipotentiality

Karl Lashley was a behaviorist well known for his study of functional
specialization of cortical areas and their importance in learning and memory. He
contributed to two major principles: the law of mass action and the law of equipotentiality.
The mass action principle states that the amount of cortical tissue removed is
proportional to deficits in memory. Therefore, memory is not localized to one
area but distributed across the cortex. The law of equipotentiality states that
if a part of the brain is damaged, an intact part within that functional area can
take over its function.
Procedural vs Declarative Memory (and what H.M. told us about them)

Thing #36 gave us the distinction between semantic and episodic memory—both instances of declarative memory (sometimes also called ‘explicit’ although I think that conflates type of memory content with type of memory test). This is in contrast to procedural memory (“knowing how,” vs declarative’s “knowing that’), sometimes called ‘implicit’ (grrr). Skills (writing in cursive or riding a bicycle), conditioning (Thing #2 and #9), and priming (Thing #40) are examples of procedural memory.

*Declarative learning tends to be preserved in amnesia. For example, Henry Molaison (**H.M.**) had severe **anterograde amnesia** (but only partial **retrograde amnesia**) following surgery to alleviate seizures, and thus was generally able to remember events from long before surgery but not able to form new long-term declarative memories. Nevertheless, he could learn new skills (e.g., mirror drawing, which improved with practice, even though H.M. reported each day of practice to be his first).* Note that H.M. provides dissociations (Thing #44) between LTM and STM, and between declarative and procedural LTMs.

BTW: John Anderson’s influential **ACT-R** (Adaptive Control of Thought—Rational) model of cognition is built (in part) on the assumption that all knowledge is divided into irreducible procedural or declarative representations.

Also associated with this ‘thing’: Wilder Penfield and especially **Brenda Milner** and Suzanne Corkin worked with H.M. for decades to understand what he could teach us about memory. See, for example

Milner, B., Corkin, S., & Teuber, H. L. (1968). Further analysis of the hippocampal amnesic syndrome: 14-year follow-up study of H.M. Neuropsychologia, 6, 215–234  https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2dac/046a9303a568ed6253a7132a4e9194b6924c.pdf

ACT-R was overviewed in Anderson, J. R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory of complex cognition. *American Psychologist*, *51*(4), 355-365. http://courses.csail.mit.edu/6.803/pdf/anderson.pdf

(Cognitive psychologists should at least know *about* Anderson’s ACT-R model, even if most of us don’t understand it.)

And on amnesia: Squire, L. R. (1981). Two forms of human amnesia: An analysis of forgetting. *Journal of Neuroscience*, *1*(6), 635-640. http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/1/6/635.full.pdf
Object Permanence

As
mentioned in an earlier post on Piaget’s 4 stages of Cognitive Developments, Piaget
also outlined 6 stages within the sensorimotor stage, in which human infants
become aware that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible,
known as object permanence. This is often testing using an A-not-B task, in
which an experimenter hides a toy under box A, but then moves the toy to under box
B. Infants that lack a complete understanding of object permanence will continue
to search under box A. According to Piaget, this is one of the most important
developments in an infants’ motor development, as it helps us to understand
the world through multisensory representations of objects. Infants typically develop
an understanding of object permanence by the time they are 12 months hold.
However, object permanence has also been shown in many animals including dogs,
birds, monkeys, and apes.
Ecological Validity

Ecological validity is the extent that a study or its findings can be generalized to natural settings. The concept of ecological validity is particularly relevant to the intersection of cognitive and comparative or developmental psychology. Testing paradigms that are applicable to typically developing human adults are not necessarily adept to measuring the same constructs in different populations (e.g., nonhuman animals, children, individuals with disabilities).

For this reason, tasks must be developed with consideration for "the conditions of the problem without interfering with the natural instincts and proclivities of the animal, and thus distracting or deflecting its attention" (Small, 1900, p. 133). Conclusions about nonhuman animal cognition, for example, have been influenced by the method and tools used in measurement (see Washburn, Rumbaugh, & Putney, 1994).

Small, W. S. (1900). An experimental study of the mental processes of the rat. American Journal of Psychology, 11, 133–165. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1412267

Washburn, D. A., Rumbaugh, D. M., & Putney, R. T. (1994). Apparatus as milestones in the history of comparative psychology. *Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers*, *26*(2), 231-235. doi:10.3758/BF03204627
Hot hand fallacy

This fallacy is about belief in future outcomes based on past outcomes, where a performer who has just done well (made many putts in a row, or free throws, or hit three home runs in a row) is believed to be capable of continuing to perform above average or even at very high levels. Empirical work shows this not to be true. I have always thought there is a flaw in most of this empirical work, though, because it ONLY considers the outcome of past shots, at-bats, etc., but does not consider (usually) whether the players themselves FEEL like they have a hot hand. In any case, it is another fallacy to add to our list.
Selfridge Pandemonium Model

Pandemonium is a model of bottom-up pattern recognition first offered by Selfridge. In the model, different "demons" operate to identify letters at different levels. This model is a feature detection model, offered in response to the failure of template matching models to best describe real perceptual and pattern recognition processes. In the model, each level of demon does something different, and largely independent of the others. Image demons basically record the perception of visual information. Feature demons "yell" whenever they "see" a specific stimulus in the proper location/orientation to their specific focus. Cognitive demons listen to the yelling of feature demons, and each cognitive demon assesses whether threshhold "yeling" occurs for enough features for that Cognitive demon to yell out its letter (or presumably, some other kind of stimulus like a letter, object, etc.). The Decision demon listens to competing Cognitive demons to determine what letter is most likely what has been perceived.

Although not everyone agrees that this model best describes actual pattern recognition, it has been used as a model for Hebbian neural assemblies, and some have suggested it could be adapted to accommodate even top-down processes. I am not sure about any of that, but it certainly was an important idea that was made easy to understand through the architecture, and also that it was influential in pushing forward ideas about pattern recognition and perception.

Super-cool website that lets you play with a Pandemonium model is here. Very fun, students love it:

http://epsych.msstate.edu/descriptive/Vision/swamp/Pandemonium/index.html
Herbert Simon

Herbert Simon is considered one of the founders of behavioral economics, computer science, and artificial intelligence. His contributions to those fields, and cognitive psychology, were numerous. For example, he engaged in debate with Ulric Neisser about the nature of cognition and machine learning (artificial intelligence). He coined the term "bounded rationality" and made many contributions to economics, and, YES, Herbert Simon (then at Carnegie Mellon University) won the Nobel Prize in Economics for his work on “the decision-making process in economic organizations.” He also won the Turing Award, and many others.
54. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT)

The tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon is that frustrating
experience when you feel you know a word, answer to a question, etc. but just
can’t seem to get it out. In other words, it is when information that is stored
in memory is not readily accessible. Many times, individuals experiencing this
phenomenon can recall the first letter, length of the word, or approximate the
sound of syllables in the word. However, despite feeling retrieval from memory
is imminent, the full word or bit of information is still not fully available for
recall. TOT is affected by various factors such as emotional content (retrieval
takes longer if the memory is more emotional), age, and bilingualism and others.
There are two general theories for why TOT occurs. One is the direct access
view, which is one of memory strength. Essentially there is a memory for the item
that is strong enough to trigger TOT but not strong enough to retrieve the
word. The inferential view suggest that TOTs are caused by clues that an
individual can remember and piece together to infer the target word.

Brown, R., McNeill, D. (1966). The “tip of the tongue”
phenomenon. *Journal of Verbal Learning*
and Verbal Behavior, 5, *325-337.*

Brown, A.S. (1993). A review of the tip-of-the-tongue
experience. *Psychol Bull., 109,* 204-223.
Framing Effects

Framing effects occur when the way in which a decision is presented impacts the response made. For example, when a decision is portrayed as having potential for gains (i.e. currency, etc), people are more likely to approach with caution and use conservative decision making. However, presenting the same issue with the potential for losses engenders more risk taking. Framing effects have been studied in connection to risky decision making such as gambling and consumer behavior.

Steiger, A., & Kühberger, A. (2018). A meta-analytic re-appraisal of the framing effect. *Zeitschrift für Psychologie*.

Levin, I. P., Gaeth, G. J., Schreiber, J., & Lauriola, M. (2002). A new look at framing effects: Distribution of effect sizes, individual differences, and independence of types of effects. *Organizational behavior and human decision processes*, *88*(1), 411-429.
30. George Miller's magic number 7 (plus or minus 2)

Short term memory stores information for short periods of
time, about 15-30 seconds. George Miller described its limitation in capacity in
his well-known and widely-cited 1956 paper “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or
Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information.” Essentially,
5-9 measured units (including “chunks”) of information can be processed/stored
in short-term memory at a time. This theory has been called into question in
recent years, with some suggesting that working memory capacity is likely
less than seven "units" and drawing more attention to the factors that can account for
differences in capacity, such as levels of cognitive load or expertise (and
therefore ability to “chunk” information).

Miller, G. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus
two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. *The psychological review, 63*, 81-97.

Farrington, J. (2011). Seven plus or minus two. **https://doi.org/10.1002/piq.20099**

Shiffrin, R.M. & Nosofsky, R. M. (1994). Seven plus or
minus two: a commentary on capacity limitations. *Psychological Review, 101*, 357-361.
Complex span measures of WMC and its relation to processing speed, etc.

Our list already includes many memory-related ‘things’ but must also include recent findings from **differential-psychology** (individual-differences) studies of **working-memory capacity**, as measured by **complex-span tasks** like reading span, operation span, symmetry span, and so forth. In particular, **Engle** and collaborators have shown, by comparing people who are relatively high vs low in WMC, that the capacity *for* (not the limits *of*) WM

-principally involves controlled or executive attention for maintaining and manipulating information;

-uses (but isn’t) STM storage itself;

-is highly related to fluid intelligence (reasoning), not because they are the same thing, but because the latter involves another controlled-attention operation: disengagement (the opposite of maintenance); and (among other things);

-may or may not be correlated with individual differences in processing speed, depending on how **processing speed** is measured (e.g., whether or not measured with tasks that require controlled attention).

This latter point is important, as individual differences in processing speed typically correlate well with measures of general intelligence—accounting for as much as 80% of the variance in some studies. Developmental improvements in processing speed are associated with language learning and other cognitive outcomes. Processing speed differences have been implicated in a wide range of developmental disabilities and health-related outcomes as well.  Even more critically, **Timothy Salthouse** showed that declines in processing speed account for most of the **age-related cognitive declines** in memory, fluency, attention, and inhibition that are seen in older adults.

http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~tredick/2012%20Redick%20Unsworth%20Kelly%20Engle.pdf

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.460.2897&rep=rep1&type=pdf

http://englelab.gatech.edu/publications/2018/Engle%20POP%20revisit%20of%202002%20paper.pdf
50. Statistical Learning

First studied in 8-month-old human infant language learning (Saffran et al., 1996), statistical learning involves recognizing statistical regularities in stimuli. For example, infants must learn which phonemes occur together regularly (vs. randomly) in order to learn what syllables create different words (vs. nonwords). Statistical learning has also been found when learning non-linguistic information (e.g., music and visual stimuli), because of this statistical learning is thought to be a domain-general learning mechanism.

Saffran, J. R., Aslin, R. N., & Newport,
E. L. (1996). Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants.
Cognitive Psychology (1967)

Ulric Neisser's 1967 publication of *Cognitive Psychology* earned him the title "Father of Cognitive
Psychology."  The book is one of the
earliest comprehensive reviews on the study of perception, attention, and
memory, so it is considered the first textbook dedicated to cognitive
psychology. Among those who embrace the over-simplified Intro-to-Cog narrative
of the Cognitive Revolution (True Scientists triumph over the then-sacrosanct dogma
of Watson & Skinner’s Evil Cult of Behaviorism), the publication of *Cognitive Psychology* is often
characterized as a manifesto of sorts, timestamping the tipping point of the
intellectual shift to cognitivism. Though the first chapter, "The
Cognitive Approach," does challenge specific behaviorist assumptions, the
text is primarily concerned with the application of the Human Information
Paradigm to specific phenomena and with the presentation of an approach that carefully
incorporates descriptions of mental events into experimental hypothesis and
theory.

Belardinelli, M.O. (2012). The debt of cognitive science to
Ulric Neisser. *Cognitive Processing, 13*(3),
189-191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10339-012-0506-4

Neisser, U. (1967). *Cognitive psychology.* Appleton Century-Croft: New
York
Prospect Theory

Prospect Theory
Come on down, and collect your NOBEL PRIZE!
Prospect theory (Kahneman and Tversky) explains why we really do what we do, rather than what economists said we should be doing (expected utility theory - which is a theory of rational choice). Prospect theory describes choice behavior as reflecting the biases that we have, specifically with regard to estimating probabilities and referring to BASE RATES (you know who I am talking to!). More importantly, Prospect theory says all decisions (choices) are made in contexts, and those can vary from person to person, and even from time to time for the same person. You have to know the context in which a choice is made to be able to predict it. No one spends $10 on a hamburger at McDonalds, but lots of us would on a 5 hour flight after missing lunch. People use other heuristics, too, when they choose, and another key point is that choices are framed (affected by other options, and by recent other choices). A central feature of the theory is loss aversion, whereby losses feel worse to us that gains feel good (see figure).

Although people typically say the "prospect" part of this refers to a lottery like discussion, in the very excellent book (which will be on my students' GE reading list) The Undoing Project (author - Michael Lewis), K&T say they really just wanted a name for it that was not going to be confused with anything else that was out there!

To see where it all (kind of) began - "Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk" - available on the web and in local minds all around you.
Categorization

Categorization- the process by which things are placed in to categories. Categories are systematically arranged groups of entities or concepts that share some characteristic or set of characteristics. Membership in to categories may be judged by any set of rules, but members are commonly assessed in relation to an exemplar or prototype, general family resemblance, or whether the member meets the definition of the set category.
Prosopagnosia

Prosopagnosia is a neurological disorder that results in an inability to recognize familiar faces. Also called “face blindness,” the condition is most often due to brain damage in the fusiform face area (FFA). Alternatively, Capgras Syndrome, or “imposter syndrome” is associated with an intact ability to recognize familiar faces but with the accompanying delusion that familiar people have been replaced by identical imposters. Both disorders have ties to deficits in facial perception. However, there are differences between the two with regard to physiological responses to familiar faces. Patients with prosopagnosia often still experience the galvanic skin response that occurs when shown familiar faces, while patients with Capgras syndrome do not.

Corrow, S., Dalrymple, K., & Barton, J. (2016). Prosopagnosia: current perspectives. *Eye And Brain, Vol Volume 8, Pp 165-175 (2016)*, 165.
Consciousness and Solipsism

Consciousness is a state where objects (mental or otherwise) are conscious. I am conscious. I believe this is true because the experience of consciousness is one that I an conscious of. In other words, I am aware of my awareness of objects, so I assume that awareness is a property I hold. Perhaps you are conscious as well.

I have direct access to my consciousness (I am aware of my awareness), but I cannot observe the consciousness of others. I can observe behaviors that other animals exhibit. If those behaviors are like my own, especially on ones that I believe involve my consciousness, I may assume that they have consciousness as well.

However, I am not sure if any of my behaviors involve my consciousness causally, or if my conscious experience is simply an artifact of nonconscious operations. Perhaps my consciousness is epiphenomenal. My thoughts are a byproduct, my intentions are inconsequential.

Because of this, the properly skeptical point of view is to assume that no behaviors require consciousness, and that no animals possess the property of consciousness.

I can, of course, quibble with the definition of consciousness. But I don't want to get into semantics. I'm over my character limit.
Metacognition

Metacognition is thinking about thinking, or, the high-level cognitive process that allows individuals to monitor and to respond to mental states. Metacognition, as described by Nelson and Narens (1990), is composed of two levels: an object level and the meta level. The object level contains lower level cognitive processes. The meta level contains representations of the lower level processes. Monitoring describes the flow of information from the object level to the meta level, and the updating of the representations contained in the meta level. Control described the flow of information from the meta level to the object level in the form of direction (e.g., changing of behavior, orienting of attention, etc).

Nelson, T., & Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 26, 125–173. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60053-5
Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is defined as the state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes in relation to behavioral decisions. Coined by Leon Festinger (1957), actions or new information that contradict personal beliefs, ideals, and values (e.g., a woman believes it is important to take care of the environment, but drives a car that is not environmentally-friendly) causes psychological stress from the internal inconsistency; this psychological stress is “cognitive dissonance.” Cognitive dissonance can be resolved through behavior or attitude changes (e.g., justifying the conflicting behavior by adopting a new belief system or avoiding contradictory behaviors).

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.