Syria

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**Syria**, officially the **Federal Republic of Syria**, is a country in the Middle East bordering Turkey to the north the UIR to the east, Jordan and Israel to the south. The country was restructured after the end of the Syrian Civil War after the United States led an international coalition against IS. Since it's restructuring, Syria has maintained a close relationship with Israel, Turkey and the United States to counter the influence of the UIR in the region.

## History

### French Mandate

In 1920, a short-lived independent Kingdom of Syria was established under Faisal I of the Hashemite family. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the San Remo conference proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under a French mandate.

Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi was the first president to be elected under the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of Vichy France until the British and Free French occupied the country in the Syria-Lebanon campaign in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalists and the British forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.

### Post-Independence

n May 1948, Syrian forces invaded Palestine, together with other Arab states, and immediately attacked Jewish settlements. Their president, Shukri al-Quwwatli instructed his troops in the front, “to destroy the Zionists". The Invasion purpose was prevention of the establishment of the State of Israel. Defeat in this war was one of several trigger factors for the March 1949 Syrian coup d'état by Col. Husni al-Za'im, described as the first military overthrow of the Arab World since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by another overthrow, by Col. Sami al-Hinnawi, who was himself quickly deposed by Col. Adib Shishakli, all within the same year.

Shishakli eventually abolished multipartyism altogether, but was himself overthrown in a 1954 coup and the parliamentary system was restored. However, by this time, power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment. The weakness of Parliamentary institutions and the mismanagement of the economy led to unrest and the influence of Nasserism and other ideologies. There was fertile ground for various Arab nationalist, Syrian nationalist, and socialist movements, which represented disaffected elements of society. Notably included were religious minorities, who demanded radical reform.

In November 1956, as a direct result of the Suez Crisis, Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union. This gave a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for military equipment. Turkey then became worried about this increase in the strength of Syrian military technology, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake İskenderun. Only heated debates in the United Nations lessened the threat of war.

On 1 February 1958, Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli and Egypt's Nasser announced the merging of Egypt and Syria, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the communists therein, ceased overt activities. Meanwhile, a group of Syrian Ba'athist officers, alarmed by the party's poor position and the increasing fragility of the union, decided to form a secret Military Committee; its initial members were Lieutenant-Colonel Muhammad Umran, Major Salah Jadid and Captain Hafez al-Assad. When Syria seceded on 28 September 1961 after a coup, the ensuing instability culminated in the 8 March 1963 coup. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. The new cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.

### Ba'athist Syria

On 23 February 1966, the Military Committee carried out an intra-party overthrow, imprisoned President Amin Hafiz and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March. Although Nureddin al-Atassi became the formal head of state, Salah Jadid was Syria's effective ruler from 1966 until 1970. The coup led to a split within the original pan-Arab Ba'ath Party: one Iraqi-led ba'ath movement (ruled Iraq from 1968 to 2003) and one Syrian-led ba'ath movement was established.

In the first part of 1967 a low-key state of war existed between Syria and Israel. Conflict over Israeli cultivation of land in the Demilitarized Zone led to 7 April prewar aerial clashes between Israel and Syria. After Israel launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the Six-Day War, Syria joined the war and attacked against Israel as well. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing two-thirds of the Golan Heights in under 48 hours. The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next.

The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the "Black September" hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement. The power struggle culminated in the November 1970 Corrective Movement, a bloodless military overthrow that installed Hafez al-Assad as the strongman of the government. On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the Yom Kippur War against Israel. The Israel Defense Forces reversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory.

In early 1976, Syria entered Lebanon, beginning the thirty-year Syrian military occupation. Over the following 15 years of civil war, Syria fought for control over Lebanon, and attempted to stop Israel from taking over in southern Lebanon, through extensive use of proxy militias. Syria then remained in Lebanon until 2005.

### Civil War and Islamist Takeover

*See Full Articles: Syrian Civil War & War against ISIS*

In 2011, the Arab Spring swept across the Arab World toppling regimes in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Yemen. In Syria, anti-government protests against President Bashar Al-Assad were met with strong resistance. In July 2011, army defectors declared the formation of the Free Syrian Army, and began forming fighting units. In August, the FSA was involved in active insurgency against the Assad regime, and the Syrian National Council was formed. The group based in Turkey attempted to organise the opposition groups into a political force in official opposition to the Assad government.

In November and December 2011, the rebel groups stepped attacks. In December, it was reported that the United States, Britain and France were actively supporting the rebels against Assad, providing them with training, equipment and armaments. In January 2012, Assad began using large-scale artillery operations against the insurgency, causing mass destruction to civilian homes. In April 2012, Kofi Annan became the UN-Arab League Joint Special Representative for Syria, and presented a peace plan for Syria. The government and the rebels agreed to enter a UN-mediated ceasefire which eventually collapsed.

Annan called for Iran to become involved in the peace process, and eventually resigned in August. In May 2012, the government executed 108 in Homs, and the FSA made an ultimatum to the government which marked the practical collapse of the ceasefire. On 1 June, Assad vowed to crush anti-government forces. On 22 June, Syrian government forces shot down a Turkish F-4, killing both pilots. In July, the government of Iraq reported that the FSA had total control of the four border checkpoints between the two countries. In September, Kurdish activists reported that 21 civilians were killed in a neighbourhood of Aleppo. The Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG) vowed to retaliate. Kurdish forces engaged with government forces several days later, marking the beginning of Kurdish involvement in the war.

In November 2012, rebels took control of the government's largest military base in northern Syria after weeks of intense fighting. In mid-December, U.S. officials reported that the Syrian government had fired several Scud missiles at rebel fighters. Rebel forces pushed further into Damascus, capturing the Yarmouk and Palestine refugee camps. In January 2013, the al-Nusra Front took control of an airbase in the Idlib Governorate, seizing helicopters, tanks and rocket launchers before retreating following a government offensive. Al-Nusra forces capture more towns in the Idlib, Ar-Raqqah and Al-Hasakah Governorates.

In February, heavy clashes erupted between government and YPG forces. In March, the government lost control of Raqqah to the rebels, the first provincial capital to fall to rebel forces. Residents of the town tore down a statue of Hafez Assad. Also in March, the Syrian Air Force attacked rebel positions inside Lebanon. In April, the government and Hezbollah forces launched a joint offensive to capture areas near al-Qusayr.

On 21 August, the Syrian government attacked Ghouta, a suburb of Damascus under rebel control, with sarin gas, killing at least 281. In September, U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry called for Assad to hand over his chemical weapon supply. On 14 September, Russia and Syria presented the "Framework for Elimination of Syrian Chemical Weapons". Following the agreement, Syria acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention.

In September, the Islamic State (IS) overran the town of Azaz, held by the rebels in the north. In October, Kurdish forces seized a border crossing with Iraq from the al-Nusra Front. In November, IS captured the border town of Atme from the FSA. In January 2014, the FSA, Army of the Mujahideen and the Islamic Front launched an offensive against IS in Aleppo and Idlib governorates. In mid-January, IS took control of Raqqah, but lost control of their holdings in Aleppo. On 29 January, Turkish aircraft attack a IS convoy. By mid-February, al-Nusra was supporting rebel actions against IS, causing IS's retreat from the Idlib governorate, and also evacuated Azaz.

In March, government forces took over Zara, in the Homs governorate, which placed strain on rebel supply routes from Lebanon. On 18 March, Israel launched an artillery strike against a Syrian Army base in retaliation four Israeli soldiers were injured by a roadside bomb. In April, the FSA announced they had launched an offensive against IS in the Raqqah governorate. Syria held a presidential election in government-held areas on 3 June 2014. For the first time in the history of Syria more than one person was allowed to stand as a presidential candidate. More than 9,000 polling stations were set up in government-held areas. According to the Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria, 11.63 million Syrians voted (the turnout was 73.42%). President Bashar al-Assad won the election with 88.7% of the votes. As for Assad's challengers, Hassan al-Nouri received 4.3% of the votes and Maher Hajjar received 3.2%.

In June, IS seized large swaths of territory, weaponry and equipment in Iraq, some of which was brought into Syria. Government airstrikes targeted IS bases in coordination with the Iraqi Army. In August an FSA commander confirmed he was collaborated with Israel, receiving weapons and medical aid. On 19 August, IS executed U.S. journalists James Foley and Steven Sotloff. Three days later, al-Nusra released video of captured Lebanese soldiers and demanded that Hezbollah withdraw from Syria. On 23 September, the U.S. began military operations in Syria, with airstrikes against IS being conducted. Foreign partners participating in the strikes with the United States were Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Jordan.

### Third Lebanon War

*See Full Article: Third Lebanon War*

On 17 June 2018, Hezbollah assassinated Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu in Tel Aviv and following a similar attempted assassination of the Syrian President Abdul-Ilah al-Bashir in Damascus, Israel and **Syria** opened negotiations in Nicosia, Cyprus. The two sides signed a bilateral peace treaty ending hostilities, and confirmed Israeli sovereignty over the Golan Heights.

On 2 July, Israel and Syria invaded Lebanon to crush Hezbollah once and for all. The United Islamic Republic fought against Israeli-Syrian action in Lebanon at the United Nations. However, Israel and Syria were protected diplomatically by the United States, the United Kingdom and Egypt. On 4 August, Hezbollah surrendered, having seized control of the government in a coup d’état several days earlier. The Istanbul Agreement for Peace in Lebanon officially ended the war, and was signed by Israel, Syria, the US, the UK, Cyprus, Turkey and the members of the Cairo Pact. At the end of the war, Israel handed a captured Iranian general over to Syria, sparking the Safavi Affair.

## Government and Politics

Since the end of the war, Syria has been a Presidential parliamentary republic with a federal system regarding regional governance. The President is the Head of State and Government, and is the head of the executive branch of government. The executive consists of the President, two Vice Presidents and the Council of Ministers (cabinet).

The legislative branch is the bicameral National Congress, which consists of the Chamber of Representatives (lower house) and the Chamber of State (upper house). The lower house consists of 300 seats which are elected every four years. The upper house consists of 50 seats. Five seats are allocated to each ten governorates. Two seats are appointed by the governor, and the other three elected by the general population.

The judicial branch consists of the Supreme Constitutional Court, the High Judicial Court, the Court of Cassation and several civil courts. Each governorate, depending on their ethnic/religious statutes exercises different use of their local courts.

### Administrative Regions

Syria is divided into ten semi-self governing federal governorates and two federal territories; the Federal Capital Territory of Damascus and the Federal Region of Beirut. These ten governorates are:

* Latakia and Idilb
* Greater Aleppo
* North Lebanon
* South Lebanon
* Daraa
* Rif Dimashq
* Homs
* Hama
* Tartus
* Deir ez-Zor

### Foreign Relations

Syria maintains close military ties to the Jerusalem Five countries; Turkey, Israel, Palestine and Jordan; and considers these countries its closest allies. Syria is also a designated Major Non-NATO Ally, and thus maintains close ties to the United States. Syria also maintains close ties with NATO and the European Union.

Syria considers its main enemies to be the United Islamic Republic and the North African Caliphate.

## Military

Syria maintains a highly modern military, with most of it's equipment coming from the United States and Turkey, but also a high prevalence of Israeli weaponry and equipment. Syria maintains a standing army of 500,000 troops, with a further 1 million reservists, and roughly 200,000 troops is state-controlled paramilitaries. Most state-controlled paramilitary forces are left over from the Syrian Civil War and most members served in the major opposition forces, such as the Free Syrian Army.

## Economy

Syria's main export is petroleum and crude oil. However, due to Syria's desert climate, it has been cooperating closely with the European Union and Turkey to develop major solar power farms to help European energy supplies. This action has been detrimental to Russia, who for a long time was Europe's major gas and oil supplier.

Syria's economy has been slowly recovering from the devastating war that left many cities, such as Aleppo and Homs, almost entirely destroyed. Large investments from Israel, Turkey and the United States has led to Syria's rapid recovery and reconstruction. The annexation of Lebanon in 2018 also gave assistance to the rise of Syria's tourist industry in the 2020s. Tourism is now one of Syria's largest industries, after energy and construction.