Minimal language

External links: Seeing Speech, speech production and articulation knowledge group, https://phoible.org/ & World Atlas of Language Structures

Connotation: The associated or secondary meaning of a word or expression in addition to its literal meaning.

## consonants

From Wikipedia:Template:IPA pulmonic consonants:

Lax vowels are constricted less than tense vowels.

## vowels

See also: Vowel hiatus, Estonian phonology, Vowel#Audio\_samples, Nasalization, and R-colored vowel
See also: Epiglottic vallecula & Arytenoid muscle

Triphthongs: aio, aor,

## structure words

See also: Function word

From Template:Structure words:

* is
* begin
* continue
* cease
	+ finish
* try
* make
* allow
* intended to
* used to
* seem
* help
* tend to
* dare to

* (if you) please
* yes
* no

determiners:
* Interrogative word
	+ which (kw-)
* Demonstrative
	+ this
	+ that
	+ next
	+ previous
	+ same
	+ other
* Cardinal numeral
	+ one
	+ two
		- secondary
* Generalized quantifier
	+ some
	+ many
	+ both
	+ all
	+ no
	+ least
	+ less
	+ more
	+ most
* Distributive pronoun
	+ each
	+ any

dimension

vs
direction

vs
attribute

more northward than
* northward from
* northern

more upward than
* upward from
* upper(most)
* much upward
* upwardness
* upward part
* go upward

more hot than
* hotter than
* hot

* for
* as, like
* of
* than
* with

set
* in out among

way
* upward downward
* forward backward
* sideways
* inward outward
* toward

math
* greater than
* less than
* equal to

time
* before
* during
* after
* former
* back then

static prepositions:
* over under (up from)
* before behind
* beside by
* on off
* in out
* near away from
* against
* upon
* among between
* around
* beyond
* opposite
* together
* apart
* away

dynamic prepositions:
* through around
* across

much
* high
	+ (height)
* low
	+ (depth)

part
* top bottom
* front back
* interior exterior

most
* foremost
	+ first
* utmost

go
* procede
* abit
* abest
* rise/lift
* ingest
* extend

spread
* cover

put
* put on (wear)
* insert

there
* up there
* in there
* over there
* right there
* he there
* she there
* you see there
* you hear there

* and
* but

adverbs:
* because (from)
* via (thru)
* therefore (to)
* from
* thru
* to

pronouns:
* si: me
* pi: you
* li: other human
* lai: others
* spli: me, you & other
* ri: other animal
* yi: other object
* this
* that
* self
* each other?

* temporal: ‘just [now]’ ‘immediately’) ‘once, used to’, ‘already’, ‘temporarily’, ‘forever’, ‘often’, ‘occasionally’
* degree: little bit, very, too much,
* negation:
* scope: ‘all’, ‘all’, ‘altogether’), ‘only’, ‘only’, ‘just, alone’), ‘about, approximately’, ‘just’, ‘the most’ ‘at least’, ‘no less than’
* stance: fortunately’, ‘unexpectedly’, ‘perhaps’, ‘definitely’

adverbs
* certainly, surely,
* allegedly, purportedly, reportedly, reputedly,

* deliberately,
* accidentally,

* supposedly, apparently, evidently, ostensibly, ostensively, presumably, putatively, seemingly,
* conceivably, likely, perhaps, possibly, probably, obviously, unmistakably,
* surprisingly, amazingly, astonishingly, astoundingly, shockingly, stunningly, unexpectedly,

anatomical
* medial
* proximal
* distal
* central
* peripheral
* superficial
* deep
* dorsal
* ventral
* rostral
* cranial
* caudal

aircraft
* yaw
* pitch
* roll

### 100 most common words

See also: Wiktionary:Frequency lists

The first 100 words comprise 1/2 of all written material.

1. the 2. of 3. and 4. a
5. to
6. in
7. is
8. you 9. that 10. it 11. he 12. was 13. for 14. on 15. are 16. as 17. with 18. his 19. they 20. I
21. at 22. be 23. this 24. have 25. from 26. or 27. one 28. had 29. by 30. word 31. but 32. not 33. what 34. all
35. were 36. we 37. when 38. your 39. can 40. said 41. there 42. use 43. an 44. each 45. which 46. she 47. do 48. how 49. their 50. if
51. will 52. up 53. other 54. about 55. out 56. many 57. then 58. them 59. these 60. so
61. some 62. her 63. would 64. make 65. like 66. him 67. into 68. time
69. has
70. look 71. two
72. more 73. write 74. go
75. see
76. number 77. no
78. way 79. could 80. people 81. my
82. than 83. first 84. water 85. been 86. call 87. who 88. oil
89. its
90. now 91. find 92. long 93. down 94. day 95. did
96. get
97. come 98. made 99. may 100. part

nouns: word, time, way, people, water, oil, day, part,

verbs: said, use, look, write, go, see, call, find, get, come,

## word structure

See also Evidentiality, Mirativity, Future in the past, & Gnomic aspect

verb > valence > voice > aspect > tense > mood > (subject) agreement

verbs

* -m, n, ng: begin, stop, finish
* -m: ed
* -ng: ing
* -n: going to
* -r: of
* -?: ly
* -?: more
* -?: less
* -?: surprisingly
* -?: typically, tends to

is:

* -?, ?: I know, think
* -?: It is surprising but it is a fact that-

nouns

* -?: this, that (pronoun)
* -s,t: a, the (one particular, any one)
* -i,ai: singular plural
* -m,n,ng: to, from, of

"Fixing" = causing to become functional.

The black box containing 4, 5, & 6 represents the time period during which "fixing" is taking place. Time is moving in the direction of the arrows. The moment "I am", during which the speaker is speaking, is the present which is either 2, 5, or 8.

* 2 is an arbitrary moment before "fixing" has started.
* 5 is an arbitrary moment during which "fixing" is taking place.
* 8 is an arbitrary moment after the "fixing" has been completed.

All this is complicated by the fact that when you switch to the past tense you also switch the direction of the verb.

* I am going to fix.
* I am fixing.
* The car is fixed.

Hence the repeated use of "having fixed" and "having been" in the table above.

 birds
 birds

tones:

* medium biging
* great biging
* bigness (biging)
* ??
* much
* (amount)

## primary verbs

From Semantic classification of verbs in CROVALLEX

Communication
Motion
Possesion change
Psychic/emotional action
Entity features
State change
Place
Remove
Creation\_conversion
Social interraction
Body responses
Appear/disappear
Begin/continue/stop
Existence
Emission
See/sight/peer/stimulus\_subject
Measurement/price
Change of shape and condition
Judgement/praise
Contact
Learn/understand
Combine/join
Free/imprisonment
Succeed/failure
Care/neglect
Detract/amend
Food\_drink
Transport
Push
Murder
Linger/rush
Throw\_catch
Allow/admit/adopt
Search\_chase
Consume
Organize
Wish
Posses/own
Force
Body care
Hold/keep
Conceal
Separate/split/disassemble
Accomplish
Defend
Destroy
Lodge
Spatial\_configuration
Weather
Emphasize
Acquaint
Intentional act
Color/illustrate
Enforce
Modal\_verbs
Discover
Try
Exceed
Attempt
Avoid/miss
Control
Entity\_position
Complicate/alleviate
Animal\_sounds
Cut/carve
Gore
Rest
Request
Differ
Transcribe
Accustom
Suspect

100 Most Common English Verbs List

* become
* happen
* get
* take
* give
* keep
* provide
* work
* try
* make
* let
* seem
* help
* play
* tell
* call
* ask
* mean
* talk
* write
* come
* leave
* turn
* run
* move

* put
* bring
* think
* believe
* look
* show
* hear
* feel
* like
* start

## Swadesh list

From Wikipedia:Swadesh list

The Swadesh list ("Swadesh" is pronounced /ˈswɒdɛʃ/) is a classic compilation of tentatively universal concepts for the purposes of lexicostatistics.

Swadesh's final list, published in 1971, contains 100 terms.

 1. I (Pers.Pron.1.Sg.)
2. you (2.sg! 1952 thou & ye)
3. we (1955: inclusive)
4. this
5. that
6. who? (“?” not 1971)
7. what? (“?” not 1971)
8. not
9. all (of a number)
10. many
11. one
12. two
13. big
14. long (not wide)
15. small
16. woman
17. man (adult male human)
18. person (individual human)
19. fish (noun)
20. bird
21. dog
22. louse
23. tree (not log)
24. seed (noun)
25. leaf (botanics)
26. root (botanics)
27. bark (of tree)
28. skin (1952: person’s)
29. flesh (1952 meat, flesh)
30. blood
31. bone
32. grease (1952: fat, organic substance)
33. egg
34. horn (of bull etc., not 1952)†
35. tail
36. feather (large, not down)
37. hair (on head of humans)
38. head (anatomic)
39. ear
40. eye
41. nose
42. mouth
43. tooth (front, rather than molar)
44. tongue (anatomical)
45. claw (not in 1952)†
46. foot (not leg)
47. knee (not 1952)†
48. hand
49. belly (lower part of body, abdomen)
50. neck (not nape)
51. breasts (female; 1955 still breast)†
52. heart
53. liver
54. drink (verb)
55. eat (verb)
56. bite (verb)
57. see (verb)
58. hear (verb)
59. know (facts)
60. sleep (verb)
61. die (verb)
62. kill (verb)
63. swim (verb)
64. fly (verb)
65. walk (verb)
66. come (verb)
67. lie (on side, recline)
68. sit (verb)
69. stand (verb)
70. give (verb)
71. say (verb)†
72. sun
73. moon (not 1952)†
74. star
75. water (noun)
76. rain (noun, 1952 verb)
77. stone
78. sand
79. earth (soil)
80. cloud (not fog)
81. smoke (noun, of fire)
82. fire
83. ash(es)
84. burn (verb intr.!)
85. path (1952 road, trail; not street)
86. mountain (not hill)
87. red (color)
88. green (color)
89. yellow (color)
90. white (color)
91. black (color)
92. night
93. hot (adjective; 1952 warm, of weather)
94. cold (of weather)
95. full†
96. new
97. good
98. round (not 1952)†
99. dry (substance)
100. name
The 110-item Global Lexicostatistical Database list uses the original 100-item Swadesh list, in addition to 10 other words from the Swadesh–Yakhontov list.

The most used list nowadays is the Swadesh 207-word list, adapted from Swadesh 1952.

In Wiktionary ("Swadesh lists by language"), Panlex and in Palisto's "Swadesh Word List of Indo-European languages", hundreds of Swadesh lists in this form can be found.

## Semantic primes

See also: Semantic primes, Natural semantic metalanguage, & CHART OF NSM SEMANTIC PRIMES

* and
* or
* is
* true
* false
* if
* then
* therefore
* because
* correct
* valid

set theory
* all
* some
* none
* each
* any

probability
* might
* should
* tend(ency)

linguistics
* word (reason)
* say
* assert
* thing word
* doing word
* happening
* interacting
* effect
* rule
* postulate
* theorem
* type
* instance
* quality
* manner

system
* functioning
* part

Information theory
* inform(ation)
* signal
* sense
* detect
* discover

computer science
* compute
* procedure
* method
* variable
* know
* expect
* deduce
* induce
* decide
* learn
* remember
* surprise
* to
* from
* via (route/way)
* at (node)
* connection

math
* number
* amount
* equal
* add
* subtract
* multiply
* divide
* rate
* change
* 1, 2, 3, 4, 16, 256
* single = 1ing
* 1st = number 1
* mono, bi
* 1/3

geometry
* place (put)
* dimension
* unit
* coordinate
* length
* area
* volume
* shape
* angle (tau)
* vector
* tensor
* time
* mass
* force
	+ attract
	+ repel
	+ deflect
* energy
* momentum
* charge
	+ positive
	+ negative
* field
	+ gravity
	+ electric
	+ neutrino
* shell
* atom
* move
* accelerate

solid mechanics
* hard

fluid mechanics
* flow

wave mechanics
* oscillate

thermodynamics
* hot

world
* sun (shine)
* star (sparkle)
* worlds
* stream (flow)
* thunder
* crepuscular rays
* mountain
* continent

Habitat
* nocturnal
* diurnal
* air
* sea
* land
* cave
* forest
	+ understory
	+ canopy
* river
* Opportunism

biomes
* arctic
	+ tundra
	+ taiga
* temperate
	+ coniferous
	+ broadleaf
	+ scrub oak
	+ steppe
* deserts
	+ shrubland
* tropical
	+ savanna
	+ dry broadleaf
	+ rainforest
* mountain
	+ coniferous
	+ páramo
* 1hydrogen
* 0helium
* 1lithium
* 2beryllium
* 3boron
* 4carbon
* 3nitrogen
* 2oxygen
* 1fluorine
* 0neon

biology
* life
* reproduce
* evolve
* eat
* mate

plants
* angiosperm
	+ (big vine)
* grass
	+ (Pyrophyte)

plant parts
* leaf
* branch
* stem
* root
* fruit
* seed

animals
* snake (sneak)
* ruminant
* parasite
* carnivore
	+ ambush
	+ chase
* bug
* pest

beings
* angel (bless)

body
* segment/cell
* eye (see)
* ear (hear)
* mouth (eat)
* tooth (bite)
* tongue (speak)
* lip (edge)
* antler
* horn
* nail
* heart (center)
* leg (walk)
* hoof
* wing (fly)

* bone
* flesh
* blood
* food,
* drink,
* meal,
* soup,
* potato
* bread,
* macaroni,
* toast,
* cake,
* butter,
* cheese,
* egg,
* omelet,
* grain,
* rice,
* tapioca,
* salad,
* meat,
* beef,
* sardine,
* milk,
* salt,
* sugar,
* water,
* vanilla,
* wine,
* alcohol,
* beer,
* champagne,
* cocktail,
* cognac,
* liqueur,
* rum,
* vodka,
* whisky,
* tea,
* chocolate,
* coffee,
* honey (sweet)
* feel
* want
* unwant
* tolerate
* enjoy
* laugh
* cry
* angry
* shame
* sleep
* dream
* interest
* heed
* fear
* craving

myers-briggs
* sense
* intuition
* think
* feel
* extrovert
* introvert
* perceive
* judge

* curiosity
* time
* empathy
* sympathy
* begetter

society
* city
* house
* home
* friend
* team

entertainment
* game
* music
* party

education
* school

economics
* work
* money
* business
* company
* boss
* manager
* employee

government
* country
* ruler
* law (rule)
* judge
* enforcer

military
* war
* weapon
* lever
* wedge
* inclined plane
* axle
* pulley
* screw
* wheel (roll)

machines
* generator
* motor
* engine
* factory

devices
* tv
* radio
* computer

objects
* toy (play)
* bridge
* blade (cut)
* container
* cover
* group
* carrier
* lock
* transporter
* sign (mark)
* pen (write)

material
* metal
* cloth
* wood
* glass
* rock

## Animals

laurentia

* chelicerata = land arthropod
* myriapoda =
* insects = land arthropod

gondwana

* ?

* fish = water vertebrate
* amphibian = water quadruped
* mammal = nocturnal land quadruped
* reptile = desert quadruped
* dinosaur = upright reptile
* bird = air dinosaur
* ruminant = grassland grazers

* placental = arctic mammal
* squirrel = arboreal temperate broadleaf rodent
* racoons (bears) = temperate broadleaf omnivores
* primate = arboreal rainforest mammal
* marsupial = antarctic mammal

## Biomes

* Tropical and subtropical
	+ Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)
		- **Lowland equatorial evergreen rain forests**, commonly known as **tropical rainforests**, are forests which receive high rainfall (tropical rainforest climate with more than 2000 mm, or 80 inches, annually) throughout the year. These forests occur in a belt around the equator, with the largest areas in the Amazon basin of South America, the Congo basin of central Africa, and parts of the Malay Archipelago. About half of the world's tropical rainforests are in the South American countries of Brazil and Peru. Rainforests now cover less than 6% of Earth's land surface. Scientists estimate that more than half of all the world's plant and animal species live in tropical rainforests.
		- **Tropical seasonal forests**, also known as **moist deciduous**, **monsoon** or **semi-evergreen (mixed) seasonal** forests, have a monsoon or wet savannah climates (as in the Köppen climate classification): receiving high overall rainfall with a warm summer wet season and (often) a cooler winter dry season. Some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the winter dry season. These forests are found in South Florida, parts of South America, in Central America and around the Caribbean, in coastal West Africa, parts of the Indian subcontinent, and across much of Indochina.
		- **Montane rain forests** are found in cooler-climate mountainous areas. Those with elevations high enough to regularly encounter low-level cloud cover are known as cloud forests.
		- **Flooded forests**, including freshwater swamp forests and peat swamp forests.
	+ Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
	+ Tropical and subtropical grasslands (tropical and subtropical, semiarid)
	+ Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)

* Deserts
	+ Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)
	+ Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid)

* Temperate
	+ Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid)
	+ Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid)
	+ Mediterranean forests or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall)
	+ Temperate grasslands (temperate, semiarid)

* Boreal
	+ Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)

* Arctic
	+ Tundra (Arctic)

* Mountain
	+ Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate)
	+ Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)

From Wikipedia:Pacific temperate rainforests:
When flowering plants emerged, they quickly prevailed, causing most conifers to become extinct, and those that survived to adapt to harsh conditions. The Pacific temperate rainforests now remains the only region on Earth of noteworthy size and significance where, due to unique climatic conditions (dry summers & mild winters), the conifers flourish as they did before being displaced by flowering plants

### Animals

Main article: Animal

Total numbers are estimates; figures from different authors vary wildly, not least because some are based on described species, some on extrapolations to numbers of undescribed species. For instance, around 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes have been described, while published estimates of the total number of nematode species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 million.

### Plants

Main article: Plant
The kingdom Plantae is defined in various ways by different biologists (see Current definitions of Plantae). All definitions include the living embryophytes (land plants), to which may be added the two green algae divisions, Chlorophyta and Charophyta, to form the clade Viridiplantae. The table below follows the influential (though contentious) Cavalier-Smith system in equating "Plantae" with Archaeplastida, a group containing Viridiplantae and the algal Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta divisions.

The definition and classification of plants at the division level also varies from source to source, and has changed progressively in recent years. Thus some sources place horsetails in division Arthrophyta and ferns in division Monilophyta, while others place them both in Monilophyta, as shown below. The division Pinophyta may be used for all gymnosperms (i.e. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes), or for conifers alone as below.

Since the first publication of the APG system in 1998, which proposed a classification of angiosperms up to the level of orders, many sources have preferred to treat ranks higher than orders as informal clades. Where formal ranks have been provided, the traditional divisions listed below have been reduced to a very much lower level, e.g. subclasses.

### Fungi

Main article: Fungi

Phylum Microsporidia is generally included in kingdom Fungi, though its exact relations remain uncertain, and it is considered a protozoan by the International Society of Protistologists (see Protista, below). Molecular analysis of Zygomycota has found it to be polyphyletic (its members do not share an immediate ancestor), which is considered undesirable by many biologists. Accordingly, there is a proposal to abolish the Zygomycota phylum. Its members would be divided between phylum Glomeromycota and four new subphyla *incertae sedis* (of uncertain placement): Entomophthoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, Mucoromycotina, and Zoopagomycotina.

### Protista

Main article: Protista taxonomy
Kingdom Protista (or Protoctista) is included in the traditional five- or six-kingdom model, where it can be defined as containing all eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi. Protista is a polyphyletic taxon, which is less acceptable to present-day biologists than in the past. Proposals have been made to divide it among several new kingdoms, such as Protozoa and Chromista in the Cavalier-Smith system.

Protist taxonomy has long been unstable, with different approaches and definitions resulting in many competing classification schemes. The phyla listed here are used for Chromista and Protozoa by the Catalogue of Life, adapted from the system used by the International Society of Protistologists.

The Catalogue of Life includes Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta in kingdom Plantae, but other systems consider these phyla part of Protista.

### Bacteria

Main article: Bacterial phyla
Currently there are 29 phyla accepted by List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN)

1. Acidobacteria, phenotypically diverse and mostly uncultured
2. Actinobacteria, High-G+C Gram positive species
3. Aquificae, only 14 thermophilic genera, deep branching
4. Armatimonadetes
5. Bacteroidetes
6. Caldiserica, formerly candidate division OP5, *Caldisericum exile* is the sole representative
7. Chlamydiae, only 6 genera
8. Chlorobi, only 7 genera, green sulphur bacteria
9. Chloroflexi, green non-sulphur bacteria
10. Chrysiogenetes, only 3 genera (*Chrysiogenes arsenatis*, *Desulfurispira natronophila*, *Desulfurispirillum alkaliphilum*)
11. Cyanobacteria, also known as the blue-green algae
12. Deferribacteres
13. Deinococcus-Thermus, *Deinococcus radiodurans* and *Thermus aquaticus* are "commonly known" species of this phyla
14. Dictyoglomi
15. Elusimicrobia, formerly candidate division Thermite Group 1
16. Fibrobacteres
17. Firmicutes, Low-G+C Gram positive species, such as the spore-formers Bacilli (aerobic) and Clostridia (anaerobic)
18. Fusobacteria
19. Gemmatimonadetes
20. Lentisphaerae, formerly clade VadinBE97
21. Nitrospira
22. Planctomycetes
23. Proteobacteria, the most known phyla, containing species such as *Escherichia coli* or *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*
24. Spirochaetes, species include *Borrelia burgdorferi*, which causes Lyme disease
25. Synergistetes
26. Tenericutes, alternatively class Mollicutes in phylum Firmicutes (notable genus: *Mycoplasma*)
27. Thermodesulfobacteria
28. Thermotogae, deep branching
29. Verrucomicrobia

### Archaea

Main article: Archaea
Currently there are five phyla accepted by List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN).

1. Crenarchaeota, second most common archaeal phylum
2. Euryarchaeota, most common archaeal phylum
3. Korarchaeota
4. Nanoarchaeota, ultra-small symbiotes, single known species
5. Thaumarchaeota

## References

1. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Finallist`
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Swa52`
3. ↑ Starostin, George (ed.) 2011-2019. *The Global Lexicostatistical Database*. Moscow: Higher School of Economics, & Santa Fe: Santa Fe Institute. Accessed on 2020-12-26.
4. ↑ Jonathan Pool (2016), *Panlex Swadesh Lists* PDF
5. ↑ David Kamholz, Jonathan Pool, Susan Colowick (2014), *PanLex: Building a Resource for Panlingual Lexical Translation* PDF
6. ↑ Palisto (2013), *Swadesh Word List of Indo-European languages* .
7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)". *Zootaxa* **3703** (1): 5. . https://biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/download/zootaxa.3703.1.3/4273.
8. ↑ Felder, Darryl L.; Camp, David K. (2009). *Gulf of Mexico Origin, Waters, and Biota: Biodiversity*. Texas A&M University Press. p. 1111. . https://books.google.com/books?id=CphA8hiwaFIC&pg=RA1-PA1111.
9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 9.31 9.32 9.33 9.34 9.35 Margulis, Lynn; Chapman, Michael J. (2009). *Kingdoms and Domains* (4th corrected ed.). London: Academic Press. . https://books.google.com/books?id=9IWaqAOGyt4C.
10. ↑ Feldkamp, S. (2002) *Modern Biology*. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, USA. (pp. 725)
11. ↑ Cannon, J.T.; Vellutini, B.C.; Smith, J.; Ronquist, F.; Jondelius, U.; Hejnol, A. (4 February 2016). "Xenacoelomorpha is the sister group to Nephrozoa". *Nature* **530** (7588): 89–93. . . . http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:nrm:diva-1844.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (22 June 2004). "Only Six Kingdoms of Life". *Proceedings: Biological Sciences* **271** (1545): 1251–1262. . . . //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691724/.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Cronquist, A.; A. Takhtajan; W. Zimmermann (April 1966). "On the higher taxa of Embryobionta". *Taxon* **15** (4): 129–134. . .
14. ↑ Chase, Mark W.; Reveal, James L. (October 2009), "A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III", *Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society* **161** (2): 122–127,
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Mauseth, James D. (2012). *Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology* (5th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. .  p. 489
16. ↑ Crandall-Stotler, Barbara; Stotler, Raymond E. (2000). "Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta". *Bryophyte Biology*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 21. .
17. ↑ Wyatt, T., Wosten, H., Dijksterhuis, J. (2013). "Advances in Applied Microbiology Chapter 2 - Fungal Spores for Dispersion in Space and Time". *Advances in Applied Microbiology* **85**: 43–91. . .
18. ↑ "Classifications of Fungi | Boundless Biology". https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/classifications-of-fungi/.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Archaeal Genetics | Boundless Microbiology". https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-microbiology/chapter/archaeal-genetics/.
20. ↑ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. (1 October 2016). "Blastocladiomycota". Susquehanna University. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/fungi/blastocladiomycota/default.htm.
21. ↑ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. (9 January 2014). "Chytridiomycota". Susquehanna University. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/fungi/chytridiomycota/default.htm.
22. ↑ "Chytridiomycota | phylum of fungi" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/science/Chytridiomycota.
23. ↑ McConnaughey, M (2014). *Physical Chemical Properties of Fungi*. . .
24. ↑ Taylor, Krings and Taylor, Thomas, Michael and Edith (2015). "Fossil Fungi Chapter 4 - Chytridiomycota". *Fossil Fungi*: 41–67. .
25. ↑ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. (12 March 2013). "Microsporidia". Susquehanna University. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/fungi/microsporidia/default.htm.
26. ↑ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. (23 April 2013). "Neocallimastigomycota". Susquehanna University. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/fungi/neocallimastigomycota/default.htm.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 "Types of Fungi" (in en-US). 22 May 2009. https://biologywise.com/types-of-fungi.
28. ↑ Wang, Xuewei; Liu, Xingzhong; Groenewald, Johannes Z. (2017). "Phylogeny of anaerobic fungi (phylum Neocallimastigomycota), with contributions from yak in China". *Antonie van Leeuwenhoek* **110** (1): 87–103. . . . //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5222902/.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 "A higher-level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi". *Mycological Research* **111** (Pt 5): 509–47. May 2007. . . http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/documents/AFTOL%20class%20mss%2023,%2024/AFTOL%20CLASS%20MS%20resub.pdf.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M. et al. (29 April 2015). "A Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms". *PLOS ONE* **10** (6): e0119248. . . . . //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4418965/.
31. ↑ White, Merlin M.; James, Timothy Y.; O'Donnell, Kerry et al. (Nov–Dec 2006). "Phylogeny of the Zygomycota Based on Nuclear Ribosomal Sequence Data". *Mycologia* **98** (6): 872–884. . .
32. ↑ Hagen, Joel B. (January 2012). "Five Kingdoms, More or Less: Robert Whittaker and the Broad Classification of Organisms". *BioScience* **62** (1): 67–74. .
33. ↑ Blackwell, Will H.; Powell, Martha J. (June 1999). "Reconciling Kingdoms with Codes of Nomenclature: Is It Necessary?". *Systematic Biology* **48** (2): 406–412. . .
34. ↑ Davis, R. A. (19 March 2012). "Kingdom PROTISTA". http://faculty.msj.edu/davisr/potpouri/protista.htm.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Taxonomic tree". 23 December 2016. http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/browse/tree?de3fa845167fa2ccdac6ddcb6e8d9a28.
36. ↑ Corliss, John O. (1984). "The Kingdom Protista and its 45 Phyla". *BioSystems* **17** (2): 87–176. . .
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 J.P. Euzéby. "List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature: Phyla". http://www.bacterio.cict.fr/-classifphyla.html.