Sumerian culture

File:Upper part of a gypsum statue of a Sumerian woman. The hands are folds in worship. Circa 2400 BCE. From Mesopotamia, Iraq. The British Museum, London.jpg
 File:Reconstructed sumerian headgear necklaces british museum.JPG

## Culture

In the early Sumerian period, the primitive pictograms suggest that:

* "Pottery was very plentiful, and the forms of the vases, bowls and dishes were manifold; there were special jars for honey, butter, oil and wine, which was probably made from dates. Some of the vases had pointed feet, and stood on stands with crossed legs; others were flat-bottomed, and were set on square or rectangular frames of wood. The oil-jars, and probably others also, were sealed with clay, precisely as in early Egypt. Vases and dishes of stone were made in imitation of those of clay."
* "A feathered head-dress was worn. Beds, stools and chairs were used, with carved legs resembling those of an ox. There were fire-places and fire-altars."
* "Knives, drills, wedges and an instrument that looks like a saw were all known. While spears, bows, arrows, and daggers (but not swords) were employed in war."
* "Tablets were used for writing purposes. Daggers with metal blades and wooden handles were worn, and copper was hammered into plates, while necklaces or collars were made of gold."
* "Time was reckoned in lunar months."

There is considerable evidence concerning Sumerian music. Lyres and flutes were played, among the best-known examples being the Lyres of Ur.

## Societal class

Sumerian culture was male-dominated and stratified. The Code of Ur-Nammu, the oldest such codification yet discovered, dating to the Ur III, reveals a glimpse at societal structure in late Sumerian law. Beneath the *lu-gal* ("great man" or king), all members of society belonged to one of two basic strata: The "*lu*" or free person, and the slave (male, *arad*; female *geme*). The son of a *lu* was called a *dumu-nita* until he married. A woman (*munus*) went from being a daughter (*dumu-mi*), to a wife (*dam*), then if she outlived her husband, a widow (*numasu*) and she could then remarry another man who was from the same tribe.

## Marriage rites

Marriages were usually arranged by the parents of the bride and groom; engagements were usually completed through the approval of contracts recorded on clay tablets. These marriages became legal as soon as the groom delivered a bridal gift to his bride's father. One Sumerian proverb describes the ideal, happy marriage through the mouth of a husband who boasts that his wife has borne him eight sons and is still eager to have sex.

Inscriptions describing the reforms of king Urukagina of Lagash (c. 2300 BC) say that he abolished the former custom of polyandry in his country, prescribing that a woman who took multiple husbands be stoned with rocks upon which her crime had been written.

## Sexual practices

The Sumerians generally seem to have discouraged premarital sex, but it was probably very commonly done in secret. The Sumerians, as well as the later Akkadians, had no concept of virginity. When describing a woman's sexual inexperience, instead of calling her a "virgin", Sumerian texts describe which sex acts she had not yet performed. The Sumerians had no knowledge of the existence of the hymen and whether or not a prospective bride had engaged in sexual intercourse was entirely determined by her own word.

From the earliest records, the Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex and their sexual mores were determined not by whether a sexual act was deemed immoral, but rather by whether or not it made a person ritually unclean. The Sumerians widely believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency, both for men and for women, and they frequently engaged in it, both alone and with their partners. The Sumerians did not regard anal sex as taboo either. *Entu* priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control.

Prostitution existed but it is not clear if sacred prostitution did.

## References

1. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Sayce`
2. ↑ Goss, Clint (15 April 2017). "Flutes of Gilgamesh and Ancient Mesopotamia". http://www.Flutopedia.com/mesopotamian\_flutes.htm.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963). *The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character*. The Univ. of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-45238-7. https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/sumerians.pdf.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998), *Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia*, Daily Life, Greenwood, p. 132, ISBN 978-0313294976
5. ↑ *Gender and the Journal: Diaries and Academic Discourse* p. 62 by Cinthia Gannett, 1992
6. ↑ *Celibacy in the Ancient World: Its Ideal and Practice in Pre-Hellenistic Israel, Mesopotamia, and Greece* by Dale Launderville, page 28
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Cooper, Jerrold S. (2-6 July 2001). *Sex and Gender in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the 47th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Helsinki*. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9789514590542. http://krieger2.jhu.edu/neareast/pdf/jcooper/jc%20Virginity.pdf.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Dening, Sarah (1996). "Chapter 3: Sex in Ancient Civilizations". *The Mythology of Sex*. London, England: Macmillian. ISBN 978-0-02-861207-2. http://www.ishtartemple.org/myth.htm.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Leick, Gwendolyn (2013) [1994], *Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature*, New York City, New York: Routledge, p. 219, ISBN 978-1-134-92074-7, https://books.google.com/books?id=WKoWblE4pd0C&pg=PA64&source=gbs\_toc\_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false
10. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Black`