recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Miami-Illinois phonology

## Vowels

Miami-Illinois has four short vowels, /i e a o/ and four long vowels, /iː eː aː oː/.
Costa (2003) notes that "/a/ is a low non-front vowel however it can also be pronounced as a [ʌ] by some speakers. /o/ is a back round vowel ranging from [o] through [ʊ] to [u]. /e/ is a non-high front vowel ranging from [æ] through [ɛ] to [e]. Finally, /i/ is a high front vowel ranging from [ɪ] to [i]." These differences can occur from speaker to speaker and also from word to word.
Nuxalk phonology

## Consonants

Nuxalk has 29 consonants depicted below in IPA and the Americanist orthography of Davis & Saunders when it differs from the IPA.

What are transcribed in the orthography as 'plain' velar consonants are actually palatals, and the sibilants *s c c̓* palatalize to *š č č̓* before *k k̓ x*.

## Vowels

### Allophony

/i/ may be pronounced:

* [ɪ] before postvelars
* [ɪː, ɛː] between postvelars
* [e̞, e̞ː], before a sonorant followed by a consonant or word boundary
* [i] adjacent to palatovelars
* [e] elsewhere

/a/ may be pronounced:

* [ɑ] ([ɒ]?) surrounded by postvelars
* [ɐ] before rounded velars followed by a consonant or word boundary
* [a] ([ä]?) before a sonorant followed by a consonant or word boundary
* [æ] elsewhere

/o/ may be pronounced:

* [o̞] surrounded by postvelars
* [o̞, o̞ː, ɔ, ɔː] before a sonorant followed by a consonant or word boundary
* [u, ʊ] before rounded velars followed by a consonant or word boundary
* [o] elsewhere

## Orthography

In addition to the Americanist orthography of Davis & Saunders used in this article for clarity, Nuxalk also has a non-diacritical Bouchard-type practical orthography that originated in Hank Nater's *The Bella Coola Language* (1984), and was used in his 1990 *Nuxalk-English Dictionary*. It continues to be used today at Acwsalcta for Nuxalk language learning, as well as in Nuxalk documents and names. The orthographic variants are summarized below.

1. ↑ Nater 1984, p. 5
Mansi orthography

The first publication of the written Mansi language was a translation of the Gospel of Matthew published in London in 1868. In 1932 a version of Latin alphabet was introduced with little success. The former Latin alphabet:

**A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, Ꜧ, I, J, K, L, Ļ, M, N, Ņ, Ŋ, O, P, R, S, ~~S~~, T, Ţ, U, V, Z, Ь**
In 1937, Cyrillic replaced the Latin.
Muong phonology

## Consonant inventory

The following table details the consonants of those dialects that show a full voiced-voiceless distinction in the stops (being Mường Bi, Mường Thành, Mường Động, and Ba Trại). The spelling is given in italics.

The Mường Vang dialect completely lacks the distinction between the voiced and unvoiced stop pairs /p b/, /t d/, /k ɡ/, having only the voiceless one of each pair. The Mường Khói and Mường Ống dialects have the full voiceless series, but lack /ɡ/ among the voiced stops. The Thạch Sơn dialect on the other hand lacks /p/.

Furthermore, the Mường Khói dialect lacks the aspirated alveolar /tʰ/, but has a /hr/ instead. This dialect is also described as having the labio-velars /kʷ/ and /kʷʰ/.

All of these consonants can appear syllable-initially. At the end of syllables only the nasals /m n ɲ ŋ/, the voiceless stops /p t c k/, the lateral /l/, and the glides /j w/ are allowed. Of these phonemes, the palatals /c ɲ/ have been analysed as glide + velar /ʲk ʲŋ/. Furthermore, the distribution of syllable-final /c ɲ l/ seems to be more restricted than the distribution of the other final consonants.

## Vowel inventory

The vowel inventory is given in the following table. It appears to be quite uniform among the different dialects. Two of the vowels (/ɤ/ and /a/) can be long or short.

Apart from these monophthongs, there are also three diphthongs /iə, ɯə, uə/.
Maore orthography and phonology

Shimaore was traditionally written with an informal French-based Latin alphabet. On 22 February 2006, the *Conseil de la Culture, de l'Education et de l'Environnement de Mayotte* introduced an official alphabet developed by *Association ShiMé* that utilizes the basic Latin alphabet without c, q, and x and adds three letters: ɓ, ɗ, and v̄. On March 3, 2020, the Conseil départemental de Mayotte announced the adoption of official orthographies in both Latin and Arabic scripts for Shimaore.

Digraphs/Trigraphs

## Phonology

### Consonants

This language features an unusual contrast between /β/ and /v/.

### Vowels

This is a basic five-vowel system similar to that of languages like Spanish.
Nubi phonology

## Vowels

There are five vowels in Nubi. Vowels are not distinguished by length except in at least two exceptions from Kenyan Nubi (which are not present in Ugandan dialects) where *"bara"* means *"outside"* and is an adverb while *"baara"* means *"the outside"* and is a noun, and also where *"saara"* meaning *"bewitch"* is compared to *"sara"* meaning *"herd, cattle".* Despite this, there is a tendency for vowels in stressed syllables to be registered as long vowels.

Each of the vowels has multiple allophones and the exact sound of the vowel depends on the surrounding consonants.
Maring phonology

/w/ voiced labial-velar approximant

/mb/ voiced prenasalised bilabial plosive

/nd/ voiced prenasalised dental plosive

/ŋg/ voiced prenasalised velar plosive

/nj/ voiced palatalized dental affricate

/tsj/ voiceless palatalized dental affricate

/ndzj/ voiced prenasalized dental affricate

Maring Vowels
 Close-mid
 Open-mid

## Syllable patterns

The following are different patterns of consonants (C) and vowels (V) for syllables. Examples for each pattern show the Maring word with each syllable separated by a period. The example syllable pattern in the word will be in bold. The English translation of the word will follow in single quotation.

### V

* **a**.sa 'sister'
* ai.**u.**gui 'to close'
* au.**a** 'different'

### VV

* **ae** 'we two'
* **ai**.re 'what, how'

### VC

* **am** 'breast'
* **an**.pek 'quickly'
* ai.**uk** 'flat'

### CV

* **ma** 'possum'
* **na**.ko 'I'
* ro.**ba**.da 'hot'
* a.**bo** 'buttocks'

### CVV

* **moe** 'yam type'
* **mai**.wa 'very large'
* jee.**kai** 'grub type'

### CVC

* **kong** 'taro'
* **kam**.gul 'thunder'
* tu.**wum**.pai 'pandanus sp.'
* a.**bin** 'your wife'

### CVVC

* **mieng** 'tree sp.'
* a.**ruib** 'taro type'
Nateni orthography

The low tone is indicated with the grave accent and the high tone with the acute accent on the vowel ⟨à è ɛ̀ ì ò ɔ̀ ù á é ɛ́ í ó ɔ́ ú⟩ or the syllabic n ⟨ǹ ń⟩.
The nasalization is indicated with the help of the tilde under the vowel ⟨a̰ ɛ̰ ḭ ɔ̰ ṵ⟩ which can be combined with the acute or grave accent indicating the tone ⟨á̰ ɛ̰́ ḭ́ ɔ̰́ ṵ́ à̰ ɛ̰̀ ḭ̀ ɔ̰̀ ṵ̀⟩.
Mid back rounded vowel

i
y

ɨ
ʉ

ɯ
u

ɪ
ʏ

ʊ

e
ø

ɘ
ɵ

ɤ
o

e̞
ø̞

ə

ɤ̞
**o̞**

ɛ
œ

ɜ
ɞ

ʌ
ɔ

æ

ɐ

a
ɶ

ä

ɑ
ɒ

Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded

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Mansi phonology

The inventory presented here is a maximal collection of segments found across the Mansi varieties. Some remarks:

1. /tsʲ/ was only found in Southern Mansi and corresponds to /sʲ/ in the other varieties.
2. /ʃ/ is absent in most dialects of the Northern and Eastern groups, having merged into /s/.
3. The voiceless velar fricatives /x/, /xʷ/ are only found in the Northern group and the Lower Konda dialect of the Eastern group, resulting from spirantization of \*k, \*kʷ adjacent to original back vowels.
4. According to Honti, a contrast between \*w and \*ɣʷ can be reconstructed, but this does not surface in any of the attested varieties.
5. The labialization contrast among the velars dates back to Proto-Mansi, but was in several varieties strengthened by labialization of velars adjacent to rounded vowels. In particular, Proto-Mansi \*yK → Core Mansi \*æKʷ (a form of transphonologization).

The vowel systems across Mansi show great variety. As typical across the Uralic languages, many more vowel distinctions were possible in the initial, stressed syllable than in unstressed ones. Up to 18–19 stressed vowel contrasts may be found in the Western and Eastern dialects, while Northern Mansi has a much reduced, largely symmetric system of 8 vowels, though lacking short \*\*/e/ and long \*\*/iː/:

Northern Mansi stressed vowels

Northern Mansi unstressed vowels
Paiwan phonology

Kuljaljau Paiwan has 23–24 consonants (/h/ is found only in loanwords, and /ʔ/ is uncommon) and 4 vowels (Ferrell 1982:7). Unlike many other Formosan languages that have merged many Proto-Austronesian phonemes, Paiwan preserves most Proto-Austronesian phonemes and is thus highly important for reconstruction purposes.

The four Paiwan vowels are /i ə a u/. /ə/ is written *e* in the literature.

In Northern Paiwan the palatal consonants have been lost, though this is recent and a few conservative speakers maintain them as allophonic variants (not as distinct phonemes). /ʔ/ is robust, unlike in other Paiwan dialects where its status is uncertain, as it derives from \*q.

Younger speakers tend to pronounce /ʎ/ as [l]. Fricative [ɣ] is characteristic of Mudan village; elsewhere is Southern Paiwan it tends to be a trill [r], though it still varies [r ~ ɣ ~ ʁ ~ h]. Word-initial \*k has become /ʔ/.
Meyah phonology

Meax has 16 vowels: /a, æ, ɛ, e, i, ɤ, ɨ, ɒ, ɔ, o, u, ø, ʌ, ɜ, œ, ɞ/, and 24 consonants.

## Pitch-accent

Like many other Papuan languages of the Bird's Head Peninsula, Meyah is a pitch-accent language with two phonemic pitch levels: rising high and falling high, which contrast.

**Rising** **Falling**

* *éj* 'drink' *èj* 'peel
* *mós* 'fish' *mòs* 'toad'
Mawayana phonology

Mawayana has, among its consonants, two implosives, /ɓ/ and /ɗ/, and what has been described as a "retroflex fricativised rhotic", represented with ⟨rž⟩, that it shares with Wapishana. The vowel systems contains four vowels (/i-e, a, ɨ, u-o/), each of which has a nasalised counterpart.

## Vowels

Mawayana vowel phonemes:

 Mid

Vowels have both nasal and length contrast.
Mian phonology

## Vowels

Mian has six vowels, including the pharyngealized open front vowel.

Mian vowels

Mian also has four diphthongs:

Mian diphthongs

/ɛ/ is realized as [ə] in word-initial low-tone syllables, [ɛ] elsewhere.

/a/ is realized as [ɐ] in unaccented syllables, [ə] in word-initial low-tone syllables beginning with a consonant, [a] elsewhere.

/o/ is realized as [ɔ] in word-initial low-tone syllables and in syllables ending in a voiceless plosive or [ŋ], [o] elsewhere.

/u/ is realized as [ʊ] in word-initial low-tone syllables, [u] elsewhere.

## Consonants

Mian has 16 consonants:

/b/ is realized as [ᵐb] word-initially, [pʰ] or [p̚] syllable-finally, [b] elsewhere.

Examples: **banǒn** [ᵐbànǒn] *lower arm*, **mǎab** [mǎˤːp̚] *frog*, **teběl** [tʰɛ̀bɛ̌l] *ant*
/t/ is realized as [tʰ] before vowels, [tʰ] or [t̚] syllable-finally.

Examples: **tam** [tʰàm] *temple*, **mát** [mát̚] *gall bladder*
/k/ is realized as [kʰ] before vowels, [kʰ] or [k̚] syllable-finally, sometimes [x] between vowels, [qʰ] before [aˤ].

Examples: **kemin** [kʰèmìn] *to do*, **manggěk** [màŋgɛ̌k̚] *bee*, **okok** [òxòk̚] *work*, **kaawá** [qʰàˤwá] *steel axe*
/ɡ/ is realized as [ᵑɡ] word-initially, [ɡ] elsewhere.

Examples: **gát** [ᵑɡát̚] *mole*, **manggěk** [màŋɡɛ̌k̚] *bee*
/ɡʷ/ is realized as [ᵑɡʷ] word-initially, [ɡʷ] elsewhere.

Examples: **gwaán** [ᵑɡʷàán] *spider*, **gwalgwal** [ᵑɡʷàlɡʷàl] *twins*
## Tones

Mian has five tonemes:

Mian tones

The tones of Mian are very complex, as they are subject to various phonological processes, and furthermore, they can be used for indicating various grammatical aspects, especially in connection with verbs, where the tones are crucial for understanding.

Consider the two verb forms below, being non-hodiernal and imperfective respectively:

**dolâbībe** [dòlábíbè] *I wrote*
**dolâbibe** [dòlábìbè] *I am writing*
Oswald

* Oswald (TV series)
* Oswald (typeface)

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Onondaga phonology

This table shows the (consonant) phonemes that are found in Onondaga.

The two plosives, /t/, /k/ are allophonically voiced to [d] and [ɡ] before vowels and resonants (the bottom row of the chart labelled 'sonorant') and are spelled ⟨d⟩ and ⟨g⟩ in this case. There is considerable palatalization and affrication in the language.

Onondaga has nine oral vowels, /i u e o ɛ ɔ æ a ɒ/ (/æ/ is sometimes represented orthographically as ⟨ä⟩), and four nasal vowels, /ẽ/, /õ/, /ĩ/ and /ũ/. The nasal vowels, following the Iroquoianist tradition, are spelled with ogoneks in the scholarly literature and in Ontario (⟨ę⟩ and ⟨ǫ⟩ or ⟨ų⟩). In New York, they are represented with a following ⟨ñ⟩ (⟨eñ⟩ and ⟨oñ⟩). Vowels can be both short and long. When vowel length derives from the now lost consonant \*r, it is phonemic. Vowel length is written with a following colon, ⟨꞉⟩ or raised dot (half colon) ⟨ꞏ⟩.
Nauruan phonology

## Consonants

Nauruan has 16–17 consonant phonemes. Nauruan makes phonemic contrasts between velarized and palatalized labial consonants. Velarization is not apparent before long back vowels and palatalization is not apparent before non-low front vowels.

Voiceless stops are geminated and nasals also contrast in length. Dental stops /t/ and /d/ become [tʃ] and [dʒ] respectively before high front vowels.

Depending on stress, /r/ may be a flap or a trill. The precise phonetic nature of /rʲ/ is unknown.

Between a vowel and word-final /mˠ/, an epenthetic [b] appears.

## Vowels

 /i/
 /ee/
 /e/
 /aa/
 /a/

Non-open vowels (that is, all but /aa/, /a/, /ɑɑ/ /ɑ/) become non-syllabic when preceding another vowel, as in /e-oeeoun/ → [ɛ̃õ̯ɛ̃õ̯ʊn] ('hide').

## Stress

Stress is on the penultimate syllable when the final syllable ends in a vowel, on the last syllable when it ends in a consonant, and initial with reduplications.
Marwari phonology

* Nasalization of vowels is phonemic, all of the vowels can be nasalized.
* Diphthongs are /ai, ia, ae, əi, ei, oi, ui, ua, uo/

* Implosives are mostly only found word initially and it formed due to the influence of neighbouring languages.
* /w/ is [ʋ] before front vowels and [w] elsewhere eg. [ʋɪwwa] 'marriage'.
Old Prussian phonology

The following description is based on the phonological analysis by Schmalstieg (1974):

## Consonants

* Palato-alveolar fricatives /ʃ, ʒ/ are recorded as well, usually with the German orthography-style *sch*.
* There is said to have existed palatalization (i.e. [tʲ, dʲ]) among nearly all of the consonant sounds except for /j/, and possibly for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/.
* The sounds /f/ and /h/ also existed in Old Prussian, but are disputed whether they are native to the language as they are non native to Lithuanian and Latvian.

## Vowels

Diphthongs

* /au/ may have also been realized as a mid-back diphthong [eu].
Palatal click

The **palatal** or **palato-alveolar clicks** are a family of click consonants found, as components of words, only in southern Africa. The tongue is nearly flat, and is pulled back rather than down as in the postalveolar clicks, making a sharper sound than those consonants. ('Sharper' meaning that the energy is concentrated at higher frequencies.) The tongue makes an extremely broad contact across the roof of the mouth, making correlation with the places of articulation of non-clicks difficult, but Ladefoged & Traill (1984:18) find that the primary place of articulation is the palate, and say that "there is no doubt that [ǂ] should be described as a palatal sound".

The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the place of articulation of these sounds is ⟨ǂ⟩, a double-barred vertical bar. An older variant, the double-barred esh, ⟨𝼋⟩ (⨎), is sometimes seen. This base letter is combined with a second element to indicate the manner of articulation, though that is commonly omitted for tenuis clicks.
Paicî phonology

Paicî has a rather simple inventory of consonants, compared to other languages of New Caledonia, but it has an unusually large number of nasal vowels. Paicî syllables are restricted to CV.

## Consonants

The palatal stops could be considered affricates because they occur with a heavily fricated release. The lateral and tap do not occur word-initially, except in a few loanwords and the prefix /ɾɜ/ *they*.

Because nasal stops are always followed by nasal vowels, but prenasalized stops are always followed by oral vowels, it might be argued that nasal and prenasalized stops are allophonic, which would reduce the Paicî consonant inventory to 13.

## Vowels

Paicî has a symmetrical system of ten oral vowels, all found both long and short without any significant difference in quality, and seven nasal vowels, some of which may also be long and short. Because sequences of two short vowels may carry two tones but long vowels are restricted to carrying one tone, they appear to be phonemically long vowels rather than sequences.

## Tones

Like its neighbour Cèmuhî, Paicî is one of the few Austronesian languages which have developed contrastive tone, involving three registers: high, mid, low. Additionally, there are vowels with no inherent tone, whose tone is determined by their environment. Words commonly have the same tone on all vowels, so tone may belong to the word rather than the syllable.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Gordon & Maddieson (1996).
2. ↑ Rivierre (1974).
Octal

The **octal** numeral system, or **oct** for short, is the base-8 number system, and uses the digits 0 to 7, that is to say 10 represents 8 in decimal and 100 represents 64 in decimal. However, English uses a base-10 number language system and so a true octal system might use different language to avoid confusion with the decimal system.
Nivkh phonology

## Consonants

The labial fricatives are weakly articulated, and have been described as both bilabial [ɸ, β] and labiodental [f, v]. The palatal stops may have some degree of affrication, as [tʃʰ, tʃ]. After nasals or /l/, the unaspirated stops become voiced [b, d, ɟ, ɡ, ɢ]. Unlike consonant alternation, this occurs also within a morpheme. The Amur dialect deletes some word-final nasals, which leads to voiced stops occurring also word-initially.

Nivkh's phonemic distinction between velar and uvular fricatives ([ɣ] vs. [ʁ] and [x] vs. [χ]) is rare among the world's languages. These sounds do occur in a great deal of languages, but usually they are interchangeable.

Nivkh features a process of consonant alternation not unlike in Celtic languages, in which morpheme-initial stops alternate with fricatives and trills:

Consonant alternations in Nivkh

This occurs when a morpheme is preceded by another morpheme within the same phrase (e.g. a prefix or an adjunct), unless the preceding morpheme ends itself in a fricative or trill, or in a nasal or /l/.

* /**p**əŋx/ 'soup'
* /pənraj‿**v**əŋx/ 'duck soup'
* /amsp‿**v**əŋx/ 'kind of seal soup'
* but: /cxəf‿**p**əŋx/ 'bear soup'

Only the morpheme-initial position is affected: other clusters ending in a stop are possible within a morpheme (e.g. /utku/ "man").

In some transitive verbs, the process has been noted to apparently run in reverse (fricatives/trills fortiting to stops, with the same distribution). This has been taken a distinct process, but has also been explained to be fundamentally the same, with the citation form of these verbs containing an underlying stop, lenited due to the presence of a former *i-* prefix (which still survives in the citation form of other verbs, where it causes regular consonant alternation). Initial fricatives in nouns never change.

## Vowels

There are these six vowels in Nivkh:

Long vowels are not a phonemic feature of Nivkh but can arise due to sentence prosody, or compensatory lengthening when fricatives are deleted after the vowel.

## Stress

Stress can fall on any syllable, but tends to be on the first; there is dialectal variation, and minimal pairs distinguished by stress seem to be rare.
Oxygen

* Oxygen (element)
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Open-mid central rounded vowel

i
y

ɨ
ʉ

ɯ
u

ɪ
ʏ

ʊ

e
ø

ɘ
ɵ

ɤ
o

e̞
ø̞

ə

ɤ̞
o̞

ɛ
œ

ɜ
**ɞ**

ʌ
ɔ

æ

ɐ

a
ɶ

ä

ɑ
ɒ

Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded

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* Koyukon phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kri phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Blaan phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Swedish phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Manang phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Somali phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Skolt Sami phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kalam phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Faroese phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Barngarla phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Wuhua phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Chakosi phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Nuer phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Vera'a phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mwerlap phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Northwest Gbaya phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Izon phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tulehu phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kwʼadza phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Jebero phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Komering phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Shuar phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Meyah phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Romangol phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mortlockese phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ili Turki phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ilgar phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Äynu phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Bassa phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Winnebago phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Guaymí phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Nooksack phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mpur phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
Northern Sami phonology

## Consonants

The consonant inventory of Northern Sami is large, contrasting voicing for many consonants. Some analyses of Northern Sami phonology may include preaspirated stops and affricates (/hp/, /ht/, /ht͡s/, /ht͡ʃ/, /hk/) and pre-stopped or pre-glottalised nasals (voiceless /pm/, /tn/, /tɲ/, /kŋ/ and voiced /bːm/, /dːn/, /dːɲ/, /ɡːŋ/). However, these can be treated as clusters for the purpose of phonology, since they are clearly composed of two segments and only the first of these lengthens in quantity 3. The terms "preaspirated" and "pre-stopped" will be used in this article to describe these combinations for convenience.

## Vowels

Northern Sami possesses the following vowels:

 Close
Movima phonology

Movima has fourteen vowels:

The vowels of Movima

/e/ and /o/ more closely resemble [ɛ] and [ɔ], respectively, than the close-mid vowels [e] and [o]. Vowels have a phonemic length distinction, although some prosodic processes can lengthen otherwise short vowels. Movima does not have tone.

The plosive /p/ is realized as [p] in the syllable onset but as [pʔᵐ] (which contrasts with the simple nasal phoneme /m/) in the coda. Similarly, /t/ and /k/ are realized as [tʔⁿ] and [ʔɤ] (i.e., as a glottal stop with a vocalic release), respectively, in the syllable coda. In vowel-initial words and between adjacent vowels, an epenthetic glottal stop appears.

The phonemes /f/ and /ɡ/ are only present in Spanish loanwords.
Newar phonology

## Consonants

\*-only occur in Dolakha Newar.

* Tap consonants mainly occur as word-medial alternates of /t/, /d/, /dʱ/ or /ɖ/ (in Dolakha only).
* /s/ can be heard as [ɕ] when occurring before front vowels/glide /i, e, j/.
* In Kathmandu Newar, /ŋ/ only occurs as word-final.
* Affricates /tɕ, dʑ/ can also shift to retracted sounds [t̠s̠, d̠z̠] when occurring before back vowels.

## Vowels

\*-only occur in Dolakha Newar.

* /o, oː/ and /u/ can also be heard as [ɔ, ɔː], and [ʊ].
* In Dolakha Newar, the back vowel sound /ɑ/ can also range to [ʌ], [ə].
* The following nasal vowels can also be distinguished in vowel length as /ĩː ẽː ə̃ː ãː õː ũː/.
Open-mid central unrounded vowel

i
y

ɨ
ʉ

ɯ
u

ɪ
ʏ

ʊ

e
ø

ɘ
ɵ

ɤ
o

e̞
ø̞

ə

ɤ̞
o̞

ɛ
œ

**ɜ**
ɞ

ʌ
ɔ

æ

ɐ

a
ɶ

ä

ɑ
ɒ

Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded

* Dari phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Phrygian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Hausa phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tongan phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Asturian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Dinka phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tübatulabal phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Iu Mien phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Romani phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Khoekhoe phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Sambalpuri phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Konda phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Belizean Creole phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mapuche phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Western Yugur phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Carib phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Fanji phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Bilua phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Savosavo phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kachari phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ikpeng phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Central Alaskan Yup'ik phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Jamaican Patois phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Krenak phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ura phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ontong Java phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* East Ambae phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tuvan phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tidore phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Negidal phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Purépecha phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Iduna phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Hachijō phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Aka-Jeru phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* English orthography ‎ (← links | edit)
* Caló phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Saisiyat phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tewa phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mekeo phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kensiu phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Koyukon phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kri phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Laal phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Yiddish phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Manang phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Futunan phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Niuafoʻou phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kalam phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kangjia phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Chamacoco phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Wuhua phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Chakosi phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Vera'a phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mwerlap phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mota phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Northwest Gbaya phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tulehu phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kwʼadza phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Harákmbut phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Jebero phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Shuar phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Meyah phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Rakahanga-Manihiki phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Romangol phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ilgar phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tsolyáni phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Äynu phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Bassa phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Guaymí phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mising phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Thao phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Itawis phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mpur phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
Nǁng phonology

## Consonants

Reduced medial consonants (C2)

Only sonorants may occur as the medial consonant of a phonological foot. /l/ is only known from three words. The oral sonorants do not occur in initial position.

Glottalic consonants (C1)

These are simple clicks. The traditional term "velaric" is something of a misnomer, for the rear articulation is further back than the velum, and indeed further back than Nǁng /q/. Miller et al. prefer the term "lingual" for this airstream mechanism; they also reject the existence of click "accompaniments", using the IPA symbols to represent both points of articulation rather than solely the anterior articulation. Besides being motivated phonetically, this has the benefit of better illustrating the parallels between clicks and pulmonic consonants.

In the above rubric, the first element of the name is the forward articulation, and the second is the rear articulation.

Linguo-pulmonic consonants
 Affricate

These are airstream contour consonants, which start off with a lingual (velaric) airstream mechanism and finish with a pulmonic airstream (whereas affricates are manner contour consonants, starting as plosives and finishing as fricatives). Traditionally, these were considered to be uvular clicks, because the uvular or pharyngeal closure is audible, but in fact the rear closure of all Nǁng clicks is uvular or pharyngeal. (The distinction between uvular and pharyngeal is not represented here.) Effectively, in these clicks the release of the rear articulation is delayed, so that there is a double release burst, the forward (lingual) release followed by the rear (pulmonic) release.

Linguo-glottalic consonants
 Plosive

These differ from the previous consonants in that the second, rear release is an ejective.

1. ↑ These are often written with a superscript ⟨ʢ⟩.
Pacoh phonology

Pacoh has six vowel qualities, all of which occur long and short, in modal and creaky voice. Creaky vowels are lowered compared to modally voiced vowels. There are three diphthongs which also occur modal and creaky. Unlike other languages in the area, vowel phonation does not seem to have originated in the phonation of preceding consonants.

Monophthongs
 Low modal
 High creaky
 Low creaky

Diphthongs
 Creaky
Old Persian cuneiform

* logograms:
	+ *Ahuramazdā*: 𐏈, 𐏉, 𐏊 (genitive)
	+ *xšāyaθiya* "king": 𐏋
	+ *dahyāuš-* "country": 𐏌, 𐏍
	+ *baga-* "god": 𐏎
	+ *būmiš-* "earth": 𐏏
* word divider: 𐏐
	+ 1 𐏑, 2 𐏒, 5 𐏒𐏒𐏑, 7 𐏒𐏒𐏒𐏑, 8 𐏒𐏒𐏒𐏒, 9 𐏒𐏒𐏒𐏒𐏑
	+ 10 𐏓, 12 𐏓𐏒, 13 𐏓𐏒𐏑, 14 𐏓𐏒𐏒, 15 𐏓𐏒𐏒𐏑, 18 𐏓𐏒𐏒𐏒𐏒, 19 𐏓𐏒𐏒𐏒𐏒𐏑, 20 𐏔, 22 𐏔𐏒, 23 𐏔𐏒𐏑, 25 𐏔𐏒𐏒𐏑, 26 𐏔𐏒𐏒𐏒, 27 𐏔𐏒𐏒𐏒𐏑, 40 𐏔𐏔, 60 𐏔𐏔𐏔,
	+ 120 𐏕𐏔
Niuean orthography

Niuean orthography is largely phonemic; that is, one letter stands for one sound and *vice versa*.

## Alphabet

The traditional alphabet order, given with the traditional names of the letters, is **ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, fā, gā, hā, kā, lā, mō, nū, pī, tī, vī, rō, sā**. Note that **rō** and **sā** as introduced letters are ordered at the end.

Sperlich (1997) uses an alphabetical order based on English for his dictionary: **a, ā, e, ē, f, g, h, i, ī, k, l, m, n, o, ō, p, s, t, u, ū, v** (**r** is left out since no words start with this letter). He recommends that consonants be named consistently with a following ā: **fā, gā, hā, kā, lā, mā, nā, pā, tā, vā, rā, sā**.

Vowel length can be marked with a macron; however, this is not always done.

## History

As with many languages, writing was brought to Niue in connection with religion, in this case with Christianity by missionaries educated in Samoa. This has led to some Samoan influences in morphology and grammar and also to a noticeable one in spelling: as in Samoan, the sound /ŋ/ (Help:IPA) is written **g**, rather than **ng** as in Tongan and some other Polynesian languages with this sound. (McEwen (1970) uses **ng** in his dictionary; however, this feature of his spelling was not popular, particularly since it conflicted with the spelling used in the Niuean Bible.)
Nukuoro phonology

## Vowels

There are 5 vowel qualities in Nukuoro: /a, e, i, o, u/. Vowel length is contrastive, and long vowels are represented by writing the vowel symbol twice. Long vowels are about twice as long as a short vowel, and are not rearticulated. The phonemic geminate /aː/ is often realized phonetically as [æ].

Monophthongs

## Consonants

There are 10 consonants in Nukuoro, each of which is contrastive for length. Geminate consonants are articulated for about twice as long as a singleton consonant, with the exception of stops and taps: geminate stops are articulated with increased aspiration, and geminate taps are articulated as a long, pre-voiced dental or retroflex stop. Geminate consonants are typically found stem-initially, and are often created by reduplication.

Consonants

Like many Polynesian languages, Nukuoro has only three stops in its phonemic inventory: /p/, /t/, and /k/. These stops are unaspirated and can be variably voiced, but are phonemically voiceless. The orthography of Nukuoro represents these voiceless stops with *b, d, g*. The alveolar tap /ɾ/ is represented in Nukuoro orthography using the letter *l*, although early records of Nukuoro (and in fact, the spelling of the language name itself) use *r*.

Since singleton /p/, /t/, /k/ are written with *b, d, g*, geminate /p/, /t/, /k/ are written with *p, t, k*. Geminated /m/, /n/, /s/, /h/, /ɾ/ are represented with double letters (*mm, nn, ss, hh, ll*), and geminated /ŋ/ is written as *nng*.

## Syllable Structure

Syllables take the shapes V, VV, VVV, CV, CVV and CVVV. All possible V and VV combinations occur. All possible CV combinations occur except /vu/. The first member of a diphthong is always the syllabic peak when the syllable is stressed; elsewhere there is little difference between members, the peak of sonority tending to occur on the most naturally sonorous vowel.
Palatalization

In phonetics, **palatalization** or **palatization** is a way of pronouncing a consonant in which part of the tongue is moved close to the hard palate. Consonants pronounced this way are said to be **palatalized** and are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet by affixing the letter ⟨ʲ⟩ to the base consonant. Palatalization cannot minimally distinguish words in most dialects of English, but it may do so in languages such as Russian, Mandarin, and Irish.
New Tai Lue alphabet

## Consonants

### Initials

Similar to the Thai and Lao scripts, consonants come in pairs to denote two tonal registers (high and low).

### Finals

Final consonants do not have an inherent /a/ vowel. They are modified forms of initials with a virama-like hook:

## Vowels

Consonants have a default vowel of /a/.
In the table below, '◌' represents a consonant and is used to indicate the position of the various vowels:

In some words, the symbol ᦰ is just used for distinguishing homonyms or displaying onomatopoeiae.

Generally, vowels in open syllables (without final) become long whereas ones in closed syllables become short (except /aː/ and /uː/).

## Tones

New Tai Lue has two tone marks which are written at the end of a syllable: ᧈ and ᧉ.
Because consonants come in pairs to denote two tonal registers, the two tone marks allow for representation of six specific tones:

## Abbreviations

Two letters are used only for abbreviations:

* Syllable ᦶᦟᦰ (/lɛʔ˧/) can be abbreviated as the character ᧞
* Syllable ᦶᦟᧁᧉ (/lɛu˩/) can be abbreviated as the character ᧟

## Digits

New Tai Lue has its own set of digits:

An alternative glyph for one (᧚) is used when ᧑ might be confused with the vowel ᦱ.
Nishi phonology

Nishi is a tonal language that utilizes three tones: rising, neutral, and falling. These can be applied to all of its vowels, and often can change the word's meaning:

*bénam* – "to hold"
*benam* – "to deliver"
*bènam* – "to vomit"

Vowels

This is the consonants of Nyishi. Where the orthography differs from the IPA, the orthography is bolded.
Nuu-chah-nulth phonology

## Consonants

The 35 consonants of *Nuu-chah-nulth*:

The pharyngeal consonants developed from mergers of uvular sounds; /ħ/ derives from a merger of /χ/ and /χʷ/ (which are now comparatively rare) while /ʕ/ came about from a merger of /qʼ/ and /qʷʼ/ (which are now absent from the language,).

## Vowels

Nuu-chah-nulth vowels are influenced by surrounding consonants with certain "back" consonants conditioning lower, more back vowel allophones

Vowels

The mid vowels [ɛː] and [ɔː] appear in vocative forms and in ceremonial expressions. [ə] is a possible realization of /a/ after a glottalized sonorant.

In the environment of glottalized resonants as well as ejective and pharyngeal consonants, vowels can be "laryngealized" which often means creaky voice.

In general, syllable weight determines stress placement; short vowels followed by non-glottalized consonants and long vowels are heavy. In sequences where there are no heavy syllables or only heavy syllables, the first syllable is stressed.

Nuu-chah-nulth has phonemic short and long vowels. Traditionally, a third class of vowels, known as "variable length" vowels, is recognized. These are vowels that are long when they are found within the first two syllables of a word, and short elsewhere.
Ogba orthography

Certain digraphs and trigraphs are also used.

The tones are indicated with diacritics:

* the high tone is indicated by the absence of a diacritic:⟨a, e, ẹ, i, ị, o, ọ, u, ụ⟩ ;
* the low tone is indicated with the grave accent : ⟨à, è, ẹ̀, ì, ị̀, ò, ọ̀, ù, ụ̀⟩ ;
* the falling tone is indicated with the circumflex accent : ⟨â, ê, ệ, î, ị̂, ô, ộ, û, ụ̂⟩ ;
* the downstep is indicated with the macron : ⟨ā, ē, ẹ̄, ī, ị̄, ō, ọ̄, ū, ụ̄⟩.
Old Catalan phonology

## Consonants

### Laterals

It is believed that Old Catalan had two lateral palatal phonemes. One, /ʎ/, was written as ⟨ll⟩ and has remained unchanged. The other, reconstructed as /jl/, came from the Latin groups C'L, G'L, LE, and LI; written as ⟨yl⟩ and ⟨il⟩, it never appeared in initial position. It has merged into /ʎ/ in most dialects but into /j/ in a few dialects.

Around the 12th century, word-initial /l/ became /ʎ/, but it continued to be spelled as ⟨l⟩ until the 15th century.

### Labiodentals

/v/ began to merge into /b/ in some dialects around the 14th century, a process called betacism. Now, the distinction is maintained only in Valencia, the Balearic Islands, and southern Tarragona.

## Vowels

Vowels of Old Catalan

The system features a modification of the original Proto-Romance /e/ and /ɛ/. First, /e/ was centralized to /ə/ and then, /ɛ/ was raised to /e/. In Modern Central Catalan, stressed /ə/ has been fronted to /ɛ/, thus partially inverting the original Proto-Romance distribution still found in Italian and Portuguese. Balearic varieties still keep stressed /ə/.

It is assumed that during the preliterary period, all Catalan dialects featured a weak realization of the pretonic vowels. Around the 13th century, pretonic /a/ and /e/ began to be confused in writing in the Eastern dialects, and the confusion later spread to all unstressed instances of /a/ and /e/, a process that was almost complete by the 15th century.

Final post-tonic /e, o/ were lost during the formation of Catalan. According to some historic studies, final nasals were velarised and assimilated before being lost in Modern Catalan: [ˈpãŋ] → [ˈpã] → [ˈpa]).
Okpe phonology

The sound system is rather conservative, and nearly the same as that of Urhobo. The vowels system is the same, and somewhat reduced compared to proto-Edoid: there are seven vowels, /i e ɛ a ɔ o u/. Of the consonants, only significant differences are the addition of /ɣʷ/ and of the distinction between *l* vs *n* and *y* vs *ny*: these alternate, depending on whether the following vowel is oral or nasal. /ɾ, ʋ, w/ also have nasal allophones before nasal vowels.

## References

1. ↑ Archangeli & Pulleyblank, 1994. *Grounded phonology*, p 181*ff*
Open front rounded vowel

i
y

ɨ
ʉ

ɯ
u

ɪ
ʏ

ʊ

e
ø

ɘ
ɵ

ɤ
o

e̞
ø̞

ə

ɤ̞
o̞

ɛ
œ

ɜ
ɞ

ʌ
ɔ

æ

ɐ

a
**ɶ**

ä

ɑ
ɒ

Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded

* Azerbaijani phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Dari phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Phrygian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Michif phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Dzongkha phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Rotuman phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kirundi phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tübatulabal phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Huli phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Gullah phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Romani phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Khoekhoe phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Walloon phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Konda phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Belizean Creole phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Dangme phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Western Yugur phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Seri phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kven phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Bambam phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Lidelpa phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Fanji phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Bilua phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kachari phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Central Alaskan Yup'ik phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Altai phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Jamaican Patois phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Krenak phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ura phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ontong Java phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* East Ambae phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tuvan phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Gǀui phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tidore phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Wa phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Purépecha phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Iduna phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Abau phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Danish phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Alutiiq phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Sherpa phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Uyghur phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Caló phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tewa phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Welsh phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Talysh phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Slovene phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Estonian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Swedish phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Skolt Sami phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Rendille phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kalam phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Phom phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Isoko phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Aklanon phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Chakosi phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Nuer phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Löyöp phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Vera'a phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mwerlap phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Northwest Gbaya phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ao phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Inari Sami phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Twana phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Tulehu phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kwʼadza phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Shuar phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ili Turki phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Old Saxon phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Ilgar phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Syldavian phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Luchazi phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Veps phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Äynu phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Bassa phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Kaingang phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Guaymí phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
* Mpur phonology ‎ (← links | edit)
Ngkolmpu Kanum phonology

## Consonants

Ngkolmpu Kanum has 15 consonant phonemes (plus two marginal phonemes) at three points of articulation: bilabial, coronal, and velar. Prenasalized voiceless stops and fricatives contrast with voiceless and nasal realizations, which is typologically unusual. The orthography is enclosed in angle brackets.
Owa phonology

The Owa language consists of nineteen phonemes, which are written using twenty letters. Of these nineteen phonemes, fourteen are consonants and five are vowels.

## Consonants

The consonants can be separated into four different categories: labial (sound produced with the lips), alveolar (produced with the upper teeth), velar (produced with the back of the tongue), and glottal (produced with the glottis).

Owa distinguishes the following matters of articulation: voiceless stops, voiced stops, vibrants, voiceless fricatives, voiced fricatives, nasals, and approximants. Although there are velar consonants, there are no voiced velar or alveolar stops. However, Owa does feature the voiced fricative [ɣ] in lieu of a voiced velar stop.

Furthermore, there are lengthened segments used to distinguish semantic meaning, as in *ssss*, used to mean ‘yes, I agree’.

## Vowels

The Owa language consists of 5 phonemic vowels, ɪ, ʊ, ɛ, ɔ, ɐ, separated in three categories: front (ɪ, ɛ), central (ɐ), and back (ɔ ʊ). Long and short vowels are used to distinguish tense.

While vowels can be nasalized before nasal consonants, this nasalization is not phonemic.

## Stress

Usually, the second-to-last syllable is stressed in the Owa language, e.g. *au'.ra.gi* 'married'. But occasionally the third-to-last syllable is stressed, as in *fe.fe.ne* 'female'. However, stress placement depends on the context, specifically where it is located in the sentence; therefore, it is difficult to predict stress patterns in Owa.
Ogham

* Right side/downward strokes
	1. B *beith* [b] (*\*betwi-s*)
	2. L *luis* [l] (*\*lubsti-)*
	3. F *fearn* [w] (*\*wernā*)
	4. S *saille* [s] (*\*salik-s*)
	5. N *nuin* [n]
* Left side/upward strokes
	1. H *úath* [j] (*\*osato-*)
	2. D *duir* [d] (*\*darek-s*)
	3. T *tinne* [t]
	4. C *coll* [k] (*\*koslas*)
	5. Q *ceirt* [kʷ] (*\*kʷer[x]tā*)
* Across/pendicular strokes
	1. M *muin* [m]
	2. G *gort* [ɡ] (*\*gorto-s*)
	3. NG *gétal* [ɡʷ] (*\*gʷēdtlo-*)
	4. Z *straif* [sw] or [ts]?
	5. R *ruis* [r] (*\*rudsti-*)
* notches (vowels)
	1. A *ailm* [a]
	2. O *onn* [o] (*\*osno-*)
	3. U *úr* [u]
	4. E *edad* [e]
	5. I *idad* [i]