Esperanto

= All Duolingo Esperanto Course Notes =

## External Resources

* Esperanto Resources from the Duolingo Subreddit
* Full Word List for the Esperanto Tree 1.0
* Vocab practice and games for the tree at Quizlet

## **Intros (Introducing Yourself)**

### **Tips and Notes**

As you learn Esperanto with this course, you are welcome to check the Tips and Notes for each Skill. They can help to answer any questions you may have.

### **Some simple Esperanto rules**

* Each letter has a unique and separate sound. For example: longa is pronounced "lon-ga". Both k and n are pronounced in knabo.

* The emphasis in every word is always on the next-to-last syllable. For example: all 2-syllable words have the emphasis on the first syllable, as in viro, and all 3-syllable words have the emphasis on the middle syllable, as in knabino.
* All action words (verbs) always end in *-as*, when talking about what is happening now. Examples: *mi laboras* (I work/I am working); *mi estas* (I am); *vi dormas* (you sleep/you are sleeping).
* All words for a thing (or a person, an animal, a place, etc), end in *-o*. For example: *libro* (a book), *viro* (a man), *hundo* (a dog), *Aŭstralio* (Australia).
* "The" is *la* in Esperanto. For example: *la viro* = the man.
* "A" and "an" are not used in Esperanto. For example: *viro* = a man.
* *-in* means female: *viro* = man, *virino* = woman; *knabo* = boy, *knabino* = girl; *aktoro* = actor, *aktorino* = actress.

### **Esperanto alphabet**

The Esperanto alphabet has 28 letters. They include all the letters of the English alphabet, except for Q, W, X and Y. A few letters have accent marks.

If you are spelling an Esperanto word out loud, the name of each consonant is the sound that letter makes, followed by *-o*: B = *bo*, S = *so* etc. The name of each vowel is the sound that letter makes.

#### **Here are five of the accented letters**

 **ĝ** | lar**g**e
 **ĵ** | lei**s**ure / French ***j***e
 **ŝ** | **sh**oe
 **ŭ** | **w**et

### **Esperanto keyboard**

To obtain an Esperanto keyboard that will allow you to easily type these special characters, please refer to our forum by following the link below:

Esperanto keyboards: all systems go!

### **What if I don't want to install a keyboard just for this course?**

Duolingo recognizes the x-system, an alternative method of entering the accented Esperanto characters. To use the x-system, simply type the letter that requires the accent followed by an x:

 gx
 hx
 jx
 sx
 ux

**Example:** type sxangxo to spell ŝanĝo

Note that Duolingo will not convert accented characters entered via the x-system in the answer immediately when typed, but will recognize them when they are submitted for checking.

## **Phrases**

### **Many expressions end in *-n*.**

In Esperanto, greetings, thanks, congratulations and other similar expressions usually end in *-n*. The simple reason for this will be covered in a future skill (Accusative) that explains the *-n* word ending.

### **Question Words**

*Kiu?* means "which person or thing?". When used in relation to a person, it usually translates to "who?".

*Kiel?* means "in what manner?", "how?".

### **Esperanto Names**

People who speak Esperanto generally use their own names, but sometimes choose a name that is easier to pronounce in Esperanto, or an Esperanto nickname. Names for men in Esperanto generally end in -o, and nicknames in -ĉjo. A man named David could decide to use David, Davido, or the nickname Daĉjo. For a woman, Esperanto names can end in  -o or -a, and nicknames end in -njo. A woman named Susan could use Susan, Suzano, Suzana, or the nickname Sunjo.

## **Weather**

### **No "it"**

Note that the word "it" is not translated in the following expressions:

*Pluvas.* = (It) is raining.

*Neĝas.* = (It) is snowing.

*Estas* varma tago. = (It) is a warm day.

### **Ĉu**

*Ĉu* introduces a yes/no question. In contrast to English, it is not necessary to invert the subject and verb:

 The weather is hot.

Questions in Esperanto **must** always be introduced by a question word such as *ĉu*, *kiu* (which), *kiel* (how) and other words that you will learn later. You **cannot** make a question simply by inverting the word order, or by adding a question mark.

### **Expressions with Ĉu**

*Ĉu?* = Really?
*Ĉu ne?* = Isn't it?
*Vi laboras, ĉu ne?* = You are working, aren't you?

### **Adjectives**

Adjectives are words like *happy*, *good*, or *big*, which modify a noun. Remember that a noun always ends in *-o* in Esperanto. Adjectives, on the other hand, end in *-a*:

*varma* = hot/warm, *malvarma* = cold

*bona* = good, *malbona* = bad

In Esperanto, the adjective may be placed either before or after the noun, with no change in meaning. "Bona tago" and "tago bona" both mean "a good day" and both are correct. In practice, most people prefer "bona tago", with the adjective before the noun.

### **Affixes**

*mal-* is a prefix that means "the opposite of". Please note that *mal-* by itself does **not** mean bad (as it does in some other languages):

*varma* = warm/hot; *malvarma* = cold

*bela* = beautiful; *malbela* = ugly

*helpi* = to help; *malhelpi* = to hinder

*lumo* = light; *mallumo* = darkness

*bona* = good; *malbona* = bad

## **Plurals**

### **Plurals**

In English, when there is more than one of something, we usually add -s to form the plural (more than one), for example dogs, houses, etc. But not always! There are some exceptions, like children, men, mice. In Esperanto, there are no exceptions. You always add **-j** to form the plural:

 viro
 tago
 knabino

In Esperanto the **-j** ending is also added to descriptive words (adjectives), such as *bela* (beautiful), and *granda* (big, large):

La viro**j** estas bela**j**. = The men are handsome.

La granda**j** hundo**j**. = The big dogs.

La viro kaj la virino estas bela**j**. (because *belaj* refers to both *la viro* and *la virino*) = The man and the woman are beautiful.

Note that "la" stays the same in front of plural nouns, and no endings are ever added to "la".

### **Pronunciation**

*-oj* is pronounced like the English *oy,* and the pronunciation of *-aj* is like the English *eye.*

### **Numbers**

 two
 three
 four

Unlike adjectives and nouns, the cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) do not take any endings:

*Ni estas du virinoj.* We are two women.

### **Affixes**

*-ej* is a suffix used to indicate a place:

*kafo* = coffee; *kafejo* = café (a place where you drink coffee, and other drinks.)
*laboras* = works; *laborejo* = workplace
*loĝas* = lives/inhabits; *loĝejo* = apartment (a place you inhabit)

### **Jen**

*Jen* means "here is" or "here are" like the following:

*Jen la hundo.* = Here is the dog.

*Jen la hundoj.* = Here are the dogs.

Although less common, *jen* may be followed by *estas*, for example:

*Jen estas la hundo.* = Here is the dog.

*Jen estas la hundoj.* = Here are the dogs.

## **Everyday**

### **Estas**

*Estas* means am, is, or are. It is the present tense of the verb *esti*, to be. It is used in sentences like *La nokto estas varma.* (The night is hot.) or *Adamo estas viro.* (Adam is a man.) to assign a property or identity to someone or something.
It can also be used to state the existence of someone or something: *Estas viro en la parko.* (There is a man in the park.), or *Estas nokto.* (It is night.) From these examples we can see that when it is the first word in a sentence, *Estas* means "There is" or "It is":

 Estas viro en la parko.
 Estas varma nokto.

Note: Do NOT say "Ĝi estas varma nokto". Ĝi (it) is not needed in this sentence.

### **Adverbs**

Adverbs (usually *-ly* words in English) modify verbs and adjectives. In Esperanto they usually end in *-e*.

Examples:

*rapide* = quickly

*malrapide* = slowly

*bone* = well

## **Accusative**

### **The accusative ending: -n**

Take a look at this English sentence: "The woman kisses the little boy." How do you know who is kissing, and who is being kissed? In English, you know by the word order. The woman comes before the verb, so she is doing the kissing (or to use the grammatical term, she is the subject of the sentence). The little boy comes after the verb, so he's the one being kissed (and he is the grammatical object of the sentence).

In Esperanto, you can tell who is the subject and who is the object of the sentence by the endings. The **subject** of the sentence, i.e. the one who is doing the kissing, ends in ***-o*** . The **object** of the sentence, the one who is being kissed, has ***-n***  added after the ***-o***. This means that you can always tell who or what is the subject, and who or what is the object, even if the sentence is switched around:

*La virino kisas la malgrandan knabon.*

> The woman kisses the little boy.
>
>

*La malgrandan knabon kisas la virino.* <

> The woman kisses the little boy.
>
>

(Look for the *-n* ! This still means "The woman kisses the little boy", even though the word order has been changed.)

Note that the adjective (in this case *malgranda*) also takes the *-n* ending, the same as the noun it refers to: *malgranda**n** knabo**n*** .

These sentences mean the same thing, and are all equally correct. They **all** mean: "The woman kisses the small boy.":

*La virino kisas la malgrandan knabo**n**.*

*La malgrand**an** knabo**n** kisas la virino.*

*Kisas la virino la malgranda**n** knabo**n**.*

*Kisas la malgranda**n** knabo**n** la virino.*

*La virino la malgranda**n** knabo**n** kisas.*

*La malgranda**n** knabo**n** la virino kisas.*

The *-n* ending in Esperanto is called the accusative. Be aware that the accusative ending *-n* is never used with the verb *estas*: *Li estas knabo.* (He is a boy.)

### **Accusative and Plural**

If a word already ends in *-j*, the *-n* is added after it.

*Mi manĝas bona**jn** kuko**jn**.*

I am eating good cakes.

*Mi vidas la bela**jn** virino**jn**.*

I see the beautiful women.

### **Pronouns**

Pronouns also get the -n ending. Note how regularly Esperanto pronouns change as compared to their English counterparts:

### **Why many expressions end in *-n***

When you use an expression like “Thanks” in English, you are actually shortening a full statement. As you have just learned, *-n* indicates the object of the sentence as you can see in the examples below:

*Dankon* = *Mi donas al vi dankon.*

Thanks = I give you thanks. ("thanks" is the object of the sentence)

*Saluton!* = *Mi donas al vi saluton.*

Hi!/Hello!/Greetings! = I give you greetings. ("greetings" is the object)

*Feliĉan novan jaron!* = *Mi deziras al vi feliĉan novan jaron!*

Happy new year! = I wish you a happy new year! ("happy new year" is the object)

### **Prepositions**

The noun following a preposition normally takes a simple -o ending (-oj in the plural). Other endings will be explained later. For example:

*La virino estas **en** la kafej**o**.*

The woman is in the café.

*Ni iras **al** la park**o**.*

We go to the park.

## **Possessives**

### **Possessive pronouns**

Possessive personal pronouns (also known as possessive adjectives) are words like "my" and "your" in English. Unlike in English, these words are completely regular in Esperanto. Just add *-a* to the end of a pronoun to turn it into its possessive form.

Like other words ending in *-a* the possessives also take the *-j* (plural) and *-n* (accusative) ending when required.

Jen *miaj* gepatroj.

Here are my parents.

*Vi**aj** ursoj trinkas mi**an** bieron.*

Your bears are drinking my beer.

### **De**

If you want to express that something belongs to someone, the key word is *de*. It corresponds to the English word "of", but it is also used when English would put  **'s** on a word instead.

*Jen mapo **de la universitato**.*

Here is a map of the university.

*Vi trinkas la bieron **de mia patro**.*

You are drinking my father's beer. (the beer of my father)

*Li estas la avo **de Sofia**.*

He is Sofia's grandfather. (the grandfather of Sofia)

### **Kio, tio**

**Kio** = what? or what thing?.

**Tio** = that or that thing.

*Kio* and *tio* never take the ending *-j* (plural), but do take the ending *-n* (accusative) if they refer to a direct object.

*Kio estas tio?*

What is that?

*Kio**n** vi manĝas?*

What are you eating?

*Ni manĝas tio**n**.*

We are eating that.

### **Names and Addresses**

The following two ways (with *kio* or *kiu*) of asking for someone's name or address are equally correct:

*Kio estas via [nomo/adreso]?*

What is your [name/address]?

*Kiu estas via [nomo/adreso]?*

Which is your [name/address]?

### **Amiko, Amikino**

Traditionally, *amiko* was used only for a male friend, and *amikino* for a female friend, and this usage is still common, so we are teaching it here. Recently, however, many Esperanto speakers use the same form *amiko* for a male or female friend.

Also, note that *amiko* and *amikino* are **not** equivalent to the English "boyfriend" and "girlfriend". To describe a romantic relationship, we use the terms *koramiko* or *amato* and *koramikino* ("heart-friend") or *amatino* (loved one).

## Languages

### Language names

To name a language in Esperanto, the full expression is "la angla lingvo", "la franca lingvo" (the English language, the French language). However, people usually drop the word "lingvo" and just say "la angla" (English), "la franca" (French):

*La itala estas bela lingvo.*

Italian is a beautiful language.

M*i parolas la hispanan.*

I speak Spanish.

Don't try this with *Esperanto* though! In theory you could say "la Esperanta lingvo", but in practice this form is **never** used. The language has always been known as *Esperanto* right from the start:

### Oni

*Oni* is equivalent to "one" in English. It is used frequently in Esperanto, more often than the pronoun "one" is used in English. It is used to make general statements, as follows:

*Oni diras, ke la angla estas malfacila lingvo.*
One says that English is a difficult language.

People say that English is a difficult language.

*Oni parolas Esperanton en la domo.*
One speaks Esperanto in the house.

Esperanto is spoken in the house.

### Ke

Subordinate clauses are often introduced by *ke* ("that"): *Li diras, **ke** vi parolas Esperanton.* In English, It is possible to leave out "that", and say "He says you speak Esperanto", instead of "He says **that** you speak Esperanto." However, in Esperanto **ke** must always be included. Note also that there is always a comma before **ke**, though the English translation may not have one.

### Nek ... nek ...

*Nek* means both "neither" and "nor":

*Mi parolas **nek** la francan **nek** la anglan.*

I speak **neither** French **nor** English.

*Li parolas **nek** Esperanton, **nek** la anglan.*

He speaks **neither** Esperanto **nor** English.

***Nek** ni **nek** ili loĝas en Aŭstralio.*

**Neither** we **nor** they live in Australia.

## Colors

### Ankaŭ

*Ankaŭ* (also / too) is placed immediately before the word it
refers to. It is never placed at the end of the phrase, as is common in
 English.

* ***Ankaŭ mi*** *ludas multe* = **I** play a lot, too. (Interpretation: Others play a lot, and I, too, play a lot.)
* *Mi **ankaŭ ludas** multe* = I **play** a lot, too. (There are other things that I do a lot, and I also play a lot.)

### Esperanta

The adjective form of Esperanto is *Esperanta*. This can either be capitalized or not based on the preference of the author. Any word can be turned into an adjective by changing the ending to -a.

### Color Names

Some colors have their own names: *blua* (blue), *verda* (green), *bruna* (brown). Others are based on the colors of specific fruit or flowers, and so have the suffix *-kolora* :

* *oranĝo* (orange, the fruit) -> *oranĝkolora* (orange, the color)
* *rozo* (rose, the flower) -> *rozkolora* (pink, the color).

In everyday use, these longer color names are often shortened: *oranĝa*, *roza*, *viola*.

## Food 1

### Infinitive

The ending **-i** indicates the infinitive, for example *ami* (to love), *trinki* (to drink), *kuiri* (to cook). This is the neutral form found in a dictionary. It is often used to complement the verbs *povas* (can), *volas* (want), *devas* (must), and *ŝatas* (like). For example:

* *Mi volas **danci**.* = I want **to dance**.
* *Mi ŝatas **manĝi**.* = I like **to eat**.
* *Ĉu vi povas **fari** tion?* = Can you **do** that?

Note that in English, the word "to" is not used after the words "can" and "must", but this is an oddity of English, not Esperanto!

### Nek ... nek ...

*Nek* means both "neither" and "nor". For example:
***Nek** la fromaĝo **nek** la pomo estas flava.*

**Neither** the cheese **nor** the apple is yellow.

*Mi ŝatas **nek** la fromaĝon **nek** la pomon.*

I like **neither** the cheese **nor** the apple.

### Breakfast, Lunch & Dinner

*matenmanĝo* = breakfast, the morning meal

*tagmanĝo* = lunch, the midday meal

*vespermanĝo* = dinner/supper, the evening meal.

### Kun, Kune, Kune kun

*kun* = with

*kune* = together

*kune kun* = together with

### Pli and ol

*Pli ol* means "more than". *Pli* and *ol* express a comparison:

*Lia pomo estas pli granda ol mia pomo*.

His apple is bigger than my apple.

*Li kuiras pli bone ol mi.*

He cooks better than I (do).

*Ĉu Sofia estas pli bela ol ŝi?*

Is Sofia prettier than she (is)?

### Kiel

*Kiel* means "as" in the following kinds of sentences. Remember to add the accusative -n when *kiel* comes between two words that both function as direct objects:

*Ni manĝas fragojn kiel deserton.*

We eat strawberries as (a) dessert.

### Pro and Ĉar

*Pro* and *ĉar* are similar, but are NOT interchangeable. **Ĉar** means **because**, while **pro** means **because of**, "due to", or "on account of":

*Mi manĝas la fragojn, **ĉar** ili estas bongustaj.*

I am eating the strawberries **because** they are tasty.

***Pro** mia granda apetito, mi manĝas du picojn.*

**Because of** my big appetite, I am eating two pizzas.

***Ĉar** la vetero estas malbona, ni ne povas iri al restoracio.*

**Because** the weather is bad, we can't go to a restaurant.

***Pro** la malbona vetero, ni ne povas iri al restoracio.*

**Because of** the bad weather, we cannot go to the restaurant.

## Countries

### Country names and nationalities

Esperanto has a two-part system for naming countries and their inhabitants. This two-part system developed early in the history of Esperanto, and was based on the idea of a division of the world into "Old World" and "New World". The assumption was that the "Old World" countries took their names from the people who lived there. In contrast, "New World" countries consisted mainly of immigrants and their descendants, so their inhabitants were named after the countries they lived in.
So, for some "Old World" countries, mainly in Europe and Asia, the Esperanto root form gives the name of the **inhabitant**, and the name of the country is formed from it. For other "New World" countries, mainly in the Americas, Africa and Oceania, the Esperanto root form gives the name of the **country**, and the name of the inhabitant is formed from it.

#### Group 1 (mainly "New World")

The first group takes the name of the country as the root form (e.g. *Brazil-o*, *Kanad-o*) and an inhabitant of that country is formed by adding *-an* (member) in front of the ending *-o*. For example:

*Brazil**an**oj loĝas en Brazilo.*

Brazilians live in Brazil.

*Kanad**an**oj loĝas en Kanado.*

Canadians live in Canada.

#### Group 2 (mainly "Old World")

The second group takes the name of the inhabitant as the root form (e.g. *ital-o*, *german-o*) and its country name is formed by adding *-uj* in front of the ending *-o*. For example:

*Italoj loĝas en Ital**uj**o.*

Italians live in Italy.

*Germanoj loĝas en German**uj**o.*
Germans live in Germany.
Many people prefer to use the ending *-io* for Group 2 names rather than the traditional ending *-ujo*. This is how we teach country names here on Duolingo:

### About the Americas

*Usono* refers to the USA, while *Ameriko* refers to the entire American continent; so *usonano* is a US citizen, while *amerikano* is someone from North, Central, or South America.

### More accented letters

The following table shows the rest of the accented letters, which are also called *ĉapelitaj literoj* (literally, "letters with hats").

 ĵ
 ŭ

Note: *ĥ* is pronounced as a strongly aspirated "h", like the "ch" in the Scottish word "loch" (**not** pronounced "lock"), while *ŭ* is normally only used after *a* and *e*, in the combinations *aŭ* and *eŭ*.

## Animals 1

### The suffix -id (offspring)

*-id* is a suffix that refers to the young of an animal, or more rarely, of a plant.
*kato* (cat) + *-id* = *katido* (kitten)

*hundo* (dog) + *-id* = *hundido* (puppy)

### Duo

*Duo* is the name given by Duolingo to its mascot, the green owl. It is **not** the word for owl in Esperanto. The Esperanto word for owl is *strigo*.

### The suffix -in (female)

When it comes to animals, the root form of the animal (i.e. *bovo*) is gender neutral. Therefore the word *bovo* does not specify whether the animal is a bull or a cow. A *bovino* is specifically a *cow*. To make this unambiguously male, you need to add *vir-* in front of it, thus *virbovo* is a bull.

 bov**in**o
 **vir**bovo

## Food 2

### Kiom

*Kiom* means "how much" or "how many."
How much do you eat?

***Kiom*** *vi manĝas?*

How much do you love me?

***Kiom*** *vi amas min?*

How much is in the cup?

***Kiom*** *estas en la taso?*

### Kiom da

When you ask "how much" or "how many" of a specific thing or things, the word "of" cannot be omitted as it is in English:
How much (of) bread do you eat?

***Kiom da*** *pano vi manĝas?*

How many (of) apples do you eat?

***Kiom da*** *pomoj vi manĝas?*

How much (of) tea is in the cup?

***Kiom da*** *teo estas en la taso?*

### Kiom aĝas

*Kiom* is used with age, since age is a quantity (of years).
How old are you?

***Kiom*** *vi aĝas?*
(Literally: How much you are-age?)

*Mi aĝas 30 jarojn*. OR *Mi estas 30-jaraĝa.*

***Kiom*** *da jaroj vi havas?*

(Literally "How many years do you have?")

*Mi havas 30 jarojn.*

### Meat Dishes

To talk about meat dishes, add *-aĵ* to the name of the animal that the dish is made from. For example, to talk about "pork" (meat from a pig), you use the word for pig (*porko*) and add the suffix *-aĵ* : *porkaĵo*. To say "I am eating pork", you would say *Mi manĝas porkaĵon.* The same sentence without *-aĵ*, *Mi manĝas porkon* would mean "I am eating a pig."

 a pig
 a fish
 a lamb

### Prepositions

So far we have learned several prepositions, including *sur, por, sen, de, da* and *kun*. Note that there is no accusative *-n* for nouns after prepositions except in specific instances, which will be introduced later.

Mi aĉetas viandon **por** mia hund**o**.

Mi ŝatas kafon **kun** suker**o**.

Mi iras **sen** v**i**.

### Subject or object after "ol"

*Ol* (than), is a conjunction (a connecting word like "and") that functions as a comparison word. Either a subject or an object can follow it, just as in English:
*Ni amas ŝin pli **ol ilin**.*

We love her more than [we love] them.

(The object *ilin* follows *ol*.)

*Li amas la hundon pli **ol ili** amas ĝin.*

He loves the dog more than they love it.

(The subject *ili* follows *ol*.)

### Kun and Kune

 together
 together with

### Correlatives

You may have noticed that all the question words start with *ki-*, except for *ĉu*. The letter or letters after *ki-* in the question word, i.e. the ending, indicates what kind of question it is.

In this module we introduce the group of words ending in *-om* which relate to quantity.

 that much [of it]
 some [of it]
 all [of it]
 none [of it]

All of these words in both tables are part of a group in Esperanto called "correlatives".

### Uses of *da* and *de* after the *-iom* group of correlatives.

*Kiom, tiom, iom, and ĉiom* are followed by *da*, when they refer to quantities that are indefinite:
*Kiom da akvo vi trinkas?*
How much water are you drinking?

*Li manĝas iom da kuko.*

He eats some cake.

When referring to amounts of a definite quantity (with *la*), we use *de*:

*Mi manĝas iom de la granda kuko.*

I am eating some of the big cake.

*Kiom de la sandviĉo li manĝas?*

How much of the sandwich is he eating?

*Mi havas neniom.* = I have none.

## Clothing

### Pantalono

Note that the word *pantalono*, which means "pants" (US) or "trousers" (UK) is singular in Esperanto. Thus *pantalonoj* refers to multiple pairs of pants.

### Ŝtrumpo, ŝtrumpeto

 ŝtrump**et**o

The suffix *-et* means "small", so a sock is a small stocking (*ŝtrump**et**o*)!

### Mojosa

*Mojosa* (cool) is the most popular slang term in Esperanto. It originates from *modern-jun-stila* (modern-young-stylish). Reading out the first letter of each word gives *Mo-Jo-So*, which becomes *mojoso* (coolness). The adjective form is *mojosa*.

## Questions

### Ĉu

As covered in Basics 2, *Ĉu* is used to introduce a question. For example:

* ***Ĉu** vi volas danci?* = **Do** you want to dance?
* ***Ĉu** vi amas ŝin aŭ min?* = **Do** you love her or me?

In the middle of a sentence, *ĉu* means "whether". For example:

*Ŝi demandas min, **ĉu** mi volas danci.*

She asks me **whether** I want to dance.

(or: She asks me if I want to dance.)

*Ŝi volas scii, **ĉu** mi parolas Esperanton.*

She wants to know **whether** I speak Esperanto.

(or: She wants to know if I speak Esperanto.)
Note that in English we often use the word "if" interchangeably with "whether", as in the examples above, but in Esperanto this is not correct. We can never use the word "se" (if = 'on condition that') in place of the word *ĉu* (whether = is it the case that).

### Correlatives ending in *-u*

The correlatives ending in *-u* (*kiu*, *tiu*, etc.) usually come before a noun. Notice how they take *-j* and *-n* endings just like adjectives. For example:
***Kiun** libron vi legas?*

**Which** book are you reading?

*Mi volas legi **tiujn** librojn.*

I want to read **those** books.

They appear without a noun only if the context makes what is being talked about clear. For example:

*Jen kelkaj bonaj libroj. **Kiun** [libron] vi volas legi?*

Here are some good books. **Which** [book] would you like to read?

Without other information, assume that *kiu* and *tiu* (and any other correlative ending in *-u*) refer to a person. For example:
***Kiu** venas?* = **Who** is coming?

 *tiu* | that one/that person

***Kio** estas **tio**? **Tio** estas libro.*

**What** is **that**? **That** is a book.

***Kiu** estas **via libro**? Mia libro estas **tiu**.*

**Which** is **your book**? My book is **that one**.

***Kion** vi volas? Mi volas **tion**.*

**What** do you want? I want **that**.

***Kiun** vi volas? Mi volas **tiun**.*

**Which** do you want? I want **that one**.

***Kiujn** vi volas? Mi volas **tiujn**.*

**Which ones** do you want? I want **those**.

### Kio or Kiu?

Should it be **Kio** estas via nomo? OR **Kiu** estas via nomo? Both forms are correct, though with different shades of meaning. With **Kiu** the question actually means "Which is your name?" (that is, which one out of an imagined list of names is yours?) With **Kio** the question simply means "What is your name?". The same consideration applies to similar questions, such as *Kio/Kiu estas via adreso?* and *Kio/Kiu estas la dato?*

### Ĉi

*Ĉi* expresses close proximity when used immediately before or after *ti-* words. For example:

 ĉi tie
 tio
 ĉi tio
 tiu
 ĉi tiu

**Note:** Since *ĉi* can go before or after *ti-* words, these are also valid: *tie ĉi*, *tiu ĉi*, *tio ĉi*.

### Kien? Tien

Adding *-n* to *kie* or *tie* shows movement towards a place. For example:
***Kie** vi estas? Mi estas **ĉi tie**.*

**Where** are you? I am **here**.

***Kien** vi iras? Mi iras **tien**.*

**To where** are you going? I am going **to there**.

Note that the "to" is usually dropped in English, so this would be translated as "Where are you going? I am going there." Due to this lack of distinction in English, many English speakers have trouble remembering to add *-n* to *tie* and *kie* when talking about movement towards a place.

## Verbs Present

### **Verb Types**

#### **Transitive verbs**

Transitive verbs may take a direct object. For example:

*Mi trinkas sukon.* = I drink juice.

*Ŝi legas libron.* = She reads a book.

Sometimes, although the verb is transitive, the direct object is not expressed, so we may say *Mi trinkas* or *Ŝi legas*, without naming the thing that the person is drinking or reading.

#### **Intransitive verbs**

Intransitive verbs never take a direct object. For example:

*Mi sidas.* = I am sitting.

*La knabino kuras.* = The girl is running.

#### **Differences between Esperanto and English**

Please note that the rules concerning verbs and objects are stricter in Esperanto than in English.

In English, we know a lot of verbs that can be used both with and without a direct object. In English we can say "He closes the door" and "The door closes", using the same verb, although the meaning is different. In the first example, someone performs the action of closing the door, while in the second, the door becomes closed. In Esperanto, there are two words for this:

*Li fermas la pordon.* = He closes the door.

*La pordo fermiĝas* = The door closes.

In the same way, Esperanto distinguishes between *komenci* (to start to do something) and *komenciĝi* (to start happening):

*La instruisto komencas la lecionon* = The teacher starts the lesson.

*La leciono komenciĝas.* = The lesson is starting.

To use grammatical terms, *fermi* and *komenci* are transitive (take a direct object), while *fermiĝi* and *komenciĝi* are intransitive (cannot take a direct object).

### **Atendi**

*Atendi* can mean "to wait," "to wait for" or "to expect." For example:
*Mi atendas.* = I wait.

*Mi atendas buson.* = I wait for a bus.

*Mi atendas profiton.* = I am expecting a profit.

**Note:** *Kion vi atendas?* can mean either "What are you expecting?" or "What are you waiting for?" depending on the context.

### **Tiel... kiel**

The combination *tiel...kiel* means *as...as*:

*Ĉu vi kantas **tiel** bone **kiel** ŝi?*

Do you sing **as** well **as** she (does)?

*Ŝi estas **tiel** bela, **kiel** mia fratino*.

She is **as** pretty **as** my sister.

## Family

### Ge-

Most words relating to the family are male by default. The suffix *-in* (female) and the prefix *ge-* (both genders) can be added to change the meaning. For example:

 female
 both

 female
 both

 female
 both

The prefix *pra-* means long ago, in the distant past :

 female
 both

Note also:

*prahistorio* = prehistory

*prahomo* = ancient man

### *Amik(in)o, Koramik(in)o*

Note that *amiko* and *amikino* are **not** equivalent to the English "boyfriend" and "girlfriend". To describe a romantic relationship, we use the terms *koramiko* and *koramikino* ("heart-friend").

### Sia

The possessive pronoun *sia* means his own, her own, its own or their own. It always refers back to the subject.
***Li** vidas **sian** hundon.*

**He** sees **his** [own] dog.

***Li** vidas **lian** hundon.*

**He** sees **his** [someone else's] dog.

***Ili** nun estas en **sia** hejmo.*

**They** are now in **their** [own] home.

***Ili** nun estas en **ilia** hejmo.*

**They** are now in **their** [their friends'] home.

Note that *sia* is not used when the subject of the concerned clause is *mi*, *ni*, or *vi*. In these cases use its standard possessive pronoun:

***Vi** havas **vian** hundon.*

**You** have **your** [own] dog.

### Kiel

*Kiel* means "as" in the following kinds of sentences. Remember to add the accusative -n when *kiel* comes between two words that both function as direct objects:

*Ŝi traktas lin kiel fraton.*

She treats him like a brother.

*Li amas sian nevinon kiel filinon.*

He loves his niece like a daughter.

### Kiom aĝas

How old are you?
***Kiom*** *vi aĝas?*

(Literally: How much you are-age?)

*Kiom* is used with age, since age is a quantity (of years).

Note: An alternative way to ask someone's age is *Kiom da jaroj vi havas?* (Literally "How many years do you have?").

## Objects

### Per

*Per* means “by means of”, although the English translation may use “by” or “with”. Use this when mentioning tools or methods of transportation. For example:

* *per martelo* – with a hammer
* *per tranĉilo* – with a knife
* *per buso, per aŭto, per trajno, per ŝipo* – by bus, by car, by train, by ship

Note that *per* is a preposition and so the following noun does not take the *–n* ending.

More examples:

*Mi tranĉas la panon per tranĉilo.*

I am cutting the bread with a knife.

*Mi vojaĝis al Berlino per trajno.*

I traveled to Berlin by train.

### Peco da... Peco de...

The word *peco* (piece) can be used with either *da* or *de*, creating slightly different meanings. With **da** we are emphasizing a quantity. With **de** we are emphasizing a quality:
*Tio estas granda peco da pano.*

That is a big piece of bread.

(Answers the question : **How much** bread?)

*Ĉu tio estas peco de pano aŭ peco de kuko?*

Is that a piece of bread or a piece of cake?

(What **kind of** piece of food is that?)

## Home 1

### Prepositions

The most literal sense of a preposition is generally the correct word to use in Esperanto. Thus, one rides "in the train," not "on the train." For example:

* *antaŭ* can mean "in front of" or "before", depending on the context. In conjunction with time it can mean "ago".
* *kontraŭ* means "against", but also "at the cost/price of";

and can be used in the context of taking a medicine in order to treat an
 illness ("against" an illness).

In general, nouns following a preposition do not take the *-n* ending.

### Ĉe

*Ĉe* is a versatile word that means "at", in the sense of at someone's home, or very close to something:
\*Ŝi sidas ĉe la tablo."

She is sitting at the table.

\*Ili loĝas ĉe mi."

They live at my house. They live with me.

### The directional -n

In addition to its use for the direct object, the -n ending is also used to show direction:

* *Ŝi saltas sur la tablo.* = She jumps (up and down) on the table.
* *Ŝi saltas sur la tablon.* = She jumps onto the table (from another location).

### Pro vs por

* *Pro* = because of, on account of
* *Por* = for

*Mi parolas Esperanton **pro** vi.*

I speak Esperanto **because of** you.
*La donaco estas **por** vi.*

The gift is **for** you.

### Krom

*Krom* can mean either "except (for)" or "in addition to" depending on the context. For example:
*Mi ŝatas ĉion, krom araneoj.*

I like everything except spiders.

*Krom araneoj, ŝi ankaŭ amas abelojn.*

In addition to spiders, she also loves bees.

### Manko de

A lack of...
*Manko de...*

A lack of something is not considered a quantity, so one says *manko de* and **never** *manko da*.

For example:

A lack of money

*Manko de mono*

### Verŝi and ŝuti

*Verŝi* means to pour a liquid such as water or oil, while *ŝuti* means to pour a non-liquid such as sand or sugar.

### Tero and tero

*Tero* is the word for the planet Earth. We omit the article *la* when we speak of it in that context:
*Tero moviĝas ĉirkaŭ la suno.*
(The) Earth moves around the sun.

*La Tero* is the term for the Earth we live on:

*Kie ni vivos, kiam la Tero estos tro varma?*

Where will we live, when the Earth is too hot?

For earth or soil that plants grow in, we use *tero* without capitalization:

*En la tero kreskas plantoj.*

Plants grow in the earth.

## Verbs: Past & Future

### Verbs: Past & Future

The following endings change the tense of a verb:
***-is*** = past
***-os*** = future

There are **no exceptions** to this rule!

**Note:** In English, sometimes part of a sentence is expressed in the present tense, even though the event actually takes place in the future. In Esperanto, both parts of the sentence are in the future tense, since they happen then. For example:

*Kion vi faros, kiam vi **estos** gepatroj?*

What will you do when you **are** parents?

*Ni ir**os** al la drinkejo ĉi-vespere.*

We **are going** to the bar tonight.

### *Post kiam*/*Antaŭ ol*

The preposition *post* means "after" and is usually followed by a noun:
***post** la matenmanĝo*

**after** breakfast

***post** la oka horo*

**after** eight o'clock

However, if you want to use *post* with a verb phrase, you have to use *post kiam*:

***Post kiam** ni matenmanĝis...*

**After** we [had] had breakfast...

***Post kiam** mi laboris, mi dormis.*

**After** I [had] worked, I slept.

In the same way, *antaŭ* ("before" or "in front of") is usually followed by a noun, while *antaŭ ol* (before) needs to be used before verbs or verb phrases.

*Ŝi staras **antaŭ** la pordo.*

She is standing **in front of** the door.

*Sofia alvenis **antaŭ** la manĝo.*
Sofia arrived **before** the meal.

*Ni manĝis **antaŭ ol** li alvenis.*

We ate **before** he arrived.

## **Numbers**

### **The past tense *-is* ending.**

For the past tense, use *-is*:

*La arbo falas.*

The tree is falling.

*La arbo falis.*

The tree fell.

### **Cardinal/Ordinal Numbers**

Cardinal numbers such as one, two and three never take any endings in Esperanto.
Ordinal numbers such as first, second and third end in *-a* and are adjectives, so they must agree with the nouns they describe: *la unua tago* (the first day); *la unuaj tagoj* (the first days).

### **Writing out numbers**

 20, 30 ... 90
 200, 300 ... 900
 2000, 3000 ... 9000

*Du mil okdek kvar:* Two thousand eighty-four (2084)

*Kvincent sesdek tri mil*: Five hundred sixty-three thousand (563 000)

**Note (from Tree 1.0)**: For ordinal numbers, use hyphens between all the words in the number: *ducent-okdek-sepa*. We do this because the adjective ending -a relates to the entire number (287), not just to the 7 at the end.

*La du-mil-okcent-kvara tago:* The two thousand eighty-fourth day

### **A million and beyond**

 billion

**Note (from Tree 1.0):** It is advisable to avoid using the ambiguous word biliono, since this can either mean a billion or a trillion. In English also, these words can have different meanings, depending on the country where they are used.

### ***Nombro*** **vs *Numero***

Esperanto distinguishes between *nombro* and *numero* although both are translated as “number” in English.

#### **Nombro**

***Nombro*** is a number that signifies an amount or is used to express a mathematical relationship. For example:

*la **nombro** de personoj*

the **number** of people

*4 estas pli granda **nombro** ol 3.*

4 is a larger **number** than 3.

#### **Numero**

***Numero*** is a number used for labelling items in a series:

*la **numero** de la domo*

the house **number**

*telefon**numero***

phone **number**

*la lasta **numero** de la gazeto*

the last **number** [edition] of the newspaper.

### **Zero**

The word for the number zero in Esperanto is nul or nulo.

## Dates

### **Special conventions to express time**

 dimanĉon
 dimanĉe

The ***-n*** ending refers to a specific occasion, while the ***-e*** ending usually describes a **recurring** event. However, not all Esperanto speakers make this distinction. Some people use the ***-e*** ending both for specific and recurring events, so ***dimanĉe*** may mean "on (a specific) Sunday" as well "on Sundays".

* *Mi alvenos sabaton.*

I will arrive (on) Saturday.

* *Ni venos la dek-kvinan de oktobro.*

We will come (on) the 15th of October.

* *La renkontiĝo okazas sabate.*

The meeting happens on Saturdays / every Saturday.

* *La renkontiĝo okazos sabate.*

The meeting will take place on Saturdays.
The meeting will take place on Saturday (this Saturday).

The ***-n*** ending is also used to express **duration**:

* *Mi restis unu horon (dum unu horo).*

I stayed for one hour.

* *Li vojaĝos la tutan tagon (dum la tuta tago).*

He will travel all day (the whole day).

### **Spelling Conventions for Months and Days of the Week**

**Upper Case or Lower Case?**
Months can either start with a lower case or capital letter: *januaro, februaro*; *Januaro, Februaro*. In this course, we have chosen to present the lowercase form.
Days of the week are always in lower case: *lundo, mardo*.

### **The 24-hour clock**

In many countries, a 24-hour clock is often used. In that system, all times after 12 noon are formed by adding 12 to the clock time, so "am" and "pm" are not needed:

 1:30 pm
 11:00 pm
 12 midnight

### **How to write longer ordinal numbers**

For multi-word ordinal numbers, use hyphens between all the words in the number: *ducent-okdek-sepa*. We do this because the adjective ending *-a* relates to the entire number (287), not just to the 7 at the end.
*La du-mil-okdek-kvara tago*

The two thousand eighty-fourth day

It is also possible to write this as a single word, *la dumilokdekkvara tago,* but the hyphens make it easier to read.

#### ***Komenci, komenciĝi*****: what is the difference?**

*Komenci* means to start or begin something, and takes a direct object with an *-n* ending:

* *Mi komencas la manĝon.*
I am starting/beginning the meal.

*Komenciĝi* includes the ***-iĝ*** affix and means to begin or start on its own. It does not take a direct object:

* *La manĝo komenciĝas.*
The meal is starting/beginning.

A more detailed explanation can be found in the notes for the module **Verbs Present**. You will learn more about the ***-iĝ*** affix in a module dedicated to both the ***-iĝ*** and the ***-ig*** affix.

## **Occupations**

### **Gender markers related to professions:**

As mentioned in the Family lesson notes, nouns **not** relating to family have no base gender:

*aktoro* : a male or female actor

*dentisto* : a male or female dentist

In these cases, you may choose to explicitly make a noun feminine by adding *-in* :

*aktorino* = a female actor

*dentistino* = a female dentist

Be aware that in some Esperanto settings, when you use a term like *aktoro* or *dancisto*, people may assume that you are talking about a man. In this course, we will not routinely present the feminine form of professions. However your responses using the feminine form when appropriate will be accepted as correct.

### **Studento and Lernanto**

*Studento* - a student enrolled in a college or university.

*Lernanto* - a learner, or anyone who is learning; a school pupil.

### **Fariĝi**

*Fariĝi* means "to become."

*Ŝia filo fariĝis kuracisto.*

Her son became a doctor.

Note that *ŝia filo* is the subject of the sentence, so of course it does not take the accusative *-n* ending. But why does *kuracisto* also not take the *-n* ending? Remember that the accusative *-n* is used when the subject is in some way **acting** on the object of the sentence. But in this sentence, the son is **not acting** on a doctor, he is **becoming** a doctor himself.

We will learn more about the *-iĝ* affix in later lessons.

### **Ŝajnas, ke ...**

*Ŝajnas, ke ...* means "It seems, that ..."

## **Imperative and Volitive**

### **Imperative: the -u ending.**

The -u ending is used when ordering / inviting someone else to do something -- or when telling or suggesting to ourselves what to do!

 Iru!
 Ni iru!
 Ni vidu!
 Mi pensu!

### **Imperative + Infinitive**

An imperative may be followed by an infinitive:
*Bonvolu manĝi!*

Please eat!

(NOT: Bonvolu manĝu. Do not use two imperatives one after the other in that way).

### **Questions with -u**

In questions, the -u ending can be translated as "shall" or "should":

*Ĉu ni iru?*

Shall we go?

Should we go?

*Ĉu mi legu tiun libron?*

Shall I read that book?

Should I read that book?

### **The -u ending in subordinate phrases**

We also use the -u ending in subordinate phrases (clauses) starting with *ke*, when the verb in the preceding, main part of the sentence expresses a want, desire, demand or preference:

 Li preferas, ke mi ne donu al vi monon.
 Ŝi postulas, ke la infanoj studu.

### ***Informo*** **and *Informoj***

In English the word "information" is always singular, but in Esperanto you will often find it in the plural.

## **Affixes**

### **Affixes**

One of the greatest advantages of Esperanto is its flexible system of word particles that can be attached either in front of a word (prefixes) or at the end of a word (suffixes). There are 10 prefixes and 31 suffixes, which can be used to modify any word, as long as the result makes sense. When you finish the Affixes 3 module, you will know all of them! In this lesson, you'll review one prefix (*mal-*) and learn many suffixes:

See how these affixes affect the word *varma*:

 varm**eg**a
 varm**et**a
 **mal**varma
 **mal**varm**eg**a
 **mal**varm**et**a

### **Affixes as roots**

Note that even though affixes in Esperanto are usually attached to a root word, they can also be used as roots themselves, for example:

 tiuj **il**oj
 la **mal**a direkto
 la **et**ulo
 ĉu **ebl**as?

## **Adjectives**

### **Adjectives**

An adjective takes the -a ending and has to agree in number with the noun it modifies:

* *bona homo* = a good person
* *bonaj homoj* = good people
* *Homoj estas bonaj*. = People are good.

An adjective that modifies an object also takes the *-n* (direct object) ending:

*Mi manĝas bel**ajn** kuk**ojn**.* = I eat beautiful cakes.

In summary, an adjective's ending must match the ending of the noun it modifies.

### **Word Order**

Word order in Esperanto can be flexible. Adjectives usually go before the noun, but they may sometimes be placed after the noun for special emphasis. Both of the following sentences are correct:

*Ŝi estas bona instruisto.*

*Ŝi estas instruisto bona.*

She is a good teacher.

### **Adjectives into verbs**

In Esperanto, many (but not all) adjectives can be transformed into verbs, and are often used that way in conversations and in written texts. Here are a few of the adjectives that are frequently used in their verb forms:
*Mi estas preta.* = *Mi pretas.* = I am ready.

*Li estas malsana.* = *Li malsanas.* = He is sick.

*Ŝi estas feliĉa.* = *Ŝi feliĉas.* = She is happy.

*Ni estas fieraj.* = *Ni fieras.* = We are proud.

*Ili estas lacaj.* = *Ili lacas.* = They are tired.

### **Mal-**

The prefix *mal-* simply means “opposite”. It does not mean “bad” as in some romance languages.

*granda* = big, large

*malgranda* = small, little

*fermi* = to close

*malfermi* = to open

### **Paired conjunctions:**

 nek....nek....
 aŭ....aŭ....

### **Correlatives with -ia**

Correlatives ending in *-ia* refer to a kind, sort, or type of something. They are adjectives and take the *-j* and *-n* endings where needed:

*Kiajn librojn vi ŝatas legi?*

What kinds of books do you like to read?

 **nenia(n)** | no kind of

## **Directions**

### **The *-n* ending and quantities, prices, distances, measurements, duration.**

Besides being used to indicate a direct object, the accusative ending -n is used to indicate quantities, measurements, prices, distances, duration etc.:
*Li pezas cent tri kilogramoj**n**.*

He weighs 103 kg.

*Ĉu vi povas kuri kvindek kilometroj**n**?*

Can you run 50 km?

*Ili marŝis dudek kilometroj**n**.*

They walked twenty kilometers.

*La monto estas mil metroj**n** alta.*

The mountain is 1000 m. high.

*La ŝtofo estas du metroj**n** longa.*

The fabric is two meters long.

*La fadeno estas dudek centimetroj**n**.*

The thread is 20 cm. long.

*Ŝi restis ĉe ni ses semajnoj**n**.*

She stayed with us (for) six weeks.

*La libro kostas naŭ dolaroj**n**.*

The book costs nine dollars.

*La domo kostas tricent mil eŭroj**n**.*

The house costs three hundred thousand euros.

*La muzeo estas du kilometroj**n** for de mia hejmo.*

The museum is 2 km. away from my home.

Sometimes instead of the accusative you can use a preposition such as dum (while) or je (indefinite meaning). After these prepositions the accusative is not needed:

*Ŝi restis ĉe ni dum ses semajnoj.*
She stayed with us for (during) six weeks.

*La monto estas alta je mil metroj.*

The mountain is 1000 meters high.

*La muzeo estas for de mia hejmo je du kilometroj.*

The museum is 2 km. away from my home.

### **Weights and Measures**

English speakers are used to using non-metric weights and measures such as pounds and miles, but for speakers of other languages these quantities may be highly mysterious. For this reason, when speaking in Esperanto to non-English speakers it is best to use the metric system. The words for pounds, ounces, miles etc. do exist in Esperanto, but we do not teach them in this course. For the record, they are as follows, with approximate metric equivalents:

 unco
 mejlo
 futo
 colo

The words for “gallon”, “pint” and “yard” are barely used or known in Esperanto. A yard is almost the same as a meter, so use the word *metro* instead, and for liquid measurements use *litro* (liter).

## **Shopping**

### ***Vendejo*** **and *butiko***

*Vendejo* is a more general term than *butiko* as it can mean any place where anything is sold, including a wholesale warehouse. *Butiko* refers to a retail store. However they are often used interchangeably when referring to retail locations.

## **Time**

### ***Post kiam*****/*Antaŭ ol***

The preposition *post* means "after" and is usually followed by a noun:
***post** la matenmanĝo*

**after** breakfast

***post** la oka horo*

**after** eight o'clock

However, if you want to use *post* with a verb phrase, you have to use *post kiam*:

***Post kiam** ni matenmanĝis...*

**After** we [had] had breakfast...

***Post kiam** mi laboris, mi dormis.*

**After** I [had] worked, I slept.

In the same way, *antaŭ ol* needs to be used before verbs.

*Ni manĝis, **antaŭ ol** li alvenis.*

We ate **before** he arrived.

### **Fractions**

Fractions are made by adding the suffix *-on* to the base number. Fractions can be nouns *(-o)* or adjectives *(-a)* just like any other word in Esperanto. For example:

 a third
 two thirds

*du**on**a tago* / *du**on**tago*

a half day

#### ***Komenci, komenciĝi*****: what is the difference?**

*Komenci* means to start or begin something, and takes a direct object with an *-n* ending:

* *Mi komencas la manĝon.* = I am starting/beginning the meal.

*Komenciĝi* includes the ***-iĝ*** affix and means to begin or start on its own. It does not take a direct object:

* *La manĝo komenciĝas.* = The meal is starting/beginning.

A more detailed explanation can be found in the notes for the module **Verbs Present**. You will learn more about the ***-iĝ*** affix in a module dedicated to both the ***-iĝ*** and the ***-ig*** affix.

### **Correlatives (*tabelvortoj*)**

All the question words we have learned so far start with ***ki-***, which has the general meaning of "**what**":

 **kiom** | what amount, how much

Similar words starting with ***ti-*** (general meaning of "**that**") are related to the question words:

 **tiom** | that quantity, that much

And words starting with ***ĉi-*** (general meaning of "**all**") are also related:

 **ĉiom** | all of it, the whole amount

All of these words (and more that we will learn as the course progresses) are part of a group of words in Esperanto called **Correlatives** (Eo: *korelativoj*). In Esperanto they are also called *tabelvortoj* because they can easily be arranged in one big table / chart.
In this module we learn *iam* (at any time, sometimes, ever) and *neniam* (at no time, never) to round out the words ending with ***-am*** that relate to **time**.

 **tiam** | then
 **iam** | sometime
 **ĉiam** | always
 **neniam** | never

Finally, here's an overview of all the correlatives that you have learned so far:

## **Home 2**

### **Compound Words**

Combining two words to make a new word is very common in Esperanto. The vowel ending of the first word **may** be dropped, or it may be retained if that makes the word easier to pronounce:

 vesto + ŝranko = vestoŝranko
 lito + kovrilo = litkovrilo (or: *litokovrilo*)
 bano + tuko = bantuko

Also note that a hyphen may be added:

*Esperanto* + *klubo* = *Esperantoklubo* or *Esperanto-klubo*.

### ***Purigi***

*Pur-ig-i* means to clean (to make something clean), and comes from the adjective *pura* (clean). We will learn more about the affix *-ig* in future modules.

### ***Manĝilaro***

This is an example of a word with two affixes, and illustrates how easy and straightforward it is to build words in Esperanto:

*Manĝ + -il + -aro =manĝilaro*

Eat + tool + group = silverware

### ***Loĝi*** **and *Vivi***

 **vivi** | to live, to be alive (the state of being)

English speakers usually use the verb “to live” for both meanings. However you should aim to make the distinction and use *loĝi* and *vivi* correctly in Esperanto, so that you will be reliably understood.

### ***Mem***

*Mem* means [my,your,his,her]-self, or [our, them]-selves.

It is used for emphasis:

 vi mem
 li mem
 ŝi mem
 ni mem
 ili mem

## **Internet**

### **The Conditional**

Use the verb ending *-us* to talk about non-real, imagined situations, or to make polite requests.

#### **Non-real situations**

Non-real situations are the topic of "if...then" sentences, like this one:

* *Se mi* ***estus*** *sana, mi* ***laborus.***
If I were healthy, I would work.

Notice that Esperanto, unlike English, uses the *-us* form in both parts of the sentence - since both parts are non-real.

We also talk about non-real situations when we express our wish for something to be different from what/how it actually is:

* *Se li nur* ***estus*** *iom pli bela!*
If only he were a bit more handsome!

The *-us* ending does not carry any temporal information. Thus, it is possible to use the *-us* ending for events in the past as well. When doing so, context usually indicates that we are talking about the past:

* *Se Zamenhof **scius** la ĉinan, Esperanto **estus malsama**.*

If Zamenhof had known Chinese, Esperanto would be different.

* *Se vi **dirus** tion al mi jam hieraŭ, mi ne **farus** la eraron.*

If you had told me this already yesterday, I would not have made the mistake.

#### **Polite requests**

The *-us* form can also be used to express polite requests.

* *Ĉu vi* ***volus*** *iri al la kinejo kun mi?*

Would you like to go to the movies with me?

* *Mi* ***ŝatus*** iom pli da sukero.

I would like a little more sugar.

### **Review of *-n* for direction**

Remember to use the *-n* ending when talking about a movement towards a certain place. For example

* *Metu la dosierojn en* ***dosierujon***!

Put the files **into** a folder!

### ***Retpoŝto*** **vs. *retmesaĝo***

*Retpoŝto* means email in general; the service that allows you to send and receive electronic messages. A message sent by *retpoŝto* (email) is called *retmesaĝo* (an email).

## **Adverbs**

### **Adverbs : the -e ending**

Adverbs typically end in *-e*. An adverb describes or modifies a verb. We have already seen several examples of adverbs:

 **ofte** | often

### **Adverbs can modify adjectives**

*Tio estas vere bela* : That is truly beautiful.

### **Adverb after Estas**

After *estas*, when there is no subject of the sentence, use an adverb, **not** an adjective.

 Estas **bone**, ke vi jam finis la lecionon.

## **Arts**

### **Color Names**

Some colors have their own names: *blua* (blue), *verda* (green), *bruna* (brown). Others are based on the colors of specific fruit or flowers, and require the suffix *-kolora* :

* *oranĝo* (orange, the fruit) -> *oranĝkolora* (orange, the color)
* *rozo* (rose, the flower) -> *rozkolora* (pink, the color).

In everyday use, these longer color names are often shortened: *oranĝa*, *roza*, *viola*.

### ***Poezio, Poemo***

Poetry has been a very important part of the Esperanto literary tradition from the beginning. The following terms are the most commonly used:

 poemo
 poeto

Some Esperanto speakers use *poemo* to refer mainly to longer poems; those speakers use *poeziaĵo* or *versaĵo* to describe shorter poems.

## **Feelings**

### **Tiel...kiel**

*Tiel...kiel* is a way of expressing a comparison:

 Ŝi estas tiel kontenta kiel ili.

### **Reflexive verb: senti**

Please note that *senti* [to feel] in Esperanto is reflexive. For example:

* *Mi sentas min feliĉa.* = I feel happy.
* *Kia vi sentas vin?* = How do you feel?

## **Places**

### **The -n ending for direction**

The *-n* ending is used to show direction, when describing movement toward something or some place. However, it is **not** used after the prepositions *ĝis*, *al* or *el*, as they already show direction:

 Mi iras ien, sed kien?
 La birdo flugis en la arbon.
 Ni iru al Londono!
 Mi kuris de la lago al la montoj.
 Mia filino marŝis ĝis la fino de la strato.

### **Eniri, eliri**

*Eniri* and *eliri* are good examples of a common way to build new verbs in Esperanto: combine a preposition with an existing verb:

 el + iri = eliri

### **Ajn**

*Ajn* means any or ever, and may be combined with various *ki-* and *i-* correlatives, usually for emphasis:

 Mi volas iri ien ajn.
 Kien vi iros, mi iros.
 Kien ajn vi iros, mi iros.

### **Troviĝi**

*Troviĝi* means to be found or located. It comes from the verb *trovi*, to find. Because it contains the *-iĝ* affix, it is intransitive and does not take an object:
*Ilia domo troviĝas en bela kvartalo.*

Their house is located in a beautiful neighborhood.

### **Correlatives with -ie and -ien**

Here is a chart which lists all the correlatives ending in *-ie* and *-ien*:

 **tie** | there, that place
 **ie** | somewhere, some place
 **ĉie** | everywhere, all places
 **nenie** | nowhere, no place

## **People**

### **Correlatives with -u**

*-u* words relate to a particular person or thing.

 **neniu** | no one, nobody; no particular thing

### **Correlatives with -es**

*-es* words relate to possessing something.

 **nenies** | no one's

*Ties* does not have a one word translation in English and means "that person's" or " that one's". It can be used to clarify a sentence that might be ambiguous in English. "He went to a restaurant with his cousin and his wife." Whose wife was it, the cousin's or his own?

* *Li iris al la restoracio kun sia kuzo kaj ***sia*** edzino* = He went to the restaurant with his cousin and **his own** wife.
* *Li iris al la restoracio kun sia kuzo kaj ***ties*** edzino.* = He went to the restaurant with his cousin and **his cousin's** wife.

### **Correlatives (*tabelvortoj*) summary:**

In English, many question words begin with ***wh-***: what, where, why, who, which, when. In Esperanto, question words of this type always begin with ***ki-***.

 **kies** | whose

Similar words starting with ***ti-*** (general meaning of "**that**") are related to the question words:

 **ties** | that one's

Similar words starting with ***i-*** (general meaning of **some**) are related too:

 **ies** | someone's, somebody's

And similar words starting with ***ĉi-*** (general meaning of "**all**") are also related:

 **ĉies** | everyone's, everybody's

And words starting with ***neni-*** (general meaning of "**none**") are also related:

 **nenies** | noone's, nobody's

All of these words are part of a group of words in Esperanto called **Correlatives** (Eo: *korelativoj*). In Esperanto they are also called *tabelvortoj* because they can easily be arranged in one big table / chart.

## **Verbs: -ig/-iĝ**

### ***-ig*** **and *-iĝ***

The *-ig* and *-iĝ* suffixes express a change of state. *-ig* means to cause a change, while *-iĝ* means to experience a change, or change from one state to another:

 ruĝ**ig**i
 ruĝ**iĝ**i
 bela
 bel**ig**i
 bel**iĝ**i

The above example show how the *-ig* and *-iĝ* suffixes can be used with adjectives. They can also be used with verbs:

 manĝ**ig**i
 morti
 mort**ig**i
 levi
 lev**iĝ**i
 veki
 vek**iĝ**i

As you can see in the examples above, verbs ending in **-ig** always require an object, while those ending in **-iĝ** never do. In grammatical terns, the **-ig** verbs are transitive, while the **-iĝ** verbs are intransitive.
Many verbs in English can be both transitive and intransitive, but this is not possible in Esperanto, in which verbs are normally either transitive or intransitive, but not both. In English, we can say "The girl closed the window" and "The window closed" using the same verb, even thought the meaning is slightly different: in the first sentence the girl is acting on the window, while in the second the window became closed by itself.
Examples of English words that can be both transitive and intransitive include "to open", "to close", "to start", "to finish", "to change" and "to move". These verbs in Esperanto-- *malfermi, fermi, komenci, fini, ŝangi, movi*--are all transitive, and to make them intransitive you must add the suffix **-iĝ**:

 to open
 to start, begin
 to finish, end
 to change
 to move

Here are some example sentences using words from the two charts above:

 Ŝi beligis mian vivon.
 Ĉu vi manĝigis la infanojn?
 La suno leviĝas.
 Mia hundo provas veki min, sed mi ne volas vekiĝi
 La knabo fermis la fenestron.
 La fenestro fermiĝis.
 La studentoj komencis la lecionon.
 La leciono komenciĝas je la naŭa.

It is also possible to add the **-iĝ** ending to intransitive verbs like *sidi* (to sit, be sitting) and *kuŝi* (to lie, be lying down). In this setting the addition of **-iĝ** indicates a change of position to achieve a new state:

* *Li sid**iĝ**is sur la sofo.*
He sat down on the sofa. (He "became sitting" on the sofa.)
* *La hundo kuŝ**iĝ**is sur la planko.*
The dog lay down on the floor. (The dog "became lying" on the floor.)

## **Abstract Verbs**

### **Flexible word types**

In Esperanto, just changing the word ending can turn it into a different part of speech, for instance from a verb into a noun or adjective, or from an adjective to a verb. For example:
*alveni* (to arrive) --> *la alveno* (the arrival)

*ekzisti* (to exist) -- > *la ekzisto* (the existence)

*pensi* (to think) --> *la penso* (the thought)

*pluvi* (to rain) --> *pluva* (rainy)

*bela* (beautiful) --> *belas* (is/are beautiful)

*laca* (tired) --> lacas (is/are tired)

*hundo* (a dog) -- > *hunda* (canine)

Esperanto is a very flexible language. Many speakers like to take advantage of this flexibility to make use of more adventurous constructions. For instance, instead of *La urso estas granda* (The bear is big), they might say: *La urso grandas*, changing *estas granda* into the verb *grandas*.

It is almost always possible to convert adjectives into verbs, for whatever word you are using. Try it, it's fun!

### **Pezi and Pesi**

*Pezi* means to be of a certain weight: *Ŝi pezas 60 kilogramojn.*
She weighs 60 kilograms.

*Pesi* means to weigh something else: *Ŝi pesis la fiŝon.*

She weighed the fish.

To weigh (*pesi*) something, of course you need a *pesilo* (scale)!

## **Health 1**

### **Rompi and rompiĝi, okupi and okupiĝi**

We have already encountered the intransitive *-iĝ* affix when learning *fariĝi* and *komenciĝi*. Similarly,*rompi* means to break something, while *rompiĝi* means to become or get broken. And *okupi* means to occupy something, while *okupiĝi* means to become occupied.

 komenci
 rompi
 okupi

### **Kiel eble plej**

*Kiel eble plej.....* followed by an adverb is an expression similar to the English expression "as .... as possible." For example:

 **kiel eble plej rapide** | as rapidly/fast as possible

### **Dolori al iu ...**

In Esperanto, we use *dolori al* to say that a particular part of the body hurts a person. Because the person who is hurting is specified (*dolori al mi*, *dolori al ŝi*), a possessive marker is optional for the body part:
*Doloras al mi la kapo.* OR "*La kapo doloras al mi.* OR *Doloras min la kapo.* OR *La kapo doloras min.*

My head hurts. (Head is the subject)

*La brako doloras al ŝi.* OR *La brako doloras ŝin.*

Her arm hurts. (Arm is the subject).

It is also possible to say *Mia kapo doloras.* (My head hurts.) or *Ŝia brako doloras.* (Her arm hurts) as we do in English. In these cases the *al mi* or *min* is left out but understood.

### **Kontraŭ**

Here we learn another use for the word *kontraŭ*, previously taught in its primary meaning of "against" or "opposite". In a medical setting, *kontraŭ* can mean "for" as in "for the purpose of treating or curing":
*Mi prenis medikamenton kontraŭ febro.*
I took a medication for fever.

### **Correlatives with -ial**

*-ial* words refer to causation.

 **nenial** | not for any reason

### **kialo**

*Kialo* means "reason", and comes from the correlative *kial*, why.

### **Ekzerci sin: the reflexive form**

In English, we use special pronouns, the so-called **reflexive pronouns**, if the object of a phrase refers to the same person(s) as the subject.

* I see you (*you* is a regular pronoun)
* You see yourself (*yourself* is a reflexive pronoun - it is used here because the person being seen is the same as the person who is seeing.)

Esperanto doesn't have reflexive pronouns for I/me, you or we/us.

Esperanto only has one reflexive pronoun, *si*, used for he/him, she/her, and they/them.

Ŝi vidas **sin** ("She sees herself"; the person who is being seen is the same as the person who is seeing.)

Ŝi vidas **ŝin** ("She sees her"; the person being seen is *not* the same as the person who is seeing.)
*Si* is gender-neutral and works for both singular and plural.

 Ili amas **ilin** - They love **them** (another group of people)

## **Travel**

### ***Ju (mal)pli...des (mal)pli***

This is an expression equivalent to "the more... the more" or "the less...the less" in English. *Ju* always comes before *des* :

* *Ju pli da mono, des pli da zorgo.* (The more money, the more worry.)
* *Ju pli frue, des pli bone.* (The earlier, the better.)
* *Ju malpli mi laboras, des malpli mi volas labori.* (The less I work, the less I want to work.)
* *Ju pli li atentas, des malpli li komprenas.* (The more he pays attention, the less he understands.)
* *Ju malpli da vortoj, des pli bone.* (The fewer words, the better.)

### **Correlatives with *-iel***

*-iel* words refer to "how" or "in what way".

 tiel
 iel
 ĉiel
 neniel

### ***Tiel...kiel***

When paired, *tiel* and *kiel* can mean as...as:

*Vi estas tiel inteligenta kiel ŝi.*

You are as intelligent as she (is).

*Tiel* alone can also be used for emphasis, as "so":

*Kial vi estas tiel kolera?*

Why are you so angry?

### **Congratulations!**

You have now learned all of the correlatives! Here is a complete chart:

### ***Veturi*** **and *Vojaĝi***

*Vojaĝi* means to travel, and is a general term. *Veturi* is more specific, and means to travel by any means of transportation other than your own feet:

* *Kiam vi vojaĝos al Ĉinio?* = When will you travel to China?
* *Ni preferas veturi al Berlino per aŭto.* = We prefer to travel to Berlin by car.

Note: *Veturilo* means vehicle. Any mobile machine that transports people or cargo is a *veturilo*, for example: *aviadilo* (aircraft), *motorciklo* (motorcycle), *aŭto* (car).

### ***-n*** **after *trans* and *transiri***

*Trans* means "across, on the far side." When movement is involved, don't forget to add *-n* to the noun. Compare these two examples:

* *Mia domo troviĝas trans la strato*.
My house is located across the street.
* *La infano kuras trans la straton*.
The child is running across the street (to the other side of the street).

*Transiri* means "to go across":

*Kial la koko transiris la vojon?*

Why did the chicken cross the road?

### ***Barato***

The traditional name for India in Esperanto is *Hindujo/Hindio*. However, current usage favors the name *Barato*, which is the Esperanto translation of "Bharat", one of the official names of the country. You will find all three forms of the country's name in Esperanto texts.

### ***Vendejo*** **and *butiko***

*Vendejo* is a more general term than *butiko* as it can mean any place where anything is sold, including a wholesale warehouse. *Butiko* refers to a retail store. However they are often used interchangeably when referring to retail locations.

### **Pasporta Servo**

Pasporta Servo is a hospitality network founded in 1966 and published by the Tutmonda Esperantista Junulara Organizo (TEJO). Free lodging is offered by over a thousand hosts in over 90 countries. Some Esperanto speakers use this network to travel cheaply while others use it to meet interesting people from around the world by hosting them in their own home. In 2009, this service made its transition online and can be found at www.pasportaservo.org.

## **Affixes 2**

Now let's add more affixes to the mix to multiply your vocabulary even further! You can add an affix to any Esperanto word as long as the result makes sense.

## **Expressions**

### **Ĝis**

Note that the word for *bye* in Esperanto is *ĝis*. This is short for *ĝis la revido* (goodbye), which literally means *until the re-seeing*. So, *ĝis* actually means *until*, but by itself means *bye*.

## **Education**

### **Participles**

Participles are used to create complex verb forms, to express ideas such as "I will have read" or "The wine has been drunk". Participles are formed from verbs. There are two categories of participles: active and passive. Each category has present, future and past tenses.

 present
 future

Notice that the vowels "i", "a" and "o" are the same ones used for past, present and future verb endings.

#### **Active participles**

The present active participle is used for the English -ing ending: doing, seeing, believing, etc. Unlike English, though, the active participle in Esperanto also has past and future variants:

 past
 future

For example:

 past
 future

#### **Passive participles**

Let's look at these two English sentences:

The owl ate the mouse.

The mouse was eaten by the owl.

They both say the same thing, but in the second sentence the mouse becomes the focus of interest, and also the subject of the verb, instead of the owl. To use the correct grammatical terms, the first sentence has an *active* verb, "ate", and the second verb has a *passive* verb "was eaten".
Here are examples of the use of passive participles:

 past
 future

#### **Participles are like adjectives**

Participles end in *-a* like adjectives. In fact, they are used in the same way as adjectives, which means that they agree in number and case with the noun that they belong to:

* *Mi estas skribanta.* = I am (in the process of) writing.
* *Ni estas skribantaj.* = We are (in the process of) writing.
* *La libro estas legita.* = The book (literally: is having been read) has been read.
* *La libroj estas legitaj.* = The books (literally: are having been read) have been read.
* *Mi vidis kurantan viron.* = I saw a man (in the process of) running / I saw a running man.
* *Mi trovis du rompitajn poŝtelefonojn.* = I found two mobile phones (literally: having been broken) that had been broken / I found two broken mobile phones.

#### **More about participles**

Participles can be combined with past, present and future tenses of *esti* :

Examples with an active participle:

* *Li estas leganta la libron*

He is (in the process of) reading the book.

* *Li estos leginta la libron.*

(literally: He will be having read the book)

He will have read the book.

* *Li estas leginta la libron.*

(literally: He is having read the book.)

He has read (has finished reading) the book.

* *Li estis leginta la libron.*

(literally: He was having read the book)

He had read the book.

Examples with a passive participle:

* *La libro estos legita.*

(literally: The book will be having been read.)

The book will have been read.

* *La libro estas legita*.

(literally: The book is having been read.)

The book has been read.

* *La libro estis legita.*

(literally: The book was having been read.)

The book had been read.

[Note: the "literal" translations above are presented as an aid to understanding and using participles; they are not colloquial English and are not acceptable translations of Esperanto sentences in this course].

#### **Participles + *-o* ending**

An *o*-ending on a participle generally signifies a person:

*la leganto* - the reader

*la skribanto* - the writer

*la gvidonto* - the future guide

*la elektito* - the one who got elected

*la konato* - the one who is known, the acquaintance

### ***La*** **can take the place of possessive pronouns**

When talking about relatives, parts of one's body, a piece of one's clothing, an intimate possession, etc, *la* can take the place of a possessive pronoun; this usage is understood in the appropriate context—for example:

* *La bebo imitas la gefratojn*.

The baby imitates [his/her/its] siblings.

* *Ŝi vizitos la patrinon dimanĉe.*

She will visit her mother on Sunday.

* *Mi perdis la koltukon.*

I lost my scarf.

* *Mi finfine trovis la okulvitrojn.*

I finally found my glasses.

* *La kapo doloras al mi.*

My head hurts.

* *Lavu la manojn!*

Wash your hands!

### **From Tree 1.0: SPECIAL GUEST EXPLANATION OF PARTICIPLES**

Although we haven't taught many of the words he uses, we can't resist including Lee Miller's creative examples:

Participles ending in -e always modify the subject of the sentence:

*Elirante el la domo, ŝi lasis fali la kadavron.*

While leaving the house, she dropped the cadaver.

*Pensante pri participoj, mi trinkis bieron.*

As I was thinking about participles, I drank a beer.

*Vangofrapite, la gorilo ekploris.*

Having been slapped on the cheek, the gorilla burst out in tears.

Participles ending in -a are always adjectives. They describe the state or action of something at some point in time:

*La promenanta mortinto ridis gaje.*

The walking dead [one] laughed happily.

*Mi estis ironta al la elefant-vendejo.*

I was [in a state of] going to go to the elephant store.

*La koto-tortoj estis aparte bone bakitaj hodiaŭ.*

The mud pies were particularly well baked today.

Participles ending in -o almost always refer to persons, or person-like things, with a few traditional exceptions (like “Esperanto”, for instance).

*La kuranto ne vidis la arbon, ĉar li rigardis la poŝtelefonon.*

The runner didn’t see the tree because he was looking at his phone.

*La amanto bedaŭrinde ne estis la amato.*

The lover unfortunately was not the beloved.

*La kondamnito flugis el prizono sur drako.*

The convict flew out of the prison on a dragon.

## **Sports**

### ***Iri, Marŝi, Paŝi*** **, and more**

*Iri* means "to go"; it can be used whether the person is walking or using a vehicle. If you want to specifically emphasize that someone is walking, you can say *piediri* (literally, to go by foot). However, *piediri* is somewhat less common than "to walk" in English, as people tend to use the more general *iri* or something more specific, such as *marŝi* (to march), *paŝi* (to step), or *promeni* (to go for a walk).

 **promeni** | to take a walk

## **Affixes 3**

Congratulations! After completing this lesson, you'll know all of Esperanto's 10 prefixes and 31 suffixes! With a little practice, you'll be able to combine these affixes into words with ease, giving you the ability to express yourself with amazing versatility and flexibility.

## **Ideas**

### **Suffix *-eco***

English uses various suffixes to create abstract nouns which in Esperanto end in *-eco*:

* *boneco* - good**ness**
* *patrineco* - mother**hood**
* *libereco* - free**dom**
* *amikeco* - friend**ship**
* *egaleco* - equal**ity**
* *riĉeco* - wealth

### ***La*** **before some abstract nouns**

The definite article *la* is often used before abstract nouns:

* *la amo* - not one specific person's love for another, but love in the abstract sense
* *la kulturo* - not one specific culture, but culture in the general or abstract sense
* *la espero* - not my hope to receive a gift tomorrow, but the idea of hope in the abstract

### **Dependas de...**

To depend on... is translated in Esperanto as *dependi de (io) aŭ (iu)*.

### **Labori pri...**

To work on... is translated in Esperanto as labori pri (io) or prilabori (ion).

## **Participles 1**

### **Participles**

Participles are used to create complex verb forms, to express ideas such as "I will have read" or "The wine has been drunk". Participles are formed from verbs. There are two categories of participles: active and passive. Each category has present, future and past tenses.

 present
 future

Notice that the vowels "i", "a" and "o" are the same ones used for past, present and future verb endings.

In this skill we focus on the active participles.

### **Active participles**

The present active participle is used for the English -ing ending: doing, seeing, believing, etc. Unlike English, though, the active participle in Esperanto also has past and future variants:

 past
 future

For example:

 past
 future

### **Participles are like adjectives**

Participles end in *-a* like adjectives. In fact, they are used in the same way as adjectives, which means that they agree in number and case with the noun that they belong to:

* *Mi estas skribanta.* = I am (in the process of) writing.
* *Ni estas skribantaj.* = We are (in the process of) writing.
* *Mi vidis kurantan viron.* = I saw a man (in the process of) running / I saw a running man

### **More about active participles**

Participles can be combined with past, present and future tenses of *esti* :
Examples with an active participle:

* *Li estas leganta la libron =* He is (in the process of) reading the book.

* *Li estos leginta la libron. =* (literally: He will be having read the book) / He will have read the book.

* *Li estas leginta la libron. =* (literally: He is having read the book.) / He has read (has finished reading) the book.

* *Li estis leginta la libron. =* (literally: He was having read the book) / He had read the book.

[Note: the "literal" translations above are presented as an aid to understanding and using participles; they are not colloquial English and are not acceptable translations of Esperanto sentences in this course].

### **Active participles + *-o* ending**

An *o*-ending on a participle generally signifies a person:

* *la leganto* - the reader
* *la skribanto* - the writer
* *la gvidonto* - the future guide

### **More about active participles + *-o* ending**

In sentences that already contain information about the future or past, the *-anto* ending is ordinarily used:

* *Kiom da partoprenantoj ĉeestos la kongreson? =* How many (future) participants will attend the congress?

* *Kiom da partoprenantoj estis en la ludo? =* How many (previous) participants were in the game?

### **Devintus, Povintus**

*devintus* = should have

*povintus* = could have

## **Communication**

### **Ĵurnalo, Revuo, Gazeto, etc**

 gazeto
 revuo
 gazetaro
 ĵurnalisto
 presi

## **Concepts (Abstract Objects)**

### **Use of adverb after infinitive or infinitive phrase**

*Lasi la hundon en la aŭto estas kruele*. (NOT *kruela*)
To leave the dog in the car is cruel.

*Lerni lingvon povas esti facile*. (NOT *facila*)

Learning a language can be easy.

### ***inkluzive de*****, *rilate al***

*Mi ŝatas manĝi fruktojn, inkluzive de oranĝoj.*

I like to eat fruits, including oranges.

*Kion vi opinias rilate al mi?*

What is your opinion about me?

## **Participles 2 (Passive Participles)**

### **Participles**

Participles are used to create complex verb forms, to express ideas such as "I will have read" or "The wine has been drunk". Participles are formed from verbs. There are two categories of participles: active and passive. Each category has present, future and past tenses.

 present
 future

Notice that the vowels "i", "a" and "o" are the same ones used for past, present and future verb endings.

In this skill we focus on the passive participles.

### **Passive participles**

Let's look at these two English sentences:

The owl ate the mouse.

The mouse was eaten by the owl.

They both say the same thing, but in the second sentence the mouse becomes the focus of interest, and also the subject of the verb, instead of the owl. To use the correct grammatical terms, the first sentence
has an *active* verb, "ate", and the second verb has a *passive* verb "was eaten".

Here are examples of the use of passive participles:

 past
 future

### **Participles are like adjectives**

Participles end in *-a* like adjectives. In fact, they are used in the same way as adjectives, which means that they agree in number and case with the noun that they belong to:
*La libro estas legita.* = The book (literally: is having been read) has been read.

*La libroj estas legitaj.* = The books (literally: are having been read) have been read.

*Mi trovis du rompitajn poŝtelefonojn.* = I found two mobile phones (literally: having been broken) that had been broken / I found two broken mobile phones.

### **More about participles**

Participles can be combined with past, present and future tenses of *esti*:
Examples with a passive participle:

*La libro estos legita.*

(literally: The book will be having been read.)

The book will have been read.

*La libro estas legita*.

(literally: The book is having been read.)

The book has been read.

*La libro estis legita.*

(literally: The book was having been read.)

The book had been read.

[Note: the "literal" translations above are presented as an aid to understanding and using participles; they are not colloquial English and are not acceptable translations of Esperanto sentences in this course].

### **Participles + *-o* ending**

An *o*-ending on a participle generally signifies a person:

*la elektito* - the one who got elected

*la konato* - the one who is known, the acquaintance

## **Animals 2**

### **Duo**

*Duo* is the name given by Duolingo to its mascot, the green owl. It is **not** the word for owl in Esperanto. The Esperanto word for owl is *strigo*.

### **Tiel... kiel**

The combination *tiel...kiel* means *as...as*:

*Ĉu vi kantas **tiel** bone **kiel** ŝi?*

Do you sing **as** well **as** she (does)?

*Ŝi estas **tiel** bela, **kiel** mia fratino*.

She is **as** pretty **as** my sister.

### ***Ju (mal)pli...des (mal)pli***

This is an expression equivalent to "the more... the more" or "the less...the less" in English. *Ju* always comes before *des* :

* *Ju pli da mono, des pli da zorgo.* (The more money, the more worry.)
* *Ju pli frue, des pli bone.* (The earlier, the better.)
* *Ju malpli mi laboras, des malpli mi volas labori.* (The less I work, the less I want to work.)
* *Ju pli li atentas, des malpli li komprenas.* (The more he pays attention, the less he understands.)
* *Ju malpli da vortoj, des pli bone.* (The fewer words, the better.)

### **Kiel eble plej**

*Kiel eble plej.....* followed by an adverb is an expression similar to the English expression "as .... as possible." For example:

 **kiel eble plej rapide** | as rapidly/fast as possible

## **Politics**

### **The suffix -ism**

The Esperanto suffix *-ism-* can be used to denote a world view, religion, ideology or system, similarly to the suffix "-ism" in English. It can be attached

1. either to a word that describes the worldview or system, as in *naciismo* (nationalism) and *komunismo"* (communism), derived from *nacio* (nation) and *komuna* (common, as in common ownership),
2. or to the name of the founder of that worldview or religion, as in *budhismo* (Buddhism) and *marksismo* (Marxism),
3. or to a word that denotes an adherent of that worldview or religion, as in *kristanismo* (Christianity), *hinduismo* (Hinduism), *judismo* (Judaism) and *veganismo* (veganism), which are derived from *kristano* (a Christian), *hinduo* (a Hindu), *judo* (a Jew) and *vegano* (a vegan).

### **More about the -ism and -ist affixes**

If you are interested in exploring this topic in more detail, read on.
In 1. above, the adherent of that worldview is usually named by replacing the suffix *-ism-* by *-ist-*. So *naciisto* and *komunisto* mean *a nationalist* and *a communist*. However, as *-ist-* also denotes a profession, this can in some cases cause confusion, as in the word *kapitalisto* (a capitalist), which is usually used for a person in control of capital rather than for an adherent of capitalism. To clearly name an adherent in such a case, one can add the suffix *-an-* after *-ism*. So *kapitalismano* is a clear word for an adherent of capitalism, which should not be confused with a capitalist in the sense of a person in control of capital.

In 2. above, the adherent of that world view can be named by replacing *-ism-* by either *-ist-* or *-an-* (*-ist-* is generally prefered for adherents of a non-religious worldview named after a person, and *-an-* for adherents of a religion named after a person): So *marksisto* means "a Marxist", while a Buddhist can be called either *budhano* or *budhisto* (the first one is a little bit more common).

The word *islamo* (Islam) is the name of the religion, and the word of its adherents is formed using the suffix *-an-*: *islamano* (a Muslim). If you add the suffix *-ism-* to *islamo*, the resulting word *islamismo* is usually understood as a political ideology based on Islam, like the word "Islamism" in English.

Note that the word *kristanismo* just like *budhismo* derives from the title of the founder, but in the case of *kristanismo*, the name of the religion is based on the word *kristano* for an adherent of the religion (which in turn derives from the title *Kristo* (Christ) of the founder), whereas in the case of *budhismo* it is directly derived from the title *Budho* (Buddha) of the founder.

## **Health 2**

### ***Trinki*** **and *Drinki***

*Trinki* means to drink any kind of liquid, including water, milk, coffee, wine or beer:

*Mi preferas trinki akvon*.

I prefer to drink water.

*Ŝi ŝatas trinki glason da vino vespere.*

She likes to drink a glass of wine in the evening.

*Drinki* means to drink an alcohol-containing beverage to excess:

*Li drinkis tro da biero, kaj malsaniĝis.*

He drank too much beer, and got sick.\*

## **Spiritual**

### **The suffix -ism and religions**

The Esperanto suffix *-ism-* can be used to denote a world view, religion, ideology or political system, similarly to the suffix "-ism" in English.
The suffix *-an-* is used to indicate the follower of a religion. However, this does not apply to *judo* (a Jew) and *hinduo* (a Hindu), since *judismo* and *hiduismo* are derived from the term for their followers, rather than the other way around.

 kristanismo
 islamo
 judismo
 hinduismo

Note that the word *islamo* (Islam) is the name of the religion, and the word for its followers is formed using the suffix *-an-*: *islamano* (a Muslim). If you add the suffix *-ism-* to *islamo*, the resulting word *islamismo* is usually understood as a political ideology based on Islam, like the word "Islamism" in English. Its followers are called *islamistoj* (islamists).

## **Science**

### ***Po***

There is no exact equivalent of the word *po* in English, which means approximately "at the rate of". It is used to indicate that a certain amount has been given to each of several recipients, or given at regular intervals over a certain period of time. *Po* introduces the amount that is given each time or to each recipient, not the total amount to be distributed. The word *po* will always be followed by some expression of quantity. In English translations of sentences with *po*, you will often find the word "each":
*Mi donis al la infanoj po du pomoj.*

I gave two apples to each child.

I gave each child two apples.

*La amikoj trinkis po du glasoj da vino.*

The friends each drank two glasses of wine.

The friends drank two glasses of wine each.

*Po* can also be used for prices.

La pomoj kostas po du dolaroj.

The apples cost two dollars each.

Note that *po* always refers to the quantity being distributed, and NOT to the number of people or the period of time among whom or which they are distributed.

*La tri virinoj kantis po kvar kantoj.*

The three women sang four songs each.

(i.e. each woman sang four songs, and a total of 3 x 4=12 songs were sung.)

*La kvar pomoj kostas po du dolaroj.*

The four apples cost two dollars each.

(i.e. each apple costs two dollars, for a total cost of 4 x 2= 8 dollars.)

*Po* is a preposition, and so is not followed by an accusative, the same as *al*, *de* or *da*. However, these days many people treat *po* as an adverb and add the accusative ending where appropriate. Both ways are considered acceptable:

*Mi donis al la infanoj po du pomojn.*

*Mi donis al la infanoj po du pomoj.*

I gave the children two apples each.

I gave each child two apples.

*Ili trinkas po unu glason.*

They drink one glass each.

## **Let's Flirt**

Esperanto is a flexible language

The great thing about Esperanto is that it’s so flexible. Nouns can become verbs, verbs can become adjectives, and so on. In this way you can create new words to elegantly express a concept which might require an entire phrase in English. As you have already seen, the adverb ending -e is particularly productive in Esperanto. Here are some examples:

 dimanĉo
 biciklo
 ĉevalo
 danki
 voli

Here are some examples with different parts of speech: adjectives can be turned into verbs, verbs into adjectives, nouns into verbs and adjectives, to name just a few of the possibilities.

 malfrua
 mateno
 danki
 krei

## **Word Building**

### **Formation of compound words**

The two or more parts of a compound word may be connected with a hyphen, if desired; they are usually written as a single word.
Word formation in Esperanto by combination:

**Noun + Verb**

*voĉo + doni → “voĉdoni”* (“to vote”, not “to give voice”)

*piedo + iri → “piediri”* (“to walk”, “to go by foot”)

*kapo + jesi → “kapjesi”* (“to consent by nodding the head”)

*scii + volo → “scivolo”* (“curiosity about something”) → *“scivola”* (“curious”)

**Adjective + Noun**

*bona + koro → “bonkoro”* (not used) → *“bonkora”* (“good-hearted”, “kind”)

*bona + deziro → “bondeziro”* (“a wish for someone’s happiness”)

*rapida + vagonaro → “rapidvagonaro”* (“high-speed train”)

*nova + jaro → “novjaro”* (“New Year”)

**Noun + Noun**

*domo + pordo → “dompordo”* (“door of house”, “entry”)

*vino + botelo → “vinbotelo”* (“wine bottle”)

*floro + poto → “florpoto”* (“flowerpot”)

*poŝto + marko → “poŝtmarko”* (“stamp”)

Note that combining an adjective with a noun or a verb with a noun yields a word with a new meaning. Combining a noun with a noun yields a word that describes the relationship between the two nouns.

### **Congratulations!**

You've reached the final skill of Duolingo's Esperanto course! For ideas on how to continue using the language after finishing this course, please see:
Finished the Esperanto tree, now what?

## Da/De (from Tree 1.0)

### DA AND DE

Although both da and de can be translated into English as of, they have different meanings:

Use da when you're talking about quantity.

Use de when talking about possession.

**Note**: the direct object -n ending (accusative) is not used after da or de.

For example:

 taso da teo
 la patrino de la knabo
 la koloro de la lakto

### KIOM

Kiom means "how much" or "how many."

How much do you eat?

*Kiom vi manĝas?*

How much do you love me?

*Kiom vi amas min?*

How much is in the cup?

*Kiom estas en la taso?*

### KIOM DA

When you ask "how much" or "how many" of a specific thing or things, the word "of" cannot be omitted as it is in English:

How much (of) bread do you eat?

*Kiom da pano vi manĝas?*

How many (of) apples do you eat?

*Kiom da pomoj vi manĝas?*

How much (of) tea is in the cup?

*Kiom da teo estas en la taso?*

### MULTE DA

Multe da means a lot of, lots of, or many:

A lot of milk

*Multe da lakto*

Many (or a lot of) people

*Multe da homoj*

### KIOM AĜAS

How old are you?

*Kiom vi aĝas?*

(Literally: How much you are-age?)

Kiom is used with age, since age is a quantity (of years).

**Note:** An alternative way to ask someone's age is *Kiom da jaroj vi havas?* (Literally "How many years do you have?")

### MANKO DE

A lack of...

*Manko de...*

A lack of something is not considered a quantity, so one says manko de and never manko da.

For example:

A lack of money

*Manko de mono*

### MORE ABOUT DA AND DE

When you're talking about a quantity of a specific thing or set of things, as opposed to a type of thing, you use de la. For example:

*Mi bezonas 5 kilogramojn da sukero.*

I need 5 kilograms of sugar.

*Mi bezonas 5 kilogramojn de la sukero.*

I need 5 kilograms of the sugar.

*Mi volas aĉeti 10 botelojn da biero.*

I want to buy 10 bottles of beer.

*Mi volas aĉeti 10 botelojn de la plej bona biero.*

I want to buy 10 bottles of the best beer.

*Kiom da nigra pano vi aĉetas?*

How much black bread are you buying?

*Kiom de la nigra pano vi aĉetas?*

How much of the black bread are you buying?

Another way of expressing this is that "da" connects two words, in which the first expresses a measurement (like *kiom*, *boteloj*, *kilogramoj*), and the second is a category (like *sukero*, *biero*, *pano*). "Bovloj" is a category, while "la bovloj" is not; it is a specific item.

A general rule you can remember is that "da" is never followed immediately by "la + X".

## Infinitive (from Tree 1.0)

### INFINITIVE

The ending -i indicates the infinitive, for example ami (to love).
This is the neutral form found in a dictionary. It is often used to
complement the verbs povas (can), volas (want), devas (must), and
ŝatas (like). For example:

* Mi volas danci. = I want to dance.

```
* Mi ŝatas manĝi. = I like to eat.
* Ĉu vi povas fari tion? = Can you do that?

```

### NEK ... NEK ...

Nek means both "neither" and "nor" and follows
English usage patterns. It is a conjunction like kaj and aŭ. For
example:

Nek la rozo nek la pomo estas flava.

Neither the rose nor the apple is yellow.

Nek la rozon nek la pomon mi ŝatas.

I like neither the rose nor the apple.

La rozo estas nek rozkolora nek bela.

The rose is neither pink nor pretty.

### SCII & KONI (TO KNOW)

Both scii and koni can be translated as "to know." While
scii refers to intellectual knowledge, koni refers to knowing someone
or something from experience.

#### Scii

Use scii when you know a specific fact :

Mi scias la respondon.

I know the answer.

Ĉu vi scias lian adreson?

Do you know his address?

Sentences that begin " I know that ..." will always be
translated as " Mi scias, ke ..." as they are describing
knowledge of a fact. For example:

Mi scias, ke Francio estas en Eŭropo.

I know that France is in Europe.

Mi scias, ke li ŝatas trinki kafon.

I know that he likes to drink coffee.

#### Koni

Typically, koni will be used to know a person or an animal. For
example:

Ĉu vi konas mian patron?

Do you know my father?

Ŝi bone konas mian hundon.

She knows my dog well.

It can also be used to refer to a place or thing that one knows well
from experience:

Mi konas Francion tre bone.

I know France very well. (Because I visited there often.)

Mi konas tiun libron

I know that book. (Because I already read it.)

Note: You will never use konas, ke because konas cannot be used to
refer to knowing a fact. So you can say: Mi scias, ke Esperanto estas
internacia lingvo. (I know that Esperanto is an international
language.) But you cannot say: Mi konas, ke Esperanto estas
internacia lingvo.

Here is an example of scii and koni in the same sentence:

Mi scias, ke vi konas ŝin.

I know that you know her.