Rome

### Caleb Corneau - Rome

Rome is the capital city and a special commune of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region. With 2,879,728 residents in 1,285 km², it is also the country's most populated commune. It is the fourth most populated city in the European Union by population within city limits.

#### Tourist attractions

   Rome contains a vast and impressive collection of art, sculpture, fountains, mosaics, and paintings, from all different periods. Rome first became a major artistic center during ancient Rome, with forms of important Roman art such as architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Metal-work, coin die and gem engraving, ivory carvings, figurine glass, pottery, and book illustrations are considered to be 'minor' forms of Roman artwork. Rome later became a major center of Renaissance art, since the popes spent vast sums of money for the constructions of grandiose basilicas, palaces, piazzas and public buildings in general. Rome became one of Europe's major centers of Renaissance artwork, second only to Florence, and able to compare to other major cities and cultural centers, such as Paris and Venice. The city was affected greatly by the baroque, and Rome became the home of numerous artists and architects, such as Bernini, Caravaggio, Carracci, Borromini and Cortona. In the late 18th century and early 19th century, the city was one of the centres of the Grand Tour,[145] when wealthy, young English and other European aristocrats visited the city to learn about ancient Roman culture, art, philosophy, and architecture. Rome hosted a great number of neoclassical and rococo artists, such as Pannini and Bernardo Bellotto. Today, the city is a major artistic centre, with numerous art institutes and museums.

### Food

Traditionally, a breakfast called *ientaculum*[1] was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans ate *cena* the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper called *vesperna*. With the increased importation of foreign foods, the *cena* grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while the *vesperna* was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day meal *prandium* became a light meal to hold one over until *cena*. Among the lower classes of the Roman society, these changes were less pronounced as the traditional routines corresponded closely to the daily rhythms of manual labour.

In the period of the kings and the early Republic, but also in later periods (for the working classes), the *cena* essentially consisted of a kind of porridge, the *puls*. The simplest kind would be made from emmer, water, salt and fat. A more sophisticated variation was made with olive oil, and consumed with an accompaniment of assorted vegetables when available. The wealthy commonly ate their *puls* with eggs, cheese, and honey and it was also occasionally served with meat or fish.

Over the course of the Republican period, the *Cena* developed into two courses: the main course and a dessert with fruit and seafood (e.g. molluscs, shrimp). By the end of the Republic, it was usual for the meal to be served in three parts: an appetiser (*gustatio*), main course (*primae mensae*), and dessert (*secundae mensae*).

The Roman legions' staple ration of food was wheat. In the 4th century, most legionnaires ate as well as anyone in Rome. They were supplied with rations of bread and vegetables along with meats such as beef, mutton, or pork. Rations also depended on where the legions were stationed or were campaigning. Mutton was popular in Northern Gaul and Britannica, but pork was the main meat ration of the legions.

### Gladiator Fights

The earliest types of gladiator were named after Rome's enemies of that time: the Samnite, Thracian and Gaul. The Samnite, heavily armed, elegantly helmed and probably the most popular type, was renamed secutor and the Gaul renamed murmillo, once these former enemies had been conquered then absorbed into Rome's Empire. In the mid-republican *munus*, each type seems to have fought against a similar or identical type. In the later Republic and early Empire, various "fantasy" types were introduced, and were set against dissimilar but complementary types. For example, the bareheaded, nimble retiarius ("net-man"), armoured only at the left arm and shoulder, pitted his net, trident and dagger against the more heavily armoured, helmeted Secutor. Most depictions of gladiators show the most common and popular types. Passing literary references to others has allowed their tentative reconstruction. Other novelties introduced around this time included gladiators who fought from chariots or carts, or from horseback.

The trade in gladiators was empire-wide, and subjected to official supervision. Rome's military success produced a supply of soldier-prisoners who were redistributed for use in State mines or amphitheatres and for sale on the open market. For example, in the aftermath of the Jewish Revolt, the gladiator schools received an influx of Jews – those rejected for training would have been sent straight to the arenas as *noxii* (lit. "hurtful ones"). The best – the most robust – were sent to Rome. In Rome's military ethos, enemy soldiers who had surrendered or allowed their own capture and enslavement had been granted an unmerited gift of life. Their training as gladiators would give them opportunity to redeem their honour in the *munus*.

Two other sources of gladiators, found increasingly during the Principate and the relatively low military activity of the Pax Romana, were slaves condemned to the arena (*damnati*), to gladiator schools or games (*ad ludum gladiatorium*)[51] as punishment for crimes, and the paid volunteers (*auctorati*) who by the late Republic may have comprised approximately half – and possibly the most capable half – of all gladiators. The use of volunteers had a precedent in the Iberian *munus* of Scipio Africanus; but none of those had been paid.

### Chariot Racing

In the ancient Olympic Games, as well as the other Panhellenic Games, there were both four-horse (*tethrippon*, Greek: τέθριππον) and two-horse (*synoris*, Greek: συνωρὶς) chariot races, which were essentially the same aside from the number of horses.
[b] The chariot racing event was first added to the Olympics in 680 BC with the games expanding from a one-day to a two-day event to accommodate the new event (but was not, in reality, the founding event).[4][5] The chariot race was not so prestigious as the foot race of 195 meters (*stadion*, Greek: στάδιον), but it was more important than other equestrian events such as racing on horseback, which were dropped from the Olympic Games very early on.[6]

The races themselves were held in the hippodrome, which held both chariot races and riding races. The single horse race was known as the "keles" (*keles*, Greek: κέλης).[c] The hippodrome was situated at the south-east corner of the sanctuary of Olympia, on the large flat area south of the stadium and ran almost parallel to the latter. Until recently, its exact location was unknown, since it is buried by several meters of sedimentary material from the Alfeios River. In 2008, however, Annie Muller and staff of the German Archeological Institute used radar to locate a large, rectangular structure similar to Pausanias's description. Pausanias, who visited Olympia in the second century AD, describes the monument as a large, elongated, flat space, approximately 780 meters long and 320 meters wide (four *stadia* long and one *stade*four *plethra* wide). The elongated racecourse was divided longitudinally into two tracks by a stone or wooden barrier, the *embolon*. All the horses or chariots ran on one track toward the east, then turned around the *embolon* and headed back west. Distances varied according to the event. The racecourse was surrounded by natural (to the north) and artificial (to the south and east) banks for the spectators; a special place was reserved for the judges on the west side of the north bank