recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Chapter 4

## **Electromagnetic radiation**

Electromagnetic radiation is energy that is sent out of a radiation source in the form of light waves or particles.

The waves of energy are called electromagnetic because they have both electric and magnetic characteristics.

Examples of electromagnetic radiation include: radio waves, microwaves, visible light and x rays.

 These next pages will cover the topic of electromagnetic radiation:

* Light waves
* Particles
* The relationship between the speed of light, frequency and wavelength
* The electromagnetic spectrum
* Spectrum
* Space
* Northern lights
* The greenhouse effect
* The Ozone Layer
Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are molecules composed of long chains of monosaccharides. Depending on which monosaccharides are connected, and which carbons in the monosaccharides connects, polysaccharides take on a variety of forms. The different polysaccharides I will explain are following but not limited to:

- Starch

- Cellulose

- Glycogen

Bibliography
Biodiversity and nature management

**Biodiversity and  nature management - variation is the planet's life insurance**

Around 50% to 80% of the earth's species I’ve in tropical rainforests. Here the biological diversity is big. Biological diversity is a collective term for all of the variations in nature. The most important reasons why biodiversity is lost is the destruction of habitats, pollution, overexploitation, alien species and climate change. A biodiversity ensures access to different genes and works therefore as the planet's life insurance.

**Nature management - how should we use nature?**

Nature management is about making rules on how to use nature so that we get the most out of it. This could for example be the preservation of coral reefs and tropical forests. The decision of when we can hunt or not is also nature management.

**Nature management in developing countries - several conflicts of interest**

In many developing countries, the question regarding nature management can be a difficult question - especially between the goal of sustainable development and the wish of the locals. When the tropical forest in Brazil is cut down, it can be a question of living or not living for those people who need the fields for livestock or to make money by selling lumber. In this case, it is hard to choose sustainable development.

**Sustainable fishery - quotas to take care of the stock**

Today we have an effective way to fish. Without nature management regarding fishery, would the stock quickly become too big or too small. With knowledge about the ecology and population growth of fish, we can fish without ruining the stock. This makes sure we have a sustainable fishery.

**Predators - when diversity costs**

Norway has committed itself to securing the viable stock of wolves through an international agreement called the Bernkonvensjonen. The agreement is about taking care of biological diversity. We have for example committed to make the wolf can establish themselves in the country.
Scientific Method

## Scientific Method - Falsifiable Hypothesis

### What is natural science and hypotheses?

Natural science is about asking questions and answering questions about our physical reality. These questions are often made into statements or presumptions also known as hypotheses. For correct scientific method this hypothesis has to falsifiable, it has to be possible to prove it wrong.

### Hypothesis and theories

A hypothesis is a presumption of an outcome. An hypothesis that is proven right enough times, is given the status *theory*.

### Controlling variables

One has to examine the variables in scientific experiments - you need to figure out which factors affect your results and what you're results are telling you. The easiest way to stay in control of your variables is to only have one, but there are methods that allow for more variables and meausing the impact of these.
Biotechnology - living organisms and DNA are tools

Biotechnology

- The use of biological processes, organisms, or systems (including microorganisms, plant cells or animal cells) to create products that are necessary for us and that can improve the quality of our life.

Gene-technology = genetic manipulation of microorganisms

- Isolating and mapping DNA, modifying and changing genes, cutting and transferring genes from an organism to another and taking advantage of natural genetic variation
X-ray and CT

X-rays are a very energetic form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of 0.01 to 10 nanometers. This type of radiation has enough energy to pass through your body. Because the radiation moves through your body and different types of organs and tissue differently, radiologists can create pictures of them. Because of the X-rays' ability to create an image of the parts of your body that are usually invisible to us humans, it is one of the most common and widely available diagnostic imaging techniques. They are especially effective when it comes to the diagnosing of bone fractures. Some people have fears regarding the amount of radiation one is exposed to during an X-ray, but one's only exposed to a fraction of the background radiation one meets in a year. The benefits of such a scan usually outweigh the risk regardless.

A CT (computerized tomography) combines images from X-rays taken at different angles. The patient lies inside of something that looks like a big tube whilst the scanner circulates around them, creating a detailed 360 image of their internal organs, the spine and vertebrae. It is similar to an X-ray in many ways, but it is a more complex image that gives a better overview of the body's soft tissue and circulation system than a regular X-ray scan.
The greenhouse effect

## What is it?

When speaking about the occurrence of life, temperature is a factor of immense importance; and temperature is closely linked to the greenhouse effect. As it happens, this process heats up the surface of the Earth, thus making it warm enough to be inhabited by humans. If it were not for the greenhouse effect, the average temperature on Earth would have been 33 degrees celsius colder, making it -18 degrees celsius; and it would have been completely different from the flourishing, luxuriant planet we know it as.

In essence, the greenhouse effect is the process in which gasses in the atmosphere absorb and reflect heat radiation. This is a natural process, but human activity has lately led to an increased greenhouse effect (see Causes of Increased Greenhouse Effect and Measures to prevent increased greenhouse effect), which has very adverse consequences for the environment.

The process in itself, however, is both natural and important. While the shortwave heat radiation from the sun gets past the greenhouse gasses, the longwave radiation from the Earth stays in the atmosphere. Only a minor part (approximately 30%) of the radiation from the sun is reflected back into space, while the rest is absorbed by the atmosphere and the surface of the earth. The energy absorbed by the ground is transformed into heat and released as longwave radiation\*, before being absorbed by the greenhouse gasses, half of it being reflected back to the Earth. Thus, the planet is heated up, and made habitable for humans, plants and animals.

\*Not all the energy is released as radiation; some of it instead leads to evaporation of water and convection.
10

Havremelk/drikk (200 g)
 Makrell i tomat (20 g)
 Sum

Jeg hadde dårlig tid, så frokosten var kanskje ikke så balansert som det burde være. I tillegg var det litt lite mat/ energi, som er et relativt dårlig utgangspunkt for dagen. Ellers var energibalansen ganske grei. Hvis jeg hadde hatt mer tid ville jeg spist mer grønnsaker.
4

2 slices of cheese
 1 glass of milk

Is my breakfast healthy, and what can I do to make it healthier?

I believe my breakfast is fairly healthy. However, I could make it even more healthy if I add for instance two slices of cucumber on top of the cheese or if I eat a more coarse bread. I can also switch one slice with cheese with a fruit like a banana or an apple.
Cellulose

Cellulose is a linear polysaccharide comprised of many glucose monosaccharides bound together with the chemical formula (C6H10O5). It is a white solid substance not water-soluble, and consists of 3000 or more glucose units (monosaccharides). Cellulose is an important structural component of the cell wall of green plants. It could be pictured metaphorically as the plant's skeleton. Hence, Cellulose, such as starch and glycogen, is produced and is essential in mainly in green plants.

Cellulose is a big part of what we call 'dietary fiber'. Our digestive system does not have enzymes capable of splitting cellulose, such as herbivores like cows. Thus we cannot benefit from the energy stored in these molecules.

(Insert picture)
25

254.7ml of lactose free milk
 2 tsp of brown sugar
 sum

I do not eat breakfast as I have acid reflux. However, if I were to eat breakfast I would have 4 bars of Weetabix, 2 teaspoons of brown sugar and enough milk to cover the cereal. According to nestle, a bowl of cereal should contain 55% cereal and 45% milk. Seeing as the density of milk is 1.026 grams per ml, that would mean I have 254.7ml or 261 grams of lactose free milk.

The recommendations for the amount of nutrients one should consume come from ncib.gov. ncib.gov is a website hosted by the national center for biotechnology information, which is part of the US National Institutes of Health. The number used are the numbers required for a person between the ages of 14 and 18.

According to the numbers on ncib.gov my breakfast is not particularly healthy. The problem seems to be that I am not consuming enough. Apparently i should be consuming between 450 and 600 calories, but i am not even eating 400 calories. Despite Weetabix and milk being notoriously rich in protein, I am not receiving enough protein for breakfast either. It is recommended someone my age should consume roughly 21.8 grams of protein for breakfast, but I am only consuming 17.61 grams.

Sources: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK219982/table/ttt00022/?report=objectonly

http://www.matvaretabellen.no/

https://www.aqua-calc.com/calculate/food-weight-to-volume/substance/cereals-blank-ready-to-eat-coma-and-blank-weetabix-blank-whole-blank-grain-blank-cereal

https://www.nestle-cereals.com/global/en/healthy-breakfast/what-is-a-healthy-breakfast/cereal-serving-sizes
What are vitamins?

Vitamins are the non-energy supplying nutrients that are essential for us to live. Vitamins are needed for their biochemical function in the body. Each vitamin is needed for multiple chemical reactions, but only in small amounts (thus the name ‘micronutrient’). Vitamins are excipients for enzymes, which are necessary for many of the vital processes in the body. We get vitamins from what we eat and drink.
Heat pumps

Remember the 2nd law of thermodynamics? If not here it is: Heat does not move from a cold place to a hotter place by itself. On the contrary, it moves from a hot place to a cold one. Let's use the example of an apartment; If left alone heat will flow out of the apartment through walls, windows, roofs.

By investing a little electrical energy, a heat pump can heat your apartment with internal energy from the environment around you.

**Step 1:** Evaporation - In the evaporator which is placed outside, we have a coolant with a low boiling point. When the environment is warmer than the coolant, heat from the environment travels to the coolant, thus making the coolant evaporate.

**Step 2:** Compressor - After leaving the evaporation process the coolant is now in gas form, but it still has a temperature equal to the outside. The compressor consists of an electrical motor and a pump(which uses electrical energy). The compressor presses the coolant in to a smaller space, increasing the pressure, and consequently the temperature increases to, let's say 70 degrees Celcius. The hot gas is pumped further on to the condensation.

**Step 3:** Condensation - This part of the system is inside the house/apartment where the gas is still 70 degrees Celcius. Presumably(and hopefully), that is hotter than the temperature inside your apartment and using the 2nd law of thermodynamics: the heat from the coolant(still gas form) will transfer energy(heat) to the apartment whilst lowering the temperature of the coolant, and once that temperature hits the coolant's boiling point, it becomes liquid again.

**Step 4:** Valve - By looking at the figure below, the coolant is circulating around in a closed circuit. Before the coolant goes back to the Evaporation process, it passes through a valve. The valve makes sure the pressure is higher on the side of the condensation, rather than on the evaporation side.
Spectral lines

**What is Spectral Lines?**

One of a series of linear images formed by a **spectrograph** or similar instrument and corresponding to a narrow portion of the **spectrum** of the radiation emitted or absorbed by a particular source.

Spectral line shape describes the form of a feature, observed in spectroscopy, corresponding to an energy change in an atom, molecule or ion.

Spectral line is a dark or bright line in an otherwise continuous spectrum caused by absorption or emission of light. Spectral lines are often used to identify atoms and molecules.

**How is light measured/detected?**

A **spectrograph** is an instrument that separates light by its wavelengths and records this data. A **spectrograph** typically has a multi-channel detector system or camera that detects and records the spectrum of light.

The process of using a spectrometer to take a spectrograph.

**Different types of spilts that could occur?**

Prism spilts-

natural prism-
The Doppler Effect Explained

What is the Doppler Effect?

If any object moves through the air, there will naturally be disturbances in that air. The disturbances are referred to as sound waves. If an object were to stand still in the same position while making these disturbances, the sound waves would move at the same pace with the same frequency in all directions around the object. This would mean that an observer 20 meters to the right (Observer A) would observe the sound waves approaching at the same frequency as an observer 20 meters to the left (Observer B) would.

Now imagine that the object is moving to the right, while creating sound waves at the same frequency as before. Since the object is moving to the right, every consecutive disturbance would be closer to observer A, and farther away from observer B. Therefore, each consecutive disturbance also has a shorter distance to travel to reach observer A, thus taking a shorter amount of time to do exactly that. Because of this, observer A observes that the frequency of arrival of the disturbances is higher than the frequency at which disturbances are actually produced. At the same time, each consecutive disturbance has to travel an even longer distance in order to reach observer B. For this reason, observer A observes a frequency of arrival that is less than the frequency at which the disturbances are produced. The net effect of the object's production of disturbances is that the observer the object is moving towards observes a higher frequency than the pace of which the disturbances are produced, while the observer on the opposite side observes a lower frequency that the pace of which the disturbances are produced. This effect is called the Doppler Effect.
29

Milk, Tine Ekstra Lett
 Sum

A healthy breakfast usually consist of about 25% protein, 40-45% fat and 25% carbohydrates. This means that a breakfast weighing about 48 g (like mine) should have 12 grams of protein, about 20 g of fat, and 12 grams of carbohydrates. This means that I am not getting enough protein, and too much carbohydrates. It is also recommended to eat about 30-40 g protein, 30 g of carbs, and 20 g of fats for breakfast, which means that I am eating too little food in general.

I do not think this is a healthy breakfast. I am eating too little in general, not getting enough protein and fats, and getting too much carbohydrates.
Hereditary diseases

Hereditary diseases are diseases that are passed down from the parents' genes. Depending if the disease is dominant or recessive, and if both parents have it or are carriers, a child may be completely unaffected, a carrier or sick.

## Recessive diseases

A recessive gene is only expressed if the alleles are homozygous for recessive, which means that both are the same. Carrying only one recessive gene, meaning that your alleles is heterozygous, means that you are a carrier for the disease. You can pass the gene for the disease on to your children, but it will only be expressed if the other parent also passes down a recessive gene. Therefore, two healthy carrier parents can have a child with the disease they both carry.

The Punnett square shows the potential offspring of two parents with heterozygous alleles. The children have a 50% of being a carrier for the disease, and a 25% chance for both having the disease and for not being affected at all.

Some examples of recessive diseases are cystic fibrosis and Hartnup's disease.

## Dominant diseases

Genes that are dominant will always be expressed if they are present. This means that if the parents' alleles are homozygous for dominant, the child is guaranteed to have the disease. You cannot be a carrier of a dominant disease; you can only be affected or unaffected, sick or healthy, because if you have the gene, it will be expressed.

However, if the affected parent's alleles are heterozygous, the child has a 50% chance of having the disease as well, as shown in the Punnett square. Depending on the severity of the illness, this can be a factor for an affected individual in deciding whether or not they will have children, because a child is unfortunately quite likely to be affected as well.

Huntington's disease is one of the most common dominantly transmitted diseases.

## Sources

https://hubpages.com/health/Huntingtons-Disease-The-Genetics
Gamma

Gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation with a very short wavelength, and gamma photons have the highest amount of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. When an atomic nucleus emits gamma rays, they do not alter the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, but they instead move the nucleus from an unstable to a stable state. Atomic nuclei usually emit gamma rays right after alpha decay, beta decay, and other nuclear decay processes.

Gamma rays are commonly used in medicine. They are used to examine the body, and they are especially important for looking for tumours. Gamma rays can sometimes be used to treat the tumours as well.
Purposes

Water has many functions in the body, however, we are only going to focus on the main 4 in this post. Water functions as a solvent, helps for transportation, regulates body temperature and helps in chemical reactions.

- Many substances dissolve easily in water, meaning water becomes a solvent. For example, water helps dissolve minerals and other nutrients to make them accessible for the body. One of the reasons why water is also a good transporter is due to it being a solvent.

- Water is the main component of blood, and as blood transports nutrients to the cells, water contributes with this. This means that in a way you could say that water carries nutrients and oxygen to the cells.

- Water also helps removing waste products and transports this out of the body through urines.

- Water helps regulate the internal temperature of the body depending on the outside temperature through sweating.

- Water enables hydrolysis reactions for proteins, lipids and carbohydrates, meaning it helps with the biochemical breakdown of what we eat.

- Water is essential for the cells in our body to function properly as it enters into the composition of the cells. Your body uses water in its cells, tissues and organs to help regulate its temperature and also to maintain other bodily functions.

- Your body loses water throughout the day through breathing, sweating and digestion, so it is important to rehydrate!

Bibliography:

- Main functions of water in the human body. (n.d.). Retrieved October 22, 2018, from https://www.nestle-waters.com/healthy-hydration/water-fonctions-in-human-body

- Laskey, J. (2015). The Health Benefits of Water. Retrieved October 22, 2016, from https://www.everydayhealth.com/water-health/water-body-health.aspx

- Brandt, Harald. Hushovd, T, Odd. Tellefsen, W, Cathrine. Naturfag SF. Aschehoug & Co bokforlag. 1. oppslag, 2016.
23

A healthy breakfast is according to helsedirektoratet the following: protein should be around 10 - 20% of the meal, the fat should be around 25 - 40%, and the recommended amount of carbohydrates should be around 45 - 60%. The recommended amount of energy is around 450 kcal for breakfast (total of the day; ca. 2100 kcal).

When looking at the amount of nutrition values in my breakfast, it is similar to the recommended amounts. However, I could add more fat, seeing as it could be a bit higher based on the recommendations. I could also eat a bit more calories, since the recommended amount is ca. 450 kcal, but I eat 423 kcal.
Spectrum

A *spectrum*in a general sense is a way of showing the fluid transition from one extreme to another. Within physics, it typically refers to the band of colors created when light is separated into its components based on their wavelengths. All electromagnetic waves in the universe are technically on the same spectrum, but we can only see a small part of it, which is appropriately named the *visible light spectrum*. This section shows the the progression from the tight-waved ultraviolet light to the more loosely-waved infrared light.

## Emission and absorption

When talking about electromagnetic radiation, also known as light, the terms emission and absorption are very relevant. Emission is the act of emitting, or sending out electromagnetic waves, while absorption is absorbing, or receiving them. A light source, such as a light bulb, emits light, and everything else that we see in the world around us absorbs certain wavelengths of light.

## Different types of spectra

There are various ways in which we can see and categorize spectra based on their different uses. Often, spectra are a continuous band, known as the *continuum*, but they can also show lines of color at specific points, known as spectral lines. These lines can help distinguish between and identify gases that are present, as each gas will reveal different spectral lines.

Three important types for our purposes are the continuous spectrum, the emission spectrum and the absorption spectrum. As evident in their names, emission and absorption spectra show the light that is emitted and absorbed respectively.

To explain the spectra, we use a definition of light that involves photons.

## Sources

https://sciencestruck.com/color-spectrum-chart
Alpha

Alpha particles are particles released by radionuclides, consisting of two protons and two neutrons which is the same as a Helium atom. They’re released from the nucleus during nuclear decay, specifically alpha-decay. Alpha particles move very fast, but compared to other forms of nuclear radiation they move quite slow, at only 5-7% of the speed of light or 20 000 000 meters per second. Ernest Rutherford receives the most credit for the discovery of the alpha particle/ray, but there were other contributors.

Alpha radiation occurs most often in the decay of heavier elements, specifically elements heavier than lead. This doesn’t mean it only occurs here, but it is in these elements that it is most common. An alpha particle is incredibly ionizing for a multitude of reasons, mainly that they have a double positive charge and their slow speed. The speed at which they move means that they can cause multiple ionizations within a small distance. What’s good about all of this is that, because they’re highly ionizing, they aren’t capable o passing through very much. They’re stopped by a few centimeters of air or a thin piece of paper.
Pentti Karvonen

**Pentti Kullervo Karvonen** (s. 4. toukokuuta 1942 Oulu, Suomi) on suomalainen lääkärinoikeutensa menettänyt lääketieteen lisensiaatti (1968), joka tuli tunnetuksi huumeidenkäyttäjien vieroitus- ja korvaushoidoissa käytettävien lääkeaineiden, lähinnä Subutexin, välittämisestä narkomaaneille. Hän pyrkii toiminnallaan opiaattien kuten heroiinin käyttäjien korvaushoitoon. Hän on kehittänyt Benedictus-menetelmää, joka sisältää korvaavan lääkkeen jakelun, lyhyttä keskusteluhoitoa ja sosiaalisen tukiverkoston muodostamisen potilaan läheisistä. Lakiin opioidikorvaushoito kirjattiin vuonna 2000, Karvosen ensimmäisen tuomion jälkeen.

Vantaan käräjäoikeus tuomitsi Karvosen lokakuussa 1999 kymmeneksi kuukaudeksi ehdolliseen vankeuteen neljästä huumausainerikoksesta. Karvonen oli tuonut Thaimaasta Suomeen kesällä 1997 luvatta 16 000 Temgesic-tablettia ja pienemmän erän Subutex-tabletteja. Hän sai mediassa nimen *Subutex-Karvonen*. Suomessa Subutex lasketaan huumausaineeksi.

Karvonen sai seuraavan vankeusrangaistuksen 21. lokakuuta 2000, kun Helsingin käräjäoikeus langetti hänelle 11 kuukautta ehdollista vankeutta buprenorfiinia sisältävien Subutex- ja Temgesic-lääkeaineiden myynnistä ja levittämisestä. Lääkkeiden käyttötarkoituksena oli heroinistien vieroitushoito. Tästä ja lokakuussa 1999 saamastaan tuomiosta Karvonen valitti Helsingin hovioikeuteen, joka pysytti molemmat rangaistukset ennallaan 4. kesäkuuta 2001. Korkein oikeus muutti tuomioita alentamalla rangaistuksia marraskuussa 2002.

Helsingin käräjäoikeus langetti Karvoselle kahdeksan kuukauden ehdollisen vankeusrangaistuksen Subutex-lääkkeen välittämisestä narkomaaneille 27. heinäkuuta 2001.

Karvonen sai ehdottoman vankeusrangaistuksen 26. helmikuuta 2002, kun Helsingin käräjäoikeus tuomitsi hänet kahdesta huumausainerikoksesta puoleksitoista vuodeksi vankeuteen. Karvonen ja syyttäjä valittivat Helsingin hovioikeuteen. Hovioikeus kovensi rangaistusta viideksi vuodeksi ehdotonta vankeutta heinäkuussa 2002. Korkein oikeus antoi Karvoselle luvan valittaa toisesta ehdottomasta tuomiosta.[11] Korkein oikeus kumosi kyseisen tuomion 3. huhtikuuta 2003 jättäen rangaistukseksi yhteensä 2,5 vuotta ehdotonta vankeutta.

**Kaikissa oikeudenkäynneissään Karvonen vetosi oikeudelliseen ja lääketieteelliseen pakkotilaan: ilman tällaista laitonta hoidon jatkamista potilaat olisivat voineet kuolla.**

Saamiensa rikostuomioiden vuoksi Terveydenhuollon oikeusturvakeskus (TEO) vei Karvoselta oikeudet harjoittaa lääkärin ammattia kokonaan lokakuussa 2003.

Vuonna 2005 Karvonen toimi konsulttina ja kouluttajana, jonka asiakkaat saivat korvaus- ja ylläpitohoitolääkkeensä laillisesti virolaisesta Wismarin sairaalasta.

Schengen-sopimuksen myötä tallinnalainen Wismarin sairaala ei ole enää voinut hoitaa potilaita Suomesta. Sopimus asetti esteitä korvaushoitolääkkeiden maahantuomiselle Virosta. Tämän vuoksi osa Karvosen konsultoimista potilaista on muuttanut pysyvästi Viroon voidakseen edelleen olla virallisen hoidon piirissä siellä.
Particles

**Particles**

Radiation has both wave like and particle like behaviour, but i will be focusing on the particles. Matter is made up of particles. A particle (a constituent part of an atom) is a miniature building block that makes up matter, and matter is anything that has weight and takes up space. The subatomic particles are protons, neutrons and electrons. Most matter comes in three states; solid, liquid or gas.

1. Solid - The particles in a solid matter are pact so tight that they can only vibrate, and are too dense to let anything through it. The heat causes the vibration of the particles, and when it gets too hot, and the particles are vibrating too much, then the matter would go in to a faze transition into a liquid or gas. A solid has a definite size and shape.
2. Liquid - The particles in a liquid matter have more space between then and can slide around. Liquid is a matter that has a definite size but not definite shape. If you freeze water it can faze transition into a solid, and if the liquid is heated then it can faze tradition into gas.
3. Gas - There is so much space between the constantly moving particles in gas, that it is very easy to move around in. Gas is a matter with no definite size or shape. Gas can faze transition to liquid by condensing, or solid by deposition.

When a particle of an atom gets hit by a wave it will start vibrating from the energy it absorbed and then it will seek to stabilise itself by sending out the energy in a form of a wave. It will take more time for radiation to happen in water because water is more dense than gas.
Sources

* B. Svihus (2018) *Mineraler og sporstoffer,* Store Medisinske Leksikon, retrieved 22.october 2018, https://sml.snl.no/mineraler\_og\_sporstoffer
* A. S. Truswell, D. W. Kent-Jones, K. Carpenter, J. Weininger, (2018) *Human nutrition*, Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 22.october 2018, https://www.britannica.com/science/human-nutrition#ref250647
9.5 - Electrolysis

Electrolysis is a redox reaction and a method used to manufacture pure metal. It is also used for galvanization, silvering and chrome plating of different items. Some battery types can even be charged through the use of electrolysis.

The reaction of electrolysis is the opposite of the spontaneous reaction of a galvanic element; instead of transforming chemical energy into electrical energy, it transforms electrical energy into chemical energy. Through electrolysis the electrons are forced to go the opposite way of what they would if it was spontaneous.

The picture on the side is a picture of electroplating and came from this website.

https://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/439/449969/Media\_Portfolio/ch17.html
GATTACA

Answer the following questions:

Describe four ways that Vincent maintains his genetic
identity.

What does the term “Valid” mean in Vincent’s society?

When Vincent was born, what did the nurse
immediately do, and why?

What DNA source incriminates Vincent? Is this logical?

Why does the doctor let him through anyway?

There are many hidden meaning in the words used in this
film.

* What does the word GATTACA mean?

* How about the name Eugene? (Hint: what other biology words start with “eu?”)

* After watching this film, how do you think genetic screening today might affect a person’s ability to get a job, or get health insurance?  Explain.

* What tests already exist that make it almost impossible for a person to hide their true identity or health condition? Give examples.
Measures to prevent increased greenhouse effect

Actions taken to reduce the greenhouse effect today will not reduce the greenhouse effect, only reduce the speed it’s increasing in.

### Individual level:

To stay below the 2°C target by 2050, the carbon footprint per capita should be around 2 tons. In Europe, the average carbon emission is 13.8 tons CO2e/cap. In the US and Australia it’s over 25 tons CO2e/cap. If the global temperature increases by 2°C, it will have irreversible damages and consequences on sea life, ecosystems and the climate around the world. Therefore, it’s important that we reduce our carbon emission.

There are a lot of ways we as individuals can reduce our carbon-footprints. These include, but are not limited to:

* Use energy efficiently and don’t use it if it’s not necessary

* Recycle and reuse more, buy product with minimal packaging
* Turn down the heating by 1°C
* Use less hot water and spend less time in the shower
* Use public transport or bikes more often, and cars less
* Plant trees
* By food product that have traveled shorter distances (not imported) if possible
* Thrift shop more, and not buy brand new clothes all the time

### Global level:

Measures that can be used to prevent the increase of the greenhouse effects on a global scale are things like regional climate politics to reduce the amount of carbon emission in different areas based on how the people in the different regions live. This will make life easier for everyone since there’s no global changes that greatly affects people of some regions.

Governments can also invest more in renewable energy systems and become less dependent on fossil fuels, and make laws that restrict the carbon emissions for individuals. Many countries have a fossil fuel based econemy, and this will be a problem for the future, and to save the future, these countries need to focus research into new energy sorces and new ways to keep their economy growing.

International agreements between nations are very important. The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference is an example of measured used on a global scale to reduce the growth of global warming. By letting every nation emit a certain amount of greenhouse gases, each country can make sure they stay below a certain goal instead of one country or individual trying to do it by themselves.
Increased greenhouse effect and consequences in the Arctic region

**How does the greenhouse effect change the climate?**

Due to the greenhouse effect, the ice and glaciers in the Arctic are melting. This will affect all of us. The melting ice will create more cold water, the added amount of water from the melting ice affects the ocean currents. This may lead to the extinction of the gulf stream, which is one of the factors that makes life possible in the northern areas of the earth.

The greenhouse effect will cause the Antarctic and glaciers to melt, this will cause the sea level to increase, 60 meters if melted completely. This is a problem, as the areas closer to ocean-levels are often highly populated.

**How does temperature affect the Arctic region?**

The Arctic and its well-being is a very important part of how the situation of the Earth changes - negatively and positively. One of the important tasks the continental ice cap is containing CH4, or methane gas, a dangerous greenhouse gas. However, when the ice melts, which we now can observe, as a result of the temperature rising, the methane stored in the ice will be released, causing an even greater negative effect on the climate, and also potentially raising the temperature even more.

Water absorbs energy, or sunlight. When ice from the ice caps and continental ice caps in the Arctic melts, the ocean will have a greater capacity of absorbing energy, potentially leading to the average temperature increasing globally. This will be an evil circle, as increases in temperature will lead to more ice melting, and the process as described, will repeat itself.

The ice melting in the Arctic also affects ecosystems- when ocean levels rise, species are forced to move further into the areas they previously had no knowledge about- areas already occupied by other species. This creates a collision in ecosystems, and can potentially cause species and entire populations to go extinct.
Isotopes

**Isotopes** are variants of a specific chemical element which differ in neutron number. All isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons in each atom, resulting in each isotope having a different number of nucleons.

An isotope's symbol can be written as seen in the picture on the right, where A=the number of nucleons (protons+nucleons), Z= the number of protons, and X=the element symbol. The number of protons is equal to the atomic number, which is equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom.

Do differ different isotopes of the same element from each other, we specify the amount of nucleons as a part of the element's name. For example, carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14.

### Isotope vs nuclide

This can easily become a little bit complicated, but to explain this in a basic sense; Isotopes are an under category of nuclide. Nuclide is the common name for all pairings of protons and neutrons.
Chemical structure

### **Amino Acids**

Proteins are build up by amino acids. Proteins consists of long chains of amino acids wich are connected with peptide bonds. This bond forms water, wich is essential when reversing the reaction. The general structure of amino acids is the same even though there are many different amino acids. The characteristics of the protein are dependent on the order of the amino acids in the chain and not the different types of amino acids. This way only few amino acids can create a lot of different proteins when only changing the order

**Essential Amino Acids**

 Primary Structure

The linear bonding is called the primary structure, while the
Norwegian northern lights

Norway is conveniently located for observation of northern lights, and therefore, Norwegians have had a central role in the research of northern lights. Hansteen, Birkeland and Størmer were all valuable contributors to the pioneer research on northern lights.

## Carl Størmer

Carl Størmer (1874-1957) was a Norwegian mathematician and astronomer, and a pioneer photographer. He executed the first altimetry of northern lights, and was the first person to construct a camera able to capture the northern lights.

## Christopher Hansteen

Christopher Hansteen (26 September 1784 , Christiania – 11 April 1873, Christiania) was a Norwegian geophysicist, astronomer, and physicist. Hansteen is best known for his mapping of Earth’s magnetic field, and is looked upon as the founder of natural science in Norway. Hansteen’s work were carried through at a time when Norway was working to build an independent country after the detachment from Denmark. Therefore, he wished to make Norwegians appear as a well educated and accomplished group of people. His goal was to abolish superstition, but rather make room for scientific explanations to different phenomena. Hansteen worked with mapping out Earth’s magnetic field, and he combined this knowledge with observations of northern lights in arches in the sky. He then concluded with a hypothesis: «The observed northern lights arches had to be a part of a luminous ring, today called the auroral oval.» He claimed that the auroral oval had its center over the magnetic pole, and not the geographical pole. Hansteen published these ideas with the following conclusion: from this we are led to assume that there must be some connection between the northern lights and Earth’s magnetic field. However, it would go 100 years before this was widely accepted in the international research community, and 150 years before it was confirmed with observations.

## Kristian Birkeland

 Kristian Birkeland (1867-1917) was a Norwegian scientist and an important contributor to Norwegian science and history with his research on northern lights. When he began his research, there were no thorough nor convincing theories about what the northern lights actually were. His hypothesis was that the northern lights appeared when charged particles from the sun entered the earth's magnetic field. To test the hypothesis, he created a model of the earth (terrella) with a magnetic field surrounding it. Afterwards, he placed it in a box and pumped virtually all the air out of it. The Terrella was positively charged, and he sent negatively charged particles into the box. By doing this, he managed to create artificial northern lights around the magnetic poles. This miniature version of northern lights showed that they mostly occurred in a ring-formed structure around the magnetic poles.
Vitamin A

Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that is important for proper eye sight, growth, cell recognition (cell communication), embryonic development, and immune system. Sources can be both from plants and animal foods.

From fruits and vegetables we get provitamin, the most common being beta-carotene. Beta-carotene is transformed into retinol in the body, which then can execute vitamin A's designated functions.

From animal foods we get preformed vitamin. These come from all animal sources, such as meat, dairy, poultry, fish, but the concentration is greater in fish oils. These are already in the form of retinol.

Fun fact:

Beta-carotene is a carotene, which are common red/yellow/orange hued pigments in nature. If too much is consumed for the body to handle, the pigment goes straight into the blood stream. If this happens regularly over time, the skin can get a faint shade of yellow.

Sources:

https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-HealthProfessional/, https://sml.snl.no/A-vitamin, https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/vitamin-a/, https://www.britannica.com/story/can-eating-too-many-carrots-make-your-skin-turn-orange,
Epigenetics

Epigenetics means "above" or "on top of"which refers to DNA modifications that turn genes on and off. It is the study of   changes in gene activity that does not involve alteration to the genetic code but gets passed down to successive generations. The expression the DNA is changed without the structure of the DNA being changed. Stress, diet etc can affect your offspring.
Background radiation

**Background radiation** is a measure of the ionizing radiation present in the environment at an exact location which is not due to an intentional introduction of radiation sources.

All living things are exposed to natural ionising radiation from our surroundings. Normally we don't give this exposure much thought, because it comes from things in our everyday life we accept. There is a worldwide variation in the levels, but we will always be exposed to background radiation from natural sources in some scale. Globally this ranges from approximately 1 to 14 mSv per year. In addition to the natural background radiation, most humans are also exposed to artificial radiation as a consequence of industrial and medical activity; for example, x-ray.

Background radiation comes from a diverse number of sources, both natural and artificial. The sources include cosmic radiation and environmental radioactivity from such as naturally occurring radioactive materials, such as radon and radium, and man-made radioactive waste from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents.

###

### World average of natural background ionising radiation:

 External terresestrial
 Ingestion
 Cosmic radiation
 **Total natural exposure** | 1 - 13

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Sources:

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https://www.arpansa.gov.au/regulation-and-licensing/safety-security-and-transport/radioactive-waste-disposal-and-storage/what

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background\_radiation
Auroral oval

The Auroral Oval is the area in the atmosphere in which the aurora borealis occurs. It is in this area in which the charged particles hit the atmosphere and emits energy in the coalition with atoms and molecules. The auroral oval has a different placement depending on the hours of the day. In the nighttime, the auroral oval is straight over the north of Norway.
Minerals and trace elements

This topic discusses minerals and trace elements. These are vital parts of our diets, being incredibly important in multiple central reactions throughout our body. A lack of these things can result in different diseases and malnourishment related sicknesses.

* Minerals
* Trace Elements
* Why do we need them

Sources
Modelling

Modelling is a way of simplifying the real world to enable us to solve problems.

* *We do it all the time and so easily that we don’t even notice we are doing it.* For example, a **street directory** is a model of a city’s roads, a **diagram** is a model of how something is made, and even a **calendar** is a model of a month.

* People use these models to solve problems, such as *‘What is the shortest route?’, ‘How do I put this together?’, ‘How long until my birthday?*’ Mathematics is one of the most important modelling tools

Nowadays, we use ***sophisticated computer models*** to help predict *the weather*, simulate *climate conditions* and *climate change*, whereas a *climate model* takes account of numerous variables that characterize the climate system (*e.g. temperature, rainfall, wind, humidity etc.*). Nevertheless, scientists use ***mathematical models*** to study the behavior of the atmosphere and predict possible consequences of the greenhouse effect.

* A **climate model** as well as predicting events in the future in the atmosphere are particularly complicated due a large number of influences needed to take in consideration, and the entire climate system’s complex interrelation.
Northern lights

Norway is perfectly situated for observing northern lights. Norwegian northern lights have for that reason been used as a base for further research on the fenomen of northern lights.

Christopher Hansteen was the first big researcher of Northern Lights. Hansteen had a hypothesis: The observed northern lights arches had to be a part of a luminous - the northern light ring, also known as the Auroral oval. The northern light ring was entered over the magnetic pole, and not over the geographic. After researching the northern lights he came with a conclusion that took 100 years to be accepted in the international researching community, and 150 years before it was confirmed by observations. His conclusion was: "From this we are lead to assume that there has to be some sort of connection between the northern lights and the magnetism of the Earth."

Kristian Birkeland is another Norwegian researcher well-known for his research on northern lights. Birkeland's theory on northern lights was that charged particles from the sun entered the Earth's magnetic field. He built a model called *terrella,* which translates to small earth, and he used it to test his hypothesis. His hypothesis turned out to be right.

Northern lights occur when charged particles from the sun turn into a stream of charged particles called solar wind. When the solar wind hits the Earth's magnetic field one of the poles contract while the other expands. The charged particles hit the magnetic poles diagonally, and move in a spiral path down towards the magnetic poles, and makes both northern lights and southern lights.

Midday- and midnight northern lights are two different types of northern lights.
Sun catchers

Solar Collectors collect solar radiation from the sun. The solar collectors use this radiation for solar heating and for the heating of water. Generally mounted on roofs, these devices have to be very sturdy to endure different weather conditions.

Solar Collectors are meant to be as effective as possible. It consists of a glass plate on top, then a copper-tube below the glass, and a black metal plate behind the tube. The metal plate absorbs the heat and makes and prevents heat-loss. The glass plate lets the sunlight through to the metal plate, and reduces heat-loss in the surrounding area as well. Water goes through the copper tube. Cold water goes in on one side, and while passing over the hot metal plate it heats up, before coming out as hot water on the other side.

These solar collectors are connected to a energy storage within the house. The water circulates in the house so that the warm water gets moved to the energy storage.

Efficiency of a Solar Collector

A solar collector with an area of one meter squared would receive 300 W/m^2 from the sun. This is the power supplied. It delivers 220 W. This is the useful effect. To find the efficiency we divide the useful effect over the power supplied, and we get 73%. This means that solar collectors converts 73% of the solar radiation it receives
Absorption

Absorption is the act of absorbing, or receiving electromagnetic radiation. Everything absorbs a certain amount of light emitted from light sources. When something absorbs electromagnetic radiation, the radiation is transformed into other forms of energy, for example thermal energy. What waves an object absorbs and/or reflects, determines the colour we perceive the object as (further information here).