Rise of Democratic Ideas

People living in groups recognize the need for government, or a system for exercising authority. For much of history, people lived under authoritarian rulers, such as kings. With the rise of democratic ideas, people came to demand a role in governing themselves.

A democracy is a form of government where a constitution guarantees basic personal and political rights, fair and free elections, and independent courts of law.

Democratic ideas developed first in ancient Athens and later in Rome. They then spread to England and England’s American colonies. Eventually, democratic movements sprang up throughout the world, inspired by the U.S. Constitution.

 Authoritarianism
 Monarchy
 Oligarchy
 Republic
 Direct Democracy
 Anarchy

## The Legacy of Ancient Greece and Rome

The Greeks developed democracy, and the Romans added representative government.

### Greece

By the 700s BCE, Ancient Greece was a collection of city-states called *polis*, which had their own systems of government. Athens was the largest, most powerful one, and had a particular form of government: citizens participated in governmental decision making. Only about 20% of the inhabitants qualified as citizens, and, around 600 BCE, Athens underwent serious economic troubles and political turmoil, which led to many citizens falling in debt and becoming slaves, giving up their political participation.

#### Solon (594 BCE)

Solon is credited with restructuring the social and political organization of Athens and thereby laying the foundation for Athenian democracy.

He established four classes of citizenship based on wealth rather than heredity. All citizens could vote in an assembly, while only the three higher classes could hold public office. Besides, slavery based on debt was outlawed and a fairer code of laws was passed.

#### Cleisthenes (5008 BCE)

Generally regarded the founder of democracy in Athens, Cleisthenes reorganized the assembly to balance the power of the rich and the poor. All citizens were allowed to submit laws for debate and passage.

He created the council of the 500 (the boule) and limited the power of aristocracy.

#### Pericles (461-429 BCE)

Pericles strenghtened democracy. He increased the number of paid public official, which enabled poorer citizens to participate in government. By this time, in Athens, more citizens were actively involved in government than in any other city-state.

#### Socrates, Plato and Aristotle

Greek philosophers used logic and reason to investigate the nature of the universe, human society and morality based on two assumptions:

* The universe is put together in an orderly way and is subject to absolute and unchanging laws.
* People can understand these laws through logic and reason.

The Greek's respect for human intelligence and the power of reason had allowed the ideas of democracy to flourish.

#### Separation of Government

The separation of powers concept was first originates in ancient Greece and became widespread in the Roman Republic as part of the initial Constitution of the Roman Republic.

As early as 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle observes in the *Politics* that every government, no matter its form, performed three distinct function: "the deliberative, the magisterial, and the judicative." The Greeks were the first to develop three branches of government: Legislative (to pass laws), Executive (to carry out the laws), and Judicial (to settle disputes about the laws).

### Rome

In 509 BCE a group of Roman aristocrats set up a new government: a republic. Power rests with citizens who have the right to elect leaders who make governmental decisions. Eventually, the Republic collapsed and Augustus became emperor in 27 BCE.

Two groups struggld for power: the Patricians and the Plebeians. The Patricians were aristocratic landowners who held most of the power, which they inherited or gained from social status. The Plebeians were common farmers, artisants, and merchants who had the right to vote, but were barred from holding the most important government positions.

#### Twelve Tables (451 BCE)

The Romans tried to create a system of laws that could be applied to all the people in the Roman Empire. They believed that laws should be based on principles of reason and justice, and that they should protect citizens and their property.

A victory for the plebeians, Rome's laws were carved in 12 tablets publicly displayed. It prevented Patrician officers from interpreting unwritten laws to suit themselves, and established the idea that all free citizens had the right to protection of the law and that laws would be fairly administered.

In 528 CE, Justinian ordered the compiling of all Roman laws: The Justinian Code.

Principles of the Roman law:

* All citizens had the right to equal treatment under the law.
* A person was considered innocent until proven guilty.
* The burden of proof rested with the accuser rather than the accused.
* Any law that seemed unreasonable or grossly unfair could be set aside.

Written laws helped establish the idea of "a government of laws, not of men," in which even rulers and other powerful persons could be held accountable for their actions.

## Judeo-Christian Tradition

Judaism and Christianity taught individual worth, ethical values, and the need to fight injustice. These ideas had a strong impact on the development of democracy and continue to be important today. Ideas from three monotheistic religions helped shape democratic traditions.

### Judaism

Principles of Judaism:

* Human beings are created in God's image, dignitiy that can never be taken away.
* God has given human beings moral freedom. Each person is responsible for the choices they make.
* Emphasis on the worth of the individual.

The Jews had a written code of laws: the Ten Commandments. They focused on morality and ethics and included rules fo social and religious behavior to which even rules were subject. Moreover, Jews believe it is the responsibility of every person to oppose injustice and oppresion and that the community should assist the unfortunate.

The Jews were exiled from thei homeland and fled to many parts of the world, where they shared their beliefs that all people had the right to be treated with justice and dignitiy.

### Christianity

Jesus' ideas went beyond traditional morality. He stressed the importance of people’s love for God, their neighbors, their enemies, and themselves.

Christianity spread slowly but steadily scross the Roman Empire. It became a powerful religion throughout the empire. By 380, it had become the official religion of the empire.

### Islam

Islam taught equality of all persons and individual worth. The prohet Muhammad emphasized the dignity of all human beings and the brotherhood of all people. A belief in the bond of community and the unity of all people led to a tolerance of different groups within the community.

Muslims were required by Islam to offer charity and help those in need, as well as to show tolerance for the religious practices of Jews and Christians. Rulers had to obey the same laws as those they ruled.

### The Reformation and the Reinassance

The Reformation and other changes that swept Europe during and after the Middle Ages greatly influenced the shaping of the modern world. By challenging the authority of monarchs and popes, the Reformation indirectly contributed to the growth of democracy.

The Protestants' emphasis on private judgement in religious matters strnghtened the importance of the individual. This was an important idea in the democratic revolutions that followed and in the growth of political liberty in modern times.

## Democratic Developments in England

England began to develop democratic institutions that limited the power of the monarchy.

### Juries and Common Law

Henry II (1154-1189) developed the jury trials as a means of administering royal justice. People preferred the jury trial to the feudal-court trial because they found it more just.

Legal decisions made in these trials were used as precedents in new cases, which gradually became unified under a single legal system known as Common Law (common to the whole kingdom).

### The Magna Carta

In 1215, the nobles rebelled against the king and forced him to grant guarantees of certain political rights. They presented their demands to him in written form. The Magna Carta is the major source of traditional English respect for individual rights and liberties. It was a contract between the king and nobles.

It contained important principles that limited the power of the monarchy, who had to govern according to law:

* Basic legal rights for individuals.
* Taxation required the consent of the people.
* Right of the individual to a jury trial and protection of the law (due process).

### House of Commons

By 1300s, participation in Parliament was not limited to the nobles. The knights and burgesses gained an official role in the government. This established the principle of representation.

### Constitutional Monarchy

The Glorious Revolution is now seen as a turning point in England. Parliament had established its right to limit the English monarch's power and to control succession to the throne. The powers of the ruler were now restricted by the constitution and the laws of the country.

The Bill of Rights (1689) limited the power of the monarch and protected free speech in Parliament. The monarch was forbidden to suspend laws, to tax without Parliament's consent, or raise an army without the Parliament's approval.

English citizens were guaranteed the rule of law, parliamentary government, individual liberties, and a constitutional monarchy.