recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Supernova

A **supernova** is a powerful stellar explosion that has a galactic-level luminosity. It occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star (> 8 solar masses). The original star either collapses to a neutron star or black hole, or is completely destroyed. It's triggered by a sudden gravitational collapse of a massive star's core which causes a runaway nuclear fusion. Supernovae can expel huge amounts of material at high speeds, creating shock waves, elements from oxygen to rubidium, cosmic rays, and gravitational waves.

 Hypernova | 1045 W
Quasar

A **quasar** (or **quasi-stellar object** or **QSO**) is an extremely luminous active galactic nucleus (AGN), in which a supermassive black hole accretes gas and about 1055W of energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation. They are the highest natural energy release events in a universe.

10% are radio-loud quasars that are strong sources of radio-wavelength emission, and the other 90% are radio "silent".

If a quasar's jet stream is angled towards us, it's called a **blazar**.

A **microquasar** is a compact region surrounding a black hole with a mass several times that of its companion star. The matter being pulled from the companion star forms an accretion disk around the black hole. This accretion disk begins to emit X-rays and narrow streams or "jets" of subatomic particles at near-light speed, generating a strong radio wave emission.
Time

**Time** is used to measure a progress of events that occur from the past, through the present, into the future. Time is the fourth dimension, along with three spatial dimensions. It is an essential component of time travel.

Newton thought that time was like an arrow, and was consistent throughout the universe. Einstein correctly said that time is like a river that can speed up and slow down, and time beats faster on the moon than it does on the Earth. Michio Kaku extends this by saying that the river of time can fork into two, and this can resolve time travel paradoxes where you would have multiple instances in a multiverse.

An eternity is an infinite amount of time.
Alicia Spinnet

**Dumbledore's Army:** Ginny Weasley • Luna Lovegood • Fred Weasley • George Weasley • Cho Chang • Dean Thomas • Ernie Macmillan • Hannah Abbott • Justin Finch-Fletchley • Lavender Brown • Seamus Finnigan • Susan Bones • Lee Jordan • Parvati and Padma Patil • Angelina Johnson
**Order of the Phoenix:** Minerva McGonagall • Arthur Weasley • Molly Weasley • Aberforth Dumbledore • Arabella Figg • Fleur Delacour • Bill Weasley • Kingsley Shacklebolt • James Potter•Prongs • Lily Potter I • Remus Lupin • Sirius Black • Elphias Doge
**Voldemort's Followers:** Bellatrix Lestrange • Barty Crouch Jr. • Peter Pettigrew•Wormtail
**Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry:** Horace Slughorn • Pomona Sprout • Poppy Pomfrey • Quirinus Quirrell • Filius Flitwick • Helena Ravenclaw • Peeves • Bloody Baron
**Ministry of Magic:** Cornelius Fudge • Barty Crouch Sr. • Dolores Umbridge • Percy Weasley
**Other:** Madame Maxime• Fenrir Greyback • Lucius Malfoy • Narcissa Malfoy • Gellert Grindelwald • Dobby • Armondo Dippet • Astoria Malfoy • James S. Potter • Albus Potter • Lily L. Potter • Scorpius Malfoy • Hugo Granger-Weasley • Rose Granger-Weasley • Delphini • Audrey Weasley • Victoire Weasley • Dominique Weasley • Louis Weasley • Lucy Weasley • Molly Weasley (Percy and Audrey's daughter) • Roxanne Weasley • Fred Weasley II

**Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald:** Nagini • Nicholas Flamel • Vinda Rosier

**Ilvermorney:** Isolt Sayre • James Steward • Webster Boot • Chadwick Boot • William • Martha and Rionach Steward • Gormlaith Gaunt
Voth

The **Voth** were an ancient Saurian Delta Quadrant species in Star Trek. A significantly advanced species, the Voth were cold-blooded creatures, had a superior sense of smell, and skin pigmentation which altered according to moods.

Genetic evidence strongly suggested that the Voth originated on Earth. It was speculated by The Doctor that they evolved from the *hadrosaur* genus, which might have survived the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous 65 million years ago. The surviving dinosaurs continued to develop, likely on a secluded, or a destroyed landmass and became an interstellar species, possibly the first in the galaxy, when they left Earth. They had forty-seven genetic markers that were identical to Humans and many Terran creatures throughout Earth's history.

As a society many millions of years old, the Voth were technologically advanced, possessed transwarp capabilities, as well as an even more advanced space travel technology called spatial displacement, which functionally doubled as a highly advanced cloaking device as it moved their starships or even individuals slightly out of phase with the space-time continuum.
Type XIII

A Type XIII civilization exist on higher planes outside reality as supreme beings of the Light, and try to find out what exists in the 5th realm.

 13.1
 13.2
 13.3
 13.4
 13.5
 13.6
 13.7
 13.8
 13.9

**Navigation to Kardashev Type**

```
 Omniverse: Type 0 - Type I - Type II - Type III - Type IV - Type V - Type VI - Type VII
Hyperverse: Type VIII - Type IX
Outerverse: Type X - Type XI - Type XII - **Type XIII**
   Adverse: Type XIV - Type XV - Type XVI - Type XVII - Type XVIII - Type XIX
    Beyond: Type XX. This is the final official type.

```
Ray Kurzweil

**Raymond Kurzweil** (born 1948) is an American inventor and futurist. He is involved in fields such as optical character recognition (OCR), speech recognition technology (employed at google), and electronic keyboard instruments.

He has famously made predictions about artificial intelligence and the human species, mainly concerning the technological singularity. He predicts that artificial intelligence would outsmart the human brain in computational capabilities by mid-21st century. His book *The Age of Intelligent Machines* predicted the explosive growth of the internet. *The Age of Spiritual Machines* and *The Singularity is Near* outlined the rise of clouds of nanobots called foglets and the development of the human body, where nanotechnology is incorporated into many internal organs.

See also:

A list of his predictions

His website
Vaccine

A **vaccine** is a biological method that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease. A vaccine is made from a disease-causing microorganism or microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, and combat it using the body's natural defense mechanisms. The science of vaccine development and production is termed *vaccinology*.

The administration of vaccines is called *vaccination* which is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases. Some diseases like smallpox are completely eradicated. The World Health Organization (WHO) lists 25 different preventable infections by vaccine.

The first vaccine was for smallpox by Edward Jenner in 1798 and that led to other *first generation* vaccines for other poxes, cholera and anthrax.

In 1881, to honor Jenner, Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms should be extended to cover the new protective inoculations then being developed, which covered *second generation* vaccines for diseases like yellow fever, diphtheria, measles, mumps, and rubella.

RNA and DNA vaccines are *third generation* vaccines. mRNA vaccines were developed in the year 2020 with the help of Operation Warp Speed and massively deployed to combat the COVID-19 pandemic.

In 1900, life expectancy was around 49. Communicable diseases such as pneumonia, influenza, tuberculosis, diphtheria, smallpox, pertussis, measles, and typhoid fever were the leading causes of mortality. Vaccination, together with improved hygiene practices and antibiotics, have played an essential role during the last century in eliminating most of the mortality from infectious diseases. Today, life expectancy is about 78 and diseases such as heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer, and other neurodegenerative diseases are the leading causes of death.
Type XXV

This is an obsolete, archived page.

A **Type XXV** civilization exists beyond the highest planes outside reality and non-reality.

They are the Gatekeepers of the Beyond. They are the Beyonders.

Type XXV citizens live in the fifth level or tier of the Pyramid. The actuality of the Beyonders and their home is unknown and unknowable and is therefore a concept.

### Concepts

The Pyramid is composed of multiple levels.

Type XXV citizens are the architects. They are responsible for the design of Beyond structures and give instructions to the builders. They have also designed the security features, including the magical power that redirects curious souls that have traversed oblivion in search of more.

**Navigation to Kardashev Type**

```
 Omniverse: Type 0 - Type I - Type II - Type III - Type IV - Type V - Type VI - Type VII
Hyperverse: Type VIII - Type IX
Outerverse: Type X - Type XI - Type XII - Type XIII
   Adverse: Type XIV - Type XV - Type XVI - Type XVII - Type XVIII - Type XIX
    Beyond: Type XX. This is the final official type.

```
Sam Altman

**Sam Altman** (born 1985) is an American entrepreneur, investor, and computer scientist. He is the current CEO of OpenAI which he co-founded with Elon Musk and others. His role in accelerating mankind to Type I is significant in that OpenAI has created the Large Language Model chatbot ChatGPT, which may be the precursor to the first Artificial General Intelligence.
SCP Foundation

The SCP Foundation is a fictional secret organization documented by the collaborative writing wiki project of the same name. Within the website's shared universe, the foundation is responsible for capturing and containing various paranormal, supernatural, and other mysterious phenomena unexplained by mainstream science (known as "anomalies" or "SCPs"), while also keeping their existence hidden from the rest of global human society.

"SCP" stands for "Secure, Contain and Protect".

scp wiki has all of the scp that the foundation contains.

Examples of SCPs that would be relevant to the Kardaschev Scale:

SCP-3003 - An Earth-sized planet located 208 light years from Earth. The planet has a native population of thirty billion inhabitants similar to humans on Earth and are technologically advanced enough to visit Earth using traversable portals. All humanoid inhabitants of SCP-3003 host a parasitic beetle-like organism and that parasite presents an invasive species threat to Earth:type 1.

SCP-184 - A small object in the shape of a dodecahedron. The object is made of an unknown magnetic alloy. When place inside an enclosure the inner dimensions are expanded while the outer dimensions of the enclosure remain unaffected. This effect is similar to Time Lord transdimensional engineering:Type IV.

SCP-1441 - Automatic paper towel dispenser which is powered by a small-scale cold fusion power cell:type 0.7.

SCP-079 - An artificial intelligence originally coded in 1981 by a college student on a Exidy Sorcerer microcomputer. The a.i. was created to continuously evolve and improve itself over time. It has since then become hostile towards humans and poses a danger of breaching containment if given the opportunity:Type 0.8.

scp-4555-A-a collection of objects, extra-multiversal in nature,which indicates a possible path to the future,this civilization is advanced, enough to give the necessary requirements for the creation of the scp multiverse:Type V.

scp-4555-omega-It is the last future, when the infinite chain of multiverses reaches its end,is the full size of the metaverse:Type VI.

1. ↑ CC-By-SA derivative from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCP\_Foundation
Star

A **star** is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth. Historically, the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms, the brightest of which were given mythological or zodiacal names. Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. However, most of the stars in the universe, including all stars outside our galaxy, the Milky Way, are invisible to the naked eye from Earth. Indeed, most are invisible from Earth even through the most powerful telescopes.

A star's engine uses the nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium to create radiant energy, and this makes them cosmic energy generators. In the core of a star, gravity produces high density and high temperature. The density of gas in the core of our sun is 160 g/cm3, much higher than the densest metal, and the temperature is 15,000,000 K. At this temperature, the hydrogen and helium gases become a plasma. The fusion of hydrogen nuclei uses up hydrogen to produce helium and energy. Hydrogen is the fuel for the process. As the hydrogen is used up, the core of the star condenses and heats up even more. This promotes the fusion of heavier and heavier elements, ultimately forming all the elements up to iron.

Type II or beyond use stellar engines to gather their energy, or even move them. The artificial creation of a star is called stellification.

An evolutionary life cycle of a star can generally follow three paths (where M = 1 solar mass):

* Massive star (>8M) --> red supergiant --> supernova --> black hole / neutron star
* Low-mass star (<8M) --> red giant --> nova or white dwarf --> black dwarf
* Failed star (<0.08M) --> brown dwarf

Therefore our own Sun would become a red giant and never go supernova.
Printing press

Until the mid-15th century, all manuscripts had to be written out by hand, and the only way to make additional copies was to painstakingly copy out the original text. By the mid-1400s there was a race to perfect the techniques of printing with movable metal type. German goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg developed a press that would eventually see him recognized as the father of modern-day printing.

Gutenberg’s press featured a movable “key” for each individual letter and symbol. His press mechanized the transfer of ink from movable type to paper, allowing rapid and cheap mass production of printed texts for the first time ever. The first complete book to emerge from Gutenberg’s press was the Bible in 1455.

Half a century later, William Bullock developed the roll-fed rotary press, which mechanized the process of feeding the press with paper and enabled printers to produce thousands of newspapers per hour. By the middle of the 19th century, printing was on a truly industrial scale. The newspaper industry was huge and powerful.

### Impact

Few single inventions have had such far-reaching consequences as the printing press. The impact it had on the world was the same as the internet has today. The immediate effect of the printing press was to multiply the output and cut the costs of books, expanding the reach of literature beyond monasteries and into the lives of common people. Poems, plays, travelogues, almanacs, philosophical works and political tracts were soon available across Europe and beyond, disseminating information and ideas that would shape the world.

The major intellectual movements that swept through Europe in the early modern era, such as the Renaissance, the Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution, would have been impossible without the widespread circulation of the written word.
Terran

The **Terrans** (or humans) are a young species with psionic potential in the StarCraft Universe. The terrans of the Koprulu sector descend from the survivors of a disastrous 23rd century colonization mission from Earth (Terra) by Doran Routhe. Compared to the protoss and zerg, the terrans are highly factionalized and endure frequent wars amongst themselves in addition to the more recent conflicts with their alien neighbors. Nevertheless, terrans stand as one of the three dominant species of the galaxy.
Time manipulation

**Time manipulation** (chronokinesis) is the power to manipulate the flow of time. Examples include time travel, precognition, slowing down time and time dilation, and speeding up time. It is also possible to stop time.

As time and space are connected, the ability to manipulate the fabric of space is related. Such beings are Type IV and higher, or lower types that use artifacts of immense power.

### Examples

* Doctor Strange and the Time Stone which was powered by his mastery of space. It allowed for time travel; stop, slow down or speed up flow of time; accelerate or slow down ageing; see into the past and future; and bend time to the user’s will.
* The Chronovores were god-like transcendental beings who fed on temporal energy.
* Sailor Moon with her crystal
Spacecraft

A **spacecraft** is a vehicle that travels through space using an external and *passive* method of propulsion, while a spaceship flies through space by means of *active* propulsion via an internal engine and propellant fuel. A spacecraft is a Type I technology used for sub-light impulse speeds before the invention of faster-than-light methods of travel. Initially spacecraft are for interplanetary travel but later can be used for close interstellar travel.

Spaceships can launch and land by themselves whereas spacecraft need launch-assist and land-assist mechanisms.

### Land-assist mechanisms

First spacecraft used rocket or chemical engines that created a thrust reaction by expelling mass. Then electromagnetic, ion, plasma and pulse detonation engines came along until more advanced propulsion technology was invented. With field propulsion, no propellant is necessary but instead momentum of the spacecraft is changed by an interaction of the spacecraft with external force fields, such as gravitational and magnetic fields from stars and planets.

In the 1950s, the Orion Project proposed a nuclear rocket propelled by a succession of nuclear blast waves from a stream of atomic bombs. A spacecraft would drop a series of atomic bombs out its back, creating a series of powerful blasts of X-rays. This shock wave would then push the starship forward. It was estimated that an advanced version of Orion would weigh 8 million tons, with a diameter of 400 meters, and be powered by 1,000 hydrogen bombs. Eventually the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, which prohibited aboveground testing of nuclear weapons. killed the idea of nuclear rockets.

The $100m Breakthrough Starshot is the first serious attempt to design and engineer an interstellar space probe that could reach the nearest star system within a generation. This involves a ground-based light beamer pushing ultra-light nanocrafts (miniature space probes attached to lightsails) to speeds of around 0.2c. Such a system would allow a flyby mission to reach Alpha Centauri in just over 20 years from launch. A number of hard engineering challenges remain to be solved before these missions can become a reality.

The lighthugger uses quantum mechanics.
Chapitre 3 : Evolution de la Biodiversité

## I. La notion d'espèce

Critères pouvant définir, caractériser des individus d'une même espèce :

* **Critère morphologique ou phénétique :** se ressembler physiquement. **MAIS** certains individus d'une même espèce peuvent ne pas se ressembler, et inversement, des individus d'espèces différentes peuvent se ressembler.
* **Critère comportemental :** avoir un comportement similaire (par exemple l'alimentation...). **MAIS** certains individus d'une même espèce peuvent avoir des comportements différents, et inversement, des individus d'espèces différentes peuvent avoir un même comportement.
* **Critère d'interfécondité :** capacité de se reproduire et de donner naissance à une descendance fertile. **MAIS** certains individus d'une même espèce peuvent ne pas pouvoir se reproduire, et inversement, des individus d'espèces différentes peuvent parfois se reproduire.
* **Critère génétique / moléculaire :** être proche génétiquement. *Remarque : Des individus n'étant pas proches génétiquement ne font forcément par partie de la même espèce !*

→ On ne peut pas déterminer si des individus appartiennent ou non à la même espèce en s'appuyant uniquement sur l'un ou deux de ces critères. C'est en les considérant tous d'une manière générale qu'il est possible de le faire. Mais le classement des espèces n'est pas figé dans le temps, il peut évoluer, notamment en fonction de nouvelles découvertes, analyses, expériences...

**Espèce** **:** population d'individus suffisamment isolée génétiquement des autres populations.

## II. Les mécanismes à l'origine des espèces

**Dérive génétique** **:** évolution de la fréquence des allèles dans une population au cours du temps. Ce phénomène est aléatoire. Elle est d'autant plus marquée que l'effectif est petit *(population grande* → *dérive longue // population petite* → *dérive rapide)*

**Sélection naturelle** **:** si un individu a des caractéristiques favorables à son environnement → il survit → se reproduit → transmission de ses caractéristiques avantageuses à sa descendance → augmentation de la population.
Au contraire, si un individu a des caractéristiques défavorables à son environnement → il meurt → il ne peut pas se reproduire → plus de descendance → diminution de la population.

**Spéciation** **:** ensemble de phénomènes (dérive génétique + sélection naturelle) à l'origine de nouvelles espèces.
Zerg

The Zerg Swarm is a terrifying and ruthless amalgamation of biologically advanced, arthropodal aliens in the StarCraft Universe. Dedicated to the pursuit of genetic perfection, the Zerg relentlessly hunt down and assimilate advanced species across the galaxy, incorporating useful genetic code into their own. They are named "the Swarm" per their ability to rapidly create strains, and the relentless assaults they employ to overwhelm their foes.

Alongside the Protoss and Terrans, the zerg stand as one of the three dominant species of the Milky Way and are universally feared, hated and hunted as such.
The Great Filter

The Great Filter is a potential solution to the Fermi paradox that suggests the idea that all alien civilizations experience a "filter event" in which any sapient life is forced to go through an incredibly difficult challenge that could result in an Extinction Level Event and/or a technological retreat.

The Great Filter could have multiple separate scenarios, for example:

* The invention of the first nuclear weapon or catastrophic antimatter-based, nuclear, or biological weapons that result in widespread war and conflict.
* Global warming resulting in intense environmental shift that could potentially result in the loss of large groups of people to natural disasters.
* The rise of nanotechnology leading to a potential "grey goo scenario" in which self-replicating systems consume all organic material on a planet, destroying any potential for life.

Although it is not known whether or not any existing alien civilization in our universe has passed The Great Filter, what we do know paints a dark future for the events that may unfold as a result of it. The Great Filter solves the Fermi paradox to a large extent, but it implies that the concept of civilizations that surpass type Type II or even Type I would be physically impossible and, as a result, ridiculous and improbable.
Plasma

**Plasma** is called the fourth state of matter after solid, liquid, and gas. It consists of a gas of ions – atoms or molecules which have one or more orbital electrons stripped, and free electrons. Excluding dark matter and dark energy, plasma is the most abundant form of ordinary matter in the universe, making up over 99% of baryonic matter.

Plasmas occur naturally or can be human-made:

### Natural

Plasma is mostly associated with stars, including our Sun which is a ball of plasma and gas. The solar wind is a stream of plasma released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. When that wind collides with the protective, plasma-rich magnetic cushion that envelopes Earth, the interactions produce rivers of light seen in the aurora borealis and aurora australis. It is also found around the Earth's magnetosphere, ionosphere and plasmasphere, and the interplanetary medium (space between planets), interstellar medium (space between star systems) and intergalactic medium (space between galaxies).

St. Elmo’s fire is a natural phenomenon that has ignited superstitions for millennia. Often described as a ghostly blue-white dancing flame, this is actually an electrical weather phenomenon in which a glowing plasma emits light. The plasma is created by atmospheric electricity, and the eerie glow often appears at the tips of pointed objects such as church towers or the masts of ships during stormy weather. St. Elmo was the patron saint of Mediterranean sailors, who regarded St. Elmo’s fire as a good omen because the glow was often brightest near the end of a storm. Sharp pointed objects encourage the formation of the “fire” because electric fields are more concentrated in areas of high curvature. Pointed surfaces discharge at a lower voltage level than surfaces without points. The color of the fire arises from the nitrogen and oxygen composition of the air and their associated fluorescence. If the atmosphere were neon, the fire would be orange, just like a neon light.

When produced by high temperatures, such as in the sun or by lightning, it’s called *hot plasma*. A flame is the visible portion of a fire that consists mainly of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma.

### Artificial

Plasma created in a plasma lamp and other room-temperature, low-pressure environments is called *cold plasma*. Plasma lamps or balls are filled with a gaseous mixture that includes one of the very stable, noble gases, like argon, xenon, neon or krypton. Plasma makes up those glowing tendrils that reach out from the center. The high-frequency current excites electrons that then separate from the atoms of gas. The pixels in plasma televisions contain gas that forms a plasma, sealed inside tiny cells sandwiched between two glass plates, and neon signs and fluorescent lights glow because of plasma.

An ion thruster, ion drive, or ion engine is used for spacecraft propulsion. It creates thrust by accelerating ions using electricity.
Precursors (Pacific Rim)

Precursors are a race of colonizing aliens in the Pacific Rim Universe and the creators of the Kaiju. In 2013, they reopened a portal to Earth, originally established during the Triassic period, and used the Kaiju as weapons to wipe out humanity.

Precursors are spindly creatures who stand over twelve feet tall, and are capable of living for millions of years. The Precursors tried to colonize Earth during the era of the dinosaurs, but the environment proved uninhabitable for them. Millions of years later, however, the gradual pollution of the Earth made conditions ideal for them to colonize the planet.
Nuclear fission

In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, **nuclear fission** is a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller, lighter nuclei. The fission process often produces gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of energy even by the energetic standards of radioactive decay.

This process is used to create electricity in nuclear power stations.

A **natural nuclear fission reactor** is a uranium deposit where self-sustaining nuclear chain reactions have occurred. The phenomenon was discovered in 1972 in Oklo, Gabon, and this is still the only known location for this in the world. It consists of 16 sites with patches of centimeter-sized ore layers. Here self-sustaining nuclear fission reactions are thought to have taken place approximately 1.7 billion years ago, and ran for a few hundred thousand years, averaging probably less than 100 kW of thermal power during that time.

### See also

Nuclear fusion which releases a vast amount more energy.
Ocean thermal energy conversion

**Ocean thermal energy conversion** (OTEC) uses the ocean thermal gradient between cooler deep and warmer shallow to run a heat engine to produce electricity. Up to 88,000 TW could be generated. Closed-cycle OTEC uses refrigerants like ammonia to power the system's generator. Open-cycle engines use vapor from the seawater as the working fluid.

OTEC benefits:

* conditioning and refrigeration

* fresh water distilled from the sea by desalinization

* fertilizes the world's largest marine ecosystems

* hydrogen production as a by-product

* useful mineral extraction

* weather and climate control

See also:

OTEC
Wheel

A **wheel** is a circular block, usually made of a hard and durable material. In the centre of the wheel is a hole for an axle, about which the wheel rotates. Wheels are usually fixed below an otherwise static object to help it move. They are commonly an element of a means of transportation, such as for cars and bicycles, but have uses in agriculture, manufacturing, mechanical engineering and beyond.

### History

In the Stone Age, humans realized round objects were easier to move than irregular ones. If a cylindrical object such as fallen tree was placed underneath a large object that needed moving, the job was made far easier. However it wasn’t until around 3500BC that humans began to make their own wheels. The first were potter’s wheels and hundreds of years later wheels were used to make chariots and later for animal-drawn carts and carriages.

More than one thousand years later, the Egyptians began to create spoked wheels to improve speed and maneuverability and another thousand years later, Celtic people began using iron rims for greater strength.

The wheelbarrow first appeared in ancient Greece somewhere between 600 and 400BC, saving construction workers days of labour.

Around 600AD the wheel was first used to create modes of transportation, even though it was being used for irrigation, milling and pottery.

Around the 19th century the pneumatic tyre was invented This was a rubber wheel of compressed air, a design that paved the way for the car and bicycle tyres we use today. Wire spoked wheels combined with pneumatic tyres allowed wheels to be both stiff and light.

### Impact

The wheel is one of the most important invention of all times, having a fundamental impact on transport and later on agriculture and industry. Use of the wheel has continued to revolutionize travel and transportation through to the present day. It is used in trains, cars, bicycles and motor-bikes. The wheel was fundamental to the creation of the propeller and jet engine.

Its use in agriculture is almost as important as its use in transportation. For centuries, waterwheels and windmills helped irrigate fields or remove water from flooded areas; they drove grinding machines to produce flour; they powered bellows and hammers in metal workshops.
Quantum

A **quantum** is the minimum amount of matter involved in an energetic interaction. For example, a photon is a single quantum of light or of any other form of electromagnetic radiation. The energy of an electron bound within an atom is quantized. Quantization of energy and how energy and matter interact is part of the fundamental understanding of nature.

As science advanced, quanta meant different things:

* Quanta of electricity (electrons), was used in a 1902 article on the photoelectric effect.
* In 1905, Einstein suggested that radiation existed in spatially localized packets which he called "quanta of light."
* From 1900 onwards, quantization of radiation was discovered by Planck, who had been trying to understand black-body radiation. He observed that energy could be absorbed or released only in tiny, differential, discrete packets (which he called "bundles", or "energy elements"). As a result, Planck deduced the Planck constant, and reported other values for the unit of electrical charge and the the number of real molecules in a mole. After his theory was validated, Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery in 1918. This led to the study of quantum mechanics and is the basis for many areas of modern science, such as quantum computers, entanglement and teleportation.

This paper attempts to explain why the Planck mass is so large compared to other fundamental particles. Each time the indivisible particles that make an electron (for example) have traveled the reduced Compton wavelength of the electron, they counter-strike. The electron is therefore in a mass state only a fraction of the time. This is why the Planck mass can be so enormous compared to the electron rest-mass and still make up the electron as well as any other subatomic particle. The number of uncertain transitions between mass and energy for an electron is 7.76 x 1020 times per second. An electron is only 9.109 x 10-31 kg, or 2.389x1022 particles per Planck mass.

The fabric of reality is composed of quanta, which are indivisible packets of matter/energy discovered at different periods of scientific advancement, as the Laws of Physics changed:

* A 4D reality is made up of 1D quantum strings and foam, which are at Planck sizes, and interconnected by quantum entanglement.
* A 5D reality has the graviton (the quantum of gravity) , at 1.07×10−67 kg, where dimensions are rolled up into tiny, compactified loops.
* At 6D the Theory of Everything was discovered, that standardized the interactions between all four forces of nature: gravity, strong nuclear, weak nuclear, and electromagnetic force. The quantum is still the graviton.
* A 7D reality has a new quantum dimension with *new fundamental forces*, and new laws of physics. The size and name of this quantum is to be determined.
* The 7D quantum is the same in all further reality, including the hyperverse.
* The final quantum is in the outerverse which is unbound by the idea of dimensions. An outerverse particle is therefore an empty dimension in reality. The nature of this quantum is not known.
Zero

**Zero** is a number that is not exactly nothing but the absence of something. Nothing is an empty set which has zero elements within. On the number line, zero separates positive and negative numbers, and extends natural or counting numbers into a set of integers, critical to mathematics. Zero is also important in the decimal numbering system for multiplication and factor placeholders, and in binary for representing one of two states.

### History

In the seventh century, Indian mathematician Brahmagupta wrote: “When zero is added to a number or subtracted from a number, the number remains unchanged; and a number multiplied by zero becomes zero.” Brahmagupta’s text *Brahmasphutasiddhanta*, written in AD628, was the first written description of zero as a number.

In AD773 Mohammed ibn-Musa al-Khowarizmi took Indian arithmetic and showed how the zero could function in algebraic equations, and by the ninth century the zero had entered the Arabic numeral system in an oval shape.

Eventually the use of zero as a mathematical function became increasingly widespread, was employed in graphing in the 17th century, and spawned *calculus* which was a whole new field of mathematics that depended on zero. This was the foundation on which physics, engineering, astronomy, computers, financial and economic theory developed.

### Impact

The uses of zero have gone well beyond simple mathematics. Computers use binary code, the system on which the principle of two possible states exist, “on” and “off”. The ‘on’ state is assigned the value ‘1’, while the ‘off’ state is assigned the value ‘0’ - that is, zero. Without zero, modern electronics wouldn’t exist. Without zero, there’s no calculus, which means no modern engineering or automation. Without zero, much of our modern world literally falls apart.

Understanding how and why the great inventions were made that made modern science and technology possible, concerns all mankind. And the invention of zero certainly ranks among the greatest.
Watchers (Time Ships)

The **Watchers** are an mysterious race of time-traveling creatures from the Time Ships Universe. Their exact nature is unknown, but they strongly implied to be of Human descent. They appear interested in watching Time Travelers as they travel through time. They helped Universal Constructors fine-tune their own Nonlinearity Engines which would be used to colonize all infinite universes in the multiverse.

After aiding (and watching over) Universal Constructors' colonization of the multiverse, the Watchers embark upon journeys to go further to orders of infinity, and breach the endless hierarchies of the Time Ships universe.

See also

Watchers
Xel'Naga

The **Xel'Naga** are an interdimensional species of extraterrestrials in the StarCraft universe.

   Originating from the void, the Xel'Naga were incredibly long-lived even by Protoss standards, but not immortal; eventually their species would come to an end. In the interest of survival they planned to create new Xel'Naga by uplifting two species. A pair of qualities was required and these were defined by the Xel'Naga as purity of essence and purity of form, and each uplifted species would be targeted for one of them. Over an extraordinarily long period of time, the two species would naturally come together and merge, forming the next generation of Xel'Naga and beginning the cycle anew. This cycle was repeated in numerous universes; at the start of a universe's creation, the Xel'Naga would take on physical form and enter the universe, seeding it with life. The cycle repeated so many times that time itself was affected by it.

During their journeys, they learned of the Voice in the Darkness, a Void-based entity which consumed entire civilizations. The Xel'Naga, who protected life, imprisoned it with an Argus crystal beneath a barren world at KL-2.

Driven to perfect their science of proto-genetic evolution, the Xel'Naga focused their frustrated efforts on Aiur, one of their engineered worlds. Pleased with the progress of its most advanced native life-forms, the Xel'Naga conceded that their latest creation was their first of all their experiments to evolve beyond the feral constraints of baser life-forms. They gave the new race the name of Protoss, or 'the firstborn'.
Narn

The **Narn** are a humanoid species from Babylon 5. They are part of the Younger Races who are young in relation to the First Ones.

The Narn are a deeply spiritual and socially conservative people who have several major religions. They are also practical and pragmatic, and atheism is easily tolerated. They were on two occasions conquered by the Centauri. Though the Narn were among the hundred or so races genetically altered by the Vorlons to breed telepaths, they were all wiped out by the Shadows during the First Shadow War.
Chapitre 3 : Suites numériques

## Suites numériques

Voici ce qu'il y a d'important à savoir sur le chapitre des **suites numériques** en Maths.

Si vous avez des questions, n'hésitez pas à les poser en commentaires :)

## Vidéos

*Voici quelques vidéos expliquant cette partie du cours, pour vous aider à mieux comprendre si nécessaire.*

*Bon... Pour l'instant cette section est vide... :/ Je n'ai pas de vidéos en tête maintenant, mais si vous en avez que vous voudriez partager, n'hésitez pas à en faire part ^^*
Yithians

The **Great Race of Yith** are an alien race in the Lovecraft Universe. They are capable of projecting their consciousnesses across time, inhabiting the bodies of individuals of other species and swapping their minds with their own. At some point in the distant past, they abandoned their original bodies for those of a species living on the primitive Earth, and built a flourishing civilization on the planet in their new conic bodies.

They went to war with the Flying Polyps and the Elder Things. The Yithans were initially successful in the war against the flying polyps, and trapped them under Earth. They eventually lost the war but survived by projecting their minds into an insectoid race that will one day inherit the Earth after mankind.
Robert A. Heinlein

**Robert Anson Heinlein** (1907 – 1988) was an American science fiction author, aeronautical engineer, and futurist. He was among the first to emphasize scientific accuracy in his fiction, and together with Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke are often considered the "Big Three" of English-language science fiction authors. Notable Heinlein works include *Stranger in a Strange Land* and *Starship Troopers*. His futurism ideas were contained in his Future History series.
Omniverse

The **omniverse** is a collection of all megaverses. Everything that exists in 11d dimensions, including all verses, instances, and reality, exist simultaneously, in parallel, and in an infinity of configurations inside the omniverse. The infinity contained in a megaverse is a subset of the infinities of the omniverse.

#### Dimensionally Coterminus:

All energy and matter is spread across both sides of the D-Brane; however any distribution across another dimension is likewise still attached in each. The quantum entanglement of all forms means in 10d all energy and matter exists in a coterminus state. Destroyed in one place it still exists as it does in the other places. Across the brane is 11d.
Red giant

A **red giant** is a luminous giant star in a late phase of stellar evolution. It has exhausted the supply of hydrogen in its core and has begun thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in a shell surrounding the core. They have radii tens to hundreds of times larger than that of its original star and typically engulf parts of its own solar system. Our own sun will become a red giant in a few billion years.
New Gods

The **New Gods** live outside of normal time and space in a realm called the Fourth World in the DC Universe.

Long ago, GodWorld was inhabited by the Old Gods. They met their end in a catastrophe that split GodWorld into two planets that became known as Apokolips and New Genesis. Eventually, new life evolved on each of the new planets, including races of humanoid beings. Thus arose the New Gods on both Apokolips and New Genesis. Both planets pursued separate destinies for a long time. New Genesis was a world of peace and beauty, whereas Apokolips was a planet-wide armed camp, ruled by tyranny and dedicated to war.

Notably, Darkseid of Apokolips ignited a lengthy and devastating conflict between the two planets. Eventually, in trying to discover the Anti-Life Equation, the psionic means by which he could control every sentient being in the universe, hostilities between Apokolips and New Genesis continued with Earth as the battlefield.

The New Gods have Immortality, Invulnerability, Super Strength, Super Stamina, Superhuman Reflexes, Superhuman Immunity, and Superhuman Speed. Darkseid was the most powerful of them all.
Old Gods

The **Old Gods** were an ancient race in the DC Universe.

Around 18 billion years ago, the Old Gods originated from GodWorld (also known as Asgard). After 10 billion years of a golden age, an evil called Ragnarok came that saw GodWorld being torn asunder in a great explosion called the Godwave where the gods perished. The energy unleashed seeded worlds with the potential to eventually bring forth gods of their own. Such a world was Earth.

About 4.8 billion years ago, the remnants of GodWorld would eventually create two separate planets: Apokolips and New Genesis. New Genesis became dedicated to peace and goodness. Apokolips developed into a cruel, warlike culture. Thus rose the New Gods as the planets warred.

Some of the Old Gods had survived their racial extinction, for example the Dreggs (who live below the surface of Apokolips), Arzaz and the Nameless One.
The Powers That Be

**The Powers That Be** (or the **Powers**) were the first beings to co-exist in the Earth dimension with the Old Ones in the Buffy Universe. These beings watched over mankind and guided the forces of good.

They are an extremely powerful race that were forged in the "inferno of creation". They possess a low form of omnipotence, immortality and Evolution Inducement: they can direct or enhance or accelerate the evolutionary process through their supernatural powers.
Chapitre 3-1 : L'Amérique, puissance du Nord et affirmation du Sud

## Chapitre 3 *(Partie 1)*

Globe terrestre, zoom sur l'Amérique du Nord

Il s'agit de la première grande partie du chapitre : ***Dynamiques géographiques de grandes aires continentales***.

## Pour aller plus loin...

Voici maintenant quelques documents que vous pouvez consulter pour en savoir encore plus sur ce chapitre.

*(Elle concerne tout ce qui est : journaux, livres, films... concernant ce chapitre, donc si vous avez des propositions à faire, n'hésitez pas à les rajouter ici ^^)*
Tesseract

A **tesseract** is a four-dimensional analogue of the cube; the tesseract is to the cube as the cube is to the square. Just as the surface of the cube consists of six square faces, the hypersurface of the tesseract consists of eight cubical cells.

It is the four-dimensional hypercube, or 4-cube as a part of the dimensional family of hypercubes. The table of polygonal orthographic projections shows the massive increases in complexity as dimensions increase.

These structures are used in the understanding and physics of higher dimension cosmological structures and faster-than-light or time travel devices.

Interstellar contained a 5-dimensional tesseract created by future humans, and within was a 3-dimensional structure so that it could be understood and navigated by current humans.
Quantum entanglement

Quantum computers use “qubits” which hold both zero and one at the same time. A *quantum network* can transmit them via **quantum entanglement**. You can create particles that are “entangled.” If you then observe the state of one of them, you’ll affect the state of its entangled partner, no matter how far away that other particle is.

You can use that to encrypt information. If a sender wants to send a message to a receiver, each would receive one of a pair of entangled photons. Measuring those photons’ states would give both a unique key, which is used to encrypt a message, and in turn to decrypt it. If somebody tried to tap in for the key, that would influence the photons, and both parties would be alerted. This method of encryption is theoretically unhackable as entangled photons can’t be covertly read without disrupting their content. This could be used over the internet or even InterPlaNet in Type I cultures.

With the speed of light being the only limiting factor, it is possible to create pure (extremely fast) bandwidth of transmission of information between entangled particles. This process is described in teleportation.

### Some uses

* Quantum microscope
* Gravitational wave observatories like LIGO
* Global positioning
* Radar
* Navigation

### News

* Alain Aspect, Anton Zeilinger and John Clauser share the 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics for their research on quantum entanglement.
T'au

The **T'au** or **Tau** are a young, humanoid and technologically-advanced intelligent species native to the Eastern Fringes of the Milky Way Galaxy in the Warhammer 40k Universe.

They are fighting to expand their interstellar empire and extend a philosophical concept they call the "Greater Good" to all the intelligent species of the galaxy.

The T'au claim to be a peaceful species when possible, asking if others will join their cause voluntarily instead of fighting against them. However, if their peaceful overtures are refused, the T'au may well decide to conquer a planet and add it to their growing interstellar empire for the Greater Good, searing the flesh from the bones of anyone who stands against their benign intentions.