recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Luke 5:20

**καὶ ἰδὼν τὴν πίστιν αὐτῶν εἶπεν· ἄνθρωπε, ἀφέωνταί σοι αἱ ἁμαρτίαι σου.**

And seeing their faith he said O man, your sins are forgiven you.

* ἰδὼν - is a aorist active participle nominative masculine 3P sg. This is to match the subject of the sentence "he" (Jesus).
* τὴν πίστιν αὐτῶν - Jesus saw the faith of "them", that is, the faith of the friends who let the sick man down from the roof, not just the faith of the sick man.
* ἄνθρωπε - vocative for man.
* ἀφέωνταί - is perfect passive indicative 3P pl. Plural because it refers to the man's sins. Passive - the footnotes in the NET bible say this is to emphasise the passivity of receiving forgiveness, because it is God who does the forgiving.
* αἱ ἁμαρτίαι - the sins. Notice this is nominative. This is the subject of the sentence. The subject does not do the forgiving, the subject gets forgiven. The man is the indirect object.
Μᾶλλον

**μᾶλλον** (mallon)

Gloss: adverb more than, rather than, all the more

Strong's 3123

GK 3437

Frequency in New Testament 81

## Examples

A range of possible usages and constructions. Here are just a few. Generally, expect to find it near the main verb

* verb μᾶλλον ... ἢ (verb rather object A than object B)
	+ John 3:19 - ἠγάπησαν οἱ ἄνθρωποι μᾶλλον τὸ σκότος ἢ τὸ φῶς - loved the people rather the darkness (than) the light
* verb μᾶλλον ... (verb rather object A ... objects B+, the non preferred options are implied)
	+ Matthew 10:6 - πορεύεσθε δὲ μᾶλλον πρὸς τὰ πρόβατα τὰ ἀπολωλότα οἴκου Ἰσραήλ. - but go! rather to the lost sheep of the house of Israel
* μᾶλλον ... passive verb (instead of something else preceding, rather, this happened)
	+ Mark 5:26 - ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον εἰς τὸ χεῖρον ἐλθοῦσα - but rather it had become worse
	+ Mark 15:11 - ἵνα μᾶλλον τὸν Βαραββᾶν ἀπολύσῃ αὐτοῖς - in order rather Barabbas that would be released
* μᾶλλον + verb (qualifies verb immediately following)
	+ John 5:18 - διὰ τοῦτο οὖν μᾶλλον ἐζήτουν αὐτὸν οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι ἀποκτεῖναι - because of this all the more sought the Jews to kill him
Πιστεύω

**πιστεύω** (pisteuo)

Gloss: I believe

Principal parts: πιστεύω, πιστεύσω, ἐπίστευσα, πεπίστευκα, πεπίστευμαι, ἐπιστεύθην

Strong's 4100

GK 4409

Frequency in New Testament 249

## Notes

* With 249 occurrences by one count, it ranks as the 62nd most frequent word in the NT. Not surprising as the NT has a lot about believing. The corresponding noun also has a heavy representation.
* Also of interest is that there is good representation of various verb forms across the tenses, all six parts and the conjugations are reasonably well-behaved.
* Very common are the present active indicatives, aorist indicatives, passives, imperatives and even the participles.
Ὅς

**ὅς** (hos, ὅς, ἥ, ὅ)

Gloss: relative pronoun - who, which

Strong's 3739

GK 4005

Frequency in New Testament: 1435

* not surprising that this is the 12th most common word in the NT.
* the relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number.
* case is decided by its function inside the relative clause, ***not*** the case of its antecedent!

## Case of the relative pronoun - examples

As noted above, the case of the relative pronoun depends on its function in the relative clause, not the antecedent in the sentence as a whole. The trick is to imagine the relative clause as standing on its own. The relative pronoun, if it were the person or thing in that clause, what case would it be? That would be the case of the relative pronoun.

* οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός, ἐν ᾧ εὐδόκησα - This is my beloved son in whom I am please. The antecedent "my son" is nominative but in the relative clause the son is one "in whom" God is pleased. So the relative pronoun is the dative sg. masc. **ᾧ**
* ἰδοὺ ὁ παῖς μου ὃν ᾑρέτισα - Behold my servant whom I have chosen. The antecedent is "ὁ παῖς μου", my servant, which is the subject and is in the nominative. But in the relative clause, God chose "him", he is the object of God's choice. So "whom" is in the accusative "ὃν".
Head noun

In an expression or string of words, a **head noun** is the main noun or the noun which determines what main kind of "thing" the expression is about. The other words in the expression go on to qualify or give more information about the main thing. Hence in "tree of life", the head noun is "tree". What kind of thing is it? It's a tree. The other noun "life" gives more information about the tree. Similarly, in "hand bag", the head noun is bag. What kind of thing is it? It's a bag. "Hand" is just there to give more information about what kind of bag.
Dative case

The **dative case** is the form of a noun or adjective used for an indirect object. If the noun is for example A, the dative form of A can be thought of as/translated as "to A" or "for A". The dative case is common to many European languages which have the case feature in nouns and adjectives. In Greek, the dative case also includes usages where the locative and instrumental cases would be used in some other European languages.

## Features

* In words in the dative case, as with the genitive case, if the last syllable (the ultima) is accented, the accent will be a circumflex.
Καί

**καί** (kai)

Gloss: conjunction meaning and, also, even, and then

Strong's 2532

GK 2779

Frequency in New Testament 9153

* Nothing very remarkable to note here except that this is the second most common word in the NT.
* Grammarians would insist that it is not good style to start an English sentence with "and", but it is very common in the NT for a sentence to start with καί.
* It's also not a good style in English to string a narrative together with a lot of "and then" joiners. Well, it happens a lot in the NT as well.
* crasis form: κἀγὼ (and I) e.g. Matthew 2:8
* ὡς καὶ - like and, so and.... rendered also
* δὲ καὶ - two conjunctions together, translates as so also, then also, and also
Imperfect tense

The **Imperfect Tense** has the following features:

* It only occurs in the indicative
* It indicates imperfective aspect, an ongoing action seen as a process usually in the past

## Uses of the Imperfect

The imperfect tense is used for example to describe an action, seen as a process, which was unfolding in the past. This n be done, for example to set the scene for subsequent events, e.g. "The parade was marching by when...." This usage is also found in other European languages such as in Spanish which has an imperfect.

There's a whole set of jargon to describe the various uses of the imperfect:

* Progressive imperfect - a process taking place in the past ("he was eating"). Also called "descriptive imperfect".
* Ingressive imperfect - a process which began to take place in the past ("the parade started"). Also called "inchoative" or "inceptive".
* Iterative imperfect - a repeated action in the past ("he kept trying")
* Customary imperfect - a habitual action in the past ("he used to...."). Also called "general" or "lifestyle" imperfect.
* Conative imperfect - something a person wanted to do ("he wanted to....", "he tried to"). Also called "voluntative" or "tendential".

## Formation of the Imperfect

A verb in the imperfect tense is formed from the present tense stem with an augment, a connecting vowel and secondary personal endings. Note there is no tense formative.

Because the imperfect is formed from the present tense stem, it is not listed separately by lexicons which list the 6 principal parts of Greek verbs.

### Present tense stem

To get the present tense stem, remove the present tense primary ending and connecting vowel.

### Secondary active endings

Secondary endings are used for secondary tenses: imperfect, aorist and pluperfect. All typically refer to past time.

 2nd person
 3rd person

### Connecting vowel

The connecting vowel is the same as for the Present Indicative tense

* ο before μ and ν
* ε before everything else

### Augment

The augment is tacked to the beginning of the stem and only occur in the indicative mood. The augment and the secondary ending go together and their presence of both in an indicative verb typically indicates past time.

* verbs beginning with a consonant: add ε
* verbs beginning with a vowel: lengthen initial vowel
	+ α becomes η
	+ ε becomes η
	+ ο becomes ω
	+ other vowels no change
* diphthongs: lengthen initial vowel as above but superscript the ι
	+ αι becomes ῃ
	+ ει becomes ῃ
	+ οι becomes ῳ

## Imperfect Active Indicative paradigm

Example paradigm for λύω (loose, destroy). The connecting vowel is shown in red and the personal ending is shown in green. The next column shows the Present tense active indicative for comparison.

 2nd sg
 3rd sg
 1st pl
 2nd pl
 3rd pl
John 5:40

**καὶ οὐ θέλετε ἐλθεῖν πρός με ἵνα ζωὴν ἔχητε**

And/but you all do not want to come to me that you may have life

* οὐ θέλετε - "do not want" present active indicative
* ἐλθεῖν - from ἔρχομαι "to come". Aorist active infinitive. A complementary infinitive whose purpose is to give more information about the main verb--do not want (what is it you do not want?)
* ἔχητε - present active subjunctive (2P) "you all may have". Subjunctive typically follows ἵνα (so that, in order that)
Deponent verb

Traditionally, a **deponent verb** is a verb that is middle-voice in form but active in its meaning. Such verbs are characterised by existing only with middle-passive endings within a given tense. The active endings are absent. It is possible however, that it other tenses, active endings may be present. The term middle-only is also sometimes used.

More recent research asserts that there is actually no such thing, and that the verbs traditionally considered to be deponents are all proper middle-voice verbs in the sense that they all involve some degree of "subject-affectedness" meaning an action which also affects the actor in some way. Subject-affectedness is akin to the more restrictive idea of reflexive and reciprocal verbs in many other European languages.

An example of a verb considered traditionally as deponent is ἐρχομαι (I come). Here it can be seen that there is some subtle subject-affectedness. After all, the location of the subject is being affected when he executes the action.

Still more recent research posits that the middle and passive voices in Greek actually form a continuum, verbs stand somewhere along this continuum depending on how much the subject is affected by the action. (This is in contrast to the English which appears binary, having voices which are either active or passive only). Some discussions call this medio-passive, middle-passive and so on.

One can compare this usefully with the way Greek is more interested in the quality of the action than English is. One facet of this is to being concerned to give information about the aspect of an action rather than the time. In the same way, one could argue that another facet of the quality of an action is to what extent the subject is affected.

According to Mounce, using the continuum model, the verbs traditionally though of as deponent stand at one end. If actives are on the left and the medio-passive continuum is to the right, with subject-affectedness increasing rightwards, the former deponents stand just inside the left of the range, near to the actives. This is probably because the manner in which the subject is affected is subtle or slight. English, which doesn't have these nuances, translates them as actives.

Regardless of whether the label deponent is applied, it is still useful to know about these verbs because they cluster around one end of the continuum. Some teachers and grammars might still continue to teach them as deponents, and most certainly the term will be encountered when reading older books.

According to Mounce, the verbs traditionally classed as deponent (and which may perhaps get another label soon) fall into several categories or rather they tend to have these attributes:

* Motion - the position of the subject is changed in some way
* Emotion
* Grooming
* Spontaneous
* Benefactive
* Reciprocal
* Reflexive
Matthew 6:9b

**Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς·ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου·**

Our father in heaven hallowed be you name

* The first line of the Lord's Prayer.
* Πάτερ ἡμῶν - Πάτερ is in the vocative case. "O father". From lexical form πατήρ.
* ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς - in the heavens. Notice the plural form. Dative case. ἐν takes dative.
* ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς - this phrase functions as an adjective. Hence the ὁ. It father was not in the vocative form, the phrase could have been ὁ πατήρ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς, showing clearly the common article noun article adjective construction. But the vocative case doesn't use the article while the rest of the construction remains the same.
* ἁγιασθήτω - aorist passive imperative 3P sg form of the verb ἁγιάζω (I set apart as holy, I sanctify, the KJV translation I hallow is convenient as a single word). So ἁγιασθήτω means "may ... be hallowed", or "hallowed be .... ". In modern speech, "may your name be regarded as holy".
* τὸ ὄνομά σου - the name yours or your name. An example of the enclitic effect of σου. It doesn't have an accent but pushes its accent onto the previous word, or rather it attaches to the previous word for the purpose of applying accenting rules. Since accents can only be placed on the last three syllables of a word-group, the original accent of **ὄ**νομα is too early. So another accent is added, ὄνομ**ά**.
Aspect

**Aspect** is a property of a Greek verb which conveys information about the kind of action it is about. Many grammars describe aspect as the main property of Greek verbs, that they are more about telling you what kind of action it is rather than when the action took place.

Some have described aspect as what the action looks like from the point of view of the writer/speaker. Mounce quotes Campbell's analogy, for example, of either viewing a parade from a helicopter (seeing it as a whole event - or perhaps looking at the parade from a still photograph), or landing the helicopter and joining the parade (viewing the parade as an ongoing process).

While not so familiar in English, the concept of aspect is actually present in many European languages. Czech verbs have aspect inherent in them. The verbs typically exist as aspectual pairs and differentiate them by using the terms "process" or "event". One of the pair views the action as an ongoing process (imperfective) and the other views the action as an event. In Spanish, there are the preterite and imperfect tenses.

In English, aspect is not inherent in the verb itself and extra words are used to convey information about the kind of action. Hence, for example:

* I was studying - conveys the idea that there was an ongoing process of studying going on
* I studied - conveys the idea that there was an event of studying some time ago.

In Greek, three aspects have been recognised:

* Imperfective - this views the action as an process. Other associated terms are "progressive", "linear" and "internal" (being inside the parade?)
* Perfective - views the action as a complete (not necessarily completed) event. Other associated terms are "external", "summary", "event" (all such views would require a helicopter, one supposes)
* Combinative - a more recent term used e.g. by Mounce and others, to refer to an event which is completed but has ongoing consequences. It has therefore features of the perfective and the imperfective. Other grammars use the terms "stative" or "perfect" for the third aspect.

Among the complexities is that the perfective tense in Greek does not actually carry perfective aspect. It is more combinative. For details see the article on the perfective tense.
Μένω

**μένω** (meno)

Gloss: I abide, remain, dwell

Principal parts: μένω, μενῶ, ἔμεινα, μεμένηκα, -, -

Strong's 3306

GK 3531

Frequency in New Testament 120

* Imperfect is ἔμενον
* Frequency rank order is 141st
* One of those liquid verbs which demonstrate the features of liquid futures.

* Because the stem ended with a liquid λ,μ,ν,ρ the tense formative εσ is used instead of σ.
* The sigma in the εσ finds itself caught between two vowels (inter-vocalic) and drops out, leaving εε or εο which contract with a circumflex to mark it.
John 4:50

**λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς· πορεύου, ὁ υἱός σου ζῇ. Ἐπίστευσεν ὁ ἄνθρωπος τῷ λόγῳ ὃν εἶπεν αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς καὶ ἐπορεύετο**

Jesus said to him go, your son lives. The man believed the words Jesus said to him and went on his way.

* Use of the historical present here, for example λέγει.
* On the other hand, some other verbs are aorist: Ἐπίστευσεν and εἶπεν.
* πορεύου - from πορεύομαι. This is 2nd person sg. middle imperative. 2nd person sg imperatives are typically irregular but this one follows the λύου pattern.
* ἐπορεύετο also from πορεύομαι. This is the imperfect middle 3P sg. Imperfect is used to describe a progressive action. One of the functions is to set the scene for ("lay the carpet for") various events. This can be seen in the next verse where the man (the ruler) is on his way and then his servants meet him during the trip.
Liquids

Strictly speaking the **liquid** consonants are **λ** and **ρ**. These are sounds which are made with the tongue partly obstructing the flow of air, with the air thus flowing around the sides of it. However for the purposes of Koine Greek, verb stems ending with **λ**, **ρ**, and nasals **μ** and **ν** are considered liquids. This is an important category because liquid stems form the future and aorist in a slightly different way.

Which letters are liquids can be remembered with the mnemonics: LeMoNaR or LaMiNaR
Luke 7:50

**εἶπεν δὲ πρὸς τὴν γυναῖκα· ἡ πίστις σου σέσωκέν σε· πορεύου εἰς εἰρήνην.**

And/so/then he said to the woman, your faith has saved you, go in peace.

* postpositive δὲ
* notice πρὸς τὴν γυναῖκα. Why did't the author use the dative without a preposition, which would also work. Is this a case of languages simplifying over time?
* σέσωκέν - perfect. Meaning, her salvation is a done deal, but with ongoing circumstances?
* πορεύου - 2P sg imperative
Σάββατον

**σάββατον** (sabbaton, σάββατον, -ου, τό)

Gloss: sabbath, week

Strong's 4521

GK 4879

Frequency in New Testament 68

## Notes

* This ranks 44th among the most common words in the NT and there are many more occurrences in the LXX.

### Plural vs Singular

* Although we translate it into singular, many of the occurrences in the Greek NT and LXX are in the plural form even in contexts like "Is it lawful to do ... on the Sabbath?" or "first day of the week" or "he was teaching them on the Sabbath". All plural.
* Similarly, usage in LXX is skewed towards the plural, e.g. in contexts like "Keep the sabbath".
* One explanation given on internet resources is that the word was Aramaic shabta. This was transliterated into Greek as σάββατα which has the appearance of plural. When a singular was needed, the singular ending was tacked on.
* It is hard to discern a pattern in the plural v singular use in the NT. An eyeball pattern (which has exceptions!) is the plural is used in referring events happening on a Sabbath, or in normal discource, where it could be translated as "times of the Sabbath" -- is it lawful to do.... during the times of the Sabbath?
* By this observation, the singular is used to denote Sabbath as an institution--hence "Lord of the Sabbath is in the singular. But there are exceptions where the singular is used in ordinary descriptions!

### First of the week?

* Ἐν δὲ τῇ μιᾷ τῶν σαββάτων συνηγμένων ἡμῶν κλάσαι ἄρτον (Acts 20:7) "And on the first (day) of the week when we had gathered to break bread....
* Can μιᾷ τῶν σαββάτων be translated as "the first of the Sabbaths"? So did they meet on a Saturday or a Sunday?
* According to one discussion on stackexchange, it cannot be "one of the Sabbaths". μιᾷ is feminine while σάββατον is neuter. For the adjective "one of the", this should be in neuter to agree with the noun if σάββατον is intended as the reference. Instead, it is more likely that μιᾷ is feminine here to agree with an elided word, ἡμέρα, day. In English we also elide "day" like when we say "first" of the month.
* Moreover, note in both Mark 16:2 and Luke 24:1, the same phrase occurs (and the passage in Luke is by the same author as Acts). Here the passages are about the women coming to be tomb after the crucifixion. The context makes it very clear the phrase is referring to the first day of the week.
* The text in Acts 20:7 thus provides an indication that believers were gathering on Sundays as early as the time of Paul.

## References

1. ↑ hermeneutics.stackexchange.com question 27997
Ἰησοῦς

**Ἰησοῦς** (Iesous, Ἰησοῦς, -ου, ὁ)

Gloss: Jesus

Strong's 2424

GK 2652

Frequency in New Testament 917

## Notes

* Not surprisingly, this ranks 19th as the most frequent word in the NT.
* Many proper nouns in Greek are indeclinable, especially names borrowed from another language (which this is) or place names. However Ἰησοῦς does have a full declension, in the singular only, obviously.
* This can be treated as a cognate as it sounds almost the same and means the same as the equivalent in English.

## Paradigm

 Accusative | Ἰησοῦν | --

Note dative is irregular. To be regular it would be for example Ἰησοῖ (LXX - for Joshua)

## Examples

* Ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ὥρᾳ προσῆλθον οἱ μαθηταὶ τῷ Ἰησοῦ λέγοντες - Matthew 18:1. Example of dative case. At that time the disciples came to Jesus, saying....
Κύριος

**κύριος** (kurios kyrios, κύριος, -ου, ὁ)

Gloss: Lord

Strong's 2962

GK 3261

Frequency in New Testament 717

## Notes

* Ranks as 22nd most common word in the NT.
* Can be a simple term of address like "sir" or the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew term for God YHWH.
* Note there is also a female equivalent "κυρία" (κυρία, ας, ἡ; Strongs 2959, GK 3257) which occurs only twice, 2 John 1:1 and 2 John 1:5. Usually translated as "lady".

## Paradigm

Vocative forms: κύριε (sg. very frequent) and κύριοι (pl.)
John 3:11

**ἀμὴν ἀμὴν λέγω σοι ὅτι ὃ οἴδαμεν λαλοῦμεν καὶ ὃ ἑωράκαμεν μαρτυροῦμεν, καὶ τὴν μαρτυρίαν ἡμῶν οὐ λαμβάνετε**

Truly truly I say to you, that which we have known we speak and that which we have seen we testify and our testimony you all do not receive

* οἴδαμεν and ἑωράκαμεν are perfect active indicative 1P pl. Makes sense, as it is things that have happened but which have continuing relevance
* λαλοῦμεν and μαρτυροῦμεν are present active indicative 1P pl.
* Why is Jesus using 1P plural here?
* Also notice λέγω σοι - say to you 2P sg. but λαμβάνετε is 2P pl.
Razor

## Habilidades

Razor s0 ic.png**ATAQUE BÁSICO**Razor s1 ic.png**OLA ATRONADORA**Razor s2 ic.png**PUÑO DEL TRUENO**Razor s3 ic.png**PODER MISTERIOSO**
* **Ataque básico:** Inflige 100 % de daño físico a un enemigo.
* **Ola atronadora:** Otorga una bonificación de daño físico a los aliados igual al 100 % de su propia bonificación de daño físico durante 2 turnos. - Enfriamiento: 220 s
* **Puño del trueno:** Inflige 120 % de daño físico a todos los enemigos. Tiene una probabilidad de electrocutarlos durante 2 turnos. - Enfriamiento: 220 s
* **Poder misterioso:** Al recibir daño elemental, gana un 25 % de daño físico durante 3 turnos (se acumula 10 veces). - Habilidad pasiva
John 5:46

**εἰ γὰρ ἐπιστεύετε Μωϋσεῖ, ἐπιστεύετε ἂν ἐμοί· περὶ γὰρ ἐμοῦ ἐκεῖνος ἔγραψεν**

For if you all believe in Moses, you would also believe me because/for he wrote about me

* εἰ ... ἂν construction indicates a 2nd class conditional, a contrary-to-fact conditional in which the protasis (if....) is presumed to be false for the sake of argument.
* ἂν is in the apodosis to indicate a sense of the hypothetical or contingency.
* Thus Jesus is implying "you all" likely don't believe in Moses....
* ἂν is in the apodosis to indicate a sense of the hypothetical.
* ἐπιστεύετε is imperfect 2P pl. But in the second occurence, when translating into English, we use extra words to indicate the sense of contingency carried by the ἂν. For example, "you would believe".
* ἐπιστεύετε Μωϋσεῖ - ἐπιστεύετε takes a dative, in this case Μωϋσεῖ.
* ἐμοί, ἐμοῦ - e- forms for emphasis and common after prepositions.
* ἔγραψεν - plain old aorist
John 3:36

**ὁ πιστεύων εἰς τὸν υἱὸν ἔχει ζωὴν αἰώνιον· ὁ δὲ ἀπειθῶν τῷ υἱῷ οὐκ ὄψεται ζωήν, ἀλ ἡ ὀργὴ τοῦ θεοῦ μένει ἐπ' αὐτόν**

The one who believes in the son has eternal life, but the one who rejects the son will not see life but the wrath of God remains on him

* πιστεύων - a participle, present active masculine nominative sg. Note εἰς takes accusative τὸν υἱὸν.
* ἀπειθῶν - the contrasting idea, also a participle, again present active masculine nominative sg. Note here it goes with a dative τῷ υἱῷ. A number of verbs expressing allegiance or belief go with dative.
* ὄψεται - future middle indicative sg form of ὁράω.
* ὀργὴ - anger, wrath
* μένει - abides, remains, present active indicative 3P sg. form of μένω.
* ἐπ' αὐτόν - on him. Notice how ἐπί drops the vowel as it comes before αὐτόν which starts with a vowel. ἐπί goes with genitive, dative or accusative, in this case accusative, with a typical gloss of on or at.
John 3:2

**ἦλθεν πρὸς αὐτὸν νυκτὸς καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ· ῥαββί, οἴδαμεν ὅτι ἀπὸ θεοῦ ἐλήλυθας διδάσκαλος· οὐδεὶς γὰρ δύναται ταῦτα τὰ σημεῖα ποιεῖν ἃ σὺ ποιεῖς, ἐὰν μὴ ᾖ ὁ θεὸς με αὐτοῦἦλθεν πρὸς αὐτὸν νυκτὸς καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ· ῥαββί, οἴδαμεν ὅτι ἀπὸ θεοῦ ἐλήλυθας διδάσκαλος· οὐδεὶς γὰρ δύναται ταῦτα τὰ σημεῖα ποιεῖν ἃ σὺ ποιεῖς, ἐὰν μὴ ᾖ ὁ θεὸς με αὐτοῦ**

He came to him by night and said to him Rabbi we know that you are a teacher sent from God. For no one is able to do all the signs that you do, unless God be with him

* νυκτὸς - notice there is no need for a preposition. Reader is meant to fill it in.
* οἴδαμεν - we know. Pluperfect active indicative 1P pl.
* διδάσκαλος - teacher. Again, no preposition.
* δύναται ταῦτα τὰ σημεῖα ποιεῖν - notice δύναται needs to be followed by a complementary infinitive ποιεῖν to give more information about what he is able to.
* ἐὰν μὴ - we hardly notice it in English, but ἐὰν μὴ just like unless, would typically be followed by a subjunctive. In this case a subtle one ᾖ (be).
Σκηνόω

**σκηνόω**

Principal parts: σκηνόω, σκηνώσω, ἐσκήνωσα, -, -, -

Root: σκην (σκῆνος = tabernacle)

Gloss: I dwell, I tabernacle

Strongs: 4637

GK: 5012

Freqeuncy: 5

## Notes

* Doesn't occur frequently in the NT but an interesting word.
* It is the same verb in the LXX of Exodus 33 where Moses pitched the Tabernacle
* Note the consonants σ, κ, ν. Possible word play with the Hebrew S-K-N (shekinah - glory). As in God tabernacled among his people and revealed his glory to them.
* See also John 1:14
Ἀκούω

**ἀκούω** (akouo)

Gloss: I hear

Principal parts: ἀκούω, ἀκούσω, ἤκουσα, ἀκήκοα, -, ἠκούσθην

Strong's 191

GK 201

Frequency in New Testament 428

* 42 most common word in the NT.
* good range of forms in many of the principal parts.

## Paradigms

Forms in the NT are in bold.

**Present Active Indicative**

**Aorist Active Indicative**

**Present Active Participle**
Σύ

**σύ** (su)

Gloss: 2nd person personal pronun - you

Strong's 4571

GK 5148

Frequency in New Testament 2906

* 4th most common word in the New Testatment
* Unlike English, which is vague about "you", whether you are addressing one person or several, σύ has singular and plural, which can be variously translated e.g. "you all". This is common with many European languages.

## Paradigm

 accusative | σέ (σε) | ῡ̔μᾶς

Note the forms in brackets. In these cases, σύ normally occurs without accents and is enclitic. But is used with accents when the author wants strong emphasis. In some tables, the accented form is presented, by convention.
John 3:16

**οὕτως γὰρ ἠγάπησεν ὁ θεὸς τὸν κόσμον, ὥστε τὸν υἱὸν τὸν μονογενῆ ἔδωκεν, ἵνα πᾶς ὁ πιστεύων εἰς αὐτὸν μὴ ἀπόληται ἀλλ᾽ ἔχῃ ζωὴν αἰώνιον**

For this is how God loved the world, that he gave his one and only son, so that all who believe in him would not perish but would have eternal life.

* There's debate about whether οὕτως means "in this manner" or serves to indicate the intensity of the action "so much". "In this manner" is the more usual understanding. However according to the NET notes, there is a body of scholarship that argues that οὕτως ... ὥστε where the ὥστε plus indicative verb ἔδωκεν (gave) indicates an actual but unexpected result and thus emphasises the greatness of the gift. The NET comes down on John making a word play and employing a double meaning that has both the nuance of "this is the manner" and "how great is this manner".
* The KJV translated οὕτως as "so". In old English, "so" often referred to "in this manner". Unfortunately, this usage is less common now.
* Note however that we still use "so" to mean "in this manner". Jean-Luc Picard says, "Make it so!" He means: "Do it in this manner (that you have suggested)."
* However because this usage is so uncommon, most people hear "so" to mean intensity.
* Most bible translations are reluctant to mess with the translation in spite of the fact that people might hear it different from the original authorial intent. People are too familiar with the KJV quote.
* Nonetheless:
	+ No big theological deal either way
	+ There's scholarly argument for the "intensity" reading" anyway.
* ἔδωκεν - simple ol' Aorist Active Indicative 3P sg. form. "Gave". From δίδωμι. δω is usually a good clue of its family lineage.
* ἵνα - should be followed by subjunctive. In this case μὴ ἀπόληται and ἔχῃ.
* πιστεύων εἰς αὐτὸν - the preposition εἰς controls the object case so it is accusative. One verse earlier John 3:15 it is dative the preposition ἐν was used and took a dative. Mounce notes that while in classical Greek the two prepositions did not overlap much, they were beginning to overlap more by the koine period.
John 5:39

**ἐραυνᾶτε τὰς γραφάς, ὅτι ὑμεῖς δοκεῖτε ἐν αὐταῖς ζωὴν αἰώνιον ἔχειν· καὶ ἐκεῖναί εἰσιν αἱ μαρτυροῦσαι περὶ ἐμοῦ**

You search the scriptures, because you believe in them to have eternal life, and/but it is they which testify about me

* The gender of the antecedent controls the gender of subsequent pronouns and referrents. Hence the antecedent τὰς γραφάς is feminine and so αὐταῖς, ἐκεῖναί, αἱ μαρτυροῦσαι are all feminine. Useful. In English we get "they ... they ... they" and sometimes get lost as to what the last they refers to.
* ἐραυνᾶτε - is an interesting word. The ἐ is not an augment, neither that nor the τε indicates an aorist. As a lexical form, it is a word which begins with ἐ. The stem also ends with α, so with the present active personal ending α + ετε, α + ε contracts to ᾶ, with the handy circumflex about to indicate a contraction. So the word is actually a present active indicative 2 person plural.
* ἔχειν - to have. This is an infinitive. It gives more information about the verb δοκεῖτε (you all think, believe). What is it you all believe? You believe that ... to have....
* περὶ ἐμοῦ - ἐμοῦ is genitive. περὶ + genitive = about: about me. See περί for more.
Personal ending

A **personal ending** is the bit tacked on the end in forming a verb to indicate the person and number. The resulting table of verbs from the same root with different personal endings form a conjugation table. Personal endings to indicate person and number is only slightly visible in English (one person runs, two persons run) but are, of course, very common in various European languages. The letters which form the personal endings in Greek are sometimes even quite similar to the corresponding ones in some European languages.

There are four types of personal endings:

* Primary active
* Primary middle/passive
* Secondary active
* Secondary middle/passive

Primary endings are used for verbs in the Present, Future and Perfect tenses. The result use Secondary endings.

Secondary endings are (almost) always accompanied by an augment.

## Primary active endings

The primary active endings can be learned and memorise in this way:

 2nd person
 3rd person

These are easier to learn but the endings above include the connecting vowels ε or ο and also include other changes which take place when forming active indicative verbs. Mounce in *Basics of Biblical Greek* however recommends learning the "true endings". This makes it easier to see what goes on when comparing with other types of endings.

The true primary active endings are:
The primary active endings can be learned and memorise in this way:

 2nd person
 3rd person

## Primary middle/passive endings

 2nd person
 3rd person

## Secondary active endings

 2nd person
 3rd person

## Secondary middle/passive endings

 2nd person
 3rd person

## Comparison

It might be easier to memorise the endings by placing the primary and seconday endings side by side as their similarities can be seen.

 2nd person sing
 3rd person sing
 1st person plur
 2nd person plur
 3rd person plur
John 1:49

**ἀπεκρίθη αὐτῷ Ναθαναήλ· ῥαββί, σὺ εἶ ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ, σὺ βασιλεὺς εἶ τοῦ Ἰσραήλ.**

Nathaniel answered him: Rabbi you are the son of God, you are the king of Israel.

* ἀπεκρίθη - aorist middle/passive 3rd person singular, he answered. Verbs of communication can be thought of as reciprocal and the actor is also "affected" by the action, hence middle.
* ῥαββί - one of the few times ῥ is seen with a breathing mark.
* Colwell used this verse as an illustration of his Colwell's rule. The last two clauses are parallel and yet have contrasting structures:
	+ **τοῦ θεοῦ** is the first predicate nominative, it has the article and so is definite, and it comes after the linking verb.
	+ **βασιλεὺς** is the second predicate nominative, it does not have the article but by parallel with the first clause, should be definite. It comes before the linking verb.
Colwell's rule

**Colwell's rule** states that: "Definite predicate nouns which precede the verb usually lack the article … a predicate nominative which precedes the verb cannot be translated as an indefinite or a ‘qualitative’ noun solely because of the absence of the article; if the context suggests that the predicate is definite, it should be translated as a definite noun....”

It means that if you have decided beforehand from context and other indications that a noun is definite and a predicate nominative and is before the linking verb, then the chances are high that it does not have the article. Some internet resources say the chances are 80% it does not have an article but I can't find the references to support this.

Note also that the rule does not apply in reverse: if you see a predicate nominative and it is before the linking verb, the chances are high that it is definite. Wallace states that this is how Colwell's rule has often been wrongly applied in respect of John 1:1c to assert that θεὸς must be seen as definite. In fact this is applying the reverse of Colwell's rule.

Wallace gives the analogy: if one sees rain, chances are high that there will be clouds. But this does not mean that if one sees clouds, chances are high that there will be rain. Wallace also quotes Harner's analysis which shows that 80% of the time predicate nominatives before the linking verb are qualitative, 20% definite (and so only rarely indefinite). Wallace thus argues that θεὸς in John 1:1c be seen as qualitative, that is, the Word was equated to the God-attributes. To assert θεὸς as indefinite is rare by Colwell's rule, and would be Arianism. But to assert that θεὸς is definite could be seen as Sabellianism.

## References

1. ↑  Wallace, Daniel B., *Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics,* 256-260.
John 3:15

**ἵνα πᾶς ὁ πιστεύων ἐν αὐτῷ ἔχῃ ζωὴν αἰώνιον**

So that all those believing in him might have eternal life.

* ἵνα calls for a subjunctive and it is ἔχῃ - might have
* πιστεύων ἐν αὐτῷ - notice the presence of the preposition ἐν which takes a dative αὐτῷ. Contrast with the next verse John 3:16
* ζωὴν αἰώνιον - doesn't look feminine? Mounce classes this adjective as a 2-2 adjective, meaning that the feminine follows the 2nd declension inflection also.
John 4:23

**ἀλ ἔρχεται ὥρα καὶ νῦν ἐστιν, ὅτε οἱ ἀληθινοὶ προσκυνηταὶ προσκυνήσουσιν τῷ πατρὶ ἐν πνεύματι καὶ ἀληθείᾳ· καὶ γὰρ ὁ πατὴρ τοιούτους ζητεῖ τοὺς προσκυνοῦντας αὐτόν**

But the hour is coming and now is, when the true worshippers will worship the father in spirit and truth for indeed the father seeks such worshippers worshipping him.

* notice ἐν πνεύματι καὶ ἀληθείᾳ - the scope of the preposition ἐν includes ἀληθείᾳ as it does not have its own separate preposition. So πνεύματι καὶ ἀληθείᾳ is considered one package.
* καὶ γὰρ - could be translated for indeed
* ζητεῖ - desires, seeks
* τοιούτους - these, such. In English we add "ones" or to make even clearer, "worshippers".
Romans 8:35a

**τίς ἡμᾶς χωρίσει ἀπὸ τῆς ἀγάπης τοῦ Χριστοῦ**

Who shall separate us from the love of Christ

* χωρίσει - future active indicate 3P sg. Who shall, who is going to.
* χωρίσει - relate to χωρίς (without). The verbal idea is making without
* τῆς ἀγάπης τοῦ Χριστοῦ - objective genitive or subjective genitive?
	+ it's easy for us to separate ourselves from our own love for Christ or to stop loving Christ. It's presumptous to think otherwise, so the objective genitive (where Christ is the object, who receives the act of loving) seems unlikely
	+ subjective genitive, attach 's to the genitive Christ's. In other words, who can separate us from Christ's love for us. Seems more plausible.
	+ Some English translations e.g. the NLT avoid the same ambiguity inherent in English with "of Christ" by rendering it as "Christ's love".
Ἐν

**ἐν** (en)

Gloss: preposition in (various other translations in context)

Strong's 1722

GK 1877

Frequency 2752

* The most common preposition in the Greek New Testament.
* The most common translation is "in" in a spatial sense.
* But other translations can be readily figured out from context: with, at, among
Οὐ

**οὐ** (ou)

Adverb. Used to negate a verb in the indicative mood. Translates as "not".

Strong's: 3756

GK: 4024

Frequency: 1623

* οὐ before a consonant
* οὐκ before a vowel with smooth breathing
* οὐχ before a vowel with rough breathing
* If used at the beginning of a rhetorical question, it expects a yes answer.
Ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου

**ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου**

The Son of Man (term used by Jesus to refer to himself, recalling a reference in Daniel. Many places e.g. John 3:13). υἱὸς (son) is in the nominative case, used as the subject of a sentence. τοῦ ἀνθρώπου will always be in the genitive case, of course; "of Man". The phrase also occurs with υἱὸς in the other cases. For example:

* Accusative: τοὺς ἀγγέλους τοῦ θεοῦ ἀναβαίνοντας καὶ καταβαίνοντας ἐπὶ **τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου** (the angles of God ascending and descending upon the Son of Man, John 1:51)
* Genitive: τὴν σάρκα **τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου** (the flesh of the Son of Man, John 6:53)
Proleptic Aorist

**Proleptic aorist** is the use of a verb in the aorist tense to talk about an event in the future as though it has already happened. This is used to express absolute certainty in the event happening.

## Examples

* οὓς δὲ ἐδικαίωσεν, τούτους καὶ ἐδόξασεν (those whom he justified he also glorified Romans 8:30) - ἐδόξασεν is first aorist active indicative 3rd person singular. Note the augment and the σ.
John 4:24

**πνεῦμα ὁ θεός, καὶ τοὺς προσκυνοῦντας αὐτὸν ἐν πνεύματι καὶ ἀληθείᾳ δεῖ προσκυνεῖν.**

God is spirit, and (for) those worshipping him, it is necessary to worship (him) in spirit and truth.

* πνεῦμα ὁ θεός - the linking verb is omitted (a common feature). The subject is ὁ θεός as indicated by the article. πνεῦμα is a predicate nominative.
* δεῖ - it is necessary. Typically takes a complementary infinitive, in this case προσκυνεῖν, to worship.
* τοὺς προσκυνοῦντας - thus functions as a kind of "subject" of the verb προσκυνεῖν. These are the entities doing the worshipping. It is in the accusative, a feature known as "accusative of general reference". There is a similar English pattern, like I asked him to worship. The "him" is in the accusative and is the subject of the infinitive verb.
Aktionsart

**Aktionsart** refers to the complete meaning of the idea conveyed by a verb, taking into account the time (tense), aspect, its lexical meaning (dictionary meaning) and other factors such as syntax and information from its use in context. Grammarians differ about the specific definition but it basically means "everything you get from the verb".
Διακονέω

**διακονέω** (diakoneo)

Gloss: I serve

Principal parts: διακονέω, διακονήσω, διηκόνησα, -, -, διηκονήθην

Strong's 1247

GK 1354

Frequency in New Testament 37

## Notes

* Doesn't quite make it into the top 300 most frequently occurring words in the NT but still worth learning, given how often the text talks about service and serving.

## Paradigms

### Present Active Indicative

 3P | **διακονεῖ** | διακονοῦσι

Note the lexical form shows the word uncontracted while the 1P sg here is contracted.
Revelation 21:3a

**καὶ ἤκουσα φωνῆς μεγάλης ἐκ τοῦ θρόνου λεγούσης**

And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying....

* why does the verb ἤκουσα take a genitive φωνῆς μεγάλης as a direct object?
* And because of this, the participle λεγούσης also becomes genitive to agree.
* Same as in Revelation 11:12 **καὶ ἤκουσαν φωνῆς μεγάλης ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ λεγούσης αὐτοῖς**
* But then there is a different pattern Revelation 12:10 **καὶ ἤκουσα φωνὴν μεγάλην ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ λέγουσαν** where ἤκουσα now takes accusative φωνὴν μεγάλην and the participle becomes accusative λέγουσαν to agree.
* Apparently this is a type of "genitive of direct object" and this is seen with certain verbs, especially verbs of the five senses.
* According to another grammar, there are fine nuances. To see, feel or hear a whole object uses an accusative. To see, feel or hear a part, or to treat the object as a source, the genitive is used. But the grammar notes that these nuances were lost colloquial hellenistic greek, and just retained as a habit of language.
* These nuances are not very apparent in the above verses. In all cases, the voice is a source of the message. But sometimes genitive and sometimes accusative.
John 3:12

**εἰ τὰ ἐπίγεια εἶπον ὑμῖν καὶ οὐ πιστεύετε, πῶς ἐὰν εἴπω ὑμῖν τὰ ἐπουράνια πιστεύσετε;**

If I said to you the earthly things and you do not believe, how will you believe if I were to tell you the heavenly things

* τὰ ἐπίγεια and τὰ ἐπουράνια are adjectival substantives. The earthlies and the heavenlies. In translation we add "things".
* Note the prepositional prefixes ἐπί for γεια (out of earth) and ἐπ for ουράνια (out of the heaven)
* ἐὰν - if... expects a subjunctive
* εἴπω - is the subjunctive. I were to say.
* πιστεύσετε - regular ol' future active indicative 2P pl. Will believe.
Βασιλεύς

**βασιλεύς** (basileus, βασιλεύς, -έως, ὁ)

Gloss: king

Strong's 935

GK 995

Frequency in New Testament 115

## Notes

* Ranks 149 in the list of most frequent words in the NT.
* Ever notice how many "occupations" end with -εύς?
* In the third declension, with a paradigm all its own, but not so difficult, the ground rules are still obeyed and the endings are quite close (kind of) to the standard ones.
* Think "basilica". We typically imagine a church but it was a royal palace.
Ἄγω

**ἄγω**

Principal parts: ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον, -, ἤγμαι, ἤχθην

Root:ἀγ

Gloss: I lead

Strongs: 33

GK: 72

Freqeuncy: 67

## Notes

* Mounce classifies this as v-1b(2). v-1 = verb where present tense stem = root. b(2) = stem ends with a velar.
* This is a 2nd Aorist. The stem for the aorist form is different from the present tense.

## Paradigms

### Imperfect

 2P
 3P

### 2nd Aorist

 2P
 3P

* Obviously had to be a 2nd Aorist and the aorist stem has to change otherwise you can't differentiate between the imperfect and the aorist.
* According to Mounce, an example of Attic reduplication. The present stem is reduplicated then augmented to form the aorist.
John 1:4

**ὃ γέγονεν (v4) ἐν αὐτῷ ζωὴ ἦν, καὶ ἡ ζωὴ ἦν τὸ φῶς τῶν ἀνθρώπων**

That which came to be in him was life, and the life was the light of men

* There is a major punctuation ambiguity here. Most of the Greek texts put a period before **ὃ γέγονεν**, making it part of v4.
* However most English translations regard the phrase as part of v3. The NET Bible footnote to this verse summarises the positions on both sides although it comes down on putting it with v3.
* Historically, critical Greek texts e.g. Nestle-Aland put the phrase with v3 until the 26th edition when it moved it to be part of v4. It notes that the earliest manuscripts did not have punctuation. The move to v3 was done in the 4th century by the Greek church and unknown in the west. It was probably done as a safeguard against Arianism. The NET Bible footnote says it is probably correct that the phrase was attached to v4 by the Eastern church by the time of the 4th Century but that does not rule out the possibility that it was originally with v3 and moving it to v3 could be restoring the original reading.
* Note that if the phrase is left with v4, all the lines in the various verses are nicely balanced with roughly the same length.
* Moving it to v3 creates a construction that appears clumsy and redundant: "πάντα δἰ αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο, καὶ χωρὶς αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο οὐδὲ ἕν. ὃ γέγονεν" = "All things through him came to be, and without him nothing came to be which came to be."
* On the other hand, putting the phrase with v4 also makes for a somewhat clumsy sentence = "That which came to be in him was life".
* According to some text critics, both constructions are clumsy. But they also note that John likes to start sentences with "ἐν αὐτῷ".

* ὃ γέγονεν - note the article can function as a determiner or pronoun
* τῶν ἀνθρώπων - of men. Just rubbing it in--genitive plural of every gender always ends with -ων
* χωρὶς αὐτοῦ - without him. Note χωρὶς goes with genitive. Think, without being of him.
Pluperfect tense

**The Pluperfect tense** describes an action which is completed and which has consequences/relevance or has resulted in some state which is yet some time past from the point of view of the speaker. This is like the Perfect tense but pushed further back in time. In the Perfect tense, the consequence/relevance/resultant state is directly with or contemporaneous with the speaker. English has something like this, the past perfect tense and Greek pluperfects are typically translated into that. E.g. "They had gone into town".

The pluperfect tense occurs infrequently in the Greek New Testament. There are only 86/88 words, based on 22 or so (slight difference in count between grammars) lexical forms.

## Formation of the pluperfect

* Based on the 4th Principal part (same as for Perfect)
* Has an augment (since it refers to past time) but this augment is sometimes dropped.
* Has reduplication
* Has a -κ tense formative (almost always)
* Has a unique -ει connecting vowel
* Because it has an augment, it uses secondary endings

* Pluperfect verbs are easily identifiable because the vast majority of them have the highly visible **-κει** string. These are called 1st Pluperfects.
* 5 or so words are not so well-behaved (2nd Pluperfects) and don't have the -κ formative but even so, the **-ει** string is visible. If a word ends with this, one might mistake it for a Present Active 3rd Person singular but the key is to look for the reduplication at the front.

## Example paradigm

The pluperfect forms of λύω

 3P | λελύκει | λελύκεισαν
Ἀφίημι

**ἀφίημι** (aphiemi)

Gloss: I leave, abandon, let go, forgive

Principal Parts: ἀφίημι, ἀφήσω, ἀφῆκα, -, ἀφέωμαι, ἀφέθην

Strong's 863

GK 918

Frequency in New Testament 143

## Notes

* Quite a high ranking frequent word at 119th. Not surprising since a lot of the NT talks about forgiving. But not all the usages relate to forgiving. This word has a wide semantic range.
* A -μι verb, so expect a strange conjugation, but only in some places.
* The imperative forms "forgive!" are very common but so is the aorist active indicative 3P sg. There's passive forms too.

## Paradigms

### Aorist Imperative

The 2P imperatives occur 15 and 10x respectively.