recursal/Fanatic-Fandom huggingface dataset:
Khoekhoe phonology

## Vowels

There are 5 vowel qualities, found as oral /i e a o u/ and nasal /ĩ ẽ ɛ̃ ã ɔ̃ õ ũ/. /u/ is strongly rounded, /o/ only slightly so. /a/ is the only vowel with notable allophony; it is pronounced [ə] before /i/ or /u/.

## Tone

Nama has been described as having three or four tones, /á, ā, à/ or /a̋, á, à, ȁ/, which may occur on each mora (vowels and final nasal consonants). The high tone is higher when it occurs on one of the high vowels (/í ú/) or on a nasal (/ń ḿ/) than on mid or low vowels (/é á ó/).

The tones combine into a limited number of 'tone melodies' (word tones), which have sandhi forms in certain syntactic environments. The most important melodies, in their citation and main sandhi forms, are as follows:

## Consonants

Nama has 31 consonants: 20 clicks and only 11 non-clicks.

### Clicks

The clicks are doubly articulated consonants. Each click consists of one of four primary articulations or "influxes" and one of five secondary articulation or "effluxes". The combination results in 20 phonemes.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Hagman (1977)
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Haacke & Eiseb (2002)
3. ↑ Haacke 1999
4. ↑ Brugman 2009
Kaingang orthography

Wiesemann proposed an alphabet for the language, which is still in use despite some problems. It is based on the Latin script, and consists of fourteen consonants and fourteen vowels, matching the fourteen consonants and fourteen vowels of the Kaingang language.

There are dictionaries and grammars available for Kaingang. A school was set up in 1969 to teach the Kaingang people to read and write their language. However, the school produced many Kaingang speakers who went back to their reservations to teach others and spread the writing innovations they learned. Only one of the dialects is used as the standard written form, though having the writing system provided a source of pride in the language for the Kaingang people. A Kaingang bible has been published, as well as a dictionary and other publications.

Examples of Kaingang writing can be found on Omniglot.
Kissi phonology

## Consonants

Kissidougou dialects preserve a distinction between /r/ and /l/ phonemes that have been merged as allophones in dialects south of Guéckédou. For instance, "la huŋ" means exactly the same as "ra huŋ". Also, "Thank you" is realized as "barika" around Kissidougou and "balika" south of Guéckédou.

The voiced labial-velar stop /ɡb/ occurs only in onomatopoeic phrases, and medial gb can be regarded as an allophone of its voiceless counterpart.

* ***gb**aala* 'outdoor kitchen'
* ***Gb**aŋ**gb**aŋ* (a river in Kissidougou)
* ***gb**ɛŋ**gb**ɔ* 'stool'
* *maa**gb**ana* 'city taxi'

## Tone

Kissi has four tones: two register and two contour. The two register tones are level and high, and the two contour tones are a rising mid tone and the a falling high tone. Kissi also has an extra-high tone, but occurs only sparingly, functioning in only a few grammatical contexts.
Karu phonology

* Voiced approximant sounds can fluctuate to voiceless sounds among dialects.
* /ŋ/ only occurs when preceding a velar consonant.

Vowels
 Low |  | a aː

* When occurring as short, the vowels /i e a o/ are realized as [ɪ ɛ ə ʊ]. They are also realized as both short and long nasals /ĩ ẽ ɐ̃ õ/, [ɪ̃ ɛ̃ ə̃ ʊ̃].
Kapóng orthography

## Vowels and diphthongs

* a - [a]
* e/ee - [ɛ]
* i/ii - [i/ɪ]
* ï/y/i - [i]
* o/oo - [o/ɔ]
* ö - [ø/ə]
* u/uu - [u]
* ai - [aj]
* au - [aw]
* ei - [ej]
* oi - [ɔj]

## Consonants

* b - [b]
* ch - [t͡ʃ]
* d - [d]
* g - [g]
* j - [d͡ʒ]
* k/c/qu - [k]
* kw/qu - [kw]
* m - [m]
* n - [n]
* ñ - [ɲ]
* ng - [ŋ]
* p - [p]
* r/l - [ɺ]
* s - [s]
* sh - [ʃ]
* t - [t]
* w/hu - [w]
* y - [j]
* z - [z]
* zh/rr - [ʒ]
* ' - [ʔ]
Kalami phonology

## Vowels

Length (/ː/) and nasalization (/ ̃/) are probably contrastive for all vowels.

## Consonants

/q f z x ɣ/ occur mainly in loanwords. /q f/ tend to be replaced by /x p/, respectively.

After the front vowels /i e a/, the velars /k ɡ ŋ/ are palatalized: [kʲ ɡʲ ŋʲ].

## Tone

Kalami has 5 contrastive tones: high level, high falling, delayed high falling, low level, low rising.
Kanakanavu orthography

Kanakanavu is usually written with the Latin script. The following are often used to represent sounds in the language: **A**, **C**, **E**, **I**, **K**, **L**, **M**, **N**, **Ng**, **O**, **P**, **R**, **S**, **T**, **U**, **Ʉ**, **V**,  **'** /**ʔ**.

**C** represents the phoneme /c/.

**L** represents the phonemes /ɗ/ and /ɽ/.

**P** represents both /ɓ/ and /p/.

/ɫ/ is spelled as **hl**.
Kotava phonology

In Kotava, all words are pronounced exactly as they are written.

Most consonants are pronounced as in the IPA, except for ⟨c⟩, pronounced [ʃ], ⟨j⟩, pronounced [ʒ], and ⟨y⟩, pronounced [j].

The consonants (in IPA form) are:

The vowels are pronounced as in Spanish, Swahili, or Tahitian, with no differences of length and no nasalization.

There are five diphthongs: ay, ey, iy (very rare), oy, and uy (very rare).

The stress rule in Kotava is regular for all polysyllabic words: on the last syllable (ultima) if the word has a final consonant; on the second-last syllable (penult) if the word has a final vowel except for the first person of conjugated verbs, which is stressed on the last syllable and marked with an acute accent.
Khinalug phonology

A Latin orthography for Khinalug was developed in 2007 by a team of linguists from Moscow State University in collaboration with local school teachers in the village. It is presented in italics on the tables below.

## Consonants

1 The cedilla in the orthography is in the middle of the bottom of the ⟨z⟩, as is typical of Russian linguistics.

2 Kh and gh are rare.

3 Kx is very rare.

4 The pharyngeal sounds mostly appear in Arabic loanwords.

## Vowels

Khinalug has nine vowels and four diphthongs.

Diphthongs include: [iu] [ui] [oe] [oa].

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Kodzasov, S.V., et al., 2007. Khinalug language alphabet (in: Russian).
Khuzdul phonology

The following phonemes are attested in Tolkien's Khuzdul vocabulary.

Only one diphthong is attested in Khuzdul: ***ai*** [ai], as seen in *ai-mênu*.

1 Often at the start of words that begin with a vowel, often not written in the Latin alphabet, but has its own rune in Angerthas Moria.

2 Supposedly in *Azaghâl*, 'gh' [ɣ] is used to represent this sound in Black Speech and Orcish, but wasn't said of Khuzdul. Could also be [ɡh] or [ɡʰ].

3 Alveolar trill [r] a later variant in pronunciation, the uvular trill [ʀ] being the original Khuzdul pronunciation.

4 No examples found, Tolkien explicitly states these were frequent in Khuzdul, and have their own Cirth runes. Possibly in between incompatible consonant formations or current vowels in known corpus.

Khuzdul features a CV(C(C)) syllable structure. Words that begin with either a vowel or diphthong have a glottal stop at the beginning to fill the place of an initial consonant. Words can not start with a consonant cluster, but these are found in medial or final positions in a word. It is unknown what all the consonant clusters are. Few are attested as shown in the corpus above, but presumably are more flexible and varied than of the consonant clusters found in the Elvish languages, as the language was said to be "cumbrous and unlovely" (Silmarillion ch. 10) to the elves, with Tolkien describing it as having a cacophonous quality.
Kedang phonology

## Vowels

Kédang has a total of twelve vowels in its language, separated into two sets evenly with six vowels per set. One set is composed of modal vowels or also known as normal vowels while the other set is breathy vowels. The vowels can be distinct by two different methods: by the word initial position and by the pitch. Modal vowels (normal vowels) occur in the middle and the final position while breathy vowels do not. While the breathy vowels are pronounced at a lower pitch.

* y ɯ œ ø ɤ ɛ ɔ æ ɒ ʌ ɑ ɜ

## Consonants

There are twenty consonants in the Kédang alphabet. The consonants display different manners of articulation including plosives, nasals, lateral, flap, trill, fricatives and continuant.

* p t k m n ŋ l ɾ r f s x v z ɣ b d ɡ ʙ ʟ
Karakalpak phonology

Karakalpak has 21 native consonant phonemes and regularly uses four non-native phonemes in loan words. Non-native sounds are shown in parentheses.

## Vowels

### Vowel harmony

Vowel harmony functions in Karakalpak much as it does in other Turkic languages. Words borrowed from Russian or other languages may not observe rules of vowel harmony, but the following rules usually apply:
Kala phonology

Kala has five basic vowels (listed below), as well as contrastive nasal vowels.

The consonants of Kala are listed below.

The voiced alveolar fricative [z] only exists in the dialects spoken in Apoze and Lambu villages.

In 2010, anthropologists from the University of British Columbia, Okanagan campus, worked in a collaborative project with the Kala Language Committee, a group of individuals concerned with strengthening Kala language amongst their communities, to decide on a Kala orthographic system. The practical writing system for Kala includes the following letters: a, ã, b, d, e, ẽ, g, i, ĩ, k, l, m, n, ŋ, o, õ, p, s, t, u, ũ, w, y, z. The committee chose the tilda symbol to represent nasal vowels in their practical writing system as it reminded them of ocean waves (called titi in Kala) since they are coastal people.
Kaitag phonology

## Vowels

There are 4 basic vowels, and 4 pharyngealized counterparts. Phonemes adjacent to pharyngeal consonants /ʡ/ and /ħ/ are always pharyngealized. Additionally, vowel harmony, where pivoting pharyngealized vowels propagate the effect onto adjacent ones.

Vowel phonemes of Kaitag

## Consonants

There are 62 consonants, formed by series of voiced, aspirated, fortis, ejective, and labialized variants. The palatal fricative [ç] might be the *voiceless post-palatal fricative*, which can be more precisely transcribed as [ç̠] or [x̟].
Kinyarwanda phonology

## Consonants

The table below gives the consonants of Kinyarwanda.

1. /p/ is only found in loanwords.
2. Consonants in parentheses are allophones.

## Vowels

The table below gives the vowel sounds of Kinyarwanda.

## Tone

Kinyarwanda is a tonal language. Like many Bantu languages, it has a two-way contrast between high and low tones (low-tone syllables may be analyzed as toneless). The realization of tones in Kinyarwanda is influenced by a complex set of phonological rules.
Kri phonology

The consonants in Kri are:

Do note that they are all contrastive, and that vowels, nasal consonants, and oral consonants may have checked endings. The Oral endings also may become voiceless.

## References

1. ↑ http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:107912:5/component/escidoc:204877/Enfield\_2009\_Phonology%20and%20sketch%20grammar%20of%20Kri.pdf
Kituba phonology

## Vowels

Kituba has fifteen vowel phonemes: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/, /ɑ~ɒ/, /ɛ/, /ɔ/, /ɨ/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /œ/, /ɤ/, /ʉ/, and /ø/. They are very similar to the vowels of Spanish and Italian. Vowels are never reduced, regardless of stress. The vowels are pronounced as follows:

* /a/ is pronounced like the "a" in father
* /e/ is pronounced like the "e" in bed
* /i/ is pronounced like the "i" in ski or ring
* /o/ is pronounced like the first part of the "o" in home, or like a tenser version of "o" in "lot"
* /u/ is pronounced like the "oo" of fool

## Consonants

Notes:

* Word-initial voiceless prenasalized consonants are reduced to simple consonants in some dialects: *mpimpa* and *nkento* become *pimpa* and *kento* in Kituba of Pointe-Noire.
* Some dialects add stop to prenasalized alveolar fricatives: *Kinsasa* and *nzila* become *Kintsasa* and *ndzila*.
* Alveolar fricatives may become postalveolar (ʃ or ʒ) before /i/.
Kitanemuk phonology

## Consonants

The consonant phonemes of Kitanemuk, as reconstructed by Anderton (1988) based on Harrington's field notes, were (with some standard Americanist phonetic notation in ⟨angle brackets⟩:

Word-finally, h becomes [r], and all voiced consonants become voiceless before other voiceless consonants or word-finally.
Kinyarwanda orthography

Except in a few morphological contexts, the sequences 'ki' and 'ke' may be pronounced interchangeably as [ki] and [ke] or [ci] and [ce] according to speaker's preference.

The letters 'a', 'e', or 'i' at the end of a word followed by a word starting with a vowel often follows a pattern of omission (observed in the following excerpt of the Rwandan anthem) in common speech, though the orthography remains the same. For example, *Reka tukurate tukuvuge ibigwi wowe utubumbiye hamwe twese Abanyarwanda uko watubyaye berwa, sugira, singizwa iteka.* would be pronounced as "Reka tukurate tukuvug' ibigwi wow' utubumiye hamwe twes' abanyarwand' uko watubyaye berwa, sugira singizw' iteka."

There are some discrepancies in pronunciation from orthographic *Cw* and *Cy.* The glides /w j/ strengthen to stops in consonant clusters. For example, *rw* (as in *Rwanda)* is pronounced [ɾɡw]. The differences are the following:

Note that these are all sequences; [bɡ], for example, is not labial-velar [ɡ͡b]. Even when *Rwanda* is pronounced /ɾɡwanda/, the onset is a sequence, not a labialized [ɾʷ].
Kaurna phonology

## Vowels

Kaurna has three different vowels with contrastive long and short lengths (a, i, u, a:, i:, u:), and three diphthongs (ai, au, ui). The three main vowels are represented by ⟨a⟩, ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively, with long vowels indicated by doubling the vowel. Historically, Kaurna has had ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ used varyingly in older versions of its orthography, but these are not reflected in the phonology of the language.

## Consonants

The consonant inventory of Kaurna is similar to that of other Pama-Nyungan languages (compare with Adnyamathanha, in the same Thura-Yura grouping). In the orthography, dental consonants are followed by ⟨h⟩ and palatals by ⟨y⟩, and retroflex consonants are preceded by ⟨r⟩, with the exception of ⟨rd⟩ /ɾ/. Pre-stopped consonants are preceded by ⟨d⟩. Below are the consonants of Kaurna (Amery, R & Simpson, J 2013).

## Phonotactics

* All words must begin with a peripheral or laminal consonant, excluding the pre-stopped nasals.
* All words must end with a vowel.
* In addition to the pre-stopped consonants, consonant clusters of a nasal followed by a stop are allowed.

## Prosody

Kaurna places primary stress on the first syllable.
Kagayanen phonology

[h] occurs only in loan words, proper names, or in words that have [h] in the cognates of neighboring languages.
Outside of loanwords, /d/ becomes [r] between vowels.

Comparative and historical evidence suggests that /ð̞/ and /l/ were in complementary distribution before a split occurred with pressure from contact with English, Spanish, and Tagalog.

Vowels of Kagayanen

/i/ ranges between [i] and [e], except in unstressed syllables (as well as before consonant clusters) where it lowers to [ɪ] or [ɛ]. Similarly, /u/ lowers to [ʊ] in unstressed syllables, before consonant clusters, and word-finally. It is otherwise [u].
Kiga orthography

* a - [a]
* ä - [ɑ]
* æ - [æ]
* b - [b]
* ch/c - [t͡ʃ]
* d - [d]
* ð - [ð]
* e - [ɛ]
* ë - [e]
* ə - [ə]
* f - [f]
* g - [ɡ/ɡʲ]
* ɣ - [ɣ]
* h - [h]
* i - [i]
* ï - [ɪ]
* j - [d͡ʒ]
* k - [k/kʲ]
* l - [l]
* ł - [ɾ]
* m - [m]
* n - [n]
* o - [ɔ]
* ö - [o]
* p - [p]
* q - [ʔ]
* r - [r]
* s - [s]
* t - [t]
* þ - [θ]
* u - [u]
* ü - [ʊ]
* v - [v]
* w - [w]
* x - [x]
* y - [j]
* z - [z]

D and P are only used in foreign names and loanwords.

G and K are palatalised before I.

* ai - [ai̯]
* au - [au]
* dz - [d͡z]
* ei - [ɛi̯]
* eu - [ɛu]
* gy - [ɟ]
* ɣy - [ʝ]
* ky - [c]
* ly - [ʎ]
* mp - [ᵐp]
* mw - [ᵐw]
* nd - [ⁿd]
* ng - [ŋ]
* ny - [ɲ]
* oi - [ɔi̯]
* ou - [ɔu]
* sh - [ʃ]
* ts - [t͡s]
* xy - [ç]
* zh - [ʒ]
Koshin phonology

## Vowels

Koshin Vowel Phonemes

There are three tones; high, mid, and low.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Good, Jeff and Lovegren, Jesse and Mve, Jean Patrick and Tchiemouo, Nganguep Carine and Voll, Rebecca and Di Carlo, Pierpaolo. 2011. The languages of the Lower Fungom region of Cameroon: Grammatical overview. Africana Linguistica 17. 101–164.
Korafe phonology

## Vowels

Vowels
 Close

## Stress

* Stress on syllables comes on different syllables depending on the amount of syllables
* The accent mark also helps to show the location of said syllable that is being stressed
	+ The first syllable is stressed when the word itself has 2 syllables
		- Example: gháka ‘canoe’ jáinjain ‘chirp of a cricket’
	+ The second syllable is stressed when the word itself has more than 2 syllables
		- Example: genémbo ‘man’, gegénembo ‘men’ , tatárigho ‘echo’, ufóngufongu ‘iguana’
	+ Also the first syllable is stressed when it uses the syllable pattern (C)VV(V)
Konkomba orthography

## Alphabet

### Capital letters

A, B, (C), CH, D, E, F, G, GB, I, J, K, KP, L, M, N, NY, Ŋ, ŊM, O, Ɔ, P, R, S, T, U, W, Y.

#### Lower-case letters

a, b, (c), ch, d, e, f, g, gb, i, j, k, kp, l, m, n, ny, ŋ, ŋm, o, ɔ, p, r, s, t, u, w, y.

The orthography follows that used in the literature currently in print in Likpakpaln. Under the current convention, long and short vowels are distinguished by the use of single and double letters respectively. (e.g. a, aa). Tone is not marked, but where two words contrast only in tone and the context is unlikely to indicate a distinction in meaning, an "h" is added after the vowel in one of the words (e.g. upii – woman, upiih – sheep).

Certain variations that may occur in the a given speaker's speech. For example, sometimes a speaker may use the /r/ sound and sometimes the /l/ sound. Also, there may be variations between one speaker and another within the same village (e.g. some use the plural tiib and some teeb). This is, however, at the phonological level and does not affect semantic interpretation.

The letter *c* outside the digraph *ch* is listed by GILLBT's Likpakpaani Dictionary, but not in other sources.

## Phonology

Letters and sounds are organized as shown below. The format shows a Roman Alphabet letter, followed by a similar sound in English, followed by and example showing a Likpakpaln word containing a similar sound, followed by the meaning of the word in English.

```
a (as in father) e.g.: n-na (my mother)
b (as in boy) e.g. ubo (a child)
ch (as in church) e.g. chapiln (forgive)
d (as in dog) e.g. da (buy)
e (eight) e.g. kpe	(add)
f (as in fish) e.g. falaa (suffering)
g (as in go) e.g. gaa (take)
gb (there is no similar sound in English) e.g. gbi (dig)
h (as in hat) e.g. haali (even)
I (as in feet) e.g. ipii (sheep)
j (as in Jack) e.g. kijuk (knife)
k (as in kitchen) e.g. kiyiik (calabash)
kp (there is no similar sound in English) e.g. uninkpil (elder/chief/boss)
l (as in lady) e.g. lafee (health)
m (as in man) e.g. limual (a river)
n (as in net) e.g. linuul (Yam)
ŋ ( as in sin'''g''' e.g. ŋaan (cook/boil)
ŋm (there is no similar sound in English, the closest however is the sound of a kiss, gmmmmaaaaaaaa) e.g. ŋmɔ (Chew)
ny (there is no similar sound in English but there is a similar sound in French as in igname (yam)) e.g. nya (go out/get out)
o (as in no) e.g. lijol (mountain/plateau/highland)
ɔ (as in paw/log/ball/pawpaw) e.g. mɔk (show/teach)
p (as in pick) e.g. paacham (up/above/on top)
r (as in rock) e.g. ipaar (benefit/profit)
s (as in sit) e.g. kisaak (a farm)
t (as in tip) e.g. litakpaal (a stone/rock)
u (as in loop) e.g. likuul (a hoe/a tape/CD/DVD)
w (as in wish) e.g. Uwumbɔr (God)
y (as in yes) e.g. liyimbil (a name).

```
Kiliwa phonology

## Consonants

Intervocalic allophones of /p, t, k, kʷ/ can occur as [β, ð, ɣ, ɣʷ]. An approximant sound such as a /j/ sound after a glottal /h/ can become devoiced as [j̊], as with a devoiced [ʍ] sound being an allophone of /hʷ/.

## Vowels

There are twelve vowel quantities; /i, y, ɯ, u, ɘ, ɵ, ɛ, œ, ʌ, ɔ, a, ɑ/, that can also be distinguished with vowel length /iː, yː, ɯː, uː, ɘː, ɵː, ɛː, œː, ʌː, ɔː, aː, ɑː/. Close vowel sounds /i, y, ɯ, u, ɘ, ɵ, ɛ, ɔ/ can range to mid vowel sounds as [e, ø, ɤ, o, ɜ, ɞ, æ, ɒ], and with vowel length as [eː, øː, ɤː, oː, ɜː, ɞː, æː, ɒː]. An epenthetic schwa sound [ə] can occur within root-initial consonant clusters.
Kharosthi

## Consonants

There are two special modified forms of these consonants:

## Additional marks

Various additional marks are used to modify vowels and consonants:

## Punctuation

Nine Kharosthi punctuation marks have been identified:

## Numerals

Kharosthi included a set of numerals that are reminiscent of Roman numerals. The system is based on an additive and a multiplicative principle, but does not have the subtractive feature used in the Roman numeral system.

Numerals

The numerals, like the letters, are written from right to left. There is no zero and no separate signs for the digits 5–9. Numbers in Kharosthi use an additive system.
For example, the number 1996 would be written as 1000 4 4 1 100 20 20 20 20 10 4 2 (image: , text: 𐩇𐩃𐩃𐩀𐩆𐩅𐩅𐩅𐩅𐩄𐩃𐩁).

## References

1. ↑ Graham Flegg, *Numbers: Their History and Meaning*, Courier Dover Publications, 2002, p. 67f.
Keuw phonology

Phonology of Keuw from Kamholz (2012), quoted in Foley (2018):

## Tone

Keuw has contrastive tone. Some minimal pairs demonstrating phonemic tonal contrasts:

* *áalìyò* ‘tongue’, *áalíyò* ‘house’
* *kíilyô* ‘possum’, *kíilyò* ‘arrow’
* *úukyò* ‘grandfather’, *úunyô* ‘woman’

## References

1. ↑ Kamholz, David. 2012. The Keuw isolate: preliminary materials and classification. *Language and Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue: History, Contact and Classification of Papuan Languages*: 243–268.
Maisin phonology

## Consonants

[ŋ] and [kʷ] are not phonemic, but are distinguished in the orthography.

## Phonotactics

Syllables can begin and end with up to one consonant each. I.e., English *wrong* /rɔŋ/ would be an acceptable word, but *strength* /streŋθ/ would not. Words can only end in either a vowel or [ŋ]. The vowels /u/ and /o/ never occur word-initially. /β/ never occurs before /o/ or /u/.
Khowar phonology

## Vowels

Khowar may also have nasalized vowels and a series of long vowels /ɑː/, /ɛː/, /iː/, /ɔː/, and /uː/. Sources are inconsistent on whether length is phonemic, with one author stating "vowel-length is observed mainly as a substitute one. The vowel-length of phonological value is noted far more rarely." Unlike the neighboring and related Kalasha language, Khowar does not have retroflex vowels.

## Consonants

Allophones of /x ɣ h ʋ ɾ/ are heard as sounds [χ ʁ ɦ w ɹ].
Kwara'ae phonology

The /f/ sound is merged with /h/. Most speakers of Kwara'ae choose to pronounce /h/ as an /f/ sound in some vocabulary.

Vowels in Kwara'ae

The sound [ə] is recognized as an allophone of /a/. There is vowel reduction, so final /i/ and /u/ are often deleted. Before /i/, the vowel /a/ may become [e], forming the diphthong [ei].
Koho phonology

Data below are from Olsen (2015).

## Consonants

* The phoneme /r/ is commonly a voiced alveolar trill [r] but also often reduces to a flap [ɾ] when it occurs as the second segment in a consonant cluster.
* Before the palatal finals /c/ and /ɲ/, there is an audible palatal offglide after the vowel [Vʲ], so that /pwac/ ‘flesh’ is pronounced as [pwaʲc] and /ʔaɲ/ ‘I (1st person singular)’ as [ʔaʲɲ].
Laal phonology

The sounds of Laal are transcribed here using International Phonetic Alphabet symbols.

## Consonants

Implosives and prenasalised stops as well as h are found only word-initially. Voiceless stops as well as s cannot occur at the end of a syllable. /ŋ/ occurs only intervocalically and word-finally. /s/ appears exclusively in loanwords and certain numbers. Prenasalized stops as well as the implosive /ʄ/ are extremely rare.

## Vowels

The vowel system for non-initial syllables is /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, /e/, /ə/, /o/, /a/ and the diphthong /ua/, with no length distinction. For initial syllables, however, it is much more complicated, allowing length distinctions and distinguishing the following additional diphthongs: /ia/, /yo/, /ya/ (but the latter two appear only as morphologically conditioned forms of /e/ and /ia/ and so are perhaps better seen as allophonic).

In addition, /y/ may occur very occasionally; Boyeldieu quotes the example of *mỳlùg* "red (pl.)".

There are three level tones: high (á), middle (a), low (à). Combinations mau occur on a single vowel, resulting in phonetic rising and falling tone, and which are phonemically sequences of level tones. Such cases are transcribed here by repeating the vowel (e.g. àá); long vowels are indicated only by a colon (e.g. a:).

Suffixes may force any of four kinds of ablaut on the vowels of preceding words: raising (takes /ia/, /a/, /ua/ to [e], [ə], [o]), lowering (takes /e/, /ə/, /o/ to [ia], [a], [ua]), low rounding (takes /i/ and /ɨ/ to [u]; /e/ and /ia/ to [yo]; /ə/, /a/, and /ua/ to [o]), and high rounding (takes /i/ and /ɨ/ to [u]; /e/ and /ia/ to [ya]; /ə/, /a/, and /o/ to [ua]). They are transcribed in the suffix section as ↑, ↓, ↗, ↘ respectively. In some verbs, a/ə is "raised" to [e] rather than, as expected, to [ə].

In suffixes, ə and o undergo vowel harmony: they become ɨ and u respectively if the preceding vowel is one of {i, ɨ, u}. Likewise, r undergoes consonant harmony, becoming l after words containing l. Suffixes with a neutral tone copy the final tone of the word to which they are suffixed.

Vowels
Lachi phonology

## Consonants

* /d/ appears in loanwords of Vietnamese origin.
* Approximant sounds /j w/ when occurring before /i/, maybe also be realized as [ʑ ʊ̯]. Both sounds also can be realized as a voiced glottal sound [ɦ].

## Vowels

* Standard vowel sounds [i] and [ɛ], only occur after palatal, velar, palatalized and labialized initials. After other initials elsewhere, they become velarized as [-ˠi], [-ˠɛ].
Luchazi orthography

Luchazi is written using the Latin alphabet, with most characters representing the same sound as in English, with some exceptions. c is pronounced like *ch* in *church*, n followed by k or g is always nasal like *ng* in *ring*, the sound of v is bilabial instead of labiodental.

## Alphabet

* A - [a/aː]
* B - [β]
* D - [d/d̪/ð]
* E - [ɛ/e/ɛː]
* F - [f]
* G - [g]
* H - [h/x]
* I - [i/iː]
* J - [d͡ʒ]
* K - [k]
* L - [l/ɭ]
* M - [m]
* N - [n]
* O - [ɔ/ɔː]
* P - [p]
* R - [ɹ]
* S - [s]
* T - [t/t̪/θ], [tʲ~t͡s] before [i]
* U - [u/uː]
* W - [w]
* Y - [j]
* Z - [z]

D, G, J, R, and Sh only exist in loanwords/

### Digrams

* ai - [aɪ̯]
* au - [aʊ̯]
* ei - [eɪ̯]
* ia - [i̯a]
* ie - [i̯e]
* io - [i̯o]
* iu - [i̯u]
* kh - [kʰ]
* mb - [mb]
* nd - [ⁿd]
* ny - [ɲ]
* ng - [ŋg/ŋ]
* nj - [ɲd͡ʒ]
* nk - [ŋkʰ]
* nt - [ⁿtʰ]
* ph - [pʰ]
* sh - [ʃ]
* th - [tʰ]
* ua - [u̯a]
* ue - [u̯e]
* ui - [u̯i]
* uo - [u̯o]

### Trigrams

* mph - [mpʰ]
* nch - [ɲt͡ʃʰ]

## References

1. ↑ Emil Pearson, "Luchazi Grammar", pp. 5
Labial–velar consonant

**Labial–velar consonants** are doubly articulated at the velum and the lips, such as [k͡p]. They are sometimes called "labiovelar consonants", a term that can also refer to labialized velars, such as the stop consonant [kʷ] and the approximant [w].

Labial-velars are often written as digraphs. In the Kâte language, however, /k͡p/ is written Q q, and /ɡ͡b/ as Ɋ ɋ.
Latgalian phonology

* Phonologically, /ɨ/ is a back counterpart of /i/. As they occur in complementary distribution, they can be regarded as allophones of a single /i/ phoneme.
* Long /ɛː, ɔː/ are rare and occur only in interjections. The phonological long counterparts of the short /ɛ, ɔ/ are the diphthongs /iɛ, uɔ/.
* There are very few minimal pairs for the /ɛ–æ/ opposition. In some dialects, [æ] is simply an allophone of /ɛ/.
* /a, aː/ are phonetically central [ä, äː].

### Diphthongs

Diphthong phonemes of Latgalian

* In contrast to other diphthongs, /iɛ, uɔ/ are monophonemic.
* /ui, ɔi/ occur only in some words.
* /iu, ɨu, ɛi, æi, ai, au/ are very common.
	+ Some dialects merge /iu/ and /ɨu/ into [ɛu].
	+ Some dialects merge /au/ and /ɔu/ into [ɔu].
* /ɔu/ occurs only in onomatopoeias and loanwords.

## Consonants

* /m, mʲ, p, pʲ, b, bʲ/ are bilabial, whereas /f, v, vʲ/ are labiodental.
	+ /f/ occurs only in some loanwords, such as *ortogra**f**eja* 'orthography'. In other loanwords, it is replaced by /p/, as in *ko**p**ejs* 'coffee'.
	+ /v, vʲ/ are traditionally classified as approximants [ʋ, ʋʲ] which phonetically may be fricatives [v, vʲ].
* /t͡ʃʲ, d͡ʒʲ, ʃʲ, ʒʲ/ occur only in some non-standard dialects, with the fricatives /ʃʲ, ʒʲ/ being more common than the affricates /t͡ʃʲ, d͡ʒʲ/.
* /x/ occurs only in some loanwords, such as *te**h**nologeja* 'technology'. In other loanwords, it is replaced by /k/, as in ***k**okejs* 'hockey'.
* /w, wʲ/ are labialized velar.
* The phonemic status of /wʲ/ and especially /jʲ/ is questionable.
* /rʲ/ occurs only in a minority of non-standard dialects.
Gumuz phonology

Gumuz has both ejective consonants and implosives. The implosive quality is being lost at the velar point of articulation in some dialects (Unseth 1989). There is a series of palatal consonants, including both ejective and implosive. In some dialects, e.g. Sirba, there is a labialized palatalized bilabial stop, as in the word for 'rat' [bʲʷa] (Unseth 1989).

## Consonants

* The tap [ɾ] mainly occurs in morpheme-internal positions, and not in word-initial position. It also occurs as an allophone of /ɗ/ in intervocalic and word-final positions.

* A trill [r] may occur from ideophones or as a result of loanwords from Amharic.

* A velar implosive [ɠ] tends to only exist in the Agelo Meti dialect.
* A labialized bilabial plosive [bʷ] tends to only exist in the Sirba Abay dialect.
* A voiced fricative [β] may occur when /ɓ/ tends to weaken in word-final position in some dialects.

### Both dialects

* The labio dental [v] only occurs in rare distribution, and mainly occurs in intervocalic and word-initial positions. It is also possibly introduced via derivation from ideophones.
* The palatal [ɲ] only occurs word-internally in intervocalic environments, before a palatal consonant, or as an allophone of /n/ before a front vowel.
* [ŋʷ] only occurs in rare distribution, or when /ŋ/ occurs before a weakened short rounded vowel.
* Other labialized consonants [kʷ, ɡʷ, kʼʷ, χʷ] tend to occur as a result of velar or uvular consonants preceding weakened short rounded vowels that precede another vowel.

## Vowels

 Mid | e eː
 Open | æ æː

* Short allophones of /i, y, e, æ, a, o, ɯ, u/ can be heard as [ɪ, ʏ, ɛ, ɑ, ə, ɔ, ɤ, ʊ].
* An central close vowel [ɨ] may occur in various positions after a shortened /u/ when labializing a velar or uvular consonant.

## References

1. ↑ Colleen Ahland, 2012. "A Grammar of Northern and Southern Gumuz", Doctoral Dissertation, University of Oregon.
Khuzdul orthography

Tolkien wrote most of Khuzdul in the Latin alphabet, and in Cirth within Middle-earth. The dwarves had adopted the Cirth from the elves by the end of the first age, and made changes to their liking to represent the sounds of Khuzdul. There were two methods known of writing Khuzdul, *Angerthas Moria* when the dwarves still lived in Khazad-dûm before its fall, and *Angerthas Erebor* once they fled and further developed the Cirth when they settled at Erebor, The Lonely Mountain.

The following table presents both Cirth mode readings:

As an example, the dwarvish battle-cry can be written thus:
Lakota phonology

## Vowels

Lakota has five oral vowels, /i e a o u/, and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ã ũ/ (phonetically [ɪ̃ ə̃ ʊ̃]). Lakota /e/ and /o/ are said to be more open than the corresponding cardinal vowels, perhaps closer to [ɛ] and [ɔ]. Orthographically, the nasal vowels are written with a following ⟨ƞ⟩, ⟨ŋ⟩, or ⟨n⟩; historically, these were written with ogoneks underneath, ⟨į ą ų⟩. No syllables end with consonantal /n/.

A neutral vowel (schwa) is automatically inserted between certain consonants, e.g. into the pairs ⟨gl⟩, ⟨bl⟩ and ⟨gm⟩. So the clan name written phonemically as ⟨Oglala⟩ has become the place name *Ogallala*.

## References

1. ↑ *Elementary Bilingual Dictionary English–Lakhóta Lakhóta–English* (1976) CU Lakhóta Project University of Colorado
2. ↑ (2004). Lakota letters and sounds.
3. ↑ *New Lakota dictionary*. Lakota Language Consortium, 2008
List of Pahawh Hmong characters/Greek

## Archaic

DeiFlipped DeiReversed DeiTurned DeiDigammaFlipped DigammaReversed DigammaTurned DigammaFeiFlipped FeiReversed FeiTurned FeiGangiaTurned GangiaHetaReversed HetaHoriReversed HoriKheiFlipped KheiReversed KheiTurned KheiKoppaReversed KoppaArchaic KoppaTurned Archaic KoppaSampiFlipped SampiReversed SampiTurned SampiArchaic SampiTurned Archaic SampiSheiFlipped SheiReversed SheiTurned SheiShimaFlipped ShimaReversed ShimaTurned ShimaShoReversed ShoStigmaFlipped StigmaReversed StigmaTurned StigmaStigma (Alternate)Flipped Stigma (Alternate)Reversed Stigma (Alternate)Turned Stigma (Alternate)
Litzlitz phonology

## Consonants

The table below shows the set of consonants in the Litzlitz language, based on the International Phonetic Alphabet.

Contrasts between pairs of phonetically similar consonants can be based on the following minimal and sub-minimal pairs:

* /t/ and /d/ /toro/ 'old' /doro/ 'white-throated pigeon'

* /k/ and /g/ /nikəj/ 'whitewood species' /igər/ 'it fell from above' /kəlue/ 'you will shoot it' /gəlo/ '(s)he looked'

* /t/ and /s/ /təɣ/ '(s)he took it' /səɣ/ '(s)he poked it'

* /c/ and /s/ /bəcbəc/ 'break to pieces' /bəsbəs/ '(s)he spoke'

* /c/ and /j/ /cəbən/ 'his/her grandfather' /jəbən/ 'his/her finger/toe'

* /s/ and /j/ /səl/ '(s)he entered' /jəl/ '(s)he sewed it'

* /t/ and /c/ /təɣ/ '(s)he took it' /cəɣən/ 'to (person)'

* /l/ and /r/ /laɣe/ 'to the bush' /raɣe/ 'above'

## Vowels

Litzlitz has an inventory of six contrasting short vowels and three long vowels, as shown below in the table. Only the high and low vowels have corresponding long forms, with the three mid vowels having only short forms.
Kven phonology

## Vowels

Kven has 16 vowels, if one includes vowel length:

In writing, the vowel length is indicated by doubling the letter; e.g., ⟨yy⟩ /yː/ and ⟨öö⟩ /øː/.

The graphemes representing /ø/, /æ/ and /ɑ/ are ⟨ö⟩, ⟨ä⟩ and ⟨a⟩, respectively.

## Consonants

Kven has 14 consonants found in native vocabulary, and four consonants found in loanwords:

/b, d, ɡ, ʃ/ are only found in loanwords.

/ʋ/ and /ʃ/ are represented in writing by ⟨v⟩ and ⟨š⟩, respectively.

/ð/ is represented in writing by ⟨đ⟩.

/ŋ/ is represented in writing by ⟨n⟩ if followed by /k/, and ⟨ng⟩ if geminated; i.e., ⟨nk⟩ /ŋk/ and ⟨ng⟩ /ŋː/.

Gemination is indicated in writing by doubling the letter; e.g., ⟨mm⟩ for /mː/ and ⟨ll⟩ for /lː/.
Mal Paharia phonology

Since the Mal Paharia language is considered a Dravidian language, it uses the Devanagari script for writing and speaking. These tables represents the Devanagari language's phonology.

## Consonants

The aspiration of the consonants are separated by "hard" and "soft" similar to voiced and unvoiced consonants of the IPA. There are 3 sounds that due to lack of definitions and examples are hard to transcribe into IPA. There are the two retroflex flaps, (ड़) and (ढ़) which are described as "like a flapped "d", flapping tongue from retroflex to alveolar ridge position" and the same definition, but aspirated. Then there is the borrowed foreign sound of (क़), described as "like "k", but pronounced in the back of the mouth."

For the sounds /z/ and /ʤ/, there is no distinction between them in this language. They occasionally can be used inter-changeably and are considered semi-allophones. An example of true allophones are the /v/ and /w/ sounds. /v/ is occasionally pronounced as a /w/, and in this language are allophones of each other and some might pronounce a sound in between them.

The /r/ used in this language is used as a flap. There are occasional trills and can be similar to the American English /r/. The /r/ is also considered to be a "syllabic liquid" and is used as a vowel.

## Vowels

 Mid | e, e:ê ɛ
 Low |  |  | a, a: aʰ

Mal Paharia Devanagari has 11 distinguished vowels. Of these vowels, a, e, i, o and u can be short or long. There is also an additional aspirated /a/ vowel.

There is also a vowel used including the consonant /m/ as /*aṃ*/ and /aṁ/ which is a nasalization of /a/ (अं). The /r/ (ऋ and ॠ) and /l/ (ऌ and ॡ) are considered "syllabic liquids" and are vowels as well. Due to lack of in depth research, there is no equivalent in the IPA for these sounds as vowels.

### Diphthongs

Within the Mal Paharia Devanagari language, diphthongs included are: /ai/, /aʊ/ and /oʊ/.
Leonese phonology

In Leonese, any of five vowel phonemes, /a, e, i, o, u/, may occur in stressed position. In the unstressed positions, the distinction between close and mid vowels is neutralized in favor of the archiphonemes /ɪ/ and /ʊ/.

## References

1. ↑ Abel Pardo: *Linguistica contrastiva italiano-leonese: vocalismo*. Mikroglottika.2008
Malay phonology

## Consonants

The consonants of Standard Malay and also Indonesian are shown below. Non-native consonants that only occur in borrowed words, principally from Arabic and English, are shown in parentheses. Some analyses list 19 "primary consonants" for Malay as the 18 symbols that are not in parentheses in the table as well as the glottal stop [ʔ].

**Orthographic note**:
The sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:

* /ɲ/ is written ⟨ny⟩ before a vowel, ⟨n⟩ before ⟨c⟩ and ⟨j⟩
* /ŋ/ is written ⟨ng⟩
* the glottal stop [ʔ] is written as a final ⟨k⟩ or an apostrophe ⟨'⟩
* /tʃ/ is written ⟨c⟩
* /dʒ/ is written ⟨j⟩
* /j/ is written ⟨y⟩
* /ʃ/ is written ⟨sy⟩
* /x/ is written ⟨kh⟩
* /ɣ/ is written ⟨gh⟩
* /ð/ is written ⟨z⟩ and transcribed into /z/
* /θ/ is written ⟨s⟩ and transcribed into /s/. Before 1972, this sound was written ⟨th⟩ in Standard Malay (but not Indonesian).

## Vowels

It is usually said that there are six vowels in Standard Malay and Indonesian. These six vowels are shown in the table below. However, other analyses set up a system with other vowels, particularly the open-mid vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/.

Table of vowel phonemes of Standard Malay

Table of vowel phonemes of Indonesian
 Close-Mid | [e]é
 Open-Mid | [ɛ]è
 Open |  | [a]a

## References

1. ↑ Asmah Haji Omar (2008). *Ensiklopedia Bahasa Melayu*. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, page 108.
2. ↑ Yunus Maris, M. (1980). *The Malay Sound System*. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd, page 52.
3. ↑ Asmah Haji Omar (2008). *Ensiklopedia Bahasa Melayu*. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, page 97.
4. ↑ Yunus Maris, M. (1980). *The Malay Sound System*. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd, page 2.
Limbu script

As an abugida, a basic letter represents both a consonant and an inherent, or default, vowel. In Limbu, the inherent vowel is /ɔ/.

To change the inherent vowel, a diacritic is added:

ᤁᤨ /kɔ/ represents the same syllable as ᤁ /kɔ/. Some writers avoid the  ᤨ diacritic, considering it redundant.

Syllable-initial vowels use the vowel-carrier ᤀ with the appropriate dependent vowel sign. Used by itself, ᤀ represents syllable-initial /ɔ/.

Initial consonant clusters are written with small marks following the main consonant:

Subjoined consonants

Final consonants after short vowels are written with another set of marks, except for some final consonants occurring only in loanwords. They follow the marks for consonant clusters, if any.

Long vowels without a following final consonant are written with a diacritic called *kemphreng* (᤺). For example, ᤁ᤺ /kɔː/.

There are two methods for writing long vowels with syllable-final consonants:

1. Use the *kemphreng* diacritic and the final consonant, such as ᤁ᤺ᤰ /kɔːk/.
2. Replace the final consonant with the corresponding full consonant and add an underscore-like diacritic mark. This indicates that the consonant is final (vowel-less) and that the preceding vowel is lengthened. For example: ᤁᤁ᤻ /kɔːk/. This same diacritic may be used to mark final consonants in loanwords that do not have final forms in Limbu, regardless of the length of the vowel.

The first method is widely used in Sikkim; the second method is advocated by certain writers in Nepal.

Glottalization is marked by a sign called *mukphreng* (᤹). For example, ᤁ᤹ /kɔʔ/.
Majang phonology

Vowels of Majang
 Close-mid | e
 Open-mid | ɛ
 Open |  | a

Vowel length is distinctive in Majang, so all vowels come in pairs of long and short, such as *goopan* 'punishment' and *gopan* 'road'. The vowel inventory is taken out of Joswig (2012) and Getachew (2014, p. 65). Unseth (2007) posed a 9-vowel system with a row of -ATR closed vowels **ɪ** and **ʊ**. Moges  claims a tenth vowel **ɐ**, whereas Bender (1983) was only ready to confirm six vowels. All authors agree that there is no ATR vowel harmony in the language.

Bender also claims that the glottal stop [ʔ] needs to be treated as a phoneme of Majang though Unseth refutes this. Majang has two implosives, bilabial and coronal, which Moges Yigezu has studied acoustically and distributionally.

## Prosodic Features

Tones distinguish meaning in Majang, on both the word level and the grammatical level: *táŋ* (higher tone) 'cow', *tàŋ* (lower tone) 'abscess'. The tonal inventory consists of two tone levels, with falling and rising contour tones possible at the end of phonological words, plus automatic and non-automatic downstep.

## References

1. ↑ Joswig (2012), p. 264
2. ↑ Moges (2007), p.114
3. ↑ Unseth (1991), p. 526
4. ↑ Bender (1983), p. 116
5. ↑ Unseth(1991), p. 533
6. ↑ Moges Yigezu. 2006. The Phonetic Characterization of implosives in Majang, a Northern Surmic language. *Proceedings of the XVth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies*, edited by Siegbert Uhlig, pp. 822-830. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
7. ↑ Bender (1983), p. 117
8. ↑ Joswig 2015b
Laminal consonant

A **laminal consonant** is a phone (speech sound) produced by obstructing the air passage with the blade of the tongue, the flat top front surface just behind the tip of the tongue in contact with upper lip, teeth, alveolar ridge, to possibly, as far back as the prepalatal arch, although in the last contact may involve as well parts behind the blade.  It contrasts with an apical consonant, produced by creating an obstruction with the tongue apex (tongue tip) only. Sometimes laminal is used exclusively for an articulation that involves only the blade of the tongue with the tip being lowered and apicolaminal for an articulation that involves both the blade of the tongue and the raised tongue tip.  The distinction applies only to coronal consonants, which use the front of the tongue.
Kwoma phonology

## Consonants

The consonant inventory of Kwoma is average in many respects, without uncommon consonants and with no absence of common consonants. There are no glottalized, lateral, or uvular consonants in Kwoma. Stress occurs on the first syllable of words. Below is a chart of Kwoma consonants.

## Vowels

There are at least fifteen vowel qualities in Kowma: /i ɨ ʉ u e ɘ ɵ o ε ɞ ʌ æ ɐ ɑ ɒ/. The additional vowel /ɔ/ is listed in linguistic writings but no examples are provided. There is no distinction of vowel length.

## References

1. ↑ Kooyers, Orneal, Martha Kooyers and Darlene Bee. 1971. 'The Phonemes of Washkuk (Kwoma).' Te Reo 14.
\_\_\_. 1963. 'Manuscripts.' SIL, Ukarumpa.
Maidu phonology

Notation: In the phonological discussion, phonetic symbols are encased in slashes / /, allophones are in brackets [ ], while symbols in parentheses ( ) represent non IPA orthography.

## Consonants

Maidu has eighteen consonantal phonemes. The consonants listed below are from the transcription system used by Shipley. Shipley's orthography is listed in brackets when it differs from the IPA transcription.

In the 1950s and 1960s, older speakers retained palatal stops /c, c'/ where younger speakers used an innovative palatal affricate [tʃ], [tʃʼ], perhaps under influence from English.

The notation /j/ represents the palatal glide, the same as the spelling *y* in English *yes*. The voiced plosives (/b/ & /d/) are implosive, but do not contrast with simple voiced stops.

Before the velar plosives /k, k'/, /m/ is pronounced as [ŋ].

## Vowels

There are six phonemic vowels in Maidu. Once again, the chart comes from the orthographic system employed by Shipley.

These six vowels are characterized by several different allophones depending on the phonetic environments in which they occur (initial/noninitial, stressed/unstressed, and open/closed syllables). The base phone of the vowels occurs in initial open syllables with stress. The lowest and most central allophones occur in unstressed closed syllables. According to Shipley, (a) and (y) have allophones that almost converge once they have centralized, (i) and (u) have allophones that barely centralize and drop slightly lower, approaching [ɪ] and [ʊ]. Meanwhile, (e) and (o) have more change than (i) and (u) but less than (a) and (y).

Vowel length is nonphonemic, and changes according to the vowel's place within the word. The vowels can exhibit vowel lengths of less than a mora, one mora, or 1.5-2 morae. The vowel is less than one mora in unstressed syllables, around one mora in closed stressed syllables, and more than one mora in open stressed syllables.
Maká phonology

Velar consonants alternate with palatal consonants before /e/ and sometimes before /a/. Examples include /keɬejkup/ ~ [ceɬejkup] "autumn" and /exeʔ/ ~ [eçeʔ] "stork". The palatal approximant /j/ alternates with the palatal fricative /ç/ before /i/, as in /inanjiʔ/ ~ [inançiʔ].

Syllables in Maká may be of types V, VC, CV, CCV, and CCVC. When a consonant cluster appears at the beginning of a syllable, the second consonant must be /x/, /h/, /w/, or /j/.
Maninka phonology

The Wudala dialect of Eastern Maninka, spoken in the central highlands of Guinea and comprehensible to speakers of all dialects in that country, has the following phonemic inventory. (Apart from tone, which is not written, sounds are given in orthography, as IPA values are not certain.)

## Tones

There are two moraic tones, high and low, which in combination form rising and falling tones.

The marker for definiteness is a falling floating tone: /kɔ̀nɔ̀/ 'a bird' (LL), /kɔ̀nɔ᷈/ 'the bird' (LLHL, perhaps [kɔ̌nɔ̂]); /kɔ́nɔ̀/ 'a belly' (HL), /kɔ́nɔ᷈/ 'the belly' (HLHL, perhaps [kɔ̂nɔ̂]).

## Vowels

Vowel qualities are /i e ɛ æ a ɜ ɑ ɒ ʌ ɔ o u/. All may be long or short, oral or nasal: /iː eː ɛː æː aː ɜː ɑː ɒː ʌː ɔː oː uː/ and /ĩ ẽ ɛ̃ æ̃ ã ɜ̃ ɑ̃ ɒ̃ ʌ̃ ɔ̃ õ ũ/. (It may be that all nasal vowels are long.) Nasal vowels nasalize some following consonants.

## Consonants

/d/ typically becomes a flap [ɾ] between vowels. /c/ (also written ⟨ty⟩) often becomes /k/ before the vowels /i/ or /ɛ/. There is regional variation between /g/ and the labial–velar /g͡b/. /h/ occurs mostly in Arabic loans, and is established. /p/ occurs in French and English loans, and is in the process of stabilizing.

Several voiced consonants become nasals after a nasal vowel. /b/ becomes /m/, /j/ becomes /ɲ/, and /l/ becomes /n/. For example, nouns ending in oral vowels take the plural in *-lu*; nouns ending in nasal vowels take *-nu*. However, /d/ remains oral, as in /nde/ "I, me".

## References

1. ↑ Mamadou Camara (1999) *Parlons Malinké*
List of Pahawh Hmong characters/Deseret

Long OoShort IShort I (Flipped)Short I (Reversed)Short I (Turned)Short AShort A (Flipped)Short A (Reversed)Short A (Turned)Short AhShort Ah (Flipped)Short Ah (Reversed)Short Ah (Turned)Short OoShort Oo (Flipped)Short Oo (Reversed)Short Oo (Turned)AyAy (Reversed)OwOw (Flipped)Ow (Reversed)Ow (Turned)WuWu (Turned)HH (Reversed)CheeChee (Flipped)Chee (Reversed)Chee (Turned)JeeJee (Flipped)Jee (Reversed)Jee (Turned)KayKay (Turned)EsEs (Reversed)Es (Alternate)Es (Reversed Alternate)ZheeZhee (Reversed)ErEr (Flipped)Er (Reversed)Er (Turned)EnEn (Reversed)OiOi (Flipped)Oi (Reversed)Oi (Turned)Oi (Alternate)Oi (Flipped Alternate)Oi (Reversed Alternate)Oi (Turned Alternate)EwEw (Reversed)
Luyana phonology

## Vowels

Luyana has sixteen simple vowels: *a*, *æ*, *ɛ*, *e*, *i*, *ɒ*, *ɔ*, *o*, *u*, *ø*, *ɤ*, *œ*, *ʌ*, *ɑ*, *ɜ*, and *ɞ*. *o* is almost always open and is rarely closed. Wherever there may be hesitation between *o* and *u*, *u* should be used.

There are no diphthongs. When two vowels meet, they contract, or one is omitted.

## Consonants

The Luyana consonant system has approximately 25 phonemes. The consonant inventory of the language is shown below.