Module: transform  
skimage.transform.downscale_local_mean(…) Down-sample N-dimensional image by local averaging.  
skimage.transform.estimate_transform(ttype, …) Estimate 2D geometric transformation parameters.  
skimage.transform.frt2(a) Compute the 2-dimensional finite radon transform (FRT) for an n x n integer array.  
skimage.transform.hough_circle(image, radius) Perform a circular Hough transform.  
skimage.transform.hough_circle_peaks(…[, …]) Return peaks in a circle Hough transform.  
skimage.transform.hough_ellipse(image[, …]) Perform an elliptical Hough transform.  
skimage.transform.hough_line(image[, theta]) Perform a straight line Hough transform.  
skimage.transform.hough_line_peaks(hspace, …) Return peaks in a straight line Hough transform.  
skimage.transform.ifrt2(a) Compute the 2-dimensional inverse finite radon transform (iFRT) for an (n+1) x n integer array.  
skimage.transform.integral_image(image) Integral image / summed area table.  
skimage.transform.integrate(ii, start, end) Use an integral image to integrate over a given window.  
skimage.transform.iradon(radon_image[, …]) Inverse radon transform.  
skimage.transform.iradon_sart(radon_image[, …]) Inverse radon transform.  
skimage.transform.matrix_transform(coords, …) Apply 2D matrix transform.  
skimage.transform.order_angles_golden_ratio(theta) Order angles to reduce the amount of correlated information in subsequent projections.  
skimage.transform.probabilistic_hough_line(image) Return lines from a progressive probabilistic line Hough transform.  
skimage.transform.pyramid_expand(image[, …]) Upsample and then smooth image.  
skimage.transform.pyramid_gaussian(image[, …]) Yield images of the Gaussian pyramid formed by the input image.  
skimage.transform.pyramid_laplacian(image[, …]) Yield images of the laplacian pyramid formed by the input image.  
skimage.transform.pyramid_reduce(image[, …]) Smooth and then downsample image.  
skimage.transform.radon(image[, theta, …]) Calculates the radon transform of an image given specified projection angles.  
skimage.transform.rescale(image, scale[, …]) Scale image by a certain factor.  
skimage.transform.resize(image, output_shape) Resize image to match a certain size.  
skimage.transform.rotate(image, angle[, …]) Rotate image by a certain angle around its center.  
skimage.transform.swirl(image[, center, …]) Perform a swirl transformation.  
skimage.transform.warp(image, inverse_map[, …]) Warp an image according to a given coordinate transformation.  
skimage.transform.warp_coords(coord_map, shape) Build the source coordinates for the output of a 2-D image warp.  
skimage.transform.warp_polar(image[, …]) Remap image to polar or log-polar coordinates space.  
skimage.transform.AffineTransform([matrix, …]) 2D affine transformation.  
skimage.transform.EssentialMatrixTransform([…]) Essential matrix transformation.  
skimage.transform.EuclideanTransform([…]) 2D Euclidean transformation.  
skimage.transform.FundamentalMatrixTransform([…]) Fundamental matrix transformation.  
skimage.transform.PiecewiseAffineTransform() 2D piecewise affine transformation.  
skimage.transform.PolynomialTransform([params]) 2D polynomial transformation.  
skimage.transform.ProjectiveTransform([matrix]) Projective transformation.  
skimage.transform.SimilarityTransform([…]) 2D similarity transformation.   downscale_local_mean  
skimage.transform.downscale_local_mean(image, factors, cval=0, clip=True) [source]
 
Down-sample N-dimensional image by local averaging. The image is padded with cval if it is not perfectly divisible by the integer factors. In contrast to interpolation in skimage.transform.resize and skimage.transform.rescale this function calculates the local mean of elements in each block of size factors in the input image.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

N-dimensional input image.  
factorsarray_like 

Array containing down-sampling integer factor along each axis.  
cvalfloat, optional 

Constant padding value if image is not perfectly divisible by the integer factors.  
clipbool, optional 

Unused, but kept here for API consistency with the other transforms in this module. (The local mean will never fall outside the range of values in the input image, assuming the provided cval also falls within that range.)    Returns 
 
imagendarray 

Down-sampled image with same number of dimensions as input image. For integer inputs, the output dtype will be float64. See numpy.mean() for details.     Examples >>> a = np.arange(15).reshape(3, 5)
>>> a
array([[ 0,  1,  2,  3,  4],
       [ 5,  6,  7,  8,  9],
       [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]])
>>> downscale_local_mean(a, (2, 3))
array([[3.5, 4. ],
       [5.5, 4.5]])
 
 estimate_transform  
skimage.transform.estimate_transform(ttype, src, dst, **kwargs) [source]
 
Estimate 2D geometric transformation parameters. You can determine the over-, well- and under-determined parameters with the total least-squares method. Number of source and destination coordinates must match.  Parameters 
 
ttype{‘euclidean’, similarity’, ‘affine’, ‘piecewise-affine’, ‘projective’, ‘polynomial’} 

Type of transform.  
kwargsarray or int 

Function parameters (src, dst, n, angle): NAME / TTYPE        FUNCTION PARAMETERS
'euclidean'         `src, `dst`
'similarity'        `src, `dst`
'affine'            `src, `dst`
'piecewise-affine'  `src, `dst`
'projective'        `src, `dst`
'polynomial'        `src, `dst`, `order` (polynomial order,
                                          default order is 2)
 Also see examples below.    Returns 
 
tformGeometricTransform 

Transform object containing the transformation parameters and providing access to forward and inverse transformation functions.     Examples >>> import numpy as np
>>> from skimage import transform
 >>> # estimate transformation parameters
>>> src = np.array([0, 0, 10, 10]).reshape((2, 2))
>>> dst = np.array([12, 14, 1, -20]).reshape((2, 2))
 >>> tform = transform.estimate_transform('similarity', src, dst)
 >>> np.allclose(tform.inverse(tform(src)), src)
True
 >>> # warp image using the estimated transformation
>>> from skimage import data
>>> image = data.camera()
 >>> warp(image, inverse_map=tform.inverse) 
 >>> # create transformation with explicit parameters
>>> tform2 = transform.SimilarityTransform(scale=1.1, rotation=1,
...     translation=(10, 20))
 >>> # unite transformations, applied in order from left to right
>>> tform3 = tform + tform2
>>> np.allclose(tform3(src), tform2(tform(src)))
True
 
 frt2  
skimage.transform.frt2(a) [source]
 
Compute the 2-dimensional finite radon transform (FRT) for an n x n integer array.  Parameters 
 
aarray_like 

A 2-D square n x n integer array.    Returns 
 
FRT2-D ndarray 

Finite Radon Transform array of (n+1) x n integer coefficients.      See also  
ifrt2


The two-dimensional inverse FRT.    Notes The FRT has a unique inverse if and only if n is prime. [FRT] The idea for this algorithm is due to Vlad Negnevitski. References  
FRT  
A. Kingston and I. Svalbe, “Projective transforms on periodic discrete image arrays,” in P. Hawkes (Ed), Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics, 139 (2006)   Examples Generate a test image: Use a prime number for the array dimensions >>> SIZE = 59
>>> img = np.tri(SIZE, dtype=np.int32)
 Apply the Finite Radon Transform: >>> f = frt2(img)
 
 hough_circle  
skimage.transform.hough_circle(image, radius, normalize=True, full_output=False) [source]
 
Perform a circular Hough transform.  Parameters 
 
image(M, N) ndarray 

Input image with nonzero values representing edges.  
radiusscalar or sequence of scalars 

Radii at which to compute the Hough transform. Floats are converted to integers.  
normalizeboolean, optional (default True) 

Normalize the accumulator with the number of pixels used to draw the radius.  
full_outputboolean, optional (default False) 

Extend the output size by twice the largest radius in order to detect centers outside the input picture.    Returns 
 
H3D ndarray (radius index, (M + 2R, N + 2R) ndarray) 

Hough transform accumulator for each radius. R designates the larger radius if full_output is True. Otherwise, R = 0.     Examples >>> from skimage.transform import hough_circle
>>> from skimage.draw import circle_perimeter
>>> img = np.zeros((100, 100), dtype=bool)
>>> rr, cc = circle_perimeter(25, 35, 23)
>>> img[rr, cc] = 1
>>> try_radii = np.arange(5, 50)
>>> res = hough_circle(img, try_radii)
>>> ridx, r, c = np.unravel_index(np.argmax(res), res.shape)
>>> r, c, try_radii[ridx]
(25, 35, 23)
 
 hough_circle_peaks  
skimage.transform.hough_circle_peaks(hspaces, radii, min_xdistance=1, min_ydistance=1, threshold=None, num_peaks=inf, total_num_peaks=inf, normalize=False) [source]
 
Return peaks in a circle Hough transform. Identifies most prominent circles separated by certain distances in given Hough spaces. Non-maximum suppression with different sizes is applied separately in the first and second dimension of the Hough space to identify peaks. For circles with different radius but close in distance, only the one with highest peak is kept.  Parameters 
 
hspaces(N, M) array 

Hough spaces returned by the hough_circle function.  
radii(M,) array 

Radii corresponding to Hough spaces.  
min_xdistanceint, optional 

Minimum distance separating centers in the x dimension.  
min_ydistanceint, optional 

Minimum distance separating centers in the y dimension.  
thresholdfloat, optional 

Minimum intensity of peaks in each Hough space. Default is 0.5 * max(hspace).  
num_peaksint, optional 

Maximum number of peaks in each Hough space. When the number of peaks exceeds num_peaks, only num_peaks coordinates based on peak intensity are considered for the corresponding radius.  
total_num_peaksint, optional 

Maximum number of peaks. When the number of peaks exceeds num_peaks, return num_peaks coordinates based on peak intensity.  
normalizebool, optional 

If True, normalize the accumulator by the radius to sort the prominent peaks.    Returns 
 
accum, cx, cy, radtuple of array 

Peak values in Hough space, x and y center coordinates and radii.     Notes Circles with bigger radius have higher peaks in Hough space. If larger circles are preferred over smaller ones, normalize should be False. Otherwise, circles will be returned in the order of decreasing voting number. Examples >>> from skimage import transform, draw
>>> img = np.zeros((120, 100), dtype=int)
>>> radius, x_0, y_0 = (20, 99, 50)
>>> y, x = draw.circle_perimeter(y_0, x_0, radius)
>>> img[x, y] = 1
>>> hspaces = transform.hough_circle(img, radius)
>>> accum, cx, cy, rad = hough_circle_peaks(hspaces, [radius,])
 
 hough_ellipse  
skimage.transform.hough_ellipse(image, threshold=4, accuracy=1, min_size=4, max_size=None) [source]
 
Perform an elliptical Hough transform.  Parameters 
 
image(M, N) ndarray 

Input image with nonzero values representing edges.  
thresholdint, optional 

Accumulator threshold value.  
accuracydouble, optional 

Bin size on the minor axis used in the accumulator.  
min_sizeint, optional 

Minimal major axis length.  
max_sizeint, optional 

Maximal minor axis length. If None, the value is set to the half of the smaller image dimension.    Returns 
 
resultndarray with fields [(accumulator, yc, xc, a, b, orientation)]. 

Where (yc, xc) is the center, (a, b) the major and minor axes, respectively. The orientation value follows skimage.draw.ellipse_perimeter convention.     Notes The accuracy must be chosen to produce a peak in the accumulator distribution. In other words, a flat accumulator distribution with low values may be caused by a too low bin size. References  
1  
Xie, Yonghong, and Qiang Ji. “A new efficient ellipse detection method.” Pattern Recognition, 2002. Proceedings. 16th International Conference on. Vol. 2. IEEE, 2002   Examples >>> from skimage.transform import hough_ellipse
>>> from skimage.draw import ellipse_perimeter
>>> img = np.zeros((25, 25), dtype=np.uint8)
>>> rr, cc = ellipse_perimeter(10, 10, 6, 8)
>>> img[cc, rr] = 1
>>> result = hough_ellipse(img, threshold=8)
>>> result.tolist()
[(10, 10.0, 10.0, 8.0, 6.0, 0.0)]
 
 hough_line  
skimage.transform.hough_line(image, theta=None) [source]
 
Perform a straight line Hough transform.  Parameters 
 
image(M, N) ndarray 

Input image with nonzero values representing edges.  
theta1D ndarray of double, optional 

Angles at which to compute the transform, in radians. Defaults to a vector of 180 angles evenly spaced from -pi/2 to pi/2.    Returns 
 
hspace2-D ndarray of uint64 

Hough transform accumulator.  
anglesndarray 

Angles at which the transform is computed, in radians.  
distancesndarray 

Distance values.     Notes The origin is the top left corner of the original image. X and Y axis are horizontal and vertical edges respectively. The distance is the minimal algebraic distance from the origin to the detected line. The angle accuracy can be improved by decreasing the step size in the theta array. Examples Generate a test image: >>> img = np.zeros((100, 150), dtype=bool)
>>> img[30, :] = 1
>>> img[:, 65] = 1
>>> img[35:45, 35:50] = 1
>>> for i in range(90):
...     img[i, i] = 1
>>> img += np.random.random(img.shape) > 0.95
 Apply the Hough transform: >>> out, angles, d = hough_line(img)
 import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

from skimage.transform import hough_line
from skimage.draw import line

img = np.zeros((100, 150), dtype=bool)
img[30, :] = 1
img[:, 65] = 1
img[35:45, 35:50] = 1
rr, cc = line(60, 130, 80, 10)
img[rr, cc] = 1
img += np.random.random(img.shape) > 0.95

out, angles, d = hough_line(img)

fix, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(7, 4))

axes[0].imshow(img, cmap=plt.cm.gray)
axes[0].set_title('Input image')

axes[1].imshow(
    out, cmap=plt.cm.bone,
    extent=(np.rad2deg(angles[-1]), np.rad2deg(angles[0]), d[-1], d[0]))
axes[1].set_title('Hough transform')
axes[1].set_xlabel('Angle (degree)')
axes[1].set_ylabel('Distance (pixel)')

plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
 (Source code, png, pdf)    
 hough_line_peaks  
skimage.transform.hough_line_peaks(hspace, angles, dists, min_distance=9, min_angle=10, threshold=None, num_peaks=inf) [source]
 
Return peaks in a straight line Hough transform. Identifies most prominent lines separated by a certain angle and distance in a Hough transform. Non-maximum suppression with different sizes is applied separately in the first (distances) and second (angles) dimension of the Hough space to identify peaks.  Parameters 
 
hspace(N, M) array 

Hough space returned by the hough_line function.  
angles(M,) array 

Angles returned by the hough_line function. Assumed to be continuous. (angles[-1] - angles[0] == PI).  
dists(N, ) array 

Distances returned by the hough_line function.  
min_distanceint, optional 

Minimum distance separating lines (maximum filter size for first dimension of hough space).  
min_angleint, optional 

Minimum angle separating lines (maximum filter size for second dimension of hough space).  
thresholdfloat, optional 

Minimum intensity of peaks. Default is 0.5 * max(hspace).  
num_peaksint, optional 

Maximum number of peaks. When the number of peaks exceeds num_peaks, return num_peaks coordinates based on peak intensity.    Returns 
 
accum, angles, diststuple of array 

Peak values in Hough space, angles and distances.     Examples >>> from skimage.transform import hough_line, hough_line_peaks
>>> from skimage.draw import line
>>> img = np.zeros((15, 15), dtype=bool)
>>> rr, cc = line(0, 0, 14, 14)
>>> img[rr, cc] = 1
>>> rr, cc = line(0, 14, 14, 0)
>>> img[cc, rr] = 1
>>> hspace, angles, dists = hough_line(img)
>>> hspace, angles, dists = hough_line_peaks(hspace, angles, dists)
>>> len(angles)
2
 
 ifrt2  
skimage.transform.ifrt2(a) [source]
 
Compute the 2-dimensional inverse finite radon transform (iFRT) for an (n+1) x n integer array.  Parameters 
 
aarray_like 

A 2-D (n+1) row x n column integer array.    Returns 
 
iFRT2-D n x n ndarray 

Inverse Finite Radon Transform array of n x n integer coefficients.      See also  
frt2


The two-dimensional FRT    Notes The FRT has a unique inverse if and only if n is prime. See [1] for an overview. The idea for this algorithm is due to Vlad Negnevitski. References  
1  
A. Kingston and I. Svalbe, “Projective transforms on periodic discrete image arrays,” in P. Hawkes (Ed), Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics, 139 (2006)   Examples >>> SIZE = 59
>>> img = np.tri(SIZE, dtype=np.int32)
 Apply the Finite Radon Transform: >>> f = frt2(img)
 Apply the Inverse Finite Radon Transform to recover the input >>> fi = ifrt2(f)
 Check that it’s identical to the original >>> assert len(np.nonzero(img-fi)[0]) == 0
 
 integral_image  
skimage.transform.integral_image(image) [source]
 
Integral image / summed area table. The integral image contains the sum of all elements above and to the left of it, i.e.:  \[S[m, n] = \sum_{i \leq m} \sum_{j \leq n} X[i, j]\]  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image.    Returns 
 
Sndarray 

Integral image/summed area table of same shape as input image.     References  
1  
F.C. Crow, “Summed-area tables for texture mapping,” ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, vol. 18, 1984, pp. 207-212.   
 integrate  
skimage.transform.integrate(ii, start, end) [source]
 
Use an integral image to integrate over a given window.  Parameters 
 
iindarray 

Integral image.  
startList of tuples, each tuple of length equal to dimension of ii 

Coordinates of top left corner of window(s). Each tuple in the list contains the starting row, col, … index i.e [(row_win1, col_win1, …), (row_win2, col_win2,…), …].  
endList of tuples, each tuple of length equal to dimension of ii 

Coordinates of bottom right corner of window(s). Each tuple in the list containing the end row, col, … index i.e [(row_win1, col_win1, …), (row_win2, col_win2, …), …].    Returns 
 
Sscalar or ndarray 

Integral (sum) over the given window(s).     Examples >>> arr = np.ones((5, 6), dtype=float)
>>> ii = integral_image(arr)
>>> integrate(ii, (1, 0), (1, 2))  # sum from (1, 0) to (1, 2)
array([3.])
>>> integrate(ii, [(3, 3)], [(4, 5)])  # sum from (3, 3) to (4, 5)
array([6.])
>>> # sum from (1, 0) to (1, 2) and from (3, 3) to (4, 5)
>>> integrate(ii, [(1, 0), (3, 3)], [(1, 2), (4, 5)])
array([3., 6.])
 
 iradon  
skimage.transform.iradon(radon_image, theta=None, output_size=None, filter_name='ramp', interpolation='linear', circle=True, preserve_range=True) [source]
 
Inverse radon transform. Reconstruct an image from the radon transform, using the filtered back projection algorithm.  Parameters 
 
radon_imagearray 

Image containing radon transform (sinogram). Each column of the image corresponds to a projection along a different angle. The tomography rotation axis should lie at the pixel index radon_image.shape[0] // 2 along the 0th dimension of radon_image.  
thetaarray_like, optional 

Reconstruction angles (in degrees). Default: m angles evenly spaced between 0 and 180 (if the shape of radon_image is (N, M)).  
output_sizeint, optional 

Number of rows and columns in the reconstruction.  
filter_namestr, optional 

Filter used in frequency domain filtering. Ramp filter used by default. Filters available: ramp, shepp-logan, cosine, hamming, hann. Assign None to use no filter.  
interpolationstr, optional 

Interpolation method used in reconstruction. Methods available: ‘linear’, ‘nearest’, and ‘cubic’ (‘cubic’ is slow).  
circleboolean, optional 

Assume the reconstructed image is zero outside the inscribed circle. Also changes the default output_size to match the behaviour of radon called with circle=True.  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html    Returns 
 
reconstructedndarray 

Reconstructed image. The rotation axis will be located in the pixel with indices (reconstructed.shape[0] // 2, reconstructed.shape[1] // 2).    Changed in version 0.19: In iradon, filter argument is deprecated in favor of filter_name.    Notes It applies the Fourier slice theorem to reconstruct an image by multiplying the frequency domain of the filter with the FFT of the projection data. This algorithm is called filtered back projection. References  
1  
AC Kak, M Slaney, “Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging”, IEEE Press 1988.  
2  
B.R. Ramesh, N. Srinivasa, K. Rajgopal, “An Algorithm for Computing the Discrete Radon Transform With Some Applications”, Proceedings of the Fourth IEEE Region 10 International Conference, TENCON ‘89, 1989   
 iradon_sart  
skimage.transform.iradon_sart(radon_image, theta=None, image=None, projection_shifts=None, clip=None, relaxation=0.15, dtype=None) [source]
 
Inverse radon transform. Reconstruct an image from the radon transform, using a single iteration of the Simultaneous Algebraic Reconstruction Technique (SART) algorithm.  Parameters 
 
radon_image2D array 

Image containing radon transform (sinogram). Each column of the image corresponds to a projection along a different angle. The tomography rotation axis should lie at the pixel index radon_image.shape[0] // 2 along the 0th dimension of radon_image.  
theta1D array, optional 

Reconstruction angles (in degrees). Default: m angles evenly spaced between 0 and 180 (if the shape of radon_image is (N, M)).  
image2D array, optional 

Image containing an initial reconstruction estimate. Shape of this array should be (radon_image.shape[0], radon_image.shape[0]). The default is an array of zeros.  
projection_shifts1D array, optional 

Shift the projections contained in radon_image (the sinogram) by this many pixels before reconstructing the image. The i’th value defines the shift of the i’th column of radon_image.  
cliplength-2 sequence of floats, optional 

Force all values in the reconstructed tomogram to lie in the range [clip[0], clip[1]]  
relaxationfloat, optional 

Relaxation parameter for the update step. A higher value can improve the convergence rate, but one runs the risk of instabilities. Values close to or higher than 1 are not recommended.  
dtypedtype, optional 

Output data type, must be floating point. By default, if input data type is not float, input is cast to double, otherwise dtype is set to input data type.    Returns 
 
reconstructedndarray 

Reconstructed image. The rotation axis will be located in the pixel with indices (reconstructed.shape[0] // 2, reconstructed.shape[1] // 2).     Notes Algebraic Reconstruction Techniques are based on formulating the tomography reconstruction problem as a set of linear equations. Along each ray, the projected value is the sum of all the values of the cross section along the ray. A typical feature of SART (and a few other variants of algebraic techniques) is that it samples the cross section at equidistant points along the ray, using linear interpolation between the pixel values of the cross section. The resulting set of linear equations are then solved using a slightly modified Kaczmarz method. When using SART, a single iteration is usually sufficient to obtain a good reconstruction. Further iterations will tend to enhance high-frequency information, but will also often increase the noise. References  
1  
AC Kak, M Slaney, “Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging”, IEEE Press 1988.  
2  
AH Andersen, AC Kak, “Simultaneous algebraic reconstruction technique (SART): a superior implementation of the ART algorithm”, Ultrasonic Imaging 6 pp 81–94 (1984)  
3  
S Kaczmarz, “Angenäherte auflösung von systemen linearer gleichungen”, Bulletin International de l’Academie Polonaise des Sciences et des Lettres 35 pp 355–357 (1937)  
4  
Kohler, T. “A projection access scheme for iterative reconstruction based on the golden section.” Nuclear Science Symposium Conference Record, 2004 IEEE. Vol. 6. IEEE, 2004.  
5  
Kaczmarz’ method, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaczmarz_method   
 matrix_transform  
skimage.transform.matrix_transform(coords, matrix) [source]
 
Apply 2D matrix transform.  Parameters 
 
coords(N, 2) array 

x, y coordinates to transform  
matrix(3, 3) array 

Homogeneous transformation matrix.    Returns 
 
coords(N, 2) array 

Transformed coordinates.     
 order_angles_golden_ratio  
skimage.transform.order_angles_golden_ratio(theta) [source]
 
Order angles to reduce the amount of correlated information in subsequent projections.  Parameters 
 
theta1D array of floats 

Projection angles in degrees. Duplicate angles are not allowed.    Returns 
 
indices_generatorgenerator yielding unsigned integers 

The returned generator yields indices into theta such that theta[indices] gives the approximate golden ratio ordering of the projections. In total, len(theta) indices are yielded. All non-negative integers < len(theta) are yielded exactly once.     Notes The method used here is that of the golden ratio introduced by T. Kohler. References  
1  
Kohler, T. “A projection access scheme for iterative reconstruction based on the golden section.” Nuclear Science Symposium Conference Record, 2004 IEEE. Vol. 6. IEEE, 2004.  
2  
Winkelmann, Stefanie, et al. “An optimal radial profile order based on the Golden Ratio for time-resolved MRI.” Medical Imaging, IEEE Transactions on 26.1 (2007): 68-76.   
 probabilistic_hough_line  
skimage.transform.probabilistic_hough_line(image, threshold=10, line_length=50, line_gap=10, theta=None, seed=None) [source]
 
Return lines from a progressive probabilistic line Hough transform.  Parameters 
 
image(M, N) ndarray 

Input image with nonzero values representing edges.  
thresholdint, optional 

Threshold  
line_lengthint, optional 

Minimum accepted length of detected lines. Increase the parameter to extract longer lines.  
line_gapint, optional 

Maximum gap between pixels to still form a line. Increase the parameter to merge broken lines more aggressively.  
theta1D ndarray, dtype=double, optional 

Angles at which to compute the transform, in radians. If None, use a range from -pi/2 to pi/2.  
seedint, optional 

Seed to initialize the random number generator.    Returns 
 
lineslist 

List of lines identified, lines in format ((x0, y0), (x1, y1)), indicating line start and end.     References  
1  
C. Galamhos, J. Matas and J. Kittler, “Progressive probabilistic Hough transform for line detection”, in IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 1999.   
 pyramid_expand  
skimage.transform.pyramid_expand(image, upscale=2, sigma=None, order=1, mode='reflect', cval=0, multichannel=False, preserve_range=False) [source]
 
Upsample and then smooth image.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image.  
upscalefloat, optional 

Upscale factor.  
sigmafloat, optional 

Sigma for Gaussian filter. Default is 2 * upscale / 6.0 which corresponds to a filter mask twice the size of the scale factor that covers more than 99% of the Gaussian distribution.  
orderint, optional 

Order of splines used in interpolation of upsampling. See skimage.transform.warp for detail.  
mode{‘reflect’, ‘constant’, ‘edge’, ‘symmetric’, ‘wrap’}, optional 

The mode parameter determines how the array borders are handled, where cval is the value when mode is equal to ‘constant’.  
cvalfloat, optional 

Value to fill past edges of input if mode is ‘constant’.  
multichannelbool, optional 

Whether the last axis of the image is to be interpreted as multiple channels or another spatial dimension.  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html    Returns 
 
outarray 

Upsampled and smoothed float image.     References  
1  
http://persci.mit.edu/pub_pdfs/pyramid83.pdf   
 pyramid_gaussian  
skimage.transform.pyramid_gaussian(image, max_layer=-1, downscale=2, sigma=None, order=1, mode='reflect', cval=0, multichannel=False, preserve_range=False) [source]
 
Yield images of the Gaussian pyramid formed by the input image. Recursively applies the pyramid_reduce function to the image, and yields the downscaled images. Note that the first image of the pyramid will be the original, unscaled image. The total number of images is max_layer + 1. In case all layers are computed, the last image is either a one-pixel image or the image where the reduction does not change its shape.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image.  
max_layerint, optional 

Number of layers for the pyramid. 0th layer is the original image. Default is -1 which builds all possible layers.  
downscalefloat, optional 

Downscale factor.  
sigmafloat, optional 

Sigma for Gaussian filter. Default is 2 * downscale / 6.0 which corresponds to a filter mask twice the size of the scale factor that covers more than 99% of the Gaussian distribution.  
orderint, optional 

Order of splines used in interpolation of downsampling. See skimage.transform.warp for detail.  
mode{‘reflect’, ‘constant’, ‘edge’, ‘symmetric’, ‘wrap’}, optional 

The mode parameter determines how the array borders are handled, where cval is the value when mode is equal to ‘constant’.  
cvalfloat, optional 

Value to fill past edges of input if mode is ‘constant’.  
multichannelbool, optional 

Whether the last axis of the image is to be interpreted as multiple channels or another spatial dimension.  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html    Returns 
 
pyramidgenerator 

Generator yielding pyramid layers as float images.     References  
1  
http://persci.mit.edu/pub_pdfs/pyramid83.pdf   
 pyramid_laplacian  
skimage.transform.pyramid_laplacian(image, max_layer=-1, downscale=2, sigma=None, order=1, mode='reflect', cval=0, multichannel=False, preserve_range=False) [source]
 
Yield images of the laplacian pyramid formed by the input image. Each layer contains the difference between the downsampled and the downsampled, smoothed image: layer = resize(prev_layer) - smooth(resize(prev_layer))
 Note that the first image of the pyramid will be the difference between the original, unscaled image and its smoothed version. The total number of images is max_layer + 1. In case all layers are computed, the last image is either a one-pixel image or the image where the reduction does not change its shape.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image.  
max_layerint, optional 

Number of layers for the pyramid. 0th layer is the original image. Default is -1 which builds all possible layers.  
downscalefloat, optional 

Downscale factor.  
sigmafloat, optional 

Sigma for Gaussian filter. Default is 2 * downscale / 6.0 which corresponds to a filter mask twice the size of the scale factor that covers more than 99% of the Gaussian distribution.  
orderint, optional 

Order of splines used in interpolation of downsampling. See skimage.transform.warp for detail.  
mode{‘reflect’, ‘constant’, ‘edge’, ‘symmetric’, ‘wrap’}, optional 

The mode parameter determines how the array borders are handled, where cval is the value when mode is equal to ‘constant’.  
cvalfloat, optional 

Value to fill past edges of input if mode is ‘constant’.  
multichannelbool, optional 

Whether the last axis of the image is to be interpreted as multiple channels or another spatial dimension.  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html    Returns 
 
pyramidgenerator 

Generator yielding pyramid layers as float images.     References  
1  
http://persci.mit.edu/pub_pdfs/pyramid83.pdf  
2  
http://sepwww.stanford.edu/data/media/public/sep/morgan/texturematch/paper_html/node3.html   
 pyramid_reduce  
skimage.transform.pyramid_reduce(image, downscale=2, sigma=None, order=1, mode='reflect', cval=0, multichannel=False, preserve_range=False) [source]
 
Smooth and then downsample image.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image.  
downscalefloat, optional 

Downscale factor.  
sigmafloat, optional 

Sigma for Gaussian filter. Default is 2 * downscale / 6.0 which corresponds to a filter mask twice the size of the scale factor that covers more than 99% of the Gaussian distribution.  
orderint, optional 

Order of splines used in interpolation of downsampling. See skimage.transform.warp for detail.  
mode{‘reflect’, ‘constant’, ‘edge’, ‘symmetric’, ‘wrap’}, optional 

The mode parameter determines how the array borders are handled, where cval is the value when mode is equal to ‘constant’.  
cvalfloat, optional 

Value to fill past edges of input if mode is ‘constant’.  
multichannelbool, optional 

Whether the last axis of the image is to be interpreted as multiple channels or another spatial dimension.  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html    Returns 
 
outarray 

Smoothed and downsampled float image.     References  
1  
http://persci.mit.edu/pub_pdfs/pyramid83.pdf   
 radon  
skimage.transform.radon(image, theta=None, circle=True, *, preserve_range=False) [source]
 
Calculates the radon transform of an image given specified projection angles.  Parameters 
 
imagearray_like 

Input image. The rotation axis will be located in the pixel with indices (image.shape[0] // 2, image.shape[1] // 2).  
thetaarray_like, optional 

Projection angles (in degrees). If None, the value is set to np.arange(180).  
circleboolean, optional 

Assume image is zero outside the inscribed circle, making the width of each projection (the first dimension of the sinogram) equal to min(image.shape).  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html    Returns 
 
radon_imagendarray 

Radon transform (sinogram). The tomography rotation axis will lie at the pixel index radon_image.shape[0] // 2 along the 0th dimension of radon_image.     Notes Based on code of Justin K. Romberg (https://www.clear.rice.edu/elec431/projects96/DSP/bpanalysis.html) References  
1  
AC Kak, M Slaney, “Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging”, IEEE Press 1988.  
2  
B.R. Ramesh, N. Srinivasa, K. Rajgopal, “An Algorithm for Computing the Discrete Radon Transform With Some Applications”, Proceedings of the Fourth IEEE Region 10 International Conference, TENCON ‘89, 1989   
 rescale  
skimage.transform.rescale(image, scale, order=None, mode='reflect', cval=0, clip=True, preserve_range=False, multichannel=False, anti_aliasing=None, anti_aliasing_sigma=None) [source]
 
Scale image by a certain factor. Performs interpolation to up-scale or down-scale N-dimensional images. Note that anti-aliasing should be enabled when down-sizing images to avoid aliasing artifacts. For down-sampling with an integer factor also see skimage.transform.downscale_local_mean.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image.  
scale{float, tuple of floats} 

Scale factors. Separate scale factors can be defined as (rows, cols[, …][, dim]).    Returns 
 
scaledndarray 

Scaled version of the input.    Other Parameters 
 
orderint, optional 

The order of the spline interpolation, default is 0 if image.dtype is bool and 1 otherwise. The order has to be in the range 0-5. See skimage.transform.warp for detail.  
mode{‘constant’, ‘edge’, ‘symmetric’, ‘reflect’, ‘wrap’}, optional 

Points outside the boundaries of the input are filled according to the given mode. Modes match the behaviour of numpy.pad.  
cvalfloat, optional 

Used in conjunction with mode ‘constant’, the value outside the image boundaries.  
clipbool, optional 

Whether to clip the output to the range of values of the input image. This is enabled by default, since higher order interpolation may produce values outside the given input range.  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html  
multichannelbool, optional 

Whether the last axis of the image is to be interpreted as multiple channels or another spatial dimension.  
anti_aliasingbool, optional 

Whether to apply a Gaussian filter to smooth the image prior to down-scaling. It is crucial to filter when down-sampling the image to avoid aliasing artifacts. If input image data type is bool, no anti-aliasing is applied.  
anti_aliasing_sigma{float, tuple of floats}, optional 

Standard deviation for Gaussian filtering to avoid aliasing artifacts. By default, this value is chosen as (s - 1) / 2 where s is the down-scaling factor.     Notes Modes ‘reflect’ and ‘symmetric’ are similar, but differ in whether the edge pixels are duplicated during the reflection. As an example, if an array has values [0, 1, 2] and was padded to the right by four values using symmetric, the result would be [0, 1, 2, 2, 1, 0, 0], while for reflect it would be [0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2]. Examples >>> from skimage import data
>>> from skimage.transform import rescale
>>> image = data.camera()
>>> rescale(image, 0.1).shape
(51, 51)
>>> rescale(image, 0.5).shape
(256, 256)
 
 resize  
skimage.transform.resize(image, output_shape, order=None, mode='reflect', cval=0, clip=True, preserve_range=False, anti_aliasing=None, anti_aliasing_sigma=None) [source]
 
Resize image to match a certain size. Performs interpolation to up-size or down-size N-dimensional images. Note that anti-aliasing should be enabled when down-sizing images to avoid aliasing artifacts. For down-sampling with an integer factor also see skimage.transform.downscale_local_mean.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image.  
output_shapetuple or ndarray 

Size of the generated output image (rows, cols[, …][, dim]). If dim is not provided, the number of channels is preserved. In case the number of input channels does not equal the number of output channels a n-dimensional interpolation is applied.    Returns 
 
resizedndarray 

Resized version of the input.    Other Parameters 
 
orderint, optional 

The order of the spline interpolation, default is 0 if image.dtype is bool and 1 otherwise. The order has to be in the range 0-5. See skimage.transform.warp for detail.  
mode{‘constant’, ‘edge’, ‘symmetric’, ‘reflect’, ‘wrap’}, optional 

Points outside the boundaries of the input are filled according to the given mode. Modes match the behaviour of numpy.pad.  
cvalfloat, optional 

Used in conjunction with mode ‘constant’, the value outside the image boundaries.  
clipbool, optional 

Whether to clip the output to the range of values of the input image. This is enabled by default, since higher order interpolation may produce values outside the given input range.  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html  
anti_aliasingbool, optional 

Whether to apply a Gaussian filter to smooth the image prior to down-scaling. It is crucial to filter when down-sampling the image to avoid aliasing artifacts. If input image data type is bool, no anti-aliasing is applied.  
anti_aliasing_sigma{float, tuple of floats}, optional 

Standard deviation for Gaussian filtering to avoid aliasing artifacts. By default, this value is chosen as (s - 1) / 2 where s is the down-scaling factor, where s > 1. For the up-size case, s < 1, no anti-aliasing is performed prior to rescaling.     Notes Modes ‘reflect’ and ‘symmetric’ are similar, but differ in whether the edge pixels are duplicated during the reflection. As an example, if an array has values [0, 1, 2] and was padded to the right by four values using symmetric, the result would be [0, 1, 2, 2, 1, 0, 0], while for reflect it would be [0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2]. Examples >>> from skimage import data
>>> from skimage.transform import resize
>>> image = data.camera()
>>> resize(image, (100, 100)).shape
(100, 100)
 
 rotate  
skimage.transform.rotate(image, angle, resize=False, center=None, order=None, mode='constant', cval=0, clip=True, preserve_range=False) [source]
 
Rotate image by a certain angle around its center.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image.  
anglefloat 

Rotation angle in degrees in counter-clockwise direction.  
resizebool, optional 

Determine whether the shape of the output image will be automatically calculated, so the complete rotated image exactly fits. Default is False.  
centeriterable of length 2 

The rotation center. If center=None, the image is rotated around its center, i.e. center=(cols / 2 - 0.5, rows / 2 - 0.5). Please note that this parameter is (cols, rows), contrary to normal skimage ordering.    Returns 
 
rotatedndarray 

Rotated version of the input.    Other Parameters 
 
orderint, optional 

The order of the spline interpolation, default is 0 if image.dtype is bool and 1 otherwise. The order has to be in the range 0-5. See skimage.transform.warp for detail.  
mode{‘constant’, ‘edge’, ‘symmetric’, ‘reflect’, ‘wrap’}, optional 

Points outside the boundaries of the input are filled according to the given mode. Modes match the behaviour of numpy.pad.  
cvalfloat, optional 

Used in conjunction with mode ‘constant’, the value outside the image boundaries.  
clipbool, optional 

Whether to clip the output to the range of values of the input image. This is enabled by default, since higher order interpolation may produce values outside the given input range.  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html     Notes Modes ‘reflect’ and ‘symmetric’ are similar, but differ in whether the edge pixels are duplicated during the reflection. As an example, if an array has values [0, 1, 2] and was padded to the right by four values using symmetric, the result would be [0, 1, 2, 2, 1, 0, 0], while for reflect it would be [0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2]. Examples >>> from skimage import data
>>> from skimage.transform import rotate
>>> image = data.camera()
>>> rotate(image, 2).shape
(512, 512)
>>> rotate(image, 2, resize=True).shape
(530, 530)
>>> rotate(image, 90, resize=True).shape
(512, 512)
 
 Examples using skimage.transform.rotate
 
  Different perimeters  

  Measure region properties   swirl  
skimage.transform.swirl(image, center=None, strength=1, radius=100, rotation=0, output_shape=None, order=None, mode='reflect', cval=0, clip=True, preserve_range=False) [source]
 
Perform a swirl transformation.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image.  
center(column, row) tuple or (2,) ndarray, optional 

Center coordinate of transformation.  
strengthfloat, optional 

The amount of swirling applied.  
radiusfloat, optional 

The extent of the swirl in pixels. The effect dies out rapidly beyond radius.  
rotationfloat, optional 

Additional rotation applied to the image.    Returns 
 
swirledndarray 

Swirled version of the input.    Other Parameters 
 
output_shapetuple (rows, cols), optional 

Shape of the output image generated. By default the shape of the input image is preserved.  
orderint, optional 

The order of the spline interpolation, default is 0 if image.dtype is bool and 1 otherwise. The order has to be in the range 0-5. See skimage.transform.warp for detail.  
mode{‘constant’, ‘edge’, ‘symmetric’, ‘reflect’, ‘wrap’}, optional 

Points outside the boundaries of the input are filled according to the given mode, with ‘constant’ used as the default. Modes match the behaviour of numpy.pad.  
cvalfloat, optional 

Used in conjunction with mode ‘constant’, the value outside the image boundaries.  
clipbool, optional 

Whether to clip the output to the range of values of the input image. This is enabled by default, since higher order interpolation may produce values outside the given input range.  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html     
 warp  
skimage.transform.warp(image, inverse_map, map_args={}, output_shape=None, order=None, mode='constant', cval=0.0, clip=True, preserve_range=False) [source]
 
Warp an image according to a given coordinate transformation.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image.  
inverse_maptransformation object, callable cr = f(cr, **kwargs), or ndarray 

Inverse coordinate map, which transforms coordinates in the output images into their corresponding coordinates in the input image. There are a number of different options to define this map, depending on the dimensionality of the input image. A 2-D image can have 2 dimensions for gray-scale images, or 3 dimensions with color information.  For 2-D images, you can directly pass a transformation object, e.g. skimage.transform.SimilarityTransform, or its inverse. For 2-D images, you can pass a (3, 3) homogeneous transformation matrix, e.g. skimage.transform.SimilarityTransform.params. For 2-D images, a function that transforms a (M, 2) array of (col, row) coordinates in the output image to their corresponding coordinates in the input image. Extra parameters to the function can be specified through map_args. For N-D images, you can directly pass an array of coordinates. The first dimension specifies the coordinates in the input image, while the subsequent dimensions determine the position in the output image. E.g. in case of 2-D images, you need to pass an array of shape (2, rows, cols), where rows and cols determine the shape of the output image, and the first dimension contains the (row, col) coordinate in the input image. See scipy.ndimage.map_coordinates for further documentation.  Note, that a (3, 3) matrix is interpreted as a homogeneous transformation matrix, so you cannot interpolate values from a 3-D input, if the output is of shape (3,). See example section for usage.  
map_argsdict, optional 

Keyword arguments passed to inverse_map.  
output_shapetuple (rows, cols), optional 

Shape of the output image generated. By default the shape of the input image is preserved. Note that, even for multi-band images, only rows and columns need to be specified.  
orderint, optional 

 The order of interpolation. The order has to be in the range 0-5:

 0: Nearest-neighbor 1: Bi-linear (default) 2: Bi-quadratic 3: Bi-cubic 4: Bi-quartic 5: Bi-quintic  Default is 0 if image.dtype is bool and 1 otherwise.    
mode{‘constant’, ‘edge’, ‘symmetric’, ‘reflect’, ‘wrap’}, optional 

Points outside the boundaries of the input are filled according to the given mode. Modes match the behaviour of numpy.pad.  
cvalfloat, optional 

Used in conjunction with mode ‘constant’, the value outside the image boundaries.  
clipbool, optional 

Whether to clip the output to the range of values of the input image. This is enabled by default, since higher order interpolation may produce values outside the given input range.  
preserve_rangebool, optional 

Whether to keep the original range of values. Otherwise, the input image is converted according to the conventions of img_as_float. Also see https://scikit-image.org/docs/dev/user_guide/data_types.html    Returns 
 
warpeddouble ndarray 

The warped input image.     Notes  The input image is converted to a double image. In case of a SimilarityTransform, AffineTransform and ProjectiveTransform and order in [0, 3] this function uses the underlying transformation matrix to warp the image with a much faster routine.  Examples >>> from skimage.transform import warp
>>> from skimage import data
>>> image = data.camera()
 The following image warps are all equal but differ substantially in execution time. The image is shifted to the bottom. Use a geometric transform to warp an image (fast): >>> from skimage.transform import SimilarityTransform
>>> tform = SimilarityTransform(translation=(0, -10))
>>> warped = warp(image, tform)
 Use a callable (slow): >>> def shift_down(xy):
...     xy[:, 1] -= 10
...     return xy
>>> warped = warp(image, shift_down)
 Use a transformation matrix to warp an image (fast): >>> matrix = np.array([[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, -10], [0, 0, 1]])
>>> warped = warp(image, matrix)
>>> from skimage.transform import ProjectiveTransform
>>> warped = warp(image, ProjectiveTransform(matrix=matrix))
 You can also use the inverse of a geometric transformation (fast): >>> warped = warp(image, tform.inverse)
 For N-D images you can pass a coordinate array, that specifies the coordinates in the input image for every element in the output image. E.g. if you want to rescale a 3-D cube, you can do: >>> cube_shape = np.array([30, 30, 30])
>>> cube = np.random.rand(*cube_shape)
 Setup the coordinate array, that defines the scaling: >>> scale = 0.1
>>> output_shape = (scale * cube_shape).astype(int)
>>> coords0, coords1, coords2 = np.mgrid[:output_shape[0],
...                    :output_shape[1], :output_shape[2]]
>>> coords = np.array([coords0, coords1, coords2])
 Assume that the cube contains spatial data, where the first array element center is at coordinate (0.5, 0.5, 0.5) in real space, i.e. we have to account for this extra offset when scaling the image: >>> coords = (coords + 0.5) / scale - 0.5
>>> warped = warp(cube, coords)
 
 Examples using skimage.transform.warp
 
  Registration using optical flow   warp_coords  
skimage.transform.warp_coords(coord_map, shape, dtype=<class 'numpy.float64'>) [source]
 
Build the source coordinates for the output of a 2-D image warp.  Parameters 
 
coord_mapcallable like GeometricTransform.inverse 

Return input coordinates for given output coordinates. Coordinates are in the shape (P, 2), where P is the number of coordinates and each element is a (row, col) pair.  
shapetuple 

Shape of output image (rows, cols[, bands]).  
dtypenp.dtype or string 

dtype for return value (sane choices: float32 or float64).    Returns 
 
coords(ndim, rows, cols[, bands]) array of dtype dtype 

Coordinates for scipy.ndimage.map_coordinates, that will yield an image of shape (orows, ocols, bands) by drawing from source points according to the coord_transform_fn.     Notes This is a lower-level routine that produces the source coordinates for 2-D images used by warp(). It is provided separately from warp to give additional flexibility to users who would like, for example, to re-use a particular coordinate mapping, to use specific dtypes at various points along the the image-warping process, or to implement different post-processing logic than warp performs after the call to ndi.map_coordinates. Examples Produce a coordinate map that shifts an image up and to the right: >>> from skimage import data
>>> from scipy.ndimage import map_coordinates
>>>
>>> def shift_up10_left20(xy):
...     return xy - np.array([-20, 10])[None, :]
>>>
>>> image = data.astronaut().astype(np.float32)
>>> coords = warp_coords(shift_up10_left20, image.shape)
>>> warped_image = map_coordinates(image, coords)
 
 warp_polar  
skimage.transform.warp_polar(image, center=None, *, radius=None, output_shape=None, scaling='linear', multichannel=False, **kwargs) [source]
 
Remap image to polar or log-polar coordinates space.  Parameters 
 
imagendarray 

Input image. Only 2-D arrays are accepted by default. If multichannel=True, 3-D arrays are accepted and the last axis is interpreted as multiple channels.  
centertuple (row, col), optional 

Point in image that represents the center of the transformation (i.e., the origin in cartesian space). Values can be of type float. If no value is given, the center is assumed to be the center point of the image.  
radiusfloat, optional 

Radius of the circle that bounds the area to be transformed.  
output_shapetuple (row, col), optional 

scaling{‘linear’, ‘log’}, optional 

Specify whether the image warp is polar or log-polar. Defaults to ‘linear’.  
multichannelbool, optional 

Whether the image is a 3-D array in which the third axis is to be interpreted as multiple channels. If set to False (default), only 2-D arrays are accepted.  
**kwargskeyword arguments 

Passed to transform.warp.    Returns 
 
warpedndarray 

The polar or log-polar warped image.     Examples Perform a basic polar warp on a grayscale image: >>> from skimage import data
>>> from skimage.transform import warp_polar
>>> image = data.checkerboard()
>>> warped = warp_polar(image)
 Perform a log-polar warp on a grayscale image: >>> warped = warp_polar(image, scaling='log')
 Perform a log-polar warp on a grayscale image while specifying center, radius, and output shape: >>> warped = warp_polar(image, (100,100), radius=100,
...                     output_shape=image.shape, scaling='log')
 Perform a log-polar warp on a color image: >>> image = data.astronaut()
>>> warped = warp_polar(image, scaling='log', multichannel=True)
 
 AffineTransform  
class skimage.transform.AffineTransform(matrix=None, scale=None, rotation=None, shear=None, translation=None) [source]
 
Bases: skimage.transform._geometric.ProjectiveTransform 2D affine transformation. Has the following form: X = a0*x + a1*y + a2 =
  = sx*x*cos(rotation) - sy*y*sin(rotation + shear) + a2

Y = b0*x + b1*y + b2 =
  = sx*x*sin(rotation) + sy*y*cos(rotation + shear) + b2
 where sx and sy are scale factors in the x and y directions, and the homogeneous transformation matrix is: [[a0  a1  a2]
 [b0  b1  b2]
 [0   0    1]]
  Parameters 
 
matrix(3, 3) array, optional 

Homogeneous transformation matrix.  
scale{s as float or (sx, sy) as array, list or tuple}, optional 

Scale factor(s). If a single value, it will be assigned to both sx and sy.  New in version 0.17: Added support for supplying a single scalar value.   
rotationfloat, optional 

Rotation angle in counter-clockwise direction as radians.  
shearfloat, optional 

Shear angle in counter-clockwise direction as radians.  
translation(tx, ty) as array, list or tuple, optional 

Translation parameters.    Attributes 
 
params(3, 3) array 

Homogeneous transformation matrix.      
__init__(matrix=None, scale=None, rotation=None, shear=None, translation=None) [source]
 
Initialize self. See help(type(self)) for accurate signature. 
  
property rotation 
  
property scale 
  
property shear 
  
property translation 
 
 EssentialMatrixTransform  
class skimage.transform.EssentialMatrixTransform(rotation=None, translation=None, matrix=None) [source]
 
Bases: skimage.transform._geometric.FundamentalMatrixTransform Essential matrix transformation. The essential matrix relates corresponding points between a pair of calibrated images. The matrix transforms normalized, homogeneous image points in one image to epipolar lines in the other image. The essential matrix is only defined for a pair of moving images capturing a non-planar scene. In the case of pure rotation or planar scenes, the homography describes the geometric relation between two images (ProjectiveTransform). If the intrinsic calibration of the images is unknown, the fundamental matrix describes the projective relation between the two images (FundamentalMatrixTransform).  Parameters 
 
rotation(3, 3) array, optional 

Rotation matrix of the relative camera motion.  
translation(3, 1) array, optional 

Translation vector of the relative camera motion. The vector must have unit length.  
matrix(3, 3) array, optional 

Essential matrix.     References  
1  
Hartley, Richard, and Andrew Zisserman. Multiple view geometry in computer vision. Cambridge university press, 2003.    Attributes 
 
params(3, 3) array 

Essential matrix.      
__init__(rotation=None, translation=None, matrix=None) [source]
 
Initialize self. See help(type(self)) for accurate signature. 
  
estimate(src, dst) [source]
 
Estimate essential matrix using 8-point algorithm. The 8-point algorithm requires at least 8 corresponding point pairs for a well-conditioned solution, otherwise the over-determined solution is estimated.  Parameters 
 
src(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.  
dst(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.    Returns 
 
successbool 

True, if model estimation succeeds.     
 
 EuclideanTransform  
class skimage.transform.EuclideanTransform(matrix=None, rotation=None, translation=None) [source]
 
Bases: skimage.transform._geometric.ProjectiveTransform 2D Euclidean transformation. Has the following form: X = a0 * x - b0 * y + a1 =
  = x * cos(rotation) - y * sin(rotation) + a1

Y = b0 * x + a0 * y + b1 =
  = x * sin(rotation) + y * cos(rotation) + b1
 where the homogeneous transformation matrix is: [[a0  b0  a1]
 [b0  a0  b1]
 [0   0    1]]
 The Euclidean transformation is a rigid transformation with rotation and translation parameters. The similarity transformation extends the Euclidean transformation with a single scaling factor.  Parameters 
 
matrix(3, 3) array, optional 

Homogeneous transformation matrix.  
rotationfloat, optional 

Rotation angle in counter-clockwise direction as radians.  
translation(tx, ty) as array, list or tuple, optional 

x, y translation parameters.    Attributes 
 
params(3, 3) array 

Homogeneous transformation matrix.      
__init__(matrix=None, rotation=None, translation=None) [source]
 
Initialize self. See help(type(self)) for accurate signature. 
  
estimate(src, dst) [source]
 
Estimate the transformation from a set of corresponding points. You can determine the over-, well- and under-determined parameters with the total least-squares method. Number of source and destination coordinates must match.  Parameters 
 
src(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.  
dst(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.    Returns 
 
successbool 

True, if model estimation succeeds.     
  
property rotation 
  
property translation 
 
 FundamentalMatrixTransform  
class skimage.transform.FundamentalMatrixTransform(matrix=None) [source]
 
Bases: skimage.transform._geometric.GeometricTransform Fundamental matrix transformation. The fundamental matrix relates corresponding points between a pair of uncalibrated images. The matrix transforms homogeneous image points in one image to epipolar lines in the other image. The fundamental matrix is only defined for a pair of moving images. In the case of pure rotation or planar scenes, the homography describes the geometric relation between two images (ProjectiveTransform). If the intrinsic calibration of the images is known, the essential matrix describes the metric relation between the two images (EssentialMatrixTransform).  Parameters 
 
matrix(3, 3) array, optional 

Fundamental matrix.     References  
1  
Hartley, Richard, and Andrew Zisserman. Multiple view geometry in computer vision. Cambridge university press, 2003.    Attributes 
 
params(3, 3) array 

Fundamental matrix.      
__init__(matrix=None) [source]
 
Initialize self. See help(type(self)) for accurate signature. 
  
estimate(src, dst) [source]
 
Estimate fundamental matrix using 8-point algorithm. The 8-point algorithm requires at least 8 corresponding point pairs for a well-conditioned solution, otherwise the over-determined solution is estimated.  Parameters 
 
src(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.  
dst(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.    Returns 
 
successbool 

True, if model estimation succeeds.     
  
inverse(coords) [source]
 
Apply inverse transformation.  Parameters 
 
coords(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.    Returns 
 
coords(N, 3) array 

Epipolar lines in the source image.     
  
residuals(src, dst) [source]
 
Compute the Sampson distance. The Sampson distance is the first approximation to the geometric error.  Parameters 
 
src(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.  
dst(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.    Returns 
 
residuals(N, ) array 

Sampson distance.     
 
 PiecewiseAffineTransform  
class skimage.transform.PiecewiseAffineTransform [source]
 
Bases: skimage.transform._geometric.GeometricTransform 2D piecewise affine transformation. Control points are used to define the mapping. The transform is based on a Delaunay triangulation of the points to form a mesh. Each triangle is used to find a local affine transform.  Attributes 
 
affineslist of AffineTransform objects 

Affine transformations for each triangle in the mesh.  
inverse_affineslist of AffineTransform objects 

Inverse affine transformations for each triangle in the mesh.      
__init__() [source]
 
Initialize self. See help(type(self)) for accurate signature. 
  
estimate(src, dst) [source]
 
Estimate the transformation from a set of corresponding points. Number of source and destination coordinates must match.  Parameters 
 
src(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.  
dst(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.    Returns 
 
successbool 

True, if model estimation succeeds.     
  
inverse(coords) [source]
 
Apply inverse transformation. Coordinates outside of the mesh will be set to - 1.  Parameters 
 
coords(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.    Returns 
 
coords(N, 2) array 

Transformed coordinates.     
 
 PolynomialTransform  
class skimage.transform.PolynomialTransform(params=None) [source]
 
Bases: skimage.transform._geometric.GeometricTransform 2D polynomial transformation. Has the following form: X = sum[j=0:order]( sum[i=0:j]( a_ji * x**(j - i) * y**i ))
Y = sum[j=0:order]( sum[i=0:j]( b_ji * x**(j - i) * y**i ))
  Parameters 
 
params(2, N) array, optional 

Polynomial coefficients where N * 2 = (order + 1) * (order + 2). So, a_ji is defined in params[0, :] and b_ji in params[1, :].    Attributes 
 
params(2, N) array 

Polynomial coefficients where N * 2 = (order + 1) * (order + 2). So, a_ji is defined in params[0, :] and b_ji in params[1, :].      
__init__(params=None) [source]
 
Initialize self. See help(type(self)) for accurate signature. 
  
estimate(src, dst, order=2) [source]
 
Estimate the transformation from a set of corresponding points. You can determine the over-, well- and under-determined parameters with the total least-squares method. Number of source and destination coordinates must match. The transformation is defined as: X = sum[j=0:order]( sum[i=0:j]( a_ji * x**(j - i) * y**i ))
Y = sum[j=0:order]( sum[i=0:j]( b_ji * x**(j - i) * y**i ))
 These equations can be transformed to the following form: 0 = sum[j=0:order]( sum[i=0:j]( a_ji * x**(j - i) * y**i )) - X
0 = sum[j=0:order]( sum[i=0:j]( b_ji * x**(j - i) * y**i )) - Y
 which exist for each set of corresponding points, so we have a set of N * 2 equations. The coefficients appear linearly so we can write A x = 0, where: A   = [[1 x y x**2 x*y y**2 ... 0 ...             0 -X]
       [0 ...                 0 1 x y x**2 x*y y**2 -Y]
        ...
        ...
      ]
x.T = [a00 a10 a11 a20 a21 a22 ... ann
       b00 b10 b11 b20 b21 b22 ... bnn c3]
 In case of total least-squares the solution of this homogeneous system of equations is the right singular vector of A which corresponds to the smallest singular value normed by the coefficient c3.  Parameters 
 
src(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.  
dst(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.  
orderint, optional 

Polynomial order (number of coefficients is order + 1).    Returns 
 
successbool 

True, if model estimation succeeds.     
  
inverse(coords) [source]
 
Apply inverse transformation.  Parameters 
 
coords(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.    Returns 
 
coords(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.     
 
 ProjectiveTransform  
class skimage.transform.ProjectiveTransform(matrix=None) [source]
 
Bases: skimage.transform._geometric.GeometricTransform Projective transformation. Apply a projective transformation (homography) on coordinates. For each homogeneous coordinate \(\mathbf{x} = [x, y, 1]^T\), its target position is calculated by multiplying with the given matrix, \(H\), to give \(H \mathbf{x}\): [[a0 a1 a2]
 [b0 b1 b2]
 [c0 c1 1 ]].
 E.g., to rotate by theta degrees clockwise, the matrix should be: [[cos(theta) -sin(theta) 0]
 [sin(theta)  cos(theta) 0]
 [0            0         1]]
 or, to translate x by 10 and y by 20: [[1 0 10]
 [0 1 20]
 [0 0 1 ]].
  Parameters 
 
matrix(3, 3) array, optional 

Homogeneous transformation matrix.    Attributes 
 
params(3, 3) array 

Homogeneous transformation matrix.      
__init__(matrix=None) [source]
 
Initialize self. See help(type(self)) for accurate signature. 
  
estimate(src, dst) [source]
 
Estimate the transformation from a set of corresponding points. You can determine the over-, well- and under-determined parameters with the total least-squares method. Number of source and destination coordinates must match. The transformation is defined as: X = (a0*x + a1*y + a2) / (c0*x + c1*y + 1)
Y = (b0*x + b1*y + b2) / (c0*x + c1*y + 1)
 These equations can be transformed to the following form: 0 = a0*x + a1*y + a2 - c0*x*X - c1*y*X - X
0 = b0*x + b1*y + b2 - c0*x*Y - c1*y*Y - Y
 which exist for each set of corresponding points, so we have a set of N * 2 equations. The coefficients appear linearly so we can write A x = 0, where: A   = [[x y 1 0 0 0 -x*X -y*X -X]
       [0 0 0 x y 1 -x*Y -y*Y -Y]
        ...
        ...
      ]
x.T = [a0 a1 a2 b0 b1 b2 c0 c1 c3]
 In case of total least-squares the solution of this homogeneous system of equations is the right singular vector of A which corresponds to the smallest singular value normed by the coefficient c3. In case of the affine transformation the coefficients c0 and c1 are 0. Thus the system of equations is: A   = [[x y 1 0 0 0 -X]
       [0 0 0 x y 1 -Y]
        ...
        ...
      ]
x.T = [a0 a1 a2 b0 b1 b2 c3]
  Parameters 
 
src(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.  
dst(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.    Returns 
 
successbool 

True, if model estimation succeeds.     
  
inverse(coords) [source]
 
Apply inverse transformation.  Parameters 
 
coords(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.    Returns 
 
coords(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.     
 
 SimilarityTransform  
class skimage.transform.SimilarityTransform(matrix=None, scale=None, rotation=None, translation=None) [source]
 
Bases: skimage.transform._geometric.EuclideanTransform 2D similarity transformation. Has the following form: X = a0 * x - b0 * y + a1 =
  = s * x * cos(rotation) - s * y * sin(rotation) + a1

Y = b0 * x + a0 * y + b1 =
  = s * x * sin(rotation) + s * y * cos(rotation) + b1
 where s is a scale factor and the homogeneous transformation matrix is: [[a0  b0  a1]
 [b0  a0  b1]
 [0   0    1]]
 The similarity transformation extends the Euclidean transformation with a single scaling factor in addition to the rotation and translation parameters.  Parameters 
 
matrix(3, 3) array, optional 

Homogeneous transformation matrix.  
scalefloat, optional 

Scale factor.  
rotationfloat, optional 

Rotation angle in counter-clockwise direction as radians.  
translation(tx, ty) as array, list or tuple, optional 

x, y translation parameters.    Attributes 
 
params(3, 3) array 

Homogeneous transformation matrix.      
__init__(matrix=None, scale=None, rotation=None, translation=None) [source]
 
Initialize self. See help(type(self)) for accurate signature. 
  
estimate(src, dst) [source]
 
Estimate the transformation from a set of corresponding points. You can determine the over-, well- and under-determined parameters with the total least-squares method. Number of source and destination coordinates must match.  Parameters 
 
src(N, 2) array 

Source coordinates.  
dst(N, 2) array 

Destination coordinates.    Returns 
 
successbool 

True, if model estimation succeeds.     
  
property scale