importlib.machinery.all_suffixes()
Returns a combined list of strings representing all file suffixes for modules recognized by the standard import machinery. This is a helper for code which simply needs to know if a filesystem path potentially refers to a module without needing any details on the kind of module (for example, inspect.getmodulename()).  New in version 3.3.


class importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter
An importer for built-in modules. All known built-in modules are listed in sys.builtin_module_names. This class implements the importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder and importlib.abc.InspectLoader ABCs. Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation.  Changed in version 3.5: As part of PEP 489, the builtin importer now implements Loader.create_module() and Loader.exec_module()


importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for bytecode modules (including the leading dot).  New in version 3.3.   Changed in version 3.5: The value is no longer dependent on __debug__.


importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized bytecode modules.  New in version 3.3.   Deprecated since version 3.5: Use BYTECODE_SUFFIXES instead.


class importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader(fullname, path)
A concrete implementation of importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader for extension modules. The fullname argument specifies the name of the module the loader is to support. The path argument is the path to the extension module’s file.  New in version 3.3.
name
Name of the module the loader supports.

path
Path to the extension module.

create_module(spec)
Creates the module object from the given specification in accordance with PEP 489.  New in version 3.5.

exec_module(module)
Initializes the given module object in accordance with PEP 489.  New in version 3.5.

is_package(fullname)
Returns True if the file path points to a package’s __init__ module based on EXTENSION_SUFFIXES.

get_code(fullname)
Returns None as extension modules lack a code object.

get_source(fullname)
Returns None as extension modules do not have source code.

get_filename(fullname)
Returns path.  New in version 3.4.


create_module(spec)
Creates the module object from the given specification in accordance with PEP 489.  New in version 3.5.


exec_module(module)
Initializes the given module object in accordance with PEP 489.  New in version 3.5.


get_code(fullname)
Returns None as extension modules lack a code object.


get_filename(fullname)
Returns path.  New in version 3.4.


get_source(fullname)
Returns None as extension modules do not have source code.


is_package(fullname)
Returns True if the file path points to a package’s __init__ module based on EXTENSION_SUFFIXES.


name
Name of the module the loader supports.


importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES
A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for extension modules.  New in version 3.3.


class importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, *loader_details)
A concrete implementation of importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder which caches results from the file system. The path argument is the directory for which the finder is in charge of searching. The loader_details argument is a variable number of 2-item tuples each containing a loader and a sequence of file suffixes the loader recognizes. The loaders are expected to be callables which accept two arguments of the module’s name and the path to the file found. The finder will cache the directory contents as necessary, making stat calls for each module search to verify the cache is not outdated. Because cache staleness relies upon the granularity of the operating system’s state information of the file system, there is a potential race condition of searching for a module, creating a new file, and then searching for the module the new file represents. If the operations happen fast enough to fit within the granularity of stat calls, then the module search will fail. To prevent this from happening, when you create a module dynamically, make sure to call importlib.invalidate_caches().  New in version 3.3.
path
The path the finder will search in.

find_spec(fullname, target=None)
Attempt to find the spec to handle fullname within path.  New in version 3.4.

find_loader(fullname)
Attempt to find the loader to handle fullname within path.

invalidate_caches()
Clear out the internal cache.

classmethod path_hook(*loader_details)
A class method which returns a closure for use on sys.path_hooks. An instance of FileFinder is returned by the closure using the path argument given to the closure directly and loader_details indirectly. If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory, ImportError is raised.


find_loader(fullname)
Attempt to find the loader to handle fullname within path.


find_spec(fullname, target=None)
Attempt to find the spec to handle fullname within path.  New in version 3.4.


invalidate_caches()
Clear out the internal cache.


path
The path the finder will search in.


classmethod path_hook(*loader_details)
A class method which returns a closure for use on sys.path_hooks. An instance of FileFinder is returned by the closure using the path argument given to the closure directly and loader_details indirectly. If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory, ImportError is raised.


class importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter
An importer for frozen modules. This class implements the importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder and importlib.abc.InspectLoader ABCs. Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation.  Changed in version 3.4: Gained create_module() and exec_module() methods.


class importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec(name, loader, *, origin=None, loader_state=None, is_package=None)
A specification for a module’s import-system-related state. This is typically exposed as the module’s __spec__ attribute. In the descriptions below, the names in parentheses give the corresponding attribute available directly on the module object. E.g. module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__. Note however that while the values are usually equivalent, they can differ since there is no synchronization between the two objects. Thus it is possible to update the module’s __path__ at runtime, and this will not be automatically reflected in __spec__.submodule_search_locations.  New in version 3.4.
name
 (__name__) A string for the fully-qualified name of the module.
loader
 (__loader__) The Loader that should be used when loading the module. Finders should always set this.
origin
 (__file__) Name of the place from which the module is loaded, e.g. “builtin” for built-in modules and the filename for modules loaded from source. Normally “origin” should be set, but it may be None (the default) which indicates it is unspecified (e.g. for namespace packages).
submodule_search_locations
 (__path__) List of strings for where to find submodules, if a package (None otherwise).
loader_state
 Container of extra module-specific data for use during loading (or None).
cached
 (__cached__) String for where the compiled module should be stored (or None).
parent
 (__package__) (Read-only) The fully-qualified name of the package under which the module should be loaded as a submodule (or the empty string for top-level modules). For packages, it is the same as __name__.
has_location
 Boolean indicating whether or not the module’s “origin” attribute refers to a loadable location.


importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized bytecode modules.  New in version 3.3.   Deprecated since version 3.5: Use BYTECODE_SUFFIXES instead.


class importlib.machinery.PathFinder
A Finder for sys.path and package __path__ attributes. This class implements the importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder ABC. Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation.
classmethod find_spec(fullname, path=None, target=None)
Class method that attempts to find a spec for the module specified by fullname on sys.path or, if defined, on path. For each path entry that is searched, sys.path_importer_cache is checked. If a non-false object is found then it is used as the path entry finder to look for the module being searched for. If no entry is found in sys.path_importer_cache, then sys.path_hooks is searched for a finder for the path entry and, if found, is stored in sys.path_importer_cache along with being queried about the module. If no finder is ever found then None is both stored in the cache and returned.  New in version 3.4.   Changed in version 3.5: If the current working directory – represented by an empty string – is no longer valid then None is returned but no value is cached in sys.path_importer_cache.

classmethod find_module(fullname, path=None)
A legacy wrapper around find_spec().  Deprecated since version 3.4: Use find_spec() instead.

classmethod invalidate_caches()
Calls importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches() on all finders stored in sys.path_importer_cache that define the method. Otherwise entries in sys.path_importer_cache set to None are deleted.  Changed in version 3.7: Entries of None in sys.path_importer_cache are deleted.
  Changed in version 3.4: Calls objects in sys.path_hooks with the current working directory for '' (i.e. the empty string).


classmethod find_module(fullname, path=None)
A legacy wrapper around find_spec().  Deprecated since version 3.4: Use find_spec() instead.


classmethod find_spec(fullname, path=None, target=None)
Class method that attempts to find a spec for the module specified by fullname on sys.path or, if defined, on path. For each path entry that is searched, sys.path_importer_cache is checked. If a non-false object is found then it is used as the path entry finder to look for the module being searched for. If no entry is found in sys.path_importer_cache, then sys.path_hooks is searched for a finder for the path entry and, if found, is stored in sys.path_importer_cache along with being queried about the module. If no finder is ever found then None is both stored in the cache and returned.  New in version 3.4.   Changed in version 3.5: If the current working directory – represented by an empty string – is no longer valid then None is returned but no value is cached in sys.path_importer_cache.


classmethod invalidate_caches()
Calls importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches() on all finders stored in sys.path_importer_cache that define the method. Otherwise entries in sys.path_importer_cache set to None are deleted.  Changed in version 3.7: Entries of None in sys.path_importer_cache are deleted.


class importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader(fullname, path)
A concrete implementation of importlib.abc.SourceLoader by subclassing importlib.abc.FileLoader and providing some concrete implementations of other methods.  New in version 3.3.
name
The name of the module that this loader will handle.

path
The path to the source file.

is_package(fullname)
Return True if path appears to be for a package.

path_stats(path)
Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats().

set_data(path, data)
Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data().

load_module(name=None)
Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module() where specifying the name of the module to load is optional.  Deprecated since version 3.6: Use importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module() instead.


is_package(fullname)
Return True if path appears to be for a package.


load_module(name=None)
Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module() where specifying the name of the module to load is optional.  Deprecated since version 3.6: Use importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module() instead.


name
The name of the module that this loader will handle.


path_stats(path)
Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats().


set_data(path, data)
Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data().


class importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader(fullname, path)
A concrete implementation of importlib.abc.FileLoader which can import bytecode files (i.e. no source code files exist). Please note that direct use of bytecode files (and thus not source code files) inhibits your modules from being usable by all Python implementations or new versions of Python which change the bytecode format.  New in version 3.3.
name
The name of the module the loader will handle.

path
The path to the bytecode file.

is_package(fullname)
Determines if the module is a package based on path.

get_code(fullname)
Returns the code object for name created from path.

get_source(fullname)
Returns None as bytecode files have no source when this loader is used.

load_module(name=None)
 Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module() where specifying the name of the module to load is optional.  Deprecated since version 3.6: Use importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module() instead.


get_code(fullname)
Returns the code object for name created from path.


get_source(fullname)
Returns None as bytecode files have no source when this loader is used.


is_package(fullname)
Determines if the module is a package based on path.


name
The name of the module the loader will handle.


importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES
A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for source modules.  New in version 3.3.


class importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder
Finder for modules declared in the Windows registry. This class implements the importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder ABC. Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation.  New in version 3.3.   Deprecated since version 3.6: Use site configuration instead. Future versions of Python may not enable this finder by default.


importlib.reload(module)
Reload a previously imported module. The argument must be a module object, so it must have been successfully imported before. This is useful if you have edited the module source file using an external editor and want to try out the new version without leaving the Python interpreter. The return value is the module object (which can be different if re-importing causes a different object to be placed in sys.modules). When reload() is executed:  Python module’s code is recompiled and the module-level code re-executed, defining a new set of objects which are bound to names in the module’s dictionary by reusing the loader which originally loaded the module. The init function of extension modules is not called a second time. As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only reclaimed after their reference counts drop to zero. The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any new or changed objects. Other references to the old objects (such as names external to the module) are not rebound to refer to the new objects and must be updated in each namespace where they occur if that is desired.  There are a number of other caveats: When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module’s global variables) is retained. Redefinitions of names will override the old definitions, so this is generally not a problem. If the new version of a module does not define a name that was defined by the old version, the old definition remains. This feature can be used to the module’s advantage if it maintains a global table or cache of objects — with a try statement it can test for the table’s presence and skip its initialization if desired: try:
    cache
except NameError:
    cache = {}
 It is generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically loaded modules. Reloading sys, __main__, builtins and other key modules is not recommended. In many cases extension modules are not designed to be initialized more than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded. If a module imports objects from another module using from … import …, calling reload() for the other module does not redefine the objects imported from it — one way around this is to re-execute the from statement, another is to use import and qualified names (module.name) instead. If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module that defines the class does not affect the method definitions of the instances — they continue to use the old class definition. The same is true for derived classes.  New in version 3.4.   Changed in version 3.7: ModuleNotFoundError is raised when the module being reloaded lacks a ModuleSpec.


importlib.resources.as_file(traversable)
Given a importlib.resources.abc.Traversable object representing a file, typically from importlib.resources.files(), return a context manager for use in a with statement. The context manager provides a pathlib.Path object. Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file created when the resource was extracted from e.g. a zip file. Use as_file when the Traversable methods (read_text, etc) are insufficient and an actual file on the file system is required.  New in version 3.9.


importlib.resources.contents(package)
Return an iterable over the named items within the package. The iterable returns str resources (e.g. files) and non-resources (e.g. directories). The iterable does not recurse into subdirectories. package is either a name or a module object which conforms to the Package requirements.


importlib.resources.files(package)
Returns an importlib.resources.abc.Traversable object representing the resource container for the package (think directory) and its resources (think files). A Traversable may contain other containers (think subdirectories). package is either a name or a module object which conforms to the Package requirements.  New in version 3.9.


importlib.resources.is_resource(package, name)
Return True if there is a resource named name in the package, otherwise False. Remember that directories are not resources! package is either a name or a module object which conforms to the Package requirements.


importlib.resources.open_binary(package, resource)
Open for binary reading the resource within package. package is either a name or a module object which conforms to the Package requirements. resource is the name of the resource to open within package; it may not contain path separators and it may not have sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory). This function returns a typing.BinaryIO instance, a binary I/O stream open for reading.


importlib.resources.open_text(package, resource, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
Open for text reading the resource within package. By default, the resource is opened for reading as UTF-8. package is either a name or a module object which conforms to the Package requirements. resource is the name of the resource to open within package; it may not contain path separators and it may not have sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory). encoding and errors have the same meaning as with built-in open(). This function returns a typing.TextIO instance, a text I/O stream open for reading.


importlib.resources.Package
The Package type is defined as Union[str, ModuleType]. This means that where the function describes accepting a Package, you can pass in either a string or a module. Module objects must have a resolvable __spec__.submodule_search_locations that is not None.


importlib.resources.path(package, resource)
Return the path to the resource as an actual file system path. This function returns a context manager for use in a with statement. The context manager provides a pathlib.Path object. Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file created when the resource needs to be extracted from e.g. a zip file. package is either a name or a module object which conforms to the Package requirements. resource is the name of the resource to open within package; it may not contain path separators and it may not have sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory).


importlib.resources.read_binary(package, resource)
Read and return the contents of the resource within package as bytes. package is either a name or a module object which conforms to the Package requirements. resource is the name of the resource to open within package; it may not contain path separators and it may not have sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory). This function returns the contents of the resource as bytes.


importlib.resources.read_text(package, resource, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
Read and return the contents of resource within package as a str. By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8. package is either a name or a module object which conforms to the Package requirements. resource is the name of the resource to open within package; it may not contain path separators and it may not have sub-resources (i.e. it cannot be a directory). encoding and errors have the same meaning as with built-in open(). This function returns the contents of the resource as str.


importlib.resources.Resource
This type describes the resource names passed into the various functions in this package. This is defined as Union[str, os.PathLike].


importlib.util.cache_from_source(path, debug_override=None, *, optimization=None)
Return the PEP 3147/PEP 488 path to the byte-compiled file associated with the source path. For example, if path is /foo/bar/baz.py the return value would be /foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc for Python 3.2. The cpython-32 string comes from the current magic tag (see get_tag(); if sys.implementation.cache_tag is not defined then NotImplementedError will be raised). The optimization parameter is used to specify the optimization level of the bytecode file. An empty string represents no optimization, so /foo/bar/baz.py with an optimization of '' will result in a bytecode path of /foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc. None causes the interpreter’s optimization level to be used. Any other value’s string representation is used, so /foo/bar/baz.py with an optimization of 2 will lead to the bytecode path of /foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.opt-2.pyc. The string representation of optimization can only be alphanumeric, else ValueError is raised. The debug_override parameter is deprecated and can be used to override the system’s value for __debug__. A True value is the equivalent of setting optimization to the empty string. A False value is the same as setting optimization to 1. If both debug_override an optimization are not None then TypeError is raised.  New in version 3.4.   Changed in version 3.5: The optimization parameter was added and the debug_override parameter was deprecated.   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a path-like object.


importlib.util.decode_source(source_bytes)
Decode the given bytes representing source code and return it as a string with universal newlines (as required by importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source()).  New in version 3.4.


importlib.util.find_spec(name, package=None)
Find the spec for a module, optionally relative to the specified package name. If the module is in sys.modules, then sys.modules[name].__spec__ is returned (unless the spec would be None or is not set, in which case ValueError is raised). Otherwise a search using sys.meta_path is done. None is returned if no spec is found. If name is for a submodule (contains a dot), the parent module is automatically imported. name and package work the same as for import_module().  New in version 3.4.   Changed in version 3.7: Raises ModuleNotFoundError instead of AttributeError if package is in fact not a package (i.e. lacks a __path__ attribute).


class importlib.util.LazyLoader(loader)
A class which postpones the execution of the loader of a module until the module has an attribute accessed. This class only works with loaders that define exec_module() as control over what module type is used for the module is required. For those same reasons, the loader’s create_module() method must return None or a type for which its __class__ attribute can be mutated along with not using slots. Finally, modules which substitute the object placed into sys.modules will not work as there is no way to properly replace the module references throughout the interpreter safely; ValueError is raised if such a substitution is detected.  Note For projects where startup time is critical, this class allows for potentially minimizing the cost of loading a module if it is never used. For projects where startup time is not essential then use of this class is heavily discouraged due to error messages created during loading being postponed and thus occurring out of context.   New in version 3.5.   Changed in version 3.6: Began calling create_module(), removing the compatibility warning for importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter and importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.
classmethod factory(loader)
A static method which returns a callable that creates a lazy loader. This is meant to be used in situations where the loader is passed by class instead of by instance. suffixes = importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES
loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader
lazy_loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory(loader)
finder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, (lazy_loader, suffixes))


classmethod factory(loader)
A static method which returns a callable that creates a lazy loader. This is meant to be used in situations where the loader is passed by class instead of by instance. suffixes = importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES
loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader
lazy_loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory(loader)
finder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, (lazy_loader, suffixes))


importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER
The bytes which represent the bytecode version number. If you need help with loading/writing bytecode then consider importlib.abc.SourceLoader.  New in version 3.4.


@importlib.util.module_for_loader
A decorator for importlib.abc.Loader.load_module() to handle selecting the proper module object to load with. The decorated method is expected to have a call signature taking two positional arguments (e.g. load_module(self, module)) for which the second argument will be the module object to be used by the loader. Note that the decorator will not work on static methods because of the assumption of two arguments. The decorated method will take in the name of the module to be loaded as expected for a loader. If the module is not found in sys.modules then a new one is constructed. Regardless of where the module came from, __loader__ set to self and __package__ is set based on what importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package() returns (if available). These attributes are set unconditionally to support reloading. If an exception is raised by the decorated method and a module was added to sys.modules, then the module will be removed to prevent a partially initialized module from being in left in sys.modules. If the module was already in sys.modules then it is left alone.  Changed in version 3.3: __loader__ and __package__ are automatically set (when possible).   Changed in version 3.4: Set __name__, __loader__ __package__ unconditionally to support reloading.   Deprecated since version 3.4: The import machinery now directly performs all the functionality provided by this function.


importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
Create a new module based on spec and spec.loader.create_module. If spec.loader.create_module does not return None, then any pre-existing attributes will not be reset. Also, no AttributeError will be raised if triggered while accessing spec or setting an attribute on the module. This function is preferred over using types.ModuleType to create a new module as spec is used to set as many import-controlled attributes on the module as possible.  New in version 3.5.


importlib.util.resolve_name(name, package)
Resolve a relative module name to an absolute one. If name has no leading dots, then name is simply returned. This allows for usage such as importlib.util.resolve_name('sys', __spec__.parent) without doing a check to see if the package argument is needed. ImportError is raised if name is a relative module name but package is a false value (e.g. None or the empty string). ImportError is also raised a relative name would escape its containing package (e.g. requesting ..bacon from within the spam package).  New in version 3.3.   Changed in version 3.9: To improve consistency with import statements, raise ImportError instead of ValueError for invalid relative import attempts.


@importlib.util.set_loader
A decorator for importlib.abc.Loader.load_module() to set the __loader__ attribute on the returned module. If the attribute is already set the decorator does nothing. It is assumed that the first positional argument to the wrapped method (i.e. self) is what __loader__ should be set to.  Changed in version 3.4: Set __loader__ if set to None, as if the attribute does not exist.   Deprecated since version 3.4: The import machinery takes care of this automatically.


@importlib.util.set_package
A decorator for importlib.abc.Loader.load_module() to set the __package__ attribute on the returned module. If __package__ is set and has a value other than None it will not be changed.  Deprecated since version 3.4: The import machinery takes care of this automatically.


importlib.util.source_from_cache(path)
Given the path to a PEP 3147 file name, return the associated source code file path. For example, if path is /foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc the returned path would be /foo/bar/baz.py. path need not exist, however if it does not conform to PEP 3147 or PEP 488 format, a ValueError is raised. If sys.implementation.cache_tag is not defined, NotImplementedError is raised.  New in version 3.4.   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a path-like object.


importlib.util.source_hash(source_bytes)
Return the hash of source_bytes as bytes. A hash-based .pyc file embeds the source_hash() of the corresponding source file’s contents in its header.  New in version 3.7.


importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(name, location, *, loader=None, submodule_search_locations=None)
A factory function for creating a ModuleSpec instance based on the path to a file. Missing information will be filled in on the spec by making use of loader APIs and by the implication that the module will be file-based.  New in version 3.4.   Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a path-like object.


importlib.util.spec_from_loader(name, loader, *, origin=None, is_package=None)
A factory function for creating a ModuleSpec instance based on a loader. The parameters have the same meaning as they do for ModuleSpec. The function uses available loader APIs, such as InspectLoader.is_package(), to fill in any missing information on the spec.  New in version 3.4.


importlib.__import__(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0)
An implementation of the built-in __import__() function.  Note Programmatic importing of modules should use import_module() instead of this function.


exception ImportWarning
Base class for warnings about probable mistakes in module imports. Ignored by the default warning filters. Enabling the Python Development Mode shows this warning.


exception IndentationError
Base class for syntax errors related to incorrect indentation. This is a subclass of SyntaxError.


exception IndexError
Raised when a sequence subscript is out of range. (Slice indices are silently truncated to fall in the allowed range; if an index is not an integer, TypeError is raised.)


input([prompt])
If the prompt argument is present, it is written to standard output without a trailing newline. The function then reads a line from input, converts it to a string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that. When EOF is read, EOFError is raised. Example: >>> s = input('--> ')
--> Monty Python's Flying Circus
>>> s
"Monty Python's Flying Circus"
 If the readline module was loaded, then input() will use it to provide elaborate line editing and history features.
Raises an auditing event builtins.input with argument prompt before reading input
Raises an auditing event builtins.input/result with the result after successfully reading input.


inspect — Inspect live objects Source code: Lib/inspect.py The inspect module provides several useful functions to help get information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions, tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects. For example, it can help you examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need to display a detailed traceback. There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type checking, getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and examining the interpreter stack. Types and members The getmembers() function retrieves the members of an object such as a class or module. The functions whose names begin with “is” are mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument to getmembers(). They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special attributes:
Type Attribute Description
module __doc__ documentation string
 __file__ filename (missing for built-in modules)
class __doc__ documentation string
 __name__ name with which this class was defined
 __qualname__ qualified name
 __module__ name of module in which this class was defined
method __doc__ documentation string
 __name__ name with which this method was defined
 __qualname__ qualified name
 __func__ function object containing implementation of method
 __self__ instance to which this method is bound, or None
 __module__ name of module in which this method was defined
function __doc__ documentation string
 __name__ name with which this function was defined
 __qualname__ qualified name
 __code__ code object containing compiled function bytecode
 __defaults__ tuple of any default values for positional or keyword parameters
 __kwdefaults__ mapping of any default values for keyword-only parameters
 __globals__ global namespace in which this function was defined
 __annotations__ mapping of parameters names to annotations; "return" key is reserved for return annotations.
 __module__ name of module in which this function was defined
traceback tb_frame frame object at this level
 tb_lasti index of last attempted instruction in bytecode
 tb_lineno current line number in Python source code
 tb_next next inner traceback object (called by this level)
frame f_back next outer frame object (this frame’s caller)
 f_builtins builtins namespace seen by this frame
 f_code code object being executed in this frame
 f_globals global namespace seen by this frame
 f_lasti index of last attempted instruction in bytecode
 f_lineno current line number in Python source code
 f_locals local namespace seen by this frame
 f_trace tracing function for this frame, or None
code co_argcount number of arguments (not including keyword only arguments, * or ** args)
 co_code string of raw compiled bytecode
 co_cellvars tuple of names of cell variables (referenced by containing scopes)
 co_consts tuple of constants used in the bytecode
 co_filename name of file in which this code object was created
 co_firstlineno number of first line in Python source code
 co_flags bitmap of CO_* flags, read more here
 co_lnotab encoded mapping of line numbers to bytecode indices
 co_freevars tuple of names of free variables (referenced via a function’s closure)
 co_posonlyargcount number of positional only arguments
 co_kwonlyargcount number of keyword only arguments (not including ** arg)
 co_name name with which this code object was defined
 co_names tuple of names of local variables
 co_nlocals number of local variables
 co_stacksize virtual machine stack space required
 co_varnames tuple of names of arguments and local variables
generator __name__ name
 __qualname__ qualified name
 gi_frame frame
 gi_running is the generator running?
 gi_code code
 gi_yieldfrom object being iterated by yield from, or None
coroutine __name__ name
 __qualname__ qualified name
 cr_await object being awaited on, or None
 cr_frame frame
 cr_running is the coroutine running?
 cr_code code
 cr_origin where coroutine was created, or None. See sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth()
builtin __doc__ documentation string
 __name__ original name of this function or method
 __qualname__ qualified name
 __self__ instance to which a method is bound, or None    Changed in version 3.5: Add __qualname__ and gi_yieldfrom attributes to generators. The __name__ attribute of generators is now set from the function name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified.   Changed in version 3.7: Add cr_origin attribute to coroutines.
inspect.getmembers(object[, predicate])
Return all the members of an object in a list of (name, value) pairs sorted by name. If the optional predicate argument—which will be called with the value object of each member—is supplied, only members for which the predicate returns a true value are included.  Note getmembers() will only return class attributes defined in the metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have been listed in the metaclass’ custom __dir__().

inspect.getmodulename(path)
Return the name of the module named by the file path, without including the names of enclosing packages. The file extension is checked against all of the entries in importlib.machinery.all_suffixes(). If it matches, the final path component is returned with the extension removed. Otherwise, None is returned. Note that this function only returns a meaningful name for actual Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages will still return None.  Changed in version 3.3: The function is based directly on importlib.

inspect.ismodule(object)
Return True if the object is a module.

inspect.isclass(object)
Return True if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python code.

inspect.ismethod(object)
Return True if the object is a bound method written in Python.

inspect.isfunction(object)
Return True if the object is a Python function, which includes functions created by a lambda expression.

inspect.isgeneratorfunction(object)
Return True if the object is a Python generator function.  Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in functools.partial() now return True if the wrapped function is a Python generator function.

inspect.isgenerator(object)
Return True if the object is a generator.

inspect.iscoroutinefunction(object)
Return True if the object is a coroutine function (a function defined with an async def syntax).  New in version 3.5.   Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in functools.partial() now return True if the wrapped function is a coroutine function.

inspect.iscoroutine(object)
Return True if the object is a coroutine created by an async def function.  New in version 3.5.

inspect.isawaitable(object)
Return True if the object can be used in await expression. Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from regular generators: def gen():
    yield
@types.coroutine
def gen_coro():
    yield

assert not isawaitable(gen())
assert isawaitable(gen_coro())
  New in version 3.5.

inspect.isasyncgenfunction(object)
Return True if the object is an asynchronous generator function, for example: >>> async def agen():
...     yield 1
...
>>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
True
  New in version 3.6.   Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in functools.partial() now return True if the wrapped function is a asynchronous generator function.

inspect.isasyncgen(object)
Return True if the object is an asynchronous generator iterator created by an asynchronous generator function.  New in version 3.6.

inspect.istraceback(object)
Return True if the object is a traceback.

inspect.isframe(object)
Return True if the object is a frame.

inspect.iscode(object)
Return True if the object is a code.

inspect.isbuiltin(object)
Return True if the object is a built-in function or a bound built-in method.

inspect.isroutine(object)
Return True if the object is a user-defined or built-in function or method.

inspect.isabstract(object)
Return True if the object is an abstract base class.

inspect.ismethoddescriptor(object)
Return True if the object is a method descriptor, but not if ismethod(), isclass(), isfunction() or isbuiltin() are true. This, for example, is true of int.__add__. An object passing this test has a __get__() method but not a __set__() method, but beyond that the set of attributes varies. A __name__ attribute is usually sensible, and __doc__ often is. Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests return False from the ismethoddescriptor() test, simply because the other tests promise more – you can, e.g., count on having the __func__ attribute (etc) when an object passes ismethod().

inspect.isdatadescriptor(object)
Return True if the object is a data descriptor. Data descriptors have a __set__ or a __delete__ method. Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members. The latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for those types, which is robust across Python implementations. Typically, data descriptors will also have __name__ and __doc__ attributes (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is not guaranteed.

inspect.isgetsetdescriptor(object)
Return True if the object is a getset descriptor.  CPython implementation detail: getsets are attributes defined in extension modules via PyGetSetDef structures. For Python implementations without such types, this method will always return False.

inspect.ismemberdescriptor(object)
Return True if the object is a member descriptor.  CPython implementation detail: Member descriptors are attributes defined in extension modules via PyMemberDef structures. For Python implementations without such types, this method will always return False.
 Retrieving source code
inspect.getdoc(object)
Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with cleandoc(). If the documentation string for an object is not provided and the object is a class, a method, a property or a descriptor, retrieve the documentation string from the inheritance hierarchy.  Changed in version 3.5: Documentation strings are now inherited if not overridden.

inspect.getcomments(object)
Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the object’s source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the Python source file (if the object is a module). If the object’s source code is unavailable, return None. This could happen if the object has been defined in C or the interactive shell.

inspect.getfile(object)
Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined. This will fail with a TypeError if the object is a built-in module, class, or function.

inspect.getmodule(object)
Try to guess which module an object was defined in.

inspect.getsourcefile(object)
Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined. This will fail with a TypeError if the object is a built-in module, class, or function.

inspect.getsourcelines(object)
Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first line of code was found. An OSError is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.  Changed in version 3.3: OSError is raised instead of IOError, now an alias of the former.

inspect.getsource(object)
Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a single string. An OSError is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.  Changed in version 3.3: OSError is raised instead of IOError, now an alias of the former.

inspect.cleandoc(doc)
Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks of code. All leading whitespace is removed from the first line. Any leading whitespace that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed. Empty lines at the beginning and end are subsequently removed. Also, all tabs are expanded to spaces.
 Introspecting callables with the Signature object  New in version 3.3.  The Signature object represents the call signature of a callable object and its return annotation. To retrieve a Signature object, use the signature() function.
inspect.signature(callable, *, follow_wrapped=True)
Return a Signature object for the given callable: >>> from inspect import signature
>>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
...     pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)

>>> str(sig)
'(a, *, b:int, **kwargs)'

>>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
'b:int'

>>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
<class 'int'>
 Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and classes to functools.partial() objects. Raises ValueError if no signature can be provided, and TypeError if that type of object is not supported. A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the parameters prior to it are positional-only. For more info, see the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters.  New in version 3.5: follow_wrapped parameter. Pass False to get a signature of callable specifically (callable.__wrapped__ will not be used to unwrap decorated callables.)   Note Some callables may not be introspectable in certain implementations of Python. For example, in CPython, some built-in functions defined in C provide no metadata about their arguments.

class inspect.Signature(parameters=None, *, return_annotation=Signature.empty)
A Signature object represents the call signature of a function and its return annotation. For each parameter accepted by the function it stores a Parameter object in its parameters collection. The optional parameters argument is a sequence of Parameter objects, which is validated to check that there are no parameters with duplicate names, and that the parameters are in the right order, i.e. positional-only first, then positional-or-keyword, and that parameters with defaults follow parameters without defaults. The optional return_annotation argument, can be an arbitrary Python object, is the “return” annotation of the callable. Signature objects are immutable. Use Signature.replace() to make a modified copy.  Changed in version 3.5: Signature objects are picklable and hashable.
empty
A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return annotation.

parameters
An ordered mapping of parameters’ names to the corresponding Parameter objects. Parameters appear in strict definition order, including keyword-only parameters.  Changed in version 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been preserved in Python 3.

return_annotation
The “return” annotation for the callable. If the callable has no “return” annotation, this attribute is set to Signature.empty.

bind(*args, **kwargs)
Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to parameters. Returns BoundArguments if *args and **kwargs match the signature, or raises a TypeError.

bind_partial(*args, **kwargs)
Works the same way as Signature.bind(), but allows the omission of some required arguments (mimics functools.partial() behavior.) Returns BoundArguments, or raises a TypeError if the passed arguments do not match the signature.

replace(*[, parameters][, return_annotation])
Create a new Signature instance based on the instance replace was invoked on. It is possible to pass different parameters and/or return_annotation to override the corresponding properties of the base signature. To remove return_annotation from the copied Signature, pass in Signature.empty. >>> def test(a, b):
...     pass
>>> sig = signature(test)
>>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
>>> str(new_sig)
"(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"

classmethod from_callable(obj, *, follow_wrapped=True)
Return a Signature (or its subclass) object for a given callable obj. Pass follow_wrapped=False to get a signature of obj without unwrapping its __wrapped__ chain. This method simplifies subclassing of Signature: class MySignature(Signature):
    pass
sig = MySignature.from_callable(min)
assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)
  New in version 3.5.

class inspect.Parameter(name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty, annotation=Parameter.empty)
Parameter objects are immutable. Instead of modifying a Parameter object, you can use Parameter.replace() to create a modified copy.  Changed in version 3.5: Parameter objects are picklable and hashable.
empty
A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and annotations.

name
The name of the parameter as a string. The name must be a valid Python identifier.  CPython implementation detail: CPython generates implicit parameter names of the form .0 on the code objects used to implement comprehensions and generator expressions.  Changed in version 3.6: These parameter names are exposed by this module as names like implicit0.

default
The default value for the parameter. If the parameter has no default value, this attribute is set to Parameter.empty.

annotation
The annotation for the parameter. If the parameter has no annotation, this attribute is set to Parameter.empty.

kind
Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter. Possible values (accessible via Parameter, like Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY):
Name Meaning
POSITIONAL_ONLY Value must be supplied as a positional argument. Positional only parameters are those which appear before a / entry (if present) in a Python function definition.
POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD Value may be supplied as either a keyword or positional argument (this is the standard binding behaviour for functions implemented in Python.)
VAR_POSITIONAL A tuple of positional arguments that aren’t bound to any other parameter. This corresponds to a *args parameter in a Python function definition.
KEYWORD_ONLY Value must be supplied as a keyword argument. Keyword only parameters are those which appear after a * or *args entry in a Python function definition.
VAR_KEYWORD A dict of keyword arguments that aren’t bound to any other parameter. This corresponds to a **kwargs parameter in a Python function definition.   Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values: >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
...     pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)
>>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
...                        param.default is param.empty):
...         print('Parameter:', param)
Parameter: c

kind.description
Describes a enum value of Parameter.kind.  New in version 3.8.  Example: print all descriptions of arguments: >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
...     pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)
>>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
...     print(param.kind.description)
positional or keyword
positional or keyword
keyword-only
keyword-only

replace(*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])   Create a new Parameter instance based on the instance replaced was invoked on. To override a Parameter attribute, pass the corresponding argument. To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a Parameter, pass Parameter.empty. >>> from inspect import Parameter
>>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
>>> str(param)
'foo=42'

>>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
'foo=42'

>>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
"foo:'spam'"
  Changed in version 3.4: In Python 3.3 Parameter objects were allowed to have name set to None if their kind was set to POSITIONAL_ONLY. This is no longer permitted.

class inspect.BoundArguments
Result of a Signature.bind() or Signature.bind_partial() call. Holds the mapping of arguments to the function’s parameters.
arguments
A mutable mapping of parameters’ names to arguments’ values. Contains only explicitly bound arguments. Changes in arguments will reflect in args and kwargs. Should be used in conjunction with Signature.parameters for any argument processing purposes.  Note Arguments for which Signature.bind() or Signature.bind_partial() relied on a default value are skipped. However, if needed, use BoundArguments.apply_defaults() to add them.   Changed in version 3.9: arguments is now of type dict. Formerly, it was of type collections.OrderedDict.

args
A tuple of positional arguments values. Dynamically computed from the arguments attribute.

kwargs
A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the arguments attribute.

signature
A reference to the parent Signature object.

apply_defaults()
Set default values for missing arguments. For variable-positional arguments (*args) the default is an empty tuple. For variable-keyword arguments (**kwargs) the default is an empty dict. >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
>>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
>>> ba.apply_defaults()
>>> ba.arguments
{'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()}
  New in version 3.5.
 The args and kwargs properties can be used to invoke functions: def test(a, *, b):
    ...

sig = signature(test)
ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

  See also
PEP 362 - Function Signature Object.

The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.    Classes and functions
inspect.getclasstree(classes, unique=False)
Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry immediately precedes the list. Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a tuple of its base classes. If the unique argument is true, exactly one entry appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list. Otherwise, classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple times.

inspect.getargspec(func)
Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters. A named tuple ArgSpec(args, varargs, keywords, defaults) is returned. args is a list of the parameter names. varargs and keywords are the names of the * and ** parameters or None. defaults is a tuple of default argument values or None if there are no default arguments; if this tuple has n elements, they correspond to the last n elements listed in args.  Deprecated since version 3.0: Use getfullargspec() for an updated API that is usually a drop-in replacement, but also correctly handles function annotations and keyword-only parameters. Alternatively, use signature() and Signature Object, which provide a more structured introspection API for callables.

inspect.getfullargspec(func)
Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters. A named tuple is returned: FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults,
annotations) args is a list of the positional parameter names. varargs is the name of the * parameter or None if arbitrary positional arguments are not accepted. varkw is the name of the ** parameter or None if arbitrary keyword arguments are not accepted. defaults is an n-tuple of default argument values corresponding to the last n positional parameters, or None if there are no such defaults defined. kwonlyargs is a list of keyword-only parameter names in declaration order. kwonlydefaults is a dictionary mapping parameter names from kwonlyargs to the default values used if no argument is supplied. annotations is a dictionary mapping parameter names to annotations. The special key "return" is used to report the function return value annotation (if any). Note that signature() and Signature Object provide the recommended API for callable introspection, and support additional behaviours (like positional-only arguments) that are sometimes encountered in extension module APIs. This function is retained primarily for use in code that needs to maintain compatibility with the Python 2 inspect module API.  Changed in version 3.4: This function is now based on signature(), but still ignores __wrapped__ attributes and includes the already bound first parameter in the signature output for bound methods.   Changed in version 3.6: This method was previously documented as deprecated in favour of signature() in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy getargspec() API.   Changed in version 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been preserved in Python 3.

inspect.getargvalues(frame)
Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame. A named tuple ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals) is returned. args is a list of the argument names. varargs and keywords are the names of the * and ** arguments or None. locals is the locals dictionary of the given frame.  Note This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.

inspect.formatargspec(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations[, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, formatreturns, formatannotations]])
Format a pretty argument spec from the values returned by getfullargspec(). The first seven arguments are (args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations). The other six arguments are functions that are called to turn argument names, * argument name, ** argument name, default values, return annotation and individual annotations into strings, respectively. For example: >>> from inspect import formatargspec, getfullargspec
>>> def f(a: int, b: float):
...     pass
...
>>> formatargspec(*getfullargspec(f))
'(a: int, b: float)'
  Deprecated since version 3.5: Use signature() and Signature Object, which provide a better introspecting API for callables.

inspect.formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])
Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by getargvalues(). The format* arguments are the corresponding optional formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings.  Note This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.

inspect.getmro(cls)
Return a tuple of class cls’s base classes, including cls, in method resolution order. No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method resolution order depends on cls’s type. Unless a very peculiar user-defined metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple.

inspect.getcallargs(func, /, *args, **kwds)
Bind the args and kwds to the argument names of the Python function or method func, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the first argument (typically named self) to the associated instance. A dict is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the * and ** arguments, if any) to their values from args and kwds. In case of invoking func incorrectly, i.e. whenever func(*args, **kwds) would raise an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type and the same or similar message is raised. For example: >>> from inspect import getcallargs
>>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
...     pass
>>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
True
>>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
True
>>> getcallargs(f)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'
  New in version 3.2.   Deprecated since version 3.5: Use Signature.bind() and Signature.bind_partial() instead.

inspect.getclosurevars(func)
Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or method func to their current values. A named tuple ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound) is returned. nonlocals maps referenced names to lexical closure variables, globals to the function’s module globals and builtins to the builtins visible from the function body. unbound is the set of names referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the current module globals and builtins. TypeError is raised if func is not a Python function or method.  New in version 3.3.

inspect.unwrap(func, *, stop=None)
Get the object wrapped by func. It follows the chain of __wrapped__ attributes returning the last object in the chain. stop is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper chain as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be terminated early if the callback returns a true value. If the callback never returns a true value, the last object in the chain is returned as usual. For example, signature() uses this to stop unwrapping if any object in the chain has a __signature__ attribute defined. ValueError is raised if a cycle is encountered.  New in version 3.4.
 The interpreter stack When the following functions return “frame records,” each record is a named tuple FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index). The tuple contains the frame object, the filename, the line number of the current line, the function name, a list of lines of context from the source code, and the index of the current line within that list.  Changed in version 3.5: Return a named tuple instead of a tuple.   Note Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element of the frame records these functions return, can cause your program to create reference cycles. Once a reference cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects which can be accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much longer even if Python’s optional cycle detector is enabled. If such cycles must be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption which occurs. Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the frames (and local variables) can be made deterministic by removing the cycle in a finally clause. This is also important if the cycle detector was disabled when Python was compiled or using gc.disable(). For example: def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
    frame = inspect.currentframe()
    try:
        # do something with the frame
    finally:
        del frame
 If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a traceback later), you can also break reference cycles by using the frame.clear() method.  The optional context argument supported by most of these functions specifies the number of lines of context to return, which are centered around the current line.
inspect.getframeinfo(frame, context=1)
Get information about a frame or traceback object. A named tuple Traceback(filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) is returned.

inspect.getouterframes(frame, context=1)
Get a list of frame records for a frame and all outer frames. These frames represent the calls that lead to the creation of frame. The first entry in the returned list represents frame; the last entry represents the outermost call on frame’s stack.  Changed in version 3.5: A list of named tuples FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) is returned.

inspect.getinnerframes(traceback, context=1)
Get a list of frame records for a traceback’s frame and all inner frames. These frames represent calls made as a consequence of frame. The first entry in the list represents traceback; the last entry represents where the exception was raised.  Changed in version 3.5: A list of named tuples FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) is returned.

inspect.currentframe()
Return the frame object for the caller’s stack frame.  CPython implementation detail: This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter, which isn’t guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. If running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this function returns None.

inspect.stack(context=1)
Return a list of frame records for the caller’s stack. The first entry in the returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost call on the stack.  Changed in version 3.5: A list of named tuples FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) is returned.

inspect.trace(context=1)
Return a list of frame records for the stack between the current frame and the frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in. The first entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the exception was raised.  Changed in version 3.5: A list of named tuples FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) is returned.
 Fetching attributes statically Both getattr() and hasattr() can trigger code execution when fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors, like properties, will be invoked and __getattr__() and __getattribute__() may be called. For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation tools, this can be inconvenient. getattr_static() has the same signature as getattr() but avoids executing code when it fetches attributes.
inspect.getattr_static(obj, attr, default=None)
Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol, __getattr__() or __getattribute__(). Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes that getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may find attributes that getattr can’t (like descriptors that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects instead of instance members. If the instance __dict__ is shadowed by another member (for example a property) then this function will be unable to find instance members.  New in version 3.2.
 getattr_static() does not resolve descriptors, for example slot descriptors or getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The descriptor object is returned instead of the underlying attribute. You can handle these with code like the following. Note that for arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger code execution: # example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
class _foo:
    __slots__ = ['foo']

slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
if type(result) in descriptor_types:
    try:
        result = result.__get__()
    except AttributeError:
        # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
        # indicate there is no underlying value
        # in which case the descriptor itself will
        # have to do
        pass
 Current State of Generators and Coroutines When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already terminated. getgeneratorstate() allows the current state of a generator to be determined easily.
inspect.getgeneratorstate(generator)
Get current state of a generator-iterator.  Possible states are:

 GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution. GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter. GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression. GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.     New in version 3.2.

inspect.getcoroutinestate(coroutine)
Get current state of a coroutine object. The function is intended to be used with coroutine objects created by async def functions, but will accept any coroutine-like object that has cr_running and cr_frame attributes.  Possible states are:

 CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution. CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter. CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression. CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.     New in version 3.5.
 The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This is mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is being updated as expected:
inspect.getgeneratorlocals(generator)
Get the mapping of live local variables in generator to their current values. A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values. This is the equivalent of calling locals() in the body of the generator, and all the same caveats apply. If generator is a generator with no currently associated frame, then an empty dictionary is returned. TypeError is raised if generator is not a Python generator object.  CPython implementation detail: This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame for introspection, which isn’t guaranteed to be the case in all implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always return an empty dictionary.   New in version 3.3.

inspect.getcoroutinelocals(coroutine)
This function is analogous to getgeneratorlocals(), but works for coroutine objects created by async def functions.  New in version 3.5.
 Code Objects Bit Flags Python code objects have a co_flags attribute, which is a bitmap of the following flags:
inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED
The code object is optimized, using fast locals.

inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS
If set, a new dict will be created for the frame’s f_locals when the code object is executed.

inspect.CO_VARARGS
The code object has a variable positional parameter (*args-like).

inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS
The code object has a variable keyword parameter (**kwargs-like).

inspect.CO_NESTED
The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.

inspect.CO_GENERATOR
The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e. a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.

inspect.CO_NOFREE
The flag is set if there are no free or cell variables.

inspect.CO_COROUTINE
The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function. When the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object. See PEP 492 for more details.  New in version 3.5.

inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE
The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based coroutines. Generator objects with this flag can be used in await expression, and can yield from coroutine objects. See PEP 492 for more details.  New in version 3.5.

inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR
The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator function. When the code object is executed it returns an asynchronous generator object. See PEP 525 for more details.  New in version 3.6.
  Note The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in other Python implementations. Furthermore, the flags are an implementation detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future Python releases. It’s recommended to use public APIs from the inspect module for any introspection needs.  Command Line Interface The inspect module also provides a basic introspection capability from the command line. By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that module. A class or function within the module can be printed instead by appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object.
--details
Print information about the specified object rather than the source code


class inspect.BoundArguments
Result of a Signature.bind() or Signature.bind_partial() call. Holds the mapping of arguments to the function’s parameters.
arguments
A mutable mapping of parameters’ names to arguments’ values. Contains only explicitly bound arguments. Changes in arguments will reflect in args and kwargs. Should be used in conjunction with Signature.parameters for any argument processing purposes.  Note Arguments for which Signature.bind() or Signature.bind_partial() relied on a default value are skipped. However, if needed, use BoundArguments.apply_defaults() to add them.   Changed in version 3.9: arguments is now of type dict. Formerly, it was of type collections.OrderedDict.

args
A tuple of positional arguments values. Dynamically computed from the arguments attribute.

kwargs
A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the arguments attribute.

signature
A reference to the parent Signature object.

apply_defaults()
Set default values for missing arguments. For variable-positional arguments (*args) the default is an empty tuple. For variable-keyword arguments (**kwargs) the default is an empty dict. >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
>>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
>>> ba.apply_defaults()
>>> ba.arguments
{'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()}
  New in version 3.5.
 The args and kwargs properties can be used to invoke functions: def test(a, *, b):
    ...

sig = signature(test)
ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)


apply_defaults()
Set default values for missing arguments. For variable-positional arguments (*args) the default is an empty tuple. For variable-keyword arguments (**kwargs) the default is an empty dict. >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
>>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
>>> ba.apply_defaults()
>>> ba.arguments
{'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()}
  New in version 3.5.


args
A tuple of positional arguments values. Dynamically computed from the arguments attribute.


arguments
A mutable mapping of parameters’ names to arguments’ values. Contains only explicitly bound arguments. Changes in arguments will reflect in args and kwargs. Should be used in conjunction with Signature.parameters for any argument processing purposes.  Note Arguments for which Signature.bind() or Signature.bind_partial() relied on a default value are skipped. However, if needed, use BoundArguments.apply_defaults() to add them.   Changed in version 3.9: arguments is now of type dict. Formerly, it was of type collections.OrderedDict.


kwargs
A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the arguments attribute.


signature
A reference to the parent Signature object.


inspect.cleandoc(doc)
Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks of code. All leading whitespace is removed from the first line. Any leading whitespace that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed. Empty lines at the beginning and end are subsequently removed. Also, all tabs are expanded to spaces.


inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR
The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator function. When the code object is executed it returns an asynchronous generator object. See PEP 525 for more details.  New in version 3.6.


inspect.CO_COROUTINE
The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function. When the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object. See PEP 492 for more details.  New in version 3.5.


inspect.CO_GENERATOR
The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e. a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.


inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE
The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based coroutines. Generator objects with this flag can be used in await expression, and can yield from coroutine objects. See PEP 492 for more details.  New in version 3.5.


inspect.CO_NESTED
The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.


inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS
If set, a new dict will be created for the frame’s f_locals when the code object is executed.


inspect.CO_NOFREE
The flag is set if there are no free or cell variables.


inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED
The code object is optimized, using fast locals.


inspect.CO_VARARGS
The code object has a variable positional parameter (*args-like).


inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS
The code object has a variable keyword parameter (**kwargs-like).


inspect.currentframe()
Return the frame object for the caller’s stack frame.  CPython implementation detail: This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter, which isn’t guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. If running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this function returns None.


inspect.formatargspec(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations[, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, formatreturns, formatannotations]])
Format a pretty argument spec from the values returned by getfullargspec(). The first seven arguments are (args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations). The other six arguments are functions that are called to turn argument names, * argument name, ** argument name, default values, return annotation and individual annotations into strings, respectively. For example: >>> from inspect import formatargspec, getfullargspec
>>> def f(a: int, b: float):
...     pass
...
>>> formatargspec(*getfullargspec(f))
'(a: int, b: float)'
  Deprecated since version 3.5: Use signature() and Signature Object, which provide a better introspecting API for callables.


inspect.formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])
Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by getargvalues(). The format* arguments are the corresponding optional formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings.  Note This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.


inspect.getargspec(func)
Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters. A named tuple ArgSpec(args, varargs, keywords, defaults) is returned. args is a list of the parameter names. varargs and keywords are the names of the * and ** parameters or None. defaults is a tuple of default argument values or None if there are no default arguments; if this tuple has n elements, they correspond to the last n elements listed in args.  Deprecated since version 3.0: Use getfullargspec() for an updated API that is usually a drop-in replacement, but also correctly handles function annotations and keyword-only parameters. Alternatively, use signature() and Signature Object, which provide a more structured introspection API for callables.


inspect.getargvalues(frame)
Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame. A named tuple ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals) is returned. args is a list of the argument names. varargs and keywords are the names of the * and ** arguments or None. locals is the locals dictionary of the given frame.  Note This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5.


inspect.getattr_static(obj, attr, default=None)
Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol, __getattr__() or __getattribute__(). Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes that getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may find attributes that getattr can’t (like descriptors that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects instead of instance members. If the instance __dict__ is shadowed by another member (for example a property) then this function will be unable to find instance members.  New in version 3.2.


inspect.getcallargs(func, /, *args, **kwds)
Bind the args and kwds to the argument names of the Python function or method func, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the first argument (typically named self) to the associated instance. A dict is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the * and ** arguments, if any) to their values from args and kwds. In case of invoking func incorrectly, i.e. whenever func(*args, **kwds) would raise an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type and the same or similar message is raised. For example: >>> from inspect import getcallargs
>>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
...     pass
>>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
True
>>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
True
>>> getcallargs(f)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'
  New in version 3.2.   Deprecated since version 3.5: Use Signature.bind() and Signature.bind_partial() instead.


inspect.getclasstree(classes, unique=False)
Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry immediately precedes the list. Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a tuple of its base classes. If the unique argument is true, exactly one entry appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list. Otherwise, classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple times.


inspect.getclosurevars(func)
Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or method func to their current values. A named tuple ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound) is returned. nonlocals maps referenced names to lexical closure variables, globals to the function’s module globals and builtins to the builtins visible from the function body. unbound is the set of names referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the current module globals and builtins. TypeError is raised if func is not a Python function or method.  New in version 3.3.


inspect.getcomments(object)
Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the object’s source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the Python source file (if the object is a module). If the object’s source code is unavailable, return None. This could happen if the object has been defined in C or the interactive shell.


inspect.getcoroutinelocals(coroutine)
This function is analogous to getgeneratorlocals(), but works for coroutine objects created by async def functions.  New in version 3.5.


inspect.getcoroutinestate(coroutine)
Get current state of a coroutine object. The function is intended to be used with coroutine objects created by async def functions, but will accept any coroutine-like object that has cr_running and cr_frame attributes.  Possible states are:

 CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution. CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter. CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression. CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.     New in version 3.5.


inspect.getdoc(object)
Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with cleandoc(). If the documentation string for an object is not provided and the object is a class, a method, a property or a descriptor, retrieve the documentation string from the inheritance hierarchy.  Changed in version 3.5: Documentation strings are now inherited if not overridden.


inspect.getfile(object)
Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined. This will fail with a TypeError if the object is a built-in module, class, or function.


inspect.getframeinfo(frame, context=1)
Get information about a frame or traceback object. A named tuple Traceback(filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) is returned.


inspect.getfullargspec(func)
Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters. A named tuple is returned: FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults,
annotations) args is a list of the positional parameter names. varargs is the name of the * parameter or None if arbitrary positional arguments are not accepted. varkw is the name of the ** parameter or None if arbitrary keyword arguments are not accepted. defaults is an n-tuple of default argument values corresponding to the last n positional parameters, or None if there are no such defaults defined. kwonlyargs is a list of keyword-only parameter names in declaration order. kwonlydefaults is a dictionary mapping parameter names from kwonlyargs to the default values used if no argument is supplied. annotations is a dictionary mapping parameter names to annotations. The special key "return" is used to report the function return value annotation (if any). Note that signature() and Signature Object provide the recommended API for callable introspection, and support additional behaviours (like positional-only arguments) that are sometimes encountered in extension module APIs. This function is retained primarily for use in code that needs to maintain compatibility with the Python 2 inspect module API.  Changed in version 3.4: This function is now based on signature(), but still ignores __wrapped__ attributes and includes the already bound first parameter in the signature output for bound methods.   Changed in version 3.6: This method was previously documented as deprecated in favour of signature() in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy getargspec() API.   Changed in version 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been preserved in Python 3.


inspect.getgeneratorlocals(generator)
Get the mapping of live local variables in generator to their current values. A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values. This is the equivalent of calling locals() in the body of the generator, and all the same caveats apply. If generator is a generator with no currently associated frame, then an empty dictionary is returned. TypeError is raised if generator is not a Python generator object.  CPython implementation detail: This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame for introspection, which isn’t guaranteed to be the case in all implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always return an empty dictionary.   New in version 3.3.


inspect.getgeneratorstate(generator)
Get current state of a generator-iterator.  Possible states are:

 GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution. GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter. GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression. GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.     New in version 3.2.


inspect.getinnerframes(traceback, context=1)
Get a list of frame records for a traceback’s frame and all inner frames. These frames represent calls made as a consequence of frame. The first entry in the list represents traceback; the last entry represents where the exception was raised.  Changed in version 3.5: A list of named tuples FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) is returned.


inspect.getmembers(object[, predicate])
Return all the members of an object in a list of (name, value) pairs sorted by name. If the optional predicate argument—which will be called with the value object of each member—is supplied, only members for which the predicate returns a true value are included.  Note getmembers() will only return class attributes defined in the metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have been listed in the metaclass’ custom __dir__().


inspect.getmodule(object)
Try to guess which module an object was defined in.


inspect.getmodulename(path)
Return the name of the module named by the file path, without including the names of enclosing packages. The file extension is checked against all of the entries in importlib.machinery.all_suffixes(). If it matches, the final path component is returned with the extension removed. Otherwise, None is returned. Note that this function only returns a meaningful name for actual Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages will still return None.  Changed in version 3.3: The function is based directly on importlib.


inspect.getmro(cls)
Return a tuple of class cls’s base classes, including cls, in method resolution order. No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method resolution order depends on cls’s type. Unless a very peculiar user-defined metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple.


inspect.getouterframes(frame, context=1)
Get a list of frame records for a frame and all outer frames. These frames represent the calls that lead to the creation of frame. The first entry in the returned list represents frame; the last entry represents the outermost call on frame’s stack.  Changed in version 3.5: A list of named tuples FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) is returned.


inspect.getsource(object)
Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a single string. An OSError is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.  Changed in version 3.3: OSError is raised instead of IOError, now an alias of the former.


inspect.getsourcefile(object)
Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined. This will fail with a TypeError if the object is a built-in module, class, or function.


inspect.getsourcelines(object)
Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first line of code was found. An OSError is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.  Changed in version 3.3: OSError is raised instead of IOError, now an alias of the former.


inspect.isabstract(object)
Return True if the object is an abstract base class.


inspect.isasyncgen(object)
Return True if the object is an asynchronous generator iterator created by an asynchronous generator function.  New in version 3.6.


inspect.isasyncgenfunction(object)
Return True if the object is an asynchronous generator function, for example: >>> async def agen():
...     yield 1
...
>>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
True
  New in version 3.6.   Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in functools.partial() now return True if the wrapped function is a asynchronous generator function.


inspect.isawaitable(object)
Return True if the object can be used in await expression. Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from regular generators: def gen():
    yield
@types.coroutine
def gen_coro():
    yield

assert not isawaitable(gen())
assert isawaitable(gen_coro())
  New in version 3.5.


inspect.isbuiltin(object)
Return True if the object is a built-in function or a bound built-in method.


inspect.isclass(object)
Return True if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python code.


inspect.iscode(object)
Return True if the object is a code.


inspect.iscoroutine(object)
Return True if the object is a coroutine created by an async def function.  New in version 3.5.


inspect.iscoroutinefunction(object)
Return True if the object is a coroutine function (a function defined with an async def syntax).  New in version 3.5.   Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in functools.partial() now return True if the wrapped function is a coroutine function.


inspect.isdatadescriptor(object)
Return True if the object is a data descriptor. Data descriptors have a __set__ or a __delete__ method. Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members. The latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for those types, which is robust across Python implementations. Typically, data descriptors will also have __name__ and __doc__ attributes (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is not guaranteed.


inspect.isframe(object)
Return True if the object is a frame.


inspect.isfunction(object)
Return True if the object is a Python function, which includes functions created by a lambda expression.


inspect.isgenerator(object)
Return True if the object is a generator.


inspect.isgeneratorfunction(object)
Return True if the object is a Python generator function.  Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in functools.partial() now return True if the wrapped function is a Python generator function.


inspect.isgetsetdescriptor(object)
Return True if the object is a getset descriptor.  CPython implementation detail: getsets are attributes defined in extension modules via PyGetSetDef structures. For Python implementations without such types, this method will always return False.


inspect.ismemberdescriptor(object)
Return True if the object is a member descriptor.  CPython implementation detail: Member descriptors are attributes defined in extension modules via PyMemberDef structures. For Python implementations without such types, this method will always return False.


inspect.ismethod(object)
Return True if the object is a bound method written in Python.


inspect.ismethoddescriptor(object)
Return True if the object is a method descriptor, but not if ismethod(), isclass(), isfunction() or isbuiltin() are true. This, for example, is true of int.__add__. An object passing this test has a __get__() method but not a __set__() method, but beyond that the set of attributes varies. A __name__ attribute is usually sensible, and __doc__ often is. Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests return False from the ismethoddescriptor() test, simply because the other tests promise more – you can, e.g., count on having the __func__ attribute (etc) when an object passes ismethod().


inspect.ismodule(object)
Return True if the object is a module.


inspect.isroutine(object)
Return True if the object is a user-defined or built-in function or method.


inspect.istraceback(object)
Return True if the object is a traceback.


class inspect.Parameter(name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty, annotation=Parameter.empty)
Parameter objects are immutable. Instead of modifying a Parameter object, you can use Parameter.replace() to create a modified copy.  Changed in version 3.5: Parameter objects are picklable and hashable.
empty
A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and annotations.

name
The name of the parameter as a string. The name must be a valid Python identifier.  CPython implementation detail: CPython generates implicit parameter names of the form .0 on the code objects used to implement comprehensions and generator expressions.  Changed in version 3.6: These parameter names are exposed by this module as names like implicit0.

default
The default value for the parameter. If the parameter has no default value, this attribute is set to Parameter.empty.

annotation
The annotation for the parameter. If the parameter has no annotation, this attribute is set to Parameter.empty.

kind
Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter. Possible values (accessible via Parameter, like Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY):
Name Meaning
POSITIONAL_ONLY Value must be supplied as a positional argument. Positional only parameters are those which appear before a / entry (if present) in a Python function definition.
POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD Value may be supplied as either a keyword or positional argument (this is the standard binding behaviour for functions implemented in Python.)
VAR_POSITIONAL A tuple of positional arguments that aren’t bound to any other parameter. This corresponds to a *args parameter in a Python function definition.
KEYWORD_ONLY Value must be supplied as a keyword argument. Keyword only parameters are those which appear after a * or *args entry in a Python function definition.
VAR_KEYWORD A dict of keyword arguments that aren’t bound to any other parameter. This corresponds to a **kwargs parameter in a Python function definition.   Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values: >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
...     pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)
>>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
...                        param.default is param.empty):
...         print('Parameter:', param)
Parameter: c

kind.description
Describes a enum value of Parameter.kind.  New in version 3.8.  Example: print all descriptions of arguments: >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
...     pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)
>>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
...     print(param.kind.description)
positional or keyword
positional or keyword
keyword-only
keyword-only

replace(*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])   Create a new Parameter instance based on the instance replaced was invoked on. To override a Parameter attribute, pass the corresponding argument. To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a Parameter, pass Parameter.empty. >>> from inspect import Parameter
>>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
>>> str(param)
'foo=42'

>>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
'foo=42'

>>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
"foo:'spam'"
  Changed in version 3.4: In Python 3.3 Parameter objects were allowed to have name set to None if their kind was set to POSITIONAL_ONLY. This is no longer permitted.


annotation
The annotation for the parameter. If the parameter has no annotation, this attribute is set to Parameter.empty.


default
The default value for the parameter. If the parameter has no default value, this attribute is set to Parameter.empty.


empty
A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and annotations.


kind
Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter. Possible values (accessible via Parameter, like Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY):
Name Meaning
POSITIONAL_ONLY Value must be supplied as a positional argument. Positional only parameters are those which appear before a / entry (if present) in a Python function definition.
POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD Value may be supplied as either a keyword or positional argument (this is the standard binding behaviour for functions implemented in Python.)
VAR_POSITIONAL A tuple of positional arguments that aren’t bound to any other parameter. This corresponds to a *args parameter in a Python function definition.
KEYWORD_ONLY Value must be supplied as a keyword argument. Keyword only parameters are those which appear after a * or *args entry in a Python function definition.
VAR_KEYWORD A dict of keyword arguments that aren’t bound to any other parameter. This corresponds to a **kwargs parameter in a Python function definition.   Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values: >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
...     pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)
>>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
...                        param.default is param.empty):
...         print('Parameter:', param)
Parameter: c


kind.description
Describes a enum value of Parameter.kind.  New in version 3.8.  Example: print all descriptions of arguments: >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
...     pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)
>>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
...     print(param.kind.description)
positional or keyword
positional or keyword
keyword-only
keyword-only


name
The name of the parameter as a string. The name must be a valid Python identifier.  CPython implementation detail: CPython generates implicit parameter names of the form .0 on the code objects used to implement comprehensions and generator expressions.  Changed in version 3.6: These parameter names are exposed by this module as names like implicit0.